V76} THE ROLES, WORK PATTERNS AND THIRD CULTURAL NETWORKS OF ACADEMIC SCIENTISTS IN MALAYSIA Dissertation foI the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ABU HASSAN 0THMAN 1977 Raga: I Q munz— A... .- L [BR/I R Y Michigan Suite University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE ROLES, WORK PATTERNS AND THIRD CULTURAL NETWORKS OF ACADEMIC SCIENTISTS IN MALAYSIA presented by Abu Hassan 0thman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D. degree in _S_Q<;io_lggx / Major professor Date_Au.gns_t_12._L9_ZZ_ 0-7639 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ll fir IJL— i —I I I MSU Is An Affirm-five ActiorVEquel Opportunlty Inuitutlon emote: —‘ “tumor (— 1’ -_ 43,,‘37-«34 I'm M «2 - ABSTRACT THE ROLES, WORK PATTERNS AND THIRD CULTURAL NETWORKS OF ACADEMIC SCIENTISTS IN MALAYSIA By Abu Hassan 0thman This is a sociological study of the roles, work patterns and third cultural networks of a sample of academic scientists in Malaysia. The scientists are part of two larger collectivities: the world scientific community and the Malaysian scientific community. The manifold cross-cultural systems of the global scien- tific community consist of both personal networks among scientists of different countries and institutional linkages across national boundary lines. The systems are created and maintained by circu- lation of scientific publications, international meetings, exchange of students and scholars and by the personal corrmunications, visits and collaborative research among scientists. It is sustained by governments, private foundations and international agencies. The Malaysian scientific community has professionally based networks and grouping within the country which exhibit social and cultural patterns particularized to the social heritage, ethnic groups, the political economy and aspirations for the future. These deeply influence the style and norms of behavior among Abu Hassan 0thman scientists and affect the creation and dissemination of knowledge in the country. Data were collected by questionnaires from a disporpor- tionate, stratified, cluster sample of eighty academic scientists from four universities in greater Kuala Lumpur. The sample was stratified by: gender; six disciplinary areas-~physical sciences, engineering, three life sciences (general, agricultural and medical) and social sciences; ethnicity-~Malays, Chinese and Indians; genera- tion; highest degree earned; country of highest education; and institutional affiliation. Ethnographic study was conducted on the work environs of the scientists. The analysis is organized around three themes: l. The patterns of research activities of scientists and the factors affecting their activities. The findings show that scientists' work and achievement are unequally distributed in the disciplinary fields. Those in life-general and life-medical are actively engaged in research. Most scientists in other disciplines are constrained by administrative and other involvements in doing research. Many scientists feel they have adequate funding and facilities for their research but some report insufficient funding and poor facilities. Nonetheless, many of their research accom- Iflishments have been published abroad, suggesting they are not nerely consumers of knowledge produced by foreign scientists but also moderate creators of knowledge which is shared globally. 2. The networks established by the scientists inside Malaysia for the purposes of creating, sharing and disseminating Abu Hassan 0thman knowledge. Scientists differentially communicate and establish personalized relationships in Malaysia with "significant colleagues" in their own institution and with selective professional colleagues outside their own university. These colleagues include both foreign and Malaysian scholars. The totality of the networkings of inter- personal relationships among these scientists within the country suggests the existence of a scientific community which Crane calls the "invisible college." Although there are isolates and differen- Ifial degrees of involvement, there is considerable evidence of a community of scholars with shared interests. 3. The trans-societal networks of scientists and the pat- terning of their third culture. Every Malaysian scientist has per- mnmlly encountered foreigners in their professional activities eflmer in Malaysia or abroad or both. Consequently, interpersonal ties (extensive, intensive or slim) have developed between Malaysian mfientists and their foreign colleagues located in Western centers of world science, and, on a more limited scale, in several other reqkms of the world. In addition, they attend international meet- ings and receive publications. Remaining cognizant of developments “Iscience and technology beyond the horizon of Malaysia is impor- tmuzto them. However, this interest in an interdependent world is matched, for most, with a self-conscious concern for making their 0W"scientific contributions to the future of their own country. THE ROLES, WORK PATTERNS AND THIRD CULTURAL NETWORKS OF ACADEMIC SCIENTISTS IN MALAYSIA By Abu Hassan 0thman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University ‘in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1977 Co right by © ABUyHASSAN 0THMAN 1977 To my Mother and in memory of my Father ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the course of my graduate education at Michigan State University and especially in the writing of this thesis, I have incurred debts to a great many people and institutions. However, the first thanks must go to Professor John Useem. As major profes- sor, and chairman of my doctoral corrmittee, he has been my primary intellectual mentor, friend and colleague throughout my graduate career and the source of many of the central ideas in this study. He has been concerned with my academic work and ever supportive in easing some of the extra-academic difficulties I was experiencing during the course of my education and study. Professor Ruth Hill USeem has always been an admirable scholar whom I am ever proud to Work with. She, too, has played a central role in my doctoral research program. I am extremely grateful for her ideas, sugges- tions, encouragement and support. Both of them gave much of their 1:fine, energy and guidance at various stages of the preparation of this thesis to a degree far exceeding that ever expected of one's thesis advisors. I am especially indebted to both of them for making my intellectual growth as a sociologist stimulating and r‘ewarding. The orientation and methodology of my study was heavily Influenced by the Edward W. Hazen Foundation's project on the com- parative study of the scientific communities in South and Southeast ASia which they directed. iii Sincere thanks are also due to the other members of my doc- toral guidance committee: Professors James B. McKee, William L. Ewens, and Richard Child Hill. All of them took the time to care- fUlTy read both my research proposal and thesis, and to provide helpful comments. I have benefited from their classes and the intel- lectual discussions I have had with them. My special thanks go to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (The National University of Malaysia) for granting me the study leave and financial support throughout my graduate studies in the United States and contributing significant assistance to me during my field research in Malaysia. My thanks also go to the Institute of International Educa- tion of the United States (IIE), and the Malaysian American Commis- Sion for Educational Exchange (MACEE), Malaysia, for awarding me the Fulbright-Hays scholarship. This major financial support made DOssible my coming to Michigan State University for my graduate edu- cic‘ition and training. I am also indebted to Dr. August Gerald Benson, I:OY‘eign Student Advisor, Michigan State University, for his personal Iua1p in facilitating the renewal of my grant from IIE during my residence at MSU. I would also like to indicate my thanks to the Cc"hmittee for the Comparative Research Area, Department of Soci- °]()gy, Michigan State University, for providing me an assistantship, ”hi ch in part funded my fieldwork in Malaysia. During the time I was in Malaysia, January 1976 to June l976, t" conduct the field study, I was fortunate to have a great many DeOple who were more than kind in extending to me every assistance iv possible. I especially want to record my thanks to the following eminent science-administrators who gave so generously of their time and who so reflectively answered my questions: Datuk Murad Mohd Noor, Director General of Education, Ministry of Education, Malaysia; Datuk Dr. Anuwar Mahmud, Vice-Chancellor, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; Professor Ungku Aziz, Vice-Chancellor, University of Malaya; Professor Yip Yat Hong, Deputy Vice- Chancellor, University of Malaya; Encik Abdul Hamid Mohd Tahir, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Technology; Encik Mohd Noor . Haji Ismail, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Agriculture; and Dr. E. K. Ng, Deputy Director, Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia. I would also like to sincerely thank the chairman of departments and deans of faculties of the respective universities Who helped open the way for me to meet and interview members of their departments and/or faculties selected in this study. I would also like to convey my thanks to several librarians, eSpecially Cik Hapipah Mubin of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, puan Rohani Rustam of the University of Agriculture and Mr. Edward cheah of the University of Malaya who helped me with the materials needed for this study. My colleagues in the Department of Anthropology and Soci- oIogy, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, have in various ways helped me during the course of my field study. In particular I wish to t"Ii-ink Encik Mohd Dahlan Haji Aman, the Chairman of the Department, for his personal support during the period of my stay in Malaysia V for the research. _In addition, I thank Encik Mohd Radi bin Zun, an undergraduate of the University of Malaya, who was my research assistant during the course of my fieldwork. I would like to take this opportunity to again convey my deep fbelings of appreciation to the “sample" members of the Malaysian academic scientific community who have generously given their time and patiently answered my questions. Without their positive responses and cooperation, this empirical study could not have been accomplished. A special expression of gratitude is due to my wife Jamilah Who has been constantly a source of invaluable support during the Whole period of my education. She typed all the drafts of this thesis but the final one. The life I share with her and our two Children, Eliza and Afdzal, has made the process of learning and research more joyous and the constraints, pains, disappointment and (Tifficulties tolerable. Their patience was admirable. For all this. they have my appreciation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Chapter 1. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . Statement of the Sociological Problem The Third Culture of Science The Study Design . Scope and Content of Study Selection of Institutional Focus: Universities . Selecting the Sample of Malaysian Scientists The Malaysian Study Design: The Ideal and the Actual . . . . . Description of Sample . Major Area of Science . Social and Ethnic Identity. Class Background. Education and Training. Generation . . . . . . . Research Techniques . Entry and Establishing Identity in the Field Method of Data Collection . . Pre- -testing schedule of questions The schedules and interview situation Distribution and collection of selfe administered questionnaire Depth interviews Interviews with key informants Ethnography. FieldwOrk Situation: Recapitulation and Assessment : Limitations of the Study and Potentiality for Future Research. . II. THE SETTING OF THE STUDY . . . . Malaysia: Its Socio- Political Structure and Third Cultural Heritage . . Pre- Colonial Era: The Indigenous Socio- Cultural System and the Hindu and Islamic Influence . . . . . vii Page xi d tom-hi 15 20 21 21 21 28 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 36 36 37 38 40 42 42 44 Chapter The Indigenous Socio-CulturaI System . . Diffusion of Hindu and Islamic Thought and Culture . The Role of the Intellectual and Man of Knowledge . . . British Colonialism: Scientific, Intellectual, and Politico- Economic Dependency in a Binational Third Culture The Establishment of a Subordinate, Dependent Colonial Society, Many States and Multi- Ethnic Communities The Introduction and DeveIOpment of the Western System of Education The Transmission of Western Science and Technology . . Post- Independence Era: Change, Conflict and Vision of Progress . The Establishment of a New Nation State,a New Society and a New Patterning of Cross- Cultural Relationships . . . . . The Combining of Cultures: Conflict and Congruence . . . . . . The Creation of Universities: Institutions for Training Scientific and Technical Manpower . Malaysian Perspective on Science and Society in Relation to Modernization, Development and Progress . . . . . . . . III. THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES . . Structure of Involvement and Choice of Research Problem . . . . Time Spent in Research Factors Influencing Choice of Research Problem Research Paradigm: Basic and Applied . . Sources of Funding for Research . . Accessibility to Facilities for Research Physical Dimension . . . Social Dimension . . . Scientists' Research Projects: A Micro Perspective . Distribution of Research Projects . Individual Vis- a- Vis Collaborative Research Research Publication . . . . . Incidence of Productivity . . . . . . Research Publication Outlets: Domestic and Foreign . . . viii Page 44 46 49 51 51 54 57 62 62 66 71 77 80 81 81 92 97 105 107 111 116 117 121 123 123 131 Chapter Page The Scientists' Domestic and Foreign Publica- tions and the Citation of These Publications . 134 IV. SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AMONG SCIENTISTS INSIDE THE COUNTRY . . . . . . . 137 The Sharing of Knowledge: A Micro Perspective . . 137 ' Scientists' Institutional and Extra-Institutional Communication Networks . . . . 138 Interpersonal Ties With Foreign Scholars in Scientists' Own Institutions . . . . 145 Extra- Institutional Interpersonal Networks of Scientists . . . . . 151 Scientists' Involvement and Participation in Scientific Gatherings Held Inside Malaysia . . . 154 Scientists' Participation in the Local Malaysian Scientific Gatherings . . . . . 156 Memberships in Malaysian Professional and Scientific Organizations . . . . . 160 The Dissemination of Knowledge: Communication of Research Results . . 166 Principal Avenues for Communicating ResuIts of Research Activities . . . . 167 The Perceived End Users of the Scientists' Research Results . . . . . 172 Dissemination of Knowledge and Technology: Scientists As Consultants . . . . 175 Domain of Consultantship: Domestic, Pub1ic and Private Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . 176 Domain of Consultantship: International, Regional and Foreign Country's Organization . . 184 Norms in the Selection of Consultants . . . 188 Social Factors in the Selection of Consultants . 189 Role Functions of the Consultant . . . . . . 193 ‘V. THE TRANS-SOCIETAL NETWORKS OF SCIENTISTS AND THE PATTERNING OF THEIR THIRD CULTURE OF SCIENCE . . . 202 Establishing Trans- Societal Networks . . . 203 Perceptions of Malaysian Scientists As to the Global Epicenters of Their Professional Fields . . . . . 204 Scholars in Other Countries in Similar Fields of Research Known Personally by Malaysian Scientists and With Whom They Interact . . . 208 Conference Attendance in Foreign Countries by Malaysian Scientists . . . . . . . . 219 ix Chapter Page Demographic Count of the Participants and Non-Participants in Trans-Societal Networks . . 224 Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Ethnicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Highest Degree Earned. . . . . . . . . 230 -. Country of Highest Education . . . . . . . 231 .1 University Affiliation . . . . 231 ‘ “ Three Types of Trans- Societal Interpersonal Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 f Extensive Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 232 1 Intensive Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 234 E Slim Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 ; Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Ethnicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Highest Degree Earned. . . . . . . . . 241 Country of Highest Education . . . . . . . 244 University Affiliation . . . . . 245 How Malaysian Scientists Envision Their Own Professional Role . . . 248 The Third Culture of the Scientific Community . . 256 History of the Present . . . 257 The Present Functions of Wor1d Networks of Science . . . . . . . 260 Shared Identities and Group Values . . . . . 264 VI. RESUME OF THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY . . 266 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 APPEN[)IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Table 1. 12. 13. 14. 15. LIST OF TABLES Page Distribution of Scientists in Sample Universities by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . 18 Distribution of Sample by University Affiliation and by Major Area of Science . . . . . . 22 Distribution of Sample Scientists by Gender and by Ethnic Identity . . . . . . . 23 Distribution of Scientists by Age . . . . . . . . 25 Social Class Background of Scientists . . . . . . 27 Characteristics of the Malaysian Scientific Community Sample of Published Academic Scientists by Highest Degree Earned, by Place Granting Highest Degree and by No Foreign Education . . . . . . 29 Population Composition, Malaysia, 1970 . . . . . . 43 Full-Time Student Enrollment at Five Malaysian Universities, 1970-74 . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Distribution of Scientists by Administrative Functions . 82 Major Area of Science by Time Apportioned to Research . 84 Factors Perceived Influencing Scientists' Choice of Research Problem by Major Area of Science . . . . 88 Major Area of Science by Orientation to Research Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Sources of Funding of Research Projects of Scientists in Last Three Years . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Foreign Sources of Funding of Research Projects of Scientists in the Last Three Years . . . . . . . 102 Distribution of Foreign Sources of Funding for Specific Research Projects of Scientists by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . 103 xi Table 16. 17° 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30, Distribution of the Different Types of Domestic and Foreign Journals and Bulletins Located in Malaysian University Libraries by Major Area of Science . . Distribution of Availability of Equipment, Specimens and Other Laboratory Facilities for Research by Major Area of Science . . . . . Distribution of Availability of Funding for Research by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Availability of Technical Supporting Staff for Research by Major Area of Science . Distribution of Availability of Colleagues for Collaborative Research by Major Area of Science Distribution of Availability of Superiors Who Are Supportive of Scientists' Research Work Distribution of Number and Average Number of Research Projects of Scientists by Major Area of Science . Distribution of Research Projects of Scientists by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Scientists' Research Projects in Six Clusters of Disciplines by Type of Investigator . I)istribution of Publication of Research Reports of Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . [Distribution of Research Publications of Scientists by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . [Distribution of Research Publications of Scientists by Ethnicity . . . . . . . . [listribution of Research Publications of Scientists by Generation . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Incidence of Scientists' Co-Authorships in the Publication of Research Manuscripts with Malaysian Counterparts by Major Area of Science Distribution of Incidence of Scientists' Co-Authorships in the Publication of Research Manuscripts with Foreigners by Major Area of Science . . xii Page 106 109 111 112 113 115 117 119 122 124 125 126 127 129 130 Table 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Page Distribution of Publication Outlets of Scientists in Different Areas of the World by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . 132 Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Where They Published and Whether at Least One Citation of One Article in That Place Was Noted in the Science Citation Index, 1972-76 . . . . . 135 Distribution of Number of Colleagues With Comparable Professional Field in Own Institution by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Distribution of Number of Malaysian Colleagues in Own Institution with Whom Scientists Interact by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Distribution of Frequency of Meetings Among Scientists Who Interact With at Least One Other Colleague in Own Institution by Major Area of Science . . . . . 144 Distribution by Country of Origin of Foreign Scholars by Major Area of Science . . . 147 Distribution of Foreign Scholars in Scientists' Department by Major Area of Science . . . . . . 148 Distribution of Frequency of Interaction Between Malaysian Scientific Community Sample Who Have Foreign Colleagues and Their Foreign Counter- 4 parts by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . 150 Distribution of Frequency of Scientists' Participa- tion in Local Malaysian Scientific Gatherings in Last Three Years . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Distribution of Scientists' Role in Local Malaysian Scientific Gatherings Attended in Last Three Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Distribution of Number of Memberships Held by Scientists in Malaysian Scientific and Pro- fessional Organizations by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Malaysian Scientific Societies and Their Main Publi- cation as Reported by Scientists in the Major Areas of Science . . . . . . . . . . . 163 xiii Table 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. Distribution of the Principal Avenues for Conmuni- cating Results of Research Work of Sample Scientists by Major Area of Science Distribution of Sectors Perceived by the Scientists as Having Used Their Research Findings, Classi- fied by Types of Research . . . . . . . . Distribution of Scientists' Role as Consultants in Different Types of Malaysian National Govern- ment and Its Agencies by Gender, Major Area of Science and Ethnicity . . . . . Distribution of Scientists' Role as Consultants in Different Types of Malaysian Private Industry by Gender, Major Area of Science and Ethnicity . . Distribution of Scientists' Role as Consultants in Different Types of Regional and International Organizations by Gender, Major Area of Science and Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Factors Important in the Selection of Scientists as Consultants by Gender, Major Area of Science and Ethnicity . . . . Distribution of the Types of Role Functions of Scientists as Consultants by Major Area of Science . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of the Types of Reward Achieved by Scientists by Major Area of Science . . . Distribution of the Perceived Location of the Leading Epicenters of Science in Scientists' Own Profes- sional Field by Major Area of Science . . . Distribution of the Number of Foreign Colleagues With Whom Malaysian Academic Scientists Have Interpersonal Ties . . . . . Distribution of Foreign Scholars With Whom Members of the Malaysian Scientific Community Have Per- sonal Ties, by Place of Residence of Foreign Scholars and by Area of Science of Malaysian Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Page 168 174 178 182 185 191 194 198 206 210 211 '- aAa‘,-.- Table 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 600 Nature of Scientific Help Extended by Foreign Scholars to Malaysian Scientists and by Malaysian Scientists to Foreign Scholars . Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Proportion Who Attended Foreign International Conferences, by Place Attended, by Number of Con- ferences Attended and by Average Number per Person for Three Years Before This Study . . . . . . Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Gender, Ethnicity, Area of Science and Genera- tion as to Participation or Non—Participation in Third Cultural Networks . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Highest Degree Earned, Country of Highest Educa- tion, University Affiliation as to Their Participa- tion in Third Cultural Networks . . . . . . . Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Gender, Ethnicity, Area of Science, Generation and Types of Third Cultural Networks . Distribution of Malaysian Scientific Community Sample by Highest Degree Earned, Country of Highest Educa- tion, University Affiliation and Types of Third Cultural Networks . . . Distribution of Scientists' First and Second Priori- ties in Their Scale of Values in Terms of Con- tributing Their Knowledge by Area of Science and by Types of Research in Which They Are Involved . . . . XV Page 216 220 225 226 236 242 251 ._._.. -w ib- ." L CHAPTER I DESIGN OF THE STUDY Statement of the Sociological Problem At its inception, the sociology of science and the allied fields of inquiry were centrally concerned with the relations between 1Me scientific community and scientific knowledge on the one hand and the wider society on the other. This was true, for instance, of Merton's early work on the emergence of modern science (Merton, 1973) and on the norms governing scientific research (Hagstrom, 1965; Merton, 1973). Science, whether considered as a social system (Storer, 1966) or an estate (Price, 1965), has been investigated largely in terms of its internal structure, norms and values. In recent years there has been a growing concentration upon the internal characteristics of the scientific community, with the wider social setting taken as given and relatively unproblematic (see Blume, 1974). Those responsible for these more narrowly focused studies have not been aware that the scientific community is subject to external influences. But they have assumed that at least in some modern societies it has sufficient autonomy to makea separate analy- sis of its internal processes acceptable as a first approximation. This research strategy has proved to be fruitful. It has enabled researchers to isolate a series of manageable problems and has produced results which have significantly improved our 1 ' ltd understanding of social stratification in science (Cole, 1972), the reward system of science(Gast0n. 1970: 718-32), social control in science (Storer, 1966), the development of research areas (Crane, 1972), the recruitment of new scientists (Turner, 1960; Hargens and Hagstrom, 1967), scientific advisory structures and processes (Dupree, 1957; Pelz and Andrews, 1966; Schooler, 1971), as well as difficulties faced by scientists in industry (Glaser, 1964; Korn- hauser, 1962; Volmer and Mills, 1966) and so forth. The impression derived from much of the literature is that it has been implicitly assumed that science is a homogeneous entity, a community of like-minded scholars adhering to similar norms and values. Another implicit, although unstated, assumption has been that the model or configuration of science, its norms and values, is Vmat it is in the West, not what it is in other parts of the world. There has been little concern with comparative studies, other than various consideration of manpower problems (Harbison and Myers, 1964; [Down and Harbison, 1957); in the adjustment of the foreign-educated to their indigenous cultures (Useem and Useem, 1955; Hodgkin, 1972) and on the third culture of science (McCarthy, 1972; Restivo, 1971; Vanderpool, 1971; Useem, in progress). Consequently, writings focusing on science and the scientific community within the modern- izing societies of the third world are scanty. But the few avail- able studies contribute some insights to our understanding of the growth patterns and development of science in the newer societies. Nader (1968), Rebeiro (1967), Shah (1967), Shils (1961, 1966, 1972) and Sinha (1970), among others, together point to the different cultural, political and economic environments in which science is being developed within the third world. Basalla (1967) suggested that science was originally an importation by colonial masters (e.g., by the British in India and Malaysia, the Dutch in Indonesia, the Spanish in the Philippines) except perhaps for China (Kwok, 1965; Wang, 1966). Rather than being part of a social movement for nmdernity, science thus becomes the purview of an elite of both foreign colonialists and educated nationals, who often become increasingly isolated from the masses. Such isolation prevents the penetration of science into the total society, or its establishment in the country. Matejko (1967: 367-76) and de Solla Price (1963: 102-6) have discussed the problems confronting researchers in the third world: conflict between teaching and research, little time for research, unimaginative administrators and traditionalism in universities, inadequate research facilities, scant financial support, lack of established sources of support and recognition for scientific achievement as well as continued reliance on the knowledge and advances in tech- nology in the West. These factors led de Solla Price to a conclu- sion that science in the third world will remain "dependent science." In the sociology of science much has been written about the structure and process of science in the Western world. But, from a comparative perspective, there are a number of basic issues that are little explored. For example: What is the culture of science in the third world? What is the significance of the colonial .1 d heritage with respect to science and technology? How do the govern- ment and the newer scientific community differ? How do government policies regarding modernization and development affect the growth patterns of the scientific community in those countries? What are the work-associated roles of scientists and their constraints in relation to the modernization and the development of the total society? How do scientists participate in the generating of a new culture in their societies? What is the nature of the relationships of the local scientific community to the epicenters of global sci- emce? Within the world-encompassing scientific collectivity, what are the different networks among scientists? -The present study, then, is aimed at looking into the sci- entific activities of scientists and their cultural networks in nmdernizing society in Malaysia. The Third Culture of Science The interest in comparative study of science and the scien- tific community has emerged and crystallized particularly in the last ten years. This is partly in response to the parochialism of Western sociology and the realities of an increasingly complex interdependent world. An important reason for emphasizing this per- spective is the significance of science-~1ogically, technologically and ideologically--for industrialization, modernization, and social change in general at societal and global levels (Restivo and Vander- pool, 1974: 3). Contemporary scientific networks are linked to each other by more or less well-developed systems of transportation, 0. . communications, and exchange that cut across geographical, political and cultural boundaries: these networks are part of a supra- societal system variously referred to as the international scientific community, the third culture of science, the scientific superculture, and the scientific lateralization (Restivo, 1971: 187-205). Scientific activities at this level are primary links tmtween and among societies. These links are created and shaped by increasing interdependence between world-wide societies for resources, technology, markets, audiences, capital, information and social knowledge, and the continuing coalescence of domestic and foreign affairs. Our primary organizing sociological conceptualiza- lfion in this study is "the third culture of science." Following the-Useems, the working definition of "the third culture of science" is "the cultural (including intrascientific) {utterns inherited and created, learned and shared by the members of two or more different societies who are personally involved in relating their societies, or segments thereof to each other" (Useem, 1971: 14). Such a construct is an attempt to conceptualize patterns created by the increasing relationships among and between persons across cultures who, by virtue of shared interests which bring them together, generate new human groupings (Useem and Useem, 1963: 481- 98). These groupings arise out of the interaction of people who share some common interests, and who in the process of interacting increase the scale of scientific activity and consciousness, create and establish new values, outlooks, life styles, and behavior patterns which are generic to none of the parent cultures involved. Basic to this idea are the following assumptions (Useem, 1971: 14-16): 1. Men-in-the-middle of intersecting societies function as cultural brokers between intersecting social units, societies, and countries. As men-in-the-middle, they are a cultural exchange unit in the continuing interactions between the larger societies and countries. 2. The carriers of "third cultures" are a very limited segment of the total population: mostly individuals who have received a modern and higher education, have an occupation or a pro- fession that is part of the modernizing-developing nation-building institutions, and typically have been recruited as adults. 3. these cultural brokers view themselves and are viewed by their consociates as actively engaged in future-oriented activi- ifies in which what is achieved in the present will prove valuable to subsequent generations. In addition, third cultures are not closed, but open-ended cultures which depend for their existence and meaning on the larger col- 1ectivities of societies, countries and the international world. Consequently, they are subject to constant changes, intermittent conflicts, and numerous specific accommoda- tions, as the larger human groupings on which they depend change. The world-wide political and economic forces, the shifting alignments of power among and within nations, the ideas and ideologies which originate in some parts of the world and then quickly spread round the globe, all these impinge on any one third culture. Thus, while a third cul- ture is in one respect a creator of new patterns, it is also in another respect a creature of the world conditions which prevail (Useem, 1971: 16). Within the context of an increasingly interdependent world, the Useems focused on modernizing roles in the third culture: Part of the enlarged scale of interdependency between the newly-developing and the more developed countries, a pre- dominant characteristic of our time, are the systems designed to facilitate the process of modernization: progress to advance educational exchange, institution building, technical and economic assistance, business and industrial innovations, expansion of the scientific com- munity, application of technology. and the strengthening of development organization (Useem and Useem, 1968: 143 . The Useems anticipate a growing concern in the third world lfith creating national scientific communities, on a larger scale. The conception of the third culture has led them to study the "expan- sion of the scientific community and their cultural networks" as systems designed to facilitate the process of modernization in society. To explore further a specific instance of the third cul- ture of science, this research is focused on the scientific commu- rfity and its culture in Malaysia, and its relationship to the scientific collectivities of the wider world. Viewed from a global perspective, the scientific community in Malaysia is part of two larger collectivities. First, it is [art of the world scientific community which gives primacy to the idea that science-based knowledge has no national boundary lines. The world scientific community and its manifold ecumenical systems are made up of the personal and institutional networks of scientists of various disciplines and specializations. Communication is main- tained by circulation of books, professional journals, magazines, and reprints; by attendance at national, regional, and international conferences, through correspondence and visits among scholars and colleagues; by securing placement for students; and by post-graduate study. It is also sustained by foundations and government-supported exchanges of scholars, cooperative university research and training programs, international and regional centers for coordinated studies of special topics. Recognition, respect and prestige from this global collec- tivity, though it carries no sanctions, are expressed in invitations to deliver lectures or to present papers at meetings, by acceptance of articles for publication in journals, by citation in the litera- ture and requests for reprints, and by the granting of research and travel support. Second, within the country, the scientific community fbrms societal-based networks and groupings. Their collective activityis imbued with particularized cultural and social patterns. This is because ethnic groups and the nation deeply influence the style and norms of behavior among scientists and significantly affect the creation, storage, and dissemination of scientific knowl- edge in the various parts of the country. Malaysian scientists are just starting to advance and to be accepted as one of the important groups close to the centers of power, who can perform vital functions in developing, modernizing and building a national culture. In summary, the theoretical orientation of the study has two primary bases: the sociology of science and the sociological construct, third culture. From the literature on the sociology of science, some concepts, especially of the social organization of science as an institution with its attendant hypothesized behavior, norms and values, will be used wherever applicable in the analysis of the Malaysian data. The literature dealing with the third culture of science provides a framework for analysis of the work-associated roles and cultural networks of Malaysian scientists. The Study Design Scope and Content of Study The study seeks to describe and analyze a particular segment of science in Malaysian society, the academic scentific community. They are performing modernizing roles in society. They train man- power, educating them for modern professional, technological and managerial roles in the total society. They conduct research on various problems. With some, their research may be neatly articu- lated with the requirements of particular occupational or profes- sional fields. With others, the emphases may be on general scholarly and theoretical pursuits. In some, the search for knowledge for its own sake predominates. Nowadays, the increasing recognition granted to academic persons by decision-makers in government and business has had unanticipated consequences within the academy. Many are now consultants or technocrats to government, industry and founda- tions, as well as the civic groups of the larger society. Their advice is eagerly sought by powerful decision-makers. The purpose of this study is threefold. Firstly, it is to investigate: the work-associated roles of scientists in the aca- demic institutions in Malaysia, as researchers, technical consul- tants to government agencies, private industry, foreign country's 10 foundations, international organizations, and civic groupings; inter- personal networks involving other Malaysian scientists, institutions, and also scientists in other countries around the world. Secondly, it is to consider how the professional activities of scientists con- tribute to the growth and patternings of science and the scientific comnunity in the country, as well as to the modernization and development of the total society. Finally, in a broader context, taking the roles and activities of the academic scientists as a whole, the purpose is to examine the structure of the Malaysian scientific community and its relationship to the epicenters of the global scientific collectivity. For this study, empirical data were gathered during five months of fieldwork (February-June, 1976) at Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia. An indepth study of eighty scientists from four universities in the country was made. Altogether, there were 359 items distinguished during the fieldwork. Not all of these items will be analyzed. Instead, a set of independent variables--gender, ethnicity, major area of science, highest degree earned, place of highest education, university affiliation, and generation, and selected dependent variables--research, consultative and advisory functions, networks with other scientists within the national boundaries, and trans- societal interpersonal networks, will be used in the analysis. The analysis in the following pages attempts to bring understanding to such domains as: 11 l. the collective identity of scientists: their distribu- tion by university, major area of science, ethnicity, social class, educational level, and generation. 2. the socio-political structure and its third-cultural heritage in relationship to the emerging institutions of higher edu- cation and the scientific comnunity. 3. the social organization of research activities of sci- entists: issues related to time spent in research, types of research, sources of funding for research, factors influencing choice of research problem, accessibility to facilities for research. 4. the sharing and dissemination of knowledge: communica- tion between and among scientists within their institutions and the country; involvement and participation in national scientific con- ferences, seminars, and workshops; membership in professional and scientific organizations; the recipients and end users of knowledge; the scientists as consultants and technocrats. 5. patterns of linkages in third cultures of science, created and maintained by scientists with their science counterparts from other parts of the world. This approach, it is hoped, will put in a clearer perspec- tive a small portion of the total picture of science and a scien- tific community in relation to a modernizing society of Southeast Asia. 12 Selection of Institutional Focus: Universities As a way of limiting the scope of the study, only the educa- tional sector of the society has been considered as a source of the sample of scientists to be included. Academic institutions, particu- larly universities, are important in several ways. In fulfilling the needs of a modernizing society, universities in Malaysia have become large and influential educational and scientific institutions. Today universities carry the major responsibility for professional and scientific education. Contemporary Malaysian universities are multifunctional organizations. They provide undergraduate and limi- ted graduate instruction and open the channel of mobility for a rising number of students. They are intellectual centers, with libraries and laboratories to advance the frontiers of knowledge, and they supply, through their teaching, the high level manpower needs of the society. In highly industrialized countries, the setting of develop- ment goals and strategies is assisted by a series of institutions and milieux where long-term thinking and research can be undertaken, e.g., academies, research and development centers, private indus- tries, associations of the intellectual groupings. But in a number of countries in the third world beginning their development, such as Malaysia, the university is the place where much of the creative intellectual and technological energies of the nation are concen- trated. In addition, the great majority of the highly educated-- those with post-graduate training and research experiences--are 13 located in the universities. A few are employed in government- managed research institutes and private industries. There is limi- ted sc0pe for and variety in scientific research and development in private industry. This is because most of it is "multinational." Major scientific research and development is done not in Malaysia but in the home countries of the multinational corporations. Under these circumstances the universities with their newly created research institutions become critical factors in directing and shaping the kind of career a scientist has in Malaysia. Malaysia has a unique higher education tradition in South- east Asia: the universities are totally publicly supported. There are no private or sectarian (church-related) universities like those found in the Philippines, Indonesia and other countries. At the time of independence in 1957, there was only one university in Malaysia. But since 1969, due to the "demographic explosion" in the country--the combination of social, economic and cultural changes--and’by the establishing of new government policies, four new public universities have been created. Thus, at present there are five universities in the country. Four are located in the greater Kuala Lumpur area: University of Malaya (Universiti Malaya), the National University of Malaysia (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia), University of Agriculture (Universiti Pertanian), and University of Technology (Universiti Teknologi). The fifth univer- sity, University of Science (Universiti Sains), is located in Penang about four hundred miles to the north of Kuala Lumpur, the nation's capital. 14 For the purpose of the study, only the four universities located in the Kuala Lumpur area were selected as the institutional focus. The amount of the grant, and the time available for the research were, in fact, the two principal factors determining this choice. The four universities were further divided into two classes: 1. The primate university. This is the University of Malaya (founded in 1959), the nation's oldest and largest academic institution. It was modeled, with some adaptations, on the British provincial universities and incoprorates their value system (Thomp- son et al., 1977: 241). It holds a position of great prestige among the country's universities. It is better equipped both in library and research facilities. It has a longer tradition of scientific research and development than the other universities. It is also the academic home of most of the first generation of Malaysian scientists and scholars who entered the university since its incep- tion. 2. The newer universities. These are the other three uni- versities (The National University of Malaysia, University of Agriculture, and University of Technology). These academic insti- tutions were not established by a colonial ruler but are a product of indigenous effort and aspiration. Being new, they have a collec- tion of relatively younger-generation scholars who have recently returned from post-graduate training (mainly in the United Kingdom, United States and other Western countries) and have begun their careers within one of these universities. 15 The four universities together have been the major suppliers of high-level manpower to the country. Each is sensitive to subtle social and political pressures and counterpressures in Malaysian society, and each plays a unique role, not only in economic develop- ment, but also in the development of national consciousness and cultural integration. Selecting the Sample of Malaysian Scientists According to the figures reported by the government,1 as of 1973, there were 61,848 scientists and technologists employed in Malaysia. 0f the total, 13,768 were degree holders, and 48,080 were diploma holders. Of those with university degrees, 1,175 persons were employed as administrators and managerial executives, 2,239 were teachers at the universities and colleges, and 10,354 were employed as scientists and technologists in research institutions, manufacturing industry and other production agencies. Hence, accord- ing to these figures, less than one-fourth (16.3 percent) of the scientists were employed in the institutions of higher education in Malaysia in 1973. In selecting the sample of academic scientists, a number of criteria were used. First, the sample was limited to Malaysians. The exclusion of foreigners was by no means to denigrate their impor- tant contributions to the growth and patternings of science in Malaysia; rather, it was a convenient way of limiting the range and 1Report on Manpower Survey in Malaysia, 1973. 16 variety of the sample population selected for this particular study. Second, the sample represents scientists of the four universities, of both genders, and of the three major ethnic groups (Malays, Chinese, Indians). Third, the sample was drawn from six different scientific clusters. They were the physical sciences, the engineer- ing sciences, the general life sciences, the agricultural life sci- ences, the medical sciences and the social sciences. In addition, the selection process emphasized productive scientists, i.e., those having authored or coauthored at least one publication. A "publication" is here defined as any article or the equivalent based on research, and what is circulated among colleagues in mimeographed form, as pre-prints, reprints, monographs, reports of proceedings of conferences, or in formal journals. A graduate thesis is not considered a publication, but a journal article or a book based on the thesis is so considered. A minimal criterion such as this serves to discriminate enough to insure that one is dealing with productive scientists rather than with purely teachers or administrators. Too, publishing is evidence of a researcher's active engagement in scientific work and the sharing of his research results with other professionals. In picking the sample of productive scientists, an attempt was made to approximate the configuration of the Malaysian academic scientific community as found in the annual reports of the four selected universities. In 1975-76, there were about 862 scholars in the four universities. Of these, approximately 450 mentioned research activity of some kind, either reported in the annual 17 reports of the different academic institutions, or by our personal interviews with selected heads of departments, and deans of faculties in the sample universities. The distribution of scientists by type of university and by major area of science is given in Table 1. The physical sciences include the following disciplines: physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology and specific branches of geography, i.e., physical geography. Engineering includes civil, mechanical, electrical chemical, surveying, and town and country planning. General life sciences refer to biology, botany, genetics and zoology. Agricultural sciences refer to agronomy, soil science, horticulture, animal science, fishery, agricultural engineering, food technology, and forestry. Life-medical encompasses anaesthesi- ology, anatomy, obstetrics and gynecology, surgery, radiology, pharmacology, psychiatry and other related subjects. Not included in the sample is dentistry. The social sciences include economics, sociology, psychology, political science, anthropology, public administration, linguistics, geography and two branches of education --educational psychology and educational sociology. In the primate university, it is evident that the majority of scientists are in the life-medical (33 percent), followed by the social sciences (30 percent), physical sciences (19 percent), engineering (10 percent), life-general (7 percent) and life- agriculture (1 percent). The low percentage of agricultural sci- entists located in the primate university is owing to a large number of them having joined the University of Agriculture when it was established in 1971. In the newer universities, the highest 18 o.o o 0.0 o o.o o o.o o o.oo~ com o.o o o.oop com hoopocgumh we .>m:: N.m NF 0.0 o m.mo mm m.o— mp o.o o m.m~ Pm o.oop «NP mgzupaumgm< #0 .>w:= 0.0m me w.PF m o.o o m.mp NP o.o o m.m_ NF o.oo_ we .>P== PecoPpmz age ~.m_ mm m.~ m m.m_ we m.o mm o.om com N.m mm o.oo_ Doe _muoe moppwmcw>wc= gmzmz m.om owe N.Nm _m_ m._ e m.o mm o.op we m.m. om o.oop Noe campus Lo .>P== Nummcm>wc2 «uneven m.- mm, m.m_ omF m.m mm m.o em m.mN new m.m_ mp, o.oo_ New peace & z a z a z e z N z a 2 R z .mum .uom .umz-acws .PLm<-acws .=a¢-acps .cwmcm Pacem»;a .mpoe sawmcwmwwa co mucmwum mo mmg< some: .mucmwum *o mmg< Lone: An mopuvmcm>wca mpaEmm cw mumwucmwum 4o copuanwcum_a-u.F m4m<~ 19 percentage of scientists are in engineering (50 percent), followed by life-agriculture (20 percent), the social sciences (14 percent), life-general (6 percent) and life-medical (2 percent). The reason fur this very different distribution is the newly established Uni- versity of Agriculture and University of Technology: they are respectively engaged in establishing a curriculum in agriculture and engineering. Following the general outlines of the Malaysian academic scientific community doing research, 80 scientists having at least one publication were randomly selected from among approximately 450 scientists in the four universities. Our sample of 80 scientists, then, is approximately an 18 percent sample of this number. This sample of 80 scientists were subcategorized in order that they represent: male and female scholars; six scientific disciplines-- physical, engineering, life sciences (general, agricultural, medi- cal) and social science; three ethnic groups--Malay, Chinese and Indian; the generation 0f senior and younger scientists. In addi- tion, of the total sample scientists, 51 (64 percent) were selected from the primate university, and 29 (36 percent) were from the newer universities. The sample was formed this way for the following reasons: (1) Not only many scientists in the primate university were eminent, but also they had been engaged in research much longer than their counterparts from the newer universities. (2) Some sci- entists in the primate university were highly visible and productive. They have high reputations in the scientific community and the public-at-large as well. (3) Most of the generation of senior 20 scientists are located in the primate university. Therefore, no study of science and the scientific community in Malaysia could afford to exclude them from the sample. The Malaysian Study Design: The Ideal and the Actual The initial plan of studying the scientific community in Malaysia was to encompass a sample of scientists working in the scientific organizations in the country, e.g., academic institutions, research institutes and public service organizations. This approach would have covered a wider range of scientific activity in the coun- try. But to embark on such a project would have required substan- tial resources, such as funding, qualified research assistants, and time. For this reason and for lack of essential information about the actual distribution of scientists by organizations, gender, scientific disciplines, ethnicity and highest degree attained, the original plan was discarded. The only information available, appar- ently, on scientific manpower by occupations in the country was the report of the manpower survey initiated by the government in 1973. This information was too general to enable one to construct a mean- ingful sampling frame. Instead, a study design was developed that centered pri- marily on academic scientists, a segment of the modernizing Malaysia, yet embodying in their experiences and behavior the larger issues of modernization and development. The main focus of the pro- posed study design was on academic scientists, from four universi- ties in the country. 21 The study was originally to focus on the complex configura- tions of scientists' occupations and work style. The variables to be investigated were: the social origins of scientists (gender, social and ethnic identity, class background, education and train- ing); the work-associated roles of scientists (teaching, research, consultative and advisory, and civic or political roles); the system of reward and recognition for scientific achievement; generation; the networks of scientists within the country and abroad; and sci- entists' perception of the role of science and technology in modern- ization and development. The study design was then modified as a consequence of the field situation. Variables related to teaching and to the system of reward and recognition for scientific achieve- ment were dropped to reduce the scope of coverage. The content of the actual study is discussed in the following pages. Description of Sample Major Area of Science Table 2 gives the breakdown by institutional affiliation and major area of science of the scientists interviewed. 0f the total 80 respondents interviewed, 12 were physical scientists (15 percent), 13 engineers (16 percent), 14 life-general (18 percent), 13 life-agriculture (16 percent), 13 life-medical (16 percent) and 15 social scientists (19 percent). 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The external assistance which has evolved over a long period of time includes financial aid, research development programs, exchange of scholars and contribution of technical facilities. Consequently, these joint efforts have resulted in the building of a strong, well-educated and competent group of Malaysian scientists in the life-general and medically related scientists. Internationally, their networks seem more firm and stable. This is evidenced in part by their having comparatively low rates of slim ties: life-general (35.7 percent) and medical (30.8 percent). All the other fields have rates of slim ties that amount to half to three-quarters of their total number of interper- sonal ties. Slim ties run high among the physical (50 percent), engi- neering (76.9 percent), agricultural (53.8 percent) and social sciences (60 percent). As previously noted, these sciences are not as well established and institutionalized as the other sciences, hence their pattern of networks abroad are often uncrystallized. Another factor, probably, is that most of these populations in the scientific community of Malaysia are relatively young scientists whose research work has yet to achieve recognition by scientists both inside and outside the country. Most of them are the third and fourth generation of scholars. Their studies are less often cited in the science citation index and therefore have yet to contribute a great deal to world science (see Chapter III). There are exceptions, as, for instance, the three physical scientists and one engineering scientist who have extensive interpersonal networks 238 abroad. Included among the three physical scientists are a chemist whose specialty is "natural products chemistry," a physicist spe- cializing in "plasma physics," and a physical geographer specializ- ing in "applied hydrology.“ The lone engineer specializes in elec- trical engineering. All four are well-known scientists and each has a variety of ties with scientists in Great Britain, United States, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Southeast Asia. Hence, the nature of their individual work in critically important problem areas of their disciplines in Malaysia have encouraged extensive networks of communictions and interactions with other scientists working on similar issues in other parts of the world. The high involvement of social scientists in the slim inter- personal networks abroad may also be due to some of them being in less established and institutionalized disciplines inside the coun- try. With the exception of economics and geography, the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, psychology, political science and com- munication were introduced less than a decade ago as major univer- sity teaching subjects. Gender Almost twice as many women (26.7 percent) as men (13.8 per- cent) have no foreign networks. Subdivided by network type, the aggregate of men have a slight edge over the women in all three types of relationships. Overriding all of these trends are the cases of the three eminent women scientists who excel in their 239 fields and participate as much as their male peers in all types of third cultural networks. Ethnicity A preceding section contains the information that the Chi- nese have a larger proportion of their numbers with personal ties to scientists in foreign countries, followed by the Indians and then the Malays in our sample. Not unexpectedly, the relative numbers who have extensive networks are higher for the Chinese (30.5 per- cent) than for Malays (18.5 percent) and Indians (17.6 percent). The Malaysian Chinese have been the more active scientists, the more productive researchers inside the country. Some have records of dis- tinguished accomplishments. Much of their work has been cited by other scientists in other parts of the world. For instance, 58.3 percent of the Chinese have citations as compared to 35.3 percent Indians and 14.8 percent Malays (see Chapter III). Malay scientists do not have intensive networks, but the proportion of Chinese and Indians who have intensive ties occurs at roughly about the same rate; 5 out of 36 Chinese (13.9 percent) and 2 out of 17 Indians (11.8 percent). These scientists are typically in highly specialized fields that are well developed in Western nations but are marginal in Malaysia. They are primarily "one of a kind" in Malaysia without adequate support systems. Thus, continuous linkage with someone of the same kind abroad is crucial for their identity as scholars. The rate of slim ties among Malay 240 and Indian scientists is nearly even (55.6 and 58.8 percent, respec- tively), while fewer Chinese have slim ties (44.4 percent). Generation The more eminent senior generation scientists with substan- tial scientific achievement or a high-ranking academic position are more likely to have extensive foreign ties than the less established and younger generation of scientists. To take just the generation variable: 37.5 percent of the first or oldest generation, 35.7 percent of the second generation, 21.3 percent of the third genera- tion and only 9.1 percent of the fourth generation have extensive ties with foreign scholars. Slim ties are more likely among the younger generation and less eminent scientists. Thus 57.4 percent of the third generation, 81.8 percent of the fourth generation have slim ties, whereas 37.5 percent of the first and 14.3 percent of the second generation have slim ties. Intensive ties occurring in the second and third generations and not at all in the first and fourth generations, we can speculate reflects the establishing of extensive relations among scholars at mid-career and the not yet established relations of the young. Thus, it seems evident that one of the critical factors determining the character of participation in extensive, intensive and slim third cultural networks is generation. On a case-by-case study we find that many of the scientists with extensive ties abroad are some of the most distinguished and well-known Malaysian 241 scientists who presently are active either as researchers or admin- istrators. In either capacity they are identifiable leaders and often serve as scientific models for the younger generation. A great many of them exhibit special intellectual and personal skills that seem to explain their unique positions within the scientific community. Oftentimes, they appear to be highly motivated "talking gatekeepers"--individuals with both the desire and ability to circu- late easily among interested colleagues and students within their institutions, the scientific community in the country and with foreigners in Malaysia and abroad. Those with slim ties are usually of two contrasting types of persons. One type consists of young scientists who are profes- sionals, competent, already productive to some degree and have gained a reputation of being "promising" in the scientific commu- nity. Another type consists of the less active scientists of any generation for whom science is more an occupation than a profession. Their circles of interaction and influence are sparse; their efforts and concern for scholarly achievement and their inner con- victions about the importance of advancing and knowledge are appre- ciably low. For them, slim networks suffice. Highest Degree Earned Table 59 presents the highest degree earned, country of highest education and university affiliation of scientists in our sample and their types of third cultural networks. 242 N.0N m N.Nm mN o.o o N.NN m o.ooN oN mmNNNNNm>Nc= Nmzmz N.NN N N.mN mN N.NN N m.NN NN o.ooN Nm NNNNLm>Nca mameNga coNpNNNNNNN Nungm>Nca N.mN m N.NN mN N.mN o m.ON m o.ooN mm :NNNNNN NNmNu N.NN N N.NN N o.o o N.Nm m o.ooN m magnum umNNca N.oN N N.NN N o.o o o.om m o.ooN m Nvmcmu N.NN N N.Nm m N.N N N.NN m o.ooN NN NcmNNmN 3wZNNNNNgNmz< N o.o o o.o o o.o o o.ooN N NNucN o.o o N o.o o N.N o o.ooN N NNNNNNNNNNN c.oN N o.oN N o.o o o.ON N o.ooN oN NNNNNNNz coNpNusum umwsz: No Nupczou o.oN m N.NN NN m.oN m o.Nm mN o.ooN NN mpmgopooo c.0N N o.mN mN o.m N o.o o o.ooN ON gmummz N.NN N N.NN N N.N N o.mN m o.ooN NN .m.m.m.z o.o o N o.o o o.o o o.ooN N L_onzuNm umcgwu magmwo ummcmN: N.oN mN N.Nm NN N.N N N.NN mN o.ooN ow NNNoN N z N z N z N z N z mcoz ENNm m>chmucN m>chouxm mNaENm mNaENm No NNuoN uNamNgmuumgmgu mxgozpmz No mnzN .mxgozumz NNN=NN=u NNNgN No mmaNN New coNNNNNNNNN NNNNNN>Nc= .coNNNuavm “mosmN: No ngczou .chgmu mmgmwa pmmsz: Na wNaEmm NuNcaeeoo uNNNucmNum :NNNNNNNZ No coszaNNNmNouu.mm NANNN 243 There is a correlation between levels of advanced education and degree of engagement in cross-national networks. Two in three with an M.B.B.S. (66.6 percent), eight in ten with a masters (80 percent) and nine in ten with a doctorate (89.3 percent) have inter- national ties. Further, when we combine the two more powerful networks, extensive and intensive, we get 33.3 percent with an M.B.B.S., 5 percent with a masters, and 44.6 of the doctorates have strong foreign ties. Scientists who have masters degrees are more likely to have slim ties rather then extensive or intensive ties. For instance, no scientist in our sample with a masters has extensive ties abroad and only one with a masters degree has intensive ties with his for- eign counterparts. This particular scientist is presently special- izing in a field which has yet to make a major impact and to recieve wider recognition in the country. He is "one of a kind," with poor supporting systems to develop his discipline, e.g., research grants, laboratory facilities and the presence of a critical mass of other scientists inside the country for scholarly discussion and dialogue. To stay scientifically alive, he has no alternative but to communicate with scientists in his field abroad. To summarize, advanced education on the doctorate level is one of the most important dimensions in the patterning of Malaysian scientists' international networks. 244 Country of Highest Education Sixty percent of the sample reached their highest educa- tion level in either Great Britain or America. Though Malaysians with British or American advanced education have similar rates of extensive/intensive networks combined, there are revealing con- trasts. The British-trained are stronger in intensive networking: 15.4 percent of them have intensive interpersonal professional ties, and we could not classify any of the American-trained in our sample as having these types of relationships. The American-trained are stronger in extensive. Thirty-three percent of them have extensive types of ties whereas 21 percent of the British-trained have this type. These findings are consonant with an earlier comparative study of the British- and American-educated Indians (Useem & Useem, 1955). A comparison of the three categories of networks offers some additional insights. First, as between scientists with either extensive or slim ties and those with intensive ties, the latter are all foreign-educated in Great Britain or Australia. Second, the geographical distribution of the countries in the former of the two categories is more dispersed around the world but still, save for one case, within the confines of the advanced Western industrial countries. Third, a detailed case-by-case review shows that for those having intensive networks abroad, foreign-Western education is one of the decisive factors influencing the creation and maintenance of their third cultural ties. Those having exten- sive ties need not necessarily have recieved their highest degrees 245 abroad. Fourth, if we look carefully at those receiving their highest degrees in Malaysia, we find that the two Malaysian-educated scientists who have extensive networks around the world are among the two most active and productive scientists in the country in their particular disciplines. Anyone coming from abroad or, for that matter, from inside the country seeking knowledge about issues rela- ted to tropical disease and about Malaysian plants, orchids, birds, mammals and other biological specimens would have to contact one of these two scientists. Given the fact that the content of their work is unique because of the locality and of the quality of their performance as researchers, the place of their highest education has not been a major factor in their forging cross-cultural professional relationships. They presently are active and productive researchers in their field, their work remains relevant to world science, and the prediction is that they will continue receiving recognition from foreign colleagues and will maintain enduring third cultural ties. University Affiliation A somewhat larger margin of the primate university research scientists (86.3 percent) than the four newer universities (79.3 percent) have foreign networks. The primate university also has a greater proportion of its scientists with extensive and intensive networks than any of the other newer universities. Of the total 51 scientists at the primate university, 27.5 percent have exten- sive and 13.7 percent have intensive networks. For the total of 246 29 scientists at the newer universities, 17.2 percent have extensive and none has intensive networks. The newer institutions have 62.1 percent with slim ties while the primate has but 45.1 percent with slim ties. There are a number of factors that contribute to these dif- ferences. Foremost is the history of the development of inter- personal networks among scientists; most of them are the result of individual activities. They are not routinely programed, socially inherited or ascribed by someone in authority. Although an advanced education in foreign institutions is important, it is not necessarily an automatic instrument which invariably makes for the creation and maintenance of interpersonal third cultural networks. Consider, for instance, the case of the 12 scientists, or 15 percent of our sample, who took their advanced degrees abroad but have not had any third cultural networks since their return to Malaysia. Again, it is relevant to recall that inter-insitutional cooperative projects between Malaysian and foreign universities have occurred but they have not been dominant in the professional lives of our sample. The greater tendency for scientists in the primate univer- sity to create and maintain extensive and intensive networks abroad (41.2 percent),in contrast to their associates in the newer univer- sities who have only 17.2 percent in these categories, can be explained by referring to several interrelated factors. First, the primate university is the oldest and most prestigious academic cen- ter of science within the national society. Several generations of scientists have been involved in productive work in this 247 multiversity. Furthermore, it has established several well- developed linkages with selective parts of the national government and other institutions both inside the country and abroad (e.g., international agencies, foreign private foundations and foreign governments). It has received a relatively large grant in financial aid and technical support for its development projects, research, and professional training programs. It has scientific facilities (e.g., libraries, equipment, materials, office space, laboratories and specimens) superior to those in the newer universities. In addition, the scientific work produced in this institution commands more attention and carries more weight than work produced in the newer universities. All these factors added together have contributed to the creation of a scholarly atmosphere and an academic community of research scholars. It is a well-known institution where foreign scholars often come for a visit in Malaysia. All these provide an ethos and the opportunities to establish and sustain interpersonal relationships with fellow scientists abroad. In contrast, the newer universities on most of these scores are less established. They are currently more burdened with the forming of departments, building curriculum, and hiring and train- ing faculties and staff. Being recently created institutions, available resources, materials, laboratory facilities and equipment are less adequate. Scientific research output in many disciplines is less substantial as compared to the research output of the pri- mate institution. They have fewer linkages with national agencies 248 and foreign organizations. The scientists, many from the younger generations, in these institutions have the multi-pressures of creating their own academic and research roles and figuring out how to fashion mutually useful networks within the national society and in the world scientific community. How Malaysian Scientists Envision Their Own Professional Roles One of the dominant themes in the current literature about the expected roles of scientists in the less-developed societies centers on their collective responsibilities and priorities in the modernization and development of their society. Many, including national policymakers, foreign consultants and "science statesmen," argue that scientists in less-developed countries should work pri- marily on practical and applied scientific research problems that will be directly useful and have immediate application to the needs of different sectors of the country. Re-stated, it is claimed that the less-developed countries with poorly developed science infra- structures and economic resources cannot afford to engage in funda- mental research. The advanced industrial countries with their highly sophisticated "big science“ establishments, wealth and expensive technology, can carry out the task of fundamental research. Others have argued that any independent society moving toward "self-sufficiency" in science and appropriate technology needs to build a core group of basic-oriented scientists within the national society in order to avoid the neo-colonialism which stems from over-dependency on foreign scientists and their epicenters for 249 the conduct of basic research. We can argue, however, that to ensure the novel growth of a scientific community in a developing nation requires a combination of both basic and applied scientists. A balanced scientific community is needed to develop a modern cul- ture in a society; intellectual enrichment cannot be simply borrowed from another society. What comes from the outside must be accul- turated to fit indigenous patterns. The universities of a nation require basic science scholars as an integral and vital part of their instructional staff in order to make intellectual contribu- tions to the total society. However, viewed in the context of the knowledge base of a less-developed society, the distinction between fundamental and applied science is not as neat and convincing as those often- expressed arguments imply when matched with what working scientists regard as basic and/or practical in their fields of specialization and their own experiences in the creation and diffusion of knowledge. Instead, if we examine more closely the whole question relating to the behavior of scientists and the end users of scientific knowl- edge, language of thought and technology, we come across more com- plex issues that confuse the sharp distinction between fundamental and practical science. Herein we analyze just one critical facet of this complex issue: how the sample of Malaysian academic scientists at work interpret the value of their own scientific roles in society. We asked each one of them to rank order from "closest to my interests" to "furthest from my interests" whom they would like their knowledge 250 to benefit. We purposely delimited alternatives so that they were tied to current arguments on the "proper" functions of scientists in a less-developed society in the wider context of the inter- national community. Following are the statements which they were asked to rank order: ____I want to build knowledge which will benefit a SPE- CIFIC GROUP (e.g., ethnic, region, etc.). Specify .___ I want to build knowledge which will benefit MALAYSIA AS A WHOLE. ___ I want to build knowledge which will benefit SOUTHEAST ASIAN PEOPLE. ___ I want to build knowledge which will benefit MANKIND AS A WHOLE. __ Iwant to SEARCH FOR TRUTH in my field, no matter who benefits. Table 60 summarizes several major clusterings of their rankings as to their interest in the building of and contributing to knowledge. One group consists of scientists whose greatest interest lies in building knowledge which would benefit Malaysia as a whole. Of the total sample, close to two-thirds (62.5 percent) ranked this either first or second in their scale of values. The social scien- tists emerge as the most distinctive group in that so many of them clearly aspire to have their knowledge benefit Malaysia (86.7 per- cent). Following them were life-medical (69.2 percent), the life- general (64.3 percent) and life-agriculture (61.2 percent). Fewer of the physical (50 percent) and engineering (38.5 percent) scien- tists express strong interest in having their knowledge be of bene- fit to Malaysia as a whole. The second modality formed around the "search for truth no matter who benefits." Over half (55 percent) ranked this either 251 .mmcmNzocx Nngu chwzaNcpcou cN mmaNN> No mNNum gngu :N NNNNoNLQ mco cusp mgoe m>mc mNmNpcmNum mucNN pcmugma o.ooN op cum no: on mmmmucmugmmm m.om mN N.Nm mN N.Nm NN o.mm mN o.mo N N.Nm NN NmNNnn< N.NN mN N.mN oN N.NN m o.NN NN N.mm N N.NN mm uNmNm cugmmmmm No mmaNN N.mN N N.N N N.mN N N.ow mN N.NN N o.ooN mN .Nom .uom m.wm m N.NN m N.NN m N.No m N.NN m o.ooN mN .umz-wNN4 N.mN w N.mN o m.om N m.Nm w N.mN N o.ooN mN .Lm<-mNN4 N.Nm m N.mm m m.mN N N.No m N.NN N o.ooN NN .cmwumNNA m.oN oN N.Nm m N.N N m.wm m N.N N o.ooN mN chNmchmcm N.mm m N.om m 0.0 o o.om m N.N N o.ooN NN NNuNNN5N mucmNum No mmNN o.mm NN N.NN mm N.NN mN m.No om N.NN NN No.ooN ow NNNoN N z N z N z N z N z N z gogmmmwx N.NN N. EN swam... .NN..... ......Nw 223 .. as 2. c m N N .x z . < m m . N z .N. m NmpoN mucmNom No mmg< sag: op mmNmNzocg No :oNpaaNgucou .um>No>cN mg< chN cuch cN cugmmmmm No mmaNN Na new mucmNom No mmN< Na mmumNzocx NNmsN chuanLNcou No NENmN cN NNNNN> No NNNNN LNNNN =N NNNNNLNNLN Ncouam use NNNNN .NNNNNNNNUN No coNNNDNNNNNa--.NN NANNN 252 first or second in their priorities. About three out of four of the engineering scientists (76.9 percent) and two out of three physical scientists (66.7 percent) were in this category, and just below them were the general life scientists (57.1 percent). The social, agri- cultural and medically related scientists were less concerned about "seeking the truth no matter who benefits" in terms of the creating and using of knowledge. Scientists whose first priority is "the search for truth no matter who benefits" often ranked next in their scale of values "knowledge which will benefit mankind as a whole." Altogether, 43 percent did so with more than half of the engineers, approximately a fourth of the general life scientists and medically related scientists indicated this their second priority. The building of knowledge that would "benefit mankind as a whole" is the third modality. A little less than half of the sample (44 percent) envisioned this role as being first or second in their scale of values. For the engineering (69.2 percent) and physical (66.7 percent) scientists, these are classed as their highest or second highest values. That is, more than two out of three engi- neering and physical scientists clearly envisioned their work role as that of creating and disseminating knowledge that might prove worthwhile around the world. The life-scientists (35.7 percent) and especially the social scientists (6.7 percent) were the least hopeful about their creating knowledge of benefit for mankind as a whole; hence, relatively few of them rank this in the top two levels of their value scale. 253 Another potential modality concerns the interest of creating knowledge that might benefit the peoples of Southeast Asia. We listed this item because of the growing interest in regional cooperation in this part of the world. No scientist in our sample envisioned such a contribution as their first priority. However, almost a fourth (23.8 percent) rated the role of creating knowledge for the benefit of Southeast Asian people as their second priority. Upwards of one-half of the social scientists (46.7 percent) and over a fourth of the life scientists (28 percent) made this their second priority. Furthermore, a majority of those who ranked their role as a contributor of knowledge to Malaysia first or second ranked bene- fiting Southeast Asian people second or third in their circle of values. There is a small segment (13.8 percent) whose first or second priorities are building knowledge that would likely benefit a specific group and they evince little interest in contributing knowledge which might benefit any larger collectivity--Ma1aysia, Southeast Asia, Mankind, or Search for Truth. Seven are life scien- tists (two general, two agricultural and three medical), two are’ social scientists, and the remaining two are in the physical and engineering sciences. Of these eleven scientists, six are Malays and five are Chinese and none is Indian. Nine of the eleven belong to the newer generation. It is illuminating to note the specific groups to which they aspire to contribute their knowledge. All of them, irrespective of their ethnic identity or generation, record their primary interests 254 as the creating and contributing knowledge that might benefit the rural peoples. The knowledge bases which these scientists want to reconstruct are related either to health delivery systems, e.g., childbirth, maternal care, family health, food and nutrition, or agricultural production and marketing or structural changes and social acceptance of innovations among rural communities. Besides making comparison between scientists in their own self-perceptions of where they would like to contribute their knowledge, we were also looking at the difference between scien- tists who classify themselves as being more in basic research or applied research, to discuss their priorities in the contributions of their knowledge. We found that with the possible exceptions of those who wanted to make a contribution to a specific group, the proportion who classify themselves as doing basic or applied research does not dif- fer overwhelmingly from one to another type of value statement. Among the sample scientists who envisioned their role as primarily building knowledge which would benefit Malaysia as a whole were 42 percent of those in basic research and 58 percent in applied research. If our classification scheme is valid, the results make it clear that there is no overwhelming difference between them in terms of first and second value priorities in their contribution to knowledge. In terms of the "search for truth in my field, no matter who benefits," more than one-half of the applied, research-oriented scientists envisioned this to be their role and a slightly lower 255 proportion of the basic-oriented scientists (43.2 percent) make this their first or second preferences. Similarly, more than half of the scientists in applied research (54.3 percent) envisioned their knowledge as contributing to the benefit of mankind as a whole, while less, but not greatly fewer, of those in basic research (45.7 percent) are apt to have this end in view. In reviewing our findings for our sample of scientists' own role-related values as to their potential contribution (from closest to my interests to furthest from my interests) within the context of their proper functions in developing societies and in the wider contact of the world community of scientists, it is evident that there are two dominant categories. First, there is a category of scientists who feel motivated to contribute knowledge which might benefit their own society and country first, Southeast Asian people second, and mankind as a whole third. This is especially common in the life and social sciences but less so in the physical and engi- neering sciences. Second, there is a category of individuals whose primary interest is either in the "search for truth in my field, no matter who benefits," or that of creating knowledge which might "benefit mankind as a whole." Unlike the former category, these are the values which more strongly appeal to physical and engineering scientists and, to a lesser degree, some of the life scientists. Thus, in regard to Malaysian scientists' values in creating and sharing their knowledge, more of the social and many of the life scientists are nationally and regionally focused. More of the phy- sical and engineering scientists and some of the life scientists 256 are universally oriented. With poor supporting systems of their knowledge bases inside the country, both from the public and private sector, it is not unexpected, therefore, that many scientists in the physical and engineering sciences are looking outside their country for contributing their knowledge and support for scientific endeavor. In contrast, the social sciences, particularly the disciplines of economics and life sciences, have generally been conventional fields of science in the country with better developed supporting systems than engineering and physical sciences. The physical and engineer- ing sciences are just now beginning to be seriously thought of as important fields of knowledge that can contribute to the development of the country. Thus it will be some years ahead before the physi- cal and engineering scientists can provide "major" functions in national development. The Third Culture of the Scientific Community So far, the content of the chapter has consisted of the classification, enumeration, and interpretation of the conditions which have influenced our sample's trans-societal roles and net- workings. In the concluding section we attempt to present a cul- tural perspective on the groups of scientists and their social structures from the vantage point of the interaction between the scientific community of a society and the world system of science. Our search for understanding of the part we empirically studied of a complex third culture invites further reflection on at least three domains: (1) the changing legacy of the scientific community 257 from the viewpoint of the history of the present, (2) the underlying function of the web of global networks as these enter into the lives of working scholars, (3) an initial formalization of the shared values of the Malaysian scientific community's third culture. History of the Present The pattern of the growth of modern scientific organiza- tions and scientific population were shared, by and large, by the interests of the British-Malaysian colonial state. Most of the educational and scientific institutions during the colonial period were directly created by the colonial government but, whatever their origins, they were incoporated into the state system. Nonetheless, the British generally made few efforts to introduce Western science on a broad scale during the early period of their control, even after there had been substantial development of science on the Euro- pean continent. Modern science on a limited scale was not estab- lished until the beginning years of the present century. The British were the first generation of scientists in the country. However, in the ensuing years of their colonial rule they made it possible for a small but growing number of Chinese, Indians and, to a lesser extent, Malays to secure higher education in the sciences, humani- ties and law either in the recently formed home university (Univer- sity of Malaya) or a foreign education primarily in the universities of Great Britain and moderately in the commonwealth countries of Australia and New Zealand. The first and second generations of scientists in this study were predominantly Chinese and Indians and 258 almost entirely male and reflect colonial policies in selecting for this early program of advanced education. Subsequently, the newly trained scientists entered the emerging professions and the administration of the colonial govern- ment as doctors, legal officers and middle-level administrators and into the academic institutions as instructors. They are exemplified by the senior generations of scientists in our study. The newly created small class of modern-educated and Western-oriented Chinese, Indian and Malay sCientists subsequently served as intermediaries between the colonial state and the highly differentiated society of Malaysia. The elite community of scientists which was earlier exclusively manned by the British was now slowly yet increasingly joined by the Chinese, Indians and still later by Malays. It thereby became a complex structure in the composition of the community of scientists during the final years of the colonial period and it con- tinued into the post-independent period. The local scientific com- munity remained an integral part of the larger colonial system in which the sources of new knowledge and technology which carried the greatest credibility were foreign and the amount of useful knowl- edge easily and cheaply available to the great masses of the colonial people was scanty. Despite the creating and immediate uses of the new knowledge in the early development of public health and agricul- ture in the country, science did not become a major public instrument for the development of the economic and social sectors of the coun- try outside those of direct concern to the dominant country. The state was finely tuned to law and order and the selective development 259 of the economic sector of interest to foreigners. Furthermore, although some of the research in the medical and general life sci- ences contributed to the total fund of human knowledge and although the accomplishments of the few individual foreigners earned for them a world reputation, the local scientific community remained a sub- orindate part of the larger colonial system. Malaysian sciences and the scientific community were heavily dependent on their colonial state and its values for the definition of worthwhile intellectual scientific activities and for tangible support. During the final years of the colonial period there devel- oped a small nucleus of senior Malaysian scholars both in the gov- ernmental units and academic institutions in the country (especially in the fields of medical science, life-general sciences and social sciences). In the aftermath of independence, most of these scien- tists became influential leaders in the further development of a sci- entific community. They perform important roles not only in the expansion of research and development in the country but also in the scientific and technical training of the younger generations of people for future academic-based scientific work roles. These senior scientists are categorized in our study sample as the first and second generations. 0n the eve of the country's independence in 1957 there was no future-oriented science policy. There existed a moderately established group of scientists in a limited set of fields who were engaged mainly in natural resources assessment and surveys in the government departments and in the university. 260 After independence, the polity of Malaysia radically changed. To transcend a colonial heritage of accepted massive poverty, a dual economy and a narrowly external-oriented trade system, the major objective of the new country's leadership now is to bring about the economic and social transformation of all groups in society through, among other innovations, the rapid growth of higher educational institutions and research centers, and the training of scholars. These were to help the introduction of plans and implementing organizations and all the rest of the programs and projects which go with the development of the political economy and the cultural integration of a sharply differentiated class system compounded by ethnic cleavages in an underdeveloped, newly inde- pendent society. More institutions of higher education were estab- lished in the country. Thousands of Malaysians have studied abroad to secure a scientific education (at the undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate levels) that is ultimately related to modern sci- entific knowledge. Although Great Britain continues to be the pri- mary country for a foreign education, there is mounting prestige among the younger generation of Malaysians in going elsewhere than England for an advanced education, e.g., United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Western Europe and some Middle-Eastern countries. The Present Functions of World Networks of Science In Chapter I, we discussed the paradigms of a third culture of science. Briefly reviewed, then, third cultures occur in 261 trans-societal networks; they interweave, change and develop as active scientists with similar interests come together, interact, exchange journal articles and pre-prints, share knowledge, collabo- rate in research, help each other in their world of work and maintain professional ties. The concept "third culture" expresses a set of relationships which arises among persons who stem from different cultures when they personally interact in their professional activi- ties or other life patterns for a period of time in one or another place and maintain these ties by communication networks when separated. It must also be recognized that the perceptions, reactions, the creation and maintenance of global networks by scientists in any society with scientists in other societies depends on a host of variables and also on what exists within the settings of historical colonial traditions and neo-colonial conditions, the international economic order, current domestic and foreign politics of nation states, and the growth of world systems which make for interdepen- dence among segments of different human societies. A third culture of science from the viewpoint of Malaysia can occur inside a society when there exists local binational or multinational networks of indigenous and foreign scholars (noted in the previous chapter) and can occur among scientists who live and work in two or more different societies but who may have interacted in either setting earlier (reported in this chapter). In the process of building trans-societal linkages abroad, political restrictions and language barriers have selectively 262 constrained the development of networks between the Malaysian aca- demic scientists and their counterparts in some foreign countries such as Russia, China, Japan and in many non-English-speaking coun- tries and in several parts of the third world. The establishment and maintenance of their third cultural networks abroad has been confined to scientists within the advanced Western industrial world and moderately with scientists in the Southeast Asian coun- tries. African, Middle-Eastern and Latin American countries seem- ingly are not on the cognitive maps of Malaysian scientists. The functions a third culture performs are influenced by the nature of their binational and multinational relationships. Given the present character of their relationships, we can then review the nature of Malaysia's dominant transactions with some of the growth centers of world science. The number of scien- tists increases and so, thus, the output of knowledge. The problems of storage and dissemination of knowledge become continuously larger. For research scientists, therefore, awareness of what others are doing beyond the horizon of their national society in their own specialty, in adjacent fields and in science and tech- nology in general is important. This need can be fulfilled par- tially through receiving science journals and simply following the main international literature in their fields of interest. Most rely, however, on personal cross-cultural ties to give them lead time on new problems and findings, information on. inter- national conferences, seminars and workshops as well as other information pertaining to sources of funding for research, 263 scholarships, post-doctoral training and study abroad. In addi- tion, participation in the third cultural networks stimulates thought and new perspectives. Talking with and listening to those stationed in foreign science centers can lead to innovative research technologies. Continuous correspondence and exchange of pre-prints and reprints, participating in international meetings and visiting with each other open avenues for meaningful intellectual dialogue between Malaysian scientists and their counterparts in foreign countries. In the process of interacting, it is also common for scientists to obtain a respected appraisal of their own research work and ideas, to get involved in an evocative intellectual exchange and to establish the basis for collaborating in fUrther research. It is widely recognized that scientists of the less- developed countries who reside and work in countries with less visible national scientific communities must, if they wish to make an important contribution to science and thus gain recognition in world science, conform to the standards embodied in the work being done at the science centers. They must gain access to the substance of the epicenter's accomplishments by reading its scientific litera- ture; and they must know the language of the centers. A third cultural network between scientific communities functions as a linkage system between scientists. An important role of Malaysian scientists with foreign ties is to help bring and acculturate the world scientific knowledge to their own society. 264 Science networks across cultures provide one of the bridges between scientists. What these networks and bridges mean raises questions of human identity and values. Shared Identities and Group Values Perhaps these dominant patterns can be discerned about the aspects of the scientific community we tried to observe. First, this is a highly self-conscious collectivity of research scholars. Unlike the continental-based scholars whose year-around work roles and interpersonal professional interaction [MIC them regularly near or in the world epicenters of their scientific field, those eco- logically distant from the centers of the world system of science are more self-conscious of their identity. To become profession- alized normally implies securing a foreign education. To stay up to date usually requires constant learning about what is going on at the growing edges of world knowledge and what is being thought at the epicenters of a field. To maximize research performance often necessitates dependence on and the help of foreign counterparts. A representative peninsular-based scientist, unless ide- ologically alienated from the outside world or professionally deflected into primary roles other than research, is well aware of the importance of communicating and interacting across the national boundaries. This continuing awareness of an interdependent world is matched for most with a self-conscious concern for making their own contribution to the future of their own society and country. 265 Second, although small in scale, this is a highly differen- tiated scientific community and not a self-contained, autonomous grouping of scientific scholars. Because of the history and charac- ter of the society and of the nature of the society's cross-cultural relationships around the world, the Malaysian scientific community is complexedly patterned. These are related to disciplines, ethnicity, gender, generation, highest degree earned, country of highest degree and institutional affiliation which altogether make for a highly heterogeneous national scientific community with complex third cultural networks and linkages. Third, the particularities of the Malaysian scientific com- munity's third cultural networks and values incorporate some of the dominant activities and aspirations of a developing Southeast Asian soceity in our times within the world system of science. They pro- vide the social structures and cultural norms that enable Malaysian scientists to be members of both a Malaysian scientific community and of a global community of scholars. CHAPTER VI RESUME OF THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY This study has been a first attempt to empirically examine and interpret selective aspects of the academic-based scientific community within the context of Malaysian society and the changing interdependent world. It was designed to concentrate especially on aspects of the roles, patterns of work and third cultural networks of scientists in institutions of higher education of greater Kuala Lumpur. The sampling frame consists of 80 published academic scien- tists: in the physical sciences, engineering, the life-sciences (general, medical and agricultural) and the social sciences; from three ethnic groups--Malays, Chinese and Indians; of both genders; of the younger and senior generations of scientists who have been actively engaged in research at the primate and the three newer universities of greater Kuala Lumpur. It is about a ten percent sample of the 862 academic scientists in Malaysia. The sampling procedure can be described as a disproportionate, stratified, cluster sample. What has been left out must not be overlooked in any infer- ences which are drawn from the particular findings of this study. 266 267 Specifically, the sample does not include academic scientists who have not published at least one article or the equivalent. The collective roles of these omitted scholars in the academic and scientific communities and their influence on the wider Malaysian society merit examination. Also excluded were scientists in research institutes, governmental agencies and private industry in the country. Their professional careers and work-associated roles, like those of their counterparts in the institutions of higher edu- cation, are embedded in a set of complex social structures. In addition, a study of the excluded scientists in the one university in Malaysia which is located in a provincial city (University of Science) might reveal patternings different from those of academic scientists in the environs of a metropolis which is also the national capital. In any research carried out by one person, compromises in the study design between the ideal and possible are necessary. The decision, in this instance, was to focus on individual scientists with respect to their professional identity, education, work roles, interpersonal networks with "significant colleagues" both within the immediate academic setting of their institution (usually the department) and with counterparts elsewhere in the country. Included is our sample's interaction with both Malaysian and foreign scholars who live and work in the country. Having decided, for reasons of economy, to omit the role of teacher, the assembled data about the scientists obviously excludes an important dimension in the roles of academic scientists who 268 typically combine teaching with research. Similarly, no effort was made to study the scientist in the role of administrator, although this status is an especially influential one in both the academic and scientific communities of a developing country. Inasmuch as one of the central emphases of this study is on interpersonal networking, little effort could be devoted in this delimited study to the formal organization of the university as a social system and the place of the sciences in the social structure of the university system. The same restraint in scope of coverage occurs with respect to professional and scientific associations and the administration of the support systems of the scientific community. A more comprehensive investigation could have explored the institutional, trans-societal networks which are created out of inter-organizational relationships, such as, for instance, coopera- tive enterprises between Malysian and foreign universities, educa- tional exchange programs, governmental and private foundation sponsored technical assistance undertakings. While all of these joint ventures make for the formal linking of academic-based scien- tists of different countries, we limited the coverage of this study more narrowly to interpersonal networkings between Malaysian scien- tists and scientists of other countries, so as to learn the spe- cifics of the behavior and experiences of the individual scientists. A larger study design would have included investigating the percep- tions and reactions of the scientists whom the Malaysian sample identified as their "significant colleagues" in foreign countries 269 and with whom they have extensive, intensive or slim ties. Lacking the opportunity to gather data from the foreigners, we cannot com- pare the differential meanings of these trans-societal, personalized relationships for the members involved. The detailed findings of this first study of interpersonal relationships may serve to remind us of the continuing presence of the less visible social structures which are so important in the functioning of a scientific community. How these might be taken into account and sustained in future thinking about science policy in a developing country invites reflection. How these patternings of relationships might be further studied to give a surer grasp of the cultural norms and behavior challenges the imagination of those with an interest in the sociology of science. In view of our special interest in the societal functions of persons engaged in science, selective emphasis was put on the expanding role of academic scientists as technocratic consultants in a developing society. However, we could not explore the whole range of interrelations which occur when a scientist serves as a temporary or part-time adviser to a public or private group. Instead, we could focus only on the scientists' own perceptions of that role-acting. Clearly, more in-depth studies are necessary before we can fully comprehend this type of transaction with respect to various sectors of society and in the context of a variety of issues. Since this part of the study concerns only learning about the extent and broad character of the activities of scientists in certain situations, it does not permit any interpretation about the 270 conditions which are brought into a group and the actual impact of their role on the end users of science-derived knowledge (see Arcega, 1976). Moreover, the present research does not trace the growing importance of the collectivity of scientists on the expanding pro- fessions and the educated middle classes of society. A more ambi- tious in scale undertaking would have been an assessment of the impact of the scientists-scholars on the political economy and cul- ture of the various traditional segments of Malaysian society in a period when the central institutions of the country are deeply involved in development and modernization. One order of research has been directed by some scholars toward the processes of diffusion of knowledge and technology and the "change agents" as mediators between the knowledge centers and local communities. Others have been directed toward the influence of modern scholars on the world- view of a people in the midst of great changes in their lives. These kinds of sociological inquiry fall outside the scope of this study, except as a search for an orientation to the present rela- tionship between science and society in Malaysia. In the modernizing society of the third world, we recognize that the interaction between the socio-cultural heritage and the present situations are of critical importance in thinking about the growth and character of a scientific community. The reconstruction of the processes which transform a colonial third culture into a contemporary third culture in Malaysia cannot be fully achieved by interviewing scientists only. It requires more documentation from 271 many sources. To partially understand the personal meaning of his- torical change among the members of the Malaysian scientific com- munity, we use the variable generation. We realize there are weak— nesses in this scheme. First, there isaidemographic shortage in the relative numbers who could be included in our sampling of the pre- independence senior generation. Second, many of the younger Malay- sian scientists who have only recently returned from their studies abroad are still in the formative stages of their professional careers. Third, there are historically determined constraints on the proportions of women, some fields and Malays in the senior generation who could be part of our sample. Therefore, our findings are, at best, only informative about how those who make up the present generations of scholars react. Nonetheless, this in some ways opens up the possibility of interpreting the present behaviors and values of different generations of scholars with reference to Malaysian cultural history. In summarizing the variable of disciplinary field, our find- ings point to marked disparities among fields in the role-related behaviors. This study, however, was not aimed at studying the acculturation of the content of each field to the Malaysian scene, nor evaluating the quality of the research and development of the different fields, nor in any way measuring their impact on Malay- sian culture and society. Within the confines of this research, several tentative generalizations might be reviewed. Our sample data of selected indicators suggest that, at the present point in time, the life-general and medical sciences show 272 signs of being the leading disciplinary areas in the Malaysian scientific community. Compared with groups of scientists in other fields, a higher proportion of them have been consistently more actively engaged in productive research, are more internationally cited, participate in more extensive networking with scientists in other countries, and have greater involvement in scientific con- ferences both within the country and abroad. In contrast, the physical and engineering sciences presently fall behind these two groups of life sciences in their development and contribution. These findings run contrary to the findings about the scientific communities of Europe and America (Hagstrom, 1965; Crane, 1972). This lag can be traced, in part, to a series of historical circum- stances and to some of the conditions in the present period. In the colonial period, because of state polity and the dual economy, the development of manufacturing industry and technologi- cal systems to meet local needs of indigenous Malaysians were not supported and this precluded the emergence in the country of a demand for scientists and technologists in the physical and engineering. sciences. Accordingly, these two fields had no traditional base and in the years since independence, persons trained in the physical and engineering sciences find few opportunities for employment except in government departments, schools and colleges. The manu- facturing sector which has recently grown to 16 percent of the gross domestic product consists mostly of multinational corpora- tions. They are more accustomed to transferring foreign technologies for local use in an underdeveloped country than in innovating an 273 indigenous technology on which they might depend. Hence, they have no incentive for fostering local research and deve10pment capaci- ties. By all accounts, Malaysia is short a core of innovating high- level professional "craftsmen" in industry or "hard science"-educated managerial leadership and industrial entrepreneurs in the indigenous private sector. Since independence, then, the physical and engineer- ing sciences remain less developed. The academic agricultural and social sciences can be put in between the two polar sets of sciences. Both are relative newcomers to Malaysia's academic and scientific communities. Consequently, they have a disproportionately large percentage of younger genera- tion scientists and correspondingly fewer senior scientists, including statesmen-scholars of eminence, to provide effective pro- fessional leadership. The agricultural sciences were not at the center of higher education in the colonial era in which the Malay masses lived as peasants in a state of agrarian poverty and techno- logical backwardness. The post-independence drive of the national leadership to end the dual economy, confront the problem of rural poverty, and build a new socioeconomic order was institutionalized, in part, with the creation of the University of Agriculture in 1971. For this reason, academic science in agriculture still is in the early phase of its emergence. However, the indicators employed in this study reveal a nascent research and development tradition for agriculture in the country. With the exceptions of economics and geography, the social sciences are newly developed fields in the academic institutions in the country. They, therefore, are not as 274 well established and institutionalized disciplinary fields as are the life sciences. The conventional study of gender has been to a large extent concerned with whether or not men and women have been accorded equality. While recognizing that this is a valid issue, it is not the only issue we need to examine among male and female scholars. We have, therefore, tried in this study to broaden the content of our concern by making gender a standard independent variable. But we have not examined more than the surface of this topic. There are demographic factors connected with gender performance which the study recorded. Because of the colonial heritage which favored men's participation in the public world, the women in the sample are mostly of the younger generation of scholars and are presently less influential than the men in the Malaysian academic and scientific communities. As technocratic consultants they are more confined in scope than their male counterparts. Their third cultural networks with the "significant colleagues" abroad are more commonly slim than extensive or intensive in character. The sharp contrast between the Philippine and Malaysian scientific community on this score suggests further study not only of the Malaysian heritage but also further thinking about the prospects for the future on gender norms and’ opportunities as the younger generation of women scientists advance in the professional careers. Ethnicity is a pervasive social front in multiracial Malaysia and it is directly relevant for the scientific community. However, any attempt to monitor changes in national policies and 275 the underlying problems of ethnicity and the political economy in relationship to higher education, the delivery system of knowledge and the changing opportunities for ethnics to enter the scientific community is well beyond the scope of this study. Within the pres- ent scientific community, the Chinese and Indians are relatively "old-timers" whereas the Malays are most often "first-timers.“ The Chinese and Indians, proportionate to their numbers, presently are more established and productive in research than their Malay col- leagues. In contrast to the Chinese and Indians who had, during the colonial period, an early entry into the sciences, most of the Malays are newcomers and, hence, part of the younger generation of scholars. Like the women, they, too, have not had an authentic place in Malaysian higher education, especially in science and technology, until long after independence and until the onset of deliberate national commitment to encourage more Malays to study in the sciences. Being newcomers, it is to be expected that their contribution to knowledge, their recognition by scientists around the world (as evidenced by citations), and their trans-national net- works would lag for a time behind that of their non-Malay peers. But the impressions gained from lengthy discussions with a cross- section of the younger generation of Malay scientists about their present work and aspirations suggest an early closing of the ethnic gap in productivity and other performance standards. In our study of generations, the indicators reveal that the social circles of the Malaysian academic-based scientific community are fairly stratified on several scores. The younger scientists 276 have more circumscribed professional relations--usually their departmental colleagues and friends with similar professional inter- ests within their own institutions. Most have very few professional ties into other segments of the society. The older generation, especially those who are prominent both inside the country and abroad, have more extensive professionally related ties in the country. Besides regularly interacting with the colleagues and subordinates within their own fields and institutions, they more frequently have regular contacts with professionals in industry, policymakers, foreign and international representatives of founda- tions and agencies inside the country. Some also have interaction with persons in the creative and performing arts. They exhibit in their day-by-day conversation more concern with events relating to societal problems, science policy, institution building, questions of national and regional interest, and world affairs. These con- cerns are not as often manifested among the younger scholars whose conversations with one another are more likely to center on their immediate scientific work, professional careers, income, occupational promotion and current public affairs. Whether this difference represents contrasting stages in the life cycle of professional careers or contrasting cognitive systems with a narrowing profes- sionalization among the new generation of scientists who stem most recently from the world epicenters of science, is beyond this study's reach to conclude. Intergenerational relationships deserve closer scrutiny than was possible in this study. It could be studied in terms of the norms of hierarchy which have a bearing on 277 the exercise of leadership and the processes of innovation in the local academic and scientific community. This is more crucial for those third world countries in which a large part of the scientific community in each generation is foreign educated than it is in those countries where the senior generation educates the following genera- tions. The foreign-returned must find their place in a social structure that is integrated around the senior generation. The study of the primate and newer institutions as a vari- able of the scientific community has not permitted us to examine in detail for comparative purposes the inner character of these insti- tutions. All that could be achieved here was to record the gross contrasts and speculate on their sources and future prospects of continuing to be present. Our exploration of the sample of the academic scientists' outlook on the potential contribution of their work is just a start. Even this small part should alert us to the importance of going beyond the simple categories of basic and applied to pursue the character of the interests which motivate the working scholar. We have not even opened the still bigger question of the conditions which might enable these scholars to fulfill their values. Finally, given the small scale and heterogeneous character of the Malaysian scientific community and its geographical margin- ality to the primary centers of global science, and given the still fragile knowledge base in Malaysia, there probably will continue to be fundamental dependency and asymmetry in the relationships between the Malaysian scientific community and the more developed countries' 278 scientific communities in the years ahead. We, therefore, can anticipate an increased amount of personalized third cultural net- workings among scientists in the less-developed with those in the developed societies. The norms of this culture clearly needs close study. 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APPENDIX 291 APPENDIX MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY EAST LANSING : MICHIGAN : 48824 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/76 Researcher: Local Address: Telephone: Abu Hassan 0thman Jabatan Antropologi dan Sosiologi, Universit‘ Kebangsaan Malaysia, Peti Surat 1124, Jalan Pantai Baru, Kuala Lumpur 2212, Malaysia 54 644 Extension 275 SE LF—ADMINISTERED OUESTIONNAI RE This self-administered questionnaire is divided into SIX sections These include: SECTION A: SECTION 8: SECTION C: SECTION 0: SECTION 5: SECTION F: GENERAL INTRODUCTION RESEARCH CONSULTING AND ADVISORY THE NETWORKS OF SCIENTISTS WITHIN THE INSTITUTION AND WITHIN THE COUNTRY THE NETWORKS OF SCIENTISTS ABROAD BIO - DATA SHEET We are indeed very grateful and appreciative of your support and cooperation to answer all questions in each section that concern you. ' If you come across any question that is not clear to you please check in the margin. I will be glad to clarify it with you if you contact me at the above address or at the time when I come to pick the questionnaire. PLEASE DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME 292 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY [/76 P383 1 . A-I A-2 A3 A4 A5 Interview No: Date Completed: SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION What is your field of special interest (specialization)? OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Within what broad cramping of the sciences would you classify yourself! I 0501th ' CI [30000 Physical scrences Engineering Biologicai sciences Agricultural sciences Medical Soci‘s‘ scences What is your main ion or pnsition {e.q. professor, assoc. professor, lecturer etc.I eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee What is (are) your other iobis)? I 2 3 4 D C. D C) Head of Department: Dean of Faculty Consultant and advisor Other (spec'fy) ................................................................ In your present position how is your iirre divided between research (including training students in research), instruction, admimstration, consulting and advising, clinical service etc. ? I ummbun I.” 000000 Research (inriuding training students for research) Instruction. including lectures, seminars, tutorials etc. Administration ard committee services Consulting and advisory Clinical service Civil and puiiticai activities Other (snccifvi ......... , ..................................... 293 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUD Y I / 76 page 2 Interview No: Date Completed; SECTION 8: RESEARCH 94 In the last THREE years or so, what type of research have you been involved in? IF YOU ARE NOT INVOLVED THEN SKIP TO R-IO Subject Matter Type of Research Sources of Funding (State the most (Basic/Applied) (e.g. Own Inst., Govt., recent first) UNESCO,FAO,WHO,etc.) I ................................... . ......................................................................... oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee TAKING ONE OF YOUR MOST RECENT RESEARCH PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS R-2 T0 R-9 R-2 How long have you been involved with this particular research? I C] less than one year 3 C] more than two years 2 CI between one to two years R-3 How did you happen to get involved in this particular research? Check all that apply 1 C] I started with it in graduate school and I am continuing with the same study 2 CI I am continuing with the same problem that I started in graduate school, but somewhat rnodifying it to fit Malaysian conditions 3 [3 I am working on a problem that has been recommended to me by the senior scientists in our department 4 C] I am working on a problem that has been of direct concern to policymakers or administrators 5 D I am working on a problem that has been recommended to me by the private industry 6 D I have started a new line of research that fits into some of the central research ' concerns of my field 7 D I am working on a problem that I think will be important to the future of the country 8 D I pick this problem because there were funds and facilities to do this research 9 C] I am working on a problem that has been suggested to me by international organization (specify): ..................................................................................... 10 D Other (specify): ..... - .............................................................................................. 294 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/76 page 3 Interview No: Date Completed: R4 Who else are (were) working on the research you were doing? CHECK CATEGORIES THAT ARE APPLICABLE D armature- DECIDE] none undergraduates graduates staff (specify) e.g. Lab. Assist, Technicians etc. ............................................... other department members other colleagues (specify): Discipline Department Institution OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO eeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeeuee eoeeoeao-see-ee-seoonIOQOIeoeeeeoe ee-o ““ ‘ :. 3:-3: OOOOOO 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO R-S If you are (were) working with others on this research specify the leader of your research? 1 CI 2 C) myself other (specify): .................................................................................................... R-6 How were the findings of this research be reported? 1 CI 3 CI 4 CI 5 C] 6 CI 7 U 8 CI 12 C] lectures 2 CI seminars, workshops, conferences Iournals (specify): a. CI local Name of journal: .................................................. b. C) foreign Name of journal: .................................................. Country: ...................................... book (specify where published): a. D local b. C) foreign Country: ..................................... Monograph or reports (specify where published) a. CI local b. C] foreign Country: ...................................... memeograph or pre-print 9 CI report to government organization popular newspapers, magazines etc. 10 D report to private Industry news release 11 C) Thesis Other (specify): .............................................................. - 295 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY I/ 76 ' ' m. 4 Interview No: Date Completed: R-7 Who will be the author of this research report? I C) myself 2 C) with others ,R-8 If with others will you be junior author? I Yes D 2 No C) 3 lers. who will be the senior author? a. CI Malaysian b. C) Foreigner R-9 In what language will you publish this research work? l D English 2 CI Bahasa Malaysia 3 CI Both English and Bahasa Malaysia 4 C] Other (specify) ......................................................... TURNING TO MORE GENERAL QUESTION ON RESEARCH R-IO For the period as a member of the faculty have you ever collaborated (are collaborating) with scientists in your professional field doing research? I Yes D 2 No C) 3 If Yes, please take the most recent case and specify: Name Position/Rank Research project IF roastervee QIRCLE AND INDICATE coum'nv on ORIGIN 296 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 Page 5 Interview No: Date‘ Completed: R-II Outside your own institution have you collaborated with scientists in your professional field doing research? I Yes D 2 No C) 3 If Yes, please specify name and institution: Name Institution IF ANY OF THE ABOVE ARE FOREIGNERS ME AND INDICATE COUNTRY OF ORIGIN ‘ R-12 Have the results of your research been made used by anybody? I 'Yes CI 2 No D 3 Don't know C) 4 If Yes, indicate what particular occupationls) or profession(s) in Malaysia have used or have applied the findings of your research? ‘ Name of occupation(s) or profession(s) (e.g. medical, agriculture, education etc.). OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ............................................................................................................................ ...... .0.IIOIIOOQODD-IOOI...I..0000....OIDIOIODOCOOOIIIIDIDOOOOOOIIIIOOOOIOOOIOQQIOOIOOOOOOOOCOOI.05...COO... ......... 297 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY [/76 ‘ page 6 Interview No: ' Date Completed: R-I3 Do you have any unit or secmr in the government that has an interest in your research work? I Yes CI 2 NO. [3 3 Don't know D IF NO, SKIP TO RM 4 If Yes, has any of the unit or sector made an effort to draw you in to become acquinted with its problems? a. Yes D . b. No C) c. If No, have you made an effort to approach the unit or sector to have it become acquinted with its problems? a. Yes C) b. No I] R-I4 .Do you have any unit or sector in the local private industry/or firms that has an interest in ' your research work? I Yes CI 2 No IL) 3 Don't know [3 IF NO, SKIP TO R-15 4 If Yes, has any of the unit or sector made an effort to draw you in to become acquainted a. Yes C) b. No C] c. If No, have you made an effort to approach the unit or sector to have it become acquainted with its problems? i. Yes E) ii. No [3 R-15 Do you have any unit or sector in the foreign private industry or firms that has Interest in your research work and interests? 1. Yes D 2 No C) 3 Don't know C) If No, skip to R-IG 4 If. Yes, has any of the unit or sector made an effort to draw you in to become acquinted with its problems? a. Yes D b, No C] c. If No, have you made an effort to approach the unit or sector to have it become acquainted with your research work and interests? i. Yes CI ii. No C) R-16 How influential or prominent are researchers in your professional-field inside Malaysia and outside Malaysia? Inside Malaysia Outside Malaysia 1 CI highly prominent I [3 highly prominent 2 CI moderately prominent 2 C] moderately prominent 3 [3 not very prominent 3 CI not very prominent 298 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY I /76 R47 Which do you think is more important, getting recognition for research from: E C) Inside Malaysia Interview No: Date Completed: CI Outside Malaysia among the warld scientific community me? R-IB The following items are considered important for carrying out research. Please indicate which of these items are important in: your research and whether it is available or not to YOU . 10. II. I2. ITEMS Libraries, Malaysian books and journals Foreign books and journals Laboratory facrlities, equipments, specimens, and materials Technical supporting staff Office space Time off from other duties Transportation Funds Superior who is supportive Colleagues for collaborative research Accessibility to documents technical reports e.g. ITS :MPORTANCE IMP D C] [I C] Govt., Statutory agencies etc. [3 Other (specify): ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ...... D 299 NOT IMP YES [3 E] D C) I: C) C) D Cl C) U C) C) Cl C) C) D U D D C) C) C] C) U C) D [3 CIC) IS IT AVAILABLE TO YOU NO MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY [/76 page 8 Interview No: Date Completed: R-19 What part of the following play in your research? Great Part Some Part No Part. I . Theoratical D D C) 2. Methodological D D C) 3. Experimental (3 D D 4. Adaptive research C) D C) 5. , Technological C) D C) 6. Clinical CI [3 CI 7. Policy-oriented D [I C) 8. Applied [3 D E] 9. Descriptive (taxonomid) U CI 0 10. Training of advanced students in research D C) C) R-2O Which of the above terms best describes your work? ............................................................ 01 02 Number e.g. I, 2 etc. SECTION C: CONSULTING AND ADVISORY Have you ever been a consultant and/or advisor? I. Yes D 2. No (3 IF NO SKIP TO QUESTION N-l PAGE 13 If you have been a consultant and or advisor in the past file years please indicate where you served as consultant and or advisor? Institution/Organization/Club I. National Government (specify Ministry, Department etc.) ' OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 3 Local or Municipal Government (specify Department etc.) OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO IDOOOOIOCODOOOOOOM ........................................................... Yes MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page‘9 Interview No: Date Completed: 5. Foreign firms or business industry (specify) .............................................................................. C) C) 6. Southeast Asian Regional Group e.g. ASEAN, SEAMAC, etc. (specify): ............................................................................... D D 7. Foreign country's organization e.g. Ford Foundation, Asia Foundation etc. (specify): ............................................................................... CI (3 8. International organization e.gZ UNESCO, WORLD BANK, ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK, WHO etc. (spacifyk ............................................................................... D C) 9. Professional organization e.g. Malaysian Medical Association, Malaysian Institute of Engineers etc. (specify): ' ............................................................................... D C) IO.Community organization e.g. Malaysian Youth Club, Rotary Club, Red Cross etc. (specify): .............................................................................. C] C) II.Educational institution (specify): ............................................................................... C.) C) l2.Religious organization (specify): ............................................................................... D D 13.Ethnic related organisation ispecify): ............................................................................... (3 CI 14.0ther e.g. Political parties, political elites etc. (specify): 0 D OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO TAKE .QNECASE OR PROJECT IN WHICH YOU FEEL THAT YOU HAVE BEEN MODERATELY SUCCESSFUL AS A CONSULTANT'OR ADVISOR AND ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: 0:) What is the specific case or project in which you were a consultant or advisor? OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 301 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page I0 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 Interview No: Date Completed: How did you become a consultant or advisor?’ I. 2 3. 4 C) [3 Cl C) I took the initiative I was approached by my client I was sponsored by someone Other (specify ................................................. If you were sponsored by someone please indicate: I. Who that person was? ............ . .......................................... 2. What is his position or rank? ...... . ................................. ............................................. What is the nature of the relationship of that person to you? I. 9999’!” C) DDDCICI former classmate departmental colleague relative who is influential best friend university administrator other (specify): .................................................................................................... In what capacity were you participating in this case or project? I. 2 3. 4 D DUE) as an individual and not as a representative of any group as a representative of my institution as a representative of my professional field other (specify): ................................................. - In connection with this case or project (9.9 government organization, club, etc.’l please indicate what were your most important activities? Check _T___HREE items which you think are most important to your role: ’I. S” 2 3 4. 5 Cl DOUG DC] [I to provide technical advice, new ideas and information on a project 0r program to provide leadership on the project or program to evaluate the project or program and to make recommendations to serve as confidential cons’ultant or advis‘or'to my client to evaluate a project or program being proposed by foreigners In terms of Its suitability to Malaysian conditions to interpret some aspects of the national policy to a sector or group to become advisor to top senior administrators with respect to their own project or program and/or provide credibility to the project or program to provide lectures to technical and administrative staff about recent know- ledge and developments in my field under Its in service training program 302 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUD I" l/ 76 page it Interview No: Date Completed: 9. C] to help develop a program or scheme 10. C) to help develop and establish research and development undertaking In an organization II. [3 other (specify) ....................... . ............................................................................. C-9 If the case is related to private industry or business firms l-‘ocal or foreign) please indicate what you did? IF NOT SKIP IOC ~10 I. D to initiate test ‘cn particular product and to use its findings to advertise the company's brsni of product 2. D to provide leadership and help plan a new program or project for the industry or firm 3. C) to provide advise, technical knowledge and information on marketing of pro- ducts 4. CI to provide lectures to technical and administrative staff of industry or firms .about recent knowledge and developments in my field under its in service training program 5. C] to become advisor to top executive of the industry, or firms with respect to its own project or program and/or provide credibility to the project or program 6. C) other (specify) C-IO In connection with this case or project specify what you have done? Check whichever apply I. C) to attend meetings within the organization and to offer suggestions 2 C] to prepare position papers and technical reports 3 C) to undertake special studi s and suggest further solutions to problems 4. CI to offer help and advice to senior authority figure 5 (3 other (specify) ........... . ......................................................................................... 011 In connection with this case or project was it central to your field of specialization or to your research? 1. Yes D 2. No Fl C-I2 Was your involvement as a consultant or advisor in this case or in the organization did give _ you new ideas for further research In your field? I. Yes D 2. No D UP UNTIL NOW YOU HAVE BEEN LOOKING AT A SPECIFIC CASE OF YOUR CON- SULTING AND ADVISORY ROLES TURNING TO MORE GENERAL QUESTIONS ABOUT CONSULTING AND ADVISORY ACTIVITIES PLEASE ANSWER THE FOL- LOWING QUESTIONS: 303 MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 Interview No: Date Completed: 013 What aspects of 'your background do you think were considered especially important by the C-14 person, organization or group to whom you serve as consultant or advisor. Check the fol- lowing categories which most apply to you: ‘.I. C) Having a degreefiom a foreign institution 2 C) Having an litilient'al sp‘;‘tscr 3 C) Having at expert know‘edne in the ficid of specialization 4. C) Having the abilitv to speak fluent English 5 D Having the ability to speak other languages e.g. Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, French, Japanese etc. (specify): ........................... .. ........... ............................... 6 [3 Having the ability to anthract easily with people in position of authority 7 D Belonging to a particular ethnic group 8 D To come from an influential family with many connections 9 C) Belonging to the "right” political factions 10. D Having an outstanding reputation and a highly respected educator or profes~ sional person in the country 11. CJ Coming from a particclar region in the country 12. C) '_Other (specify): .................................................................................................... HAVING DONE THIS PLEASE gag; THE THREE MOST IMPORTANT CATEGORIES THAT YOU HAVE CHECKED There are a number of rewards or advantages to be a consultant or advisor. The following are some of the rewards or advantages. Check those rewards or advantages you have obtained as consultant or advisor. Being a consultant or advisor: I. D adds to my reputation as a scientist 2. [3 gives me the opportunity to learn about the real problems and conditions in some sectors or,organizations enables me to contribute my knowledge and ideas to policymakers or adminis- trators and others who can make use of that knowledge to C] provides me with the support to carry out research gives the prestige, honor and respect helps me to gain promotion in my rank or position .0) use. DUDE] gives me cpportur. ity to meet influential people eg. policymakers business executives, Ministers etc. and thereby enhances my own position and status brings me additional income and material benefits popularizes my field of specialization and thereby creates new opportunities for our students 10. gives prestige to my university II. to DUDE] helps give mv professional field status and thereby opens up possibilities, for future research suppc rt 12. (3 other (speci-v) ............................................. . ......... . ....... ........ . ...... ....... HAVING DONE TH"i PL ASE Q] 1’CLF THE THFEE MOST IMPORTANT CATEGORIES - THAT YOU HAVE CHECKED 304 Pine 12 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 P3“ '3 Interview No: Date Completed: 045 Have you ever planned or initiated research based on the ideas that you learned from your experiences as consultant or advisor? I. Yes C) 2. No [J 018 If No, to 015, have you ever assigned your students to do research on problems that you learned from your experiencei as consultant or advisor? I. Yes C) 2. No CI 017, Is there some group, organization etc., to whom you would like to be consultant or advisor? I. Yes C) 2. No C) 3. If Yes, specify what group or organization: eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO SECTION D: THE NETWORKS AND LINKAGES OF SCIENTISTS WITHIN THE INSTITUTION AND WITHIN THE COUNTRY N-I How many persons beside yourself are there in your professional field in your Institution? eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee mung-m— about your research work and professional interests? I. C) No one IF NO ONE SKIP T0 N4 2. Cl Someone IF SOMEONE PLEASE INDICATE: Name Department _ Status/Rank (exclude foreigners) (e.g. advanced students, dept. colleagues, colleagues from other department) a. ...................................................................................................................... b. ....................................................................................................................... c. ....................................................................................................................... d. ....................................................................................................................... e. ....................................................................................................................... MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 _ page N Interview No: Date Completed: N-3 Take ONE person indicated in N2, with whom you have had the most meaningful N-4 N-5 discussions, talks and exchange of views about your research work and professional interests and answer the following quéstions: I. How do you get to know this person? COO...OOOOOOOOUOICOOOCICODOI0.0.0.1...OOOOOOOOOIOCIOOIOOIIIIOO..:‘ ' - v- “ v - ‘3‘-'=OIOIIIOOIOOIIOOICOUOI...0.00.... OOOOOOOOOO 2. How do you get togetherwith this person? e.g. work together regularly, informal visits, family knows each other etc. 0.09353: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 3. How often do you meet, talk, discuss and exchange views about your research work and professional interests? e.g. twice a week, three times a week etc. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO If presently, there are foreign scholars in your department please specify their: IF THERE ARE NO FOREIGN SCHOLARS IN YOUR DEPARTMENT SKIP TO N-7 Country of Is Individual Status of Appointment Origin In Teaching In Research Regular Visit Short Contrt Other 1. ...................... :1 Cl C) D (D. ........... 2. ...................... C]. D C.) D 'C) ............ 3. ...................... Cl ('3 D D U .......... 4. ...................... .C) C) E) C) D .......... 5. ...................... D C) C] C) D. .......... 6 ...................... D D D C) E] .......... 7. ...................... Cl .C]. C) C) C). .......... e. ..................... D. .D D ' ti '0 ........... 9. ..................... C) .D D C) D. ........... Among these foreign scholars with whom do you SERIOUSL Y discuss, talks and exchange views about your research work and professional interests? 1. C) No one IF NO ONE SKIP TO NJ 2. Cl Someone lF someoNE PLEASE INDICATE: Name Field of Specialization Country of origin ...... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO P'PP’P.‘ eeveeeo .0000. ‘ ‘ --v== OOOOOOOOOOO 306 MALA YSIAN SCIENI'IFIC Co.rIIiI.i,r..-7')' snruy I / 76 page 15 interview No: Date Completed: N-6 Take .Q/ME person in P-I-S, inn-.5: “4.0m you have had meaningful discussions, talks and N7 N8 N-9 exchange of views about your researfi: work and professional interests answer the fohswing questions: 1. HOW did you 98! to know th‘s pC-‘SCJ‘T" 2. How did you get togeti er with ti is tit-rs m? e.g. work font ti 8i regularly, informal visits, family knows each other Ci’C 3. How often do YCu 1198i, talk, (lILLFIS'. and axri‘.a.ige views a|.ou1 your research work and professional int-vests7 9.5;. mil 0 .. week, three times a week etc. eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee About how many pi :son" a": then in y mr net 59.3% .naI ...;:d osztsiee your institution in Malaysia? n... Outside your institution in Mannie \vui- who-v. do YOU Sffl/QUSLY discuss, talk and exchange views about your researflr. work and srzirrsiomi interests? 1. N No one I? \IL? Oi‘IE SKIP TO N 10 2. L3 Someone IF SOit'-CINE PI EASE INDiCATE Name Institution Position/ Rank IF ANY OF THE ABOVE A??? FOREIGNERS, PLEASE CIRQILE: AND INDICATE COUNTRY OF ORIGIN Take _OJME person indicated in I‘d-.8, with when you have had meaningful discussions, talks, and exchange of views about your research work and professional interests and answer the following questions: I. How did you get to know this person? eeeee eeeeeeeeeee teneoeeeeeeeeaoaneaeaa-soea-eae eeeeeoueeeolooel.o-a e‘eeooaeeoesa.eon-outlillcoeIIlolIOIOIIOOOODOIIOOOIDIIIIIUIOCIIOOIOU.. 2. How did you get together w;th this person? e.g. work together regularly, informal visits, write letters, family knows each other etc. - OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3. How often do you meet, taik, discuss and exchange views about your research work and professhml interestss- e.g. once a week, once a month etc. 0. as.» 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0...... 307 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page l6 Interview No: Date Completed: N-IO What is your feeling toward scholars from abroad doing research in your field in Malaysia? CHECK ONE [TEM IN WHICH YOU AGREE N41 1. 6. C] D C] D I welcome foreign scholars to do research in Malaysia because their research and findings contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge I welcome foreign scholars only if they do research on :roblems that are relevant to our country's needs and priorities I welcome foreign scholars to do research only if they collaborate with local scholars I welcome foreign scholars to do research only if they bring with them the- newest research methods, techniques and concepts in our field which they share with us If it is possible, I prefer not to have foreign scholars doing research in our country other (specify): .................... . ................................................................ . .............. How do you learn about research work that is being done in your field? CHECK THREE: SOURCES IN WHICH YOU HAVE USED THEM 1. lNSlDE MALAYSIA IO. 11. 12. I 2 3. 4 5 DDUDD D (3 none letters journals books seminars, workshops, conferences professional scientific meetings informal visits with each other through mutual friends articles in popular newspapers, magazines scholars from abroad passing through Malaysia write for reprints other (specify): ............................. 308 2. OUTSIDE MALAYSIA I. 10. II. 2 3 4. 5 C] DUDE] C] D none letters iournak books seminars, workshops, conferences professional scientific meetings former professor through mutual friends articles in popular newspapers, magazines write for reprints other (specify): MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 Disc 17 Interview No: Date Completed: N-I2 How do you inform others about your research work in your field? CHECK THREE SOURCES IN WHICH YOU HAVE USED THEM I. INSIDE MALAYSIA 2. OUTSIDE MALAYSIA 1. 0 none I. [3 none 2 [3 letters 2. D letters 3 Cl journals 3. CI journals 4 C] books 4. El books 5 C] guest speaker at other institution 5. C) guest speaker at institution abroad 6. 4 C) visit colleagues at other institution 6. [3 visit friend in a foreign country 7. CI throughmutual friends 7. ['3 professional scientific meetings 8. D professional scientific meetings 8. C) seminars, workshops conferences overseas 9. E] scholars from abroad passing through 9. C: send reprints Malaysia 10. Cl send reprints 10. D visit from professors abroad 11. D special articles in newspapers, II. C] other (specify): magazines ........................ . ......... 12. D Other (specify): .............................. N-I3 Have you ever won a prize, special award, or honor from any scientific or professional society or organization in Malaysia? 00 NOT LIST PRIZES OR AWARDS RECEIVED WHILE ENROLLED IN GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE INSTITUTION I. Yes D 2. No C) 3. If Yes, please indicate: Name of award, prize or honor Society/Organization Year awarded _ awarding I. .......................................................................................................................... 2. ........................................................................................................................ 3. .......................................................................................................................... 309 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page 18 interview No: Date Completed: SECTION E: THE NETWORKS AND LINKAGES OF SCIENTISTS ABROAD IN-l Who WMalaysie is working on EEEMCLI similar to yours? I. C) No one IF NO ONE SKIP TO lN-2 2. CI Don't know 3. C) Someone IF SOMEONE PLEASE INDICATE: Name Institution Country lN-2 Who are the scientists in your field Q_Q_T_S_ID_E Malaysia that you know PERSONALLY and with whom you keep in touch? I. C] no one IF NO ONE SKIP TO lN-4 2. C] someone IF SOMEONE PLEASE INDICATE: Name Institution Country 3I0 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC CU.‘..’.1!£5.'-I TY STUDY 1/ 76 page I9 Interview No: Date Completed: lN-3 Take ONE person indicated in N2, with whom you have had the most significant and meaningful communication, exchange of ideas and information. .znd answer the following questions: I. How do you get to know that person? 2. How do you keep in tcuch with that person? e.g. correspondence, exchange of reprints, meet at internatinmi conferences, visit them in their country etc eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3. How often do you communicate .md exchange information and ideas about your research work and professional IntE'JPSiS? e.g. once. a memo, once in six months etc. 4. How has this person help you .n your research and professional interests? PLEASE 335:5 wnrcnevcn rarity Items This person has helped I have helped this me person a. collaborate in research D CI b‘ secure equipment needed for research and teaching .3 D _‘ c. secure specimens needed for research and teaching [3 [3 d. secure publications needed for research and teaching [3 C] 37 secure post-doctoral appointment or placement D C? f. read and comment on manuscripts [I] D g. be a host during visits C) C) h. other (specify) ................ . .................................................................... ............ IN4 Looking at the world as a who‘s where are the THREE leading centers in your field of specialization? Name the institutions and the country in. which they are located Name of Institution Country 1 ................................................................... .. .......................... . .......... .. ........... . ....... . 2. ....................................................................................... . 3. ............................................................................................... .. ............................. 3H MALA ysrxzv SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY .s may 1/ 76 me 20 lntenlew No: Date Cornpleted: lN-S How up to date are you on research in your erEd of specialization which are currently lN-6 lN-7 lN-8 going on in the world? 1. D well inform-d and up to date 3. Ci not so well informed 2. ' D moderatey inf-armed 4. E“. ha‘e not been able to keep up In your professional fir-id is there a:.y Malaysian who is well known internationally? 1. Yes C] 2. N.) [3 3. Don‘t snow {3 4. If Yes, please indicate; a. Name . .. . b. institution c. What is he knOl n for? e.g. resee-isi‘. ..:ts~.tir:istr:ti 3 leadership, organizational position etc. (specify): 00 you have any relain'sltir' with my external aganry e.g. UNESCO, WHO, WORLD BANK, FAO, FORD FLl' -."l.'J:?.TlO:“l etc., that i.- lc-md in your country? 1. Yes D 2. :=~. L“ 3. If Yes. indicate wniti ant-(.7; 4. What is the na‘ure of your ll3l31;0n53‘.ip; e.g consultant, received grant for research, received support for hazel etc., (specify). ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo IOCIOOOOIOIOOOOIOOOOOoe-anode-IO-aao- 000- - - inI.o-Ito-Dooooool-A-.‘-|'OIOOI..v.eoeoeecan...Iolet-DIDOOOOOOOIOIOIOOIIOOIIOOOOOOOO ........ .0. Individuals differ in their interests. How would you rank orders these five statements in” terms of your interest order? lndic.ite your order of preferences in the boxes below by putting in No’s: 1. 2, 3, 4 and 5. l. Closest to my Eater-est 4. Next ' 2. Next closest to n' . interest 5. Furthest from my interest 3. Next [3 i want to build knowledge which'will benefit a specific group (9.9. ethnic, region etc.,) specify: ................... .......... .................. .. C] l want to bruit} l:i~.r.w'e(lge which will benefit Malaysia as a whole [7: want to bui cl izrusaslzdge which wiii benefit Southeast Asian people C] i want "0 fluid kn-swiedge which will benefit mankind as a whole t"1 I want to urea-ch {n "l'FlUTH in my field, no matter who benefited 312 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 9‘89 21 . Interview No: Date Completed; lN-9 Have your accomplishment in your research work gained recognition or honor for you OUTSIDE Malaysia? 1. Yes D 2. NO [3 IF NO SKIP TO 804 SECTlON F 3. If Yes, please indicate: ' a. Citation of your work in published studies by other scholars from abroad d. Special invitation or honor e.g. to deliver lecture, presentation of paper abroad 313 PARENTAL BACKGROUND BD-8 Total number of brothers and sisters: a. brothers ................... b. sisters ................................ c. your birth order ....................... BD-9 a. Occupation of father/or guardian when you were growing up ................ b Occupation of mother when you were growing up .................................. c. Ethnic origin of father ....................................................... d. Ethnic origin of mother ......... e. Educational attainment of father ....................................... f. Educational attainment of mother ..................................... SPOUSE BACKGROUND 80-10- Place of birth of wife/husband: a. Village .............................. b. Town ................................ c. State ................................. 314 MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page 22 Interview No: Date Completed: SECTION F: BIO-DATA SHEET 804 Sex: Male [3 Female D BD-2 Monthly income ..................................................................... BD-3 Place of birth: a. Village . b. Town .......................... . ..... c. State ................................. 80-4 Year of birth: ..................................... 80-5 Ethnic origin: a. Malay D b. Chinese E] c. Indian CI 806 Civil status: a. married C] b. single Cl IF SINGLE SKIP TO 808 BD-7 Total number of children: a. Sons .......... b. Ages: ........ , ........ , ........ , ........ , ........ ,years c. daughters .......... d. Agesz. ........ , ........ , ........ , ........ , years OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 page 23 Interview No: Date Completed: BD-II Educational attainment of wife/husband ....... 8042 Present occupation of wife/husband ................................................................................ 8043 Ethnic origin of wife/husband .......................................................................................... 80-14 Monthly income of wife/husband .................................................................................... BD-IS Relatives in professional life: 1. Profession Number Studied abroad Yes No a. Medical doctors ..................... C] D b. Engineers ..................... D D c. Lawyers ..................... D D d. Educators-primary, secondary ..................... schools ..................... D D e. Educators-college, university ..................... D D f. Executive and management in government ..................... D D 9. Executive and management in industry or firms ..................... D C] h. Executive and management in University ..................... D U 2. Were any one of these persons influential in your aspiration and choice of career? I. Yes D 2. No C] 3. If Yes, please indicate: ............................................................................................. HIGHER EDUCATION 80 I6 Please indicate below the institutions you attended beginning with your LAST secondary school attended, including any foreign education, years attended, degree earned, if any. Name of Institution and Dates attended Specialization Degree or Yeer location From ..... To ..... Cert 1. ................................................................................ . . , . 2. .......................................................................................................... 3. .......................................................................................................... 4. ................................................................................ . .......... oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 315 MA LA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STUDY 1/ 76 me 24 Interview No: Date Completed: 30-17 CAREER HISTORY Beginning with the first position or job you had, fill up to the present. (NOTE: IF APPLICABLE, BE SURE TO INCLUDE PRIVATE PRACTICE) Position/ Rank Fulltime/ lnstitution/ From To Part time Employer OOOOOOOOOO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 8018 RESEARCH HISTORY Starting with the first one please indicate the research projects have you been on? Position on Year How supported Where was research done Research project From To (Principal investigator or Co-investigator) eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 316 APHY p ofessional 39° BD-IQ BIBLIOGR ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ......... ......................................................... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 00000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee MALA YSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY STL'D Y I/ 76 page 26 Interview No: Date Completed: 2. Please indicate articles in popular r.ew:;3.a..:'s magazines and lectures on professional related topics ”0 any civic groups, profe “one! society, and other similar groups etc. Ti'l': Where given Year eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee .............. eeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee ‘7' NOT ENOUGH SPcCE PLEASL WRITE IN THE SAC-l" OF THIS SHEET 8020 CONFERENC’IS, SEM‘NARS, WORKSHOPS In the last THPIFF years, what cor-ferences, seminars, and workshops have you attended in connection w h y0u. work and professional irterests? P‘ease include both national and international Name of conferences, Seminars. works'iops {LIDCIIOHSS INSIDE MALAYSIA eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee .......... eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee CUTSIDE IIIIAEAYCIA eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Where Held ........................... eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Where Held eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeee eeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee Year Your main role e.g. observer, present paper, organizer Sources of Your main role Funding e.g. observer, present P89": organizer OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee MALAYSIAN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY S'I UDY 1/ 76 page 27 Interview No: Date Completed: BD-ZI MEMBERSHIP IN SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL. ASSOCIATION I. Is there a scientific organization or association for your field in Malaysia? 1. Yes D 2. No D 3. If Yes, what is its name? eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee . Are you a member of this scientific association? I. Yes D 2. No D. . Does this scientific assimiation publish its own journal newsletter, bulletin etc.? 1. Yes CI 7. No C] 3. If Yes, what is its title? Oe-Iueeeeeelceoiollooeeeo . Please indicate members'.:p in other scientific or professional association in Malaysia? THIS IS THE END OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE. WE HOPE YOU HAVE ENJOYED TAKING PART IN THIS RESEARCH. THANK YOU VERY MUCH. 319 "iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii