. . lei-um“-‘~‘ «41pm»... ..c-9m.g..~.....r ' COMPARISON or THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREEI f- METHODS FOR INCREASING READING RATE - Dissertation for the Degree of Ph.’ D. » MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY _ JOHN HOWARD STAMPER 1976 ' III III IIIIIIIIII III III II III III I. I ' This is to certify that the thesis entitled COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE METHODS FOR INCREASING READING RATE presented by John Howard Stamper has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D degreein Sec. Educ. IDGT )- / Major professor A , j / p/ / [fie/L74 ' /’ 447C. (/ Date July 22, 1976 0-7639 tr— up (O‘II’A {1 Past M L‘Ie eI‘lecIK U ad lIsIener of reaIiIIIg II 10-05.. Rfidlm Results of p: compressed II liner comm: Cnmprewed r- lII'In-d compr- SIIIKteIIt-IIII} . pI'lILI‘UCF a S!’ Reiland IIQTI’I training coml: None of the 10 make in {Wild compr; I rate. RE’IdlIIr The pro [Editional reu P’fiemation mmpIcssed 5y mmined the Arm i0n IIIII. 0‘ the resean (‘I' m ‘0 ABSTRACT COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE METHODS FOR INCREASING READING RATE John Howard Stamper Past research conceming time-compressed speech has typically examined the effects upon intelligibility, comprehension, and learning by various stimulus and listener variables. Relatively few research studies have examined the effects of reading improvement techniques upon reading rate and comprehension - _,(Orr et al, 1965; Reidford, I965; Orr, I966; Reiland, I970; Stamper, I970; and Walker, 197]). Results of past research have been mixed as to the effectiveness of practice in compressed listening (i.e., listening to time-compressed speech at increasingly faster compression rates) and compressed audio-pacing (i.e., listening to a time- compressed narration while following in an accompanying visual text). Orr et al (1965) found compressed listening to have a favorable effect upon visual reading rate. Subsequently, Orr et al, (1965) hypothesized compressed audio-pacing training may produce a stronger effect upon subjects’ reading rate. Reidford (I965), Orr (1966), Reiland (I970), Stamper (1970) and Walker (1971) examined the effects of various training conditions and subject characteristics upon reading rate and comprehension. None of the researchers found any effect upon reading comprehension attributable to practice in compressed audio-pacing. However, Orr (1966) and Stamper (1970) found compressed audio-pacing training to have a favorable effect upon reading rate. Reidford (1965) and Reiland (1970) found no such effect. The previous research studies reviewed have failed to adequately compare traditional reading improvement methods (i.e., visual-pacing through which the presentation time of the visual text is controlled) to methods utilizing time- compressed speech. Likewise, no previous research was reviewed which examined the treatment method of combining the time-compressed audio narration with a moving, synchronous text. It would appear from a review of the research literature that the question remains: What relative effect ““3 I I L5 —-—* I NIT] trainhg nonopated ft.- The Inc. training CIIIII III usual-pa. practice He. the CtII‘IlII'Il “I 1' mung CIIIIII The ma] mung lrtzlr‘: Stores. AIicz. IIIITIIRIII‘C in r null lIIpotlIexz- rate an I d com,T tenance I‘M“ .A' ’ ' aduloll'lSIlal tr \ treatments res“ r. SeIeral av 5that the \‘L. rates and Com] a . ”I‘D-pacing (If SIbIects‘ readi; I Went ex I abflitieg. John Howard Stamper will training in compressed listening, visual-pacing, compressed audio-pacing, and non-paced reading have upon subjects’ visual reading abilities? The independent variables of the present experiment are the four separate training conditions: (I) compressed-listening practice (i.e., the audio treatment); (2) visual-pacing practice (i.e., the visual treatment); (3) compressed audio-pacing practice (i.e., the audio/visual treatment); and, (4) non-paced reading practice (i.e., the control treatment). The dependent variables are subjects’ reading rate and reading comprehension during non-paced reading. The major hypotheses are of the null hypothesis type of no differences among treatment groups for both reading rate and reading comprehension gain scores. Alternate major hypotheses involve the groups’ improved relative per- fomiance in respect to the control group. The minor hypotheses are of the null hypotheses type, of no differences between treatment groups for reading rate and comprehension. Altemate minor hypotheses involve the relative per- fonnanoe between individual treatment groups. It is hypothesized that the audio/visual treatment scores will be greater than those of the audio and visual treatments respectively. Several assumptions are made in the present experiment. One assumption is that the Nelson-Denny Reading Test adequately measures subjects’ reading rates and comprehension. A second assumption is that the use of compressed audio-pacing of a synchronous visual text will have a favorable effect upon subjects’ reading rate. A third assumption is that the treatment intervals for the present experiment are of adequate length to have effect upon reading abilities. Several limitations of the study should be noted. One limitation is the limited generalizability of its findings which is possible. Secondly, limited treatment time was available during the experiment. A third limitation is that several subjects reported to have fatigue after the audio and audio/visual wy’"?fi$_ D’IS I _- ..... u ‘ O. ‘ r-a't'l‘: [ls-IIIJ III R Slime the 3: it armament. flied lit-m I60 Itiieitzted "tra Ztttt'ssion rate I Ii‘Ifn lI’IB text :I "I’ L‘Ii teiex Isis: In Terms “A" : 3350: were used a: comprehend! Isometric clIa adjudged favorabi Treatment 8. TIMES in lengl' am one minII audio and audio ISIIimQ and leL‘ The expen' t'Id Stanley treat menIs. p. the DIE-test. John Howard Stamper treatments. This may have affected post-testing, A fourth limitation IS the inherent limitation of traditional reading abilities testing. Survive the Savage Sea (Robertson, 1973) was chosen as the visual text in the experiment. A professionally recorded narration of the book was time-com- pressed from I60 to 600 words per minute in 20 word per minute incriments. A videotaped “crawl” of the visual text was produced, and synchronized to the compression rate of the time-compressed narration. The “pacing point”, at which this text and narration were synchronous was near the vertical mid—point of the television screen. Forms “A” and “B” of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Nelson-Denny, 1960) were used as pre and post instruments for measurement of reading. rate ‘ and comprehension. The test itself is a widely-used test of reading abilities. Psychometric characteristics of the test concerning its standardization were adjudged favorable. Treatment sessions were individually scheduled, lasting a total of 70 to 80 minutes in length. Pre- and post-tests totaled 40 minutes, each consisting of a timed one minute rate test and a 19 minute comprehension test. Subjects in audio and audio/visual treatments were permitted to adjust the television monitors volume and brightness. Control group subjects could adjust ambient room light. The experimental design was a pre-test/post-test controlgroup design (Campbell and Stanley, I963). Subjects were randomly assigned both pre-tests and treatments. Post-tests were assigned as the alternate test form from that given as the . pre-test. :An ’analysis_o_f_ variance wasjprewformed upon‘the treatment" groups’ mean gain scores ,to test, the hypothesis H0: )4] = p2 = ‘13 = 11.4 for the dependent variables of reading rate and reading comprehension. The F ratios obtained were 1.5476 (for rate) and 1.3639 (for comprehension). There were 2 degrees of freedom among sample means and 29 degrees of freedom within samples. f" it I I ., n‘ v _, - “Id 753 titled F I? < rites exceeded I'! griirint dillerer meld be rejected. Initial lor “191‘; to determine the 'IIIanteI One) ‘ The results I. IYJTCII. The u». neiIIIg abilities (I sgnncantly better peeing technique. lelIICIICE may pm I u. condIIInns of ion. John Howard Stamper The tabled F (P<.05) was 2.934. Since neither of the obtained F ratio values exceeded the tabled F value, neither of the null hypotheses of no significant difference among groups for reading rate or comprehension gains could be rejected. Since no significant differences among treatments were revealed for measures of reading rate and comprehension, post-hoe procedures to determine the relative strengths of treatment effects (as were hypothesized in Chapter One) were not appropriate. The results of the present experiment raises several implications for future research. The use of time-compressed speech in methods for improvement of reading abilities could not be demonstrated in the present experiment to be significantly better 'than practice in non-paced reading or a traditional visual- pacing technique. It is anticipated, however, that time-compressed audio-pacing practice may prove superior to existing reading improvement techniques under the conditions of extended training session length with a larger sample popula: tion. COMP \ COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE METHODS FOR INCREASING READING RATE By John Howard Stamper A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Instructional Development and Technology 1976 UST 0F TA, lISl 0F Flt Chapter I. PM I I 1‘ i 12—1 “- LlTl, TAB LE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................ LIST OF FIGURES ........................... PROBLEM ........................... Problem Overview ...................... Purpose ofIthe Present Experiment ............. Hypotheses .......................... Definition of Terms ..................... Assumptions of the Present Experiment .......... Limitations of the Present Experiment ........... Summary of the Problem .................. LITERATURE ......................... Overview of Time-Compressed Speech Research ...... Research Involving Time-Compressed Speech with No Accompanying Visual Stimuli ....... Stimulus Variables ................ Listener Variables ................ Research Involving Time-Compressed Audio/Visual Stimuli ................ Comprehension Enhancement .......... Reading Skills Enhancement .......... Overview Discussion ............. WOMN I7 18 20 2| 22 22 23 24 24 24 25 Methods of Speech Compression ............. Historical Development of Compression Methods . . . Vocal Acceleration Method Speed-Change Method ................. Electromechanical Method ............... Electronic Method .................. Compressed Audio-Pacing ................. Overview ....................... Studies Using Untrained Subjects ........... Jester & Travers (I966) Study . . . . Parker (l97l) Study ................ Studies Using Trained Subjects ............ Orr et al (I965) Study ............. Reidford (I966) Study ............... Orr (1966) Study ........... I ...... Stamper (1970) Study .............. Reiland (1970) Study .............. Walker (I971) Study ............... Summary of Literature Review .............. III. DESIGN ............................ Subjects .......................... Sample Selection ................... Experimental Mortality ................. Subject Characteristics ................. Procedures ......................... Page 26 26 28 29 30 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 4I 43 46 47 49 53 54 S4 55 56 57 57 61 66 67 69 ‘ Il'. RI ~ ”OGRAF Summary of the Design ................. IV. RESULTS ........................... Main Treatment Effects ................. Differences in Reading Rate Gains ......... Isolated Reading Rate Losses ........... Differences in Reading Comprehension Gains Summary of the Results ................. V. SUMMARY ......................... Summary of Results ................... Discussion of Results .............. -. -. -. . . Reading Rate . . . ................. Compressed Audio-Pacing Characteristics ........ Duration of Treatments ................ Reading Comprehension ................. Conclusions ........................... Implications ....................... General Implications ................. Reading Gains and Entry Rate ........... Reading Gains and Input Modalities ......... Reading Gains and Pacing Rates ........... Reading Gains and Training Time .......... Training Characteristics - Synchronous Text ..... Training Characteristics - Televised Format ...... Training Characteristics - Criterion-Referenced Practice . Summary .......................... BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. APPENDIX A Individual Scores of Pre- and PostTests in Reading Rate (W.P.M.) for all Treatments ......... iv 73 73 74 75 78 80 81 8] 82 82 83 83 84 85 86 86 86 86 87 87 87 88 88 89 90 I04 Gains for Reading Rate (W.P.M.) for all Treatments ................... 106 Standard Deviation of Pre- and Post-Test Scores on Reading Rate (W.P.M.) for all Treatments ..... 107 Standard Deviation of Pre- and Post-Test Gain ' Scores on Reading Rate for all Treatments ....... 115 Individual Scores of Pre- and Post-Tests in Reading Comprehension for all Treatments . ...... 119 Individual Answers of Pre- and Post-Tests in Reading Comprehension for all Treatments . . . . . . . . 123 Summary of Subject Responses Per Question of Pre- and Post-Tests in Reading Comprehension for all Treatments ............ “139 Gains for the Number of Questions Attempted in Comprehension Testing for all Treatments ...... ISS Gains in Comprehension Levels (% Right) for all Treatments .................... 156 Standard Deviation of Pre- and Post-Test Gain Scores on Reading Comprehension (Number Correct) for all Treatments ............... l57 Experimental Design Over Variables ........... 161 Fields of Study of Ss Assigned to Treatments ...... 162 Male and Female Subjects Assigned to Individual Treatment Conditions ......... . . . 5166 ' Testing Instructions Read and Viewed by Subjects ................... . . . . . I67 Standardization Data for the Nelson-Denny . Reading Test - Cases Classified by Grade Levels . . . .168 Standardization Data for the Nelson-Denny 169 Reading Test/Cases Classified by Institution ....... Standardization Data for the Nelson-Denny Reading Test - Standard Error of Measurement Data . . I70 Standardization Data for the Nelson-Denny Reading Test - Reliability Data ............. 17] Analysis of Variance - Reading Rate ........... '72 Analysis of Variance - Reading Comprehension ...... 173 F! D h I S .r i “I ; «H‘J Table R'Ir‘ Illt; (A ll" Table 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 I.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.! 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.I 3.2 3.3 LIST OF TABLES Random Studies Selected from the Time-Compressed Research Literature ..................... Independent Variables of the Present Study ........ Major Hypotheses - Written ................ Major Hypotheses - Symbolic ................ Table Hypotheses - Written ................. Minor Hyptheses - Symbolic ................ Assumptions of the Present Experiment .......... Limitations of the Present Experiment ........... General Areas of Educational Research Involving Time-Compressed Speech .................. Selected Methods used for Accomplishing a Time-Compressed Speech Effect .............. Advantages/Disadvantages of the Vocal Acceleration Method .................... Advantages/Disadvantages of the Speed-Changing Method .................. Advantages/Disadvantages of the Electromechanical Method ................. Advantages/Disadvantages of the Electronic Method .................... Summary of Previous Research Using Compressed Audio-Pacing for Improving Reading Rate ..... Summary of Previous Research Using Audio-Pacing for Improving Reading Rate ................ Experimental Mortality Considerations ............ Summary of Subject Characteristics ............. Considerations of Choice for the Original Rate/Audiotape Narration ................. vi Page \IKIGO‘UIW I6 I7 21 27 28 29 30 32 50 SI 55 56 6| 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Logistical Considerations for Selection of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test .................. Average Difficulty Levels for Reading Passages in the Nelson-Denny Reading Test .............. Individual Adjustments Regarding Simulus Materials. Permitted During Treatment ............. Reading Rate Gains for all Treatments ............ Individual Reading Rate Gains (W. P. M.) ........... Subjects with Reading Rate Losses ............... Comprehension Scores for Subjects with Rate Losses ...... Analysis of Variance - Reading Rate .............. Gains in the Number of Questions Attempted During Comprehension Testing ................. Analysis of Variance - Reading Comprehension ......... vii 64 65 68 74 75 76 76 77 78 79 figure r1 INA F An E Ila II" 1:- Ar - 3 ‘1 II... !. .l’lrIij j. I Jenn. LIST or. FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Fairbanks’ Electromechanical Speech-Compression Device . . . . 31 3.1 Area of Simultaneous Audio/Visual Pacing ........... 60 3.2 Experimental Design Over Time ................ 69 viii The WE‘V- nf "' L: .Itnetntnpfl" I III‘I‘III refers to the. Speech rt‘I‘ ether teehniral It tie pIIenIIIIIeIIr‘In. sir.rte.::d speech. ted I.‘:rII;I:' IIIJUI The chart I» - MAI II‘I‘II ‘ ' (.I.kITL'}}‘;d It I“ we research IJLIptI'xes for Chapter One Problem The present experiment seeks tc extend and supplement past research concern' ing time-compressed speech used in reading improvement techniques. Time-compressed speech refers to the reproduction of recorded speech sounds at a faster than normal rate. Speech reproduced in such a manner has also been described by a plethora of other technical terms, often describing the technique which was used to accomplish the phenomenon. Some examples are: ratcaltered speech, speeded speech, time- shortencd speech, rapid-speech and others. The term time-compressed speech will be used throughout this and subsequent chapters. This chapter will examine six subject areas: (I) an oven'iew of trends in time-compressed speech research and how the present experiment will contribute to the research which has been conducted in the past; (2) examination of the purposes for which the experiment was conducted; (3) statement of the hypotheses to'be tested in .the present experiment; (4) description of possibly unfamiliar terms which will be used in this and subsequent chapters; (5) discussion of the assumptions made in constructing the present experiment; and (6) discussion of the limitations of the present experiment which should be noted by the reader. 'L‘I' . ‘1‘ K] Y“ ‘LLHM ' “If IIII teen cnndurtt echniques fnr renaming tin‘ III". the IIIIII'. measurement .. cent-let mes: Interest moses IIeISI. mg deIIees “I he rm and l. ”55 H‘Ilit‘h II' 2 PROBLEM OVERVIEW The mid-l950’s marked the beginning of most of the research which has been conducted in the United States regarding the educational uses of various techniques for producing time-compressed speech. Since that time, research concerning time-compressed speech has largely centered upon questions dealing with the limits and characteristics of an individual’s ability to discern audio messages which have been “time-compressed”. These questions dealt with the measurement of immediate recall, comprehension, and retention of simple to complex messages. Interest in the potential uses of time-compressed speech for educational purposes heightened during the mid-1950’s, due apparently to success in develop- ing devices which could produce time-compressed recordings readily (Fairbanks, Everitt and 3308979 1954)- Table 1.] presents several randomly selected research areas which have dealt with the use of time-compressed speech. 3 TABLE l.l RANDOM STUDIES SELECTED FROM THE TIME- COMPRESSED RESEARCH LITERATURE Educational uses of time "saved" Learner abilities and trainability Optimum presentation rates to learners Audio-paced visual read- ing for improving rate Preference of presentation rates by learners What educational 'strategies should be used for the time made available through the use of time compressed speech in instruction? What are the limits of com- prehension of time-compres- sion and is the ability train- able? Is there an optimum time- compressed presentation rate for which instructional materials should be record- ed? What effect does time-com- pressed audio-pacing of visual texts have upon learn- er reading rates? What is the most preferred time-compressed presenta- tion rate by learners? Fairbanks I954 Orr & Friedman I968? Jester I966 Stamper I970 Foulke & Sticht I966 .- fi" 1? The Prw sought to app' msirucli(_.nal u: ing abiiiii-cs in: f?“ SIiJJicfi u‘ imprmcmcnt. l 1965; On. 1%: 0f the mt‘llé‘nl S'niflmnous [j' \(I prior TC‘K‘M néque for WW used 9a a pm! No PM! R‘vsnt tie pll\‘\'\', mini“: It‘dm. s ”H In the e‘liPriv; it 4 The present study was an extension of past educational research which has sought to apply techniques involving time-compressed speech toward beneficial instructional uses. The use of time-compressed speech for the improvement of read- ing abilities has been only infrequently reported in the research literature. For the few studies which do exist dealing with time-compressed speech used in reading improvement, little variation in the techniques examined has been evident (Reidford, 1965; Orr, 1966; Stamper, 1970; Reiland, 1970, and Walker, 197]). For example, one of the methods used in the present experiment was a pacing technique with a synchronous time-compressed speech narration accompanying the same visual text. No prior research studies were found in the literature which employed this tech- nique for improvement of reading abilities. Similarly, a videotape recording was used as a presentation medium for visual and audio stimuli in the present study. No prior research studies were found which used this presentation medium in techniques for improvement of reading abilities. The present experiment seeks to determine the relative usefulness of four training techniques for reading skills improvement. Two of the techniques, called in the experiment the audio and audio/visual treatments, used time-compressed speech to pace subjects’ listening and/or visual reading rates. The two other tech- niques examined in the present experiment are a traditional visual-pacing method using manipulation of the rate of a moving text, and non-paced reading practice which was used as a control treatment. It is hoped that the present experiment will extend and enrich the frame- work of research concerning the use of time-compressed speech techniques for improvement of reading abilities by comparison of the effectiveness of various previously reported reading improvement techniques. Liltewise, it is hoped the experiment will provide additional reading improvement technique for use in further research. In order to describe the objectives of the present experiment more fully, a review of the purposes of the present experiment follows. 5 PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the relative utility of four separate conditions of practice upon reading rate and reading comprehension. These conditions were: (1) practice listening to a time-compressed audio recording of a text; (2) practice watching a visual text presented at an increasingly faster rate; (3) practice both listening and watching a text presented at an increasingly faster rate; and (4) practice visually reading a text at a self-chosen rate. Had any of the conditions using time-compressed speech proven successful in improving subjects’ reading abilities, some present day teaching in reading improvement, such as merely providing motivation to read faster, may have been altered. Table l.2 lists the independent variables of the present experiment. The depend- ent variables are reading rate and comprehension. The symbols which will be used in symbolic representation of the experimental hypotheses are also presented. TABLE l.2 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES OF THE PRESENT STUDY Practice listening to compressed speech Practice watching a paced presentation Practice listening and watc hing Audio] a paced presentation Visual Practice in non-paced, visual reading A Central u.— .h—Eq. Dun... . L... tip 6 HYPOTHESES The major hypotheses of the present experiment are presented in written form in Table 1.3. Symbolic representations are presented in Table 1.4. TABLE 1.3 - . MAJOR HYPOTHESES - WRITTEN ............. ................... THERE IS $UDIFFERENCE AMONG READING RATE GAINS FOR THE AUDIO. VISUAI, AUDIO/VISUAL AND CONTROL GROUPS WHEN READING RATE IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. THERE ARE RESPECTIVEEY HIGHER READING RATE GAINS FOR THE ROI. AUDIO, VISUAL AND AUDIO/VISUAL GROUPS THAN FOR THE CONTROL H1 "2 H3 GROUP WHEN READING RATE IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE AMONG READING COMPREHENSION GAINS" FOR THE AUDIO, VISUAL. AUDIO/VISUAL AND CONTROL GROUPS WHEN READING COMPREHENSION IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READ- ING TEST. THERE ARE RESPECTIVELY HIGHER READING RATE GAINS FOR AUDIO. VISUAL AND AUDIO/VISUAL GROUPS THAN FOR THE CONTROL GROUP WHEN READING COMPREHENSION IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. Comprehension "1 "2 “a TABLE [.4 MAJOR HYPOTHESES - SYMBOLIC ' NUMBER A=V=AIV= C A>C V>C AIV>C .7 The minor hypotheses of the present experiment are presented in written form in Table I5. Symbolic representations are presented in Table L6. TABLE [.5 TABLE HYPOTHESES - WRITTEN NUMBER ROI. THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEAN READING RATE GAINS FOR THE AUDIO] HO VISUAL, AUDIO. OR VISUAL GROUPS WHEN READING RATE IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. Rate H H2 THE MEAN READING RATE GAIN FOR THE AUDIO/VISUAL GROUP Is HIGHER THAN 1 THE MEAN READING RATE GAIN FOR THE AUDIO OR VISUAL GROUP RESPECTIVELY WHEN READING RATE IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. Compre- . h ‘ THERE Is No DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEAN COMPREHENSIONVGAINS FOR THE AUDIO/ ‘ "“Hon VISUAL. AUDIO. 0R VISUAL GROUPS WHEN READING COMPREHENSION Is MEASURED 0 BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. Cempre- THE MEAN COMPREHENSION GAIN FOR THE AUDIO/VISUAL GROUP 18 HIGHER THAN henslon THE MEAN COMPREHENSION GAIN FOR THE AUDIO 0R VISUAL GROUP RESPECTIVELY. ' H1 H2 WHEN READING COMPREHENSION IS MEASURED BY THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST. TABLE [.6 MINOR HYPOTHESES - SYMBOLIC NUMBER NUMBER Definition pussiblv unfamih defnitions refer .u'uIOPACING Visual 5": simullam‘ .u'uImRY Pertainins stimulus 1 monitor 1 .lL'DITORY STI | Sounds P' I expenmen BOOKJCOMPREE The Use , a book. (Reidford. COMPREHENSIO Extracting Pmsenl ex. Measure 0 CO‘IPRESSED-AIL A treatme compressor I Y any Vh [OllPRESSED-AL As H CUmpr 8 DEFINITION OF TERMS Definitions of terms used in describing the present experiment which are possibly unfamiliar to the reader are presented below. Please note that these definitions refer only to the present experiment. AUDIO-FACING Visual scanning of a printed text that is controlled in rate by a simultaneously-presented audio presentation of the same text. AUDITORY Pertaining to the hearing sense. In the present experiment, the auditory stimulus refers to the sound which is reproduced through the television monitor from the audio track of a videotape recording. AUDITORY STIMULI Sounds presented to subjects, including speech sounds. In the present experiment, the auditory stimuli were time-compressed. BOOK/COMPRESSED-AUDIOTAPE The use of a time-compressed narration of a book in conjunction with a book. Several previous research studies used such combinations (Reidford, I965; Orr, 1966; Stamper, I970; Reiland, 1970 and Walker, 1971). COMPREHENSION Extracting meaning from written or spoken language stimuli. In the present experiment, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test was used as a measure of reading comprehension. COMPRESSED-AUDIO ONLY A treatment condition in the present experiment in which a time- compressed speech stimulus was presented to subjects unaccompanied by any visual text. COMPRESSED-AUDIO LISTENING As “compressed—listening”. COMPRESSEE Visual of a 5i coumssn: A5 “Co a trash pressed CWPRESSH} The act of spec particitr. gradual} [WPRILSSIO\ A It‘t': | In the OI eh‘t‘i for [rt-:1 (OWRESSLD All 8H,! 15 the t. ings of Um or Comm” 1 Written €Xperitt‘: Shem! t “it“ A Sitldi. hf’i‘d Cr I COMPRESSED AUDIO—PACING Visual scanning of a visual text that is controlled in rate by presentation of a simultaneous time-compressed auditory narration. COMPRESSED AUDIO/VISUAL As “compressed audio-pacing”, In the present experiment, the term designates a treatment condition in which the visual text accOmpanying the time-com; pressed speech was also paced. COMPRESSED-LISTENING The act of listening to time-compressed speech as opposed to normal rates of Speech. In the present experiment, the audio and audio/visual groups participated in compressed-listening training where the rate of compression was gradually increased. COMPRESSION METHOD A technique used in production of speech having a time-compressed effect. In the present experiment, the Lexicon speech—compression device, a type of electronic speech-compressor, was used in production of audio materials for treatments. COMPRESSED SPEECH An abbreviation of the phrase, time-compressed speech. Compressed speech is the phenomenon which results from the altering of normal-speed record- ings of speech sounds to recordings presenting the same speech at a faster than original rate. CONNECTED DISCOURSE Written or spoken language expressing several thoughts. In the present experiment, pre- and post-testing involved subjects answering questions about several paragraphs of reading. CRAWL A studio device for production of a moving text effect on a television screen; or the televised effect itself. In the present experiment, a video- taped crawl was used in the visual and audio/visual treatments. DEGREE OF SI The amtu the dcgn lime req: l | j. | of spcet. DL'BBING Re-recorfi ings are HECIRONIEClZ A l'll'Cll‘n capstan t I speech c HECTROHKL Tlle ngl‘ l , I meltlt’llll, 0f 8 IE’L‘I cording, Whom: g A mt‘lllr) elpcrlmc. comllIQS\ ELEUROXIC llte bag; expi‘rtmcl audio Si; patterns HKED‘LU’LL I Huldm ‘ shim; fixedelc lO DEGREE OF SPEECH COMPRESSION The amount a time-compressed speech recording is speeded. In past research, the degree of speech compression is often expressed as a percentage of the time required for the original recording. In the present experiment, the degree of speech compression is expressed as a measure of words per minute. DUBBING Re-recording an audio recording. Audio fidelity is progressively lost as record- ings are dubbed several times. ELECTROMECHANICAL SPEECH COMPRESSION A method of time-compression of audiotape recordings. Electromechanical speech compression often involves rotating playback heads and an adjustable capstan drive arrangement. ELECT ROMECHANICAL SAMPLING The basis of production for electromechanical speech compression. Electro- mechanical sampling involves systematically selecting and discarding tiny bits of a recorded audio signal in production of a time-compressed speech re- cording. ELECTRONIC SPEECH COMPRESSION A method of time-compression of audiotape recordings. In the present experiment, electronic speech compression involved the use of the Lexicon Compressor, employing a small digital—to-analog computer. ELECTRONIC SAMPLING The basis of production for electronic speech compression. In the present experiment, electronic sampling involves systematically changing a recorded audio signal to corresponding electronic patterns, and sampling these patterns in its reconversion to a time-compressed speech signal. FIXED-LEVEL CRITERION Holding a Ieaming achievement constant and allowing learning time to vary. Stamper (I970) used successively higher degrees of time-compression as fixed—level criteria in compressed audio-pacing training. The Stamper (I970) experiment was, in many respects, a pilot study to the present experiment. _ .. '_- ': 1'91!!!“ an Eur: is...“ . IREE READIN Non-pat“ control llSlENER VA Subject cumin; I OISEX 1. [\lELLlGl El 1. Abilit} past ti prescn t. , I often 1: lEXlCON COS llte el. NON-Putt) \ Radix; DOSl-lc. The d; the p111 the act llte jL text. I mm It monitu II FREE READING Non-paced visual reading. In the present experiment, free reading was a ‘ control condition. LISTENER VARIABLES Subject attributes. Several previous studies in the research literature have examined the effects of such listener variables as subject age, intelligence or sex upon listening comprehension of time—compressedspeech. INTELLIGIBILITY Ability to comprehend isolated speech sounds, words or short phrases. In past time-compressed Speech research, intelligibility has most often involved presentations of these isolated speech stimuli. Comprehension has most often involved presentations of connected discourse. LEXICON COMPRESSOR The electronic speech compressor used in the present experiment. NON-PACED VISUAL READING Reading in a text as a self-chosen rate. In the present experiment, pre- and post-tests and the control treatment involved non-paced visual reading. PACING RATE The degree to which visual reading is speeded. In the present experiment, the pacing rate during compressed audio-pacing was the compression rate of the accompanying time-compressed narration. PACING POINT The junction at which the time-compressed narration accompanies the visual text. In the present experiment, the pacing point in the audio/visual treat- ment materials was approximately near the vertical midpoint of the television monitor screen. RATE OF COMPRESSION The relative speed of a modified audiotape recording to the original record- ing. This relationship is often expressed as the percentage of reduction in the time required for playback of the modified audiotape as compared to the original audiotape. In the present experiment, rate of compression refers to a measure of words per minute. Illli 0F (Rhr lhe 5pc; for the t of its “I READING ABl'. The abi’. For the the appr B. RIADIXG CON Measure; Wading I COmprel: the Nelt READING RM Measure: reailing ( Present t ate subxq S} Stem“ ekpe Time “ted lltr SPEEDfHANC; A mm“ [2 RATE OF CRAWL The speed of a moving text. In the present experiment, the rate of crawl for the text appearing on a television monitor was expressed as a measure of its words per minute rate. READING ABILITY The ability to comprehend written symbolic stimuli at certain rates of speed. For the present experiment, reading ability was measured through the use of the appropriate subsections of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Forms A and B. READING COMPREHENSION Measurement of the amount of information obtained in timed, non-paced visual reading of various narrative passages. For the present experiment, reading comprehension was measured through the use of the appropriate subsection of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Forms A and B. READING RATE Measurement of the words per minute speed obtained in timed, non-paced visual reading of narrative passages during the time period of one minute. For the present experiment, reading rate was measured through the use of the appropri -_ ate subsection of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Forms A and B. SAMPLING Systematic selection of tiny bits of a recorded speech signal. In the present experiment, the time-compressed speech material used in treatments was prod- uced through electronic sampling of an original-rate recording. SPEED-CHANGE METHOD A method for production of time-compressed speech. Speed-changing is accomplished by increasing the playback speed of an original-rate recording. SPEED-CHAN GE SPEECH The resultant time—compressed speech produced by the speed-change method. SPEEDED SPEECH Speech presented at a faster than normal rate. Often the term speeded-speech is used to refer to speed-change speech. SMILES VAR Ttmecom , hate mu compressit speech. SINK“ AVEOI - Presentatit In the pr: prescntati. SI RI'CI L RED S A com mu compared Wrestrm Indium; e\[k‘rittte sustttnoxm The an all {n.3, mellt ll “Chums A mu. "Mint. e\pen “5th Pitta-Q TELEV-BIO .A p PICK PM! A Wt Ex at l3 STIMULUS VARIABLES Time-compressed speech attributes. Several studies in the research literature have examined the effects of such stimulus variables as compression rate or compression method upon subjects’ listening comprehension of time-compressed speech. STIMULTANEOUS PRESENTATION Presentation-of a visual text with an accompanying time-compressed narration. In the present experiment, the audio/visual treatment involved simultaneous presentation of the visual and auditory materials. STRUCTURED SELF-IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE A commonly-used method for reading rate improvement. Walker (1971) compared the effects of traditional structured self-improvement training (Preston & Botel, 1967) to training in compressed audio-pacing. Another traditional method has been visual-pacing training, as used in the present experiment. SYNCHRONOUS AUDIO/VISUAL PRESENTATION The auditory narration accompanying a televised, visual text simultaneously at all rates of presentation. In the present experiment, the audio/visual treat- ment involved a synchronous audio/visual presentation. SYNCHRONOUS VISUAL TEXT A moving text accompanying a time-compressed speech narration which maintains a fixed “pacing point” relative to the narration. In the present experiment, the audio/visual treatment involved the use of a synchronous visual text. This is a unique aspect of the present experiment when com- pared to similiar previous research studies. TELEVISION SCREEN MIDLINE A point in the middle of the vertical axis of a television screen. In the present experiment, the television screen midline was the approximate “pacing point” in the audio/visual treatment. TIME-COMPRESSED MASTER RECORDING A “first generation” reco.ding (i.e., a recording which has not been re-recorded) which contains the original time-compressed Speech signal. In the present experiment, the time-compressed master recording was re-recorded onto the audio track of the videotape recording used in treatments. I ~Ufl t .Iua‘ ' I'M “L“.‘vywv ‘5!" ' UVEtOi An 3!. ll 'tEt" 051 SF” C\p< rm 1H6” likllt‘O‘qt A m plU\g dCVh n‘iiE-(Owirl h ‘\ TRINXG '\ PldCllC “Deli. 14 TIME-COMPRESSED MESSAGE An audio recording containing meaningful information which is presented at a faster than normal rate. TIME-COMPRESSED SPEECH ‘ Spoken language presented at a faster than normal rate. In the present experiment, time-compressed speech was presented alone (in the audio treatment) and accompanied by a visual text (in the audio/visual treat- ment). TIME-COMPRESSION DEVICE A mechanism used to produce a speech signal altered in rate. In the present experiment, the Lexicon (i.e., a type of electronic time-compression device) was used in production of time-compressed speech. TIME-COMPRESSOR As “speech compressor” or “time-compression device”. TRAINING MODALITIES Practice which subjects receive in various treatment conditions. In the present experiment, effects upon reading rate and comprehension were determined for audio, visual, audio/visual, and control training modalities. In the audio train- ing modality, subjects practiced “compressed-listening”. In the visual training I modality, subjects practiced “visual-pacing”. In the audio/visual training modality, subjects practiced “compressed audio-pacing”. In the control training modality, subjects practiced “non-paced visual reading”. VOCAL ACCELERATION METHOD A technique used in production of speech having a “time-compressed” effect. Using the vocal acceleration method, time-compressed speech is accomplished by merely “speaking at a faster than normal rate”. VARIABLE-PACING TECHNIQUE Compressed audio-pacing of a text at an ever-increasing compression rate; or at frequent, small increases in compression rate. In the present experiment, the compression rate used in the audio/visual treatment was increased approxi- mately 20 words per minute during each three minute time period- The present experiment is unique as compared to similiar previous research because of its use of a variable-pacing technique in treatments. {‘- 4 fi tv—A w llSL'AI-PAC A ted presen useda \lSl'AL RE.~I Readiz printer the N \lSlAL-PAC The s] a “m by me VISL'AL m lite p tell 1: (Rob; ZERO com" All Or Comp; Word. 15 VISUAL-PACER A technique or device used to control subjects’ visual reading rate. In the present experiment, both “compressed audio-pacing” and “video-pacing” were used as visual-pacers of reading rate. VISUAL READING RATE Reading speed; or the scanning rate of 3 subjects’ eye movements over a printed text. In the present experiment,visual reading rate was measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. VISUAL-PACING RATE The speed at which a subject’s visual reading rate is controlled through use of a ‘visual-pacer”. In the present experiment, the visual-pacing rate was expressed by measurement of a word per minute rate. VISUAL TEXT The printed symbols on a page of type. In the present experiment, the visual text used in treatments was Survive the 5.1%? Sea by Dougal Robertson (Robertson , 1973). ZERO COMPRESSION RATE An original speed speech presentation. In the present experiment, the zero compression rate of the recording used in treatments was approximately 160 words per minute. inl. an; lest. cap: as." l use: I! ‘ - i ‘q' . it 333:! for 1 rates ~ 16 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT The assumptions under which the present experiment was conducted are presented in Table 1.7. The assumptions involve two areas of the experiment. The ‘first area involves testing of reading abilities. The second area deals with treatment conditions. Assumptions in the area of measurement center upon the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. The two major assumptions in this area are that the Nelson-Denny Test is capable of adequately measuring subjects’ reading rate and comprehension. An assumption in the area of treatment methods is that the reading improvement method used in the present experiment (i.e., compressed audio-pacing of a synchronous visual text) will have a favorable effect upon subjects’ reading rate. Likewise, it is also assumed that, based upon the Stamper (197 0) study, the length of training in treatments for the present experiment is of sufficient length to favorably alter subjects’ reading rates. TABLE 1.7 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT ‘ “5"“ ”"°"' ' Use of a traditional, commonly-used reading comprehenr sion test, such as is used In the Nelson- -Denny Reading Test, has the capability of measuring subjects' ability to extract meaning from a printed text. TESTING I Use of a short interval, timed reading rate test (such as is used in the Nelson-Denny Reading Test) has the capa- bility to measure subjects' abilities to read from a printed text at various rates of speed. Use of do synchronous visual reading stimulus and audio narration will enhance wbiects' abilities to be paced at increasing presentation rates. A time period of approximately thirty minutes for expo- sure to treatment and control conditions is of adequate length to assure measument of any possible changes due to traimng. tampons l7 LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT Several limitations of the present experiment should be noted. As shown in Table 1.8, the areas in which limitations have been noted are in the experiment con- cern the inability to widely generalize its findings, the limited time available for treatments, subject fatigue due to treatment procedure, and the imprecision of depend- end variable measurement. Perhaps the greatest limitation was the limited time available for treatments. Stamper (1970) found a positive influence upon reading rate for compressed audio-pacing using time limitations similiar to the present experiment. However, Stamper (1970) used a criterion-referenced teaching technique during treat- ment conditions. TABLE 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT EXPERIMENT llMITATION Because subjects volunteered to participate in the experiment. generalization beyond the study population is restricted. Generallzsbility The totalamount of time to which the majority of Time participating subjects would agree to spend was 70 minutes (during one session only). The televised display of the visual text was individ- Pmcedum ually adjusted for contrast and brightness by each subject. Many commemgd on eye fatigue at the end of training sessions. Measuring the'amount of text covered inaset time- interval is a widely accepted definition of reading rate. Many standardized reading test: (as the Nelson-Denny) use this technique. However, generalization beyond testing conditions may not be appropriate. That is. over-- age reading conditions are not timed. test-structured conditions involving texts not selected by the reader. ' Accuracy in measuring both reading rate and compre- hension may be affect by the .test anxiety 'of individual subjects. M e a su rement r l .I I ll“ iL‘rzfl This that” w similiar pl“ chapters in 5“ research and h gait} details and Five will i am hi the I 11B chup!’ present expen'xt pose of the przl [emu pertainim reader: (5) assx; was in “hich Past resern effects of stimt leasing levels . le~ . Lhmques inm 1“: abilities. I f . our trmnino I \ L 18 SUMMARY OF THE PROBLEM This chapter has sought to examine the present experiment and its contribution to similiar past research. This chapter is important for interpretation of subsequent chapters in several ways. Chapter Two will further expand upon aspects of past research and how it affects the present experiment. Chapter Three will further specify details .as to how the present experiment was carried out. Chapters Four and Five will present the findings and interpretations regarding the research questions raised by the present experiment, which were presented in this chapter. This chapter has examined six topics: (I) an overview of the importance of the present experiment and how it may supplement previous research; (2) the pur- pose of the present experiment; (3) the hypotheses of the present experiment; (4) terms pertaining to the present experiment which may need need definition for the reader; (5) assumptions underlying the conduct of the present experiment; and, (6) ways in which the present experiment is limited. Past research concerning time-compressed speech has typically concerned the effects of stimulus and listener variables upon intelligibility, comprehension, and/or leaming levels of subjects. Relatively few research studies have sought to apply techniques involving time-. compressed speech toward improvement of subjects’ read- ing abilities. The present experiment seeks to determine the relative usefulness of four training techniques for reading skills improvement. The independent variables of the present experiment are the four separate training conditions: (I) compressed-listening practice (i.e., the audio treatment); (2) visual-pacing practice (i.e, the visual treatment); (3) compressed audio-pacing practice (i.e., the audio/visual treatment); and, (4) non-paced reading practice (i.e., the control treatment). The dependent variables are subjects’ reading rate and reading comprehension during non-paced reading. The mgjt trrztmcnt gin mrjatr l't}put':;- “he control 3 differences in minor llwuth ll is Emu-:1}... '5 .1. ‘ 1: HL at‘HLO ”It“ Squall (- {fiat the .\-.‘:~ I < ‘ (lrfl “ . . ..... JOCAL‘.“ ”A" . ..l I! SHIQHIIH‘.’ -l 05' l I, thud d‘\\‘\lll‘l pt I M3 ..... Julian‘lc I't'll. Several 3 general“ ‘ ' “titl'tlz‘; has mzzilalilt- Wurlrd to '34-". mtctcd pu~-’ lim‘ '31 Thtijli 19 The major hypotheses are of the null hypothesis type of no differences among treatment groups for both reading rate and comprehension gain scores. Alternate major hypotheses involve the groups’ improved relative performance in respect to the control group. The minor hypotheses are of the null hypotheses type, of no differences between treatment groups for reading rate and comprehension. Alternate minor hypotheses involve the relative performance between individual treatment groups. It is hypothesized that the audio/visual treatment scores will be greater than those of the audio and visual treatments respectively. Several assumptions are made in the present experiment. One assumption is that the Nelson-Denny Reading Test adequately measures subjects’ reading rates and comprehension. A second assumption is that the use of compressed audio-pacing of a synchronous visual text will have a favorable effect upon subjects’ reading rate. A third assumption is that the treatment intervals for the present experiment are of adequate length to have effect upon reading abilities. Several limitations of the study should be noted. One limitation is the limited generalizibility of its findings which is possible. Secondly, limited treatment time was available during the experiment. A third limitation is that several subjects reported to have fatigue after the audio and audio/visual treatments. This may have affected post-testing results. A fourth limitation is the inherent limitation of tradi- tional reading abilities testing. chapter I ramming e\;_ llltl e‘pUSUFL‘ {blowing VISU. “ill 3150 pres Dragged Speed. nits Chai; an Olen-kw examines (eel: third 8mm" DIGEr of Pro. miTESSiiely In Studies most S‘cfll EXperimL CHAPTER TWO Literature Chapter Two will focus primarily upon a review of pertinent research concerning examination of the effects upon subjects’ visual reading abilities after exposure to training techniques utilizing “compressed audio-pacing” (i.e., following visually in a written text a reading rate paced. by the narration rate of an accompanying time-compressed audio recording). This chapter will also present related research dealing with general aspects of time-com- pressed speech research. This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section presents an overview of time-compressed speech research. The second section examines techniques for accomplishing the time-compressed speech effect. The third section presents past research related to “compressed audio-pacing”. The order of presentation for the sections stated above is arranged so as to progressively narrow the focUs of the examination of the related research literature concerning tirne—compressed speech toward those specific research studies most directly related to the variables and characteristics of the pre- sent experiment. 20 21 OVERVIEW OF TIME-COMPRESSED SPEECH RESEARCH Chapter One presented an introduction of the broad aspects of educational research involving time—compressed speech. The general areas of research which have been conducted since the mid-1950’s are presented Table 2.1. Ostensibly, research con- cerning time-compressed speech since the mid-1950’s has dealt with two general areas. The first area concerns presentation of time-compressed speech with no accompanying stimuli. The second area concerns stimultaneous presentation of visual stimuli (most often a visual text) accompanied by a time-compressed speech stimulus. This section will examine briefly both of the above areas in order to show the nature of both of the broad areas of research which has been reflected in the research literature concerning time-compressed speech. This section is not intended to fully examine the results of the past research involving time-compressed speech, but to exemplify the research questions and topics which have been examined in past research. TABLE 2.1 GENERAL AREAS OF RESEARCH INVOLVING TIME-COMPRESSED SPEECH a. ‘s';;:.:.;2;2;.-.._.:. ..... ...... ‘I 0 av“. .l. l'I'b e_ ".- 'M‘e‘n'l‘h‘ oooooo Intelligibility comprehension and learning effects for stimulus variables Presentation effects of time-compressed speech stimuli Intelligibility comprehension and Ieaming effects for listener variables Comprehension and Ieaming enhancement for; training method variables Presentation effects of time-compressed speech plus visual stimuli Reading Skills enhancement for training method variables \ (I New" Research t'Li‘Jal stimuli able to vanal: ineli. These smarts m: The first questions im rnmprr-md 31 he timewm TWer dht‘m listener comp C-'F1imiz:stion uizich exami T“? fol Sit-Etch inteli 1953: Calear. Fairbanks Cl PIESsed‘ Ct); refill"dancv ume‘COl‘np n. been examil I FWD“. 196' examined e: alld manner Tits "lion a< M‘L’mum. is 22 rvo ' 0 ' - o r .' so a or "n0 Visual Stimuli " - Research into the use of time-compressed speech presented without accompanying visual stimuli has dealt with intelligibility, comprehension, and leaming effects attribut- able to variables linked to the listener and/or the time-compressed message itself. These two broad research groups are represented in Table 2.1. STIMULUS VARIABLES The first group of research studies presented in Table 2.1 has addressed research questions involving the effects of manipulation of various characteristics of the time- compressed speech stimulus upon subjects’ comprehension of (or Ieaming gained from) the time-compressed message. The trend of this group of research studies has been toward discovery of variables of the time-compressed speech stimulus which optimize listener comprehension of the time-compressed message. This research toward optimization of the effects of the time-compressed speech message has lead to studies which examined the effects of combining visual and auditory stimuli. The following studies are typical of this group. Several studies have examined speech intelligibility for various compression rate variables. (Hanson, 1950; Garvey, I953; Calearo & Lazzaroni, I957; Fairbanks & Kodman, I957; Foulke, 1968). Fairbanks et al (1957) examined the effect upon comprehension of a time-com- pressed, connected discourse for the variables of compression rate and verbal redundancy characteristics. The comparative effects upon comprehension for the time-compressed Speech method used to accomplish the speech-compression has been examined by several researchers McLain, 1962; Golden, 1966; Foulke 1966; Foulke, 1967; Gerber, 1968; Gerber, 1969'; Gerber & Scott, 1970). Foulke (1967)- examined effects upon comprehension by the narrator’s voice characteristics and manner. Several studies have examined the effects upon subjects’ learning and retention as influenced by message compression rate (Goldstein, 1940; Goodman & Malmuth, 1957; Barabasz, 1966; Goldhaber & Weaver, 1968). 24'? ii VCR Hi The timing lint; effects of t in resultan trend of tl enables n-l timesomprg his it‘d I(. in; skills. The Bellamy ”t, MM?” Si; Girl dimer ;. Upon Comp: ”966’ 8X8!" Cl’mprrsscd t -. 'pteded'sjlec LIS TENER VA RIA BLISS The second major group of studies (i.e., presented in Table 2.l con- cerning time-compressed speech unaccompanied by visual stimuli) examines the effects of manipulation of various subject attributes upon comprehension of (or resultant learning achieved from) the time-compressed speech message. The trend of this group of research studies has been toward the measurement of variables related to subjects having an effect upon the comprehension of a time-compressed message. The research toward examination of listener attributes has led to studies which examine the relationship between listening and read- ing skills. The following studies are typical of this group. Hartlege (1963), Bellamy (I966), Lown (1967) and Foulke (1969) examined the relationship between sight disability and comprehension of time-compressed speech. Goldhaver and Weaver (1968) examined the effects of the sex of the listener upon comprehension of time-compressed speech. Wood (1965) and Lutterman (1966) examined the effects of subject age and the comprehension of time- compressed speech. Henneman (1949), Black (1950), Garvey (1950) and Miron and Brown (1968) examined the upward limits of comprehension of speeded-speech for normal adults. Kimura (1961) studied the effects upon perception of time-compressed speech by subjects’ cerebral dominance. Orr et al (1965), Voor and Miller (1965), and Orr and Friedman (1968) examined the effects of training upon comprehension of time-compressed. speech. B: '3'. combined pm in mg research 21 mmprehension KEPREHENSI ON E \ Jester and presentation mm audio-pacing). l mperior to the emitted the et '71:. comprexw. mmpfession rat CGmPTt’Ssed and Pfifientation tin REiDINC mu. - Orr et a flaming invol pm“d-lkteni I mmmed [ht-I 24 flgfiggmh [nyglymg Tm e-Compressed AudioZVisual Stimuli There has been a relative paucity of research dealing with effects upon subjects by combined presentation of time-compressed auditory and visual stimuli. The trend in this research area has been toward discovery of variables favorably influencing comprehension and reading skills. COMPREHENSION ENHANCEMENT Jester and Travers (1966) examined the effects upon Ieaming efficiency by presentation modality (i.e., non-paced reading, compressed listening, and compressed audio-pacing). Jester and Travers (1966) concluded that compressed audio-pacing was superior to the other presentation nodes at high rates of compression. Parker (1971) examined the effects upon comprehension of a reading passage by presentation modality (i.e., compressed-audio listening; and, compressed audio-pacing of the visual text and compression rate. Parker (1971) concluded that, except for low-aptitude groups, compressed audio-paced messages may be compressed up to one-half their original presentation time with no significant loss in comprehension. READING SKILLS ENHANCEMENT Orr et a1 (1965) examined the effects upon reading rate and comprehension by training involving a compressed audio presentation. Orr et al (1965) concluded com- pressed-listening practice had a favorable effect upon visual reading rate. Reidford (1965) examined the effects upon visual reading rate and comprehension by training modalities (i.e., non-paced reading; compressed-audio listening practice; and compressed audio-pac- ing of a visual text). Reidford (1965) has found no effects on reading abilities by any training method. Stamper (1970) examined the effects upon visual reading rate by training l1.. .L‘M ,.._--—¥—“—-— .- gurus." mafialit'es lie. K11 llrtt‘t‘lgé’ SU 11] _ lateral)” MEG Reiland (1" and listening 3 ratio 1i.'-:-::::::..=:=.-:-:-.~. 33;; 325 Academ ”W 3533;; '''''''''''''''''''''' Fine Arts Edge-3;?“ N=6 .____| Special Education Social Studies N=3 N=5 Childhood Development ‘7 N=3 Art§=§c Scrences Data Management N=2 Language Arts r language Arts N=3 Arts & Letters N=2 N=l Math =2 Elementary Education I N=2 Female Music Education Business Theater N=l N 1 Natural Resources N=l Human Ecology Business Education N=l N=l Communications Unreported N =8 Unreported N=l4 Unreported N=7 fib‘c’fi.upl D urn , pl D” .....lni—silH-I. .- E‘ g 57 MATERIALS This section will present design considerations concerning the materials used in the experiment. The purpose of this section is to describe how the visual text was selected and .prepared for the experiment; how the audio recording was obtained and the time-compressed audiotape prepared; and how the testing instruments were selected. Visual Materials The book Surviv_e_ the Savage _S_g._1_(Robertson, I973) was used as the source of the visual textual materials which were used in the Visual, Audio/Visual, and Control treatments. The narrative style of Survive the Savage Sea was an advantage in using-the text as a visual stimulus for the experiment. The text was largely a narrative description of events in the story rather than a series of conversa- tional interactions among the characters of the story. This narrative style enabled the professional announcer (who read orally the text in producing the origina, master audiotape) to vocalize the passages at a fairly uniform rate. Large variations in rate and pause time often occur during oral reading of quotations. These frequent variations become undesirable as an experimenter wishes to control the rate at which the audio narration paces a subject’s visual reading rate. Since Survive tl__r_e Savage _S_‘£‘_ was largely narrative in writing style, variations We to character quotations were minimal. 58 The format of the printed text in Survive the Savage Sea permitted the use of pages taken directly from the text in production of the visual “crawl”. The book’s margin size in relation to the text, line length, character size and, total size of the pages aided in the production of the “crawl”. This “crawl” was produced by piecing together individual pages of text to form a long roll. The format of the printed text greatly aided in the simplicity and accuracy of production of the videotaped materials used in the experiment. The videotaped “crawl”. was used in conjunction with two treatment conditions, the video treatment and the audio visual treatment. During the video treatment, the text moved upward on the television monitor at a set rate of movement (i.e., crawl rate). This technique “visually paced” a subject’s reading rate (i.e., by the presentation and withdraw] of the visual stimulus). During the audio/visual treatment the audio narration was presented through the earphones at a set rate of accelerated vocal production (i.e., degree of speech-compression). Simultaneously, the visually-paced text appeared on the television monitor screen. This combination of techniques provided a method for “visual and auditory pacing” of the subject’s reading rate. Both the visual and audio/visual treatments were presented through the use of a television monitor. The primary procedural difference between these two treatments during the experiment was the presence or absence of the audio narration. During the audio/visual treatment, the audio narration accompanied the videotape visual text in a synchronous fashion with the visual’s “crawl rate”. During the visual treatment no audio narration was present. During treatments this difference was accomplished by adjustment of the sound volume control on the television monitor for the presence or absence of the accompanying auditory narration, 59 The audio treatment was presented through the use of the sound system in the television monitor, without. accompanying visual text. The audio treat- ment provided practice in listening to increasingly faster rates of presentation of the audio narration. During the audio treatment, the picture brightness control was adjusted so that the television monitor screen was completely black (i.e., devoid of any televised image). The videotaped materials were produced under professional studio conditions at the College of Osteopathic Medicine on the Michigan State University campus. A Sony “Videomatic” videocassette recorder/playback device was used for produc- tion of the master videotape. In producing this videotape, the time-compressed audio narration was re-recorded on the videocassette’s audio track, while the visual text was simultaneously recorded on the videocassette’s video track. During this recording of the videocassette, the “rate of crawl” for the Visual text was adjusted manually in the studio to be synchronous to the line of text appear- ing at the vertical midpoint (i.e., horizonal axis) of the television monitor SCI'CEII . The “rate of crawl” for the visual text ranged from approximately one inch/second during the first portion of the videotape to approximately 5.5 inches/second at the end of the videotape. The number of “words per minute” of the visual text paced visually by the videotaped “crawl” was synomous to the “rate of speech compression” for the accompanying, synchronous audio track. Thus, the “visual-pacing rate” for visual “crawl” ranged from approximately 150 words/minute during the first portion of the videotape to approximately 630 words/minute at the end of the videotape. 60 FIGURE 3.I AREA OF SIMULTANEOUS AUDIO/VISUAL PACING ----------------—----- PACING AREA 1"‘ \ As shown in Figure 3.1, the line of text at (or near) the television screen midline (i.e., vertical axis) was paced at a synchronous rate to the spoken narration. Since the spoken narration varried slightly in presentation rate, the effective area of pacing encompassed approximately one inch to either side of the vertical axis of the television screen. This was due to limitation for producing fine distrinctions of rate variations by the visual “crawl” device. Neither the audio nor video tracks of the videocassette were presented to control group subjects, although the control conditions involved visual materials. The original paper “crawl” which was used in production of the videotape was manipulated by control group subjects during “self-paced” reading. The presenta- tion rate for the visual materials used with the control group subjects was dependent upon the rate set by the subject in this “self paced” condition. No audio narration of the text accompanied the hand manipulated visual materials used in the control groups treatment. 61 Audio Maten'als The original audio recording used in production of the time-compressed recording was a narration of the book §_qr;_vi_vg 1119 _S_a_v_agg_§_e_a; This original rate recording was produced in the studios of ration station WKAR on the campus of Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. This record- ing had originally been produced as one in a series of radio programs involving the stations’ continuing educational services to the blind. The narration rate of the original audio recording varied from approximately 140 to 170 words per minute. The audio tape was recorded on a Sony TC 850 tape recorder at 7% inch per second. The original audio recording was chosen because of the expertise and familiarity the staff of WKAR with respect to producing master audiotapes for time-compression. The reasons for choice of the original rate audiotape record- ing are summarized in Table 3.3. TABLE 3.3 CONSIDERATIONS OF CHOICE FOR THE ORIGINAL RATE AUDIOTAPE NARRATION . o a ' ”of-31.0..“ 3"“).- ..u ............... ‘ ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' {'o'c 'a 5.1.:- ''''''''' . m ........ -: -.-.-.-.-:-.-.-s-.-.-.w:-:~:-:«:-:-:»:-:A:-:-:-:-b:-:-:e<-.'»‘-'-'-'-'-'v : ‘.-. I .- Recordmg Characteristic ...» ' ' ; f ' '=:-:=>: '2'" “mafia ..... = : : .. .. ream-WWW w meme-39.-r:a~.s:x~‘°$:::=:‘:iiir’:-.. -- .. -- Jr? «.,._.;...~_._._.,¢.,_:_.,.-:,... ...-.-.-.;.-.-.-.-. - °" xififfipé‘v’fi"; 4:5"? '1-2- "'-""¢-°' ”.53" -' as}: x§§fi$§~$§96¥ ‘ ‘ I I" c a u u I ' ' I... ' ' . '0‘ I”... 't'n'o - .' I'v'o' "‘3 J ‘:’.':-V-'f:’.n'u:.:-'. f.’:_-_o.-.- - of .'. . :.I :. I . . . . a . ' I . .0 o l o... : .2. ’ ..I_I;I.I “-2"- .‘o’ o u n A ' I _ "z. ' r .l ' I o - - - "re-"v -:-:-:r:=.-:-:-'-"‘3:-'5:-‘V::- ' .- - . :- : -: : " -:- - - -' . -. . - - -.-.-.-'5:- .fi- - - It? , .- . ‘ :-:-:4-.¢ -:-:!:-: Exit-$353” .N- '- .-:-:s The studio and narrator were familiar with techniques far audiotaping for production of time-compressed tapes. Voice quality, rate and articulation of the professional voice used for production to the Characteristics audiotapes were adjuged to be excellent by pilot testing groups. 62 The time-compressed master audiotape was produced from the original- speed master audiotape at the Department of Audiology and Speech Sciences at Michigan State University. Departmental personnel supervised the production of the time-compressed, master audiotape at the department’s Perceptual Laboratory. The Lexicon (Lee, 1972) (i.e., a speech-compression device employing a digital-to- analog computer), was used for the production of the time-compressed master audiotape. The time-compressed master audiotape was produced at continuously variable compression rate by stages over the length of the recording. Each successive five minute time period during the compressed audiotape was increased in. rate approximately 10% faster than the preceeding five minute period. The “word per minute rate” of the compressed audiotape ranged from approximately 150 words per minute at the start of the audiotape to approximately 630 words per minute at the finish. Several random checks of the audiotape were made to confirm the accuracy of the word per minute rate of each compression rate level. The time-compressed, master audio recording was subsequently copied onto the audio track of the videotape (Sony 60 minute video-cassette) to be used in the treatment sessions. The videotape’s audio and visual stimuli were sychronized during videotape production so that the video “crawl rate” matched the rate of presentation for the accompanying time-compressed audio narration. This sychronized videotape was produced during the television studio production sessions through a technique involving menitoring the time-compressed recording during the “dubbing” process. The rate at which the visual “crawl” passed the television camera was manipulated so that the visual text matched the rate of the audio narration. 63 Several videotaping attempts were required before satisfactory video and audio tracks on the videotape were obtained. During the initial videotaping production sessions the line of narration (which was being spoken at any given point on the audiotape) was paced precisely at the horizontal axis of the television monitor screen. This precision was accomplished by a series of small movements of the visual “crawl” through “line-by-line” increments. This “precision pacing” technique was abandoned after pilot testing of the original videotape due to its distracting effect upon subjects. A smoother pacing movement was substituted. Since the smoother pacing could not be paced precisely, this gave rise to the technique of using an approximate “area of pacing” (approximately one inch above and below the horizontal axis of the television screen) rather than a precise “pacing point” (i.e., the line of text exactly at the horizontal axis of the television screen). likewise, the pacing location itself was moved to various points on the television screen before satisfactory pacing results were obtained during pilot testing. One proto- type videotape paced subjects reading at the top edge of the television monitor screen. It was thought that a “pacing point” at the edge of the screen would motivate subjects to maintain their reading rate due to the fact that the text would disappear off the top edge of the screen should the subject not maintain the set reading pace. This prototype was disregarded, however, since the use of different television monitors for display of the videotape often produced different image sizes on the television screen. The audio stimulus itself also required adjustments shown by pilot testing. Through these tests, it was found that environmental room noise was said by pilot test participants to be distracting and in competition with the audio materials. This was said to be due to the high level of concentration needed by participants for comprehension of the higher speech compression rates for the audio narration. The use of audio earphones appeared to greatly enhance listening conditions during pilot testing. and were subsequently used during experimental treatments. 64 Testing Materials The reading rate and comprehension sections of Forms A and B of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Nelson-Denny, 1958) were selected as measures for the dependent variables of visual reading rate and comprehension for several reasons. First, rate .and comprehension were presented as individual test sections to be administered separately. This made it unnecessary to administer the total test, which would have included a lengthy measure of reading vocabulary. Second. rate and comprehension measures were reported as separate scores. For purposes of the present experiment, it was assumed that rate and comprehension are aggregates of total reading ability. Separate measures of the aggregate abilities were preferred over obtaining a single efficiency score (e. g., Davis Reading Test, 1964). Third. administration time for the test was relatively short; i.e., 20 minutes. Since pre- and post-testing, as well as the experimental treatment, could be administered during a single session (approximately 70 minutes), effects resulting from maturation Of sub- jects were adequately controlled. A summary of reasons for choice Of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test in the present experiment is presented in Table 3.4. Psychometric characteristics of the test are presented in Appendices O, P, Q, and R. TABLE 3.4 LOGISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST .-:-:3: -~:-N:- 3254' +455- CHARACTERISTICS Testing Format was by Sections: ll Vocabulary, 2) Rate . 3) Comprehension Sections could be interpreted as separate scores. Test could be administered in This format permitted administration of the rate and comprehension sections as spearate units. Separate scores were preferred over a single, embedded ”total ability" Score. This length of administration time needed for the test permitted twenty ‘20) minutes. subjects to finish treatments and testing in a single session. 65 The difficulty levels of the passage used to measure reading rate in the present experiment were neither the easiest nor the most difficult reading passages present in the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. The reading difficulty level for Form A was 74.8; Form B was 74.4. The average reading difficulty for all reading passages for Forms A and B of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test is summarized in Table 3.5. The figures in Table 3.5 represent the percent of correct answers for each reading passage (for both the upper and lower 27 percent of subject scores for all 72 test items of Forms A and B). Average difficulty of reading passages was 74.8. TABLE 3.5- AVERAGE DIFFICULTY LEVELS FOR READING PASSAGES IN THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST 'According to the Nelson Denny Reading Test Examiner’s Manual (1960) 66 PROCEDURES This section will present uses employed during the experiment, including: (I) the manner in which data was collected during the experiment; and, (2) the adjust- ments involving the stimulus materials which subject were permitted to make during individual treatment sessions. The mechanics of data collection for the present experiment were designed so that the method to be used was standardized, yet allowed forindividual differences Of learning. Data collection for the present experiment was conducted during the week Of July IS, 1974. A schedule Of appointments for individual treatment sessions was set up prior to each treatment date. Each appointment was scheduled for approximately 70 to 80 minutes in length. Subjects were assigned to treatments through the use of table of random numbers. As each subject arrived for his or her appointment, he or she was taken to a secluded treatment room where the pre-test was administered. Directions for the pre-test were read orally while the subject visually followed the directions in a text, (see Appendix N). Any questions concerning the pre-testing were answered at that time. Reading rate was measured over a one-minute interval during the first portion of the pre—test. When the test proctor signaled the subject that one minute had elapsed, the subject pointed to the line of text at which he or she had stopped. This line number was recorded by the text proctor. The subject then continued with the remaining portion of the pre-test, for twenty minutes, at which time the test proctor again signaled the subject to stop. Pre-test answer sheets and test booklets were collected at that time. After the instructions cor pacing-location involving the t: of type. lasted tions answered. of the NCISUII': As noted in the treatmr larious contro well as during Different to auditory 5‘ Observed duri “as individu: The Subject VOIume Conn e auditor} Dre-get fOI television nl 67 After the proctor had collected all pretest materials from the subject, instructions conceming the treatment were explained: (i.e., equipment, controls, pacing-location on the television screen, and time interval). All procedural questions involving the treatment were answered by the proctor. All treatments, regardless of type, lasted a total Of 30 minutes after instructions had been given and ques- tions answered. Following the treatment portion of the session, the alternate form of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test was administered as a post-test. Adjustments Pemritted During Treatment AS noted above, subjects were Shown the equipment which would be involved in the treatment which they would receive. Certain preferential adjustments of various controls on the equipment were permitted during the explanation period as well as during the treatment. Different individuals preferred different volume adjustments during listening to auditory stimuli. This appeared to become especially important to subjects observed during pilot tests. Prior to treatments, the volume level of the audio was individually adjusted to a level preferred by the individual subject. The subject was permitted to adjust the audio volume by manipulating the volume control on the front of the television monitor. The tone setting for the auditory stimulus was pre-set at maximum treble. This adjustment was pre-set for two reasons. First, it was observed during pilot testing that comprehension of the auditory material at higher time—compression rates was enhanced by setting the tone control at its full treble setting. Second, the television monitor used in the experiment had no accessible tone control and adjustment of the Sony videotape playback device tone control was inconvenient. 68 For treatments involving televised visual stimuli, the visual and audio/visual treatments, the brightness level of the television monitor screen was determined by preference of individual subjects. Tire subject was permitted to adjust the bright- ness level of the television monitor screen by manipulating the brightness control on the front of the television monitor. The contrast control setting for the visual stimulus was pre-set at near-maximum contrast. This adjustment was pre-set so as to increase the figure/field definition of the text during production of the videotape “crawl”, and therefore improve the “readability” of the materials during the treat- ments. For the control treatment, which involved non-televised visual stimuli, the original paper “crawl” used in producing the videotape materials was manually unrolled on subjects during non-paced reading. Ambient room light was adjusted to a brightness level preferred by individual subjects. As can be seen in Table 3.6, audio, visual and audio/visual treatment groups were permitted to adjust both the sound and brightness levels of the television monitor. NO sound stimuli were intended to be part Of the control treatment. The brightness level of the environ- mental light was permitted to be adjusted by subjects. TABLE 3.6 INDIVIDUAL ADJUSTMENTS REGARDING SIMULUS MATERIALS PERMITTED DURING TREATMENT Auditory Audio/Visual Volume Level Televised Visual Brightness Visual Audio/ Visual Level Non Televised Ambient Visual Control Lighting 69 DESIGN OVER TIME This section will present considerations concerning the experimental design of the present experiment. The purpose of this section is to describe the nature Of the manipulation Of independent variables during the experiment. A pre-test/post-test/contrOl group design was employed in the present experi- ment (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). (See Figure 32,) FIGURE 3.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OVER TIME R 01 R X] A - B 02 R O] R X2 A - B 02 R O] R X3 A - B 02 R 01 R X4 A - B 02 III Figure 3.2, “R” represents the random assignment of subjects. This randomization involved selection of both the form of the pre-test and the treatment conditions. Administration of Form “A” or “B” of the Nelson- Denny Reading Test for individual subjects as a pre-test was determined through the use Of a table Of random numbers. Assignment to treatments was also pre—determined by consulting a table of random numbers. “A'P’” illt alternate test subject be ran pro-test. FUN“ “0le rep This pre-teslit “0)” [C This post~lest ”XI" TL" Audio Treat: The rate of lhis auditor} “x“! r Treatment, .' on the lelt‘x attompanie. X3“ the Audio ‘ PYBSented i Sam), I 7O “A-B” indicates the alternate assignment of subjects; i.e., the assignment Of the alternate test form from that received during pre-testing). For example, should a subject be randomly assigned Form A Of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test as the pre-test, Form B was assigned as the post-test. “OI” represents the Pre—Test (i.e., Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Form A or B). This pre-testing portion of the session was twenty minutes in length. “02” represents the Post-Test (i.e., Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Form A or B). This post-testing portion Of the session was twenty minutes in length. “X1” represents the Audio Treatment, thirty minutes in length. During the Audio Treatment, a time-compressed narration was presented to subjects via earphones. The rate Of time-compression increased gradually. NO visual stimulus accompanied this auditory stimulus. “X2” represents the Visual Treatment, thirty minutes itr length. During the Visual Treatment, 3 visual text was presented on a television monitor. This text rolled upward on the television screen, the rate Of which increased gradually. NO auditory stimulus accompanied this visual stimulus. “X3” represents the Audio/Visual TreatmenL thirty minutes in length. During the Audio/Visual Treatment, both auditory and visual stimuli for the same text were presented in a synchronous fashion (i.e., the rate of visual and audio-pacing were the same). “X4” represents the Control Treatment, thirty minutes in length. During the Control Treatment, visual stimuli were presented by a paper roll text to subjects. The rate at which the text was unrolled was determined solely by manipulation by the subject. NO auditory stimulus accompanied this visual stimulus. 71 DESIGN SUMMARY Chapter Three lras presented an overview of design considerations concerning the conduct of the present experiment. The major topics presented were: (1) a discussion of the materials used in the experiment; (2) description of the procedures followed during the experiment; and, (3) examination of general aspects involving the experimental design variables. A large, undergraduate, teacher education course at Michigan State University was selected as the source Of subjects for the present experiment because of its large, stable population. Many academic courses of study were represented among the group. Forty-five students volunteered to participate in the experiment for a small, monetary incentive. Data was actually collected for thirty-three subjects. Survive the Savage Sea (Robertson, 1973) was chosen as the visual text in the experiment. A professionally recorded narration Of the book was time-compressed from I60 to 600 words per minute in 20 word per minute incriments. A videotaped “crawl” Of the visual text was produced, and synchronized to the compression rate of the time—compressed narration. The “pacing point”, at which this text and narration were synchronous was near the vertical mid-point of the television screen. Forms “A” and “B” of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test (Nelson-Denny, I958) were used as pre and post instruments for measurement of reading rate and compre- hension. The test itself is a widely-used test of reading abilities. Psychometric characteristics of the test concerning its standardization were adjudged favorable. Treatment sessions were individually scheduled, lasting a total of 70 to 80 minutes in length. Pre- and post-tests totaled 40 minutes, each consisting of a timed one minute ratt audio/visual tre: briahmess. C or The experi and Stanley. 19 treatments. P( the pre-test. In summa e\penment‘s d. bi focusing u} PTOCQdU I'C‘S ['93 L 72 one minute rate test and a 19 minute comprehension test. Subjects in audio and audio/visual treatments were permitted to adjust the television monitors volume and brightness. Control group subjects could adjust ambient room light. The experimental design was a pre-test/post-test control group design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963, page 183). Subjects were randomly assigned both pre-tests and treatments. Post-tests were assigned as the alternate test form from that given as the pre-test. In summary, this chapter has described, in part, the nature of the present experiment’s design. Chapter Four will further define and describe the experiment by focusing upon the resultant data Obtained from pre- and post-testing and the procedures results of analysis of data. 2:5 v , wfl". This findings rela' presents fillt.‘ The l ‘ treatment comprehensin listening pm. i paced Visual Vairanoe. Statistical Si: Chapter Four Results This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section describes findings related to main treatment effects upon reading rate. Section two presents findings as to main treatment effects upon reading comprehension. MAIN TREATMENT EFFECTS The main analysis concerned comparisons of mean gain scores between treatment groups. The dat descriptive of differences in reading rate and comprehension were measured under four independent variables: compressed listening practice, visual-pacing, compressed audiopacing, and practice in non- paced visual reading. Statistical significance was evaluated by analyses of vairance. The .05 level was established as the acceptable level for statistical significance. 73 74 Differences 'n ' dina a aim The null hypothesis concerning reading rate gain was: There is no difference among reading rate gains for the audio, visual, audio/visual and control groups when reading rate is measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. The individual reading rate scores are presented in Appendix A. Read- ing rate gains for all treatments are presented in Table 4.1. TABLE 4.l READING RATE GAINS FOR ALL TREATMENTS Audio Only N=IO Visual Only N=8 Audio/Visual N=lO Control N=5 From an examination of Table 4.1, it maybe seen that the mean gain in reading rate was highest for the audio/visual group (145 words per minute) as compared to the audio group (87.7 words per minute), the visual group (86.5 words per minute) and the control group (44.6 words per minute). All groups showed an improvement in reading rate. 75 Within groups, subjects varied widely in reading rate gains. From Table 4.2, it can been seen that rate gain effects ranged from a 394 words per minute improvement for an audio/visual treatment subject to a 39 word per minute decrease for a control treatment subject. TABLE 4.2 INDIVIDUAL READING RATE GAINS (W.P.M.) Audio Tre tment sjjisiizi?‘ Allle/Vlbual it"? Treatment .5525, 2 Control Treatment é: N=IO N=8 u -; N=5 ISULA 77.50 RL-A DING RA TE LOSSES The factors contributing to isolated reading rate losses registered for three subjects, in the audio, visual, and control groups, respectively, could not be determined with certainty. Reading rate losses were not expected due to experimental treatments, since it was hypothesized that practice in the various treatment conditions would enhance reading abilities. The control condition was expected to have no effect upon reading rate scores. Findings revgaled that a subject in the visual treatment group showed an 18 words per minute loss in reading rate. Two other subjects had 35 and 39 words per minute reading rate declines, in the audio and visual treatment groups. Pre- and post-test data concem- ing these three isolated subjects are presented in Table 4.3. 76 TABLE 4.3 SUBJECTS WITH READING RATE LOSSES Pre-Test : Reading Rate L‘ 7 As can be seen in Table 4.3, pre-test scores for subjects showing a decline in reading rate ranged from 238 to 425 words per minute. It would appear unlikely that these losses are solely influenced by the initial reading rate of subjects before receiving treatments. It is also unlikely that subjects’ fatigue due to participation in a particular treatment is the sole source of these differences, since the losses are distributed across treatment groups. Likewise, several subjects concluding the audio/ visual treatment commented that such practice was particularily strenuous, both mentally and physically; yet this group's lowest score was a 73 words per minute increase in reading rate. It was found, however, that the three subjects showing reading rate losses generally improved in reading comprehension scores during post-testing. Individual pre- and post-test scores for reading comprehension for these subjects is presented in Table 4.4. TABLE 4.4 COMPREHENSION SCORES FOR SUBJECTS WITH RATE LOSSES .III P. I; 77 An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis Ho: “5 =, P8 = #c = #5 (where "a, is the population mean of the audio treatment group; ”3 is the is the population mean of the visual treat- ment group; ' pc' is the population mean of the audio/visual treatment group; and p D is the population mean of the control group). The analysis of variance was chosen as the test statistic since the H0 contained more than two groups. The formula used, as well as the intermediate steps used to obtain the F ratio, is presented in Appendix S. The tabled F value for the .05 level was found to be 2.934. The number of degrees of freedom among sample means was two (i.e., k -l or 3-1). The number of degrees of freedom within samples was 29 (i.e., al,-k, or 33-4). The F value obtained was 1.548. Since the obtained F did not exceed 2.934, the hypothesis Ho could not be rejected. A summary of the findings is presented in Table 4.5. TABLE 4.5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE READING RATE -::""if_s:§:£; ..':-:-CQ§:3:3:-:-'.-:‘2" m-2.-'-'-:-:-t‘.r‘ " ' 2:23;.- . -.-' .- :'1 ° 'se-xW-Zzgag 1:2; ;:;1;::5;::1;'- . :. 4::;:;:;1;.:-:- -:-.-.r.;.;.-..':;.:-:-.- 0:. -..;.;. .'-:-'.-‘-”‘ $3352 .2: .;-: ~33 } SUM 3553' ”W,wwm-:e 1:21:33. '3:'=I;.:.;:=:;;I;E:’:"=:-:=5;$.-::;"""‘53'3.='1393?: W e. MEAN 5‘ .... - ;.'- . aux-... : I 2' ’ $5.312; OF 34.. . 2.. , , . . ,' ' °.'.' ' ,5- ‘.:- - - -_.:.:. . 3.3 :3: :9): 133' gafisgq _ ' '.'. I 9 .‘g a I '. nnnnn ' ' :.;.". '=‘ 4:5 '3' ‘c'I:-'-:. I I I . . ...'-'- '.‘.‘.' .(:'.' ........ F: 12790.78 = 8265.0! l.5476 78 Differenges jg Bgagmg littlnnisllfiltfiifln Gill” The null hypothesis concerning reading comprehension gains presented in Chapter One was: There is no difference among reading rate gains for the audio, visual, audio/visual and control groups when reading rate is measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. Gains in the number of questions attempted during comprehension testing for all treatments are presented in Table 4.6. TABLE 4.6 GAINS IN THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS ATTEMPTED DURING COMPREHENSION TESTIN ................... ......00'.‘..--v "-‘o'.' o ' ' . ...... I}, . , ....... ' ......... I I ~ . a o O I I I '''''' ------ ' ~'- . : ;-.:.;.;- - ' -.'.'.'.'.'.'. - .-.'.-.'.-. t ..};O. :.I.o. : o : -. l O ' . éggafig'gfiafii-g-¢fie-:c- ease: I 3.95.321: 1:121:35 ;:;:;:;:; :-:~:-:- .......... ;.- , _ '.'.'.'.'. . . . . . flan-5.3: N=lO; Visual N=8 Audio/ Visual =10 ~ Control N=5 From an examination of Table 4.6, it is seen that the mean gain in the number of questions attempted was highest for the audio treatment group (a mean increase of 4.] questions) as compared to all other treatments. Gains for the audio/visual and control treatment groups were slight. The visual treatment group showed no increase in questions attempted. Mean gains for audio/visual and control groups were respectively 1.3 and 0.8 questions. These findings are of interest because they indirectly provide a measure of reading rate. It was anticipated that gains in the number of questions attempted during comprehension testing would be proportionate to the group’s reading rate gains. However, reading rate testing revealed that whereas the audio/visual treatment group’s rate gains to be 145 words per minute, the mean gain in comprehension testing for the number of questions attempted was 79 only a 1.3 question increase. Likewise, the mean rate gain for the audio treatment group was 87.7 words-per minute while the gain in number of comprehension questions attempted was 4.1. Reading rate gains for the visual and control treatment groups were 86.5 and 44.6 words per minute while gains-in comprehension questions attempted were 0 and 0.8 questions respectively. The factors contributing to these differential effects upon the relative number of questions attempted during compre-' hension testing could not be determined with certainty. The motivational set of individual subjects during post-testing may have- had an influence upon these results. For reading comprehension, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis Hoz' ”l =' 112 =' u 3 = 114 (where 11'! is the population mean of the audio treatment group. [.12 is the population mean of the visual treatment group, p 3 is the population mean of the audio/visual treatment group; and #4 is the population mean of the control group). The formula used, as well as a presentation of the inter- mediate steps used to obtain the F ratio are found in Appendix N. There were 2 degrees of freedom among sample means and 29 degrees of freedom within samples. The F value obtained was 1.3639. Since the tabled F was 2.934, the hypothesis Ho of no significant differences among sample means could not be rejected. A summary of the. findings is presented in Table 4.7. TABLE 4.7 ANALYSIS or VARIANCE _ READING COMPREHENSION , OF ' “' 2‘??? ~9- ... - S UAKES o a a a a o... o'c'. - u 0.0 v I o 0‘ 0.3... . .lI '.'. u . o u 6 “My”. . . . Sample Means 2 196.545 65.515 F: 65.515: 48.034 L3639 Within 29 . 1393 48.034 Totals 31 1589.545 80 SUMMARY OF RESULTS Chapter Four has presented the results of the present experiment. The first section in this chapter looked at differences in reading rate gains among treatment groups. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) for groups’ mean read- ing rate gains revealed no significant differences among roups at the .05 level of confidence. The F ratio obtained was 1.5476; the tabled F value was 2.9340. The second section in this chapter concerned possible differences in read- ing comprehension gains among treatment groups. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) for groups’ mean comprehension levels revealed no significant differences among group means at the .05 level of confidence. The F ratio obtained was 1.3639 while the tabled F value was 2.9340. In summary, no significant differences were found among mean reading rate or comprehension scores which could be attributed to treatments. A discussion of the results and their implications to future research will be presented in Chapter 5. CHAPTER FIVE Summary Chapter Four presented the results of the statistical analyses of data gathered in the present experiment. The purpose of Chapter Five is to summarize and interpret the results of the present experiment, in light of the objectives of the experiment. Likewise, this chapter will attempt to relate the findings of the present experiment to the results of similiar past research studies. This chapter will also examine the implications for future research arising from the conclusions reached from the present experiment. SUMMARY OF RESULTS An analysis of variance was preformed upon the treatment groups’ mean gain scores to test the hypothesis Hozfil = n2 = ’13 = A4 for the dependent variables of reading rate and reading comprehension. The F ratios obtained were 1.5476 (for rate) and 1-3639 (for comprehension). There were 2 degrees of freedom among sample means and 29 degrees of freedom within samples. The tabled F (P<.05) was 2.934. Since neither of the obtained F ratio values exceeded the tabled F :value, neither of - the null hypotheses of no significant'difference. among groups for reading rate or comprehension~ could 'be rejectedf Since no significant differences among treat- ments were revealed for measures of reading rate and comprehension, post-hoe proce- dures to determine the relative strengths of treatment effects (as were hypothesized in Chapter One) were not appropriate. 81 82 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Prior research concerning the use of time-compressed Speech in techniques intended to enhance visual reading abilities has provided mixed results as to the ‘ effectiveness of such reading. improvement methodologies. In general, the results of the present experiment tend to support the conclusions of past researchers (i.e., Reidford, 1965; Reiland, 1970) that compressed audio-pacing training has no significant effect upon reading abilities. However, extenuating circumstances regard- ing several specific findings concerning the present experiment tend to support the contention that further examination of this research area is needed. Reading Rate 1 I One objective of the present experiment was to detennine the relative effectiveness of four treatment methods upon subjects’ reading rate. The treatments involved practice in compressed listening, visual-pacing, compressed audio-pacing, and non-paced reading. No significantly different effects could be demonstrated as attributable to any treatment condition as compared to all groups. The null hypothesis of no significant differences in reading rate gains among treatment groups differing by training methods could not be rejected at the .05 level of confidence. Thus, analysis by subsequent tests to establish the relative effects of training between treatments was inappropriate. This finding is similiar to that of Reidford (1965) and Reiland (1970). Orr (1966) and Stamper (1970) found compressed audio-pacing to have a significant effect upon reading rate. It should be noted that the characteristics of the 83 compressed audio-pacing treatment used in the present experiment and those used in past research were somewhat dissimilar. Findings related to the characteristics of the compressed audio-pacing treatment and previous research follows. COMPRESSED AUDIO-PACING CHARACTERISTICS The present experiment sought to compare the effects of practice in com- pressed-listening, visual-pacing, compressed audio-pacing, and a control of non-paced reading. Reidford (1965), Orr (1966), Stamper (1970), Reiland (1970), and Walker (1971) had previously compared the effects of compressed audio-pacing, compressed listening and non-paced reading. Orr et al (1965) and Reiland (1970) examined the effects of compressed listening practice upon reading rate and comprehension. A characteristic of each of these studies was the use of compressed audio-pacing in stationary (i.e., non-moving) texts, such as the use of printed books. Reidford (1965) did use the Perceptiscope (i.e., a motion-picture pacing device) in pre- and post-testing, but not during reatment conditions. Likewise, no time-compressed Speech accompanied the Perceptiscope visual materials. For the audio/visual treat- ment in the present experiment, a compressed audio-paced narration accompanied a visually-paced text. DURATION OF TREATMENTS An assumption of the present experiment was that the use of a short period Of training was sufficient to achieve measurable change in subjects’ reading abilities. In a previous study, Stamper (1970) had used variable training PeriOds in subjects’ achievement of successively faster criterion rates for com- Pl‘essed audio-pacing (i.e., involving the ability to successfully follow visually in a text while being audio-paced). Stamper had provided subjects time- compressed audiotapes for up to two hours in total training time. The actual 84 practice time required by subjects for attainment of the faster criterion level (i.e., compressed audio-pacing of subject’ at the rate of 430 words per minute) was substantially lower than the total two hours of available practice time. In the present experiment, the audio/visual treatment paced subjects upward in rate (during compressed audio/pacing) to 600 words per No criterion training was used minute in a time period of thirty minutes. during the present experiment. 0 h °0n One objective of the present experiment (was to determine the relative effectiveness of four treatment methods upon subjects’ reading comprehension. The treatments involved practice in compressed listening, visual-pacing, com- No significantly different effects pressed audio-pacing, and non-paced reading. attributable to any one treatment could be demonstrated. The null hypothesis of no significant differences in reading comprehension gains among treatment groups differing by training methods could not be re- jected at the .05 level of confidence. Thus, analysis by subsequent tests to establish the relative effects of training among treatment pairs was inappro- Priate. This f‘mding is similar to that of Orr et al (1965), Reidford (1965), Orr (1966), Reiland (1970), Stamper (1970) and Walker (1971). The results of the present experiment would tend to support the conclusion that training “Sing time—compressed speech (i.e., compressed-listening and compressed audio- pacing) has no effect upon subjects’ reading comprehension abilities. 85 CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions refer to the statistical analyses of the results of the present experiment. They are based upon the hypotheses of the experiment set forth in Chapter One. 1. No significant difference among groups for reading rate were found to exist attributable to the treatment conditions of practice in listening to time-compressed speech, in watching a paced presentation of a text, in watching and listening a paced presentation of a visual text which was accompanied by a time-compressed speech narration of the text, or in non-paced reading of a visual text. For reading rate, HO: :1, = p2 = 113 = u4 (where u], u2, M3 and n4 refer to treatment conditions) cou1d__not be rejected. Therefore, no relative difference in treatment effects for reading rate could be demonstrated. No significant differences among groups for reading comprehension were found to exist attributable to the treatment conditions of practice in listening to time-compressed Speech, in watching a paced presentation of a visual text, in watching a paced presentation of a text which was accompanied by a time-compressed speech narration of the text, or in non-paced visual reading. -For reading comprehension, Ho: u] = 1‘2 = u3 = :14 (where u], :12, n3, and 114 refers to treatment conditions) could not be rejected. Therefore, no relative difference in treatment effects for reading comprehension could be demonstrated. Conclusion one tends to support previous findings regarding compressed audio-pacing and compressed-listening by Reidford (1965), Reiland (1970) and Walker (1971). Conclusion one tends to refute the finding of Orr et al (1965) concerning compressed-listening practice, and Stamper (1970) concerning Conlpressed audio-pacing practice. Conclusion two tends to support the find- lugs 0f Orr et a1 (1965), Reidford (1965) Stamper (1970) and Walker (1971). 86 IMPLICATIONS Ceneral 1n )1' 'o 1 The results of the present experiment raises several implications for future research. The use of time-compressed speech in methods for improvement of read- ing abilities could not be demonstrated in the present experiment to be significantly better than practice in non-paced reading or a traditional visual-pacing technique. It may be possible for time-compressed audio-pacing practice to prove superior to exist- ing reading improvement techniques under the conditions of extended training session length with a larger sample population. In addition, the following implications are raised through the present study. READING GAINS AND ENTRY RA TE Large increases in reading rate were found for individual subjects in various experiment treatments (See Appendix A). Several large reading rate gains occured in the compressed audio-pacing group (i.e., 394, 242, 194 and 149 words per minute). "These substantial reading rate gains, which were seen in various treatment groups, Inay be influenced, in part, by subjects’ initial reading rates before treatments. The treatment conditions may differentially effect subjects varying by initial reading rate during pre-testing. One implication for future research concerns the question: “Does Initial reading rate have an effect upon reading rate or comprehension gains resulting from reading improvement practice involving time-compressed speech?” READING GAINS AND ENTRY RATE Reading rate gains may be influenced by individual differences among subjects Preferred imput modalities. Holmes (1966) suggests that predisposed differences exist at the manner in which individuals accept, process, and transmit various sensory 87 modes. Hill (1971) proposed five qualitative areas associated with these sensory inputs, and suggested that individuals vary in their capacity to process classes of sensory stimuli. One implication for future research involves the question;“Does the cognitive style or preferred sensory imput modality have an effect upon reading skills improve-. ment resulting from visual- or audio-pacing practice?” READING GAINS AND PACING RATES Reading rate gains may be influenced by the degree to which individuals are paced upward in rate above their initial reading rates before treatments. Orr et al (1965) and Stamper (1970) paced subjects’ visual reading above 500 words per minute. Both studies appear to have been successful in the improvement of reading rate. An implication for future research involves the question'.“What effect does the rate of compressed audio-pacing practice have upon reading gains?” READING GAINS AND TRAINING TIME Reading rate gains may be influenced by the amount and kind of practice available to individuals during treatment. The present experiment paced subjects’ reading rate at 600 words per minute for three minutes only. The question remains: “What effect does the amount of audio-pacing practice at higher rates of time-com- pression have upon reading abilities?” TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS - SYNCHRONOUS TEXT Reading abilities gains may be influenced by the characteristic or style of training involved. The present experiment utilized compressed audio-pacing with an accompanying visual text which was matched to the time-compressed speech narration in a synchronous fashion. One implication for future research involves the question: “What are the relative effects upon reading abilities by the use of compressed audio- pacing training using an accompanying, synchronous visual text as compared to such 88 training using a non-synchronous text?” TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS, TELEVISED FORMAT In the present experiment, compressed audio-pacing accompanied by a synchronous visual text was presented to subjects. in the audio/visual treatment via television. An implication for future research involves the question: “What are the relative effects upon reading abilities by use of compressed audio- pacing training presented via television, as compared to such training presented via motion picture, projected still, or moving paper text media ?” TRAINING CHARACTERISTICS, CRITIfRION-REI'TERENCED PRACTICE In the present experiment, the training given to subjects was controlled by the rate of pacing achieved and the time available for practice. Stamper (1970) held the objectives of training constant (i.e., the ability to follow in a text at 530 words per minute), and allowed training time to vary for individual subjects. An implication for future research involves the question: “What are the relative effects upon reading abilities by the use of compressed audio-pacing training using a criterion-referenced instructional technique, as compared to train- ing involving set lengths of didactic time?” General Conclusions . The results of the present experiment failed to demonstrate any advantages of one treatment. Practice in compressed listening, visual-pacing, compressed audio-pacing, and non-paced reading did not produce significantly different effects upon subjects’ reading rate or comprehension. However, standard deviations of gains for reading rate for treatments were large, A = 80.01, V = 88.21, -A/V = 101.46, C = 44.35. This may suggest that subjects were differentially or l 89 selectively effected by treatment conditions. Further research is needed to determine if the factors of training interval and entry reading abilities have influence in producing selective results among subjects. Subject capacity and/or preference of sensory stimuli in training may also contribute to the varing results of treatments. Gains in reading abilities after treatments may perhaps be pre- dicted through the use of “learning style” tests, such as described by Hill (1973). Similarly, compressed audio-pacing treatment conditions should be further examined in future research to determine what effect variations in presentation medium and compression rate have upon reading gains. Furthermore, direct comparison of synchronous and non-cynchronous forms of compressed audio-pacing should be preformed. In summary, it appears that further research is needed concerning the differential effects upon reading abilities by methods utilizing time-compressed speech. BIBLIOGRAPHY 90 LIST OF REFERENCES Barabasz, A. 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Neal, Alan S. “Legibility Requirements for Educational Television.” Information Display (July-August, 1968), 3944. Neal, Alan S. “Legibility Requirements for Educational Television”. Information Display (July-August, 1968), 39-44. Nolan, C. Y. Listening and reading in Ieaming. In, Proceedings .o_f _tl_1_e Louisville conference pp time-compressed Speech. Louisville: University of Louisville, 1967. Orr, D. B. Note on thought rate as a function of reading and listening rates. Perceptual p_n_(l Motor Skills, 1964, 12, 874. Orr, D. B., Note on thought rate as a function of reading and listening rates. Perceptual _apgl Motor Skills. 1964,_12, 874. Orr, D. B., A note on rapid listening. l’_l1_i Deltp Kappang 1965, pp, 460. Orr, D. B. Recent research on reading and the compression of time-compressed speech. Proceedings pl‘ tlrpCollege Reading Associptiop, Easton, Pennsylvania, 1966, 1,79-84. Orr, D. B. 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(Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1965) Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, Inc., 1969. No. 66-892. Singer, H. A. Substrata-factor theory of reading: Theoretical designs for teaching reading. In J. Allen Figurel (Ed.), Challenge app experiments _ip reading IRA Conference Proceedings. Neward, Del.: International Reading Associ- ation, 1962, 7_, 226-231. Sticht, T. G., Some relationships of mental aptitude, reading ability, and listening ability using normal and time-compressed speech. Journal o_f Communication, l968,__1_8_, 243-258. Sticht, T., & Gray, B. B. Intelligibility of time-compressed words as a function of age and hearing loss. Journal o_f Speech Imp Hearing Refirchg 1969, _1___2, 443-448. Stromer, W. F. An investigation into some of relations between reading, listening, and intelligence. fieech Monographs, 1954,A, 159-160. Taylor, E. A. The fundamental reading skill; a_s related pp eye movement photo- mphy app visual anomalies. (2nd ed.) Springfield, Illinois: Thomas, 1966. Travers, R. M. W. The transmission of information to human receivers. Audio Visual Communication Review; 1964,1_2, 373-385. Turabian, K. L. A manual fpl' writers pl term papers; thesea, and dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Vilbig, J. An apparatus for speech compression and expansion and for replaying visible speech records. Journal 91 t_l_1_e_ Acoustical Society _o_f America, 1950, 22, 754-769. Voor, J. B., & Miller, J. The effect of practice upon the comprehension of time- compressed speech. Speech Monographs, 1965, _1_32, 452-455. Walker, Roger S. “Simplified Methods for Determining Display Screen Resolution Characteristics.” Information Display (January-February, 1968), 28-31. Wilde, Warren D., _A_ Facet Design 29 Measure Reading Comprehension. (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973) Ann Arbor, Michigan, University Microfilms, Inc. Woodcock, R., & Clark, C. Comprehension of a narrative passage by elementary school children as a function of listening rate, retention period, and IQ. Journal pl‘ Communication, 1968,_l_8 (3), 259-271. Woodcock, R. W., & Clark, C. R. Comprehension of a narrative passage by elementary school children as a function of listening rate, retention period, and IQ. Journal pl Communication, 1968, l_8_, 258-271 103 Woodcock, R., & Clark, C. R. Differences in Ieaming through compressed speech as a function of presentation strategy and rate among culturally dis- advantaged fourth-grade children. Institute pp Mental Retardation and Intellectual Development Papers gm Reports, _5_ (9), 1968. Young, W. E. The relation of reading comprehension and retention to hearing comprehension and retention. Journal p_t_‘ Experimental Educatiop, 1936, _5, 30-39. APPENDIX A 104 . APPENDIX A INDIVIDUAL SCORES OF .PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD A METHOD B ' AUDIO ONLY VIDEO ONLY 105 APPENDIX A (CONTINUED) INDIVIDUAL SCORES OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD C METHOD D AUDIO-VISUAL CONTROL APPENDIX B 106 APPENDIX B GAINS FOR READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS Audio Only N=lO Visual Only N: 8 Audio/Visual N=lO Control N: 5 APPENDIX C 107 APPENDIX C STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD A AUDIO ONLY N = 10 PRETEST . s 894.01 13479.21 1755.61 2016 . 01 7208 . 01 7242.01 2218. 41 , 9006.01 7208.01 — s = V68742.9 '"io ' s = »/€§7ZT§§ s = 82.911 108 APPENDIX ,C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS ' METHOD A AUDIO ONLY 10080.16 936 . 36 61206.76 27093.16 4844.16 20050.56 54009.76 3294.76 6021.76 23592.96 -_-- 211150. 40 = WEB—‘2 0.4 _ 10 s = F‘2111'3.‘04 S = 145.303 .l 109 APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST- TEST SCORES ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD B VIDEO ONLY N = 8» PRETEST -_—- —--- S = V574I82.8'Z5 S = 717 . lO 110 APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST -TEST SCORES ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD B" VIDEO ONLY N = 8 POST TEST 12 235 —160.125 11.875 190.875 —160.125 - 27.125 7.875 105.875 ——n ‘/ 100814 87 8 s = VF126017858 112.258 U) 11 25640.015 25640.015 141.016 36433.265 735.766 62.016 11209.515 100814 .870 —--- 1H APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES'ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) (I) ll TOTAL MEAN (2) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD 0 AUDIO-VISUAL N =10 PRETEST 214 250 518 177 309 298 245 226 245 207 1218. 01 1. 21 4774.81 5169.61 5612.01 2410.81 15.21 524.41 15.21 1755.61 2489 19496 . 90 248.9 V19496.9 44.155 112 APPENDIX ' C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES ON READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD C AUDIO-VISUAL N = 10. POST TEST 4475.61 670.81 524.41 222.01 533.61 60074.01 5490.81 4475.61 1436.41 89330.90 U] II 94.515 113 -APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES OF READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D CONTROL N=5 PRETEST 2097.64 6855.84 3003.04 35419.24 .04 TOTAL 7 47398.80 MEAN (i) S = J9479.75 114 APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST SCORES OF READING RATE (W.P.M.) FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D CONTROL N=5 POST TEST S = ‘/ 56165.2 5 S = V11233.04 S = 105.986 APPENDIX D 115 APPENDIX D STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST GAIN SCORES ON READING RATE FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD A AUDI 0 ONLY 1069. 29 0.49 .69 .29 .09 .89 .29 106.09 299.29 4719.69 o o o o o o o o o o‘::§ 40104 wax] \1 \1 \NNN.?;____.I S = 46401.21 S = 80.0075 116 APPENDIX 0 (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST GAIN SCORES ON READING RATE FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD B VIDEO ONLY ~f77781.575 88.212 U) U) 11 ll 117 APPENDIX D (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST GAIN SCORES ON READING RATE FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD C AUDIO — VISUAL mmm """" 97 - 63 4 82 149 -—- V 102930 10 V 10293 101 . 455 118 APPENDIX D (CONTINUED) STANDARD DEVIATION OF PRE- AND POST-TEST GAIN SCORES ON READING RATE FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D CONTROL S = «19677471 S = 44.35 APPENDIX E 119 APPENDIX E INDIVIDUAL SCORES OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD A AUDIO ONLY NO. TTEMPTED 02 24 20 83 26 23 88 O3 28 27 96 36 33 92 O4 24 17 71 25 18 72 05 32 27 84 32 20 63 06 15 8 53 24 15 63 O7 28 20 71 28 13 46 08 20 14 7O 34 29 85 O9 25 16 64 36 25 69 10 31 15 48 36 27 75 120 APPENDIX E, (CONTINUED) INDIVIDUAL SCORES OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD B VISUAL ONLY 13 27 2O 74 23 21 91 14 25 2O 80 28 16 57 15 28 26 93 19 16 84 16 26 23 88 36 26 72 17 35 27 77 32 26 81 18 18 . 16 88 21 18 86 19 0 0 O 0 0 O 20 O 0 O O O 0 121 APPENDIX E (CONTINUED) INDIVIDUAL SCORES OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READDK}COMPREHEN$ON FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD 0 AUDI O—VISUAL 23 24 20 83 26 2O 77 24 20 18 9O 24 16 67 25 31 27 87 24 19 79 26 3O 24 80 26 22 85 27 28 26 93 28 25 89 28 28 27 96 28 20 71 29 36 32 89 32 23 72 30 15 11 73 16 8 50 ”It'll." .I .97 [‘71 try.) 122 APPENle E (CONTINUED) INDIVIDUAL SCORES 0F PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D CONTROL 33 28 22 79 35 32 91 34 35 3O 86 35 31 89 35 36 32 89 28 24 86 36 0 O O 0 0 0 37 O 0 0 O O O 38 0 — O O O 0 O 39 0 0 O O O 0 4O 0 0 0 O 0 0 4".lpibrst in! 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I |14 I I I l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l I I Ix» l I I H O l I I IN IN I I l I I Ix» I r4 F4 +4 H |—’ I—‘ 14 41 ON xn 4:- x» N F4 l l I I IN H I I I—’ IN I I I I l I I IN I I I H I IN I l I I Ix» I I I I I l l I 1 Ni Ix» I l l I I Ix» I I H 00 l I IN I I I I Ix» I I l *Correct Choices Are Underlined “APPENDIX C (CONTINUED) SUMMARY OF SUBJECT RESPONSES PER QUESTION OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D (Post Test, Control 33' .'TEST'FCRM 3"'”'.; §§§RESPONSES PER CHOICB€§§§§ 1 _3_—--— - --2.-- - 2 ----_3. - --§-- - 3 -2--- - --.?.-- '- 4 2---- - 3---- - 5 ---2- - ----.2. - 6 2---- - ----._2. - 7 ——1—__2_ — _1_—1—— .- 8 —_2_1—- - --—-_2_ — 9 —-—_3.- - -2.--- - 10 ---2- - ---_2.- - 11 ----E - --2.-- - 12 --§-- - ———11 — 13 _2_1-—— — —-_2_-- - 14 —-—31 — ————_2_ — 15 -_3_--- - -_2.--- - l6 -—_2_1— — ——_2_—— — 17 - - - 2 - - g - — — - — 18 -—_§-- — —_2_—-—- — *Correct Choices Are Underlined 153 APPENDIX G (CONTINUED) SUMMARY OF SUBJECT RESPONSES PER QUESTION OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D (Pretest) Control .2 l l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 _ _ N x» I II—' '..—I I I I H N I—‘IUI | I I N m H I II-‘ I I I I I Ix» I I I N \1 I I I I I—‘IH hoIH I ...—J IN I—‘ Ix» II-‘ I I I x» x» I—J O I I I I IN I I I I IN I I I IN I—' I I I I I IH I IN W4 H I I I I IN I x» 4:. I I I l I I I I IN I I I I FJIv FJI4 F‘I4 F‘I4 x»x» Chm H #4 I I I—‘II—‘II—J I I I I “A I I *Correct Choices Are Underlined 154 APPENDIX G (CONTINUED) SUMMARY OF SUBJECT RESPONSES PER QUESTION ' OF PRE- AND POST-TESTS IN READING COMPREHENSION FOR ALL TREATMENTS METHOD D (Post Test) Control .;. TEST IFBRM - -' .1 SPCNSES PER CHOICE ~* 1 l l l l l l 2 *Correct Choices Are Underlined APPENDIX H 155 APPENDIX H GAINS FOR THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS ATTEMPTED IN COMPREHENSION TESTING FOR ALL TREATMENTS Audio Only N=lO Visual Only N: 8 Audio-Visual N=lO Control N=5 APPENDIX I 156 mnz Honpsoo oauz HmSmH>Ioass< m uz mane Hmsmfi> oauz mane oass< m§Qam ...—O may—ma .— 565...? fiafiiFtIFIIFIIFtI'S 2: &4 FA I63 I I I I _ ON I I I I ma mph< mnam mmHUSPm Hmaoom moapmodwm m ma I I I 2 NH mpn< mMMdmmmq mmflcst Hwaoom . :Oprodcm m ma I I I m ma myopmflm mqoameHqssaoo mmoqmfiom s mpn< 2 ea mph< mcflm mpp< mmmsmcmg i doapNoScm m 1 ma mmoqmflom Hmaoom noapwodwm mnmpnmamam goapmoscm m NH I I I 2 Ha H mhzngma... ca 8.2053 an no 52.5 no 8qu Emazfizoov a x5295. I64 soapmossm pn< . mgmppmq s apps m moqmfiom\£pmz mmHoSPm Hmaoom coapmosom m I I I m I I I 2 3pm: mpn¢ muam soapmoscm m smficmmm smfiamgm mumppma s mpnq m mpm¢ mcam soapwodcm Hmaommm noapwodom m I soapwodwm Hmaommm qoaPDoScm m mmaudpm Hmaoom mpn< mmmsmcmq soapmosom m QIOHQD¢ mhzmzimfi 8 8265?. mm. mo >95 .8 and; Em—DZFZOUV 1— XEZMEAZ . A.“ ,I I65 I I I I Os I I I I mm I I I I mm I I I I pm I I I I on mmandpm amaoom amaamnm moapmosom m mm mpA¢ msfim amasspm Hwaoom soapmossm m em I I I m mm mmHUSDm Hmfioom mans mmmsmqwq coapmossm m mm pamsmwmswz spam scavdoscm mmmnfimsm mmmqamsm 2 an ...... nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn .................................................................................... ...................................................... .................... ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ”Hutu.” 01>.“3vullin-w‘ I In. a CHIN-c I. “c ”mouo‘o ”HI \uuuoI-I-OQHIIUB I IO u I l I mm WET...“ xm mm. mHZmEHGDHm m0 mom—ma ADNDZHFZOUV ..— X—QZNAE< APPENDIX M 166 APPENDIX M MALE AND FEMALE SUBJECTS ASSIGNED TO INDIVIDUAL TREATMENT CONDITIONS ' ' ‘ ‘ I o a a I . n I n a . n n n n u - ..- . ......‘f-I I ...-l ‘,'.'.'... I. l I I'- ‘ ,, I .... " .....g.o.-.I.nn.u II I.I.:.' ....n ' ..p--- ...-In.- IIIQI ... - .l a I. ;-.~ ' o.:.:.-.-.:¢c-:-:':-:-. .'.;. . . . . ’ -. ..;.-.' , . : '3' . '.;.;. , '- -.-_- ' . _.' .: _ - ' I??- ~ . - .;.'.' ' , ' £¥>W+A . .:. . ' ‘" -:-.::. ' ' ' - 5+, :35” . EC ‘§‘ . ls E 2:. :: a; Per = Treatment 0 n - I - ‘- ’ ' I I I I I l “I ' . - . v .9. I a," I. ' .. ¢ I >O . I“ . ' c I... I. I . ages Male . . Subjects " " 5v :' Audio/ Visual Control 20% 80% Totals 27 APPENDIX N 167 APPENDIX N TESTING INSTRUCTIONS READ AND VIEWED BY SUBJECTS Do not turn this page of the test booklet until directed to do so. There are eight reading selections in this part of the test. Read a selection through completely. Then answer the questions to the right of it. When you have completed one'selection, go to the next. Keep working until you have completed all eight selections or until you are told to stop. You may look back at the material you have read, if you wish, in order to answer the questions correctly, but do not puzzle too long over any one question. Pass on to the next after a reasonable effort. The arrows on this page of the test booklet are positioned the same as those on Page 5. By aligning the test booklet to the answer sheet now, it will not be necessary to realign them when you turn to Page 5. When you are directed to do so, turn this page and start reading immediately. [)0 not take time to fold this page under the test booklet or to re-adjust the test booklet to the ' answer sheet. You will have twenty minutes to do this test. The first minute will be used to measure your reading rate. When the examiner tells you to begin work, turn this page and start reading immediately the selection on Page 6. At the end of one minute, the examiner will call “mark”. Stop on the line you are reading. Note the number printed to the right of that line. Locate the same number on your answer sheet and circle it. Then go on with your reading immediately. Wait for the signal to turn the page. APPENDIX 0 I68 APPENDIX 0 STANDARDIZATION DATA FOR THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST - CASES CLASSIFIED BY GRADE LEVELS' Cent Norms - Planned 47.9 41.0 32.1 APPENDIX P 169 APPENDIX P STANDARDIZATION DATA FOR THE NELSON-DENNY READING TEST/CASES CLASSIFIED BY INSTITUTION -;- 1 .111".. Per Cent 523%? ,- 5'. ' -. ' .-.-.-.-............. manna-J. v m ' a .................... Junior Colleges Universities Liberal Arts Colleges Technical Schools Teachers Colleges APPENDIX Q STANDARDIZATION I70 APPENDIX Q DATA FOR THE NELSON—DENNY READING TEST - STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT DATA Comprehension 13 25.12 25.55 5.75 6.08 14 25.85 27.23 5.04 5.81 15 24.70 24.15 4.82 5.16 16 23.50 25.90 4.76 5.14 'Accordlng to the Nelson-Danny Reading Test Examiner Manual paga 27 with $.E.M. = 1 - r" 5.0. APPENDIX R F r. 7. 17] APPENDIX R STANDARDIZATION DATA FOR THE NELSON-DENNY 'READING TEST - RELIABILITY DATA Comprehension I Rule beIore Fainingl .93 l 74 I I Rafe caller Training] .82 I 78 I i'Accordlng to the Nelson Donny Reading Test Examiner's Manual page 26 APPENDIX S ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE - READING "14 K”; (E LX102 :aXi- --—— x _ .~ 331‘ = 2 MM” k‘l o ... ‘ ”R K [CEKIJ‘] z 1" k=l NR total K Na __ (3112 X1“) 172 APPENDIX S 2 SSB= Ntotal SSW = SST - $88 is ”I: ,, 1.}:113‘1 kn. = 597346 K Nk (2.3.; X111)2 2 “g“ = 3246 = 10536516 = 319288.36 total 33 33 Thus 55T= 597346 - 319288.36 = 278057.64 I“ 1 K (“EX“): 2 "' = 169129 + 484416 + 2102500 + 49729 *7 Nu 10 8 10 5 210250 + 9945.8 = 3576607 Thus 858 = 3576607 - 319288.36 = 38372.34 SSW = 278057.64 - 38372.34 = 2396853 Vssazx- l=4~1=3 Vssw = Niom " K = 29 MSB =f—5-l3 = 12790.78 SSB MSW =53)! = 8265.01 pSSW . _ use _ r — MSW _ 1.5475819 RATE = 76912.9 + 60552 + The tabled value fora one-tailed F with VA = 1:55,, = 3, v3 = Vssw = 29 . and a .-. 05 is 2.93. Since the obtained F does not exceed 2.93, we cannot reject Ho. Ho: #1 =71: =11; =14. APPENDIX T 173 APPENDIX T ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE - READING COMPREIIENSION K "5‘ K Nu (1'; 2‘ x114): SST= E 2: xi _ --."_“_:L____ “‘18:! N101“ N} K ”1. K [LR-X102] (23 .2 xik)2 SSB= z -‘~':-'——-~ - Jim“ IF] Nk Ntotal SSW = SST - SSB is ”5 , _ 1331371 A?" - 1592 (i; 13:“ ) 14,1534"- = .23 + _81_= 2.455 total 33 33 Thus SST: I592 - 2.455 = 1589.545 Nk . xx. 2 k[(i=;qtk)]= _3—3-2 +192+-—2—43+—19-2—=19—8—2.+_19_0_+fl§+_120_= " 10 8 1o 5 10 8 10 5 l08.9 + 12.5 + 57.6 + 20 .—. 199 . 30’. 11 Thus SSB = 199 - 2.455 = 196.545 SSW = 1589.545 - 196.545 = 1393 VssazK"l=4"I=3 Vssw = Nam: “ K = 29 MSB =§§§= 65.515 l’ssa MSW = ssw : 48.034 "ssw F = £1.23. .1: 1.3639 MSW The tabled value tor a one—tailed F with PA = "5515 = 3. ”3 = ”ssw = 29 and a = 05 is 293' Since the obtained F does not exceed 2.93, we cannot reject Ho. Ho: #1 =11: =11; =u4. ”1111111111111111111