PUPIL 05mm IDEOLOG'Y 0F emu: SCHOOL TEACHERS AND n3 RELAflONSfiEP m STUDENT ; : , ‘ .. AUENATION Ammo 3mm CREAMZ‘ATEONAL ~ ’ ‘ " Am) TEACHER VAREABLES ‘ Thesis for the Degree :of Ph. D. MicmeAN sum: umvmsnv , JAMES, DOUGLAS HEDBERG‘ ‘ V ~ 1973 LIBRARY M1Clh5¢u. u .3 :3 University This is to certify that the thesis entitled PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY OF MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STUDENT ALIENATION AND TO SELECTED ORGANIZATIONAL AND TEACHER VARIABLES presented by James Douglas Hedberg has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. Educational de e in gre Administration QJEIMQ K325; ’1 XML/L Major prof Date January 31, 1973 0-7039 ABSTRACT PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY 0F MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STUDENT ALIENATION AND TO SELECTED ORGANIZATIONAL AND TEACHER VARIABLES By James Douglas Hedberg Statement of the Problem The ideology of teachers with regard to pupil control was studied in randomly selected Michigan schools which were organized in 6-8 and 7-9 grade structures. The study attempted to determine if a relationship existed between a teacher's pupil control ideology and such teacher characteristics as sex, teaching experience, educational attainment, area of first teaching assignment, type of certification, and age. In addition, school pupil control ideology (mean scores of teachers) was considered in relation to departmental- ization within the school, size of school, organizational structure, and student alienation. Methodology Questionnaires provided the major source of data for both the pupil control ide010gy of teachers and the degree of alienation of students. The Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) Form developed by Donald J. Willower was admin- istered to 569 teachers in twenty-three randomly selected middle schools1 within a seventy-mile radius of East Lansing, Michigan. The Tutor Tutee (TT) Form, a scale for alienation develOped by Frank P. Besag, was administered to 1,866 sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students in the twentyb three schools. A principal components analysis was used to identify possible sub-dimensions of alienation. James Douglas Hedberg Schools ranged in size from 400 to 1,000 pupils and were of moderate to moderatelyahigh socioeconomic status. Schools were predominantly white and involved all classifications of pOpulation density-rural, urban fringe, town, city, and metropolitan core. A "custodial" pupil control orientation is one which stresses mainte— nance of order and teacherbpupil status differences, is distrustful of stup dents, utilizes a punishment-centered approach to pupil control, views behavior in moralistic terms, and tends to treat pupils impersonally. An "humanistic" orientation stresses two—way communication between pupils and teachers, is Optimistic about the ability of students to be self-disciplining and responsible, views pupil behavior in psychological and sociological terms, encourages close teacher-pupil relations, and de—emphasizes teacher-pupil status differences. Both one-way and two-way ANOVA's were computed on CDC 6500 and 3600 computers to analyze the data. The Scheffé method of multiple comparisons was used to identify specific areas of difference among means. Findings Through analysis of the data the following conclusions were drawn: 1. Secondary-certified teachers were more custodial than elementary- certified teachers (P < .0001). 2. Male teachers were more custodial than female teachers (p ‘(.0339). 3. There was no interaction between certification and sex of teachers—- sex and certification had no differential effect in relation to pupil control ideology. 4. Teachers with 7 or more years of teaching experience were more custodial than teachers with 1-3 years and 4—6 years of experience (p < .05). James Douglas Hedberg 5. The age of a teacher was significantly related to pupil control ide010gy (p (.027) but the Scheffe procedure could not identify which age groups were significantly different. 6. Schools with 800 or more pupils were more custodial than schools with 400 to 599 pupils (p < .007). 7. Schools with grade 7-9 organizational structures were more custo- dial than schools with 6-8 structures (p (.0005). 8. In terms of total alienation, eighth- and ninth-grade students were significantly more alienated than sixth-grade students. Variables which were not significantly related to teachers' pupil control ideology were departmentalization within the school, area of first teaching assignment, educational attainment of teachers, and alienation of students. Not significantly related to student alienation was sex of pupils. Conclusion In this study the data for middle schools supported previous findings that the teacher characteristics of sex and teaching experience are related to pupil control ideology. In addition, teacher certification and age, size of school, and organizational structure were found to be related to pupil control ideology of teachers. The results have practical implications for such things as: personnel practices, size and structure of a middle school, teacher leave policies, teacher training programs, and in-service problem solving. Theoretically, implications have been explored as to the effects of a custodial orientation on the pupil in such areas as internalization of the values of society, James Douglas Hedberg meeting the underachiever's needs, and controlling pupils in an age where the respect for authority has diminished. 1"Middle school" refers to schools organized into grades 6-8 and 7-9. PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY OF MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STUDENT ALIENATION AND TO SELECTED ORGANIZATIONAL AND TEACHER VARIABLES By James Douglas Hedberg A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1973 ?1 Acmomncmrs I am deeply indebted to my advisor and committee chairman, Dr. Frederick Ignatovich, for his encouragement, ideas, constructive criticism, and friendly counsel. The ideas, criticism, and interest of committee members Dr. George Ferree, Dr. Philip Marcus, and Dr. Louis Romano are also appreciated. Thanks are also in order for the superintendents, principals, teachers, and students who contributed their time and thoughts and who, in general, were so c00perative. I am indebted to the Research Department of the Michigan Department of Education for use of data on school socioeconomic status, to the Research Department of Michigan State University for the use of the computers, and to Mary and Linda who spent much time helping with the computer analysis. This book is dedicated to my wife, Jacqueline, whose unwavering faith, gentle prodding, patience, and love provided the atmosphere and assistance necessary to proceed from the initial thought stage to typing the finished manuscript. Because of her, the experience was exciting, enjoyable, and certainly unforgetable. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction A Rationale for the Study Statement of the Problem Statement of Hypotheses Definition of Terms Assumptions Limitations of the Study II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . Recent Substantive DevelOpments Theoretical Framework of Control Research on Control Theoretical Framework of Alienation Research and Related Literature on Alienation Discussion and Limitations of Prior Research Summary Jumping-Off Point III. RESEARCH PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample and Sampling Method Procedures Used to Gather Data Measurement of the Variables Procedure for Data Analysis Pilot Study Analysis of Data Analysis of Hypotheses IV 0 MALYS IS OF RESULTS C U C C O O O . O O C O 0 O O O O O O . Hypotheses One, Two, and Three Hypothesis Three Hypothesis One Hypothesis Two Hypothesis Four Hypothesis Five iii vii 14 51 Hypothesis Six Hypothesis Seven Hypothesis Eight Hypothesis Nine Hypothesis Ten Hypothesis Eleven Hypotheses Twelve, Thirteen, and Fourteen Hypothesis Fourteen Hypothesis Twelve Hypothesis Thirteen V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 67 Summary Discussion Implications Practical Theoretical Recommendations for Future Research BIBLIWRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 78 APPElme O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O I O O C O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 82 iv Table 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. LIST OF TABLES Returns from the Sample of Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individual School Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ideology of Teachers as Judged by Principals and as Scored on PCI Form 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O 0 Per Cent of Variation Accounted for by Ten Unrotated Factors in a Principal Components Factor Analysis of the TT Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Basis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the of Sex and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relation Between Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Sex and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Grade Relation Grade Analysis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in 6-8 Schools and Grade 7-9 Schools . . . . . . . . . of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in High-, Medium-, and Low-Departmentalized Schools . . . . . . . . Relation of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Degree of Departmentalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean PCI Scores of Teachers and Mean TT Scores of Students in TwentyhThree Randomly Chosen Middle Schools . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Three Experience Categories . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean PCI Scores and Standard Deviation of Teachers in Three Experience Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Three Experience Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Three of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Categories of First Teaching Assignment . . . . . . V Page 40 41 43 46 52 53 54 54 55 55 56 57 57 58 59 l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Mean PCI Scores and Standard Deviation of Teachers in Three Categories of First Teaching Assignment . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Three Categories of Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . Mean PCI Scores and Standard Deviation of Teachers in Three Categories of Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Five Age categories 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Mean PCI Scores and Standard Deviation of Teachers in Five %8 categories 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 'Multiple Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Five Age Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Small, Medium, and Large Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean PCI Scores and Standard Deviation of Teachers in Small, medium,andLargeSChOOISoooooooooooooocoo Multiple Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers in Schools of Three Size Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Mean Total Student Alienation Scores on the Basis of Grade Level and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Total Alienation Scores of Pupils in Grades Six, Seven, Eight , mld Nine 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O C O O C 0 Multiple Comparisons of Mean Total Alienation Scores of Pupils on the Basis of Grade Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principal Components of Correlation Matrix of Unrotated Factor Structure of TT Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . 59 60 6O 61 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 66 92 Figure l. 2. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF FIGURES Four Classifications of Service Organizations . . . . . . . _ Effect of External Controls on Alienation and Goals . . . . Organizational Conditions and Effective Power . . . . . . . Compliance Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adaptation to Goals and Means of Society . . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Type of Certification and Sex . . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of School-Organizational Structure . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Degree of Departmentalization in Each School . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Total Years of Teaching Experience . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Area of First Teaching Assignment . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Educational Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Mean PCI Scores of Teachers on the Basis of School Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Comparison of Student Alienation Scores on Two Factork-SBX and Grade level 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o Page 16 17 46 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Schools are organized to provide experiences for pupils so that each pupil can learn the concepts, values, skills, and attitudes necessary to function as a productive member of society. The control process serves to regulate the behavior of members so that these ultimate goals may be achieved.1 A What form does control take in an organization such as the school where neither the pupils nor the school system have a choice as to who partic- ipates? This study attempts to examine two ideal types of responses to that question. These are conceptualized as extremes of a continuum with the beliefs of a teacher defined as "humanistic" at one extreme and those defined as "custodial" at the other extreme. Each of these types feels that his way is most effective in assuring pupil control. It is hypothesized, however, that a highly "custodial" orientation of teachers will lead to alienation of pupils. This study will investigate the relationship between the pupil control belief of teachers and feelings of alienation on the part of pupils. In addition, an attempt will be made to determine what, if any, relationship exists between selected teacher and school characteristics (independent variables) and pupil control ideology (PCI). 1Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Control in Orgggizations (New York: McGraw— Hill Book Company, 1968), p. 3. 1 2 It is felt that the form 0? control imposed upon the unsolicited pupil is an important consideration. It is important if the school is to fulfill its function of teaching the pupil to become responsible to others and if the school is to be able to allocate sufficient resources for achievement of instructional goals. A Rationale for the:§tudy Middle school teachers are usually trained with emphasis on either elementary or secondary education, but it is not known if this professional training has a stronger relationship to one's beliefs concerning pupil control or if the teacher sub-culture of the individual school has a stronger rela- tionship. Previous studies have found teachers in secondary schools and middle schools to differ significantly in pupil control ideology from teachers in elementary schools, but the dimension of certification has not been explored in a school such as the middle school where teachers are likely to be certified to teach both elementary and secondary pupils. This study will attempt to determine if certification is related to pupil control ideology. Teacher characteristics such as sex, age, teaching experience, and educational attainment have been related to pupil control ideology with some conflicting results. This study will attempt to add more information in this area. With alienation among youth and adults being such an important issue in modern society, any information which could suggest possible causes would be a worthwhile contribution. By gathering extensive data concerning aliena- tion from sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade pupils, as well as data regarding teachers' beliefs on pupil control, this research may disclose some important relationships. 3 Carlson's classification of service organizations is of help in seeing how important it is for the school to succeed in getting pupils to internalize organizational goals and, as a result, to develop self-control. Carlson classified service organizations into four types on the basis of two factors: control of the client over his participation and control of the organization over admission of clients. Client Control Over His Own Participation yes no yes Type I Type III Organization Control Over Client's Admission no Type II Type IV Fig. l.-Four classifications of service organizations2 Type IV organizations, under which Carlson classified public schools, state mental hospitals, reform schools, and prisons, have no control over which clients are admitted. The client, at the same time, cannot determine whether or not he will participate. These organizations. like others, have goals to which they are committed, but they are hampered by unsolicited clients. In an attempt to minimize disruptive factors, these organizations sometimes adapt by "segregation." Segregation may take the form of such practices as using part of the school program as a "dumping grounds," desigb nating a special ward in the hospital as the back ward, or assigning a special 2Richard O. Carlson, "Environmental Constraints and Organizational Consequences: The Public School and Its Clients,” Behavioral Science and Education Administration, Sixty-third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p. 265. 4 block for "hardened" criminals.3 In these cases goals of instruction, treat- ment, and rehabilitation are often displaced by control goals or punishment. Typically in service organizations the client does not know what will best serve his own interests, and he is dependent upon the integrity of the professional. The professional must avoid two dangers inherent in this situation: (1) losing sight of the client's welfare by becoming preoccupied with administrative problems and being concerned with one's own status or (2) surrendering to the client the power to determine the nature of the 4 service furnished. The school's situation is complicated as a result of serving two clients-the parent and the pupil. A conflict arises when the parent (client) disagrees with the teacher (professional) as to which course is in the best interest of the pupil. It would seem that the danger of displacement of instructional goals with control goals would be greater in such a situation than if the school and family were in complete agreement on instructional goals. This study is concerned primarily with control goals, however, both in regard to type and effect on pupil attitude. The type of control refers to whether the pupil control emanates from within (internal) or from without (external). It is assumed that the degree of internal and external controls utilized among different schools will vary. Willower hypothesized that external controls have a snowball effect. As the stress on external controls increases, alienation of the students increases. As the alienation of stu- dents increases, the demand for external control likewise increases-a 31pm. 4Peter M. Blau and W. Richard Scott, Formal Organizations: A Compar- ative Approach (Chandler Publishing Company, 1962), pp. 51-53. 5 vicious circle. It was further hypothesized that if the demand for external control becomes exaggerated, the stress on instructional goals will decrease 5 and be displaced by control goals. Figure 2 illustrates this effect. Demand for External Control {-1, /' ./ Instructional ‘4 Goals + + 4/ Alienation of Pupils ~—————-Jv Fig. 2.-Effect of external controls on alienation and goals6 The belief system underlying control of pupils by external means is one of "custodialism." A school that is "custodial" oriented (see definition of terms, p. 10) does not recognize that (1) one of the general functions of the school is in teaching youth to internalize social control, (2) the teacher-pupil relationship can involve mutual sharing of control, and (3) coercion in an educational environment leads to alienation. A custodial orientation seems neither appropriate nor effective in achieving the goals in an organization such as the school. To determine which independent var- iables are related to a custodial ideology may contribute to better decision- making in the areas of employment of personnel, curriculum organization, and in-service education. 5Donald J. Willower, ”Hypotheses on the School as a Social System" Educational Administration Quarterly, I (Autumn, 1965), p. 40. 61bid. 6 If a relationship is determined between custodial pupil control ideol- ogy and alienation of pupils, it may serve as useful information as one possible cause of student alienation. In educational research, determining a cause and effect relationship is usually not possible because the independ- ent variables cannot be manipulated, but controlled inquiry to test hypotheses can, at the very least, suggest possible causes of problems. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study in broadest terms was to investigate the relationship between the pupil control ideology of teachers in both grade 6-8 schools and grade 7-9 schools with their (1) type of certification, (2) number of years of teaching experience, (3) level of educational attainment, (4) sex, and (5) area of first teaching assignment. Another general purpose was to investigate the relationship between the pupil control ideology of‘ the gghggl (teachers' mean score) and (l) the mean student alienation score, (2) the organizational structure, i.e., grades 6-8 and 7-9. and (3) the degree of departmentalization. Questions which hepefully would be answered were: 1. Do secondary-certified teachers in a middle school differ in pupil control ideology from elementary-certified teachers in a middle school? (Middle school herein refers to both grades 6-8 and 7-9 organizational structures.) 2. Do male and female teachers differ in terms of pupil control ideology? 3. Is the relationship of sex to pupil control ideology the same for elementary-certified teachers as for secondary-certified teachers? (Is there no interaction between sex and certification?) 7 4. Does a school with a grade 7-9 organization differ from a school with a grade 6-8 organization in terms of pupil control ideology? 5. Does the degree of departmentalization in a school relate to pupil control ideology of the school? 6. Does the pupil control ideology in a school relate to the students' total alienation score and to sub-dimensions of alienation such as powerless- ness, normlessness, isolation, meaninglessness, and self-estrangement? 7. Does the number of years of experience as a teacher make a differ- ence with regard to pupil control ideology? 8. Does the place of a teacher's first teaching experience make a difference with regard to pupil control ideology, i.e., elementary, middle, or secondary school? 9. Do differing levels of educational attainment of teachers relate differently to pupil control ideology? 10. Do teachers in five age categories differ in terms of pupil con- trol ideology? ll. Does the size of the school make a difference with regard to pupil control ideology? 12. Do boy and girl students differ in terms of total alienation and in terms of dimensions of alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, norm— lessness, isolation, and self-estrangement)? 13. Do sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students differ in terms of total alienation and in terms of sub-dimensions of alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self- estrangement)? 14. Is the relationship of sex to alienation the same for all grade levels-grades 6-9? 8 Statement of Hypotheses 1. In a middle school there is no difference in Pupil Control Ideol- ogy (PCI) scores between teachers possessing secondary teaching certificates and elementary certificates. 2. There is no difference in PCI scores between male teachers and female teachers in middle schools. 3. There is no interaction between sex and certification of teachers. 4. There is no difference in mean PCI scores between schools with a grade 6-8 organization and schools with a grade 7-9 organization. 5. There is no difference in mean PCI scores among middle schools which have varying degrees of departmentalization. 6. There is no relationship between a school's mean PCI score and either the school's total student alienation score or any of the sub-dimensions of alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement). 7. There is no difference in PCI scores among teachers having one to three years of teaching experience, four to six years of teaching experience, or seven or more years of teaching experience. 8. There is no difference in PCI scores among teachers having taught their first year in either an elementary school, a middle school, or a sec- ondary school. 9. There is no difference in PCI scores among teachers with academic preparation of (1) B.A. up to and including a B.A. plus 29 semester hours, (2) a B.A. plus 30 up to and including an M.A. plus 29 semester hours, and (3) an M.A. plus 30 semester hours or more. 10. There is no difference in PCI scores among teachers in the age categories 0f (1) 20-29 years, (2) 30—39 years. (3) 40-49 years, (4) 50-59 years, and (5) 60-69 years. 11. There is no difference in PCI scores among (1) large schools, 800-l,000 enrollment, (2) medium schools, 600-799 enrollment, and (3) small schools, 400-599 enrollment. 12. There is no difference between boys and girls in regard to total student alienation scores and sub-dimensions of alienation scores (powerless- ness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement). 13. There is no difference in total student alienation scores among sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students and in the sub-dimensions of alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement). 14. There is no interaction between sex and grade level of students and their total alienation score or sub-dimension scores (powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement). Definition of Terms Academic area-refers to subject areas of language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science. Alienation-a personal dissatisfaction with certain structural elements of society such as family, school, and institutions. Specifically, it is the psychological states of powerlessness, normlessness, meaning- lessness, isolation and self-estrangement. These sub-dimensions of alienation as defined by Seeman are as follows: powerlessness-"the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behavior cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks."7 7Melvin Seeman, "0n the Meaning of Alienation," American Sociolggiggl Review, xxrv, No. 6 (1959). pp. 784-89. lO meaninglessness-the individual's lack of understanding of the events in which he is engaged; "the individual is unclear as to what he ought to believe-the individual's minimal standards for clarity in decision, making are not met.” This is characterized by a "low expectancy that satisfactory predictions about future outcomes of behavior can be made."8 normlessness-a situation when the norms are broken down and are no longer useful to guide behavior. A situation in which there is "high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviors are required to achieve given goals."9 isolation-assigning "low reward value to goals or beliefs that are typically highly valued in the given society."lo ‘gg;§;estrangement-"the mode of experience in which the person experi- ences himself as an alien," and the loss of intrinsic meaning or pride in work.11 Custodial orientationp-refers to a school which is characterized by such things as a primary concern in maintaining order among pupils, a belief that pupils need punishment to be controlled, a desire for one- way communication, a view of behavior in moralistic terms, a tendency to treat pupils impersonally, and a desire to enforce teacher-pupil status differences. Departmentalizatione-the degree to which academic-area teachers are responp sible for different groups of students within time blocks, i.e., periods in the school day. Assuming a six- or seven-period day, in a highly-departmentalized school, no teachers will have the same 8 . 9 . 10 . ll 11 group of students for two or more periods of the day. In a medium- departmentalized school, teachers in one grade (of three) will have responsibility for the same group of students for two or more periods of the day. In a lowbdepartmentalized school, teachers in two or three of the grades will have responsibility for the same group of students for two or more periods of the school day. Humanistic orientationp-refers to a school which is characterized by such things as a belief that pupils will learn self-discipline through close personal relationships, a view of behavior of pupils in psycho- logical and sociological terms, a desire for flexibility in rules, a desire for two-way communication between pupils and teachers, and a deemphasis on teacherbpupil status differences. Middle school-the school which falls between the elementary and high school. In this study it refers to schools organized into grades 6-8 and 7-9. Pupil control ideology (PCI)-the orientation of an individual teacher or teachers of the school toward control of students. It can be concep- tualized as a continuum from "custodialism" at one extreme to "humanism" at the other. Secondary school-—a school containing the high school or a junior-senior high school. Total student alienation--the mean alienation score of pupils within a specific school. Assumptions It is assumed that a high "custodial" ideology is undesirable, that the exaggerated emphasis on external controls such as punishment will result in only short-term gains at the expense of instructional goals and 12. self-discipline. This assumption is supported by descriptive data in the body of this report. Empirical data is not available. It is further assumed that alienation as herein defined is undesirable. This, too, is a matter of degree for it is believed that alienation to some degree is desirable for a healthy society. Identifying the point where custodialism and alienation become exaggerated is not attempted in this study. Limitations of the Study This study in regard to control of pupils deals with teachers' beliefs. There is no assurance that the professed beliefs coincide with their actual behavior. HOwever, in the original validation of the PCI Form performed by .Willower (see p. 42 for further information concerning validation of PCI Form), teachers who were identified by principals as displaying "custodial" behavior were also found to receive "custodial" scores on the PCI Form. In this study teachers were assured prior to filling out question— naires that their responses would remain anonymous (see Appendix, p. 84), and they were asked not to put their names on the questionnaires. Pre— addressed enveIOpes were provided for convenient mailing following admin- istration. There is, of course, some doubt as to whether the assurances of anonymity provided enough security to insure completely unbiased results. Student questionnaires were administered by teachers to randomly chosen classes. This method of administration was chosen because of the difficulty foreseen in arranging a convenient time for a researcher to admin- ister the questionnaire to each of the classes or to students drawn from many classes. Students were assured that their responses would remain anonymous (see Appendix, p. 89), and that their questionnaires would be placed in a pre-addressed envelope and mailed immediately following administration. 13 Having the same individual administer all the questionnaires would have been more desirable; but because most of the questions did not relate to school issues, it was felt that the students' answers would not be seriously biased. In an attempt to control somewhat for size and socioeconomic status (SES), only schools with 400 to 1,000 pupils and of moderate to moderately high SES were included in the sample of grade 6-8 and 7-9 schools. Realizing that the difference in size of schools (400-l,000) was still large, an attempt was made to compare three categories of schools within that range. no further effort was made to deal with SES. Although the data was collected from randomly selected schools, the confidence in generalizing to the grade 7-9 population is hampered somewhat by the small sample of grade 7—9 schools which agreed to participate and which completed adequate questionnaires. 0f the twenty-one grade 7-9 schools which made up the population, only seven schools agreed to participate and only five schools completed both questionnaires. ‘However, of the fortyhone grade 6-8 schools in the papulation, eighteen completed required question- naires. The small size of the sample, especially among grade 7-9 schools, will subject the null hypothesis to greater Beta error and any difference between the organizational structures may not be detected. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH Recent;§ubstantive Developments Theoretical Framework of Control Arnold S. Tannenbaum, speaking generally about control, said that in an organization control is an essential and universal requirement which— every member must face sooner or later. This would apply to both control of teachers and control of pupils in a school situation, but this study concerns itself primarily with pupil control. Originally control meant "to check," but contemporary usage has given it a broader meaning. Control may be defined as "that process in which a person (or group of persons or organization of persons) determines, i.e., intentionally affects, what another person (or group, or organization) will do."1 This definition makes control synonymous with the concepts of power, authority, and influence. The analysis of Eontrol has changed also. In the traditional analysis, coercion played an important role. There was presumed conflict between leader and followers with the leader being obeyed out of fear of punishment or in hOpe of reward. Control was viewed as a unilateral process-one was 1Arnold S. Tannenbaum, "Control in Organizations: Individual Adjust- ment and Organizational Performance," Administrative Science Quarterly (September, 1962), pp. 236-57 quoted in Philip M. Marcus and Dora Cafagna, "Control in Modern Organizations," Public Administration Revigg, XXV, No. 2 (1965). 121-27. 14 15 either a leader or a follower-—and the total amount of control, or power was a fixed quantity-increasing the power of one would decrease the power of another. In a school setting the teacher would be the leader and the pupils, the followers. Any control given to pupils would mean a decrease in teacher control. Control viewed in terms of contemporary analysis recognizes the importance of social approval. Although approval and disapproval are types of reward and punishment, they differ from those in the traditional analysis because they may be awarded by someone other than the appointed leader. The control process is seen as mutual where followers influence leaders and vice versa. Control is not considered a fixed quantity, and it is felt that by delegating this authority to others the total control may grow.2 Control viewed in this perspective has entirely different implications for those in the school setting than would control viewed from the traditional analysis. Pupils can be expected to exert control over their peers and over the teacher in many instances. When teachers and pupils share in the con— trol, the total amount may be greater than if the teacher acted under the assumption of the traditional viewpoint. Amitai Etzioni writes that one does not have the choice as to whether or not to use power (control, as we define it) but rather[ghigh_use of power will have the least distorting effects. Powerless relations exist only when the participants have reached a consensus regarding goals to be pursued, means to be applied, and pace to be followed. When one uses power to overh came resistance, some additional resistance will be generated. The problem is then how to reach sought-after goals while generating the least resistance.3 2Tannenbaum, Control in Or anizations, pp. 10—12. 3Amitai Etzioni, The Active Societ : A Theo of Societal Political Processes (New Yerk: The Free Press, 19685, pp. 351-53. l6 Etzioni differs from Marx and Fromm in that he feels the main source of alienation is not (1) the economic or political structure, e.g., capital- istic bureaucracies, (2) the ownership of means of production, or (3) the size and complexity of societal organizations. Social structures only affect the degree to which various goals are emphasized and the various means favored.4 A more important consideration is the interaction of type of power utilized with the orientation of the subject. The type of power used depends upon the kind of societal organization. If the structure is a situation of fear, hate, or sharp division between "ins" and "outs," force would be the only effective power to use. If the organization competes for profits in the market place, exchange of resources would be the power used; and if members are committed to each other and share societal goals, an appeal to values, consensus, and education would be the best source of power to use. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Organizational Condition ‘flgst Effective Kind of Power fear, hate, sharp division between "ins" and ”outs" force market situation where each . exchange person is a means to others committed to each other; appeal to values, share societal goals consensus, education Fig. 3.-—Organizational conditions and effective power5 These three general types of power were more specifically defined as coercive, utilitarian, and normative. Coercive power is the use of assets such as weapons, military installations, police manpower, etc., to impose one's will on others. Normative power is the manipulation of symbols such 4 5Ibid., p. 356. Ibid., pp. 371-74. 17 as appeals to values and sentiments. Utilitarian power is the use of econ- omic possessions, technical capabilities, etc., to bring others to support action. Among the three types of power, normative power is the least aliena- ting in effect; coercive power is the most.6 Etzioni developed these concepts further and produced a compliance model which represented typical patterns of relations between power wielders and their subjects. The compliance structure is determined by (l) the kinds of power used and (2) the orientation of the subjects. Congruence would occur when coercive power was used and subjects were of high alienation and low commitment. Coercive power used on a highly committed, low alienated subject would create dissonance and one of the two variables (Kinds of Power or Orientation of Subject) would change-the subject would become more alienated and less committed or utilitarian control would be effectively utilized, as illustrated in Figure 4. Orientation of;§ubject high alienation medium alienation low alienation Kindg;of Power and and and low commitment medium commitment high commitment Coercive compliance X (- - <- - -- (X) I Utilitarian compliance x ' 3k______. Normative compliance x 7 Fig. 4.-Compliance structure This rationale by Etzioni has implications for teachers and other school personnel. If the pupil is to be highly committed and if alienation is to be low, normative power (or control) seems to be the only kind of power 7 6Ibid., pp. 358—62. Ibid., p. 364. 18 which would be congruent. Nbrmative control can be associated with a "human- istic" ideology in which the teacher believes that a close pupil-teacher relationship is desirable, that students should be given opportunities to deve10p self-control, that control can be shared, and that communication should be two-way. These characteristics suggest a commitment to each other and a sharing of goals. The custodial ideology which is characterized by a primary concern for order, a need for punishment, an impersonal treatment of students, and a clear delineation of teacher and pupil status differences seems to imply fear and sharp division between the "ins" (teachers) and the "outs" (pupils), and possibly hate. It was assumed in the example (Figure 4) that the subject was of low alienation. If the subject were in fact highly alienated when arriving on the scene, coercive power would be the apprOpriate choice of power. In such a situation, it would be apparent that educational goals-instructional and social-could not be accomplished, unless the goal of the educational process was to reformulate the students’ orientation to make him less alienated and more highly committed. Utilitarian compliance might then be the appropriate control. Most pupils, of course, are not highly alienated when they come to school. A larger amount might be of moderate alienation. The course to pursue in such a situation would be to use utilitarian power with hopes of developing higher commitment and lower alienation. This model would seem to indicate that behavior modification techniques using economic possessions would be successful for the moderately alienated pupil. Etzioni proposed that mixing two or three kinds of power in one situation would have a neutralizing effect, e.g., appealing to students on 19 both a normative and coercive level in a particular situation. The choice of which type of power to utilize in an organization, however, is limited by the type of goal desired. Goals were classified into three types-—cultural, production, and order. If the goal were cultural (education, socialization, or rehabilitation), normative commitments would lead to low alienation. If other types of power were used in such a situation, alienation would increase and effectiveness would be reduced. Normative controls incur the least costs in terms of alienation and resistance generated. For production ggals, such as the manufacture of goods, etc., utilitarian power works best. For order gpglg, such as control of deviants, reliance on controls other than coercive ones is relatively ineffective.8 Paul H. Landis writing in 1956 felt that social control was the major prdblem of the time. The influence of the primary group had declined as the big cities grew and as families became more mobile. Industrial society had become secularized and man was freed of many traditional religious controls. The family, as a result, was no longer held together as rigorously as before. Who exercised social control? Although individuals, groups, and certain leaders served a part of this function, underlying these sources were custom and tradition. The attitudes and values of the individual were the real regulating forces.9 His attachments to group life keep him oriented and orderly in his personal conduct. The real test of a society's effectiveness in social control is the extent to which its values and goals become internalized in each individual so that they become his motivating forces.10 amide, pp. 366-700 9Paul H. Landis, Social Control: Social Organiggltion and Disor ’za- tion in Process (1st ed., rev.; New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1956), p. v. mmmnpmadm 20 Landis felt that if life were to function smoothly it was essential that both individual and social life be reduced to a routine-social routine taking the form of ggptgm; individual routine, the form of.h§bi§§. Habits are learned unconsciously by the individual through the continuous process of informal education; formal education serves to supplement this training. Controls become internalized and the individual becomes in large part self- controlled.11 The responsibility for shaping a child's personality so that he will be a fit subject for group life is placed upon society. If one is to become regulated, he must develop such traits as social consciousness, identifica- tion with a group, a constant awareness of group, a conscience, social expect- ancy, and a habit of conformity. He can then fit into the social order and develop harmony with himself.12 Formal education, although less effective than the family in implanting deep-set patterns of behavior, does attempt to (l) shape personalities to fit the social order and (2) develop restraints in the individual so that he will conform to the cultural pattern.13 Man maintains an orderly society not by inborn patterns or by external authority consciously imposed but by the normal effect of social experience. One learns from social experiences and develops a sense of responsibility to others as a result. Order then resides in the individual and comes from the referent group.14 John Dewey wrote of the importance of social control in Democracy and Education when he said that one of the general functions of education is that of direction, control, or guidance. Re preferred the terms direction and guidance to that of control, because control was sometimes assumed to denote llM'! pp. 4-5. l2Ibid'l p0 530 lBIbide, p. 2290 14 Ride, pp. 25-26. 21 the process when an individual subordinated his natural impulses to public or common ends. Control then took on a flavor of coercion or compulsion. Purely external direction, he felt, was impossible. Even when one is threat- ened, the threat is effective only because the person has an instinct of fear.15 In many situations the natural behavior of youth does not agree with the life customs of the adults around him. As a consequence, he must be directed or guided. This control, however, is not a physical compulsion but one consisting of centering the impulses of the youth on some specific end. The basic control resides in the nature of the situation in which the young take part. In social situations the young have to refer their way of acting to what others are doing and make it fit in . . . . Moreover it is intrinsic to the disposition of the person, not exter5 nal and coercive.16 Dewey suggests, then, that the fundamental means of control is intellectual in which the mind is used to understand things in terms of the use made of them.17 Research on Control Donald J. Willower and Ronald G. Jones found control to be a central theme in one school and found that the teacher sub-culture had definite expectations and norms for new idealistic teachers in terms of control. The new teachers adapted in one of three ways: by submerging their ideals, by engaging in conflict, or by leaving the organization.18 Willower and Landis in replicating previous studies found that (l) secondary school teachers 15John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Free Press, 1944). pp. 23-25- 16922., p. 39. 17Ibid., p. 33. 18Donald J. Willower and Ronald G. Jenes, "When Pupil Control Becomes an Institutional Theme," Phi Delta Ka an, XLV, No. 2 (1963), p. 107. 22 were more "custodial" than elementary teachers, (2) teachers with more than five years of experience were more "custodial" than teachers with five or less years of experience, and (3) there was little difference among teachers from regions classified as rural-agricultural, rural—industrial, suburban- commuter, and urban-industrial.19 Unpublished doctoral dissertations account for much of the research in the area of pupil control ideology. Klucker found among highly trained teachers that those in high socioeconomic status (SES) schools were more "custodial" than teachers in low SES schools.20 Harrell found that senior- high teachers were more custodial than junior—high teachers, but when junior- high teachers transferred to the high school they did not become more custo- dial oriented.21 Rafalides found that the more custodial oriented the school, the more alienated the students in terms of powerlessness, normlessness, and isolation.22 Keefe found that humanistic and custodial types differed signif- icantly in (1) Rokeach Dogmatism scores and (2) the way each perceived the climate of the school. ("Humanistic” identified climate as open;'bustodial." as closed. There were no differences between types in relation to sex, level 25 of educational attainment, and years of experience. Haldman found a nega- tive correlation between custodial orientation of teachers and openness of 19Donald J. Willower and Charles A. Landis, III, "Pupil Control Ideol— ogy and Professional Orientation of School Faculty," Journal of Secondayy Education, XLV, No. 3 (1970), pp. 118-23. 20James David Klucker, "Effects of the Socioeconomic Status of Clients Upon the Control Ideology of Professional Staff Members in Selected Schools" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, The University of Akron, 1969). 21ChristOpher James Harrell, "The Relationship of School Organizational Patterns and Pupil Control Ideology of Teachers in Selected Junior and Senior High Schools" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, New Yerk University, 1969). 22nadeline B. Rafalides, "Relationship Between the Pupil Control Orien- tation of Schools and the Aspect of Student Alienation" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Rutgers university, The State University of New Jersey, 1971). 25 organizational climate.24 Leppert while using an activities' index found that applied-interests, orderliness, egoism, audacity, and constraint were related to custodialism (low correlation). Closeness, intellectual interests, and motivation were negatively related to custodialism. He found, too, that custodialism increased with experience, that middle school teachers were more custodial than elementary teachers, and that male teachers in middle schools 25 Rexford found that custodial- were more custodial than female teachers. oriented teachers were more direct in classroom behavior than humanistic teachers and that custodial-oriented teachers tended to employ more teacher talk in classrooms than did humanistic teachers.26 Appleberry and Hey, using Halpin’s Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ), found that teachers in schools with "open” climates were more humanistic in pupil control ideology than were teachers in schools with ”closed“ climates.27 Theoretical Framework of Alienation Alienation, according to Joachim Israel, can be analyzed from two perspectives: as a psychological state or as a sociological process. On 23Joseph A. Keefe, "The Relationship of the Pupil Control IdeOIOgy of Teachers to Key Personal and Organizational Variables” (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1969). 24.Bruce Valdman, "Organizational Climate and Pupil Control Orientation of Secondary Schools" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Rutgers university, The State University of New Jersey, 1971). 25Edward John Leppert, ”Pupil Control Ideology and Teacher Personality" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, 1971). 26Gene Erwin Rexford, "The Relationship Between Pupil Control Ideology and Observed Verbal Behavior of Selected Secondary Teachers" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1970). 27James B. Appleberry and wayne K. Roy, "The Pupil Control Ideology of Professional Personnel in 'Open' and 'Closed' Elementary Schools," Educational Administration Qaayterly, V (Autumn, 1969), pp. 74-85. 24 the psychological level, descriptions or analyses are made of either (1) experiences which result from the individual's interaction with persons and objects (estranging process) or (2) the individual's perceptions of his own conditions in society (states of estrangement). On the sociological level, the economic-sociological processes which affect the individual and his role in society are described and analyzed. Given a social structure, one would describe and analyze an individual's relation to his work, to society, and to non-human objects. Melvin Seeman defined alienation in terms of the psychological states experienced by an individual-powerlessness, normless- ness, meaninglessness, isolation and self-estrangement (all psychological states experienced subjectively). Marx, on the other hand, had used aliena- tion in a sociological theory.28 On the empirical level, alienation can be differentiated as a sub- jective phenomenon or as an objective phenomenon. As a subjective phenomenon it is concerned with social psychological conditions and is then labeled "alienation.” As an objective phenomenon it can be an objective view of the social process which is then called "anomie."29 Theories of alienation usually assume pro-conditions in three areas: (1) conceptions of human nature, (2) conceptions of the nature of society, and (3) visions concerning developmental trends and the formation of future societies. If one is alienated, he must be alienated from something. This calls for assumptions regarding the "normal” state or the "ideal" state.30 Theories also deal with relations of the individual to society. Conflict is usually pro-supposed and caused by demands made by both the 28 Jeachim Israel,‘a1ienation from Marx to Modern Sociolo : A Macro- sociological Analysis (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1971), pp. 5-6. 29 Ibid., ppe 6.70 3orbide’ pp. 7-110 25 individual and society which are incompatible. It is a further supposition that either the individual or the society or both are striving for certain constant states.31 Most theoretical formulations of alienation are based on the works of Marx and Durkheim. Marx and Engels, who were interested in the causes of alienation, believed that society was responsible for alienation and, in fact, for every act within that society. They believed that there were seeds for both equilibrium and change within society with each succeeding society using and modifying materials from the preceding generation. Conflict within society was caused by the existence of two classes, the “ruling" and "ruled," with the ruling class controlling the means of production. ”Estrangement" occurred when the worker became emotionally separated from his work-—as he became looked upon and looked upon himself as a commodity. Marx envisioned alienation increasing as the worker produced more goods-as the value of goods increased, the value of man decreased.32 Durkheim, writing sixty years after Marx, believed that alienation was a lack of adjustment of the individual to the demands of society. His book on suicide33 considered the problem of the individual's relationship to society. Suicide, he believed, was a sociological phenomena and not a psycho- logical one. Anomie resulted when traditional customs were weakened to the point where there were no rules which defined what was possible and what was not possible, what was right or wrong, and what demands were normal or 31Ibid., pp. 11-12. 32Frank P. Besag, Alienation and Education: An Empirical Approach (Buffalo: Hertillon Press, 1966), pp. 4-6. / 33Emile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study7in Sociology, trans, by J. A. Spaulding and G. Simpson (New York: The Free Press, 1951). 26 excessive. In order to maintain societal and individual equilibrium he believed that (1) there must be some understandable limits to individual desires and (2) the individual must feel that his efforts are not in vain. Durkheim did not conceive of a society which purposely increased appetites such as modern society but, rather, he saw society placing limits on the individual because he was not capable of doing it himself.34 Modern writers talk of man as being manipulated and feel that it is not necessary that he be aware that he is alienated as Marx and Engels had assumed. Modern man, rather than being exploited at work, is exploited after work by efforts to constantly increase his desire to consume. Erich Fromm, in Escapa from Freedom, wrote of how man had escaped from the economic drudg- eries of the past only to buy this freedom at the price of increased isolation.35 Later, in Sane Society, Fromm raised the question of whether human beings are sick or whether society is sick. All human individuals are believed to have common basic needs, but because of man's increased knowledge, he strives to achieve a new state of equilibrium. Only through achieving these needs in his present environment can he remain healthy mentally. Fromm's theory is based on the concept of social character rather than on individual character. He defined social character as "the nucleus of the "36 character structure which is shared by most members of the same culture. The social character which was needed and which develOped in advanced 34Besag,'Alienation and Education, pp. 8-10. 35Israel, Alienation. Pp. 151-52. 36Erich Fromm, Sanei§ociety (New York: Holt, Rinehart &.Uinston, 1955). p. 78. 27 industrial capitalistic societies was characterized by competition and owner- ship and was authoritarian, aggressive, and individualistic. Technical changes led to mass production which led to a division of labor. What social character is needed for this society? His answer: One characterized by alienation (estrangement). where a person experiences himself as alien and where he does not feel fulfilled or pleased.37 C. wright Mills criticized the theories of Marx because Marx's vision of the ideal work situation-that of a small artisan-cannot be applied to the labor of a modern industrial worker. The modern industrial worker in a technical industry has never experienced the "creative activity” which Marx associated with the artisan. The modern white—collar worker is more like the manual laborer in that he (1) is detached from the final product, (2) cannot use all his skills because of the division of labor, and (3) is in a bureau- cracy with little chance to plan his work or modify plans.38 Mills felt that the develOpment of powerful, centralized bureaucracies in America weakened the influence of small groups, local organizations, and politicians in the middle government. As a result, more and more people became passive and top power became more centralized. Urbanization, too, decreased the interaction of individuals and fostered anonymity and isolation. As a result, man questioned less, lost his independence, became less inter- ested in rational analysis, and lost interest in politics. Man became aliena- ted as a result of the discrepancy between democratic ideals and his present state.39 37Israel, Alienation, pp. 155-59. 380. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), p. 220, quoted in Israel, Alienation, pp. 188-90. 39Israel, Alienation, pp. 202-03. 28 Robert K. Merton felt that the basic elements within the social struc- ture were (1) goals, purposes, and interests of society (cultural structure), and (2) means which were acceptable for achieving the goals. .Alienation resulted when the individual rejected societal goals or when the goals were acceptable to him but conventional means for achieving the goals were not acceptable. Merton identified five different ways that an individual could adapt to demands of society. (1) A conformity type of adaptation results when an individual accepts both the cultural goals and institutionalized means. (2) Innovation is the largest single mode of adaptation to society and occurs where an individual accepts the goals of the culture but does not accept the usual means for accomplishing them. (3) Ritualism is the opposite of inno- vation; means are accepted but not the goals. (4) Retreatism is nonaccept- ence of both means and goals. (5) Rebellion is also nonacceptance of means and goals but, in addition, the individual attempts to change them. These adaptations are illustrated in Figure 5 where a plus sign indicates acceptance and a minus sign, rejection of cultural goals and institutionalized means. Melvin Seeman identified five alternative meanings of alienation as found among contemporary writers: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normless- ness, isolation and self-estrangement. Powerlessness, used most frequently in current literature, can be conceived as ”the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behavior cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks."41 Meaninglessness refers to the individual's understanding of the events in which he is engaged. When 40Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (lst ed., rev., Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957). quoted in Besag, Alienation and Educa- tion, p. 14. 41Seeman, "Meaning of Alienation," p. 784. 29 the individual is unclear as to what he ought to believe-his minimal stand- ards for clarity in decisionrmaking are not met-there is a ”low expectancy that satisfactory predictions about future outcomes of behavior can be made."42 Normlessness in the traditional usage was derived from Durkheim's description of ”anomie” and was denoted as a situation when the social norms had broken down and were no longer useful to guide behavior. The anomic situation (from the individual's point of view) was defined as one in which there is "high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviors are required to achieve given goals."43 Seeman saw isolation in terms of the individual's value attachment to societal goals. The alienated in this sense are those who ”assign low reward value to goals or beliefs that are typically highly valued in the given society."44 Individual Adaptation Cultural Institutionalized Beale Eartha l. conformity + + 2. innovation + - 3. ritualism — + 4. retreatism - - 5 . rebellion i 3'. Fig. 5.-—Adaptation to goals and means of society45 The most extensive treatment of the concept self—estrangement according to Seeman was in Fromm's.§ane;§ociety when Fromm defined alienation as the ”mode of experience in which the person experiences himself as an alien. He 42.1.2112” p. 786. 43M” p. 788. 44Ibid., pp. 788-89. 45 Merton, Theory and Structure, pp. 17-19. 30 has become, one might say, estranged from himself."46 Reisman, however, placed a slightly different emphasis on estrangement. He saw this state occurring when one begins to feel that he is less than what he might be as a result of societal circumstances. The child learns "that nothing in his character, no possession he owns, no inheritance of name or talent, no work he had done is valued for itself, but only for its effect on others."47 Seeman characterized this aspect of alienation as the loss of intrinsic meaning or pride in work.48 Research and Relatedigiterature on Alienation Frank P. Besag developed a questionnaire to measure alienation among young children. He used items from Srole's scale of anemia and Nettler's scale of alienation and rewrote each item for simplification in reading diffi- culty. Additional items were written to extend the questionnaire to cover 49 school issues. Using the instrument on lowerbclass children in elementary, junior high, and senior high schools who had volunteered for tutoring, Besag concluded that the following were characteristics or the alienated pupil: l. feeling that the "ruling classes" of society have no interest in 2. feeling that the future holds little chance of success, 3. feeling that fate governs his life, 4. feeling of conflict between available means and goals, 46Fromm, Saneg§ociety, p. 51. 47David Reisman, TheiLQnely Crowd (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 49. Quoted in Seeman, "Meaning of Alienation," p. 790. 48Seeman, "Meaning of Alienation," p. 790. 49Besag, Alienation and Education. pp. 122-26. 31 5. feeling of isolation from family, friends, society, 6. feeling of negativism with regard to school, society, and fate of fellow man, 7. feeling of powerlessness.50 Douglas H. Heath, writing of student alienation and the school, created three propositions: (l) Characterological changes in youth are "alienating them from their emotional needs, from each other, and from tradi- 51 '(2) These changes are caused by failures tional communal sources of values." of institutions charged with instilling educative and maturing values-the family, neighborhood, and the church. Increasingly youth are being con- trolled and shaped by mass media, peer culture, and schools. (3) Schools have dealt too much with structural and policy changes and too little with the psychological-sociological needs of students.52 Paul Goodman probably agreeing with Heath wrote that in advanced countries perhaps the chief cause of alienation of the young is the school system where the young must attend although it is unnecessary for their well-being and for society's well- being.53 Kenneth Keniston writing of college dissenters described the culturally alienated youth as pessimistic, Opposed to the system, and disinterested in political action. He is likely to be psychologically disturbed and is . especially attracted to hallucinogenic drugs. He rejects parental values and tends to avoid responsibilities. The most common family environment is SOIbid., pp. 94-95. 51Douglas H. Heath, "Student Alienation and School," School Review (August, 1970), pp. 515-16. 52Ibid., pp. 515-28. 53Paul Goodman, New Reformation: Notes of a Neolithic Conservative (New York: Random House, 1970), p' 67. 32 one of parental schism where there exists a special mother-son alliance based on mutual understanding, maternal control, and depreciation of the father.54 Blane, Hill, and Brown reported that alienated high school youth were positively associated with ”favorability to irresponsible use of alcohol” (r'= .19) and that alienation dimensions of powerlessness and normlessness (but not isolation) were related to "favorability to irresponsible use of alcohol."55 William M. Brown conceived of alienation as including ”all those who are shut off, who are unprepared and unable to move into the mainstream of life, unable to assume the normal roles of mating, making a living, and producing a home and family."56 Specifically the alienated are the under— achievers in education, the underemployed in industry, school dropouts, the unemployed, and the adjudicated delinquents. In relation to the schools, Brown felt that the causes of underachievement were (1) the structure and nature of school organization and (2) the values from adolescent culture. Some underachievers adjust to societal demands later on while others do not. Why is that? When the underachievement is based solely on the adolescent value structure, later adjustment is likely. When underachieve- ment is caused by a combination of adolescent value structure and school organization where needs are not met, chances of later adjustment are less- ened. In addition, the nature of the social and economic supports which 54Kenneth Keniston, "The Sources of Student Dissent," Journal of Social Issues, XXIII, No. 3 (1967), pp. 108-37. 55H. T. Blane, M. J. Hill, and E. Brown, "Alienation, Self-Esteem and Attitudes toward Drinking in High School Students," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, XXIX (1968), pp. 350—54. 56William Neal Brown, "Alienated Youth," Mental Hygiene, LII, No. 3 (1968). pp. 330-36. 33 are available from the family are important. Although underachieving, one can recoup when support is available. Without it, there is little hope.57 W. W. Meissner contended that formation of a mature individual depends upon internalizing parental norms. Negative attitudes toward parental author- ity and discipline damage this development. Alienation from parental influp ence and control increase through the adolescent years.58 Michael Aiken and Jerald Hage examined relationships between two types of alienation (from work and from expressive relations) and two structural properties of organizations (centralization and formalizatior) in sixteen wel- fare organizations. They found that both types of alienation were more prom- inant in highly centralized and highly formalized organizations.59 In a review of literature on social alienation, Mary H. Lystad cited studies which developed and tested unidimensional measures for alienation. They included those by Srole, Nettler, Rhodes, and Couch.60 In the same review, Keniston told of estrangement pervading not only the lower third of society but all levels. This was contributed to by (l) affluence, (2) increasing rate of social change, (3) leisure, (4) automation, (5) lack of creativity in work, and (6) a decline in UtOpian ideas.61 57Ibid. 58W. W. Meissner, "Parental Interaction of the Adolescent Boy," Journal of Genetic Psychology Qgggterly, X (December, 1965), pp. 225-33. 59Michael Aiken and Jerald Hage, "Organizational Alienation: A Com- parative Analysis," American Sociological Review, XXII (August 4, 1966), pp. 497-507. 6OMary Hanemann Lystad, "Social Alienation: A Review of Current Literature,” The Sociological Quarterly, XIII (Winter, 1972), pp. 90—113. 61Kenneth Ksniston, The Uncommitted: Aliengted Youth in American Society (1965), quoted in Lystad, "Social Alienation.” 34 Theophilus 0. Odetola and others examined the relationship between two types of student alienation (identification and powerlessness) in middle schools with and without teaching teams and in traditional departmentalized junior high schools. General research questions which they attempted to answer were: (1) to what extent can alienation be associated with varying teaching systems? (2) what is it about systems that contributes to a feeling of alienation? Hypotheses which stated that pupils of teacher teams in the middle school (1) would be happier, (2) would have more pride in their school and (3) would have a greater feeling of control over their learning than would pupils in the traditional departmentalized junior high school or middle school classroom were rejected. Teaching teams, which were defined as those in which teachers in different subject areas cooperate and plan together, were suspected by the authors as being inauthentic "teams."62 Discussion and Limitations of Prior Research The literature on both control and alienation is extensive. Its use- fulness is limited somewhat by the many interpretations and definitions placed on each concept. Control as defined by Tannenbaum is used synonymously with power, authority, and influence. Others do not give it as broad an interpre- tation. Control is also hampered by the implied meaning which it is given of circumscribing behavior by threats of coercion and punishment. Most of the literature in industry assumes this meaning. 62Theophilus O. Odetola, Edsel L. Erickson, Clifford E. Bryan, and Lewis Walker, ”Organizational Structure and Student Alienation," Educatioggl Administration Quarterly, VIII, No. 1 (1972). pp. 15-26. 35 Instruments to measure control and alienation are somewhat limited and most do not apply readily to the situation of the pupil in a middle school. John P. Clark's scale, for example, centered around questions dealing with members of a cooperative and their feelings regarding their influence and their satisfaction with the amount of influence as well as members' feelings about identification with the cooperative.63 Other questionnaires which may be appropriate for school use are those Ra of Seeman and H. Kolesar. Seeman developed a test of powerlessness consisting of forty forced-choice items. The test, called the Internal-External Control or I-E Scale, was largely the work of S. Leverent.64 Kolesar developed a if“ 60-Likert-item questionnaire called the Pupil Attitude Questionnaire (FAQ) to measure Seeman's alienation dimensions. It was used by Rafalides in the unpublished dissertation previously cited.65 The Pupil Control Ideology Form of Willower has been fruitful in measuring beliefs of school personnel, although the instrument has not been subject to much critical evaluation by impartial readers, at least as reported in journals. The Tutor-Tutee Form (TT) of Frank Besag may prove more useful as norms are established for different populations. It is limited somewhat by lack of definitions for the various dimensions of alienation.66 63John P. Clark, ”Measuring Alienation within a Social System," American Sociology Review, XXIV (December, 1959), PP. 849-52. 64Melvin Seeman, ”Alienation and Social Learning in a Reformatory," American Journal of Sociology, LXIX, No. 3 (1963), pp. 270-84. 6SH. Kelesar, "An Empirical Study of Client Alienation in the Bureau- cratic Organization," (un ublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alberta at Edmonton, Canada, 1967 . 66Besag, Alienation and Education. 36 .§BEE§§E The traditional analysis which views control as a fixed quantity is no longer appropriate. Control analyzed in contemporary terms is seen as an unlimited quantity which increases as it is shared with others. Teachers are no longer seen as wielding all the power but as becoming more effective through sharing decisionpmaking with pupils. In determining which type of control is apprOpriate for a given situa- tion (coercive, utilitarian, or normative), one must consider "organizational goals" and "commitment of the subject." With reasonably committed pupils, the school can best achieve cultural goals by using normative controls. Norm- ative control is seen as necessary if the pupil is to internalize the values and goals of society. Coercive control, on the other hand, would make this difficult, if not impossible. If a pupil is highly alienated it is more appropriate to try to lessen his alienated feelings and increase his school commitment rather than to change from normative to coercive control. Alienation results when society fails to instill in the individual its prevailing goals and values. because attendance in schools is compulsory, the problem of alienation is more acute there than in other institutions where subjects are free to leave. Goodman feels that schools are primarily responsible for alienating youth and that the elimination of compulsory attendance would lessen the problem of alienation with no loss to society. Alienation in modern writings usually comes under one of the following concepts: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, or self- estrangement. Some writers have concluded that alienation is multidimensional; others, unidimensional. Generally, alienation has been attributed to such things as urbanization, large, centralized bureaucracies, working conditions which encourage dependency and lack of creativity, a breakdown of the family 37 structure, and a failure of institutions such as the home, school, and church to instill appropriate societal values. JumpingaOff Point Using the Pupil Control IdeolOgy Form of Willower, this study will attempt to verify previous findings in regard to the relationship of certain independent variables relating to teacher characteristics such as sex, age, TD! and teaching experience to pupil control ideology. *1 Certification of teachers in middle schools will be explored for the . first time along with sex in a two-way ANOVA to determine whether type of i '3‘ certification is related to pupil control ideology when accounting for the effect of sex. Rafalides, using Seeman's conceptions of student alienation, found a significant correlation between "custodial" ideology and pupil alienation in selected high schools. This study, using a different scale of alienation, will determine if this same relationship exists among middle school students and if alienation is multidimensional as both Besag and Rafalides found. Data will also be analyzed in terms of grade differentials to determine if alienation exists in different degrees and forms. CHAPTER III RESEARCH PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY Sample and Sampligg Method The sample consists of eighteen schools with grades 6-8 and six schools with grades 7-9. These two organizational structures were chosen because they represent two common grade structures in the middle grades. Each involves three grade levels which may represent differing underlying beliefs. The grade 6—8 schools, which include one grade commonly associated with ele- mentary school, can be expected to have many elementarybcertified teachers. The grade 7-9 schools, which include the first grade of high school, can be expected to be staffed primarily with secondary-certified teachers. Certie fication is one important variable in the study. The population to which the study applies are schools in Michigan within a seventyhmile radius of East Lansing which are organized along 6-8 and 7-9 grade levels, which are of moderate to moderately high socioeconomic status, and which have enrollments ranging from 400 to 1,000 pupils. Sixty- two middle schools met these criteria-forty-one grade 6-8 schools and twenty- one grade 7—9 schools. In developing a sampling frame a listing of all schools meeting the above criteria was compiled from the Michiggg Education Directogy, 1911-22. To control somewhat for size, only schools with 400 to 1,000 pupils remained in the sampling frame. Next, to control somewhat for socioeconomic status (SES), the following procedure was followed: Both 6—8 schools and 7-9 schools were listed in rank order on the basis of mean 38 39 SES scores taken from Michigan Assessment Test data, SY 1970—71, (State of) Michigan Department of Education. Schools at the extreme were dropped, leaving a SE8 range of 45.0 - 55.1. The mean of these scores was found to be 51.5 which was in the 70th percentile in relation to all 7th grades in Michigan. Schools were eliminated from the sampling frame which exceeded the mean score by scores ofI:.3.8 (the standard deviation for school SES means). The mean SES scores then ranged from 47.7 — 55.3. IEL1 A random sample of thirty-eight schools (twentyafive 6—8 schools and thirteen 7—9 schools) was then drawn from the population. Some schools pre- ferred not to participate for such reasons as too late in the school year, possibility of upsetting pressure groups in the community, and too many sim— ilar requests to do research. There is no reason to believe that the declining schools differed in any significant way from those participating. The number of schools which agreed to participate amounted to twentybsix. Complete data from teachers and students was received from twenty—three schools; one addi- tional school completed only student data. Schools constituting the sample included all levels of pepulstion density--rural, town, urban fringe, city, and metropolitan core (one only). The per cent of racial-ethnic minority enrolled in each school ranged from O to 18 per cent. Procedures Used to Gather Dgtg Superintendents of the randomly selected schools were initially noti- fied of the study by mail and then contacted by telephone. If their coopera- tion and permission to collect data was obtained, principals of the selected schools were then contacted to seek their c00peration and to arrange for a time to meet with them. In most cases faculty meetings were used to collect data relating to pupil control ideology of teachers. Questionnaires were 4o administered to all members present at the meeting with no attempt made to collect questionnaires from absent teachers. Completed questionnaires com- prised no less than 70 per cent of the faculty of each school, but most often 80 to 90 per cent completed the questionnaires. rized in Tables 1 and 2. TABLE 1 This information is summa- RETURNS FROM THE SAMPLE 0F SCHOOLS No in No. in No. No. Structure ° . Initial Agreeing to Completing Population Sample Participate Returns Grades 6-8 41 25 19 18 Grades 7—9 21 13 7 5 Total 62 38 26 23 To administer the student questionnaire, one teacher from each grade level was randomly selected by the researcher from a list of teachers in the academic areas of the curriculum, i.e., language arts, math, science, or social studies. One class from those taught by each chosen teacher was ran- domly selected to receive the questionnaire. Teachers were then supplied with questionnaires for the class with instructions explaining such things as how the teacher and class had been chosen for the study, the general reason for the study, and directions for administration. A stamped envelOpe addressed to the researcher was attached to the above materials so that each teacher could mail the materials following administration. By this method, 10 to 15 per cent of the students in each school completed the questionnaires. 41 TABLE 2 INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL RETURNS PCI TT School Number Teachers Questionnaires Enrollment Questionnaires Completed Completed 1 . . . . . . . 31 28 832 79 2 . . . . . . . 38 32 800 82 3 . . . . . . . 3O 20 583 81 4 . . . . . . . 37 27 875 82 5 . . . . . . . 25 13 490 83 6 . . . . . . . 32 25 700 73 7 . . . . . . . 35 26 735 80 8 . . . . . . . 3O 27 632 77 9 . . . . . . . 35 34 786 75 10 . . . . . . . 15 13 435 79 ll . . . . . . . 37 31 915 77 12 . . . . . . . 37 33 650 63 13 . . . . . . . 38 31 875 89 l4 . . . . . . . 31 27 610 67 15 . . . . . . . 37 25 825 74 16 . . . . . . . 35 21 880 83 17 . . . . . . . 17 15 484 84 18 . . . . . . . 43 34 875 71 19 . . . . . . . 21 17 441 82 20 . . . . . . . 25 15 480 75 21 . . . . . . . 24 22 666 84 22 . . . . . . . 25 21 690 82 23 . . . . . . . 43 32 850 89 Measurement of the Variableg Using a questionnaire where judgments are averaged has limitations, but it is assumed that organizational members as a group are able to provide reasonably valid and reliable data. Although individual scores may have low reliability, the averaged responses may be quite stable. Arnold S. Tannenbaum says, "The fact that individual respondents may be unsure of their answers and that they may be in error does not in itself vitiate the method, provided 42 that respondents give better than chance answers, that the errors are ran- dom, and that a sufficient number of respondents are available."1 Two questionnaires provided most of the data for this study. 1. The Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) Form developed by Donald J. Willower was used to measure the pupil control ideologies of teachers. The PCI Form consisted of twenty questions calling for five—point Likert-type responses ranging from "Strongly Agree" (5 points) to "Strongly Disagree" (1 point). The higher the overall score the more "custodial" the individual or school. The complete questionnaire can be found in the Appendix, p. 85. Reliability.——Previous results for the PCI showed the split-half reliability correlation coefficient (N': 170) to be .95 using the Spearmaanrown method and .91 using the Pearson product-moment. In comparing mean PCI scores of teachers in two schools-one elementary and one secondarya-the SpearmansBrown correlation coefficient was .91 and the Pearson product-moment was .83 (N a 55). Validity.-Validity for the PCI Form was determined by soliciting principals' judgments as to the ideology of 15 per cent of their teachers. The principals had read the characteristics of "custodial" and "humanistic" teachers. A t-test of the difference in means was used to determine if the teachers judged by the principals to be more "custodial" were significantly different from those judged more "humanistic." Teachers who had been judged as more "custodial" had significantly higher PCI scores (p (.01) than did a like number judged more "humanistic." These results are shown in Table 3. 2. The Tutor-Tuttee (TT) Form which was develOped by Frank P. Besag especially to provide a scale for measuring the alienation of youngsters 1Tannenbaum, Control in Organizations, p. 24. 43 consisted of thirty-five questions which could be answered "yes" or "no." Alienated responses were scored one point and non-alienated, zero points. The range of possible scores was from zero to thirty-five points for each student with a high score indicating high alienation. TABLE 3 IDEOLOGY 0F TEACHERS AS JUDGED BY PRINCIPALS AND AS SCORED 0N PCI FORMa Judged IdeOIOgy N; PCI Megn Score Custodial 25 58.7 Humanistic 25 51.5 t = 2.639 df = 48 p (.01 8Donald J. Willower, Terry L. Eidell, and Wayne K. Hey, The School Egg Pupil Control Ideology, Pennsylvania State University Studies, No. 24 (Univer- sity Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University, 1967). Besag used L. Srole's scale of anomie and Gwynn Nettler's scale of alienation as the basis for the TT scale. Many of their questions were rewritten so as to be apprOpriate for a younger population. In addition, new items and school items were added to the questionnaires. Rgligbility.—-A 57-item questionnaire was administered to 218 subjects for the purpose of standardizing the test. Of the 57 items, the first thirty- five were the TT scale, numbers 36 to 40 were taken from Srole's scale and numbers 41 through 57 were taken from Nettler's scale. The Kuder—Richardson reliability coefficient for all 57 items was .84. Using the Point Biserial'g, reliability of individual items was significant at the .05 level. All items except items 4, 18, 25, and 39 were statistically significant. Three items from the TT scale were unrelated—-numbers 4, 18, and 25. 44 In an experimental pepulation the Kuder—Richardson and Spearmaanrown reliability coefficients were used with reliability in both cases being above .55; Spearman—Brown, above .70. The 57 items used with the standardization pepulation were compared with the 35—item TT scale used with the experimental p0pu1ation. Overall reliability of the TT scale was .70 to .84. It was concluded that there was no significant change in reliability between the 57-item scale and the 35- ,3 item TT scale. validity.-A phi/phimax correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship between original and rewritten items. The results showed that "lllfifl‘ the relationship between the TT scale and both the Srole's and Nettler's scales was greater than the relationship between Srole's and Nettler's scales, which was only .31. This was interpreted by Dean to indicate that each were measuring a different form of alienation. The TT scale was measuring, at least in part, both Srole's and Nettler's forms of alienation. In summary, fifteen of the twenty-one rewrite items showed a high correlation to the original counterpart. Six of the rewrite items, although measuring alienation, seemed to have been interpreted differently from the original item. Procedure for Data Analysis Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted at a local school primarily to determine the adequacy of the Information Form, which was used to gather data regarding both school and teacher characteristics. The Information Perm is shown in the Appendix, p. 87. This resulted in minor changes such as adding the cate- gory of ”junior-senior high school" under the sections which solicited 45 "experience" and "first teaching assignment." Two new categories were added to the "amount of education” section to clarify the classifications pertaining to the higher degrees. The pilot study also indicated what distributions could be expected for each of the teacher characteristics. This was helpful in determining if a two-way ANOVA would be possible. Analysis of Data Teacher questionnaires (PCI) were coded and key punched so that there was a card for each teacher. A Fortran program was written to convert res- ponses to a unidirectional score so that the data could be interpreted from a ”custodial" viewpoint. As a result, questions 5 and 13 were reversed. The CDC 6500 computer was used to compute one— and two-way ANOVAs. The pupil responses cards, which had been key-punched from TT question- naires and which contained coded school information and pupil data, were scored one point for each "alienated" response and zero points for each non- alienated response. Individual total scores or schools' mean scores could possibly range from zero to thirty-five. In an attempt to determine if the TT questionnaire measured alienation as multidimensional, items were sorted into sub-dimensions predominately via use of a priori categories (Seeman's definitions) with heuristic assistance gained via the principal components analysis. The principal components analysis was used to determine number of factors and item loading on factors. This data appears in the Appendix, p. 92. The per cent of variation accounted for by subsequent factors (Columns l-lO) appears as Table 4. The first factor accounted for more than 10 per cent of the variance with all other factors accounting for four per cent or less. W 45 TABLE 4 PER CENT OF VARIATION ACCOUNTED FOR BY TEN UNROTATED FACTORS IN A PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE TT QUESTIONNAIRE Column Per Cent of Variation 10.8591 4.4417 4.2003 3.8575 3.7592 3.5101 3.3644 3.2145 3.1205 2.9591 OKDCDNlmUl45-UJNH H Analysis of Hypotheses To determine if null hypotheses _<_>_n_e_, m, and 31133 were to be retained or rejected, data were subjected to a two-way ANOVA with PCI scores of teachers assigned to one of four categories on the basis of type of certi- fication and sex. In order to have prOportional distribution among cells, forty-six elementary females and seven secondary males were randomly dropped. Type of Certification Elementary Secondary Female a 49 n 191 I: ll Male n 49 n 191b :Randomly dropped 46 teachers Randomly drapped 7 teachers Fig. 6.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of type of certification and sex I'HLUI _“f‘ ' - 47 Retention or rejection of null hypothesis four was determined by a one-way ANOVA, comparing mean PCI scores of teachers assigned to grade 6—8 schools with those assigned to grade 7-9 schools. Grades 6-8 Grades 7-9 n = 430 n = 139 Fig. 7.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of school-organizational structure Hypothesis five was tested with a one-way ANOVA comparing schools on the basis of degree of departmentalization. A school was of high departmen- talization if teachers in academic areas (language arts, social studies, math, and science) of glluthggg_grade levels had no group of students for two or more periods of the day; of medium departmentalization if academic- area teachers at‘ggg grade level had been assigned the same group of students for two or more periods; of low departmentalization if academic-area teachers in.t!g_or more grades had been assigned the same group of students for two or more periods. High Medium Low n = 385 n = 150 n = 34 Fig. 8.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of degree of departmentalization in each school Retention or rejection of null hypothesis six was determined by cor- relating the mean PCI score of each school with the mean student alienation score. Sub-dimensions of alienationp-powerlessness, meaninglessness, norm- lessness, isolation, self-estrangement—-were also correlated. 48 Hypothesis‘ggygg'was retained or rejected by using a one-way ANOVA. A comparison of mean PCI scores was made among teachers having 1-3 years of educational experience, 4-6 years of educational experience, and 7 or more years of educational experience. 1-3 Years 4-6 Years 7+ Years n = 169 n = 128 n = 272 Fig. 9.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of total years of teaching experience Hypothesis eight was tested using a one-way ANOVA with the factor "First teaching assignment" being separated into three categories. Teachers' mean PCI scores were then compared. Elementary School Middle School Secondary School n = 132 n = 307 n = 125 Fig. lO.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of area of first teaching assignment Hypothesis nine was tested using a one-way ANOVA comparing mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of educational attainment. B.A. to B.A. +29 B.A. +30 to M.A. +29 M.A. +30 or more n = 339 n = 204 n = 26 Fig. 11.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of educational attainment Hypothesis ten was tested using a one-way ANOVA to compare mean PCI scores of teachers in five age categories. 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 n=261 {1:137 n=104In=51 n=l6 Fig. 12.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of age Hypothesis eleven was tested using a one-way ANOVA to compare mean PCI scores of schools on the basis of three enrollment categories. BOO-1,000 Pupils 600—799 Pupils 400—599 Pupils [1:261 11:21.5 I 11:93 Fig. l3.-Design for comparison of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of school enrollment Hypotheses twelve, thirteen, and fourteen were tested by using a two- way ANOVA to compare alienation scores of boys and girls, to compare aliena- tion scores of students among grade levels 6 through 9, and to determine if there was any interaction between the two factors. Sex Girl Boy 6 n-244 11:24.4“ b Grade 7 n = 306 n = 306 Level b 8 11:291 11:29]. 9 n= 71° 11: 71 :Randomly drapped 10 students Randomly dropped 13 students Randomly dropped 6 students Fig. l4.-—Design for comparison of student alienation scores on two factors-sex and grade level 50 The alpha level for determining significance was set at .05. If the ANOVA found significant difference, follow-up comparisons were made using the Scherré method. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS In order to determine if the pupil control ideology of middle school teachers was related to selected teacher characteristics, organizational variables, and alienation of students, fourteen hypotheses were subjected to one-way or two-way ANOVAs. Scheffg post hoc comparisons were made when apprOpriate. Hypotheses One, Two, and Three Hypothesis Three The null hypothesis that sex and certification of teachers did not interact was retained. In other words, sex and certification of a teacher had no differential effect with respect to pupil control ideology of teachers. Hypothesis One The null hypothesis that there was no difference between elementary- and secondary-certified teachers in terms of PCI was rejected. Secondary- certified teachers were significantly more custodial than elementary-certified teachers (p ‘(.0001). As a result the secondary-certified teacher in relation to the elementary-certified teacher can be expected to stress teacher-pupil status differences more, to be more concerned with maintaining order among pupils, to believe more in the need to use punishment for pupil control, to 51 52 desire one-way communication with pupils, and to treat pupils more imper- sonally than the elementary-certified teacher. Hypothesis Two The null hypothesis that there is no difference between males and females in terms of PCI was also rejected. Males were significantly more custodial than females (p (.0339). Consequently, males in relation to females would tend to view control of pupils similarly to the secondary- certified teacher described above. The analysis of variance of mean PCI scores of teachers on the basis of sex and certification appears as Table 5; mean PCI scores appear as a 2 X 2 diagram in Table 6. TABLE 5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF SEX AND CERTIFICATION Source of Variance df 823:2. F p Sex 1 2975.05 31.56“ ( .0001 Certification 1 426 .76 4. 53a ( .0339 Sex X Certification 1 8.65 .09 .(.7621 Within Cells 476 94.26 Total 479 . . . . . . aF-ratio significant at the a: .05 level In terms of pupil control ideology, it was observed that females were less custodial than males regardless of type of certification (see Table 6). In addition, elementary-certified teachers were less custodial than secondary- certified teachers, but it was observed that the factor of sex was stronger 53 than the factor of certification-the secondary-certified female was less custodial than the elementary—certified male. TABLE 6 RELATION BETWEEN MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF SEX AND CERTIFICATION Certification Row Means Elementary Secondary Female n.= 49 n.= 191 52.64 Sex 56.08 58.75 Male n = 49 n = 191 57.42 53.86 56.20 55.03 Grand Mean Column Means n.= 480 Mean Square within cells = 94.26 (obtained by pooling all four cells) Hypothesis Four The null hypothesis that there is no difference in mean PCI scores between schools with grade 6-8 organizations and schools with grade 7-9 organizations was rejected. It was found that teachers in the grade 7—9 organization were significantly more custodial oriented than teachers in the grade 6-8 organization (p ( .0005). Teachers in the 7-9 schools felt that a custodial relationship with pupils provided more effective control of pupils; teachers in the 6-8 schools felt that a humanistic approach achieved more effective control. The results of the one-way ANOVA appear as Table 7. Table 8 presents the mean PCI score and standard deviation for grade 6-8 and 7-9 schools. 54 TABLE 7 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN GRADE 6-8 SCHOOLS AND GRADE 7-9 SCHOOLS Mean Source of Variance df Square F p Between Categories 1 1743.29 18.65‘1 (.0005 Within Categories 567 93.48 Total 568 e e e e e e a'F-ratio significant at the d: .05 level TABLE 8 RELATION OF MEAN PCI SCORES 0F TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF GRADE STRUCTURE Grade - Structure N x S'D' 6-8 430 54.44 9.62 7-9 139 58.52 9.83 Hypothesis Five The null hypothesis that there is no difference in mean PCI scores among middle schools which have high departmentalization, medium departmenta- lization, and low departmentalization was retained. The degree of depart- mentalization was found to have no relationship with the pupil control beliefs of teachers. The ANOVA of the departmentalization factor appears as Table 9. The mean PCI scores for the departmentalization data appear as Table 10. No follow-up test was performed because the null hypothesis was retained. 55 TABLE 9 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN HIGH-, MEDIUM-, AND LOW-DEPARTMENTALIZED SCHOOLS . Mean Source of Variance df Sq F p Between Categories 2 90.23 .93593 ( .393 within Categories 566 96.41 ’ Total 568 . . . . . . TABLE 10 RELATION OF MEAN PCI SCORES 0F TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF DEGREE 0F DEPARTMENTALIZATION Departmentalization N I S. D . Low 34 54.68 9-89 Medium 150 54.61 9.63 High 385 55.83 9.89 1 othe 'x The null hypothesis that there would be no relationship between a school's mean PCI score and the students' total alienation score was retained. A high mean PCI score (high custodialism) was not significantly related to a high TT score (pupil alienation) r = .18. Students in schools where teachers' beliefs toward pupil control were custodial were only slightly more highly alienated than were students in schools where teachers' beliefs were humanistic. 56 The mean PCI scores and total alienation (TT) scores for the twenty- three schools appear in Table 11. '1'1‘ scores from 7.34 to 11.67. PCI scores ranged from 50.03 to 60.65; TABLE 11 MEAN PCI SCORES 0P TEACHERS AND MEAN TT SCORES OF STUDENTS IN TWENTY-THREE RANDOMLY CHOSEN MIDDLE SCHOOLS School Mean Mean School Mean Mean Number PCI TT Number PCI TT 1 54.64 10.19 13 55.19 8.87 2 59.38 9.85 14 55.22 7.34 3 54.95 9.69 15 54.72 9.42 4 57.33 9.48 16 60.19 8.99 5 57.15 10.86 17 52.60 10.00 6 52.36 8.47 18 60.65 10.01 7 59.12 8.26 19 48.53 8.31 8 56.89 10.29 20 52.60 9.51 9 54.68 7.96 21 53.64 9.42 10 51.00 10.13 22 55.48 9.71 11 50.03 9.23 23 56.53 11.67 12 55.06 10.41 tial loadings for any of the sub-dimensions (powerlessness, normlessness, meaninglessness, isolation, and self-estrangement). Factor analysis of the items in the TT scale failed to find substan- Consequently, further use of the sub-dimensions of alienation did not seem justified for this study. Few items under any of the sub-dimensions accounted for’much common variance. This is reflected in the correlation matrix of the principal components' analysis shown in the Appendix, p. 92. gypgthesis Seven The null hypothesis that there is no difference in PCI scores among teachers having 1-3 years of experience, 4-6 years of experience, and 7 or 57 more years of experience was rejected. A one-way ANOVA found a significant difference among the three categories (p < .003). Information relating to the ANOVA of the three experience categories appears as Table 12. Mean PCI scores of teachers appear as Table 13. TABLE 12 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F MEAN PCI SCORES 0F TEACHERS IN THREE EXPERIENCE CATEGORIES Source of Variance df Mean F p Square Between Categories 2 572.94 6.048 < .003 Within Categories 566 94.52 TOta-l 568 e e e e e e aF-ratio significant at the a: = .05 level TABLE 13 MEAN PCI SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATION 0F TEACHERS IN THREE EXPERIENCE CATEGORIES I II III 1-3 years 4-6 years 7+ years Mean 54.51 53.59 56.87 Standard Deviation 9.52 9.83 9.80 Number 169 128 272 / The Scheffe method of multiple comparisons was applied to determine if the differences between each pairwise comparison was significant. The Scheffg method was chosen over the Tukey method because of the unequal n's in the cells. A contrast was made between category I (1-3 years of experience) 58 and category III (7+ years), between category II (4-6 years) and category III (7+ years), and between categories I and II. Teachers with seven or more years of teaching experience were significantly more custodial than teachers with either 1-3 years of experience or with 4-6 years of experience. Teachers with 1-3 years of experience, however, did not differ significantly from teachers with 4-6 years of experience. Teachers with seven or more years of teaching experience can be expected to be more custodial than teachers who have been teaching for six or 1888 years. The multiple compar- ison of means appears as Table 14. TABLE 14 MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN THREE EXPERIENCE CATEGORIES Years of II I III Experience 4-6 years 1-3 years 7+ years II, 4-6 years . . .93 3.293 I, 1‘3 years e e 2e368 III, 7+ years . . asignificant at at s .05 Scheffe method Hypothesis Eight The null hypothesis that there is no difference in pupil control ideol- ogy among teachers whose first teaching assignment was in either an elementary school, a middle school, or a secondary school was retained. However, teachers whose first teaching assignment was in either a middle school or a secondary school pgpggg to be more custodial than those whose first teaching assignment was in an elementary school. Table 15 provides the ANOVA for the three cats- gories of first teaching assignments and Table 16 presents the mean PCI scores 59 and standard deviation for the three categories. No follow-up procedure was applied because the null hypothesis was retained. TABLE 15 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN THREE CATEGORIES OF FIRST TEACHING ASSIGNMENT Source of Variance df Mean F p Square Between Categories 2 213.64 2.27 < .184 Within Categories 561 94.15 Tatal 563 e e e e e 0 TABLE 16 MEAN PCI SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF TEACHERS IN THREE CATEGORIES OF FIRST TEACHING ASSIGNMENT V—V Elementary Middle Secondary Mean 54.06 55.63 56.59 Standard Deviation 9.64 9.87 9.34 Number 132 307 125 Hypothesis Nine The null hypothesis that there is no difference in PCI among teachers with academic preparation of a (1) B.A. degree through a B.A. +29 semester hours, (2) B.A. +30 through M.A. +29, and (3) M.A. +30 or more semester hours was retained (p < .059) although the teacher with M.A. +30 5999.209. to be more custodial than the other two categories. Educational attainment failed to have a significant relationship with pupil control ideologies of 60 teachers. No follow-up procedures were employed because the null hypothesis had been retained. The ANOVA for the educational attainment categories appears as Table 17. Mean PCI scores appear as Table 18. TABLE 17 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN THREE CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT . Mean Source of variance df Sq F p Between Categories 2 272.15 2.84 < .059 Within Categories 566 95.76 TOtal 568 e e e e e 0 TABLE 18 MEAN PCI SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF TEACHERS IN THREE CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT B.A. to B.A. +30 to M.A. +30 B.A. +29 M.A. +29 or more Mean 55.42 54-91 59.77 Standard Deviation 9.24 10.46 11.23 Number 339 204 26 Hypothesis Ten The null hypothesis that there is no difference in PCI scores among teachers in the age categories of I, 20—29 years; II, 30-39 years; III, 40-49 years; IV, 50—59 years; and V, 60—69 years was rejected. The ANOVA shown in Table 19 found that the difference in means among the five categories was 61 significant (p ( .027). This indicated that a teacher's beliefs concerning control of pupils is related to one's age. Mean PCI scores and standard deviation for the five age categories appear as Table 20. TABLE 19 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN FIVE ACE CATEGORIES Source of Variance df Mean F p Square Between Categories 4 261.46 2.75‘1 ( .027 Within Categories 564 95.02 Total 568 e e e e o o E‘It‘nratio significant at the (I: .05 level TABLE 20 MEAN PCI SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF TEACHERS IN FIVE AGE CATEGORIES I II III IV V 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60—69 years years years years years Mean 54.52 55.09 55.97 59.02 58.25 Standard Deviation 9.55 9.23 10.56 9.79 11.70 Number 261 137 104 51 16 Multiple comparisons using the Scheffe method failed to find signifi- cant differences between specific contrasts. difference was not unexpected. and the number of observations per cell varied considerably making it all the more difficult to find a significant difference. Failure to find a significant The Scheffg is a very conservative procedure An observation of the data 62 in Table 21 shows the mean PCI scores for categories IV and V (50 years and older) to be considerably higher (more custodial) than in categories I, II, and III (from 20-49 years). The multiple comparisons of the five age cate- gories appear as Table 21. TABLE 21 MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN FIVE AGE CATEGORIES I II III V IV Age 20-29 30-39 40-49 60b69 50-59 years years years years years I, 20-29 years . . .57 1.45 3.73 4.50 II, 30-39 years . . .88 3.16 3.93 III, 40-49 years . . 2.28 3.05 V, 60-69 years . . .77 IV, 50—59 years . . Significant at a: a .05 Scheffe method Innumesla £12.st Although size was somewhat controlled in the sample, it was antic- ipated that the range in school sizes from 400 to 1,000 pupils might be a significant variable. Consequently, schools within the sample were classified as small (400—599 pupils), medium (600-799 Pupils), and large (BOO—1,000 pupils) and the mean PCI scores of each were analyzed. The ANOVA which appears as Table 22 indicated that there was a significant difference in mean PCI among teachers in each of these categories of schools. The mean PCI scores and standard deviation for the three categories of school size appear as Table 23. 63 TABLE 22 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN SMALL, MEDIUM, AND LARGE SCHOOLS . Mean Source of Variance df Sq F p Between Categories 2 474.92 5.003 ( .007 within Categories 566 95.05 Total 568 e s e e e o aF-ratio significant at or: .05 level TABLE 23 MEAN PCI SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF TEACHERS IN SMALL, MEDIUM, AND LARGE SCHOOLS I II III Small Medium Large (400-599 pupils) (600-799 pupils) (soc-1,000 pupils) Mean 52.7? 55.32 56.49 Standard Deviation 8.40 9.63 10.28 Number 93 215 261 Using the Scheffé method of multiple comparisons, it was found that the large school (BOO-1,000 pupils) was significantly more custodial in teacher pupil control orientation than the small school (400-599 pupils). One could expect then, that when a school has 800 or more pupils it will be more custodial than a school with less than six hundred pupils. for the multiple comparisons appears as Table 24. The data 64 TABLE 24 MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF MEAN PCI SCORES OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS OF THREE SIZE CATEGORIES I II III Size of School 11 medium large I, small . . 2.55 3.71“ II, medium . . 1.17 III, large . . aSignificant at at s .05 Scheffe method Hypotheses Twelvey,Thirteeny_and Fourteen Hypothesis Fourteen The hypothesis that there would be no interaction among student aliena- tion scores on the basis of the two factors sex and grade level was retained. The probability of interaction was .2060. An analysis of the sub-dimensions is not reported because none seemed to be measuring anything different from the total. An analysis of the interaction appears as Table 25. Hypothesis Twelve The null hypothesis that there would be no difference between boys and girls with regard to total student alienation was retained (p < .1067). A feeling of alienation was not related to one's sex. An analysis of the main effects is contained in Table 25. Hypothesis Thirteen The null hypothesis that there would be no difference among sixth—, seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students in terms of total alienation 65 scores was rejected (p < .0053). Grade level of a student was related to one's feeling of alienation. The ANOVA of the variable grade level appears as Table 25. In addi- tion, it is shown that there is no interaction and that the variable sex is not significantly related to total student alienation. Mean total alienation scores appear in a 2 X 4 diagram with sex and grade level being the two factors (Table 26). TABLE 25 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN TOTAL STUDENT ALIENATION SCORES ON THE BASIS OF GRADE LEVEL AND SEX Source of variance df Mean F p Square Grade 3 83.98 4. 268 < .0053 Sex 1 51.34 2.61 (.1067 Grade X.Sex 3 30.04 1.53 .(.2060 Within Cells 1816 19.70 Total 1823 e e e e e e a1"--ratio significant at the (X: .05 level The ANOVA above indicated that the variable "grade level" was signifi- cantly related to total student alienation. To determine which grades dif- fered, a multiple comparison of means was made using the Scheffg procedure. It was found that eighth- and ninth-grade students were significantly more alienated than sixth-grade students. Other comparisons failed to find significant differences. These multiple comparisons are shown in Table 27. 66 TABLE 26 MEAN TOTAL ALIENATION SCORES OF PUPILS IN GRADES SIX, SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE Sex Grade Grade Level A Girl Boy Mean 6 n = 244 n = 244 8.96 isan i=9n3 7 n.= 306 n.= 306a 9'52 i =3 9084 i = 9071 8 n=81 nszma 9”“ X = 9.38 x = 10.97 Mean Square Within = 19.70 obtained by pooling all eight cells b TABLE 27 aRandomly dropped 13 students Randomly drOpped 6 students MULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF MEAN TOTAL ALIENATION SCORES OF PUPILS ON THE BASIS OF GRADE LEVEL Grade 6 7 8 9 6 . . .56 .82“ 1.21“ 7 e e 026 065 8 o o 039 9 . . “Significant at the a = .05 level Scheffe method A summary of the findings, implications for education, and recommen— dations for future research will follow. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS §EEE§£X In this study the pupil control ideology (PCI) of middle school teachers was examined in relationship to teacher characteristics of sex, age, teaching experience, educational attainment, area of first teaching assign? ment, and type of certification. In addition, pupil control ideology of middle school teachers was related to organizational variables of size, grade structure, and departmentalization. Lastly, pupil control ideology of middle school teachers was examined in relationship to student alienation. Responses of 569 teachers and 1,866 pupils from 23 randomly selected middle schools within a 70—mile radius of East Lansing, Michigan, were examined. Significantly related to pupil control ideology (PCI) of middle school teachers were: 1. pegghe; ghgrggteristics of (a) sex, (b) certification, (c) teaching experience, and (d) age, 2. orgapizgyipnal variables of (a) structure and (b) size of school. Not significantly related to PCI were: 1. alienation of pupils, 2. area of first teaching assignment, 3. educational attainment of teacher, 4. departmentalization within the school. 67 68 Significantly related to total student alienation was grade level of student; not significantly related to total student alienation was sex. Discussion The secondarybcertified male with seven or more years of teaching experience teaching in a grade 7-9 school with 800 or more pupils represents the characteristics and setting of the most custodial teacher. Conversely, the elementary-certified female with 1-6 years of teaching experience experb ience teaching in a grade 6-8 school with 599 or less pupils represents the characteristics and setting of the least custodial teacher. These findings in regard to ”years of teaching experience" and "sex" were somewhat expected as a result of previous research. Willower and Landis had found that teachers with more than five years of experience were more custodial than teachers with five or less years of experience1 and Leppert had found that male teachers were more custodial than females and secondary teachers more custodial than elementary.2 Teacher certification was a newly explored variable. The middle school provided an opportunity to compare PCI scores of elementary-certified with secondary—certified teachers while both were in the same organizational setting. It was expected that both certification and sex would be significant in relation to teachers' PCI; therefore, a two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the data because it was felt that certification might interact with sex. However, there was no interaction. Teacher certification proved to be a significant variable, but the nature of the difference proved to be less 1Uillower and Landis, ”PCI and Professional Orientation." 2Leppert, "PCI and Teacher Personality." 69 than the differences among sex. Observation of the data shows the male teacher regardless of type of certification to be more custodial than the female teacher. However, in terms of certification, the elementary-certified male was less custodial than his secondary-certified counterpart. This finding regarding certification was disappointing. If one's professional training (as evidenced by certification) had proved to have a stronger rela- tion to pupil control ideology than one's sex, this would have offered some direction in designing teacher-training programs. However, the data indicated that the difference due to sex was greater than the difference due to certi- fication. Analysis of the data also showed that organizational structure was a significant variable-teachers in grade 6-8 schools were less custodial than those in grade 7-9 schools. This finding must be viewed with some caution. Although the number of men and women in the sample was reasonably balanced in number in each structural category (56 per cent females in grade 6-8 schools and 49 per cent females in grade 7-9 schools), the ratio of elementary- to secondary-certified teachers was greatly disproportional (34 per cent elementary—certified teachers in grade 6-8 schools and 6 per cent elementary— certified teachers in grade 7-9 schools). This raises the question as to whether the higher custodial PCI in grade 7—9 schools is a result of a greater number of secondary-certified teachers, more alienated pupils initially which brought out custodial behavior, or to other factors. Regardless of the cause of the particular pupil control ideology, the grade 6—8 organization was found to be significantly less custodial than the grade 7-9 organization. Size was also found to be a significant variable in this sample of middle schools in which enrollments ranged from 400 to 1,000 pupils. The schools of 599 or less pupils were significantly less custodial (in terms of 70 teacher mean PCI) than were the schools with 800 or more pupils. Regardless of which is the cause of a teacher's PCI (teacher characteristics, student alienation, organizational variables, or others), it seems that when the size of a school reaches 800 pupils, school personnel expend much time and thought on pupil control devices which might otherwise be used in other areas such as curriculum development. The correlation between pupil control ideology and total alienation of students was not significant. This was somewhat unexpected. Rafalides, using a different measurement of alienation, had found that PCI was positively correlated with alienationp-normlessness (r = .42), isolation (r = .31), powerlessness (r = .37), and total alienation (r = .35).3 Schools in which the mean teachers' pupil control ideology was highly custodial was found to have highly alienated pupils. Reasons which may explain this difference are: (1) the TT scale used may not have been appr0priate for pupils of medium to high SE3, (2) alienation may be a factor of socioeconomic status and may not be related to schools, (3) there may be no relationship between PCI and alienation of middle school- age youngsters (Rafalides used high school students), or (4) perhaps custo- dial treatment affects alienation of pupils in some types of schools and not in others, e.g. small or large. The total student alienation variable, although not significantly related to student sex characteristics, was significantly related to student grade level. Sixth-grade students were significantly less alienated than eighth— and ninth-grade students in terms of total alienation. 3Rafalides, "Relationship Between Pupil Control and Student Aliena- tion." "3s 71 1m 1 t o Isusuissl An important finding was the significant relation between pupil comp trol ideology (PCI) and the organizational structure of the school. Schools with a 6-8 organizational structure were significantly less custodial than schools with a 7-9 organizational structure. The number of males and females was evenly balanced so sex should not have affected the results. Certifica- tion, however, may have affected the results because there were few elementary—certified teachers in the 7-9 schools. Certification standards in the State over the past years have encouraged this situation by limiting elementarybcertified teachers to grade K96 schools. Nevertheless, whatever' the reason, the 6—8 school was found to be more humanistic than the 7-9 school. 'This seems to be reasonable evidence for supporting the 6-8 organi- sational structure over the 7-9 organization. Certification was found to be a significant variable in relation to PCI. The elementarybcertified teacher (both male and female) was less custo- dial than was the secondary-certified teacher. Why was this? Many reasons could be offered: (1) school settings differ, with the elementary school being less custodial; (2) more humanistic teachers initially enroll in ele- mentary teacher-training programs; or (3) elementary teacher-training programs develop more humanistic teachers than do secondary programs. Regardless, humanistic middle schools would most likely have a good number of elementaryb certified teachers. If a middle school is interested in providing a humanistic environment, a professional staff generally would have to consist of more female teachers than.ma1es. In the initial screening interview for a new teacher, it would 72 not be practical to use the written PCI Form, but questions might very well be phrased orally to determine one's pupil control ideology. Elementary schools and middle schools are continually looking for more men to join their ranks. The probability of a male having a custodial PCI is greater than with a female; therefore, when hiring new teachers, this consideration should be weighed against the advantages derived from having a male identification figure. An attempt should be made to continually interview teachers with less than seven years of teaching experience. This, of course, should not be the only consideration, but a staff having all teachers with seven or more years of teaching experience would very likely be overly concerned with pupil con- trol. It seems that after seven years of teaching experience there is a need to revitalize oneself to a more humanistic orientation. This might be accom- plished through such a mechanism as making sabbatical leaves more accessible. The teacher could then devote himself to full-time study without having to cape with the usual pressures of the part-time summer or night-course student. This would allow the Opportunity to place oneself more readily in the shoes of a student at a time when one might be more perceptive than the first time around. A sabbatical leave would seem to be money well spent. Group problem-solving sessions among school personnel could also be utilized to develop and retain a humanistic orientation. PrOperly directed sessions centered on a specific student and his problems could help teachers look at possible causes of the misbehavior and to develop positive behavior modification techniques-a characteristic of the humanistic teacher. Sociology courses specifically related to educational problems could help the teacher see problems in their proper perspective. These in addition to educational psychology courses should be required at both the undergraduate 73 and graduate levels. They might very well be incorporated into State certi- fication requirements. The teacher, as a result, should be better equipped to evaluate the educational activities of the classroom. The evidence regarding size of the school shows that in the small school, 400~599 pupils, the pupil control ideology is less custodial than in the large school. Perhaps the small-sized school permits pupils to better identify with the school and to feel a part of the organization. Normative control—-the appeal to consensus, common values, and educationp-can then be effective and the need for coercive control is lessened. (In the large school, custodial PCI may be related to such factors as "communication" and "rules.” It seems likely that in a large organization communication would be more of a problem than in a small school and more rules would undoubtedly be needed. More rules would lead to a greater demand for control and a humanistic envi- ronment would be difficult to attain. Regardless of the cause of custodial PCI, it is suggested that school enrollments be kept below 600 pupils if a humanistic pupil control ideology is to prevail. 1219211121951 If Landis and Dewey are correct in their assertion that control resides in the individual and comes about when the individual becomes a part of the referent group,4 there is a need to provide experiences within the school for group activities where an individual may learn to value the sentiments of others and become a genuine part of the decision-making. Small, well- structured groups in the classroom may be one way to fulfill this need. Students could be helped to feel the satisfaction from having completed a 4 p. 39. Landis, Social Control, pp. 25-26; Dewey, Democracy and Education, 74 task in which all members had been involved in the planning, execution, and evaluation. The humanistic teacher would teach pupils what is expected of them and which rules are necessary for the situation. Then the individual pupil could gain recognition and acceptance by acting in accordance with the rules necessary to pursue the activity. The teacher would call the students atten- tion to the goal being pursued, e.g. What is the purpose of what we are doing? How can we accomplish that purpose? Assuming the goal pursued is meaningful to the students, their acceptance of the goal will directly influence the pressures brought to bear on the individual who respects the members of the group. Extra-curricular activities may have similar results, but it is more important to provide opportunities as part of the curriculum so all students may benefit. The underachieving pupil is of special concern to schools and society. Brown felt that the causes of underachievement were (1) the structure and nature of the school organization and the (2) values of the adolescent cul- ture. When the underachievement is a result of the peer culture, the individ- ual can overcome his underachievement later; but when the school in addition does not meet his needs, chances of overcoming the underachievement are lessened.5 The custodial-oriented school, which is characterized by an emphasis on status differences between pupils and teachers, one-way commun- ication, impersonal treatment of pupils, and a primary concern in maintaining order, would seem to have little chance of meeting the underachiever's needs. Etzioni stated that the type of power to be used was determined by the kind of societal organization. When there is a sharp division between 5Brown, "Alienated Youth," pp. 330-36. 75 the "ins" and the "cuts," force would be the most effective control.6 As a result, it is understandable that when a custodial ideology prevails with an emphasis on status differences between pupils and teachers, force will become necessary. Whether or not this conclusion holds true would depend upon how pupils perceived the situation. If they accepted the status difference between themselves and the teacher, it would not seem that alienation would result. On the other hand, if pupils did not accept the teacher as an author- ity, the emphasis on status differences could lead to high alienation. The latter condition seems to prevail more today as confidence continues to erode for those in positions of authority in all occupations. The authority of the teacher is being questioned more and more by pupils as well as parents. The school, as a result, will have a difficult time persuading pupils to submit to authority when parents are telling them otherwise. The custodial-oriented teacher who previously was effective may be finding it more difficult to control pupils as a result of the erosion of his authority and the increased alienation of the pupils. Recommendations for Future Research A significant difference was found between the two organizational structures (grade 6-8 schools and grade 7-9 schools) in terms of PCI. Because the variables of sex and certification of teachers may have influenced the conclusion, future research should consider these two variables in the design when comparing the organizational structures. The definition for departmentalization was perhaps the least workable in the study. Because most teachers in a middle school teach more than one 6Etzioni, The Active Society, p. 356. 76 grade level, it was impossible in this random sample to stratify pupil con- trol ideology scores and to correlate them with student alienation scores by grade levels. Future research in this area might use teams of teachers and pupils as the unit of analysis, e.g. schools within a school, families within a school, etc. In this study, the number of low-departmentalized schools was much fewer than expected. As a result, it was not likely that differences would be discovered, if in fact there were any. Building team teaching or low departmentalization into the design would be advisable. If fifths and tenth-grade pupils were included in the study it would be possible to compare the alienation scores of fifth-, sixth-, seventh~,, eighth-, ninth-, and tenth-grade students. Such data could be used in making decisions relating to apprOpriate organization structures. Grades could then be structured in such a way as to keep the highly alienated pupils in the minority. For example, if eighth- and ninth-grade pupils were the two most alienated grade levels, it might be wise to organize the schools into 6-8 (or 5-8) units and 9-12 units. In addition, a comparison might be made between schools organized into grades 6—8 and schools of grades 7-9 to deter- mine if there is a difference in pupil alienation. The effect of the higher alienation of ninth-grade pupils and the lower alienation of grade six pupils might be "partialled out" so the difference, if any, could be attributed to the organization rather than to grade levels or ages of students. Another consideration regarding alienation is the effect of rank of grade in the organizational structure. Are ninth-grade pupils as alienated in a grade 9-12 organization as in a 7-9 organization? Are eighth-grade pupils as alienated in a 7-9 organization as in a 6-8 organization? This variable might be considered when designing future research. 77 Other studies could determine if alienation of pupils is related to such variables as achievement, concern for others, acceptance by peers, and self-esteem. If relationships were found it would make the consideration of alienation more important. How important is the individual teacher's beliefs regarding pupil con- trol in relation to student alienation in an individual class? This could be examined by correlating an individual teacher's PCI score with the mean alienation scores of his classes. Because size of school (pupil enrollment) was found to be a signifi- cant variable in terms of pupil control ideology of teachers, this study should be replicated, possibly expanding the size strata. In addition, the school within a school concept, which attempts to sub-divide the school into smaller "families" or teams, might be examined to determine if the smaller units have less student alienation than a similar-sized school without the families. There was no significant correlation between mean PCI of middle school teachers and total alienation of students as measured by the TT scale. Rep- licating the study with more schools might find a significant correlation. Socioeconomic status, at the same time, might be used as a controlled varia- ble to determine if there is a relationship between alienation and socio- economic status. 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Edmonton, Canada, 1967. Landis, Paul H. Social Control :"_§gogalngpgapiz at ion ar_d Dis serge nlzntlon in ,aw '. ,-~ ~ I -"'- ‘~ "~-' _--' a f ‘ r “(Lt-5.39 Lu: v 1'ch 8C1. ALL-IX] Augde Ue be ““JEJLAlLt—‘VV COO, lj/ve Leppert, Edward John. "Pupil Control Ideology and Teacher Personality." Unpublishedn Ed. D. dissertation, Rutgers University, The State Univer- sity of law J; racy, 1971. LYstad. Marv Hanoaann. Social Alienation: A Rsview of Current Litsrosutc.“ The Sociolovical Quarter 1y, XIII (Winter, 1972), 90—113. Marcus, Philip M. and Cnfagnn, Dorm. "Cou’rol in Modern OrganithIOns." ‘ \ .. ~ 9 . : , ., ‘ ~ . .l . ' . V . . - , .4 'al.: J . . _A( .4 l 1.... i.‘ i: I: l .1 ) I .' . ‘1‘; 11", [YD ’- V ’ L‘U. ;_' ( 1.16;} ' 1.: L“ (I, C h.“ - .‘g- .‘s Ms.“ ~ “M‘s ' , ‘ , . .. . a, ‘ . > _ . ‘ V' w . , q :4 _.1 0| . . - '- ‘ .. ..- s - , . .“ . e- w .l - ‘1 ~ 1".JV'.73 .f- ‘fim to I l.- 1 A. A “- " ' ,." . 11‘.- .\ " . Genetic Psychology Quarterly, X (December, 1965), 225-33. Merton, Robert K. Scolal Thoorvapd_poclal S*r*cture. lst rev. ed. New V v- . ”I r 7‘ - v- ’" .. . .— :v‘r' 014. lie r so P 98’ s 0: Glen :3, :97. .' ~ -..1 r .2. ' .1. n l",..,. . o, . . -1-.. . . .4 A. l\' as 4 -.--- .. -2 ‘3. ..., -. t Mlcn1;en Us artmen. o- i-a0; ion. ;_;_1 a< : or 7'? ,1. :;~_v -ri 7L7317 J . ...._..-.__-_... ...... -—~.:.-——‘L.—..—._-— Glide: 1971—1972. Lansing, Mich.: State Desartment of Education. Odetola, Theophilus 0.; Erickson, Edsel L.; Bryan, Clifford E.; and Walker, Lewis. "Orgi -iz ational Li“ d St-dent Alienation." .Educa- tional Administration th.r terly, VIII, No. l (1972), 15-26. Rafalides, Madeline B. "Relationship Between the Pupil Control Orientation of Schools and the Aspect of Student Alienation." Unpublished Ed. D. dis usertation, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, 1971. 80 Rexford, Gene Erwin. "The Relationship Between Pupil Control Ideology and Observed Verbal Behavior of Selected Secondary Teachers." Unpub- lished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1970. Seeman, Melvin. "Alienation and Social Learning in a Reformatory." American Journal of Sociology, LXIX, No. 3 (1963), 270-84. . "On the Meani of Alienation." American Sociological Review, XXIV, No. 6 (1959 . 783-91. Tannebaum, Arnold S. Control in Organizations. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1968. Valdman, Bruce. ”Organizational Climate and Pupil Control Orientation of Secondary Schools.” Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Rutgers Univer- sity, The State University of New Jersey, 1971. Harrell, ChristOpher James. "The Relationship of School Organizational Patterns and Pupil Control Ideology of Teachers in Selected Junior and Senior High Schools." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, New York University, 1969. Willower, Donald J. ”Hypothesis on the School as a Social System." Educa- tional Administration Quarterly, I (Autumn, 1965), 40. , and Jones, Ronald G. "When Pupil Control Becomes an Institutional Theme." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV, No. 2 (1963), 107. , and Landis, Charles A., III. "Pupil Control Ideology and Profes- sional Orientation of School Faculty." Journal of Secondary_Educa- tion, XLv, No. 3 (1970), 118—23. Cgmu'gl jtefsruugaj \ Etzioni, Amitai. Modern Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1964. Gilbert, Doris C. and Levinson, Daniel J. "'Custodialism' and 'Humanism' in Mental Hospital Structure and in Staff Ideology." The Patient and the Mental Hospital. Edited by Milton Greenblatt, Daniel J. Levinson, and Richard E. Williams. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1957. Glass, Gene V. and Stanley, Julian C. Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970. Good, Carter V., ed. Dictionary of Education. 2d ed. 1959. . Introduction to Educational Research: Methodology of Design in the Behavioral and Social Sciences. 2d ed. New York: Appleton— Century-Crofts, 1963. 81 Gouldner, Alvin W. Patterns ofiggdustrial Bureaucracy. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1954. Roy, Wayne K. "Pupil Control Ideology and Organizational Socialization: A FUrther Examination of the Influence on the Beginning Teacher.“ The School Review, September-December, 1969, pp. 257-65. Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research: Educational and Psychological Inquiry. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. March, James G. and Simon, Herbert A. "Dysfunctions in Organizations." Organizations and Human Behavior: Focus on Schools. Edited by Fred D. Carver and Thomas J. Sergiovanni. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969. Nettler, Gwynn. "A Measure of Alienation." American Sociological Review, XXII, No. 6 (1957). 670—77. Rogers, William R. The Alienated Student. Nashville, Tenn.: Division of Higher Education, United Methodist Church, 1969. Rotter, Julian B. "Generalized Expectancies for Internal vs. External Control of Reinforcements." Psychological Monographs, LXXX, No. l (1966), 1-28 0 Schacht, Richard. Alienation. Garden City, N. J.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1970. Seeman, Melvin. "Powerlessness and Knowledge: A Comparative Study of Aliena- tion and Learning." Sociometry, XXX, No. 2 (1967), 105-23. Willower, Donald J.: Eidell, Terry L.; and Boy, Wayne K. The School and Pupil Control Ideology. Pennsylvania State University Studies, No. 24. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1967. , and Jones, Ronald G. "Control in an Educational Organization." StudyinggTeachingg, Edited by James Baths, John R. Pancella, and James S. VanNess. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. APPENDIX 82 APPENDIX Letter to the Superintendents MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing . Michigan 48823 College of Education . Department of Administration and Higher Education Erickson Hall Dear In a few days I will be contacting you by telephone to request your permission to carry out a research project sponsored by the Department of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, Dr. Frederick Ignatovich, Advisor. was randomly selected from over sixty schools of similar size. If the results are to have broad generalization, it is important that a large percentage of the selected schools participate. The project calls for administering a 20-item questionnaire to all faculty members and a SS-item questionnaire to ten per cent of the student body. The faculty questionnaire could be administered during a faculty meeting. The student questionnaire might be accomplished by randomly selecting approx- imately three classes of a required subject. THE INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL, STUDENTS, AND TEACHERS WILL REMAIN ANONYMOUS THROUGH- OUT. Teachers and students will not be asked to write their names on the questionnaires. Individual schools will be coded for analysis purposes only. At no time will your school be reported by name. After discussing this research with you, I will call the building principal and arrange for a time and date to meet with him. A letter has also been sent to the building principal requesting his cooperation contingent upon your approval. The questionnaires are enclosed for your inspection. Sincerely James D. Hedberg 83 APPENDIX Letter to the Principals MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Administration and Higher Education East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Within one or two days I will call you to seek your approval and COOperation in conducting a research project in your school and to arrange for a con- venient time to see you. YOur school was randomly selected from over sixty schools of similar size. The research project is sponsored by the Department of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, Dr. Frederick Ignatovich, Adviser. Little disruption in the curriculum is expected, and we hope it will be no more than just slightly inconvenient. The 20—item teacher questionnaire can be administered at a faculty meeting and will take five to ten minutes. 'The BS-item student questionnaire will not take much longer but must involve a ten per cent random sample of the student body if the results are to have broad generalization. One way to meet the random-sample requirement would be to randomly select approximately three language arts classes (or any I other required class) and administer the questionnaires during a regularly scheduled class. Copies of the questionnaires being used to collect the data have been sent to the superintendent of your school district along with a letter requesting his approval. If he has no objections, I will call you within one or two days. Sincerely James D. Hedberg APPENDIX General Instructions for Administration of PCI Form (To be read to faculty before PCI Questionnaire is answered) This questionnaire is part of a research project sponsored by the Department of Administration and Higher Education of Michigan State Univer- sity. Your school was randomly selected from among sixty Michigan schools. In a few minutes you will receive the instrument which will be used to collect data. The questionnaire is designed to secure (1) your Opinion concerning certain aspects of teacher-pupil relationships and (2) your Opinion on a number of important social and personal questions. Since we are collecting opinions, there are no correct or incorrect answers. All that is necessary is that you give your frank opinion. We realize that some of the questions may be difficult to answer with the information given. The questions are of a general nature and cannot apply to all situations, but please circle the response which indicates your opinion in most cases. 8A.: Strongly Agree, A.= Agree, Un.= Undecided, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree. Please answer all questions. Your responses will be strictly confidential. All questionnaires are anonymous, and no individual or school will be named in any report of the research. Immediately after the questionnaires have been completed they will be collected, sealed in an envelOpe, and mailed. Your assistance and cooperation are appreciated. l. 2. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. l6. l7. 85 APPENDIX Teacher Questionnaire FORM PCI It is desirable to require pupils to sit in assigned seats during assemblies. Pupils are usually incapable of solving their problems through logical reasoning. Directing sarcastic remarks toward a defiant pupil is a good disciplinary measure. Beginning teachers are not likely to maintain strict enough control over their pupils. Teachers should consider revision of their teaching methods if these are criticized by their pupils. The best principals give unquestioning support to teachers in disciplining pupils. Pupils should not be permitted to contradict the statements of a teacher in class. It is justifiable to have pupils learn many facts about a subject even if they have not immediate application. Too much pupil time is spent on guidance and activ- ities and too little on academic preparation. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar. It is more important for pupils to learn to obey rules than that they make their own decisions. Student governments are a good "safety valve" but should not have much influence on school policy. Pupils can be trusted to work together without supervision. If a pupil uses obscene or profane language in school, it must be considered a moral offense. If pupils are allowed to use the lavatory without getting permission, this privilege will be abused. A few pupils are just young hoodlums and should be treated accordingly. It is often necessary to remind pupils that their status in school differs from that of teachers. (Please turn over) E23 :‘2 33 E 33 £9 5’3 E? £3 :39 E3 33 F2 33 EL”? Un Un .Un Uh Uh Uh Un Un Un Uni Uh Uh Un Un Un Un Un SD SD SD SD SD SD SD SD 86 18. A pupil who destroys school material on purpose SA A Un D SD should be severly punished. 19. Pupils cannot perceive the difference between SA A Un D SD democracy and anarchy in the classroom. 20. Pupils often misbehave in order to make the teacher SA A Un D SD look bad. Willower's PCI Form reprinted from The School and Pupil Control Ideology, Penn State Studies No. 24 by Donald J. Willower, Terry L. Eidell, and Wayne K. Hoy. COpyright, 1967, Penn State Studies. Used with permission. APPENDIX Information INSTRUCTIONS: Please complete this form by checking the appr0priate boxes 1. and filling in blanks where indicated. Sex ( ) Male ( ) Female Certification ( ) Elementary ( ) Secondary Ase ( ) 20-29 years ( ) 30-39 years ( ) 40-49 years 50-59 years ( ) 60-69 years Present position: a. Grades taught this year (Circle all that apply) Grade 5 6 7 s 9 b. Subject(s) taught this year (Please specify) c. Number of classes (different groups of students) which you meet each day (Please circle the apprOpriate number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more d. Number of different subjects taught each day 1 2 3 4 or more Experience as an educator (including this year) total years as a teacher number of years taught in middle or junior high school number of years taught in junior-senior high school number of years taught in elementary school number of years taught in high school number of years, other (Please specify) My first teaching assignment was in a(n) E ) elementary school ( ) Junior high or middle school junior-senior high school ( ) high school I remained in the above school for years. Amount of education Bachelor's degree or less Bachelor's degree plus 1-29 semester hours Bachelor's degree plus 30 semester hours or additional credits Master's degree Master's degree plus 1-29 semester hours Master's degree plus 30 semester hours or additional credits and degrees AAAAAA VVVVVV APPENDIX General Information to Teachers Dear Teacher Inside the envelope are student questionnaires and an information sheet explaining the purpose of the questionnaire. In addition, you may want to know how you personally were selected to help with the study. After arriv- ing at your school, I randomly selected one teacher from those who were teaching required subjects. This was done at each grade level. Then, one class for each selected teacher was chosen by chance to be the class which was to receive the questionnaire. Inorder to involve ten per cent of the student body, three different classes usually was sufficient. This method of selection was chosen because it was much less disruptive than obtaining a ten per cent sample by drawing students from many classes which were meeting during a particular period of time. This questionnaire is being administered in twentybfive other schools, each of which was drawn by chance like yours. No school or individual will be identified in any subsequent report. The envelope which contains the student questionnaires has been coded so that it can be correctly accounted for and so that each questionnaire can remain with its apprOpriate group. I appreciate your cooperation. James D. Hedberg INSTRUCTIONS FOR ADMINISTENINO THE STUDENT QUEHTIONNAIRE 1. Read the information sheet entitled "Instructions for Administering Student Questionnaires" (found inside envelOpe) to the students. 2. Assure students that no one else (except me) will read their answers. 3. Pass out questionnaires to all students in the selected class. 4. After allowing adequate time (10 to 15 minutes), collect all question- naires. 5. After all uestionnaires have been placed in the pre-addressed envelope, seal)it. Include unmarked questionnaires of absent students, extras, etc. 6. Place envelOpe in the mail. 89 APPENDIX General Instructions for Administration of Student Questionnaire (To be read to students before they answer Form TT) This study is a research project sponsored by the Department of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University. Schools and students were selected on a chance basis. In a few minutes you will receive the questionnaire which we will use to collect data. The questionp naire is designed to secure (1) your Opinion concerning aspects Of school life and (2) your Opinion on a number Of important social and personal questions. Since we are collecting Opinions, there are no correct or incorrect answers. All that is necessary is that you give your frank Opinion. The form does not take long to complete. When you finish, please remain quietly in your seat until others finish. The instructions are self-explanatory and are on each questionnaire. Please read the directions and proceed to answerigll the questions. It is important that each question be answered. we realize that some Of the questions may be difficult to answer with the information given, but please respond to each question as well as you are able. Your responses will be strictly confidential. DO not write your name anywhere on the questiOnnaire. All replies are anonymous. Your assistance and cooperation are appreciated. INSTRUCTIONS: to give your honest Opinion. Please circle the response at the left Of the statement which most nearly reflects your feelings. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO No NO NO NO NO NO NO NO 1. 2. 3. 9. 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 90 APPENDIX Student Questionnaire FORM TT Following are a number Of statements about which you are asked DO you enjoy television? DO you like the new American cars? DO you like school? Are you interested in the elections for President? DO you think that children are a problem to their parents? DO you like to go to church activities? DO your teachers ask you to do things that don't make sense to you? DO you want to have children some day? Most politicians are interested only in what is best for themselves? DO you like to watch football or baseball? DO you think that you can handle any problem that comes along? DO you learn things in school that help you outside Of school? DO you wish your life were different from what it is? Is there a special reason for our being here on earth? Will working hard lead to a better life for you? DO you think that most married peOple lead unhappy lives? Does life depend mostly on luck? DO you like living in the United States? WOuld you like to live in another country just as much? DO you think that you will get anywhere in life? Are most politicians interested in what is best for the people? Is your school one Of the best in the area? DO you think that life as most men live it is useless? Is human life a product of God‘s will? DO you think life is just one problem after another? (Please turn over) Yes NO 26. Yes NO 27. Yes No 28. Yes NO 29. Yes NO 30. Yes No 31. Yes No 32. Yes NO 33. Yes No 34. Yes NO 35. CATEGORIES: Sex Age (nearest birthday) Grade 91 Are your teachers fair tO you in school? Will you have a better job than your parents? A person has to live pretty much for today and let tomorrow take care Of itself. The average man is worse Off today than he used to be. Is the world in bad shape? These days you can't trust anybody. Are your principals fair to you in school? DO you wish you could live without working? If someone gave you some money, would you spend it right away? DO you think that the things you buy are built so that they will break? ' From Alienation and Education: Angmpiricalprproach by Frank P. Besag. Copyright, 1966, Hertillon Press. Used with permission Of the publisher. 92 remamu.o armamo.ou sosusm.o mmmmmo.o sammmo.o meoowa.os scammo.ou mommmu.ou Hmamaa.o- samomm.o- mm aaomam.o mommmo.o eoHooH.o- oa~o~o.o aonnua.o seamso.on sansmo.o Hmosao.oa memmsfi.o assemm.ou em omsmau.ou sammmu.on amasau.o- mammmo.ou ummOam.o mannao.o mosmmo.ou mmmuum.ou owommo.o omommm.o- mm acamwo.o aaosmu.o- mamuuo.ou ommmoo.o meoumo.o masmso.o ommmru.o- anommm.o Hmasmm.o- memaam.o mm o mmoo.o- assaaa.ou mammmu.o- mmemmu.o auaflwo.o. Hamrrfl.o Hammau.ou Omonmu.os scammm.ou moHanm.ou Hm mamaam.o amsmso.o- magnuo.o owesm~.o o~msm~.o- Hoammm.o- masses.o- Humomfi.o- sommmo.o- mmHmaH.on cm maam0m.o mmmumo.o Nammuu.o mmommm.o accomm.o- mamaoo.o- ammumw.ou Hemamu.o- mmamoa.on mmmmmm.o- mm mem0ao.o mmmfleo.o ammmmm.o- masmwm.on scammo.o mmmnsu.o aammuo.o- mumflmo.o- muaomu.ou womaflm.o- em Hoemmo.ou Hmeueo.o wooaou.o- remamo.o- emerau.o smommo.ou armmmo.o- ammomu.o- wmammo.o- Hmmmmfl.o em scurno.o ammemo.o- areaao.o- aauauo.o mmruoo.o Naomoo.o marmao.on momoOm.o wmmmmm.on mascam.o om rummao.o Naomao.o mauauu.o Mssuao.o ammoan.o amuemo.ou :Nommm.on weaoou.o mnemma.ou ammmmm.ou mm acmumo.o aommoH.o nurreo.o amaooo.o- seemao.ou rmosat.o mamenm.ou 050mqr.o- seameu.os waomwm.o :m mamooH.on aremmm.o mmumsa.o NeanoH.o- mosamu.o Fresno.o oaamea.ou ommmmo.o mmamma.ou Hangam.oa mm newoao.o Haemoo.ou monao.ou muomso.o nmauam.o rmumuo.o- ooaaao.o- mammmo.o smummm.on mammmm.o mm :Hamuo.ou Hemaao.o Hareso.o- seemmo.o Hamaro.o maauuo.o ar~0~r.ou mmmumo.o mmnuem.o Hammam.o Hm owamgo.o umsmmo.o moremu.o- asaueo.o mammao.on mmranm.o- meeumu.o semarm.ou msamuo.o- Normsm.o 0N oHuHso.ou mmmmma.o- earum.o- Numaam.o- aaamma.o- mamamu.ou messam.ou asamso.o momeuo.o ammwmu.o- as meammo.o- maarmm.o seemoo.o Heamam.o Humamc.o eaaooN.o aarmno.o seemem.ou nmomuo.ou mamzom.o mu mammao.o- aaoaao.o ammuma.o sauoao.o- omurrm.o aweeua.o- aeaamu.o- mmaoHH.o mmmnoo.ou mseram.o- as hammwo.ou rmmrmo.ou mmwmmo.o Hennam.o AHHHNN.o mammoo.o memmoH.ou moonH.o scammu.o- onmmmm.o- on omnamu.o- cmomao.ou amawum.ou mssamm.o mumruu.o- mamooH.ou armawo.ou ammuum.ou mumoea.on mmooom.o ma mHHmoH.ou mommmo.o aromuu.o- are ma.o- ammoHu.o HH00ao.o- arhomm.ou Newsro.o- mmuaoo.o Hmaoms.o- an ammmno.o- aaaaem.o a: aro.o mannau.ou Hmmoau.ou scamso.o- ceramo.ou mmaoam.o- memoeu.ou mmmrmm.o ma memmmo.ou oHaemo.o oamnem.o- macaro.o maeHro.o gmauwo.ou maamwu.o- meoaeo.o rmemmu.ou soaasg.o NH samumo.o ameuam.o maaHoH.o- armeoH.o- remmHH.o snakes.o- meansm.o smeaao.o muuwoo.o- ommmmo.o- He momaro.ou mmsma~.ou roamro.o Homesm.o mafia a.o mmmamu.o- oeuoaa.o rarorm.o- memomo.o mummwa.o OH on 000.0- quamoH.ou mau:uo.o- memauo.ou Hamoao.ou Haemoo.o seemas.o meommo.ou mermo.ou rmomom.ou m aeaimr.o armemo.o Nauaom.o mmarnm.ou oommro.o- aoomoH.o- smearo.ou moamom.ou Hmumoo.o mesaam.o m om Ham.on wmmmmo.ou Nehemu.c mamemo.ou rmuooa.ou mmoNo.ou maremo.ou meummr.ou womema.o moseOm.on a amaaeo.ou mammou.ou moraem.o armeeu.cu cheapo.cu eammmo.o assemm.cu mamaoH.ou rmmmem.on NOanm.o w enemao.o amenoa.o canara.o- maceso.o mooamo.o ammoao.o moaamm.o- mmrmmo.ou cmmumu.ou aremmm.ou m smeomm.ou roamas.ou mnomnm.o rsommo.o meaaaa.o smmrmm.ou aroarm.ou camufio.o- maumuo.o Hamomm.o a emfmoH.o nonsmo.o aOmOmo.o aarara.ou oaeaeo.o maaemu.o- aeuaafl.o- mameom.o Hmmsmm.ou HaoOms.o m acaamo.on ommaeo.ou ceases.o- maeucN.ou maneum.o moHeam.o arammo.o anaemm.o- mmuOmo.o ommmaa.o m wmwomm.o mnmswm.o- samuao.ou mmmaoo.o- meraam.o caomee.o mammeo.ou seamom.ou szmaoo.on poemmfi.o e or m m a a m a m N F mm H 42:0 H mm .Bd 99 mo #5503me mm @493. moeofim nameless; .mo mefifia ZOHBjemmoo .mo mBszonEoo a