HOME-CENTERED LEARNING ACTIVITIES 0F FAMILIES WITH TEENAGE CHILDREN Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY SANDRA SUE CLARKSON 1975 x IIIIIIIzIIISIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIw ; ”"5". '* [M \ ABSTRACT HOME-CENTERED LEARNING ACTIVITIES OF FAMILIES WITH TEENAGE CHILDREN By Sandra Sue Clarkson Home-centered learning activities of IS blue-collar families which required a special effort were investigated. Fifteen blue- collar families with at least one teenage child and two adults com- prised the sample. These families were selected from "The Home as a Learning Center Project" sample. 'This project was funded by the Curriculum Branch of the United States Office of Education. A sys- tematic random sample was designed to include representation of rural sections and city blocks. A group interview with each family (mother, father and at least one teenage child) was conducted using an open-end interview schedule. The number of learning activities per family ranged from nine to 34 (mean = 20.47) and the total number of learning activities for all l5 families was 307. Learning activities in which parents, teenagers, children and other adult family members participated were classified into six categories: Household care and management (35 percent), leisure and recreation (25 percent), development and care of family members (l5 percent), development of values (l4 per- cent), preparation for career (9 percent) and other (2 percent). Sandra Sue Clarkson Eighty percent (276) of all learning activities reported included only parent(s) and/or teenager(s). At least one or more parent and one teenager reported l0l shared learning activities. Resources used in home learning and contacts outside the home to obtain information for home learning also were studied. FamiTies made changes in resource allocation to facilitate home learning. Two-thirds of the families managed time, money, space, human capital and community services for home-centered learning. Families contacted 239 persons--experts (50 percent) and neighbors, relatives and friends (45 percent) to obtain information for home learning. Sixty-seven percent of the families used radio, tele- vision, newspapers, magazines, books and flyers and pamphlets as a source of information for home learning. Families were asked to describe what children need to learn at home to be family members and workers. Respondents (69 percent) indicated children need to learn values (i.e., responsibility, respect, patience, honesty, integrity) to be family members and workers. Personal experience was mentioned most frequently as a source 0f information about family and work. Hypotheses to be tested in future research might be gener- ated from the results of this study. Two examples are: (l) family members perceive and utilize the home as a place to learn about family responsibilities and duties more often than as a place to learn about occupationaT responsibilities and (2) families partici- pate in more learning activities related to the devel0pment of skills than in affective learning. HOME-CENTERED LEARNING ACTIVITIES OF FAMILIES NITH TEENAGE CHILDREN By Sandra Sue Clarkson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family Ecology 1975 (M..- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to extend appreciation to these people: Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, thesis director and major advisor, for stimulating ideas and insightful guidance; Dr. Ann Field, Dr. E. Jane Dyer and Dr. Stephen Yelon, committee members, for advice and suggestions; Dr. Norma Bobbitt for encouragement and helpful sugges- tions; Dr. Kathryn M. Kolasa for moral support and editorial comments; the l5 families for willing cooperation; other faculty and graduate students in the College of Human Ecology for encouragement and support; the Michigan State University Graduate Office for financial assistance; my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Donald Clarkson, and brother, Joe, for moral support and understanding. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V Chapter ' I. INTRODUCTION l Objectives 6 Assumptions . 7 Research Questions . 7 Operational Definitions . 8 Conceptual Orientation 9 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Self-Learner and Lifelong Learning . . . . ll Individual Learning Pursuits . . . . . . . 15 Family as Educator . . . . 24 Resources Utilized for Learning Within the Home Environment . . . 33 'Learning Needs and Interests of Families With Teenage Children . . . . . . . . . . 40 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Description of the Sampled Community . . . . 47 Sample Design and Selection . . . . . . . 48 Selection of the Subsample . . . . . . . . 49 Description of Subsample . . . . . 49 Occupations of Adult Family Members . . . . 50 Family Income of Adult Workers . . . . . . 51 Part- Time Employment of Teenagers. . . . 51 Educational Attainment of Selected Families . 53 Size of Selected Families . . . . . . . 53 Ages of Family Members . . . . . . 54 Changes in Families During Last Year . . . . 54 Research Methodology. . . . . . . 55 Development of Interview Schedule . . . . 56 The Interviewing Process and Collection of Data . . . . . . . . 57 Data Processing and. Analyses . . . . . . 59 iii Chapter IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Extent of Home Learning Activity in the Past Year . . . . . Number of learning Activities . . Description of Learning Activities in Which one or More Family Members Participated Household Care and Management Leisure and Recreation . Development and Care of Family Members Development of Values . . . . Preparation for Career Other . . Kinds of Learning Activities Identified as Help-O ful for Family and/or Occupational Activities . Learning Activities in Which Parents and/or Teenagers Were Involved . Time and Place of Home— Centered Learning Human and Nonhuman Resources Used for Learning Within the Home . . Sources of Information for Home- Centered Learning Activities . Contacts Outside the Home. to Facilitate Learn- ing at Home . Perceptions of Family Members About What Child- ren Need to Learn at Home to be Family Members and Workers . . . . Sources of Information Family Members Would Use to Help Children Learn About Being Family Members and Workers . Information Families Would Find Most Useful for Learning About Family and Occupations V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS Purposes and Methodology of Study . . . Summary of Findings Which Provide Answers to Research Questions . . . . . . Other Findings Implications . . . Implications for Formal Education . Implications for Nonformal Education . Implications for Research . . Implications for Public Policy . Other Implications . . APPENDICES REFERENCES CITED iv Page 61 87 90 91 94 94 95 100 100 101 102 104 106 106 108 141 Table tDGJNOWUT-bw 10. 11., 12. 13. ' 14. 15. 16. 17. LIST OF TABLES Occupations of Adults Number of Hours Employed Adult Family Members Worked Per Week . Family Income Income of Employed Teenagers Educational Attainment of Adults and Teenagers Size of Selected Families Ages of Family Members Number of Learning Activities Reported Per Family Kind and Number of Times One or More Family Members Participated in Learning Activites . . Kind and Number of Learning Activities Useful for Family and Occupational Responsibilities Kind and Number of Learning Activities of Husbands and/or Wives . . . . Kind and Number of Learning Activities of Parent(s) and Teenager(s) . . . Kind and Number of Learning Activities in Which Teenager(s) Reported They Participated . Number of Learning Activities in Which Parent(s) and Teenager(s) Participated . . . Time When Families Learn and Number of Families . Where Family Members Use Sources of Information in the Home . . . . . . . Where Family Members Prefer to Learn Within Home V Page 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 62 64 69 70 71 72 74 75 77 78 Table Page 18. Changes in Resource Use for Family and Occupa- tional Learning Categories . . . . . . . . 79 19. Kind of Radio and Television Program and Number of Individuals and Whole Families Who Used for Learn- ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 20. Amount of Time Families Used Radio and Television for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 21. Kind of Newspaper and Magazine Article and Number of Individuals and Whole Families Who Used for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 22. Kind of Books and Number of Individuals and Whole Families Who Use for Learning . . . . . . . 83 23. Kind and Number of Contacts Made Outside Home to Facilitate Learning Within Home . . . . . . . 85 24. Number of Contacts Outside the Home for Learning and Reasons for Contacts . . . . . . . . . 86 25. Source of Information About Contacts Outside the Home for Learning and Number of Responses . . . 87 26. Kind of Learning Activity and Number of Responses: What Family Members Think Children Need to Learn at Home to be Family Members and Workers . . . . 88 27. Kind of Information Sources for Learning About Family and Work and Number of Times Mentioned . . 9O 28. Kind of Information Families Want for Learning About Family and Work and Number of Responses . . 91 29. How Families Want to Learn at Home . . . . . . 93 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The home and family environment is a primary setting in which family members learn basic life tasks. Within this home and family environment, a variety of educational encounters can occur (Leichter, 1974). Home-centered learning might include caring for children, getting along with people, developing creative abilities, feeding the family, using money wisely, doing household tasks, pre- paring for the future, applying for a job or taking a job-related course at home. Education of family members is a basic function of the family. Frankena (1970) suggested that the educational function of the family should be the family's primary role. Within the home environment, the family can and does take responsibility for sociali- zation and education of its members. There is a need, however, for re-emphasizing the educative role of the family (Frankena, 1970; Leichter, 1974). Changes in American society such as shifts in occupational and family roles of men and women, increases in geo- graphical distances between extended family units, greater numbers of middle-aged and older people, and demands to maximize human potential throughout life call attention to the special function the family can assume in re-educating and re-socializing its members. 1 The home environment does not exist in isolation. Morri- son (1974) discussed the interrelated, interdependent environments which affect families and which families, in turn, affect. The environments of families include the socio-psychological environment (human behavior processes between and among family members and others outside the family) the man-built environment (family living _space) and institutional environments (economics, education and public policy). Through interactions of family members with these environments which bring new information into the family system, children and adults reshape their home environment. Thus, the family system is one that is continuously changing, developing and learning (Hook and Paolucci, 1970). Sussman proposed that these linkages between the family system and the larger environment (i.e., school, community, work) are reciprocal processes in which both the family and the organizatiOnal structure are modified; that is, "families adapt and influence behavior.of their members and outsiders simul- taneously" (1971, p. 45). The competency of family members in developing and managing these societal linkages is an increasingly important research issue: what contacts outside the home related to the educative function of the family do family members make?; who within the family made the contact? I Researchers who study the family believe that significant changes in family character and composition throughout the family life cycle affect family learning interests and needs (Havinghurst, 1953; Duvall, 1967; Leichter, 1974). Because of continuous changes in character and composition (i.e., age, number, role) which are due to maturational and personal changes in family membership, the fam- ily is an adaptive system. Research about the family's educational role must consider the shifting character of interactions throughout the family life cycle. Hill (1971) maintained that the family development conceptual framework enables the researcher to consider the social time dimension of families by specifying time in units appropriate to families. In a modern technological society, such as the United States, learning is a lifelong process for children and adults alike. The role of the family as educator is becoming increasingly recognized (Baker, 1970; Bronfenbrenner, 1970; Leichter, 1974). Educational encounters within the home (learning, unlearning, and relearning) help family members adjust and adapt to the accelerating pace of changes at home, at work, in play, in understanding self and in understanding the world. Havinghurst said, "The human individual learns his way through life" (1953, p. 1). There is evidence that individuals are self-learners. Tough (1971) found that adults Spend 700-800 hours yearly in self- directed learning of which 70 percent took place outside of the traditional school setting. Researchers who replicated Tough's study with different samples suggested that individual learners use many approaches to learning other than traditional ones such as enrolling for a course or attending an educational program designed for a group (McCatty, 1973; Johns, 1973; Denys, 1973; Johnson, 1973; Coolican, 1973). In a study of mothers of preschool children, Coolican (1973) found that mothers seemed to prefer learning in the convenient and natural setting of the home as a part of daily life rather than as a separate and isolated activity. Because research about self-learning focused on the learning activities of an indi- vidual, these empirical research studies do not describe day-to-day educational encounters in which family members interact. Leichter said, "Education within the family is a fascinating subject in its own right and one that holds great promise as a field of systematic investigation" (1974a, p. 173). She further stated, There is the possibility of extending our knowledge of edu- cation in general by examining the richly diversified educa- tional encounters that occur within the family. Ideally, it will be possible to understand the special features of education within the family, while at the same time using this understanding to enlighten and extend our fundamental theory of educational encounters over the entire range of educative institutions and settings (1974, p. 177). Much of the literature about education within the family discussed the parental education of children and the effects of parental education on the child's development and achievement in situations external to the family. Researchers who study familial education within the home environment can contribute to existing knowledge about the family's educational role. Application of research find- ings can have implications for developing alternative methods of structuring the home environment so family members are offered optimum opportunities for learning. A need exists for research about home-centered family learn- ing activities which involve one, some or all family members (Wolf, 1966; Leichter, 1974). Wolf argued the need to study specific environments and subenvironments within the home to investigate "what parents do in interactions with their children rather than what parents are in terms of status, level of father's occupation, type of dwelling, source of income and so forth" (1966, p. 492). Additional information about home-centered learning of blue-collar families can assist educators in developing informal learning support systems which are vital linkages between learner and professional educators (Tough, 1971; Coolican, 1973). This study investigated how families perceived and utilized the home as a learning center. Data about home-based learning of families with at least one teenage child were collected and analyzed. Variables studied included content of learning within the home and family environment in the last year, involvement of family members in learning, contacts outside the home initiated to facilitate learn- ing, and human and nonhuman resources committed to home learning. This research attempted to describe learning within the home and family environment in which parents and child(ren), child(ren) and child(ren) and parent and parent were involved. Educators can use the results of this study to develop guidelines for educational programs which facilitate informal learning within the home and family environment. Educators in adult education, community colleges, family service agencies, community education, C00perative Extension and mass media can utilize this information to plan educational programs which meet the expressed informal learning needs and interests of families at different stages of the life cycle. The results of this study also should have implications for public policy decision-makers who allocate resources to educa- tional institutions. For example, how might a policy maker channel educational resources to develop the support systems which strengthen the home as a learning center? Curriculum designers can incorporate the survey findings into courses of study which better prepare voca- tional and family life educators, educational systems specialists, home economists, media personnel and youth Specialists to develop vital linkages between the home as a learning center and educational institutions. Objectives This study was designed to determine how families with at least one teenage child utilized and perceived the home as:a learning center. Specifically, the objectives were: 1. To describe the kinds of activities within the home during the last year which provided learning Oppor- tunities for adults, teenagers, children and other family members. 2. To describe what human and nonhuman resources were committed to learning within the home and family environment. 3. To describe the contacts family members made outside the home to facilitate their learning within the home and family environment. 4. To describe what family members think children need to learn at home to be family members and workers. 5. To describe what information about family responsi- bilities and duties and about being a worker which families want for use within the home. 6. To describe how families would like to learn at home. Assumptions The home and family environment is a center for learning. The survey research design is an appropriate method for collecting information about learning within the home and family environment. Family members can recall and discuss learning within the home and family environment in which they participated during the past twelve months. A semi-structured group interview is a reliable method for helping pe0ple recall and discuss their learning within the home and family environment. Research Questions This study attempted to answer the following questions: I. What learning with the home and family environment have families and/or family members with at least one teenage child been involved during the past twelve months? Who participated in learning within the home and family environment? What human and nonhuman resources were committed to home-centered learning? What contacts outside the home did family members make to obtain help for learning within the home environment? When does home-centered learning take place? Where within the home does learning take place? What do families with teenage children think children need to learn at home to be family members and workers? What information about family responsibilities and duties and about being a worker do families want to use for learning within the home? Where would families get information about being family members and workers for learning within the home and family environment? Operational Definitions For the purposes of this study, the following definitions were used. fam__i_ly_--The familywas defined operationally as two or more interacting individuals who share living space and some common resources and have a commitment to each other over some period of time. Family in the Middle Stage_of the Family Life Cycle-~A family with at least three members including two adults and a teenager. Approximate ages of family members were 13-19 years of age for teenage child and 35-55 years of age for adults. Blue Collar--Socioeconomic status based upon varying criteria including occupation, education, income, condition of housing, etc. For this study, Hollingshead's occupational categories (1957) was used to determine if the employment of the head of the household is classified as blue-collar. Human Resources--Human resources are abilities and char- acteristics of the individual along with other resources which cannot be utilized independently of the individual (Wetters, 1967). Specific human resources include time, abilities, skills and atti- tudes. Nonhuman Resources--Nonhuman resources are those which are external to the individuals but which are possessed, utilized or controlled by the individual (Wetters, 1967). Specific nonhuman resources include money, space, material goods and community services. Learning--Learning is the acquisition of new behavior as a result of experience (Pickering, 1969). Conceptual Orientation Nye and Berardo (1966, p. 4 & 5) suggested that conceptual frameworks have three functions: (1) identification of variables that enter into the behavioral processes; (2) tracing the sequence of various stages of behavioral processes; and (3) description of structural relationships between and among factors suspected to be associated with observed behaviors. This study was primarily con- cerned with the first of these three functions; that is, the des- cription of factors which characterize the learning of family members within the home setting. The conceptual orientation of this study combined two theoretical viewpoints: family development and human ecological perspective. The family development approach as conceptualized by Havinghurst (1953), Duvall (1967) and Hill (1964) is used to study the family system over its life history. This conceptual frame- work enables the researcher to study the growth and deve10pment of the family as a system over its life span or during a part of its life span. Application of this theoretical framework delineates the basic changes in structure and tasks which result from growth, maturation and deve10pment of family members (i.e., assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults; developing adult leisure-time activities, accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age). 10 Whether one accepts the notion of a fixed sequence of developmental stages or prefers to conceive of matura- tional and educational changes over time in less linear sequencing, the idea of individual deve10pment over the life cycle is central to understanding the nature of family organization and interaction (Leichter, 1974, p. 181). The human ecological perspective is a conceptual orienta- tion which is used to study the interdependent relationships between man and his environments (Hook and Paolucci, 1970; Morri- son, 1974). Application of this conceptual orientation enables the researcher to study the reciprocal interactions between man and his environments: natural, man-built and behavioral (Morri- son, 1974). Application of this conceptual framework provides a means for understanding the ways in which the family as an open system carries out its educational role in the context of numerous significant external influences (i.e., systems such as school, community, work). The family is an Open system as well as an environment for family members. Thus, educational encounters within the home and family environment are the result of expe— riences both within and outside the family. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The rapidity of change in a modern, technological society necessitates lifelong learning. Learning generally proceeds via many individuals and institutions (i.e., parents, peers, siblings and friends as well as families, churches, libraries, museums, summer camps and colleges). Family members as individuals learn out- side the home in their roles as student, employee, church and/or community member and volunteer. This self-learning outside the home enriches the home and family environment as a place for learning. In this chapter, literature related to self-learning and learning in the home and family environment was reviewed. The review was organized around: the self-learner and lifelong learn- ing, individual learning pursuits, family as educator, resources utilized for learning within the home environment, and learning needs and interests of families with teenage children. The Self-Learner and Lifelong_Learning Support for the claim of the individual's abilities as a self-learner can be found among the early Greek philosophers. Socrates was a self-learner who learned from everyone and every- thing around him. Aristotle discussed the potentiality for develop- ing wisdom in every person both through self-education and through 11 12 education by others (Kulich, 1970). The works of Roman writers are rich with illustrations of self-learners. For example, Cato learned Greek at age eighty, and Caesar attempted to plan each day to include time spent in study and writing (Houle, 1961). In the United States, an outstanding self-learner was Benjamin Franklin, a self-educated inventor, scientist and author. "From my infancy I was passionately fond of reading, and all the little money that came into my hands was laid out in the purchasing of books" (Franklin, 1958, p. 10). Franklin (1958) urged men and women to be industrious and Spend time every day in reading and discussion to improve their minds. The brilliant career of Ellen Swallow Richards had its roots in her intense desire to learn. Much of Richards' knowledge about food, water, air, nutrition and public health was accumulated by self- learning. She organized this knowledge to mobilize the environ- mental movement, Oekology, in the late eighteenth century and laid groundwork for the field of home economics (Clarke, 1973). Men and women with keenly inquiring minds who engage in a lifelong self-learning process live in every era. The lives of these outstanding individuals are recorded for future generations. A larger number of people who managed to live in a changing world by learning to adapt to their environments are forgotten. Houle stated that "it would be hard to think of any adult so content with a semi-vegetative routine of eating, working, sleeping and staring at the basilisk eye of television that he does not wonder and act as a result of his wonderment" (1961, p. 4). 13 The concept of lifelong learning has been and is gaining wider acceptance by educators. In 1965 the United Nation's Educa- tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization Committee for the Advancement of Adult Education recommended that: UNESCO should endorse the principle of lifelong education " . . which may be defined briefly as the animating prin- ciple of the whole process of education, regarded as con- tinuing throughout an individual' 5 life from his earliest childhood and continuing to the end of his days . . . The necessary integration should be achieved both vertically, throughout the duration of life, and horizontally to cover all the aspects of the life of individuals and societies" (Jessup, 1969, p. vii). Lifelong learning can assist individuals to deal creatively with the developmental tasks faced in various life stages (i.e., child, adolescent, adult). Lifelong learning also can prepare the indi- vidual for various roles within the family, school, community and world of work. In a rapidly changing technological society, lifelong learning is a necessary process which helps youth and adults combat obsolescence in work, in leisure, in understanding self and in understanding the world (Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972; Paolucci, 1973). Learning, unlearning and relearning are lifelong tasks which can help pe0ple adjust and adapt to their environments. Frank stated, "We have not fully recognized that maturation from infancy on through old age involves a succession of transitions" (1955, p. 5). In the years of later maturity, for example, elderly indi- viduals may be forced to retire from their roles in the work world. During the later adolescent years, the young adult generally assumes a role in the world of work and establishes independence from parents. 14 Thus, individuals must unlearn--relinquish--what they previously learned and begin to replace that role with a new role. Unfortunately, however, in our homes and schools we often teach children and youth in ways that hamper or block new learning, and fixate what they should soon give up if they are to mature. This pattern of indoctrination and fixation was more or less apprOpriate, if not necessary, for living in a relatively stable society where there was little or no alteration in the basic traditions and where there was a relatively short span of’life for most individuals. But today it has become increasingly burdensome, a self-defeat- ing handicap for longer-living individuals and for our society as a whole. We are reared in our families and homes and in our schools for living in a society which no longer exists (Frank, 1955, p. 5). Frank (1955) believed that the emphasis in education should be lifelong learning (i.e., learning, unlearning and relearning) which mobilizes the human ability to live in Contemporary society. Lifelong learning itself is becoming a goal of individuals (Tough, 1971). As more and more people in postindustrial nations are moving beyond material goals such as food, clothing and shelter, they are setting a new goal for themsleves. Maslow (1959) defined this goal as self-actualization, that is, the realization of enor- mous human potential through better self-understanding, increased knowledge and skills and more sensitive interactions with other peo- ple. In a discussion of his philosophy of education, Jessup stated: There is a time to seek and a time to lose, a time to keep, and a time to cast away; different phases in the life of a man or woman bring different problems, different potentiali- ties, and call for different educational Opportunities--and even abstention from organized forms of education. Discon- tinuity in education is natural; discontinuance of education is like a mental amputation (1969a, p. 25). 15 He further suggested that: Lifelong learning, then is not the enunciation of a simple, grand strategy for education, any more than the Christian's belief that every man is a child of God constitutes a pro- gramme for action. It is an ideal that comes out in count- less ways. It is a temper, a quality of society, that evinces itself in attitudes, in relationships, and in social organization (Jessup, 1969a, p. 31). Individual Learning Pursuits Over the last fifteen years, researchers have studied how individuals learn from the learners' perceptions. Almost 70 percent of the learning activities which individuals discussed were self- planned outside the institutional frameworks of educational sys— tems (Tough, 1971). Cyril O. Houle (1961) suggested the need to study the indi- vidual's whole pattern of educational effort. He investigated the nature and activities of active continuing learners from their own perceptions. Houle's basic thesis was that the desire to learn, like every other human characteristic, is not shared equally by everyone. This thesis was supported by his research findings. From the results of intensive interviews with 22 adults, Houle develOped a theoretical typology which defined types of participants in con- tinuing education according to their learning orientations. He classified continual learners as (l) goal-oriented: those who use education as a way to accomplish specific objectives; (2) activity- oriented: those who use education as a means to satisfy social needs; and (3) learning-oriented: those who seek knowledge for its sake (1961; pp. 15-16). 16 Houle's conceptualization of educational participation was followed by efforts to develop instruments to obtain empirical data about a broad range of learning behavior (Sheffield, 1962; Ingham, 1963; Litchfield, 1965). Litchfield (1965) devised a scale, Leisure Activity Survey, on which the total educative activity of individuals could be measured. Adult education was broadly defined in Litchfield's study as "the process by which adults (either alone or in groups) consciously and voluntarily try to improve themselves by increasing their skill, their sensitivity or their knowledge" (1965, p. 22). All the men and women she studied participated to some extent in educational activities (N=1149). Litchfield's results lend support to Houle's assumption that all men and women possessed in some measure the desire to learn. Litchfield concluded that: There no longer appears to be any validity in the belief, long held by many adult educators, that there are partici- pants and nonparticipants in adult education. All men and women partake of adult education to some extent. The focus now must be upon questions of the degree and kinds of that participation . . . . The uses and the meaning of leisure time (the educational uses as well as other uses and the edu- cational uses in combination with other uses) will assume more importance than ever before as present changes toward the work-success ethic and as perceived and actual leisure time available to people in our society continue to move in new directions. Educational activities for adults during their leisure will have to be directed toward the use and meaning of that leisure and toward adjustment of value patterns to incorporate different ideas of and toward leisure (1965, pp. 188-189). One of the most comprehensive studies about the educational pursuits of American adults was a national sample survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) (1965). Researchers 17 found that learning by people either 21 or over, married or the head of the household is a major part of total educational effort in theUnited States. Educational activities were defined broadly to include "all activities consciously and systematically organized for purposes of acquiring new knowledge, information or skills . . ." (1965, p. 1). In a lZ-month period some 25 million American adults (more than one person in five)/tried to learn a certain topic. Three of five Americans engaged in one or more educational activities since finishing their formal schooling. The NORC researchers found that self-teaching was quite common among adults. An estimated nine million adults engaged in at least one self-structured project dUring the year preceding the interview. Johnstone and Rivera (1965) stated that self-learning among adults was "surprising" and "much greater than we had antici- pated." The authors suggested "that self-instruction is probably the most overlooked avenue of activity in the whole field of adult education" (1965, p. 37). The concept of independent self-education was not defined by Johnstone and Rivera but was referred to as "activities carried out independently, without an instructor" (1965, p. 30) and an attempt "to teach themselves something on their own" (1965, p. 2). The category of self-education was regarded as a residual category of adult studies and no additional data about learning materials and methods employed were collected. Approximately 8 percent of all adults who reported at least one educational activity during the year participated in 18 independent study. When people were asked whether or not they ever participated in independent study since leaving school, 38 percent recalled at least once when they had tried to instruct themselves. The incidence of independent study might well have been greater than was reported in this study on the nature of adult education in America because respondents were allowed to name only two independent study subjects. Some adults may have studied more than two subjects by self-teaching. In addition, interviewers asked only one general question about independent study. They did not probe for other examples of self-teaching nor explain the concept of independent study. Classification by Johnstone and Rivera (1965) of all the self-taught subjects showed that the categories most frequently self-taught were in the areas of home and family, and agriculture. Fifty-nine percent of the learning efforts in each of these areas were self-taught rather than learned by another method (i.e., attendance at classes, discussion groups, talks or lectures, corre- spondence, private teacher, educational television, on-the-job training). Forty-three percent of the learning activities in hobbies and recreation were self-taught, as were 40 percent in general education, 30 percent in personal development, 25 percent in vocational subjects, 23 percent in public affairs and 13 percent in religion (1965, p. 56). A more detailed analysis of 49 types of subjects indicated that at least 50 percent of all subjects in technical arts and hobbies, gardening, home improvement skills, 19 foreign languages, agricultural subjects, sewing and cooking and music were self-taught (1965, p. 58). A national sample of adolescents and very young adults ages 17 to 24 (many full-time students) also were interviewed in the course of the NORC's survey. Independent studies were undertaken and completed often among 17 to 24 year olds. Fifty—two percent of the adolescent, young adult sample reported they had organized an independent program of study to further their learning. Johnstone and Rivera (1965) investigated those personal, social and ecological characteristics that distinguish participants in learning activities from nonparticipants. The first distinctive feature of the continuing learners was that they were more than six years younger than average American adults (42.5 years). The second characteristic of the participants was they they were better edu- cated than average adults. During the previous year, rates of participation in learning ranged from 4 percent among persons with no formal schooling to 47 percent among those who attended school for more then 16 years. Continuing learners also were likely to hold white-collar, rather than blue-collar jobs. Rates of study among persons in white-collar jobs were almost twice as high as among those in blue-collar categories (32 compared to 17 percent). In addition, participants in adult education had median family incomes almost $1200 higher than the average family income. 0f the three indicators of socio-economic position (education, occupation, income), education was found to have by far the most powerful influ- ence on rates of learning activity. 20 Factors associated with the persistence of learning new things in adult life were age and years of formal schooling. Inter- est in learning new things was found to decrease sharply with increasing age. Interest in learning new things was significantly more prevalent among persons who had completed more years of school. In summary, the NORC researchers (1965) documented a higher than anticipated incidence of self-learning and contributed infor- mation about specific characteristics of non-school learners thus adding to the growing body of empirical data about the adult who learns throughout life. Many questions such as how much time the adult spends in learning, who plans the learning and where does the adult learn, however, remained to be answered. Beginning with Tough's work (1965), a systematic study of the self-learner has emerged. Tough (1965) defined self-planned learning as an individual's attempt to learn specific knowledge and/or skill in which the learner plans the why, what, how, when and where to learn. The individual may obtain knowledge and Skill from a variety of sources (i.e., individuals, books, television) but still maintain the responsibility for deciding what resources to use in learning. TOUgh (1971) interviewed 86 individuals from nine popula- tions: blue-collar factory workers, women and men in jobs at the lower end of the white-collar scale, beginning elementary school teachers, municipal politicians, social science professors, upper- middle-class women with preschool children, 16-year-old boys and 21 lO-year old children about learning activities. Probe questions and handout Sheets listing a wide range of potential learning activities and learning methods were developed by Tough to help people recall their learning efforts. Despite intensive efforts, Tough reported that “the interviewers feel that in some interviews we failed to uncover all the learning projects. Perhaps the self-planned learn- ing is more common than our figures indicate" (1971, p. 89). The average or typical interviewee spent 700 to 800 hours per year in deliberate learning activities. The typical adult con- ducted about eight learning projects per year. During a year, a representative interviewee spent approximately 90 hours in each learning project. Approximately two-thirds of this learning was planned, implemented and evaluated by the learner, with some help from human resources (i.e., friends, neighbors, relatives, pro- fessionals) and/or nonhuman resources (i.e., books, pamphlets, newspapers, television). Adults initiated less than 1 percent of all learning projects for academic credit. The social science professors averaged more time (1491 hours) in learning than any other group. The other sample populations devoted less time to learning: municipal politicians (1189 hours), lower-white-collar men (907 hours), blue-collar factory workers (800 hours), 16-year-old boys (609 hours), lower-white-collar women (430 hours), elementary school teachers (395 hours), upper- middle-class women with preschool children (331 hours) and lO-year- old children (139 hours). The four groups Spending the most time - in learning were predominantly male. 22 Other studies which utilized Tough's research design have been completed since 1971. These studies employing different sample populations provide additional data about a high incidence of self- planned learning among a variety of groups including professional men in Toronto, Canada (McCatty, 1973); practicing pharmacists in Atlanta, Georgia (Johns, 1973); professional teachers and managers in Africa (Denys, 1973); adults who earned a high school diploma or high school equivalency certificate (Johnson, 1973); and mothers of young children whose oldest child was preschool age (Coolican, 1973). All researchers reported a high incidence of self-planned learning ranging from 56 percent in Johns' (1973) study to 76 per- cent in McCatty's (1973). Most adults used many approaches to learning outside the framework of adult educational institutions. Coolican (1973) found that 59 percent of learning activities of mothers of preschool children were in the area of developing family and personal competence. Within that category 80 percent of the learning projects were related to home and family competence [i.e., child development, family relations and family planning, consumer education, sewing, nutrition and food preparation and family finance (1973, p. 97)]. Mothers who were interviewed reported being "very satisfied" with 76 percent of their learning projects. An analysis of subject matter showed that the major emphasis in learning projects of these young mothers was on the practical rather than the academic, on the applied rather than the theoretical and on skills rather than knowledge. Results of 23 Coolican's study indicated that learners seemed to prefer learning in the home as an integral part of their daily lives rather than as a separate and isolated activity. At the same time, the self- learner needed and wanted help. Interviewees reported a need for additional help with 36 percent of the self-planned projects studied. In 1972, the Commission on Non-Traditional Study researchers gathered current data about participation and potential interest in adult learning (1974). The survey questionnaire included ques- tions about respondents' learning interests, preferred mode of learning and place of study. The researchers provided current sta- tistics to update the Johnstone and Rivera (1965) study. Three-fourths of all American adults expressed interest in continued learning, that is, 80 million Americans between the ages of 18 and 60 who were not studying full-time were interested in continuing their learning. Johnstone and Rivera reported that approximately one in five adults engaged in some kind of learning outside of full-time schooling. The Commission on Non-Traditional Study researchers (1974) reported that close to one in three adults (31 percent) engaged in part-time learning activities in the last year. Adults expressed interest in a wide range of learning sub- ject matter areas. Most of those interests were generally prag- matic and nonacademic in nature. Vocational subjects ranked as first choice for 43 percent of potential learners followed by general education, hobbies and recreation and home and family 24 living, 13, 13 and 12 percents respectively. The Commission on Non-Traditional Study researchers provided additional support for the finding that a significant number of adult learners want to learn practical, applied skills and knowledge rather than academic, theoretical subjects (Johnstone and Rivera, 1965; Tough, 1971; Coolican, 1973). Adult learners were asked to identify the locations for their learning since another concept of nontraditional study is that learning can occur in a variety of settings (Commission on Non-Traditional Study, 1974). More people said they learned at home than at work. The home was preferred as a place for learning by 10 percent of the would-be learners and was used by 17 percent of the learners. Review of recent research indicated that pe0p1e continue to learn throughout life. Many lifelong learning efforts were planned by the individual outside of any institutional setting. The home specifically was identified as a location for learning by some researchers (Coolican, 1973; Carp et a1. 1974). However, little study of learning within the home and family environment (i.e., subject, method, resources for learning) has been completed. Study of educational encounters within the home can contribute information to knowledge about education in general. Family as Educator Through time, the home and family environment has been the primary setting for family members to learn basic life tasks. The 25 pervasive influence of the family upon its children is widely ack- nowledged in the literature. White and Watts (1973) identified the lO-to 18-month age range as the most critical in the child's devel- opment based upon intensive research with 31 young children (Harvard Preschool Project). During this stage of the child's life when language-learning ability, locomobility and orientation toward self and others emerge, "the curriculum of the home is not hidden or unsystematic; it is observable and focused on the intellectual development as an important goal for the young child" (White and Watts, 1973, p. 200); In a classic bulletin, Principles for Child Guidance, which has not been changed substantially since the 1930's, Ethel B. Waring (1939) outlined guidelines for parents who wanted to provide learning experiences for children which would help them develop into happy, healthy grown-ups. Bronfenbrenner (1970) expressed concern about the quantity and quality of learning in the home and family environment. In recent decades, the amount of interaction and learning between American parents and their children has decreased. Urbanization, child labor laws, commuting, the abolishment of the apprenticeship system, centralized schools, the power of television for keeping children occupied--all these manifestations of progress seemingly have decreased the Opportunity for interaction among and between other family members and children. Bronfenbrenner (1970) viewed these changes as cause for alarm. In short, it is the parents and other close companions of the child who are the primary determiners not only of what the child learns, but what he fails to learn. It 26 follows that any appreciable, enduring improvement in the child's development can be affected only through an appre- ciable, enduring change in the environment and behavior of the persons intimately associated with the child on a day- to-day basis" (Bronfenbrenner, 1970, p. 142). In his book, Two Worlds of Childhood, Bronfenbrenner proposed changes in home and family which would increase opportunities for parents and older children to engage in meaningful interrelation- ships with the young and thus enhance the child's learning poten- tial. Frankena (1970) stated that the family's educative function , should be re-emphasized. "Some of our trouble today is due to the fact that parents have slighted this function, leaving it too much to the schools (Frankena, 1970, p. 12)., From Frankena's perspec- tive, the foundations for humanness are built in the home and family environment as one learns to test out a set of attitudes and values, to develop skills of decision-making and communication, to achieve identity of self-direction and to develop the ability to love and trust. Frankena believed that society has much to gain if attention is paid again to the vital significance of the family and home environment as a place for the education and socialization of family members. The nuclear family in urban, industrial societies has been the focus of much of the educationally-oriented literature about the family. Generally, mother-child relationships have been studied out of the context of other relationships in the family. White and Watts (1973) observed the child-rearing practices of two 27 sets of families during the child's second and third years of life. Data on the child's social experience, mother's interactions with child and utilization of the physical environment were collected (White and Watts, 1973). These researchers concluded that mothering is a vastly underrated occupation and "that the mother's direct and indirect actions with regard to her child, expecially during the second year of life, are, in our opinion, the most powerful forma- tive factors in the development of the preschool child“ (1973, p. 42). Moore (1968) provided additional evidence to support the important role of parents, especially mothers, as educators of children. .Ratings of quality and quantity of verbal stimulation and the quality of mother-child interaction in the home setting were related significantly to the child's IQ at three years of age but were related more highly to the child's IQ at eight years of age. The parents within the home environment, particularly the 7= mother, established the child's level of intellectual functioning. White and Watts (1973), Moore (1968) and other researchers (Escalona, 1973; Leibowitz, 1974; 1974a) have provided information about the significant influence of the home and family environment on the child's development. Researchers (Radin, 1969; Schaefer, 1972; Levenstein, 1970; Karnes, et. a1. 1970) who recognized the importance of the family as educator of pre-school children have designed home-based early intervention programs to increase the parents' effectiveness in developing their children's intellect. These early intervention programs generally did not involve parents from all socioeconomic 28 groups. Instead, the strategy of the programs was to counteract the effects of poverty on human development. The mother-child relationship was most often the target of intervention. Methods of intervention included tutoring of infants by experts and demon- strating and encouraging use of educational materials to foster mother-child interaction. Effects of home-based intervention included gains in IQ for subjects in the experimentalgroups. These gains were maintained three to four years after termination of the programs. Bronfenbrenner (1974) has reviewed the results of a number I,. of early intervention programs and stated principles specifying elements essential for effective programs. The evidence indicates that the family is the most effec- tive system of fostering and sustaining the development of the child. The evidence indicates further that the involvement of the child's family as an active partici- pant is critical to the success of any intervention pro- gram. Without such family involvement, any effects of intervention, at least in the cognitive sphere, appear to erode fairly rapidly once the program ends. In contrast, the involvement of parents as partners in the enterprise provides an on-going system which can rein- force the effects of the program while it is in opera- tion and hel to sustain them after the program ends (1974, p. 55). Schaefer (1972) discussed the family as an important educa- /. tional institution for family members from birth to maturity. Ten characteristics of families that suggested the great cumulative impact of the family upon child development were stated by Schaefer: Priority--The family influences the early development of relationships, and interests and language. 29 Duration--The family maintains contact with the child from birth to maturity. Continuity--Prolonged separations of parents and children are rare. Separations are often investigated under the concept of maternal deprivation. Amount--The total amount of interaction of children with parents tends to be greater than with any other adults. Extensity--Parents and children interact in many differ- ent situations and share many different experiences. Intensity--The degree of involvement of the child with the parent tends to be more intense than with other adults. Pervasiveness--The parent influences the child's contacts with other persons and institutions and controls the child's access to society and society's access to the child. Consistency--The parents' behavior with the child tends to be consistent over time. Responsibility--Both parents and society recognize the parents' primary responsibility for the child's welfare and development. Variability--The extreme variability of family care and education, from extremes of acceptance, involvement, and stimulation to extremes of neglect, abuse, and physical deprivation, is related to variability in child's devel- Opment (1972, p. 28). The cumulative effect of these different characteristics and family care of children is the basis of the primary importance of the family in the educational process. The family as educator can play an important part in pre- paring family members for their career roles. Havinghurst (1964) identified both broad and more specific deve10pmental tasks in his analysis of the lifelong process of career development. Only the first and sixth stages and developmental tasks of each will be discussed here. Stage I. Identification with a Worker (Ages 5-10). The child identified with father, mother or other significant persons. The concept of working becomes an essential part of the ego-ideal. Principal Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood: 1. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating. 3O 2. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games. 3. Learning to get along with age-mates. 4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role. 5. Developing concepts for everyday living. 6. Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values. 7. Achieving personal independence . . Stage VI. Contemplating a Productive Life (Ages 70 plus). 1. The person is retired from work or is in the process of withdrawing from the worker role. 2. The individual looks back over the work role to determine contributions to society. 3. The individual may substitute other interests for the work role (Havinghurst, 1964, p. 216). The setting for several of these career development tasks at an early and later life cycle stage is the home and family environment. Thus, the family as educator provides lifelong learning opportu- nities for family members. Goldhammer and Taylor stated that "career education is designed to capacitate individuals for their several life roles: economic, community, home, avocational, religious and aesthetic“ (1972, p. 6). Goldhamer and Taylor (1972) recognized the centrality of careers in shaping family life by determining or limiting where families work and live. One of four models of career education proposed for career development by Goldhammer and Taylor (1972) is the home-based model. Purposes of the home-based model for career education include: deve10pment of educational delivery systems into the home, provision of new career education programs for adults and enhancement of the quality of the home as a learning center. Simpson (1973) elaborated on the concept of the home and family as a career education center. As a result of new 31 technological advances in communication mass media (i.e., audio- visual cassettes, microfilm, television-telephone computer hookups), home learning opportunities increased in the last twenty years. Simpson (1973) suggested that the home and family as a learning center may serve the following purposes: development of children's concepts of work, leisure and occupational possibilities; training and re-training young persons and adults for occupational compe- tency; preparing older workers for new careers; developing compe- tencies of men and women for their homemaking and family life responsibilities; and promoting personal development and a sense of worth for persons of all ages. A home-based educational system has the advantages of feasibility at all stages of the life cycle, at all social and economics levels and in all geographical areas. Aberle and Naegele (1968) investigated the relationship between middle-class fathers' occupational roles and their behavior toward children at home. They argued that fathers' occupational roles developed certain values and attitudes which affected how fathers and children interacted at home. Fathers who were inter- viewed indicated they would not choose their children's occupations. They would attempt, however, to teach their children attitudes and values which the fathers thought were necessary for career success in middle-class occupational life. Attitudes and values which the fathers said.were important included responsibility, initiative, competency, aggression, emotional stability and self-restraint. Fathers seemed to be more concerned about deve10ping these char- acteristics in their sons than in their daughters. 32 Socialization experienced by persons in childhood cannot prepare them for all the roles they will be expected to fill in later years. Brim (1966) stated that people move through a sequence of different positions in society, in accord with differ- ent stages of the life cycle. Changes in the demands upon them arise from geographical and social mobility and from cultural expectations which may vary during their lifetimes. During the last half century, researchers studied socialization of children. There has been much less work, almost none, on socialization at later stages of the life cycle. The situation for most men is much more difficult [than for men in relatively unchanging societies], because they live in complex and changing societies. The inadequacies of early socialization for the role the person will play during his lifetime are much greater. The geographical mobility associated with the modern age and the social mobility characteristic of the achievement-oriented Open-class society both contribute to the characteristically unforeseeable career pattern of modern man. The heterogeneity of subcultures in complex modern societies compounds the effects of mobility by the novel and unpredictable role demands placed on the indi- vidual. So, also, do the rapid social changes occurring during a lifetime render inadequate much childhood learn- ing: technological obsolescence in one's occupation, Shifts in sexual folkways, opportunities for equality in employment for minority group members, are but a few of a myriad of examples that might be set forth. Discontinue ities between what is expected in successive roles are greater; the inabilities of the socializing agents to do an effective job rise as the rate of change increases . . . Faced with these challenges, complex and changing societies might try to lay the groundwork for the necessary learning in later life, when the child will be confronted with adult roles as yet only dimly seen, by providing the individual with initiative, creativity, the power of self-determina- tion, insight, flexibility and intelligent response to new conditions; to move, that is, away from indoctrination and habit formation toward development of broadly useful traits and skills enabling him to meet a variety of social demands (Brim, 1966, pp. 19-20). 33 Brim suggested that the family and other educational institutions have a role to play in adult socialization. The family, like any other educational institution, origi- nates some educative efforts, mediates others and actually insulates its members from still others. Educative efforts within the family involve not only parents teaching children but children teaching parents, parents teaching one another and children, and children teaching one another. Resources Utilized for Learning Within the Home Environment The family organizes and uses a complex of resources as it strives to achieve family and individual goals. Resources are human and nonhuman means for reaching goals (Maloch and Deacon, 1966). The ends or gaols are those outcomes desired by individual members and by the family as a group. Management within the home helps a family create an environment in which members can perform, grow and develop as individuals while cooperating to attain group goals (Paolucci, 1966). Development of human capital, that is, the production of healthy, responsible and creative individuals, is among the family's primary goals (Paolucci, 1966; Schultz, 1971). The distinctive characteristic of human capital as compared to other forms of capital is that it is a part of the individual. Human capital is human because it is embodied in the person, and it is capital because it is a source of future satisfactions, future earnings or both (Schultz, 1971). Paolucci stated that the 34 development of human capital within the family "is comprised of a plurality of individual needs, wants, attitudes and values" (1966, p. 339). Family use of resources for specified goals (in particular, money, time and energy) has been a topic of study for students of the family for many years.. The micro-economics of the home and family environment in the allocation of women's time to develop human capital in children has been neglected, however, in both economics and home economics (Schultz, 1972). Few researchers have looked at family resource use in the development of human capital of family members. Johannis (1957) measured partiCipation by family members in selected child care and control activities. He included at least four activities (teaches children right from wrong and correct behavior, teaches children facts and skills, helps children choose what they will do after finishing school and helps children with homework) in which mothers, fathers and teenage sons and daughters contributed to the developmentof the human capital of younger children. More than half of the mothers, two-fifths of the fathers and one-fourth of the teenage sons and daughters spent time assist- ing children with school work. Mothers were more active than fathers in teaching children right from wrong and correct behavior and in helping children with school work. Both parents partici- pated equally in teaching children facts and skills and in helping children choose what they will do after finishing school. Three activities (teaching children right from wrong, teaching children 35 facts and skills and helping children choose what they would do after finishing school) were Shared responsibilities by two or more family members in at least 56 percent of the families. Although Johannis (1957) did not attempt to define or measure the resources family members used in selected child care and control activities, fathers, mothers and teenage sons and daughters invested both human (i.e., time, abilities, attitudes, moral support) and nonhuman resources (i.e., money, space, material goods) in the development of young children. Baker (1970) described the family as an environment consist- ing of available resources that can be managed to shape the develop- ment of individuals. She hypothesized that resources, defined as events, activities, spaces, objects or persons within the family and family-linked surroundings are available for use in helping prepare the preschool child for successful participation in the formal edu- cational system. Family resources which were measured included Space, movement, care and appearance, play, task and work, child's learning, family learning, child's social contacts and family social contacts. Baker indicated that the level of family resources for educability was related significantly to family status character- istics (education, income, residence), but not to family structure characteristics (nuclearity, size, age and sex of preschool child- ren). Baker (1970) suggested that intervention, change or educa- tion probably is needed at and between all levels--societal, family and individual-~to better organize resource patterns which contribute to educability. 36 Bell (1973) investigated family resources and relationships of resources used to selected family characteristics when the fam- ily's first child was in first grade. She viewed the child's edu- cation as a mutually-shared goal between family and school. Paren- tal time estimates of frequency and extent of time use were collected to describe parental inputs to school-related activities. Mothers also were asked about family money use for items related to children's education. Ninety-nine, ninety-eight and eighty-four percent of the parents used time to discuss the school day with their children, to assist children with school work and to read to child- ren, respectively. Seventy-five percent bought reference materials for children's use at home. Six of the school-related activities were primarily at-home activities. Bell provided evidence that parental commitment of resources (i.e., frequency and extent of time use) to school-related activities was greater in activities carried out at home than at school and that the home and family environment functioned as a co-educator with schools. The family, however, rarely realized how they facilitated the child's educational development. Leibowitz (1974) demonstrated that women and men with more education (at least one year of college) spend more time in child care than women with less education (up to four years of high school) despite the greater cost of their time as measured by foregone market earnings. Time inputs to various domestic outputs were calculated from time budgets of about 1,300 New York families. Total 37 time inputs to educational care of children over a two-day period by the wife and husband in the high-education group (at least one year of college) were 91 minutes and 41 minutes, respectively. In the low-education group (up to four years of high school), the wife spent 79 minutes during a two-day period in educational care of children and the husband spent 32 minutes. While the cost of child care measured in foregone market earnings was higher for women with at least one year of college, they devoted more total and per child time to child care than did women with up to four years of high school. It seemed that productivity and efficiency of women with at least one year of college made their time more valuable in the home when children were young than the earnings they lost by leaving the labor force. Leibowitz (1974) also analyzed the human resources which might be substituted for the mother's time in child care. Time inputs by others--older children, babysitters, and/or grandparents --seemed to act as substitutes for the mother's time in the low- education group but not for those mothers with more years in school. The substitutes were similar in education and ability to the mothers in the low-education group. If education increases the productivity of time in child care as Leibowitz seemed to indicate, women with more education would find these other workers relatively unsatisfactory substitutes for their human resources. Mothers in the high-education group spent the same amount of time in child care whether or not other pe0ple cared for their children. The time devoted to child care within the home and family environment by 38 better-educated parents represented investment of their human resources in the human capital development of their children. Leibowitz (1974a) also attempted to explain the development of significant differences in verbal and mathematical ability in children at age six. She suggested that these differences reflected variations in inherent ability and the amounts of human capital which children acquire before they are six years old. Acquired human capital in children, in turn, reflected varying inputs of time and other resources (i.e., money, moral support, abilities, knowl- edge) by parents, brothers and sisters and the child. The process of acquiring preschool human capital by young children, primarily in the home and family environment, was analogous to the accumula- tion of human capital by students and workers through schooling or on-the-job training. To investigate the possible returns to home investment of resources in children by family members, Leibowitz (1974a) developed a model in which the success of the child in school (measured by 10 in grade school and final schooling level) and success of the adult in later life (measured by income) was expressed as a function of the quantity and quality of parental time inputs into home educa- tion of children. Leibowitz (1974a) re-analyzed Terman's longitudinal data (1959) about the physical, mental and personality traits of Calif- ornia school children and their success in later life. Findings cannot be generalized to the whole population because the sample 39 population's IQ exceeded 140 in childhood. Leibowitz (1974a) indi- cated, however, that home investments do increase childhood human cpaital. Home-investment variables were associated positively and significantly with a measure of human capital (10) for all boys in the sample and for a subset of older girls. The mother's education was related significantly to the child's IQ, while the father's education was not, which suggests that home investments in child- hood human capital rather than wholly genetic factors underlie the relationship. The quantity of heme educational inputs was not found to affect schooling attainment. The quality of home educational inputs as measured by parents' education, however, did have a sig- nificant impact on the final schooling level attained by all child- ren. Although early home investments in children had no direct effect on income in later life, the positive relationship between income and amount of schooling suggested that investment in the human capital of children in the home and family environment played an important indirect effect on income earned in later life. Leibowitz's (1974a) findings lend support to the hypothesis that family investments in children affect early achievement of children, ultimate level of schooling and adult earnings. Parents who have completed more years of schooling invested more human and nonhuman resources in children. These resource expenditures affected aptitude and/or achievement in school which ultimately lead to greater economic success. Researchers have studied families' utilization of resources to develop the human capital of family members, particularly young 40 children (Baker, 1970; Bell, 1973; Leibowitz, 1974, 1974a). Resource investment in the human capital of other family members within the home and family environment has received little atten- tion. For example, there have been few studies about the resources used within the home to prepare teenagers for their first jobs or to prepare mothers who return to work when their children are in junior high school. Schultz stated, "The use of leisure time to improve skills and knowledge is widespread and it, too, [in addition to the investment of parents in the human capital of children] is unrecorded" (1971, p. 25). Thus, there is a need for research about the development of human capital of all family members throughout the life cycle. The study of learning experiences within the home and family environment and of resources committed to home learning may be one way to implement the development of human capital research efforts. Learning Needs and Interests of Families With Teenage Children Familes grow, develOp and age over the years. The family developmental approach (Duvall, 1967; Hill, 1964) is a way of study- ing the family as a system during all or a part of the family life cycle. The concept of individual and family development over the life cycle is central to understanding the learning needs and inter- ests of families. The family life cycle may be divided into few or many stages. One stage generally included in the categorization of the family life cycle is the family with teenage children (Duvall, 1967). 41 Both teenagers and adults are faced with a series of tasks to learn during this period in the family's development. The tasks which families with teenagers must learn, the developmental tasks of life, are related to the biological, intellectual, social and psychologi- cal growth of both individuals in the family and the family as a group. Havinghurst defined a developmental task as stated below. A developmental task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks (1953, p. 2). The origin of developmental tasks includes cultural expectations, physical maturation and the personal values and aspirations of the individual. Understanding the concept of developmental tasks is useful to families in identifying teachable moments when conditions are most favorable for individual and/or family learning. Havinghurst (1953) described tasks appropriate to children, adolescents and adults. The developmental tasks of adolescents (ages 12-18) and adults in the middle years (ages 35-55) were of interest in the present study because the deve10pmental tasks of a particular life cycle stage can relate to individual and family learning needs and interests. Most adolescents and individuals in the middle years of life are members of families. As family members, the adolescents and adults have several functions and roles (i.e., father, husband, wife, mother, daughter, sister). Within the family, individuals live and grow in relation to one another. The develop- mental tasks of family members, then are reciprocal. For example, 42 the adolescent's striving for emotional independence from adults affects interrelationships within the family. The deve10pmental tasks of adolescence include achieving new and more mature rela- tionships with age-mates of both sexes, achieving a masculine or feminine social role, accepting one's physique and using the body effectively, achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults, achieving assurance of economic independence, selecting and preparing for an occupation, preparing for marriage and family life, developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence, desiring and achieving socially responsibile behavior, and acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior (Havinghurst, 1953). The developmental tasks of middle age include achieving adult civic and social responsibilities, establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living, assist- ing teenage children to become responsible and happy adults, devel- Oping adult leisure-time activities, relating oneself to one's spouse as a person, accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age, and adjusting to aging parents. Examples of learning interests and needs of families with teenagers related to these developmental tasks might include financial aid available for teenager's education, health care alternatives for aging par- ents, possible career choices for adolescents, or shared leisure activities for parents. Havinghurst (1964) also identified developmental tasks in his analysis of the lifelong process of career development. 43 Families with teenagers might be faced with the developmental tasks of Stages II, III, IV and V which are outlined briefly: Stage II: nguiging the Basic Habits of Industry (Ages -15 . Developmental tasks include learning to organize one's time and energy to get a piece of work done and learning to put work ahead of of play in-appropriate situations. Stage III: Acquiring Identity as a Worker in Occupational Structure (Ages 15-25). Developmental tasks include choosing and pre- paring for an occupation and getting work experience as abasis for occupational choice and for assurance of economic independence. Stage IV: Becoming a Productive Person (Ages 25-40). DevelOpmental tasks include mastering skills of one's occupation and moving up the ladder within one's occupation. Stage V: Maintaining a Productive Society (Ages 40-70). Developmental tasks include achieving one's career peak and preparing for retirement (Havinghurst, 1964, p. 216). Polk (1964) suggested that family values are influenced by the stage in the family life cycle. Families with teenage children will attempt to prepare adolescent children to be independent and responsible in work and marriage. Middle-class parents also will be likely to sacrifice personal wishes to provide education and train- ing opportunities for their children because they value education. At the same time as parents are preparing children for new roles, parents are defining what their values and roles in future years might be. The home and family environment provides a setting for learning new values, preparing for_new roles and mediating conflict- ing goals. 1; Many educators have suggested conceptual orientations for studying the learning needs and interests of families with teenage 44 children (Havinghurst, 1953; Duvall, 1967; Polk, 1964). Few researchers, however, have studied empirically the learning activities of families with teenage children. Two related research studies will be reviewed briefly. Tough (1971) interviewed 16-year-old boys about their out- of-school learning activities. The boys spent an average of 609 hours per year in nine learning activities. Much of the boys' learn- ing related to athletic skills, musical instruments, future career possibilities, and other general topics of interest. Tough (1971) did not interview other family members to gain information about the day-to-day learning which took place in the home and family envir- onment between children and children, parent and parent, and child(ren) and parent(s). Alers-Montalvo, Ibsen and Brown (1966) investigated educa- tional problems, needs or wants created in areas losing or gaining population. They attempted to find ways Cooperative Extension might provide educational help to solve the identified problems or needs. Housewives reported family needs and high school sophomores reported educational needs of youth. Areas of family needs expressed by housewives from most to least interest included: home and home surroundings, financial and legal matters, food and nutrition, desires and wants for children, clothing and appropriate dress, home management, better life for yourself and your family, teen- agers, older people, job and job opportunities, and business manage- ment. Younger age groups, higher educational attainment groups and 45 higher occupational status groups tended to Show more interest in almost all items of family needs. The researchers asked high school sophomores what they would like to learn about in a club. Boys and girls were given ques- tionnaires with different possible responses. Activities included in the questionnaire were skills and developmental tasks. Boys fre- quently expressed interest in skills related to motors and cars, carpentry, electricity and repairing household appliances. Devel- opmental tasks in which boys expressed interest included decision- making in a club, accepting physical characteristics and learning how to get along with girls. Girls frequently expressed interest in skills related to selecting and buying clothes and fabric, caring for clothes and dresses and decorating home interiors. Girls indicated a high interest in all deve10pmental tasks included on the questionnaire (i.e., getting along with boys, accepting physical characteristics, making decisions, preparing for marriage). There have been few research studies about hOme-centered learning activities which contribute to human capital deve10pment of families with teenagers. Wolf (1966) emphasized the need to investigate how parents and children learn in the home and family environment. Researchers who study about learning in the home and family environment can contribute to existing knowledge about the family's educative role. Application of research findings can have implications for developing alternative methods of structuring the home environment so teenagers and parents in the middle years have .\ \ \\ \ 46 opportunities to learn the deve10pmental tasks of that family life cycle stage. Results of research about home-centered learning also can provide guidelines for developing educational programs which facilitate learning within the home and family environment. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study was to investigate how families with at least one teenage child perceived and utilized the home as a place for learning. It was part of a larger study entitled "The Home as a Learning Center," Department of Family Ecology, College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University, which was funded by the Curriculum Branch of the United States Office of Education. This researcher participated in all stages of the research project including deve10ping the interview schedule, screening and inter- viewing families, coding data and developing the conceptual frame- work paper. In this chapter, the following points will be discussed: description of the sampled community, sample design and selection, selection of the subsample, description of the subsample, research methodology, development of the interview schedule, the interviewing process and collection of data, and data processing and analyses. Description of the Sampled Community The initial sample selected for the larger study was drawn from the population in Vevay Township, Michigan. This is a well- defined community which contains a unique diversity of functions. 47 48 The area is the seat of county government, and it includes several smaller industries and service-oriented agencies. Vevay Township, Michigan, is located within commuting distance of several major employers: the state government, light and heavy industry primarily related to the automobile industry and a major university (Michigan State University). It can be defined as an area geographically located between two larger metropolitan areas (Lansing, Michigan, and Jackson, Michigan) of commercial enterprise and activity, surrounded by a productive, diversified agricultural sector. Vevay Township, Michigan, was chosen for this study because it is a relatively contained geographical area with a diversified blue-collar socioeconomic papulation from which it would be possi- ble to draw a random sample of families. This type of sample offered the research team the opportunity to study how blue-collar families with access to similar educational resources utilized the home as a learning center. Sample Design and Selection A systematic random sampling design that assured the proba- bility of proportionate representation of city blocks and rural sections was used for the sample selection in Vevay Township. Each city block or rural section was assigned a random starting point. A total of 370 households were selected randomly for initial con- tacts to assure that family responses would represent female spokesperson, male spokesperson and whole family (three members of families with at least one teenage child). The criteria for final 49 sample selection were: (1) blue-collar occupational employment of head of the household and (2) person(s) presently living in house- hold had lived together during the last year. Specific information about sample design and selection for "The Home as a Learning Center Project" is on file in the Department of Family Ecology, College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University. Selection of the Subsample The screener who initially contacted families for the larger sample was instructed to identify families who met the following criteria: (1) blue-collar occupational employment of head of house- hold, (2) family of at least three members including one teenager (ages 13 to 19) and two adults (approximate ages 35-55) and (3) fam- ily who lived together during the last year. If the family met the above criteria and lived in a randomly selected block or section designated for a three-member family interview, the screener asked if they would agree to a group interview with this researcher. Sixty contacts were made in order to acquire families who would agree to participate in a group interview. Fifteen families who were selected by this process agreed to participate in a group interview. Description of Subsample This section described the characteristics of the subsample of 15 families with at least one teenage child and two adult members. 50 Occupations of Adult Family Members Occupations of employed adults were categorized according to the Hollingshead Two-Factor Index of Social Position (1957). TABLE l.--Occupations of Adults. . Number Hollingshead's Occupational Categories Male Female (N=15) (N=15) Level 4: Clerical & sales workers 5 5 Level 5: Skilled manual employees 10 2 Level 6: Machine Operators and semi-skilled employees 0 2 Not employed within last year 0 6 Clerical and sales workers included: claims examiner, book- keeper, secretaries, inspector, sales route manager and sales clerk. Skilled manual employees included: millwright, assembly production line worker, carpenter, hair stylist, construction worker and county road worker. Machine operators and semi-skilled employees included a school bus driver and a cook. Two of the males were not working at the time of the inter- view. One was laid Off from the automobile industry due to the economic situation in Michigan. Another was temporarily unemployed because of a medical disability. However, all males reported they 51 were employed full-time during most of the previous year (Table 2). Forty percent of the females were not employed and had not worked in the last year. The number of hours worked per week by employed adult family members is summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2.--Number of Hours Employed Adult Family Members Worked Per Week. Number Hours Worked Per Week Male Female (N=15) (N=9) 10-19 0 1 20-29 0 3 30—39 0 1 40 or more 100 4 Family Income of Adult Workers Family income of adult members only ranged between $14,000 to $19,999 for one-third of the 15 families. Both husband and wife worked in nine of the 15 families, hence family income may reflect the income of two workers. The data on family income are summarized in Table 3. Part-Time Employment of Teenagers Twenty-two of the 28 teenagers in the 15 families studie were employed part-time during the past year. Their employment included: babysitter, licensed practical nurse, custodian, 52 TABLE 3.--Family Income. Income Categories NumbeDNgDSDamilies $2,000-7,999 $8,000—13,999 $14.000-19,999 Over $20,000 «hm-hm housekeeper/companion, fast food service worker and attendant at a trap shoot. Of the ten teenage males in the sample, nine were employed during the past year and one was not employed. Thirteen of the 18 teenage females had been employed in the last year; five had not been employed. Income for employed teenagers ranged from less than $100 to over $400 (Table 4). TABLE 4.--Income of Employed Teenagers. Income Categories D3233; $1-100 4 $101-200 10 $201—300 4 $301-400 3 Over $400 1 53 Educational Attainment of Selected Families All but seven of the adults had a high school education. More females than males completed high school. Most teenagers com- pleted seven to 11 years of school. TABLE 5.--Educational Attainment of Adults and Teenagers. Number Years of Schooling Completed Male Female Teenagers (N=15) (N=15) (N=28) Less than 7 years 0 O 0 7-9 years 1 l 15 lO-ll years 4 1 11 High school graduates 6 ll 2 Vocational/technical training 0 l 0 Some college 3 l 0 College graduation l O O Size of Selected Families The average family had five members living at home. In three families, size of family changed within the last year. Three older children joined the service, married or moved away from home. The birth of a child increased the size of one family. Number of children living at home ranged from one to four. Five families had both male and female teenagers, seven families had female teenagers, and three families had male teenagers. 54 TABLE 6.--Size of Selected Families. Number of family members ?fl2?§; 3 l 4 3 5 5 6 6 Ages of Family Members Ages of family members in the 15 families ranged from one to 59 because the sample was selected to represent families in the middle stage of the family life cycle. Within these 15 families, teenagers of all ages were represented. Ages of family members are summarized in Table 7. Changes in Families During Last Year - Family members were asked to identify changes in their families within the last year. Several children were attending different schools than they had previously (i.e., junior to senior high school). Three families moved during the last year. In eight of the 15 families, the employment status of one or more family members changes (i.e., beginning a new job, changing job responsi- bilities, medical disability) within the last year. 55 TABLE 7.--Ages of Family Members. Number A e Cat ' 4 9 99°"195 Adult Adu‘t Male Children Female Children Male Female (N=15)a (N=15) (N=17)b (N=27) 1-6 0 1 7-11 5 5 12-15 10 15 17-19 _ 2 22-29 1 0 30-34 0 1 35-39 5 7 40-44 5 4 45-49 4 2 50-54 0 1 Over 54 l O aOne family included two adult males living at home, the father and a 22-year-old son. bIn the fifteen families there were ten male teenagers and 18 female teenagers. Research Methodology Survey research, characteristically quantitative in nature, systematically describes current practices, attitudes, beliefs or situations (Compton and Hall, 1972; Isaac and Michael, 1971). The purpose of this research was to describe how families with at least one teenage child perceived and utilized the home as a place for learning. The personal interview (Kerlinger, 1964) has been noted as the most powerful and useful tool of social scientific survey 56 research. Compton and Hall (1972) indicated that a researcher may obtain more accurate information in greater depth through an interview schedule than through a self-administered questionnaire. Development of Interview Schedule_ The survey instrument developed for this study consisted of two parts: (1) an interview schedule and (2) a demographic questionnaire. A decision was made to collect data about two broad categories of learning activities: family and occupation. The interview schedule included fixed-alternative and open-end items. Open-end questions about learning within the home (i.e., learning activities of family members in the last year; information families desired for use in home learning) were devised to elicit information about learning activities which involved one or all family members. Fixed-alternative items offering a choice among one or more answers were used to collect factual data about home-centered learning (i.e., time of year, week and day of learn- ing; preferred location within the home for learning). Probe techniques were developed to help respondents recall family learning activities. Neutral probes (i.e., I see; and then) were used to encourage respondents to describe learning activities. A probe card listing broad categories of possible family learning activities was used to obtain a complete listing of family learning activities at home. The instrument was pretested in a pilot study with five families who met the same criteria as the sample families in the 57 larger study. Pilot interviews were tape recorded and responses were analyzed. The interview schedule was revised based upon analysis of pilot interviews (See Appendix C for a c0py of the interview schedule). Probe techniques also were reviewed and changed after the pilot interviews. (See Appendix A for a copy of the probe card.) The Interviewing Process and Collection of Data Personal interviews and field notes were used to elicit and collect information about home-centered learning activities from the basic unit of analysis of this study, the family. Data were collected from February to April, 1975. The interviewing process consisted of three stages: (1) interviewer training, (2) the initial contact and (3) the personal interview. All interviewers were trained prior to data collection. Interviewer training included how to use the demographic question- naire, interview schedule, probe techniques and how to take field notes. Practice interviews were videotaped. Interviewing tech- niques then were critiqued by an experienced researcher who analyzed interviewing style and suggested improvements. ' The second stage of data collection was an initial intro- ductory contact to determine if the household met the criteria for the study, that is, (l) blue-collar socioeconomic employment of head of household, (2) family with at least two adults and one teenage child and (3) family who lived together during the last year. 58 Basic demographic data were collected from an adult family member at that time (i.e., names and ages of family members, occupations of employed persons). Interviewers explained purposes of the study and asked families who met the above criteria if they would agree to a group interview. The respondents were assured that information collected would be kept confidential. I The third stage of the interviewing process was a personal group interview. In initiating each interview, the interviewer introduced herself and asked if family members had any questions about the purpose of the study. The first few minutes of each interview were spent answering questions and establishing a friendly relationship so family members would feel free to share information about their learning activities within the home. All interviews were held in the homes of the families. The interview setting was comfortable and informal, but not always private and quiet. Family members selected the place within the home for the interview. Eleven interviews were held in the living room and four were in the kitchen. At least three family members participated in each group interview. Other family members fre- quently Observed and listened to the interview. The average interview took 95 minutes, the range of time for interviews was 70-120 minutes. The variation in number of learning activities reported by the subjects accounted for the wide range in interview time. All three family members contributed some information in each of the 15 interviews. Generally, mothers 59 and teenagers were more active in describing learning activities than were fathers. During the first few minutes of an interview, subjects had some difficulty recalling learning activities. Few people thought about learning in the home and family environment. However, most interviewees grasped the idea quickly once they recalled things they learned at home in the last year. The probe techniques used in the interview helped subjects recall learning activities. Field notes (i.e., location of interview in home, number of interruptions during interview, description of interview setting) were completed immediately after the interview. Madge (1953) reported the impor- tance of detailed field notes in interpreting data. Interviewees were cooperative, and no one refused to answer any questions. Several families said the interview was an inter- esting, enjoyable experience. Data Processing and Analyses After each interview, the data were checked for complete responses. The raw data were coded and transferred to mark-sense sheets by the researcher. Learning activities were coded to include: (1) all family members, (2) teenager(s), (3) parent(s) and teen— ager(s) and(4) parent(s). Judgements about coding learning activi- ties into categories were verified by a second coder. Inter-rater reliability was 95 percent. Any discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached. All data coded on the mark-sense sheets were re-checked for coding accuracy. A third person spot-checked 60 each interview schedule for coding accuracy and judgments. Mark- sense sheets were fed into an optical scanner and IBM cards were punched automatically. The use of the optical scanner provided greater accuracy and speed of keypunching (Babbie, 1973). Data were analyzed on the Control Data Corporation 6500 Scope Hustler computer, using the Computer Institute for Social Science Research (CISSR) statistical package. Statistical proced- ures used to analyze data about home-centered learning activities of families with at least one teenage child included percentage and frequency distributions. The Oneway Analysis of the CISSR statistical package was the specific statistical procedure applied (Price and Ohare, 1974). The small number of cases in the study made it possible to do further hand tabulation analyses. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Results of this study are presented as follows: extent of learning activities that occurred in the home during the last year, learning activities in which one or more family members participated, learning activities in which parents and/or teenagers were involved, time and place of heme-centered learning, human and nonhuman resources used in learning activities within the home, sources of information for home-centered learning activities, contacts outside the home which family members made to facilitate learning at home, family members' perceptions about what children need to learn at home to be family members and workers, sources of information family members would use to help children learn about being family members and workers, and information families desire about being family members and workers to be used in learning at home. Extent of Home Learning Activity_ in the Past Year The extent of learning activity during the last year was measured by counting the number of learning activities which family members reported. The three family members interviewed were asked to describe what all family members made an effort to learn and to indicate who participated in each learning activity. All learning 61 62 activities which met the criteria of being a special effort to learn something at home within the last year were included. Number of Learning Activities All 15 families were involved in learning activities during the last year, a participation rate of 100 percent. The number of learning activities per family ranged from nine to 34. The total number of learning activities reported by the 15 families was 307. The typical family mentioned about 20 learning activities in which one or more family members participated. The mean number of learn- ing activities per family member was approximately four. The detailed data about number of learning activities reported are presented in Table 8. TABLE 8.--Number of Learning Activities Reported Per Family. Number of Learning Activities Number of Families N O l—J—l—J—ld—JN—lN-dc—lu—l—J _.l 01 TOTAL 307 Mean = 20.47; Median = 20; Mode = 18,20. 63 Description of Learning Activities in Which One or More Family Members Participated Each learning activity reported was coded into one of 47 specific kinds of learning activities (see Appendix A). Learning activities of these 15 families then were clustered into one of six broad areas of learning: (1) development and care of family members, (2) development of values, (3) household care and manage- ment, (4) leisure and recreation, (5) preparation for career and (6) other. The number of learning activities participated in by one or more family members and percentages for each category are summarized in Table 9. Subcategories within each category and percentages of total activities (307) also are included. Household Care and Management This category included learning activities related to repairing, maintaining and decorating the home, budgeting money resources, feeding and clothing the family and using household tools and equipment. The largest number of learning activities, 109 or one-third of the total (307), were in this category.) Specific examples of family learning activities included learning about dieting, paneling the basement, cooking, sewing, planting berry bushes, refinishing a dry sink, repairing the roof, planting a garden, budgeting money for food, saving money to buy a bicycle or clothes, redecorating a teenager's room and using a saw, hammer or other tools. 64 TABLE 9.--Kind and Number of Times One or More Family Members Participated in Learning Activities. Learning Activities Number Percent Household Care and Management 109 35 maintaining, repairing and decorating the home 25 feeding the family 19 gardening and lawn care 16 using and maintaining tools and . equipment 15 budgeting and using money wisely l3 sewing and clothing care 11 routine household skills 10 Leisure and Recreation 76 25 hobbies, crafts 35 ll enjoyment and recreation 22 , music, art, dance 19 Development and Care of Family_Members 45 15 DOD-DU"! 01mm caring for children . 28 caring for adults 6 positive emotional support inside the family 6 3 2 NNtD positive emotional support outside the family health Development of Values 42 14 personal, social values 20 getting along with people outside the home 7 sharing in the family 6 Spiritual values 5 getting along with people inside the home 4 Preparation for Career 28 10 applying for jobs 8 job-related activities 8 7 5 dd NNN \l d developing job-related skills deve10ping career interests Other 7 2 TOTAL ' 307 101 “3'0““ 65 Leisure and Recreation The leisure and recreation category included learning activities related to enjoyment, recreation, hobbies, crafts, music, art and dance. This number was about one-fourth of the total learn- ing activities (307), the second highest number of learning activi- ties in a particular category reported by families. Specific leisure and recreation activities which parents and teenagers reported learning about were knitting, tap dancing, decoupage, wood- working, backpacking, fishing, playing the guitar and piano, square dancing, ceramics, baton twirling, glass painting, playing cards and trapping. Development and Care of Family Members The deve10pment and care of family members category included learning activities related to positive emotional support for family members and health-related concerns. Learning activities in this area were 15 percent (45) of all learning reported. Care and devel- opment of children was the majority (28 of 45) of learning activi- ties in this subject matter area. Several teenagers said they were learning to take care of younger brothers and sisters. Parents in one family said they were relearning to care for a small child. They discussed teaching the child to say words, to understand yes and no, and to identify parts of her body. Family members in another family used flash cards to help a seven-year-old learn word meanings. One adult male develOped his capabilities to conduct a meeting and 66 speak in public by reading books (i.e., Robert's Rules of Order, speech books) at home. Parents whose older children had moved from home learned to adjust emotionally to a smaller family. Learning activities related to positive emotional support included making new friends, spending time together in family activities and main- taining family morale while the father was unemployed. Development of Values The deve10pment of values category included learning about getting along with people, sharing with others and deve10ping personal, social and spiritual values. .Families mentioned 42 learning activities (14 percent of the total number) related to value deve10pment. Learning related to personal, social values occurred most frequently in this category. Parents stated that children learned more about values such as honesty, responsibility, patience and independence during the last year. Ways children and teenagers learned these values included caring for the house while parents were away, carrying out certain family tasks and making decisions about spending money. Learning to get along with people included developing a workable relationship between two teenagers and between a teenager and mother, communicating between parents and teenagers, and working together to achieve family goals. Five learning activities related to spiritual value development were described. These included being an altar boy, studying the Bible and being a lector in church. 67 Preparation for Career The preparation for career category included learning about applying for jobs, developing career interests, developing job- related skills and other job-related activities. Twenty-eight career learning activities, 10 percent of the total, were mentioned. Both teenagers and adults made an effort to learn about how to apply for jobs during the past year. Job-related learning activities in the home included reading books about set design and drama produc- tion, studying psychology and studying to be a legal assistant. Developing job-related skills included practicing hypodermic injec- tions, drawing and labeling a sheep's eye and using a welder. Several teenagers were discussing possible career interests with parents. Their interests included nursing, Special education and retailing. One adult male was attempting to learn about potential careers he might pursue in retirement. we: Families described seven learning activities which did not fit into any of the above categories. These included learning about earth science, dogs, horses and rockets. Kinds of Learning Activities Identified as Helpful for Family and/or Occupatibnal Activities Family members were asked if their learning activities were helpful in carrying out family activities and responsibilities and/or occupational responsibilities. The purpose of this question was to determine how families perceived their learning activities. 68 Families indicated that 220 of the 307 learning activities reported (72 percent) were helpful for carrying out family responsi- bilities and duties. Thirty-three learning projects (11 percent) were helpful exclusively for learning about occupations. Families identified 36 learning projects (12 percent) that were related to both family and occupational activities. Eighteen learning projects (6 percent) were not helpful for either family or occupational activities. lluamajority of learning projects in five categories (development and care of family members, development of values, leisure and recreation, household care and management, and other) were useful for family responsibilities and duties. Families per- ceived that 15 of the 42 learning projects in the development of values category were helpful for both family and occupational activities. Families also said that 26 of the 28 learning projects (93 percent) in the preparation for career category were helpful exclusively for occupational responsibilities (Table 10). Learning Activities in Which Parents and[9r Teenagers Were Involved Learning activities were clustered into the six broad areas of learning. Husband and/or wife, parents and teenager(s), father and teenager(s), mother and teenager(s), father and male teenager(s), father and female teenager(s), mother and male teenager(s), mother and female teenager(s), male and female teenager(s), male teenagers and female teenager(s) represented clusters of family members. The number of times a particular family cluster reported participating in a learning was recorded. 69 TABLE lO.--Kind and Number of Learning Activities Useful for Family and Occupational Responsibilities. Number of Activities % of Kind of Learn- Total Total ing Activity Family Occupational Both Neither Development & Care of Family Members 37 5 3 O 45 15 Development of Values 27 O 15 O 42 14 Leisure and Recreation 60 O 2 14 76 25 Household Care & Management 93 2 14 O 109 35 Preparation for Career 0 26 . 2 O 28 10 Other 3 O O 4 7 2 TOTAL 220 33 36 , 18 307 Percent of total 72 ll 12 6 101 101 Family composition of the 15 families was 15 mothers, 15 fathers, ten male teenagers, 18 female teenagers, one other adult male and 16 children (male and female) under age 13. Five families had both male and female teenagers, seven families had only female teenagers and three families had only male teenagers. Data about learning activities in which parents and/or teenagers were involved are summarized in Tables 11, 12, 13 and 14. 70 TABLE ll.--Kind and Number of Learning Activities of Husbands and/or Wives. Husband and/or Wife Kind of Learning (N=30) Household Care & Management 16 Leisure & Recreation 13 Development & Care of Family Members 7 Preparation for Career Development of Values Other 1 TOTAL 40 Husbands and/or wives reported 40 learning activities in which one or both spouses were involved (Table 11). No children or teenagers participated in these learning activities. About 75 percent of these activities were in household care and manage- ment and leisure and recreation. Only four of the 40 learning activities (10 percent) involved both husband and wife. The remaining 36 learning projects mentioned (90 percent) were indi- vidual learning for either husband or wife. Specific learning activities included making cheese, building a door, organizing time, dieting, restoring old cars, revarnishing golf clubs and remodeling a camper. One or both parents and one or more teenagers reported 101 shared learning activities (Table 12). This was 33 percent of all learning activities described by the 15 families (307). Slightly over one-half (53 percent) of the learning activities involving 71 Fmvcommcmmp mFmEOF .Fqum mFmEmF "F.m Fmvcmmmcomu mFmE .uFaum oFmsmF ”5.; Fmvcmamcmmp mFmEmF .szum «Fee "F.z Fmvcmmmcmmu mFms .uFaum mFmE "5.: Fmvcmmmcmmu meEmF .Fmvcmamcmmu mFme .stum mFmemw FF.E.m Fmvcmmmcmmu mFmEOF .Fmvcmmmcmmu mFms .FFaum mFms "F.E.2m FoF «F F mF oF F 0 mm quoF mo ucmucmm FoF «F F mF oF F 0 am 4aa NF NF N o N o o o m meanemz sFFEaa co memo new FamEnoFm>mo mF mF F F N N o F m coFummcumm use mcsmF04 me mu oF o oF m F m FF “casemmcmz new menu uFozmmsoz PMHOH $0 . a a a a a a . memmcwwh “smegma FmpoF F u E n F 2 E 2 F s u aw s 2 use mucosa; mchcm04 Fo chg .FmvcmmwcmmF ucm Fmvpcmcmm Fo mwFpF>FFO< mchcmm4 mo Fangs: use u=F¥--.~F mqmF4 Fmpou mcmeF mxooa mmcFNmmms cmamamzm: ochc coFmF>mqu mac: cF Boom mmmcoammm Fo sagasz .mso: an» :F :oFumEcoFcF we mmoczom om: mcmaEmz AFFENF mcm;3-u.mF m4mFO\FmFuom m FF o F o F mcomemFoca smemz o «F m N m a mmmcFmsm N mF o m o F :ochmFxm F FF F F N N guczgu FF NN N F m m Foogum NF mm FF o m N m>Fmemm mF Fm m FF m m occhu mF mm NF FF N w concmsz NF ow 4F NF N N NeaanN FNNqu FNFqu FmFuzv FmFuzv FwFoF Fo chsmu «Fez mFmEmu mez pcwucma quoF . :mchqu use FmvcmmwcowF FF=u< mpumpcoo Fo consaz Fancoo co nch .550: chsz mcFecaaN mFaFFFFuaa OF 555: auFmpao one: mauaucoo Fe 253532 new ach--.mN Nam323 .320: 025:. 5.2.: 3: 02.8.... N20: :23 0202 02:30. 22.2.5 “.0 2:3 02.3.5. 0 a o ZmOE<:¢<. wZOI .F< mmeOU QMF._mm .F ”zoFFNDDONFzF 5.3 CF :oFFmELOFCF mchoFFOF 55F muzFucF 0N cansmamm ”NN3NFFNNFZF. F.uFo;mmzoc mgp Fo vow; mzu LOF xmm .coov asp cmzmcm mcwmu co :mchqu FF "NN3NF>NNF2FV zoFFunoanzF F Q\mF.”ao.z mN\F we Lasso use: aFFnoz ucmEucma< mcFFFazo NFFEF. achFm “cha mcFmao: mo quF .m "MmmmcFE :F zumcm4 .2.< "vmucm .z.< "951—. .m "Fuouqueouv.sz>zmucF Fo Nos .4 "chumFanuv sz>cmucF Fo mama .m eFFgu SFFESNHHH mFesmF FF=U< uFqu asz «Fee FF=e< “umsz>cmucF Fmvcomcmm .N NFFENF 5F053.1. 53833.8... 22.3 H camcoamwxoam msz “Fmvwmsz>cmucF umcmeo .F 3N.>NNFZ._mm LoucF zo.FFm FFV .zoFon Fumamoc so» conga; umFa .m uszvmnum c~3~F>cmucF oEFh memo .mucwEucFoaqo assuau .v Fuaucou engF panacea vacuum anmFFn>< uoz somewammxoam xFFEmu ummawmm use; an uoz mEFF mono . .muoz muumucou 550: .m .mchmmLum we mean .N Fan zF .ochmocum mo uFamum .F FNFz. n.o4.nm_ m mu.ou zoaxoxm Near nmerm. qmddmam a... no..mnnoam woorrmmumxm acm.=mmm zmn:.=m oumwawosm n.a.3m mxa3.=m1m n.m1.na.\mnm=ocxmu:.n mm nonacnnos 42m onncv>4F02>r mn>rmn :orermmzm>o nmnnoxk mnowmrmmums mannoqk mcumx<.mos vow" o««.nm Nmerm mocnm scam. I mo.mmam= mm.mm n.m1rm m:.co.:o Nmexm mcuma<.mosm - :F._.F.mm. mmnaox.mm «co. MFNF.o: mccm1<.mosm :mxmyocmm n.m1xm mau.o<3m:n anm1<.mzmsm m. Hmn::.n.mam cmaFNF qmn:=.n.msm oxwanmam: ox.<.:c «mmnzmsm mxuma.nos. «monoxk mxumx.amsam. aomnmx Fsmnscnnoxm - ca...n.mm. mmnnosx Fsmumnnoxm . :m.o:a. mm- amamxk. xx. mmnnowk F=wm.mnw:nm Fm.mn:ozm no. mcum1<4mosm F.30xmmnmxm xx Fozmw oumxmnoxm qxcnx o.mumnn:msm mmumxm om rsnn.m mam.:mmmmm «Fozmw myon 2mzmwnmza «a..o1 mzou mmxamsm ozsmsm Eel... >. wr.F.ma :mzcm. mamFokmmm >cno Noam mchFxmsm mmxmwm mmacm-m m.Nnrma.n:m moorc.:amwm mm mxmrmsm: m:..ao~m1 onmxanowm mcnnzmxm . nma.:mn aarmsm nmqumanmxm namnmqm Amocaamsm. nmamzn n.3Fmsm1m nzmam noacom.Fo1m omoamxmxm c.mmm. mzo.:m zmvmsx m 2N.:szmanm anm.:mav om.mm. m:ocu..m=nmm :Nmoam F1N.=ma :mn:m:.nm 41m.:ma :oc.am1m vmmsnmxm vocmxymscmwm mm GNNNOFBm: GNNme: w scam. gormxm w.m:o N:..Qm1m. qcamsm vacacmflm n.a< no..nmsm: vomnam: Fxoamav v1.2am1m mmq.o. F< :N.:Fm=m:nm noum.1am=. xoam >cu..m=nm mzmmwamnm. zoxxmnm Fflam.:mav asm.:ma myom nmum.1am: r.nm:mmu mnmn.o:mxk mzo.:mmwm 2m mz.Fn:3m: 41m.:ma Fm..owm am.mnzum onmwaFosm Foo.smxmwm xx axmnm mcum14mmom< m >. amn:.:m owmsNFosm m mma.-mx.d.ma msmumkmmm >.qmm. zomu.na. >nusm=n.nmm . m.~nn1.n.m=u v4.3Fosm. mammafi.nnm1m Foo.amrm1w pmmmsc.« r.=m tosxmwm wmxnmnamam m:..q.ao mcua1.:nm=qmsam Focmnoa.o.v wcm os.mm.mnmznm osmmzzocmm zoxxms mcmsam. ooowxmmnmam. sznzam: 28.1a1mmmm1m :ocmmrmmcmxm 3mm" ncnnmxm m umnrmwm oumwmnos - mmnfloqk :mn:.=mm Goons xo...=n :mn:.:m oumxmnosm uzonomnmn zon:.=m oumsonowm vqmnn.nm. zcxmmm ucac ocmwmnoam mmnm.FF aaocu mFgu me: .n chzoc OFFFOmamV xmmz can vmxcoz «Fst .o umxcoz mesa: .m coFucaaouo .v mm< .N wEmz .F F.mchommuau co» mama mmeoaao mom .mchommuou vomgmmcFFFoz oucF uFF mmm< a mmsnz ":oFumonEou uFocmmaoz mcoFumaauuo News: mcFecmpmu coo so» om :oFueELomcF chonoaauuo mmaumFo .cmcFumc m>ms mcmnsme AFFENF FF mcoFumasuuo “mom “zone coFFNELoucF :Founo "NN2NF>NNFZFV uFonmmzo: cF m>F4 oz: muF=v< mo mcoFqusuuo C (Fee u.=.FF ocx.quooa yo name can "consaz xFFEoN . muse: as» we Fqu 30% quoza co :.mcm; m>FF on; uFaooq No «man new wage: as» mchocx :F umummcmucF on v.F= axon uszs so» .coccae newcomcum xFucchF a :F mcoFummac amen» xmo ow ucaucanF mF NF "muzuF>mszFv a Q\mF.”au.z F.ooFooo;om mF ago FF NEFF FCSEFEFOQQN mooz .NFFEFF EFF; ocmo coFomoFFFocmoF o>mo. .NN3NFFNNFZF. FoEFF OFoEFxocooov . axon oFoocm chF .mchcomF oEo; m_>FFEoF coox Foooo mcooEoE xFFEoF omega mmmcp zsz FFmF> op oEo; coo» op Noon mEoo FFFz FmEocv .IINooocm poonoco asp Fo coosme o nqu Home coo comocoop.m oco mFFoom ozp FmNoF Fm cog: :o» chz acoEFcFoooo co oFooosom F No: .xoopm Loo :F xFFEoF coca mooFocF op oxFF oFooz o2 ”mmwu mmFN >4Fz4Fzcoo Foo mF FF FF umNFNNF2F NF FoEFF oFoEFxocoooV N Foooo .oF so» :FFz xFop F oFoou .xoopm coo :F AFFENF coox mooFocF op meF oFooz m3 ”4Fz so» xcosF Nxmo op oxFF oFooz so» mcoFummoo xco ocogu m.< .mcoqu mg» oF xFFEoF coo» poooo ocoe :cooF op oxFF ungE m3 .xoopm chp chz m: oFm; oco mcoFFmooo ommcu cosmco op msFF mcp mchop LoF so» xcocF ”4Fzmm mm3mF>NMFzF «MFF< mmmzoommm m a\mFauaooz .< 7852,...ch 2.» 3 853...... 23F 35 "FusazNE: .98.. No 3532 «IF as... 32838: No... .85... No BEEF S 3 «:96 x55 8» oo N23 .59.. oz N922. on anF Boos... £32. 3.5.: no» on 35.: ea 3ch was: .85; no «9:5 has. $83 038.. .F o o\mF..._uo.u._.. . 2225.22 osmzmo 2: 2. a.r(. 0.0(s1 ‘ anwoocnnFoz no atmmnFoz N 2o: F.o FFxo no <.m.n ano «o: ooocn nom no.omm «o: ooo «coo mos..« Fmooooo on ooam Fo nom .omn «woo. somo F mo< =Foooo.= F ooo.n aooo noo moonm on no.oom omooFo .mooo Fo «noooF. rooooFoo noo om ooocn NFFFFm. rooz.oooo. onn.n:omm oo .onoo- aon.oo. ooo «o: noc.o ooFF on cm .mooo no.oom on o ommc.n on <.m.n.oo z.no omoo.m. zonnoFoo n.<.. oo Fomnmooom no nom ooooo. noon on oo .aooo- noon xooo on Fmoooooc. noo. oon F s... oono nom no.omm «o: aoom o momnFo. mnnoon no .mooo. N. nom no.oo ccoomFFom Fm noon F IFFF omnooo .mooooom on ooam n- no.m nocFQ amoo ookzomom Fo noo oocmm. ooooom o1 «ooo. monocmo F oa .onmommnoo .o zoon nanFFom Fmooo on ooam. F zFFF oon omnooo FmoooFon on non mnoooo. nocono oo oo noa.ok nooom o1 mr ocomnFoo N ooo omnooo .moooFomm amonooomo.v ocmmnFoz N nmommm noooooFomono. mooom” moaon.smm on .m oooo no omsmaomo oonx no o «moo omo. gokom noooxooo ooocn o.nnmomon mmomoom on nom «moo. momnooF oo..oocoocF on :ancoz "NN3NF>NonFF .F o QFmFouoooI omega :F oo>Fo> -cF mcooEos FF IFEoF coo» moo: oEFF cuoe 3o: uo saga mo ago moo: .oocoooF mooosos AFFEoF Foo» non» nachp Fooo>om oocoFucoe oo» chFcoooF zoom on oo>Fo> -cF no: on: .m I I 1 I a I T I I I I I I L. I n I I. I I I I I I I I I I 00 .m I I v I L I I I I I I I I f I A I I. I I I I I I I I I I I .n r 1 . - . - - 1 1 1 a 1 - c - . u I I 1 - - - I 1 - 1 - 1 .m I I . I f I I I I I I I I f I . I I. I I I I I I I I I I I .N T I . I 3 I I I I I I I I C I f I I I I I I I I I I I I I .F - - - - - a z ooo zoo - - - - - o z ., ozeoFuuo FF . -ooou ocooo. ocF -FsoF poo .oco; o>FF on: oFoooo.wgu oco ocou o>Fc -ccooF ocFaccoo. .oouooFuFucoo FFo zoos o: gaFFsoF: how u: cog: ”mmzuFomNFsz as: mcooEos .m .o FFFsoF FFo Noso; no :cooF on usoooo FoFuoom . com "mmomo o woos mcooeos aFFEoF cacao vco nmuuonoco coo FoooFo; ooh o>og «on: .coo» ammo on» cF F.oooo ounmoooo co coFuuovocucF "mmszomunzFF .N I I v I n I I I I I I I L C I n I I. I I I I I I I I I IN—ul I .FF I .3 o I I v I ._ I I I I I I I I. 3 I A I J I I I I I I I I I I I oououFFosoo ocos mo:.11 Logco uco FoFcF.11 . .m I I a I .3 I I I I I I I L C I A I I I I I I I I I I I I I oogoonoa .1. on on on: mFoFcouoz .N acoucooeF ocos mo3.11 - I ; 1 : - u I 1 - - 1 - c - . - - u 1 u - 1 1 - - - - . ooFuuoco xooF.11 .F “F :F .1. - - - - - o z ooo zoo - - - - - o z I ozeoooo ooumoconcF ocos no: oncoFu memoo -oo oFogomoo; ocos NF oononou.|| F.cooeoe :uoo -ouuo a moFu Foo Noon uoooo -F>Fuuo FF . u - - - - o z. o: -ouoo ocouoc mcF -FsoF uoo .oco; o>FF as: oFoooo.o=o oco ocou o>Fw -ccooF mcFaccoo .oouooFoFusno FFo zoos o2 :xFFso»: mom a: can: F.oonsoz mchcooo "mwzuFomNFzFF on: mcooeoe .282. "$333.”.cm .m .4 2:5 2.. Fuse. 3 53F 8 28:. F2923 coo ”mmomo o woos mcooeos aFFsoo guano one quuonoco coo FoFoFon oo» o>oc on 3 .cooa anon o a : choF om oxen muoonoco omozu oFo ho: anon» cF oo>Fo> soc» Fo Foo ago: z . s F .:F mcooeos AF chFocooF zoom . F.osFu Fo ooFcoo umomooF won Noon sung: mmchcooF -FEaF coo» ocoz .ooccooF muonsoe :F uo>Fo> F.ouuo ouFmoooo o3» use oozoF>ooucF on :ancoz "NN3NF>mNFzFF oeFu zoos 2o: NFFEoF coo» noon -cF no: oz: co coFuuooocucF "aumeoaquFF . moann Fooo>om . .F .o oocoFocos oo> .m .N o QFmFonoooz oonouFFoEou ogos no: goggo uco FoFgF oogognom on on oo; mFoFgonoz noongoosF ogoe no: oonnuogo xooF nF cF vmuwwquF; mLOE mmz ogos nF oo»oncm - - - - - o z. F.gooEoz mchgoon ocouoo “noooF>oonFF u: NucoF on oxon mnoonogo ooozn ono »:3 F.oenn.mo ooFgoo nmomcoF onn xoon :uFoz macncgooF con ogn oozoF>oon=F on cancoz "oozoF>oonFF .F oF QFmFouooo: .NF .oF - . u . I u u u u u o a . u I u u u 1 u n u u u n u .mF - o 1 . n - 1 - I u : 1 . 1 I 1 u I 1 o u u I - 1 . .oF I u I .. I I I I I I .r I i I I. I I I I I I I I I I I .mF - - - - - o.z ooo zFnoo »F . -onoo ogouoo moF -FEoF noo .ogo; o>FF on: oFoooo.w=n oco ogou o>Fw -coooF mcF»ggou .oonoonunngoo FFo zoos o3 =»Fnsong »on or zoo: "NN3NF>¢NF2FF as: mgoosoe . .m .n »FF5on FFo Nose; no :gooF on ngongo Fonuoom goo "Nmomo o ooos ogooeoe »FFEoF gonna oco anuonogo goo FonoFoc oo» o>og nos: .goo» nnoo oon cF omogn :F uo>Fo> non mgooeoe »F -FEoF goo» ogoz oEFn zoos :0: ye soon no »=o ogo: .oocgooF mooosos »FFEoF goo» noon mmcnon Fogo>om coconnoos so» omchgooF nuoo :F oo>Fo> -cF no: as: .m F.oooo onnnoooo co connuovogncF "mmsz>¢NFzFF .N mouF>gom oogn tom: mooog ouconc -o>cou ncmoom ocngnosom gooeos »FFEoF 1.. .1. ... goonoco nzmooF .1. noo on< ogoo ancu Foxmon onocgonFogo .11 I. mongoou .1. »nF>Fnoo . aononoEom cgooF acncgooF acncgooF. goosoe »FFsoF gon oeo: . .1. :2o go» omou .1. ... .1. .1. goonooo oooFo: .11 .1. oomcoggooa ... .1. mxoom .J. -ogum oomcoggoom . uuo «mono zog moFFFsog oosnnosom FF QFmFouooo: awake moaouo m4<~¢whoz 3:5» goo» Boo: .muuowogo mcvogoop osoz omofi uoooo 3:2... oo» 3 .m— .goosoooo 1.. ocoo 11 9:55 I . gooso>oz I. . »oz 1.. . I gooouoo 11 S.go< I 59:32 I mocoxooz I ..I. goosouoom :ugoz motto: I m»o3ooz I umomo< I »googoo.._ I I »gooco 1.. - - - o .o o: _. - - - o .o _ o3 gooo o oouuouogo go mo: - - - - u. z “—3 - - - - h. z “.3 -v>wuoo mowcgoop woos uoo Koo o5 .8 »ggoo DES goo» Bo goo: oooopo xooo muuonogo motto: “3:28 ogoo 523 mopgoo .2 on» .3 ugoo 523 morgoo . .2 goo» oo 39: uofi »om oo» Boo; goo» o5 ocvgoo woe: uogz 2 .3 NF o\moo moo: moomoon xoo3\mgoo; . "msogoogm - - - - - - - - -111----1fi11-----11------ 11-....- ., o~o<¢ xooz\ogoo; .111. "mEogmogo » oscg no - - - - - o 2 noooono nose; goo moncgoon gow mooncn «gooeoe :— monogoo— goo omoon omo »nnsog nno goo "omega ooso; ogn on nn onn no: o—onngo go onozn no »=o oooo goo» ono congo 3o: .mn ooonoononngoo on: .np omo oo» ono ogog: .mp Eogoogo go noon no oonx non: .mp »—n5on goo» no: .mmoaooon .o_o<¢ on: ozone »o;n o. o\moo moo: .oso: no acncgoop go» mua omo onoooo oeom .v— «oz»: mo=-xznn «whoozcu I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I . moonzoo 23;-23 a m¢u3m~>-ouo_> ozoxounun mhuozozog :nooe\mnonzo5oo mozouua . .1. gnoos\ogoos 38.. no - - - - - .._ 2 8:5: 38.. :5» monogoon go» mooncn ogooeos on acnogoon go» omozn omo »Pn5oo nno goo "omega ooeo; ogn on nn onn moo o—u—ngo go omocn no »oo oomo goo» ono oonmo 3o: .mw ooonoononngoo on: .NN omo oo» ono ogosz .FN Eogmogo go noon go non: non: .o~ »—nEog goo» no: .a— . . . .mEoz no acncgmmp gov ma=-xz~4 awhaazou .mmmhzmu 4<=m~>-o~qs< a m¢m3u~>-0uo~> .wzozamgmh mhmozozou momouw¢ omo nouns »o;» .mnoonogo aonogoop osog gnogn gnnz anon on oso; ogn on ozonn moongo> omo o—oooo oeom un>nu\p¢noom mmoonmom I 5:2. I . zoos n.ooo.11 sogogu... momoo sop—o»... . ouoongooxo noon... ooongm.11 noooo zoo; m»o3p<.11 zoom=nnnonom googm onooa... ocoggo... oogoom pooonmmogogo.11 ngooxo oonmog»... oonmcowxm.1. zoomomm »o ooggogom ... ... oso; on omopu »gogonn o>nnonog go goozmnoo zoo .ocoggg »o ooogogom... noooo zocx ... \zoom >nmzogon .. ncog=o>=oo... .oozom... owzzommuo - - - o z - - - - - u z A.noocoogoo »gnuoom oozono -gonon o>o: "mmzm_>munz_v gonoonogo acncgoon gcgoon on gogogo omougoom omogn noon . «nooncoo osn oso; m.».n5og goo» :n—z oomgoo :ooo mooo -cou on zoos gooeos nuomo ooos goosos anon on oonuoncou ogo: moon use; oon on «goo: .oo on o\moguoooz »gnsog ogn ono go: .go ooocn ogo: »:3 .mm »pnsom cons: .mm -goo nos; .goo» nooo ogn go>o .wn .oo>nnonog go mgoogonoc .oonmconxu .»gogonp ogn nuonooo nouns »o;h .mnoowogo aonogoo_ oso; znn: ono; now on osoo ogn oonmnoo mnooncoo onoe onoooo mosnnosom on o\moonoooo mmzno .» - zooozgoo .o zoom oz~>~o .m >oonm .o zoomomm .n zmo\:ooa >omzox "mm3u~>mwwznv ooomo ogo »oon ogooz meoog oon.on soon ouono ooo oomo »PnEoo goo» noon moonon omoon noonom oo» o—ooz .oEoo oon on cgoon on omo nomne »PnEog o noon mEonn noogoowno onnz mooo~o>co oEom ogo ogo: .mEoog ncogoumnu onnz copaomooo a an ago: .am xmzho zoomzh~n >oshm zoomomm zwo\zoom >o~zoo .onooo oooo "zmxun>¢mhznv oogonoo oon on monogoon goo monon»oo omcoou oo» onooz .0m on Q\moo moo: - - - - - - - ' - ' - - - ' - - - | ' - - - ' ' \ O - - - ' - ' ' ' ' - ' - ' - | ' ' - - - - ' ' ' I I n I II II .I ' I- - I I ' ' ' ' - ' I. V ' - I. II | I I - ' nl ' ' ' ' - 1 ' I. I - ol In I ' - - ' I - ' ' I I - I .l I I ' I ' I - I. - ' - ' ' ' - I ' - nl . - ' ' ' - - I ' ' | - ' - - - ' ' ' ' ' ' - 0 II - ' ' - ' ' - - - - ' ' - ‘ - ozonnoEgomon goo» noo oo» onooz ogooz .mm momma m>om m oogoon on oogonnoo onoo oo» o—oo: goosos »_nsom o oonoo noooo noonon noo: .nn )- L \34 .. .DJ: ompgnm ooo o»oo goo osoo oon on n. o—oo: .Nm .mmmmzmz >o~zoo opoooo osom I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ' ' ' I - ' ' ' - ' - I ' ' I - ' ' ' ' ' - - - - - - I ' ' I - - ' - - ' I - ' - T I I I I I I I I I I I Io I oconnoEgooon goo» now oo» o—ooz ogoo: on o\moouooo: .mm omngnm mom~u m>om ooo m»oo gog oEom oon oo nn opooz o ..oo oogoon on oogonnou onoo oo» opoo: googoz o oonoo noooo moonon noo: .mamxmoo oo on osoo no ogoon on oooo oogo—noo noo: noooo mooo. o>oo o—oooo oeom .vn 35c a:-x=.a gmuaqeou «goucuu .mam.> -o.c=< a myazow> omvp> «cosmopmp 32:33 \mgmapm - - - - - a x M: auscuu¢.|I «one... 3333 .I axoom.|: $533: I. mgoaommxoz.ll :o.m¢>wpmh.ll 0:5. I m “i ~Ag: .cc ~mmcpgu «mos» :gmo— on an: an ax_— appsau Lac» upaoz avers» mo mvcpx pug: .om O sac» yo mgmasos apo: vpaou a: um om Q\mHm"¢94= was: .mm ~x~*su$ 53¢» a» Fauna: «mos mg» mg upsoz movaou so uuuonnzn «as: .5» .oso: sac» cw cowuoeLo»=p m=.u*>ogn an mmcvgu mums» «aoau cgoo— »—.En~ .muuhso oz< mmahHJ~m~szqmum >4~z oon.> «cocampmh.|u mumpgasug 3.32... I m u: 3.88; I wash oncommauI «goom.lu mo:.-u~:.ll msmquamzuz In. co—u_>opo~.|u 0:5. I u ~mmcpgu mums» cumm— on an: o» uxpp ap.2am Lao» upaoz mac's“ mo mvcvx an:: m: .m‘ ~zzz .Ne «apvsmp Lao» cu pagan: «mos an vpzoz mu*aou so muuonaam nag: .pv avg» «sons snoop a—.Eam sac» mo mgmnews gym: Fm a\mumumuqz u_=ou a; w“ .98.. .So» 5 532:8... 5:: 3» 2.333 B .gwgmoz a ac_mn “son” cOFuosgowcv ;»_z apmg use“ oxw. “gore mu._.s.. ass” mvoow mucuv=a>cou Aam.|| gmzpo .m¢ «so uuu.uu «gnu u__;u.lu o:*=uusom.ll Losses aprEmm gazuocm sumo» .1. covuougoamcugh Amxmau mumcgmupoga . . so» u—avmgum oncoggoum ugoansm Pages muv>ogg.|n . . mmmgzou.|u mcvgumsom xup>_uuu ucpcgamp.rl ucvcguop.|| :gao— Luneos a—*Emm sozuocm upw:.|I so» «so: amcmsgumm mxoom.ll ::o no» upsuozum oucassooa ugaoma .m¢ mouzcz .oc uz~h .mc ~meo; pm mwvuw>wuum m=.:gomp suv; up»; on «gaps» as» c. axes o» mc._—_: on apwsa$ Lao» up=o3 «mucosa ans: .mgonsos »—.Eom guguo on mmc_gu ucvguauu so muumwoga acrcgwop uzo mcvagguu so; amxa pnwumam o acrccupa .mpoou go «pu.guu~2 mcvmucugaa .mcguuuoa as.» 3»: :u_: mcpacaevgmnxa oxvp .muumnogq mcvcgmmp use aggou o» smugo c. on appoamz away vac: :. mmmcogu mans o» u>uz mow—.scp mosvuosom NN a\mnmnmo4: “as? mo.u.>.uuo m—suaguu u:msum.11 . 1puvosogv Lopauwggauaguxu 1mpu o» manage Aacpucmppcoos suaema capammaos c? ommmgumu gon~:.11 poonUm acmgom .mcpxgo: u$¢zVI upwsu» »—.Eo» $0.11 c? «mango mmwaw>wpua 1m¢u op mmcocul uuuum sow ucoummI \3 a=.>.p mmocpp. Lonoz.11 gono=.11 LoF=Ung=umLuxm.11 poo;Um mgmucm.11 non 3m: uguum.11 acogon upvgu we :us.m.11 covu :* mmamgucw Lona: uppzu “no; mummguch non amc4.11 .copunouwo.11 1auop 3m: mmpaumgum acmgm$.11 Foosum mgmucm.11 oon: gonozI unsung pupcm.11 xp—Euw.11 upvgu mo guuao.11 ow m>o=.11 -wwu co cmgupwgu u_v;u umgvu mm_~g Lonazl acme»o_qea we mmcacu o» cove—uu< m_=m~ mo gouge uzmmao: Acozom hzmz>oamxu m~mm >4~z= wfi “mm=u_>xuhz_v oz.111 ~gmo» anon as» m:.g=u »_P2mw Lao» a? momcazu bonus xco cmma agony o>az .mp 11111 1111111 .111 111111 11111111 1111111. cos 1uppgu 1111111 1111111 -1111111 11111111 upsu< .350 1111111 1111111 111111. 111111. 111111 1111111. 11111111 u 111111. 1111111 111111. 111111 11111111 11111111 : .<.z pz=o=< wm< m gum: mo<3 mzouzn =1¢ 1 um use: zomh4_z4mao: . A.3o—wn cowpoEgomcw A .zopmn cowuusgomcp page vgouog wmucmps ~mmmmo~u A.mco.umaaa c3» uxo: ugoumm "mm2m~>muhzuv .mmuz xpgso; m>pa »_=o emu comgwa may 1oqu muwsocoum ms» xma van mmcchog on» ugouwg .ugmu may mo warm Lwcuo as» no xoop 11¢ no; use: was .vguu zo_» mozor>go¢=P mg» w>~= "mmzuH>mMHz_v mgmneas mgmasme -gou=_ on» new: u¢m=m_>¢mpz_v ~o;z .om IR .NP xp.s~$ apvsa» ~»_P5mw Lao» av ace m>mx .m xcm m>mz .m papvsmv 520» c. opqoun Nxmcos exam coguprcu Lao» mo an” on .pp apnomn as» wavy anon aaogo mzouzm guys: as ppm» ucu vguu as» we oupm soguo an» an xooF mmompa so» ppvz 1.0" mg» mp?» puma naogm zo~hgmucv mg» uumpasou o» xp—5u$ Lao» «zoom cowumsgouc. uses u>mg o» uxvp v.30: _ so» xcmch A.m0mo pxo: on» Eogm mmogoom ogu xooo .om 0H .wpowpgm oCVNommE on» mcw>wooog cw ompmoooucw m? comgoo ocp poo go Locpocz zoFoo mpoowocH ”mmzmm>mmthv .coppwgz m? uw ooco oo» o» poom oFUTme ochmmmE gmpoooo on» m>oz op omcmggo coo o3 .om 00 wxoopm Loo 0o mopomog on» mcwgmo; cw oopmogopcw on so» o_:o3 .zo?>gm00w asp mcwogmmmg so» Eogw cowumowwwLoFU now: m3 opoocm mowwwo poonogo on“ Eogm FFmo m m>woomg has no» was» opowmmoo mw pH “mgoox mxwp mowaEo$ powwow coo o3 om xoopm m_;p cow; mowQFo; ocm mcowpmmoo omogp Lozmco op warp mcwxop Loo» muowomgoom Appmmg o: .m: op QFo; pomgm w some o>mc oo> A.ELo$ cowmmeLoo on» cmwm mo3o_>go00w on» o>mz ”mmzmH>mmszv wmcowpmooo zoo o>mg :o» co .cowmmwsgoo pogo m: o>00 Ppwz Ego; mwcp co mmogoom oco mam: L=o> .zoopm mop muopoeoo op Loogo cw mpmo among mm: op cowmm_e 1Loo Loo» vow: on o: .Fowucmowocoo poox on __wz cowpoELooow own» .meo; um mcgmor AFwEom Loo» 3o; 0o moo? ooom m we mo>00 we now: omgozm w>mc ooh cowpmagowcw och eszoou ¢~ o\mom moo: mmmgoo< mama mgoumomwm .cm>00 m>mz H wgozmco on» op omxcPF mo xoz o: 00 prz ago: as “any mocogommm Ffiom we cm>w0 o>oc covuomwpmm>cw on“ Loo oFmecoommL omozp .os op omcwopoxo coon mo; cows; .cowpmuoow 0o mowmmo .m .0 on» new zpwmgm>wcs opmpm comwsowz an oopooocoo mcwoo poonogo cogmomog mwgp wo mfioom on» on ouoowgucoo Pfiwz momcoomog as poop mowocoymgooco on“ 5003 om oo H .Lopcou movcgmoo < m< oEoI on» co xooum a co oouo_og 2ow>gopcw cm cw ouoowowugmo op pcmmcoo x—mcw—sz .omcmwmgooco mgu . - H $on $28 ozozmfio .0 .9 “so: 2: ..8 zmou hzmmzoo REFERENCES _ CITED 141 REFERENCES CITED Books Aberle, David F., and Naegele, Kaspar D. "Middle-Class Fathers' Occupational Role and Attitudes Toward Children." In _A_ Modern Introduction to the Family, pp. 188-198. Edited by Norman W. Bell and Ezra F. Vogel. 2nd ed. New York: The Free Press, 1968. Babbie, Earl R. Survey Research Methods. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1973. Brim, Orville, Jr. "Socialization Through the Life Cycle." In Socialization After Childhood: Two Essays, pp. 3-49. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966. Bronfenbrenner, Urie B. Two Worlds of Childhood: U.S. and U.S.S.R. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970. Carp, Abraham; Peterson, Richard; and Roelfs, Pamela. "Adult Learn- ing Interests and Experiences." In PlanningiNon-Traditional Pro rams, pp. 11-53. Edited by K. Patricia Cross, John R. Valley and Associates. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974. Clarke, Robert. Ellen Swallow: The Woman Who Founded Ecology. Chicago: Follett PubliShing Co., 1973. Compton, Norma H., and Hall, Olive A. Foundations of Home Econom- ics Research. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1972. Duvall, Evelyn M. Family Development. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1967. Frank, Lawrence K. "Education for Aging.“ In Education for Later Maturity, pp. 1-18. Edited by Wilma Donahue. New York: Whiteside, Inc., and William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1955. Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography. Edited by Russell B. Nye. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1958. 142 143 Goldhammer, Keith, and Taylor, Robert E. Career Education: Perspective and Promise. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1972. Havinghurst, Robert J. Human Development and Education. New York: David McKay Co., 1953. . "Youth in Exploration and Man Emergent." In Man in a World at Work, pp. 215-237. Edited by Henry Borow. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964. Hill, Reuben, and Rodgers, Roy H. “The Developmental Approach." In Handbook of Marriage and the Family, pp. 171-211. Edited by Harold T. Christensen. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1964. Houle, Cyril O. The Inguiring_Mind. Madison, Wisconsin: Uni- versity of Wisconsin Press, 1961. Isaac, Stephen, and Michael, William B. Handbook in Research and Evaluation. San Diego: Robert R. Knapp, Publisher, 1971. Jessup, F. W. "Forward." In LifelongLearnigg, p. vii. Edited by F. W. Jessup. New York: Pergamon Press, 1969. . "The Idea of Lifelong Learning." In Lifelong Learning, pp. 14-31. Edited by F. W. Jessup. New York: Pergamon Press, 1969a. Johnstone, John W. C., and Rivera, Ramon J. Vo1unteers for Learn- ing: A Study of the Educational Pursuits of American Adults. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965. Kerlinger, Fred M. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. Madge, John. The Tools of Social Science. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1953. Maslow, Abraham H. New Knowledge in Human Values. New York: Harper and Bros., 1959. Nye, F. Ivan, and Berardo, Felix M. Emerging Conceptual Frame- works in Family Analysis. New York: The MacmillianECo., 1966. Paolucci, Beatrice. "Computerized Families Are on the Horizon, But You and I will Still Call the Shots." In 1973 Yearbook of Agriculture: Handbook for the Home, pp. 2-6. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Compiled by the United States Department of Agriculture. 144 Pickering, Sir George. "Education for Tomorrow: A Biologist's View." In Lifelong Learning, pp. 1-13. Edited by F. W. Jessup. New York: Pergamon Press, 1969. Schaefer, Earl S. "The Family and the Educational Process." In Families of the Future. Foreward by Helen LeBaron Hilton. Symposium Collection: result of conference, Families of the Future--A Search for Meaning, held Iowa State Univers- ity, October, 1971. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1972, pp. 26-46. Schultz, Theodore W. Investment in Human Capital. New York: The Free Press, 1971. Tough, Allen M. The Adult's Learning Prgjects: A Fresh Approach to Theory and Practice in Adult Learning. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1971. White, Burton L., and Watts, Jean C. Experience and Environment. Vol. 1. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973. Wolf, Richard. "The Measurement of Environments." In Testing Problems in Perspective, pp. 491-505. Edited by nne Anastasi. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Educa- tion, l966. Journals Escalona, S. K. “Basic Modes of Social Interaction: Their Emerg- ence and Patterning During the First Two Years of Life." Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 19 (January 1973): 205-232. Hill, Reuben. "Modern Systems Theory and the Famil : A Confronta- tion." Social Science Information 10 (1971{: 7-26. Hook, Nancy C., and Paolucci, Beatrice. "The Family as an Eco- system.“ Journal of Home Economics 62 (May 1970): 315- 318. Johannis, Theodore B., Jr. "Participation by Fathers, Mothers and Teenage Sons and Daughters in Selected Child Care and Control Activity." The Coordinator 6 (December 1957): 31-32. Karnes, Merle B.; Teska, James A.; Hodgins, Audrey 5.; and Badger, Earladeen D. "Educational Intervention at Home by Mothers of Disadvantaged Infants." Child Development 41 (December 1970): 925-935. 145 Kulich, Jindra. "An Historical Overview of the Adult Self- Learner." International Congress of University Adult Education Journal 9 (September 1970): 22-32. Leibowitz, Arleen. "Education and Home Production." The American Economic Review 64 (May 1974): 243-250. . "Home Investments in Children." Journal of Political Economy 82, Part II (March/April 1974a): 111-131. Leichter, Hope J. "Some Perspectives on the Family as Educator." Teachers College Record 76 (December 1974): 175-217- . "The Family as Educator." Teachers College Record 76 (December 1974a): 173-174. Levenstein, Phyllis. "Cognitive Growth in Preschoolers Through Verbal Interaction with Mothers.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 40 (April 1970): 426-432. Littman, Richard A”; Curry,John; and Jones-Pierce, John. "Where Parents Go for Help." The Coordinator 6 (September 1957): 3-9. Maloch, Francille and Deacon, Ruth. "Proposed Framework for Home Management." Journal of Home Economics 58 (January 1966): 31-35. Moore, Terence. "Language and Intelligence: A Longitudical Study of the First Eight Years." Human Development 11 (January 1968 : 1-24. Morrison, Bonnie M. "The Importance of a Balanced Perspective: The Environments of Man." Man-Environment Systems 4 (May 1974): 171-178. Paolucci, Beatrice. "Contributions of a Framework of Home Manage- ment to the Teaching of Family Relationships." Journal of Marriage and the Family 28 (August 1966): 338-342. Radin, Norma.’ "The Impact of a Kindergarten Home Counseling Pro- gram." Exceptional Children 36 (December 1969): 251-256. Schaefer, Earl S. "Parents as Educators: Evidence from Cross- Sectional, Longitudinal and Intervention Research." Young_Children 27 (April 1972): 227-239. Simpson, Elizabeth J. "The Home as a Career Education Center." Exceptional Children 38 (May 1973): 626-630. 146 Sussman, Marvin B. "Family Systems in the 1970's: Analysis, Policies, and Programs." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 3967(Ju1y 1971): 40-56. ' Bulletins and Monographs Alers-Montalvo, Manuel; Ibsen, Charles A.; and Brown, Coleen. "The Role of Extension Education in a Changing Community." Cooperative Extension. Fort Collins, Colorado: 1966. Bronfenbrenner, Urie B. "A Report on Longitudinal Evaluations of Preschool Programs: Is Early Intervention Effective?" U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: U. 5. Government Printing Office, Vol. 2, 1974. Price, Leighton A. and O'Hare, William P. "Percentage and Frequency Distribution." Computer Institute for Social Science Research, Technical Report No. 74-6. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1974. Waring, Ethel B. Principles for Child Guidance. Cornell Exten- sion Bulletin No. 420. New York State College of Home Economics. Cornell University: Ithaca, New York, 1939; reprinted 1968. Unpublished Materials Baker, Georgianne R. "Patterning of Family Resources for Educa- bility: Conceptualization and Measurement in Costa Rican Families." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970. Bel1, Helen B. "Family Resources Used in School-Related Activities." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973. Coolican, Patricia M. "The Learning Style of Mothers of Young Children." Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1973. Davey, Alice J. "Relationship of Family Interaction to Family Environment." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Denys, Laurent. "The Major Learning Efforts of Two Groups of Accra Adults." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1973. 147 Frankena, Wi1liam. "Toward a Philosophy of the Family." 'Paper read before the Clara Arny Symposium, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, March, 1970. (Mimeographed.) Hollingshead, August B. "Two Factor Index of Social Positions." 1965 Yale Station, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.: August B. Hollingshead, 1957. (Mimeographed.) Ingham, Roy J. "The Measurement of Educative Behavior and Its Relationship to the Leisure Satisfactions of College Alumni." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1963. Litchfield, Ann. "The Nature and Pattern of Participation in Adult Eduction Activities." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1965. Johns, Will Jr. "Selected Characteristics of the Learning Projects Pursued by Practicing Pharmacists." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1973. Johnson, Edwin A. "Selected Characteristics of the Learning Proj- ects of Adults Who Have Earned a High School Diploma and/or a High School Equivalency Certificate." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1973. McCatty, Cressy. "Patterns of Learning Projects Among Professional Men." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1973. Polk, Edward V. "How Values of Families are Influenced by the State of the Family Life Cycle." Speech delivered at National Home Management Specialists Workshop, of Chicago, 1964. (Mimeographed.) Schultz, Theodore W. "Woman's New Economic Commandments." Summary of a seminar, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, January, 1972. (Mimeographed.) Sheffield, Sherman B. "The Orientations of Adult Continuing Learn- ers." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1962. Tough, Allen M. "The Learning Tasks Performed by Adult Self- Teachers." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1965. Wetters, Doris. "Creative Aspects of a Homemanager's Resourceful- ness." Ed.D. dissertation. Pennsylvania State University, 1967. "‘11111111111111111“