~l — —- u "wt-«w-yrn-qum‘!‘ IIIE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULTS’ PARTICIPATION-i; ; ‘ " ‘ IN CONTINUING EDUCATION f .. ' ’ ACTIVITIES TO CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHIC ANO POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS, ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING ANO ORIENTATION TOwARO CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. I MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY CARL BRENT 'POULTON 1975 III I IIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIII 1293100 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULTS' PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITIES TO CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS, ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING AND ORIENTATION TOWARDS CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS presented by Carl Brent Poulton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree inAdmin. & Higher EduC. (Continuing Education) WIW Major professor Date 5/2/75 07639 ~t3~h~m3 IQ ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULTS' PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITIES TO CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS, ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING AND ORIENTATION TOWARD CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS BY Carl Brent Poulton The purpose of this study was to examine the con- tinuing education activities engaged in by adults and to determine the extent to which patterns of participation were related to certain demographic-positional and social- psychological variables. Specifically, the demographic- positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling and parental responsibility, and the social-psychological characteristics of orientation toward learning and orientation toward continuing education institutions were analyzed as they related to differences in adults' patterns of participation in continuing education activities. In addition, adults' orientations toward learning and toward continuing edu- cation institutions were examined as they related to the demographic-positional variables. The study analyzed the continuing education activi- ties of adults residing in Jackson County, Michigan; a Carl Brent Poulton mid-sized urban center and associated suburban and rural areas. A sample population was identified, and data regarding the nature and extent of the continuing education activities of 210 adults were obtained by mailed question- naire. In addition, respondents provided dataregarding the demographic and positional characteristics of interest, their orientations toward learning, and their orientations toward continuing education institutions. The research methods used in the study were both descriptive and comparative. Respondents, grouped by various criteria, were compared with respect to their orientations toward learning, their orientations toward continuing education institutions and their participation in continuing education activities. Comparisons of par- ticipation were based on a categorization of continuing education activity into three types, or modes of activity: 1. Participation in organized activities sponsored by school-related institutions; 2. Participation in organized activities sponsored by nonschool institutions; and 3. Participation in activities that essentially are self-directed, and conducted independently from any institution. Carl Brent Poulton Data were statistically analyzed, using chi square tests for homogeneity and multivariate and univariate analysis of variance. Findings and Conclusions Of the demographic and positional characteristics considered, sex, occupation and income showed the strongest relationship to learning orientation. Respondents grouped by these characteristics demonstrated statistically sig- nificant differences when compared with respect to learning orientation. Age also showed a strong, but statistically less significant relationship. Marital status and parental responsibility showed a slight relationship, while level of formal schooling showed almost no relationship to learning orientation. Parental responsibility was strongly related to institutional orientation. Respondents grouped according to this characteristic demonstrated statistically sig- nificant differences in their orientations toward con- tinuing education institutions. Age and sex were other characteristics which showed some, if less significant, relationship to institutional orientation. Marital status, income and level of formal schooling were not shown to be related to institutional orientation. The demographic and positional characteristics most strongly related to participation in continuing edu- cation were occupation, level of formal schooling and age. Carl Brent Poulton Respondents grouped by these characteristics demonstrated statistically significant differences in the patterns of their participation in continuing education activities. A similar but statistically less significant relationship was found between sex and participation. Characteristics showing little or no relationship to differences in pat- terns of participation included marital status, income and parental responsibility. A strong relationship between orientation towards learning and patterns of participation was demonstrated. Respondents grouped according to their orientation towards learning demonstrated significant differences in the patterns of their participation in continuing education activities. These differences appeared to be centered primarily in the independent learning mode of continuing education activity. Respondents' overall patterns of participation in continuing education activities were not found to be strongly related to their orientations toward continuing education institutions. Differences in patterns of par- ticipation of respondents grouped by institutional orien- tation were, however, centered in the school-related insti- tutionally sponsored mode of activity. This suggested that future research efforts focus directly upon this mode in order to analyze the importance of institutional orien- tation as it relates to participation. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULTS' PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITIES TO CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS, ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING AND ORIENTATION TOWARD CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS BY Carl Brent Poulton A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University ' in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1975 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this study provides an appropriate opportunity to relate appreciation to some of the many people who have provided assistance, advice and encourage- ment over these past months. Certainly the efforts of Dr. Archibald Shaw, who served as chairman of my graduate committee, are appreciated. His ample literary talents proved to be absolutely essential in the preparation of the manuscript. Particular appreciation goes to Professor Russell Kleis, whose professional integrity and profound commitment to a better world through continuing education provided the inspiration required to complete the study. I also wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Raymond Hatch and Dr. James McKee, who also served as committee members, for their contributions to the completion of this work. I would be remiss without thanking several other individuals for their special contributions: Dr. Roy Minnis, who first sparked my interest in pursuing a doctoral degree; Larry Horyna, who encouraged my partici- pation in the Leadership Training Program at the National Center for Community Education; and, the Board of Trustees ii of the Mott Foundation, who provided through their graduate fellowship programs the financial assistance which allowed me to complete my doctoral study. It has been my pleasure to have had the association of many outstanding individuals since entering the doctoral program. Of these, three are especially appreciated. Thomas Anderson, Bud Masterson and Hugh Rohrer will always be remembered for the valued assistance--and the welcome relief from the rigors of graduate school--each has pro- vided as a friend and colleague. Finally, a very special thanks is due my good wife, Anita, and to our children, Steven and Sandra, without - whose support this would not have been possible. Together, we have shared the toil and the pleasures of this adventure. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. NEED FOR THE STUDY . . . . . Purpose . . . . . .- . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . Overview and Organization of the Study. II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Surveys of Participation in Continuing Education Activities . . . . . . Characteristics of Continuing Education Participants. . . . . . . . . Studies of Learner Orientation . . . Continuing Education Organizations . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH. . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Description of Respondents. . . . . Demographic and Positional Charac- teristics . . . . . . . . . Learning Orientation . . . . . . Institutional Orientation . . . . Participation in Continuing Education Analysis of the Data and Tests of the Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . iv Page 10 12 14 15 15 16 26 35 41 50 53 53 55 56 63 69 71 71 72 72 77 79 87 Chapter Factors Related to Respondents' Orien- tation Toward Learning . . . Factors Related to Respondents' Institutional Orientation . . Factors Related to Respondents' Par- ticipation in Continuing Education Activities . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND MENDATIONS . O C I O 0 I C Introduction. . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . Design of the Study. . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . Demographic and Positional Character- istics Related to Learning Orien- tation O C I O O O O 0 Demographic and Positional Character— istics Related to Institutional Orientation. . . . . . . Demographic and Positional Character— istics Related to Participation . . Relationship of Participation to tutional Orientation. . . . Insti- Relationship of Participation to Learn- ing Orientation . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . Implications for Continuing Educators. Implications for Further Research . . Concluding Statement . . . . . Page 90 98 102 130 131 131 131 131 132 135 136 138 138 141 142 144 145 146 146 147 150 Page APPENDICES Appendix A. QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 B. LETTER ACCOMPANYING THE QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . 155 C. FOLLOW-UP POST CARD . . . . . . . . . . 156 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . 157 vi Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BILITIES . . . . RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED FAMILY . . . . . RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED SCHOOLING . . . . RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY BY BY BY BY BY BY BY TATION TOWARD LEARNING. RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED TUTIONAL ORIENTATION BY AGE 0 O O O . SEX . I O O C MARITAL STATUS . PARENTAL RESPONSI- OCCUPATION. . . INCOME LEVEL OF LEVEL OF FORMAL PRIMARY ORIEN- DOMINANT INSTI- FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN THE THREE MAJOR MODES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITY AS REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN RESPONDENTS, 1974 . . . . . PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR MODES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION, BY INSTANCES AND BY HOURS, JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN, 1974 . . . . FREQUENCY RANKING OF PROGRAM AND ACTIVITY AREAS BY NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS AS REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN RESPONDENTS, 1974 . FREQUENCY RANKING OF PROGRAM AND ACTIVITY AREAS BY AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS OF PAR- TICIPATION REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN, RESPONDENTS, 1974 . . . . . vii Page 73 73 74 74 75 75 76 78 80 82 84 85 86 Table Page 14. DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PRIMARY MODE OF PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITIES, JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN 1974 . . 88 15. SUMMARY OF THE CHI SQUARE TESTS FOR HOMOGENEITY IN PRIMARY ORIENTATIONS TOWARD LEARNING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED ACCORDING TO DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTER- ISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 16. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY LEARNING ORIENTATIONS OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY SEX. . 94 17. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION AND COMPARED ON PRIMARY ORIENTATIONS TOWARD LEARNING. . . . 95 18. _FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED ACCORDING TO INCOME AND COMPARED ON PRIMARY ORIENTATIONS TOWARD LEARNING. . . . 96 19. SUMMARY OF THE CHI SQUARE TESTS OF HOMOGENEITY FOR DIFFERENCES IN ORIENTATION TOWARD CON- TINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED ACCORD“ ING TO DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARAC- TERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 20. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED ACCORDING TO PARENTAL RESPONSIBILITY AND COMPARED ON DOMINANT INSTITUTIONAL ORIEN- TATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 21. SUMMARY OF CHI SQUARE TESTS OF HOMOGENEITY OF PRIMARY MODE OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED WITH RESPECT TO DEMO- GRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS . . . 104 22. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MODES OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY OCCUPATION . C O O O C O O O O O O 105 23. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MODES OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY PRIMARY ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING . . . . 108 viii Table 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MODES OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING . . . . . . FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY MODES OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY DOMINANT INSTITUTIONAL ORIENTATION . . . SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES OF VARIANCE IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIF- FERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . .RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY AGE WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICIPATION IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH NON- SCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS. . . . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIF- FERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY OCCUPATION . . . . . . . . . . RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY OCCUPATION WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICI“ PATION IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH NONSCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIF- FERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING . . . . . . RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING WITH RESPECT TO THEIR PARTICIPATION IN NONSCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICIPATION IN LEARNING ACTIVI- TIES ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL-RELATED INSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . ix Page 109 112 117 119 119 121 121 123 123 125 Table Page 34. MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIF- FERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY LEARNING ORIENTATION . . . . . . . . 127 35. MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIF- FERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY ORIENTATION TOWARD CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 129 CHAPTER I NEED FOR THE STUDY Throughout the United States there is growing awareness that, if citizens are to COpe with the increasing complexity of their daily problems and if our free society is to survive, adults must be continuously involved in processes of education. If men and women are to attain the full maturity of which they are capable, they must have abundant opportunities for growth and development long after the period of their formal schooling has ended. Recent years have witnessed a steady expansion in the number and variety of activities which enable men and women to acquire understanding of the world around them. In addition to informal educational opportunities provided to adults through such media as television, radio, and varied types of reading materials, many institutions are expanding their commitment to more explicit and formal continuing education activities. "American adults con- tinue their education, and continuing education shows many signs of becoming an even more important component of the total American educational system."1 Those who are responsible for organizing and main- taining continuing educational services for adults face many challenging problems. Organizational actions are as varied as the needs to which they respond. Such actions emanate from a wide range of institutions, each with dif- fering objectives and approaches for serving adults. The task falls upon continuing educators to discern persisting and emerging learning needs, and at the same time to articulate their collective resources in order to "avoid needless overlapping and overlooking, and make the most. effective use of limited professional leadership."2 Inherent in this task is the need for continuing educators to understand factors governing decisions by adults relative to their educational needs, their incli- nation to engage in specific learning activities, and their volition to affiliate with certain continuing edu- cation programs as opposed to others. 1John C. Johnstone and Ramon J. Rivera, Volunteers for Learning (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 19657} p. V. 2Russell Kleis and Donald Butcher, in Administration of Continuing Education, ed. Nathan C. Shaw (Washington, D.C.: National AssociEtion of Public Continuing Adult Education, 1969), P. 70. . . . The decision to participate or not rests with the individual adult and is influenced by factors that are components of both the personality and social group life of the individual involved. Such personal independence in the matter of participation complicates the administrative function, frustrates the adult educator and inhibits achievement of the maximum effective role of adult education in society.3 Research investigating participation in continuing education programs has received increased attention in recent years. Studies conducted by Wann and Woodward,4 Johnstone and Rivera,S London, Wenkert and Hagstrom6 and others have repeatedly identified promingnt demographic and positional characteristics of those adults who par- ticipate in various continuing education programs. Houle, describing the nature of recent research efforts, has noted: 3Coolie Verner and John Newberry, "The Nature of Adult Participation," Adult Education 9 (Summer 1958): 208-22. 4Marie D. Wann and Marthine V. Woodward, Partici— pation in Adult Education: A Statistical Analysis of EHe Adult Education Data ObtaIned in the OctOberTI957 Current Population Survey ofithe Bureau of Census (WaShington, D.C.: U.S. OffICe of Education, 19555. SJohnstone and Rivera, Volunteers. 6Jack London, Robert Wenkert, Warren Hagstrom, Adult Education and Social Class (Berkeley, Calif.: Survey Research Center, University of California, 1963). . . . they all pursue a single general theme, the effort to discover the characteristics of those people who are served by one or more of the estab- lished educational institutions or associations. Who uses the public library? What kind of people go to the evening school, the evening college, the museum, the community center, the settlement course, or extension class?7 As a result of such studies, the typical partici- pant has been described as: . . . just as often a woman as a man, typically under forty, has completed high school or more, enjoys an above average income, works full time and most often in a white collar occupation, is married and has children, lives in an urbanized area but more likely in a suburb than in a large city, and more frequently in the West than in other regions. The contribution made by these studies toward the understanding of adult participation in continuing edu- cation activities has been considerable. However, their limited scope, both in terms of learning activities con- sidered and characteristics of participants identified, has necessarily limited their utility. Douglah and Moss, speaking of the generalizations made regarding partici- pants, have noted: While such generalizations regarding participation patterns undeniably have a basis in fact and may be useful for broad descriptions of the behavior of various groups, they do have general drawbacks. 7Cyril Houle, The Inquiring Ming (Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), p. 5. 8Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers, p. 8. One such drawback is the resulting tendency to lose V/ sight of the differences within groups while focusing major attention on the differences between groups. It is appropriate that research investigating par— ticipation in continuing education expand beyond identifi- cation of demographic characteristics and beyond partici- pants in programs of a relatively narrow range of insti- tutions. Continued learning is an inherent function of adult life; all individuals at times undertake the learning of new skills and the acquisition of knowledge in order to better understand and cope with the changing world around them. To some extent, this function is accomplished through participation in continuing education programs of schools and other "educational" institutions. However, adults do not limit their learning activities to insti- tutionally sponsored programs. On a less formal level, many adults undertake through self-directed learning the solving of immediate problems as well as the pursuit of longer range interests. In doing so, they may well call upon the resources of continuing education institutions-— or they may not. In either case, the impetus, direction and format of the learning effort is frequently determined by the individual himself. 9Mohammad Douglah and Gwenna Moss, "Differential Participation Patterns of Adults of Low and High Edu- cational Attainment," Adult Education 28 (Summer 1968): Research needs to be directed toward the full range of planned learning activities that individuals undertake. The need exists to examine this range of activities at the individual's level, with an eye toward determining what it is that encourages individuals to assume specific, but differing, patterns of participation. Consideration should be given to the underlying factors that motivate individuals to pursue differing objectives and by differing means. This study investigates two factors that appear likely to be related to decisions made by individuals with respect to their participation in continuing edu- cation activities. Of interest are the underlying pre- dispositions, or orientations, of individuals, first toward the learning enterprise itself, and secondly, toward the institutions and organizations that sponsor continuing education programs. 10 Houle, Sheffield,ll Burgess12 and others have conducted several studies that suggest individuals have 'loHoule, Inquiring Mind. 11Sherman B. Sheffield, "The Orientations of Adult Learners," in The Continuing Learner, ed. David Solomon (Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Edu- cation for Adults, 1964). 12Paul Burgess, "Reasons for Adult Participation in Group Educational Activities," Adult Education 22 (1971). differing orientations toward learning; differing, yet distinguishable underlying reasons for wanting additional skills and further knowledge. The extent to which such orientations act to motivate or determine the nature of participation in continuing education activities has not been thoroughly investigated. Similarly, Etzioni's theoretical model of organi- zational compliance suggests that individuals' orientations toward specific organizations may be an important consid- eration in decisions to become, or not to become partici- pants in continuing education programs sponsored by those organizations. His conceptualization of "participant orientation" provides a means of exploring why it is that some individuals choose to affiliate with certain organi- zations to pursue their learning interest, and others select alternative organizations or choose not to affiliate with any organization. Finally, it is reasonable to assume that decisions to participate in continuing education activities result from an interaction of several factors operating at the individual's level. Investigation of these deciSIOns necessitates consideration of such interrelationships, if participation in continuing education activities is to be fully understood. Purpose The primary purpose of this study was to examine the continuing education activities of adults and to determine the extent to which these activities were related to certain demographic-positional and social- psychological variables. Specifically, participation in continuing education activities was considered in relation to the demographic-positional variables of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling and parental responsibility, and the social- psychological variables of orientation toward learning and orientation toward continuing education institutions. The study further sought to determine the interrelationship of the demographic—positional and social-psychological variables considered. The following questions served as the basis of the investigation: 1. Are adults' orientations toward learning related to any of the demographic and positional charac~ .teristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? 2. Are adults' orientations toward continuing education institutions related to any of the 1. 2. demographic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to any of the demographic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward learning? Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward continuing education insti- tutions? The purposes of this research were pursued by obtaining data from a sample population selected from the adult population of a mid-sized urban center and its associated suburban and rural areas. Data were gathered from the sample with respect to: The nature of their learning activities over the past year; Demographic and positional characteristics; 10 3. Orientations toward learning; and 4. Orientations toward continuing education insti- tutions. Definition of Terms Continuing Education.--For the purpose of this investigation, continuing education is considered a process through which persons beyond the age of compulsory attendance in secondary schools, engage in planned activities with the conscious intention of bringing about changes in information, knowledge, understanding, skills, appreciation and attitudes; or to identify and solve personal or community problems.13 Orientation.--A sense of one's position with relation to an environment or to some particular person, place or thing.14 Institutional Orientation.--For the purposes of this study, institutional orientation refers to the cathectic-evaluative orientation of adults to any 13This definition is an adaption of that proposed for Adult Education by A. A. Liveright, in A Study of Adult Education in the United States (Boston: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1968), p. 3. 14 Edition. Websters New International Dictionary, Second 3‘ 11; institution or organization which is a real or potential . . . . . 15 resource for pursuit of continuing educatIOn Interest. Learning Orientation.—-Learning orientation is defined as the major principle which gives meaning or direction to any actual or potential continuing learning act or process undertaken by an individual adult learner. For comparative purposes, this study adopts the seven learning orientation types identified by Burgess: l. The Desire to Know 2. The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal 3. The Desire to Reach a Social Goal 4. The Desire to Reach a Religious Goal 5. The Desire to Take Part in Social Activity 6. The Desire to Escape l6 7. The Desire to Meet Formal Requirement Participation Pattern.--Participation pattern is defined as the extent in terms of hours to which an indi- vidual had participated within the past year in any or all of three general types of continuing education activities: 1. Those sponsored by institutions or organizations which have as their primary purpose the provision of educative activities; 15Adapted from Etzioni's definition of involvement, in Amitai Etzioni, A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organi- zations (New York: The Free Press, 1961), p. 9. 16 pp. 3-29. Burgess, "Reasons for Adult Participation," 12 2. Those sponsored by institutions or organizations which have as their primary purpose something other than educative activities, but which provide educative activities as an ancillary function; 3. Those learning activities undertaken by the indi- vidual on his own initiative independent of any sponsorship by an institution or organization. Lgmitations of the Study The limitations are related to the nature of the sample population Of the study, reliance on the theoretical concepts of institutional orientation and learner orien- tation, and the limitations of the questionnaire as a data-gathering instrument. The sample population included adult residents of Jackson County, Michigan, systematically selected from the 1974 directories of the telephone companies serving Jackson County, Michigan. This study specifically analyzed the patterns of participation of this sample population; it may or may not be applicable to wider populations. The concepts of learning orientation and institu- tional orientation were drawn from related theories because of their assumed relatedness to participation in continuing education activities. Each is a theoretical concept, and as such subject to interpretation. In order to 13 pursue the purposes of this study, meanings were derived for each in the context of individuals' decisions regarding participation in continuing education activities. Find- ings are therefore limited by the meanings attached to each concept as it has been applied in the course of this study. The use of a questionnaire as the sole means for gathering data limits the information Obtained to written responses to pre-arranged questions. Although the questionnaire items were tested with a population segment similar to the sample population, the possibility remains of variation in the interpretation of the questions among the respondents. Data are limited to those voluntarily supplied by persons completing and returning the questionnaire. Analysis of returns indicates respondents with lower levels of formal schooling are somewhat less than pro- portionately represented by the 210 completed and returned questionnaires on which this study is based. The methodology adopted by this study necessarily limits the kinds of learning activities considered in the assessment of individuals' patterns of participation. The alternatives for learning included in the questionnaire were selected on the basis of earlier related research findings, and modified or extended only at the suggestion of persons knowledgeable of the Specific continuing 14 education resources existent in the Jackson County area. While it is believed the organizations, institutions and learning activities included as possible components of individuals' patterns of participation are representative of learning resources generally available in mid-sized urban centers and associated suburban and rural areas, no attempt was made to insure that this was the case. Overview and Organization of tHe Study Chapter I has presented the background, purpose and questions which serve as the basis of the investi- gation. In addition, key terms have been defined and limitations presented. In Chapter II the pertinent related literature and research reports are reviewed. In Chapter III the methodology used in the study is described, including the research design, method of gathering data and procedures for organizing and analyzing data. Chapter IV includes the presentation of data, testing of hypotheses, and interpretation of the results. Finally, in Chapter V a summary of the investigation is presented, followed by conclusions, implications and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Concern with various aspects of individuals' par- ticipation in continuing education activities has prompted increased research activities in this area, especially in the past fifteen years. Additionally, there have been many studies conducted in the fields of sociology and social psychology which relate to participation in con- tinuing education. Because of the vast number of such studies and reports, an attempt has been made to limit this review to those studies which answer questions par- ticularly relevant to this investigation. How extensive is participation in continuing edu- cation activities? The first section of this chapter sum- marized several surveys prompted by this question. The central question of what constitutes continuing education activity is discussed, as it applies to participation research. A rationale for considering a variety of modes of participation is suggested as a basis for eventual study of factors associated with participation. What characteristics have been identified to describe the typical continuing education participant? 15 16 The second section of this chapter reviews several reports of research aimed at determining the characteristics of those individuals that do participate. It was noted that emphasis of past studies has been primarily on investigating the relationship of participation to several general back- ground variables, most notably past educational attainment. Furthermore, it was suggested that the need exists to explore other psychologically related variables that may be associated with motivation to participate. Are individuals oriented differently toward learning?) Section three reviews studies concerned with motivation and the various kinds of orientations toward learning exhibited j by adults. I/ Is participation in continuing education influenced by the nature of continuing education organizations? Section four considers participation in continuing edu- cation in the context of participation in voluntary organizations. Surveys of Participation in Con- tinuing Education ActiVities How extensive is participation in continuing edu- cation activities? The answer depends on how continuing education activities are defined. Johnstone and Rivera found in their study, published in 1965, that 25 million adults, or about one in every five in the country, were participating in at least one of many organized continuing 17 education activities.1 They were, however, concerned primarily with assessing participation in organized con- tinuing education programs, and gave only peripheral attention to self-planned learning activities engaged in independently from such programs. If self-planned learning efforts are also considered, there is evidence that a much higher level of participation exists. In some subject matter areas, including the technical arts and hobbies, gardening, and home improvement skills, Johnstone and Rivera found evidence suggesting that "the incidence of self education throughout the adult population is much greater than we had anticipated."2 Research findings of Tough concur with this suggested higher participation rate.3 Focusing on the "learning projects" engaged in by adults, he suggests that nearly all persons are partici- pants in continuing education activities. The following paragraphs review the findings of the several surveys conducted to determine the extent of participation, noting the limitations of the findings in respect to the defi- nitions used of continuing education activity. lJohnstone and Rivera, Volunteers, p. v. 21bid., p. 37. 3Allen Tough, The Adult's Learning Projects (Ontario: The Ontario InstituteTIOr Studies in Education, 1973), p. 17. 18 An early effort to determine the extent of par- ticipation in continuing education activities was that undertaken in 1957 by the United States Bureau of the Census, in cooperation with the Fund for Adult Education. The data for this study were gathered from 35,000 house- holds in 330 sample areas comprising 638 counties and independent cities throughout the United States by the inclusion of two questions in the 1957 census survey. The study reported that: 1. Seven and nine-tenths per cent of the adults studied participated in adult education (as defined by the study). 2. Participation by age groups was as follows: Age Per Cent of Participation 14-19 13.6 20-29 10.3 30-44 9.9 45-59 7.0 60-74 2.8 75 and over 1.1 3. Median number of years of formal schooling com- pleted by participants was 12.6 and for non- participants, 10.4. 4. Seventy per cent of participants had completed high school as compared to 42 per cent of non- participants. 5. The median age of participants was 37.6 while the 'median age of non-participants was 43.9. 4Marie D. Wann and Marthine V. Woodard, Partici- Eation in Adult Education: A Statistical AnalySIS of the AQBIt Education Data Obtained in the OctOber 1957 Current _jflgulatibn Survey of’the Bureau of Census (Washington, .D.c.: U.S. Office of EducaEiOn, 1959). 19 The 1957 Census Study was limited in that it defined adults as any person 14-35 years of age who was not regularly enrolled in school, and all other persons 35 years of age or older. Thus, full-time students under the age of 35 were excluded while full-time students over 35 were included. Furthermore, a definition of educational activity was employed which excluded correspondence courses, on-the-job training, private lessons, and any self-designed learning activities. The 1957 Census Study was followed in 1961 by an ambitious nationwide survey of participation in continuing education undertaken by the National Opinion Research Center. In their book, Volunteers for Learning, Johnstone and Rivera summarize the nature and findings of this most comprehensive of all participation surveys.5 The study had four general objectives, referred to by the authors as phases: Phase I: A national survey of the educational activi- ties of the adult population, based on a survey of the activities of members of some 12,000 American households Phase II: An intensive study of the reactions of adults ' to continuing education, based on personal interviews with national samples of approxi- mately 1,800 randomly selected adults, plus 1,000 recent adult education participants Phase III: Case studies of adult education facilities in four middle-sized American cities, and of the impact of these facilities on the Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers. 20 residents of two of these cities, based on information collected through field inven- tories of educational resources and personal interviews with roughly 550 adults Phase IV: An inquiry into the post—school educational experiences of youth, based on personal interviews with a national sample of approximately 700 young adults.6 The authors provide a comprehensive summary of the results of their study. Portions of this summary relevant to the purposes of this study are noted below: 1. How many adults engage in educational activities after they terminate their formal schooling? When educational activity is defined broadly, it is estimated that twenty-five million adults are active in one or another form of learning during a twelve month period. Fifteen percent, or more than 17 million persons, had been enrolled in courses on a part—time basis, 2.5 million were . full-time students, and close to 9 million had engaged in independent study. All told, 61 per- cent of the adults interviewed had been involved in at least one form of continuing education activity. What types of subjects do adults study? Studies were primarily non-credit and non-academic in nature. Thirty-three percent of the learning activities identified were vocationally related and 20 percent were in recreational learning. By comparison, only 12 percent were in academic studies. What types of things do adults try to learn on their own? Adults do not typically study vocational subjects on their own, nor are religion and public affairs -frequently subjects for independent study. Learning efforts in the home and family life area, on the other hand, were undertaken independently more often than with instruction. Where do adults go to take courses? More adults study outside the regular school sys- tem than within it--by a ratio of about two to one. Fifty-six percent of all studies involving 61bid., p. xxviii. 21 attendance at classes, lecture, or group dis- cussions took place in institutions whose primary functions were not educational, such as churches and synagogues, private businesses, YMCA's, government agencies, the armed forces, and com- munity institutions other than school or adult education centers. In terms of overall number, more adults had studied in churches and synagogues than in any other type of institution. In what types of institutional setting do adults prefer to study when given a choice? Secondary schools were on the whole more attractive than universities to persons without much formal schooling while the converse was true of those who had completed high school or better. We found too that a university setting is more important to men than to women, and, more generally, that the prominence and prestige of the educational insti- tution is of importance to men. What are adult participants like? They are younger than the average American adults. They are equally divided among men and women. They are better educated than the average adult- and are more likely to hold white collar rather than blue collar jobs. They enjoy a higher than average family income. How do family responsibilities affect rates of learning activity? Parenthood appears to have exactly opposite effects on the educational behavior of young men and women; rates of study among mothers were lower than among non-mothers, but they were higher among fathers than non-fathers. Because men who have children also have increased financial responsi- bilities, they turn more frequently to adult edu- cation for knowledge and skills that will help them supplement their incomes. Why do adults take courses? Younger adults more often take courses for job- -centered reasons, while older persons more likely take courses simply for general knowledge. Leisure-centered reasons are also prevalent but the importance varies with different age groups. WOmen enroll more in response to home and family life and leisure-time interests. In addition, women are more likely to take courses to meet new and interesting people. Some take courses simply to escape daily routine. What factors are associated with the persistence of learning interest during adult life? Learning interest fell off continuously in each older age group and the rate was an accelerating 22 one. The effect of education on learning was equally dramatic with a sharp difference between those with little education and those who had attended sixteen years or more. Parents' edu- cational attainment also influenced positively the interest of the adults studied. Among men, especially Older and less educated respondents, learning interest was strongly related or not the occupational future looked promising. 10. To what extent do the educational facilities available in a community influence the educative behavior of adults? Results indicated that when educational facilities are more plentiful and accessible, more adults use them. However, the nature of the educational resources in a community had very little effect on peOples' general readiness to take courses. When instructional facilities are more plentiful, there appears to be a deeper penetration into what is termed the "potential audience" for programs of adult instruction; that aggregate of adults with a previously developed readiness to engage in formal learning pursuits as a means of acquiring new knowledge or skills. The institutional environment appears to be influential in bringing persons of this type into structured learning situations, but it appears to have almost no effect at all in arousing interests among adults who never had them in the first place.7 London, Wenkert, and Hagstrom conducted a study which, rather than being national in SCOpe, was limited to the city of Oakland, California.8 The goal of the study was to determine who participated, and in addition, what motivated those that did, and what kept others away. 71bid., pp. 1—24. 8Jack London, Robert Wenkert, and Warren Hagstrom, Adult Education and Social Class (Berkeley, Calif.: Survey ResearcHICenter, University of California, 1963). 5. 6. 23 Significant findings from this study were as follows: Almost 50 per cent of the participants were taking courses that were vocationally oriented. Only 5 per cent of laborers and unskilled workers participated in adult education, while 18 per cent of clerical workers and 38 per cent of self- employed professional workers participated. The most marked increase in participation between groups Classified by amount of previous education came between those who had a high school education and those with l to 3 years of college. (Rate of- participation for high school graduates was 10 per cent. This increased to 21 per cent for those with l to 3 years of college and to 23 per cent for those with 4 or more years of college.) Participation by age was as follows: Age Per Cent of Participation 20-29 20 30-39 15 40-49 10 50-59 7 Age unknown 4 Single men participated more than did married men. (Single men, 16 per cent; married men, 12 per cent.) The more educated were more likely to participate for vocational reasons than the less educated. (Participation rate for vocational reasons for those with some college education was 11 per cent; for those with only a high school education, 5 per cent; and for those with less than a high school education, 3 per cent.) The more education a person had, the more likely he was to participate. Percentage Amount of Formal Education Rate of Participation 4 or more years college 23 1-3 years college 21 high school graduate 10 10-11 years schooling 9 less than 9 years schooling 4 9 Ibido' pp. 142-47. 9 24 The work of Tough and others at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education has added a new per- spective to the consideration of participation in con- 10 tinuing education activities. Tough has considered continued learning in the context of what is termed learn- ing projects. A learning project is " . . . a major, highly deliberate effort to gain certain knowledge and 11 skill (or to change in some way)." Learning projects are further defined as . . . consisting of a series of related (learning) episodes, adding up to at least seven hours. In each episode, more than half of the person‘s total motivation is to gain and retain fairly clear knowledge and skill, or to produce some other lasting change in himself.1 Considering participation by these standards, Tough and his associates conducted a study in 1970 to determine how common and important learning projects are. They conducted in-depth interviews with 66 adults, and in terms of rate of participation, stated the following: The typical person conducts about eight learning projects in one year. Most conducted at least one learning project in the past year, which produces an astounding participation rate of 98%.1 10Tough, Learning Projects, p. 1. 11 12 Ibid., p. 13. Ibid., p. 6. 13Ibid., p. 17. 25 In terms of the amount of time spent during the course of a year in the conduct of learning projects, Tough determined that the mean amount was 816 hours and the median amount 687 hours. In short, the average or typical interviewee spent about 700 or 800 hours a year at his learning projects, though the range was very large, from 0 to 2509 hours. During a year, a representative interviewee spent roughly 90 hours at each of his learning projects. Tough further found that only 0.7 percent of all the learning projects were for credit. "Apparently learn- ing for credit forms only a small portion of all adult 1 ° "15 earning. This finding concurs with earlier findings by Johnstone and Rivera who found that studies were pri- marily noncredit with the subject matter overwhelmingly nonacademic.16 The surveys and studies cited above have been instrumental in identifying the extent of participation in continuing education activities. They have also served to describe, in general terms, the adults that participate in continuing education activities. There reference here has been to provide a backdrop to the current research project. 14 15 Ibid., p. 13. Ibid., p. 19. 16Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers, pp. 1-24. 26 Just as importantly, however, they relate a trend by researchers toward consideration of a widening variety of learner activities as modes of participation in con- tinuing eduCation. Whereas earlier studies confined consideration to school sponsored and other organized programs for adults, later studies have expanded consid- eration to include the extensive range of activities undertaken by adults independently of formalized programs. The findings of Johnstone and Rivera, and more directly of Tough and his associates, have served to under- score the need to consider participation in continuing education in the context of the full range of options available to individuals. Of interest are categories of learning activities that may exist and how such categories are viewed by individuals as they consider ways and means of pursuing their interests. Characteristics of Continuing Education Participants The series of surveys just cited has sparked lively interest in further defining the circumstances surrounding individuals' volition to participate in continuing education activities. A number of studies have been conducted seeking to identify characteristics of continuing education participants. These studies have often taken the course of what Knox has termed "clientele analysis." Reports of Clientele analysis, 27 Knox relates, "have usually consisted of a description of characteristics of participants in adult education programs of one or more agencies in comparison with characteristics of the general population that would potentially be served."17 These studies have provided ample testimony to the general biographical, demographic and positional back- ground of organized continuing education program partici- pants. Such characteristics as age, education, occupation and income, among many others that have been studied, have shown an association with participation.18 However, a nagging uneasiness is evident in the literature about the sc0pe of much of the past research directed at identification of continuing education par- ticipant characteristics. Knox and Sjogren, reporting on the deliberations of the 1962 National Seminar on Adult Education Research, related the seminars' desire to expand research activities in the area of adult motivation. One of several questions formulated by the seminar was: l7Alan Knox, "Clientele Analysis," Review of Edu- cational Research 35 (1965): 231-39. 18Edmund de S. Brunner, David S. Wilder, Corinne Kirchner, and John S. Newberry, Jr., An Overview_of Adult Education Research (Chicago: Adult Education AssociatiOn, 1959); Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers; Knox, "Analysis"; Coolie Verner and John S. Newberry Jr., "The Nature of Adult Participation," Adult Education 8 (Summer 1958): 208-22. 28 Do any psychological characteristics differentiate the participant in adult education from the non- participant? Some psychological characteristics that seem to be related to or are aspects of motivation which might be investigated are: attitudes toward aspects of educative activities; needs such as achievement, affiliation, power, security, control, etc.; anxiety level; and satisfaction level in life roles such as citizen, worker, homemaker, or user of leisure.19 A thesis of the present study was that participation in continuing education programs should be considered in a broader context than that of organized programs; that the spectrum of participation includes self-directed, independently conducted activities as well. Furthermore, individuals' decisions with respect to the specific kinds of activities engaged in may be related to the Character- istics investigated in previous studies, as well as other social and psychologically related background character- istics. Research reports having some bearing on aspect of this thesis were discussed below. Much effort has been centered around further defining the influence of previous education as a pre- dictor of participation in continuing education activities. The number of persons participating has tended to increase at each successively higher level of educational 19Alan B. Knox and Douglas Sjogren, "Motivation ,/ to Participate and Learn in Adult Education," Adult Edu- cation 12 (Summer 1962): 238. 29 attainment20 and years of school completed has appeared to be a strong influence on participation.21 Douglah and Moss, noting the consistent findings associating level of education attainment with participation, sought to specify the influence of factors associated with participation when the factor apparently most important-- level of education--was controlled.22 Their study analyzed two groups of participants, those with a high level of formal schooling and those with a low level of formal schooling, to determine if certain factors related dif- ferentially to those two groups. In addition to consider- ing the positional characteristics of sex, age, employment status, level of occupation, annual family income, marital status, number of children under 19, and residence, their study included consideration of several psychological 20Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers; London, Wenkert, and Hagstrom, Adult Education. 21Brunner, Wilder, Kirchner, and Newberry, An Overview; Mohammed Douglah, "Some Perspectives on the PEenomenon of Participation," Adult Education 20 (Winter 1970): 88- 98; Jack London, "The Influence Of Social Class Behavior Upon Adult Education Participation," Adult Education 20 (Spring 1970): 140-53; Verner and NewBerry, "AduIt Participation." 22Mohammad A. Douglah and Gwenna Moss, "Dif- ferential Participation Patterns of Adults of Low and High Educational Attainment," Adult Education 28 (Spring 1968): 249. 30 factors, including self-reliance, withdrawing tendencies, social skill, and occupational relations. The findings of their study suggest that differences do exist among adults of high and low educational attainment: . . . despite the strong association between level of education and participation in adult education activi- ties, educational level in itself is not sufficient to completely account for participation. Within both the high and the low levels of education differences in participation do occur. These differences, how- ever, cannot be accounted for by a common set of factors. In the low educational level, participation in adult education seems to be influenced by a set of positional and psychological factors which have no apparent influence on the participation of persons with a high level of education. Specifically, age, employment status, income, family status, and with- drawing tendencies all had an influence on the par- ticipation of persons with less than a twelfth grade education, but had no significant effect on the par- ticipation of those with more than twelve years of schooling.23 Dickenson studied the relationship of participation in continuing education and educational background but in a broader context than earlier research. He considered continuing education as one aspect of a continuous, integrated, lifelong process, as opposed to a discrete phenomenon to be studied in isolation. Using Essert and 24 Spence's classification of lifelong educational components, he described education in terms of three systems: 231bid., pp. 256-57. 24Paul L. Essert and Ralph B. Spence, "Continuous Learning Through the Educative Community: An Exploration of the Family Education, The Sequential Unit, and the Com- plementary Functional Systems," Adult Education 18 (Summer 1968): 260. 31 The many components of lifelong integrated education have been classified into three systems by Essert and Spence. The family-educational system services chiefly the immature members of the family but it also provides some educational services for other members. The sequential-unit system is characterized by a series of graded steps leading toward higher levels, with achievement usually measured in terms of the successful completion of steps. The comple- mentary-functional system provides opportunities for systematic learning in areas not dealt with or inadequately learned in the family-educational or sequential-unit systems and includes adult education among other activities.2 Dickenson's study sought to determine the extent to which the level of activity within one or more of the sub-systems effects the level of activity in other sub- systems. Findings indicated that years of school completed by the respondent (representative of the sequential—unit system) and the wife (representative of the family edu- cational system) were significantly related to total par- ticipation in continuing education.26 Seaman's study analyzed the relationship of par- ticipation in continuing education activities and level of formal schooling, among other factors.27 He sampled 25Gary Dickenson, "Educational Variables and Par- ticipation in Adult Education," paper presented to the Adult Education Research Conference, New York, February 2- 5, 1971, p. 3. 26Ibid., p. 17. 27Don Ferris Seaman, "The Relationship Between Extent of Educative Behavior by Industrial Employees in Florida and Their Attitudes Toward Continuing Education" (Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1968). 32 100 employees of the Florida Power Corporation to determine the relationship between extent of educative behavior by adults and their attitudes toward continuing education. Seaman concluded that: . . . (l) the extent to which an individual partici- pates in educative behavior was positively related to his level of formal education, (2) the relationship between one's extent of educative behavior and his attitude toward continuing education was not influ- enced by his age or educational level, and (3) factors in an individual's environmental situation influence his overt behavior to an extent that his attitudes were not always reflected.23 Devlin investigated the relationship of partici- pation to an additional characteristic, occupational mobility.29 His study sought to analyze differences among four groups: frequent and infrequent participants in a program offered through a combined high school- junior college, and nonparticipants either aware or unaware of the program. The study concluded that the four groups differed consistently, with participants highest and unaware nonparticipants lowest, in income, father's occupational level, and as might be expected, educational background. Frequent participation was 28Ibid., dissertation abstract. 29Lawrence E. Devlin, "Participation in Adult Education and Occupational Mobility" (Ph.D. dissertation, Chicago University, 1970). 33 positively related to upward mobility, and frequent par— ticipants differed from other groups in upward moves made even before participation. LeClair sought to determine the relationship of three factors: perceived need deficiency, importance of need fulfillment, and perception of education as a mobility factor to participation in continuing education activities.30 He studied individuals working in indus- trial settings who were identified as either participants or nonparticipants in continuing education activities. He cOncluded " . . . that a relationship exists between perceived need deficiency in the industrial job, seeing continuing education as a means to a higher position with greater potential for need satisfaction and participation."31 His findings suggest that participation is related in some instances to individuals' perceived needs for growth in an occupational sense. Ewigleben's study of adult high school students suggested that the need for affiliation might be an 3oLowell Vincent LeClair, "A Study of the Relation- ship of Three Factors: Perceived Need Deficiency, Impor- tance of Need Fulfillment, Perception of Education as a Mobility Factor--to Participation in Educational Activi- ties" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969). 311bid., p. 111. 34 important motivating factor for participation.32 The majority of individuals studied in his investigation indicated that the opportunity to make new friends was an important consideration in their decision to participate in adult high school. However, few felt they had gained either a friend or acquaintance in the class and, from those that had, most had not seen those friends since taking the class and did not plan to do 80.33 In his study concerned with the educational activi- ties of noncollege-bound young adults, Knox sought to identify personal and social characteristics that were correlated with extent of participation.34 Through extensive interviews, biographical and educational information was gathered from young adults from four metropolitan areas. Knox concluded: In most ways, there was great similarity between the two sub-samples of participants and non-participants for whom biographical sketches were prepared. How- ever, it would appear that there is a threshold for adult education participation. To make the decision 32Robert L. Ewigleben, "The Identification and Analysis of the Factors Contributing to the Drop-out Rate Among Participants in Classes of the Lansing Adult School Programs" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959). 33Ibid., p. 87. 34Alan B. Knox, "Factors Related to Educative Activity by Non-College Bound Young Adults," Final Report, Project Number 7-1826 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health,iEducation and Welfare, Office of Education, November, 1970). 35 to participate requires several facilitators. These facilitators might be personal or situational, and past or present oriented. To some extent they may be interchangeable. But, the two variables that seem to be especially influential are information seeking and the encouragement of others.35 The need to direct research efforts toward such psychologically related variables was echoed by Douglah and Moss, as they summarized the findings of their study cited earlier: While five factors were found to influence the educational participation of persons of low edu- cation, the participation of persons of high edu- cation is not accounted for to any great extent by any of the factors included in this study. Since a fairly comprehensive set of positional variables had no influence, and since it was among the psy- chological factors that the one significantly related variable (social skills) was found, it is suggested that psychological variables offer a potential for research. 5 Studies of Learner Orientation Are individuals oriented differently toward learn- ing? What it is that motivates adults to participate differentially in continuing education activities has long been a fundamental concern of professionals and researchers in the field of continuing education. Most studies of participation, including those cited above, have been at least partly motivated by this question. 35Ibid., p. 2. 36Douglah and Moss, "Differential Participation," p. 257. 36 While most studies have sought to analyze the demographic and positional characteristics of those that do partici- pate, there are reports of studies dealing with underlying orientations toward learning that may act to encourage participation in specific, but differing learning activi- ties. As such, these studies are eSpecially pertinent to the purposes of this investigation. In 1963 Knox and Videbeck reported on their efforts to devise a conceptual framework for the study of social participation. The suggested conceptual framework included a concern for both the participatory opportunity structure, consisting of community resources and participatory domains related to life roles, and also individual orientations 37 toward participation. The following statement, included as partial rationale for their project, is of central importance to this study: The psychological or individual orientations of an individual toward participation consist of subjec- tive traits that reflect need dispositions, cognitive style, perceptions of opportunities for participation, and relative value placed by the individual on various elements in his network of social activities. At a given point in time, subjective orientations toward participation operate within the objective organi- zation of behavioral settings contained within an individual's life space, consisting of both the unique configuration of roles and statuses that 37Alan B. Knox and Richard Videbeck, "Adult Edu- cation and Adult Life Cycle," Adult Education 13 (Winter 1973): 119. 37 provide vehicles for social interaction, and the available community resources and facilities relative to participation.38 This suggests that a variety of elements are at work as individuals consider the plausibility of involvement in learning activities. Eventual participation rests on the relative influence of these elements, operating as they are perceived at any given moment by the individual. The subjective orientation toward participation discussed by Knox and Videbeck is a representation of the collective influence of underlying individual values, each con- tributing to the nature of any eventual orientation toward participation. Several studies seeking to define certain of these elements are discussed below. Thorndike made exhaustive studies of the learning abilities and habits of adults. He stated that experience and the literature suggested that interest in and moti- vation toward learning in adult life depend upon the experience received in childhood and youth. Thus, he concludes, "adult learning is oriented in childhood."39 In summarizing their study aimed at determining qualities of adults who persist in continuing education 381bid., p. 105. 39Edward L. Thorndike, Adult Interest§_(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935), pp. 124-25. 38 activities, Brown, Knox and Gretueschen suggest that an underlying orientation toward the educational, or learn- ing process, is a determining factor: Although some adults engage in education as a way of satisfying occupational and degree objectives, this aim is not strongly or uniformly associated with the persister in adult education classes. Adults who have completed more courses, who have become con- tinuing learners, are those for whom the skills, values and satisfactions which they derive from education result in participation in more education. 40 Houle's investigations of participants in continuing education programs provide further evidence of the importance underlying orientations toward learning in the encouragement of participation in continuing education activity. His. studies sought not to identify the positional character- istics of those that participate, but rather why it is ~—__1 they do so. He investigated this question by conducting in-depth interviews with twenty-two continuing learners. Reporting his findings in The Inquiring Mind, he stated: . . . they all had goals which they wished to achieve. They all found the process of learning enjoyable or significant, they all felt learning was worthwhile for its own sake.41 Houle proceeded to identify three sub-groups of his twenty-two participants: 40M. Alan Brown, Alan B. Knox, and Arden Grotues- chen, ”Persistence in University Adult Education Classes," Adult Education 16 (Winter 1966): 101-14. 41Cyril Houle, The Inquiring Mind (Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), p. 15. 39 The first, or, as they will be called, the goal- oriented, are those who use education as a means of accomplishing fairly clearcut objectives. The second, the activity-oriented, are those who take part because they find in the Circumstances of learning a meaning which has no necessary connection, and often no con- nection at all, with the content or the announced purposes of the activity. The third, the learning- oriented, seek knowledge for its own sake. Sheffield also conducted a study which concentrated on individual's orientation towards learning.43 He pre- pared a list of fifty-eight reasons why adults said they participated in a broad range of educational activities, using the concepts presented in The Inquiring Mind as a baSis of his list. The three orientations of Houle were specifically tested by the design of the instrument and the analysis techniques allowed other orientations to emerge as they might exist within the continuing learners themselves. He asked 483 adults who were attending edu- cational conferences to indicate on a five-point "never-to- always" scale how often each of the reasons influenced their decision to participate. He identified five meaning- ful components which he called orientations and named them: 1. Learning orientation--seeking knowledge for its own sake; 2. Desire-activity orientation--taking part because in the circumstances of the learning, interpersonal 421bid., pp. 15-16. 43Sherman B. Sheffield, "The Orientations of Adult Learners," in The Continuing Learner, ed. David Solomon (Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adult, 1964). 40 or social meaning is found which may have no necessary connection at all with the content of the announced purposes of the activity; 3. Personal-goal orientation--participation in education to accomplish fairly clear-cut personal objectives; 4. Societal-goal orientation--participation in edu- cation to accomplish clear-cut social or community objectives; and 5. Need-activity orientation--taking part because in the Circumstances of learning an introspective or intrapersonal meaning is found which may have no necessary connection, and often no connection at all, with the announced purpose of the activity.44 Using the findings of Houle and Sheffield as a departure point, Burgess' study further defined the reasons for educational participation.45 Burgess developed a list of 70 reasons for participation representative of a comprehensive list of 5,773 drawn from the literature and current adult students of continuing education programs. Over a thousand participants of 54 different continuing education courses responded to these reasons, in terms of relative importance to them. Seven groups of reasons for participation were eventually identified: The desire to know; The desire to reach a personal goal; The desire to reach a social goal; The desire to reach a religious goal; The desire to escape; The desire to take part in an activity; 46 The desire to comply with formal requirements. 44Ibid., pp. 1-23. 45Paul Burgess, "Reasons for Participation in Group Educational Activities," Adult Education 22 (1971). 461bid., pp. 3-29. 41 Burgess summarized the findings of his study as follows: The findings as a result of this investigation pro- vide additional validity to the concept of edu- cational orientations by further expanding, further supporting, further defining, and further clarifying results obtained in previous studies. Increased validity was provided by using a larger and more complete data collecting instrument, by using a larger and broader sample of respondents, and by using a more recently developed statistical analysis technique.4 Houle, Sheffield, Burgess and others have provided a new perspective for considering what it is that affects the nature of individuals' participation in continuing education activities. They have suggested that partici- pants in continuing education activities are differentially oriented toward learning, and that distinct categories of learner orientation can be identified. It was hypothe- sized then that "learner orientation" is an important psy- chologically related factor affecting decisions by indi- viduals as they contemplate participation in various con- tinuing education activities. Continuing Education Organizations An additional consideration of this study that has been dealt with less directly in previous research is that considering individuals' orientation toward various continuing education institutions and organizations as 47Ibid., p. 27. 42 possible factors influencing the nature and/or extent of participation in continuing education activities. Research cited thus far has demonstrated that a variety of demo- graphical and positional factors appear to be related to the nature and extent of individuals' participation. Also, a relationship between participation and learner orientation has been suggested. When continuing education institutions and organizations are considered as voluntary organizations, then it can be assumed that an additional dimension exists with reSpect to individuals' decisions to participate or not. Sociological research provides some insight as to how participation in continuing education organizations might be viewed in the context of voluntary organizations. VOluntary organizations can be defined as social units devoted primarily to the attainment of goals to which persons voluntarily associate themselves.48 Theoretically, voluntary organizations are viewed as satisfying self- 49 expression and Special interest needs and providing a 48C. Wayne Gordon and Nicholas Babchuck, "A Typology of Voluntary Associations," American Sociological Review 24 (January 1959): 22-29. 49Arnold M. Rose, Theory and Method in the Social Sciences (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1954), pp. 50-71, 163-64. 43 sense of security to their participants.50 Of interest to this study is the extent to which actual and perspec— tive participants of continuing education programs view participation as an act of "joining" and the extent to which their orientations toward various organizations might affect the decision to "join." Jacoby and Babchuck have noted that: Members of voluntary groups appear in high agreement with each other regarding the objectives of the organizations of which they are members. Further- more, such objectives are important in attracting members to join and participate in voluntary associ— ations.51 Jackson has applied the sociological definition of voluntary organizations to consideration of continuing education organizations. He states: The chief medium chosen by almost all professionals and administrators has been the class. . . . The adult education class has both the form and reality (of voluntary organizations) with great conse- quences, positive and negative, for its educational potential.52 50Gordon W. Allport, "The Psychology of Partici- pation,“ Psychological Review 52 (May 1945): 130. 51Arthur P. Jacoby and Nicholas Babchuck, "Instru- mental and Expressive Voluntary Associations," Sociology and Social Research XXXXVII (July 1963): 470. 52Keith Jackson, "Community Adult Education--The Role of the Professional," Adult Education (September 1971): 165. 44 Jackson makes the point that as voluntary organi- zations, continuing education organizations incorporate a certain degree of selectivity, in reSpect to their membership: In any given eligible population voluntary associ- ations more easily attract into membership a high status person. There seem to be a number of over- lapping reasons for this. Social and procedural skills depend partly on education and partly on constant use and development, which is more likely in high-status employment. Lack of these skills is more easily overcome by those who have the social confidence commonly associated with high status. Conversely, the degree of formality entailed by voluntary associations is often positively rejected by many people whose way of life at work and in their leisure does not entail the same attention to procedures and social skills. Furthermore, any ongoing organization deve10ps some degree of exclusiveness, not deliberate but based on sentiments and norms of behavior developed through friendship and regular interaction.53 This assertion seems especially notable, given the findings of Douglah and Moss reported earlier concerning the relationship of the psychologically related factors of withdrawing tendencies and social skills to participation in continuing education programs. This is to say, then, that organized forms of continuing education work under some compromising constraints as potential resources for service, as a result of their in effect being voluntary organizations. Of interest to this study is the selectivity characteristic of voluntary 53Ibid., p. 157. 45 organizations; both as it operates in recruitment of new members and how it is perceived by prospective members. An indication of how adults' orientation toward continuing education institutions might be a factor affecting any potential participation is provided in the study conducted by Murtaugh. He sought to determine the effect of participation in the Flint, Michigan, adult education program, on attitudes and change in attitude towards the schools generally. His principal findings were as follows: (1) The Flint adult education program enrolls adults who already are favorably disposed toward the schools at the time of their initial or subsequent enrollment; (2) very few of the participants changed their point of view toward the schools during the ten—week interval between the pre- and post tests; and (3) of adult students who changed their attitude toward the public schools, most became more favorably disposed toward the schools.54 Thus, Murtaugh's findings support Jackson's contention that continuing education organizations attract as par- ticipants those individuals who are already positively oriented toward them. Conversely, individuals who are negatively oriented towards institutions can be expected to avoid membership in any program offered by that insti- tution. 54Leonard Paul Murtaugh, "Participation in Adult Education Programs and Attitudes Toward Public Schools" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). 46 Etzioni's theoretical model of organizational compliance provides a potentially useful approach to analyzing the relationship of individuals' orientation toward institutions and their potential participation in programs Sponsored by such institutions. His model deals in part with the relationship between organizations and their member participants. The model is an effectiveness model in that it "defines a pattern of interrelationships among the elements of the system which makes it most effec- 55 Professional tive in the service of a given goal." continuing educators, who work within organizations and often collaborate with other organizations in providing services to growing numbers of adult learners, can appreciate the centrality of these relationship patterns to the effectiveness of their efforts. The fundamental concept around which the model is developed is that of compliance, which "refers both to a relationship in which an actor behaves in accordance with a directive supported by another actors' power, and to the orientation of the subordinated actor to the power 56 applied." Thus, a systems' effectiveness is directly related to the relative balance, or congruence, of two 55Amatai Etzioni, A Com arative Analysis of Complex Organizations (New York: The Free Press, 1961), p. 5. 56Ibid., p. 3. 47 primary elements: the power of the organization, and the orientation of member participants in the organization. In applying the compliance model to the analysis of the continuing education enterprise, it is useful to examine the application of the terms organizational power and participant orientation. Etzioni defines power as "an actor's ability to induce or influence another actor. to carry out his directives or any other norms he supports."57 Education is a process ultimately designed to effect change within individuals, and in organized forms of continuing education, the organizations' goal is to influence this change. Thus, as continuing edu-' cation organizations pursue their organizational goals, they assume a power relationship with their Clients. In most cases, participation in continuing edu- cation activities is essentially voluntary. The central task of continuing education organizations, then, is to help adults learn what they themselves have identified as important to learn. Accordingly, the power of these organizations is dependent upon the extent to which they are able to reflect the goals of their clients, and in their client-perceived ability to assist clients achieve their individual goals. 5‘7Ibid., p. 5. 48 The term participant orientation is derived from Etzioni's concept of "involvement." He explains: Organizations must continually recruit means if they are to realize their goals. One of the most important means is the positive orientation of the . participants to the organizational power. Involve- ment refers to the cathectic evaluative orientation of an actor to an object, characterized in terms of intensity and direction. The intensity of involvement ranges from high to low. The direction is either positive or nega- tive. We refer to positive involvement as commitment and to negative involvement as alienation. (The advantage of having a third term, involvement, is that it enables us to refer to the continuum in a neutral way.)58 Organizational effectiveness, then, is dependent upon the relationship of organizational power and the orientation of member participants to that power. The effectiveness of continuing education organizations is dependent upon (1) the power of the organization (itself stemming largely from the voluntary support of clients, who perceive a concurrence of individual and organizational goals, as well as utility in becoming participants) and (2) the orientation of adult learners to the organization generally. The concept of compliance, with respect to organi- zational power and participant orientation, is applicable to the investigation of why individuals determine to associate with certain continuing education organizations or institutions as opposed to others, or choose not to 581bid., p. 9. 4'9 associate with any such institution. As individuals con— sider their learning needs and search for resources and assistance to meet such needs, they call upon experiences with and impressions of the organizations and institutions available to them as possible sources of assistance. 'The decision to affiliate with any such organization or insti- tution is subject in part to the two compliance consider- ations: (l) the appropriateness of the goals of the organization (do they concur with the individual's; is the organization in the business of helping people learn what it is the individual wishes to learn), and (2) the individual's general orientation to the organization (positive or negative). Given the extent to which our culture is oriented toward education and/or schooling, it can be assumed that most individuals have necessarily developed orientations of one sort or another to many of the organizations and institutions providing continuing education services. Compulsory attendance laws have, for example, insured that nearly all adults have had personal experiences in public or private elementary and secondary schools. This, in addition to current contacts with schools through children or as tax-payers, contributes to the formulation of individual orientations toward such schools as potential resources for their continuing education. The adult public has had similar, if not equal, exposure 50 to other institutions, including churches, libraries, colleges, etc., and thus have differing orientations towards each of these as potential sources of assistance. It is assumed then that individuals have differing orien- tations towards various continuing education organizations and institutions, and hypothesized that "institutional orientation" is an important psychologically related factor contributing to decisions made by individuals as they contemplate becoming participants in programs spon- sored by various continuing education institutions. Summary A selective review of literature pertinent to this study was conducted. The review was directed at four topics: surveys that have attempted to determine the extent of participation in continuing education activi- ties, studies analyzing the characteristics of continuing education participants, studies which have attempted to discern the orientations of continuing education partici- pants toward learning, and research reports related to consideration of individuals' orientations toward con- tinuing education institutions. The following propositions were drawn from this review: 1. Several extensive surveys have identified dif- fering rates of participation in continuing 51 education. The differences are largely attributable to varying definitions of continuing education activity. Recent research efforts have included various self-directed learning endeavors along with the more traditionally recognized organized program activities in consideration of partici- pation in continuing education. The preponderance of studies analyzing partici- pants of continuing education activities has centered upon investigation of the demographic and positional characteristics of participants. Several such characteristics have repeatedly been associated with participation; most notably past educational attainment. However, little attention has been given to the relationship of the demo- graphic and positional characteristics to par- ticipation in activities other than those spon- sored and organized by various institutions. Similarly, these characteristics have not been considered along with other social or psychological background characteristics of adults, as they relate to differences in the manner of partici- pation in continuing education. The concept of learner orientation has evolved from a series of studies directed at determining why adults participate in continuing education 52 activities. Individuals' orientations toward learning, however, have not been considered as “factor ‘affecting participation patterns. Literature and research reports suggest insight might be gained by viewing continuing education program sponsoring institutions as voluntary organizations. Viewed in this respect, an addi— tional dimension to individuals' decisions to participate is identified. Individuals' orien- tations toward various institutions may affect decisions to become participants in continuing education activities sponsored by such insti— tutions. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH Introduction The primary purpose of this study was to examine the continuing education activities of adults and to determine the extent to which the nature of these activi- ties is related to certain demographic-positional and social-psychological variables. Specifically, the research was designed to answer the following questions: 1. Are adults' orientations toward learning related to any of the demographic and positional background characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? Are adults' orientations toward continuing edu- cation institutions related to any of the demo- graphic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to any of 53 54 the demographic and positional background charac- teristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? 4. Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward learning? 5. Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward continuing education insti- tutions? 6. Are individuals' orientations toward continuing education institutions related to the demographic- positional background characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? 7. To what extent are individuals' orientations toward learning and their orientations toward continuing education institutions interrelated factors? Within this chapter the organization and design of the study are discussed, including the sample, instru- mentation, testable hypotheses, and analysis of data. 55 PEOPLE For the purpose of this study, it was determined that the population to be studied should include several hundred individuals in a sample. It was decided that research activities should be limited to a specific urban area in order to assure some equality in the respondents' opportunity both to form opinions about and to participate in various continuing education activities. Accordingly, the standard metropolitan area of Jackson County Michigan was identified as the research site. Jackson County has an area of 698 square miles and a population of 143,274. The county is predominantly industrial and commercial with a farm population of 5,824. The median income of the 35,115 families living in the county is $10,721. The median level of educational attainment for persons 25 years of age and older is 12.1. Of those 25 years and older, 2.7 percent have completed less than 5 years of school, 52.2 percent have completed at least 4 years of high school, and 7.6 percent have completed 4 years of college or more.1 Because of limited time and available resources, it was necessary to limit the number of individuals studied. After discussions with committee members and the Research lU.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book, 1972 (A Statistical Abstract Supplement)iiWashington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, i973). 56 Consultation Office, it was decided that a sample popu- lation of approximately 500 be systematically selected from the directories of phone companies serving the Jackson County area. Census information indicated that 92.2 percent of the occupied housing units in the county were equipped with telephones.2 Instrumentation A mailed questionnaire was used to gather pertinent data from the sample pOpulation.3 The questionnaire was organized into three sections and contained four elements: Section I assessed (1) demographic and positional charac- teristics of respondents, and (2) the nature and extent. of respondents' continuing education activities. Section II assessed respondents' orientation toward learning, and Section III assessed respondents' orientation toward con- tinuing education institutions. The composition of each of these three sections is discussed below. Section I was designed first to identify the demographic-positional characteristics of interest to this study. -These characteristics were selected for consider- ation on the basis of their having been identified in previous research as associated to some extent with 2Ibid. 3The Questionnaire is reproduced in Appendix A. 57 participation in continuing education activities. Respondents were asked to furnish information concerning age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling, number of children and number of children still living at home. Section I then provided for respondents to indicate the nature, or mode of continuing education activities engaged in over the past year, as well as the extent of their participation, in terms of time. The nature of these activities was considered in terms of three cate- gories, or modes of learning activities. The rationale underlying this categorization was drawn from an extenSive survey of continuing education resources in Muskegon, Michigan, in which institutional involvement in continuing education was classified.4 The Muskegon survey categorized institutional involvement into two general areas: 1. School-related institutions primarily concerned with education, and 2. Other institutions with auxiliary education functions. The present study adapted these categories in order to describe general types of learning activities engaged in 4Russell J. Kleis, ed., An Area Approach to Con- tinuiog Education: Report of Study and Recommendations for a Coordinated System of Continuing Education, Edu- cation’PubliCations Services, Michigan State University, 1967. 58 by respondents. A third category was added which included self-directed learning activities, initiated independently of any institutional sponsorship. Thus, the questionnaire asked respondents to indicate the extent of participation over the past year in each of the following three types of continuing edu- cation activity: 1. Those learning activities associated with school- related institutions concerned primarily with educational activities for adults, including universities, community colleges, public school adult and community education programs, cooper-I ative extension programs and vocational technical schools. Those learning activities associated with non- school institutions sponsoring education programs that are ancillary to the primary purposes of the institution, including employers, churches, YMCA, professional or trade associations, and 'clubs or fraternities; and Those learning activities which are self—directed and conducted essentially independently from any organization or institution, including individual reading, watching of educational TV or listening to educational radio, self-directed library study, travel study programs and correspondence study. 59 Section II of the questionnaire was concerned with assessing the orientations of respondents towards learning. The seven categories of learner orientation identified by Burgess were used as the basis of this assessment: The desire to know; The desire to reach a personal goal; The desire to reach a social goal; The desire to reach a religious goal; The desire to escape; The desire to take part in an activity; 5 The desire to comply with formal requirements. In the development of the questionnaire, all of Burgess' fifty-five learning orientation statements were incorporated into Section II of the instrument at the out- set, with different instructions and a different rating. scale. Burgess had measured the reliability and discussed the validity of his instrument.6 Therefore, it was assumed that Section II of the newly developed questionnaire, because it utilized the same fifty-five statements, shared similar reliability and validity. Section III was designed to elicit from respondents their orientation toward certain types of institutions and organizations. The classification of adult education resources developed in the Muskegon Survey was adapted as a basis of comparison. Respondents were asked to consider fifteen options with respect to institutions 5Burgess, "Reason for Participation," pp. 18-25. 6Ibid., pp. 12-13. 60 they might choose to affiliate with to pursue learning interests. The fifteen options included five from each of the three categories adapted from the Muskegon Survey: 1. School-related institutions and organizations with a primary interest in the provision of educational resources for adults; 2. Nonschool—related institutions and organizations with an ancillary interest in the provision of educational resources for adults; 3. Learning activities not associated with any insti- tution and primarily self-directed. Sections II and III of the questionnaire were designed to contain a rating scale from high to low which yielded an intensity of importance score upon which certain comparisons between groups were made. This particular rating scale resembled other methods of modifying Likert Scales.7 It was suggested that a field test be conducted in order to determine whether the instrument would con- sistently gather data necessary to test the hypotheses under investigation. An initial field test was conducted in November, 1974. Fifteen residents of the Spartan 7Earl S. Babbie, Survey Research Methods (Monterey, Calif.: Wadsworth Co., 1973), pp. 253-78. 61 Village housing complex located on campus at Michigan State University were asked to participate in the initial field test. In addition to completing the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to identify any statements that were vague or otherwise difficult to understand. The initial field test identified several needed modifications in the questionnaire. A redundancy in the statements included in Section II suggested reducing the number of statements from the original fifty—five. In order to insure that the statements included in the final version of Section II were representative of the seven categories of learner orientation identified by Burgess, a panel of judges, consisting of thirteen doctoral level graduate students of continuing education, was asked to rate the fifty-five statements originally identified by Burgess, in terms of their relative appropriateness as statements representative of the seven categories. Additionally, they were asked to indicate possible adap- tations of the statements that might be more apprOpriate with respect to the sample population who would eventually be asked to respond. This process assisted the researcher in selecting thirty-five statements, five representative of each of Burgess‘ seven categories, for inclusion in the final version of the questionnaire. A final field test of the instrument was conducted in January, 1975. Twenty—five adults participating in 62 enrichment courses at Clare, Michigan, were asked to assist in this final field test. In addition to com— pleting the instrument, they were also requested to identify any remaining statements that were either vague or difficult to understand. Several statements in the instructions were re—worded in order to reduce confusion about their meaning. The revised instrument was reviewed by the Research Consultation Office and members of the researcher's graduate committee. No additional changes were recommended, and the instrument was adopted for use. The questionnaire was prepared for mailing along with an appropriate cover letter explaining the purpose of the research to potential reSpondents. A return envelope and postage were provided. The questionnaire was mailed on January 25, 1975, to the sample population of 512 individuals. For a variety of reasons, 35 question- naires were returned by the postal service without being delivered, thus, reducing the sample population to 477. On February 1, a follow—up mailing was sent to all non- respondents. On February 10, 11 and 12 an attempt was made to contact by phone all remaining nonrespondents. February 17 was established as the final cut-off date for receiving usable questionnaires. As of the cut-off date, a total of 255 questionnaires had been returned. 63 Hypotheses Hypotheses were developed in order to test data relative to the research questions proposed in Chapter I and re-stated in the Introduction to this chapter. The major hypotheses tested, stated in the null form, were: Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant differences in primary orientations toward learning among respondents grouped and compared according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling, or parental responsibility. Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant differences in dominant institutional orientation among respondents grouped and compared according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility. Hypothesis 3: Respondents grouped and compared according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility will not differ significantly in their primary modes of par- ticipation in continuing education activities. Hypothesis 4: Respondents grouped according to their primary orien- tations toward learning will not differ significantly in their primary modes of participation in continuing education activities. Hypothesis 5: Respondents grouped according to dominant institutional orientations will not differ significantly in their primary modes of participation in continuing edu- cation activities. 64 Hypothesis 6: Respondents grouped according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility will not differ signifi- cantly in their patterns of participation in con- tinuing education activities. Hypothesis 7: There will be no differences in the patterns of par- ticipation in continuing education activities of respondents grouped and compared by their orientations toward learning. Hypothesis 8: ReSpondents grouped according to their dominant orien- tations toward continuing education institutions will not be significantly different in their patterns of participation in continuing education activities. Analysis of Data The research methods used in this study were both comparative and descriptive. Respondents, classified by various criteria, were compared with reSpect to partici- pation in continuing education activities, orientation toward learning and orientation toward continuing edu- cation institutions. The extent to which respondents varied was analyzed and discussed. Data from the questionnaires were transferred onto computer data coding forms by the researcher. Cri- teria were established for classification of data necessary for later statistical analysis. Criteria for coding of demographic and positional data are listed below. 65 Age.--Respondents were classified into one of four age categories: 18-24, 25-44, 45-64, and 65 and older. Sex.--Respondents were classified as either male or female. Marital Status.-—Four classifications were estab- lished with respect to marital status: single, married, separated, and widowed. Occupation.-—The International Standard Classifi- cation of Occupations8 lists ten major Classifications of occupation. For the purposes of this study, these ten were collapsed to five: professional, Skilled, semi- skilled or nonskilled, homemaker, and retired. In instances where there was some question as to how a respondent should be classified, the International Standard Classification was referred to for guidance. Level of Income.--Five classifications of income level were established: less than $6,000, $6,000 through $11,999, $12,000 through $17,999, $18,000 through $23,999, and $24,000 or more. Level of Formal Schooling.--Five classifications of formal educational attainment were established: less 8International Standard Classification of Occu- pations, International Labour OffiEe, Geneva, Switzerland, , pp. 19. 66 than eight years, eight through eleven years, twelve years, thirteen through fifteen years, and sixteen years or more. Data from the questionnaire pertaining to reSpondents' mode of participation in continuing edu- cation activities over the past year was coded with two purposes in mind. First, statistical analysis of each respondents' full range of activities was planned, in terms of the three categories or types of activities as adapted from the Muskegon Survey. (Activities in associ- ation with either school-related educational institutions, or nonschool institutions with ancillary educational pro- grams, or activities essentially self-directed in nature.) Thus, for each respondent a score was coded representing the number of hours engaged in learning activities over the past year in each of the three categories of activities. Secondly, comparison of those respondents who had participated predominantly in any one mode of continuing education activity was desired. Thus, those respondents reporting a clear preference for participation in one of the three modes of participation were assigned as one of three primary participant types: 1. School program participant; 2. Nonschool institutional program participant; or 3. Independent learner. 67 Minimum criteria for assignment as a primary par- ticipant type consisted of one hundred hours or more par- ticipation in activities related specifically to one of the three participation categories, and at least fifty hours more participation in that category than in either of the remaining two. Section II of the questionnaire assessed respon- dents' orientation toward the learning enterprise. Of interest was respondents' differential identification with the seven categories of learner orientation (reasons for participation) identified by Burgess and adapted for this study. Respondents rated thirty-five statements (five reflective of each of the seven categories) on a five-point intensity of importance scale. Total scores for each of the seven categories of learner orientation when coded, allowing for analysis of each respondents' learner orientation profile. Additionally, respondents demonstrating a clear preference for one of the seven categories were assigned as primary learner orientation types. Those demonstrating no clear preference were assigned to a no preference category. Minimum criteria for assignment to a primary learner orientation type consisted of a score for one of the seven learner orientation categories of less than fifteen (lower scores indicated stronger identification 68 with the item; possible range of scores was 5-25 for each item), and a score for that category at least two less than any other. A similar procedure was used in coding data from Section III of the questionnaire pertaining to respondents' institutional orientation. An institutional orientation profile was coded for each respondent, consisting of scores reported for each of the three institutional orien- tation categories. Also, respondents demonstrating clearly stronger orientation to one of the categories of institutions than to others were assigned as predomi- nant institutional orientation types. Minimum criteria. for this assignment were a total score for one of the three classifications of institutions of less than forty- five (lower scores represented stronger identification with the item; possible range of 15-75 for each item) and a score for that classification at least six less than for any other. Data cards were punched by the Key Punch Division of the Michigan State University Computer Laboratory. All computer programming was suggested by the Office of Research Consultation, College of Education and run on the CDC 6500 system at the Computer Center at Michigan State University. Findings, recommendations and conclusions were drawn from the data, and interpretations were made with 69 respect to the stated purposes of this study. The sta- tistical procedures used in the data analysis included: 1. cedures Multivariate and univariate analysis of variance techniques which allowed for comparisons of scores representing patterns of participation of groups defined by various criteria, and determination of whether differences existed in the patterns of the various groups of individuals; Chi square tests for homogeneity, which allowed for comparisons of scores representing primary modes of participation, primary learning orien-I tations, and dominant institutional orientation of groups defined by various criteria, and determi- nation of whether differences existed with respect to these variables. Summary In this chapter the design, data collection pro- and plan for the analysis of data were described. The study used a free response questionnaire to gather information regarding the continuing education activities of adults residing in Jackson County, Michigan. Individual patterns and primary modes of participation in continuing education activities were examined with respect to demographic and positional background charac- teristics, learner orientation and orientation toward 70 continuing education institutions and organizations. Chi square tests for homogeneity and analyses of variance were used to determine whether groups defined by demographic- positional characteristics, primary learner orientation or dominant institutional orientation differed in patterns or primary modes of participation in continuing education activities. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Introduction A primary purpose of this investigation was to examine the continuing education activities engaged in by adults and to determine the extent to which the pattern of these activities was related to certain demographic- positional and social-psychological variables. Through response to a mailed questionnaire, 210 adults furnished information regarding their personal backgrounds, learning interests, orientations toward several continuing education sponsoring institutions and finally, the extent of their participation in several types of continuing education activity over the past year. Within this chapter the data obtained from the questionnaires are reported. The first section provides a description of the respondents, with respect to the variables of interest in the present study. The second section addresses the analysis of data in terms of deter- mination of the relationship of the variables to one another and of hypotheses tested. 71 72 Description of Respondents Demographic and Positional CfiaracterIStics Tables 1 and 2 report the frequency distribution of the 210 respondents with respect to sex and age. Men constituted approximately 60 percent of those sampled and women 40 percent. Each of the four age categories con- sidered by the present study were represented within the sample, although the majority of respondents were in the 25-44 age range. The average age of the 210 respondents was 37 years. As reported in Tables 3 and 4, nearly 70 percent of those sampled were married, and 62 percent had children currently living at home. An additional 10 percent were parents of children no longer living at home. Respondents were fairly equally represented in each of the five occupational classifications considered in the present study. These data were reported in Table 5. Similarly, each of the five income classifica- tions was represented, with over half the respondents reporting family incomes in the $6,000 to $18,000 range. This was reported in Table 6. Those sampled had completed an average of 13.0 years of formal schooling. This is comparable to the figure of 12.1 reported for Jackson County by the 1970 census. Table 7 reports the frequency distribution of 73 TABLE 1 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY AGE Age Classifications Number Percentage of Total 18—24 36 17.1 25-44 126 60. 45-64 35 16.7 65 and older 13 5.2 Total 210 100% Average Age 37.06 TABLE 2 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY SEX Sex Number Percentage of Total Male 129 61.4 Female 81 38.6 Total 210 100% 74 TABLE 3 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY MARITAL STATUS Marital Status 1 Percentage Classifications N er of Total Single 29 13.8 Married 146 69.5 Separated or Divorced 27 12.9 Widowed 8 3.8 Total 210 100% TABLE 4 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY PARENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES Parental ReSponsibility Percentage Classification Number of Total Have children presently living at home 130 61.7 Have children no longer living at home 22 10.7 Do not have children 58 27.6 Total 210 100% 75 TABLE 5 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY OCCUPATION Occupational Percentage Classification Number of Total Professional 61 30.3 Skilled 45 22.4 Semi-skilled or Nonskilled 40 19.9 Homemaker 43 21.4 Retired 12 5.8 Total 201 100% TABLE 6 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY INCOME LEVEL OF FAMILY Clasiifiggtion Number ngcggigge Below $6,000 35 16.8 $6,000 - $11,999 66 31.9 $12,000 - $17,999 55 24.8 $18,000 - $23,999 25 11.0 $24,000 or more 26 11.5 Total 207 100% 76 the respondents in the level of schooling categories considered by the present study. A notably high per- centage of those sampled (32.5%) had completed sixteen or more years of formal schooling. Thirty-four percent reported having completed less than twelve years of formal schooling. TABLE 7 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING Level of Schooling Classification Number Percentage of Total Less than 8 years 6 2.9 8—11 years 64 31.1 12 years ' 46 22.3 13—15 years 23 . 11.2 16 or more years 67 32.5 Total 206 100 Average years completed 12.96 Learning Orientation 'Respondents also provided an indication of their personal orientations toward learning, expressed in terms of the relative importance attached to each of the seven categories of learner orientation identified by Burgess. 1Burgess, "Reasons for Participation," pp. 3-29. 77 Criteria were established in order to identify those individuals who reported a clear preference for one of the seven categories of learner orientation. (These cri- teria are reported in Chapter III.) Those respondents were thus classified "primary learner orientation types." Other respondents not demonstrating any clear preference were classified as not primarily oriented to any one category of learner orientation. Classification of respondents according to learner orientation was reported in Table 8. Institutional Orientation Respondents also reported their differential orien- tations toward institutions which sponsor continuing edu- cation activities. Each respondent rated fifteen continuing education programs and activity options (five representative of each of the three major institutional orientation cate- gories: school-related institutions, nonschool insti- tutions, no institutions) in terms of each option's per- ceived appropriateness as a "base" for pursuit of learning interests. As with orientations toward learning, criteria were established to identify and classify respondents reporting clearly stronger orientations toward any one of the three major categories of institutions. (These cri- teria were reported in Chapter III.) About half (48%) of RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY PRIMARY ORIENTATION TOWARD LEARNING Primary Learning 78 TABLE 8 Orientation Number Pgicggtgge Classifications The Desire to Know 33 16.4 The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal 25 12.4 The Desire to Reach a Social Goal 9 4.5 The Desire to Reach a Religious Goal 13 6.5 The Desire to Take Part In An Activity 13 6.5 The Desire to Escape 11 5.8 The Desire to Comply with Some Formal Requirement 5 2.5 Not Predominantly Oriented to any one Classification 92 45.8 Total 201 100% 79 the respondents showed a strong orientation toward one of the three categories and were thus classified as "dominant institutional orientation types." If no clearly dominant orientation was demonstrated, respondents were classified as not predominantly oriented toward any one class of institution. The distribution of respondents according to institutional orientation was reported in Table 9. Participation in Continuing Educatibn Of central interest was the nature and extent of partiCipation in continuing education activities reported by respondents. It was intended that participation be considered in the context of a broad range of educational activities, inclusive of those activities undertaken by adults in association with organized programs as well as self-directed, essentially independent efforts. To provide a basis for analyzing the continuing education activities of respondents in this context, continuing education activities were classified into three categories, or modes of participation: 1. Those learning activities associated with school- related institutions concerned primarily with educational activities, including universities, community colleges, public school adult and community education programs, cooperative extension programs and vocational technical school programs; 80 TABLE 9 RESPONDENTS CLASSIFIED BY DOMINANT INSTITUTIONAL ORIENTATION ——_‘_ Institutional Orientation Number Classifications Percentage of Total Oriented Predominantly Toward School-Related Institutions 48 29.6 Oriented Predominantly Toward Nonschool Related Institutions 9 5.6 Oriented Predominantly Toward Independent Activity Not Associated With Any Institution 21 12.9 Not Predominantly Oriented Toward Any One Classifi- cation of Institution 84 51.9 Total 162 100% 81 2. Those learning activities associated with non- school institutions sponsoring education programs and activities that are ancillary to the primary purposes of the institution, including employers, churches, YMCA, professional or trade associations, and clubs or fraternities; and 3. Those learning activities which are self-directed and conducted essentially independently from any organization or institution, including individual reading, watching educational television or listening to educational radio, self-directed library study, travel study programs and cor- respondence study. Respondents reported the extent of their partici- pation over the past year in each of the three major modes of continuing education activity. It was notable that all 210 respondents reported at least some time Spent engaged in learning activities associated with one or more of the major mode categories. This finding was in agreement with Tough's assertion that his studies determined an 2 "astounding participation rate of 98%." Furthermore, as reported in Table 10, most respondents (70%) reported 2Allen Tough, The Adults Learning Projects (Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in EdfiCation, 1971), p. 17. 82 TABLE 10 FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN THE THREE MAJOR MODES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITY AS REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN RESPONDENTS, 1974 Mode of Continuing Number of Percentage Education Activity Participants of Total Participants in School- Related Programs and Non- school Institutional Pro- grams and Independent Learning Activities (All three modes) 147 70% Participants in School-Related Programs and Nonschool Insti- tutional Programs 34 16% Participants in Nonschool Insti- tutional Programs and Indepen- dent Learning Activities 15 7% Participants in School-Related Programs and Independent Learning Activities 1 .5% Participants in School-Related Programs Only 7 3% Participants in Nonschool Institutional Programs Only 6 2.5% Participants in Independent Learning Activities Only 0 0 Total 210 100% 83 at least some participation in all three modes. A sub- stantially smaller percentage (16%) reported participating in either of the institutionally related modes. Very few reSpondents reported participation only in a single mode. The reported participation of respondents would seem to indicate that most peOple participate to some extent in one form or another of continuing education activities, and that no single form (or mode as defined in the present study) is preferred to the exclusion of others. In order to further describe the relative incidence of the three major modes of continuing education considered in this study, it was useful to compare the number of instances of participation reported for each mode. Instance here means a report of participation, of varying extent, in any of the five program or activity areas representative of each major mode category. This comparison, reported in Table 11, revealed that more instances of participation occurred in the mode of independent study than in either of the institutionally related modes. This finding was in agreement with Tough's finding that "two thirds of all learning projects were planned by the learner himself." The frequency and extent of participation in the fifteen specific program and activity areas (five represen- tatives of each major mode) was of interest, as it reflected on the relative “popularity" of more specific forms of continuing education. A ranking of the fifteen program 84 and activity areas, according to the number of respondents reporting some participation over the past year in each respective area was reported in Table 12. This ranking illustrated that a wide disparity existed among the fifteen areas in terms of the number of individuals utilizing them for the pursuit of learning interests. For example, while over 60 percent engaged in individual reading, only 3 per- cent reported activities associated with the Cooperative Extension Service. TABLE 11 PARTICIPATION IN MAJOR MODES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION, BY INSTANCES AND BY HOURS, JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN,‘ 1974 General Mode Instances of Mean Number Percentage of of Reported of Hours Respondents Participation Participation Reported Involved School-Related Institutional Participation 154 129.21 56 Nonschool Institutional Participation 212 174.17 66 Independent Study 260 152.44 69 A ranking of the fifteen program and activity areas according to the average amount of time Spent by participants in each during the year also revealed some striking differences. As reported in Table 13, partici- pants of "on-the-job training" programs averaged over 85 TABLE 12 FREQUENCY RANKING OF PROGRAM AND ACTIVITY AREAS BY NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS AS REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN RESPONDENTS, 1974 Program or Number Percentage Activity of of Area Participants Total Individual Reading 127 60.4 On-the-Job Training 118 56.1 Public School Adult or Community Education Programs 75 35.7 Self-directed Library Study 45 25.7 Educational TV or Radio 45 21.4 University or Four-Year College 32 15.2 Professional or Trade Association 30 14.2 Church or Synagogue Education Program 27 12.8 Community College 25 11.9 Club, Fraternity or Sorority 25 11.9 Correspondence Study 25 11.9 Travel-Study Program 18 8.5 Business, Vocational or Technical School 15 7.1 YMCA, YWCA or Similar Agency 12 5.7 Cooperative Extension Service 7 3.3 Total Number of Respondents - 210 86 TABLE 13 FREQUENCY RANKING OF PROGRAM AND ACTIVITY AREAS BY AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS OF PARTICIPATION REPORTED BY JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN, RESPONDENTS, 1974 N ler of Average Number Program or Partic- of Hours Activity Area 1 ants Participation p Per Year On-the-Job Training 118 547.36 Individual Reading 127 283.77 Educational T.V. and Radio 45 259.40 Business, Vocational or Technical School 15 190.67 University or Four ‘ Year College 32 170.25 Community College 25 161.52 Correspondence Study 25 115.76 Church or Synagogue Education Program 27 114.37 Public School Adult Education or Community Education Program 75 113.45 Professional or Trade Association 30 79.80 Self—Directed Library Study 45 76.62 Club, Fraternity or Sorority 25 67.32 YMCA, YWCA or Similar Agency 12 62.00 Travel Study Programs 18 28.67 Cooperative Extension Program 7 18.14 Overall average number of hours of participation = 42 87 547 hours of participation time, while COOperative extension program participants average only 18 hours of participation time. Criteria were established to identify those respondents who demonstrated clear preferences for par- ticipation in one of the three major categories of continu- ing education. (These criteria were reported in Chapter III.) Respondents were thus classified as either: 1. Participants primarily in school-related programs; 2. Participants primarily in nonschool institutional programs; 3. Participants primarily in independent learning activities; or 4. Participants, but not primarily in any one of the major mode categories. The distribution of respondents among these classifications is reported in Table 14. Analysis of the Data and Tests of the Hypotheses The primary purpose of this study was to examine the continuing education activities of adults and to determine the extent to which these activities were related to certain demographic-positional and social- psychological variables. Specifically, participation in 88 continuing education activities was considered in relation to the demographic—positional variables of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling and parental responsibility, and the social-psychological variables of orientation toward learning and orientation toward continuing education institutions. The study further sought to determine the relationship of the demographic- positional and social-psychological variables. TABLE 14 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PRIMARY MODE OF PARTICIPATION IN CONTINUING EDUCATION ACTIVITIES, JACKSON COUNTY, MICHIGAN 1974 Modes of Participation Number Percentage of Total School-Related Programs 18 8.6 Nonschool Programs 48 22.9 Independent Learning 56 26.7 Others (No Predominant Mode of Participation) 78 37.1 Total 210 100 The following questions served as the basis of the investigation: 1. Are the patterns of adults' participation in continuing education activities related to any of the demographic-positional characteristics 89 of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsi- bility? 2. Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward learning? 3. Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to their orientations toward continuing education insti— tutions? 4. Are adults' orientations toward learning signifi- cantly related to any of the demographic-positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occu- pation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? 5. Are adults' orientations toward continuing edu- cation institutions significantly related to any of the demographic-positional background charac- .teristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation income, level of formal schooling, or parental responsibility? To answer these questions, data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed in three phases. Attention was first focused upon respondents' orientations toward 90 learning. Of interest was the relationship between reSpondents' orientations toward learning and the several demographic and positional characteristics considered by this study. The second phase of the analysis was concerned with .respondents' orientations toward continuing education .institutions. Analysis was conducted to determine the (extent to which respondents' institutional orientation Twas related to the demographic and positional character- istics. The final phase of the analysis addressed the major Chancern of the study: respondents' participation in con- ‘tinuing education activities. Respondents' primary modes (of participation as well as their overall patterns of participation were analyzed. Of interest was the relation- shipIof respondents' participation to their demographic and positional characteristics, their orientations toward learning and their orientations toward continuing edu- cation institutions. {octors Related to Respondents' Qpientation Toward Learfiing In order to examine the relationship of learning orientation to the various demographic and positional characteristics, the question was posed: Do respondents 04‘- differing ages, sex, marital status, etc. have differing orientations toward learning? To answer this question, 91 respondents earlier identified as primary learning orien- tation types (respondents primarily oriented to one of the seven categories of learner orientation) were grouped with respect to each of the demographic and positional Characteristics and compared. Utilizing the chi square test for homogeneity, the following null hypothesis was tested: Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant differences in primary orientations toward learning among respondents grouped and compared according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal school- ing, or parental responsibility. The results of the chi square tests as applied to null Hypothesis 1 are summarized in Table 15. The tests determined that respondents grouped according to sex, occupation and income did demonstrate differences in their primary orientations toward learning which were statistically significant at the .05 level. Thus, at this level of significance, null Hypothesis 1 was only partly rejected. Respondents grouped according to age did demon- strate differences in learning orientation significant at the .10 level, and when grouped according to marital status or parental responsibility at the .25 level, suggesting an apparent but statistically less significant relation- ship between learning orientation and these characteristics. 92 .Hm>mH mo. um mocmoflmwcmwm mmuocmo k. mm. mm mmm.mm mcflaoonom Hmfiuom mo Hm>mq mm. va mmn.na wuwaan Ifimcommmm Hmucmumm mm. Hm mvm.wm msumum Hmuwnmz 0H. Hm mmm.mm mad mo. 5 «mom.wa xwm Ho. mm *mao.am coaummsooo moo. mm «n.5m mEoocH msa%MWMMMdmzu Eoommum mumswm H20 moaumaumuomumsu . mo mmwummo pmumasoamu . . um ucmoflMHcmHm mUHBmHmmBU¢mfluoa am an puma mxma 0» muammn mm. mm.v 5 mm. vo.m o H000 msowmfiamm m nommm on muwmmo mo. vv.m m mo. mm.m m Hmoo HMfloom m nommm ou whammo mm.a mm.m m Hm. mv.ma ma H000 accomumm m nommm ou mufimmo vm. om.ma oa mm. q.om mm sosx 0» muwmmo x Uwuomm um>nmm x @muomm Um>umm m Ixm Ino m Ixm loo mcfichmA cnm3oa nowumuswfluo humaflum smfioz so: xmm Mm ommsomo mazmozommmm mo monefiazmHmo Uszmmmq MmHHumaHum uoz mm. MN. o Ho. NH.H H 0. mm. H no.H no.H o mN.H mm.H m ucoEoHHsvom Hmauom umoz ou muHmma me. me. o ~v.v mo.~ m mm. mn.H m mm.H mm.H o HN.H om.~ H mmmomm 0» ouHmoa vm. mm. H mo.v mm.~ o oo. mm.~ m 50. mm.~ m Hm.m Hm.m o muH>Huud so GH uuum oxma ou ouHmoa 5H.m Hm. N Hv. Hm.~ v nm.~ hm.~ o vm. mn.~ v Hm. MH.v m H000 msonHHom m nomom o» ouHmon mv. me. o mo.~ No.~ o no. mh.H N om. mm.H m we. om.~ v Hmou HMHuom a gamma ou ouHmoo hH.H hH.H o om.m oo.m o mh.H mm.v N oo.m vm.m HH no.m vm.n NH Hmoo Hmsomumm o nomom ou muHuoo vH. mv.H H vm. vm.m m «H. VH.w 5 mm. mw.m m o. mm.m 0H Bonn ou ouHmoa x umuomm um>umm x vmuoom ©m>umm x pouomm pm>umm x vmuumm vo>umm x pmuoom vm>umm N Ixm the N nxm :90 N Ixm Ino m Ixm Ino N axm nno GOHuauGOHuo vmuHuoa muoxmemeox vaHmeaHfimm a Isoz pwHHme Haconmomoum mchunoq mhuaHum mmdouo HmsoHuadsooo UZHZM‘HH Q¢<308 mZOHHHu04 cm sH uumm mxma 0» ouHuoo Hm.H Hm.H o «H. mv.H H mH.H mm.m 0 No. 0N.m m o. mm.H N Hmou mDOHmHHmm m nummm ou oHHmoo mo.m MH.H m vv., mo.H N vN.H mm.N H MH. vv.N m mv.H mv.H o Hmou HMHoom a comma ou oHHmoo Ho. vH.m n vN.m No.m 0 HH. «0.0 m vH.H m>.m v NN.N No.0 H Hmoo Husomuom m nummm ou oHHmoo hm.H mH.v n MN.N mm.m H vo. H0.0H 0H 0. mm.0 a mo. Hm.m 0 song on ouHuoo x umuowm oo>umm x vmuomm vo>uom x omuomm 0m>uwm x owuomm om>nwm x umuoom uo>uom N Ixm :20 N Ixm :30 N Ixm Ino N Ixm too N Ixm Ino whoa HO 000.0Nw mmm.m~wlooo.mHm mam.melooo.NHm mmm.HHWI000.0w 000.0» 30Hmm mmsouo oEoocH UZHZMdMA QMdSOB mZOHfidazmHMO wmdszm ZO ommdmzoo DZd MZOUZH OB UZHQMOUU< Dmmbomw mfizmazommmm ho ZOHBDmHmamHQ wuzmbommm 0H mqmdfi 97 or skilled were much more oriented toward "reaching a personal goal" than were reSpondents of the other occu— pational classifications. Differences were also noted with respect to reSpondents classified as homemakers and as retired. Homemakers appeared to be strongly oriented toward "the Desire to Take Part in an Activity," and to "The Desire to Escape Daily Routine." Retired respondents were more strongly oriented toward "The Desire to Reach a Religious Goal" than were others. Differences in learning orientation among respon- dents grouped and compared according to family income were reported in Table 18. The most striking differences noted in this comparison occurred among reSpondents of families earning less than $6,000. This group appeared to be strongly oriented toward "The Desire to Escape Daily Routine," and to a lesser but still notable degree, towards "The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal." Respondents from the higher income classifications demonstrated notable, if not entirely consistent, dif- ferences in their orientations toward learning. Those reporting family incomes of $18,000 to $23,999 appeared strongly oriented toward "The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal." Respondents reporting family incomes of $24,000 or more, however, appeared less oriented toward "personal goals" and more oriented toward "The Desire to Know,“ 98 "The Desire to Reach a Social Goal" and "The Desire to Comply with Some Formal Regulation." Factors Related to Respondents' Institutional OrientatiOn The second phase of the analysis of data focused upon respondents' orientation toward continuing education institutions. Specifically, of interest, was the extent to which institutional orientations were related to the demographic and positional characteristics. The question was posed: Are individuals of differing ages, sex, marital status, etc. dominantly oriented toward differing types of continuing education institutions? To answer this question, respondents who had earlier been identified as dominantly oriented toward one of the three institutional classifications (school- related institutions, nonschool institutions, or not oriented toward any institution) were grouped according to each of the demographic and positional characteristics and compared. The chi square test for homogeneity was used to test the following null hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant differences in dominant institutional orientation among respondents grouped and compared according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility. 99 The results of the chi square tests as related to null Hypothesis 2 are summarized in Table 19. The tests determined that only when respondents were grouped and compared according to parental responsibility were dif- ferences in dominant orientations toward continuing edu- cation institutions statistically significant at the .05 level of probability. Thus only that part of null Hypothe- sis 2 dealing with parental responsibility was rejected. A relationship of lesser significance (a = .25) was demonstrated between institutional orientation and the characteristics of age, sex and occupation. Other charac- teristics considered, including marital status, income - and level of formal schooling apparently had little relationship to respondents' institutional orientation. The comparison of differences in dominant insti- tutional orientation among respondents grouped according to parental responsibility is reported in more detail in Table 20. The most notable differences occurred among respondents who were not parents. This group appeared oriented more toward nonschool-related institutions than toward school-related institutions. However, the high chi square value calculated for this group with respect to the third institutional classification (oriented toward inde- pendent activities) suggested that members of this group are not strongly oriented toward either school—related or nonschool-related institutions. 100 .Hm>mH mo. um mocmoHMHcmHm monocmo .1 ms. NH mmo.m maHHoozom Hmfinom mo Hm>oH mm. NH HNH.0H mEoosH mN. NH mNH.wH coHummsooo mN. m mvo.m xmm mm. m mmm.~H mma m. m vvm.m msumum HmuHumz mo. 0 OVH.mH muHHHQ * IHmcommwm Hmucoumm mcdww>mw do Eoommum mnmsqm H50 moapmaumuomum . HH m an MC mmmumwo UmDMHsono . . :0 pm unmoHMHcmHm mUHBmHmMBU¢m¢mU HdZOHBHmom DZd UHmmdeOZMQ OB UZHQmouud Qmm¢m200 02¢ Dmmbomw mBZMDZOQmmm QZOE¢ mZOHBDEHBmZH ZOHBdUDQm UZHDZHBZOU dezoa ZOHBdBZmHmO ZH mmuzmmmmmHQ mom MBHWmeozom ho mBmMB mmflbom HmU WEB m0 NfidZZDm mH MHmmm cmuuaflnu . HH< nqu muamumm Ho. pm.~m mm mm.H mo.MH m -.H Hw.m m m~.H mm.mm mm 0&0: an mcH>HA HHHum cmuuHHnu nqu nucmumm x couomm om>uom x Umuood cm>nmm x Umuomm cm>umm x Gounod ©m>umm N Ixm Ino N Ixm Ino N Ixm Ino N Ixm Ino anommumo HmQOHuau huAHanamcommmm IHumsH mHoch and mmHuH>Hu04 mcoHusuHumcH mGOHusuHumcH .Hmummnmm oum3oa cmucmHuo acmcsmdmosH cmumHmmlHoocomcoz pouMHmmuHoozom hHucwcHEoo uoz COfifimflcmfiHO HQCOHUDHHumCH ZOHaflazmHmO HdZOHBDBHBmZH BZmH mo. um mocmonwcmHm mwuocmo fl mu. m mn.m msumum HMUHumz om. m ov.e mm< mN. v om.> thHHn IHmcommmm Hmucmumm mN. m Hm.NH mEoocH mN. N mm.N xmm OH. m mm.sH mcHHoonom HmEnom mo Hm>mq mo. m «mm.oH aOHummsooo Hm>mH a Eocmmum mumsqm H00 mcHonHom map um unmoHMHsmHm mo mmmummo cmumHsonu moHumHHmuomumno mUHBmHmmBUumm x 0muomm cm>umm x umuomm 0m>umm N Ixm :00 N Ixm :30 N Ixm Ino mchHmmH mamumonm mEmnmoum msoHumoHMHmmMHu usmwsmmmwcH UmuMHmmlHoocomsoz UmDMHmmIHoonom HmsoHpmmsooo coHummHoHuHmm mo mmwoz ZOHB¢ADUUO Wm Qmmbomw mfizmazommmm m0 ZOHBdeUHfimfim m0 meOE Mm<2Hmm m0 ZOHBDmHMBmHD MUZMDOMMM NN mqmflfi 106 participation in continuing education activities associated with nonschool institutions and, to a lesser degree, in independent learning activities. Their participation in continuing education activities associated with school- related institutions was less than expected. A statistically less significant but seemingly important relationship was determined to exist between respondents' primary modes of participation and their levels of formal schooling. Also, sex, income and parental responsibility showed a slight relationship to primary mode of participation. As a consequence of the results of the chi square test, that portion of null Hypothesis 3 stating that there will be no differences in the primary modes of participation in continuing education activities of respondents grouped and compared with respect to age, sex, marital status, income, level of formal schooling and parental responsi- bilities was not rejected when held to the 95 percent level of confidence. That portion stating there would be no differences in the primary modes of participation in con- tinuing education activities of respondents grouped and compared with respect to occupation was rejected. Respondents' primary modes of participation were then investigated as related to orientations toward learn- ing. The null hypothesis tested was: 107 Hypothesis 4: Respondents grouped according to their primary orien- tations toward learning will not differ significantly in their primary modes of participation in continuing education activities. Using the chi square test for homogeneity, respon- dents were grouped according to primary learning orien- tation and compared. A chi square value of 17.183 (with 14 degrees of freedom) was obtained which was significant at the .25 level. Because this exceeded the .05 level, null Hypothesis 4 was not rejected. Although the results of this test were not suf- ficient to be statistically significant, it was of interest to note the primary mode of participation of those respon- dents primarily oriented toward "The Desire to Know." As reported in Table 23, this group tended to prefer school-related institutionally sponsored activities and independent learning activities over nonschool institu- tionally sponsored activities. This contrasted with the group primarily oriented toward "The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal," which tended toward nonschool institu- tionally sponsored activities over the other two major modes of continuing education activity. Table 24 illustrates the differing primary modes of participation among reSpondents classified by level of formal schooling. Respondents who had completed fewer years of formal schooling appeared to prefer the 108 mo. u A «H u .m.o mmH.hH n «X umumHsono 0N. «N.mN mN N0. hm.mN .om mH. 0H.m N Hmou mHmsHm and pumsoa wmucmHHo MHHHmfiHnm uoz 0N.H 0N.H 0 mm. mm.H N mm. an. H usmEmHstmm Hms luom now: on muHmmo Ho. oH.N N No. NN.N N 0H. 50. H mmmomm 0» mHHmmo HH.H vm.N m mv.H HH.m H 00. vm. H NuH>Hp04 cm cH #Hmm oxma ou muHmmo as. em.m m mo. mm.m m om.H mo.H o Hmow muonHHmm m nommm ou ouHmmo mo. Nm.N m vo. nm.N m Hm. Hm. 0 H000 HMHoom m nommm ou muHmmo HH.H hv.m m om.H mn.m m Nm. mn.H H Hmow Hmsomumm m comma ou mHHmmo mm. 0H.0H NH wo.N hm.0H m mm.N v~.m w 302M on muHmmo x Umuomm 0m>umm x wouowm vw>umm x Gounod vmbnmm N Ian :00 N Ixm :00 N Ixm Ino moHuH>Huo< mMHuH>Hu04 wouomcomm mmHuH>Huod msHaummH 0Hm3os mchummq unopcmmmch HmsoHunuHumcH GmDMHmmIHoonom GOHumucmHHo mumeHum Hoonomcoz GOHummHOHuumm mo moo: mnmeHum UZHZMdMH QMdSOB ZOHBdBZmHMO NMdSHmm Mm QmmDOMU mBZmDZOmmmm ho ZOHBfimHUHBmflm ho mmaoz NM¢ZHmm ho ZOHBDmHMBmHQ NUZHDOHMW MN mqmdfi 109 OH. u a m u .m.a mmm.sH u x vmumHnono N mm. mn.mH NH um.H Hm.0N NN mm.H mv.m m mam?H whoa Ho 0H UmumHmfiou om. mm.m H e~.H o~.m m we. ~m.H H mumms mHumH omanmaou Hm.H No.MH mH om.m mp.MH b He. 0N.v m mummm NH cmumHmEou oo. HH.mH mH Hm. vm.mH «H mm. mm.v a mamas HHum emuonsoo mo. 0N.H H mo. mm.H H vm. Hv. H whom» m can» mmmH cmumHmEou x Gounod 0m>umm x povomm 0m>umm x wouomm 00>Hmm N Ixm :00 N nxm :00 N Ixm Ino anuH>Huo¢ mGOHuauHumsH mGOHusuHumsH mcHsummH ucmpsmmmcsH Hoonomcoz pmumHmmlHoonom msHHoonom Hmshom mo Hm>mq GOHummHOHuumm no 0002 NHMEHHm UZHHOOflUm Hflzmom ho HH>MH Hm ammoomw mBZMQZOmmmm m0 ZOHBdAHUHBMdm ho meOS MMflEHmm m0 ZOHBDMHmBmHQ MUZNDOMMW VN mandfi 110 school-related institutional mode of continuing education activity, while those with more years of formal schooling demonstrated a preference for the nonschool institutional mode. This relationship between level of formal schooling and type of institutional participation was most notable among respondents who had completed sixteen or more years of formal schooling. Comparison of educational backgrounds of respondents who participated primarily in independent learning activi- ties was less revealing. Except for a greater than expected number of respondents who had completed twelve years of formal schooling, independent learners appeared to be proportionately represented by each level of schooling group. Respondents' primary modes of participation in continuing education were considered as related to dominant orientations toward continuing education institutions. The fifth null hypothesis tested was: Hypothesis 5: Respondents grouped according to dominant institutional orientations will not differ significantly in their primary modes of participation in continuing edu- cation activities. Using the chi square test for homogeneity, respon- dents were grouped according to dominant institutional orientation and compared with respect to their primary lll modes of participation. The results of this test were reported in Table 25. A chi square value of 12.68 (with 6 degrees of freedom) was obtained, which was significant at the .05 level. Therefore, the fifth null hypothesis was rejected. Table 25 illustrates that respondents dominantly oriented toward neither school—related nor nonschool institutions accounted for much of the statistical dif- ference revealed by the test. This group participated more than theoretically expected, but as might logically be expected, in independent learning activities. Their participation in learning activities associated with non- school institutions was markedly less than theoretically expected. Respondents dominantly oriented toward nonschool institutions also accounted for much of the statistically identified differences in primary modes of participation. As might be expected, they reported participating more than theoretically expected in learning activities associ- ated with nonschool institutions. .Following the initial analysis of participation in continuing education activities, considered in the context of respondents' primary modes of participation, the focus of the study centered upon all participation reported by all respondents. Specifically, of interest were the patterns of participation as evidenced by the extent of 112 mo. u a m u .m.o mm.~H u «x omumHsono o. Nm.mH mH mo. mm.MN mN we. mw.m v m>on¢ cmHmHmmmHo no: muonuo mm.N mm.m 0H mm.N mm.h m mo. 0N.H N annum HMGOHusuHumsHsoz 0m.H mm.H o mm.N mv.N m mm. mm. o AcouMHmH Hoonomsosv mGOHusuHumcH Hmnuo v. mm.mH HH Ho. em.mH 5H H H o msmumoum HMGOHusuHumsH pmuMHmmIHoosom x Umuomm 0m>umm x pounce pm>nmm x pwuomm vm>nmm N Ixm :30 N Ixm :00 N Ixm Ino mchummH mamumoum mamumoum MMMHMMGMHMW uswwcmmmpsH woumHmmlHoosomcoz pmHMHmmlHoonom H umwswswo H soHummHoHuHmm mo mmvoz ZOHBdBZMHmO HdZOHBDBHBmZH BZdZHZOQ Mm DmmDQMU mBZMDZOmmmm m0 ZOHEdQHUHBMém m0 meOS Nm<2Hmm m0 ZOHBDmHMBmHQ MUZMDOMMh mm WHm4B 113 participation reported by respondents in each of the three major categories, or modes, of continuing education activity. Analysis was undertaken to determine the relationship of respondents' patterns of participation in continuing education activities to their demographic- positional characteristics, their orientations toward learning, and their orientations toward continuing edu- cation institutions. Several statistical procedures were used in the investigation of these relationships. The basic approach consisted of grouping respondents by various criteria and then testing for statistically significant differences' in patterns of participation between the groups. The initial tests were conducted by applying multivariate analysis of variance techniques, and thus determining if differences in patterns of participation among respondents grouped according to each of the variables of interest were statistically significant. This procedure identified those variables apparently most directly related to differences in respondents' patterns of participation, and consequently warranting further "post hoc" analysis. Once the variables related to differences in patterns of participation were identified, the nature of the differences within the patterns of participation was investigated by using univariate analysis of variance 114 techniques. This procedure allowed for examining separ- ately each of the three elements which collectively had constituted participation patterns (participation in school-related program activities, participation in non- school institution program activities, and participation in independent learning activities). If respondents, grouped according to any of the variables considered in the present study demonstrated statistically signifi- cant differences in their overall patterns of partici- pation (as determined through multivariate analysis of variance), univariate analysis of variance was employed to determine if differences were statistically significant in any of the three pattern elements considered individu- ally. Use of multivariate and univariate analysis of variance involves the following assumptions: 1. Observations are drawn from normally distributed populations; 2. Observations represent random samples of popu- ' lations; 3. Variances of populations are equal; 4. Numerator and denominator of the F-Ratio are independent.3 3Roger Kirk, Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences (Belmont, Calif.: Brooks7Cole Publishing Co., 1968), p. 43. ~115 The data obtained from the questionnaires regard- ing respondents' patterns of participation in continuing education activities essentially met these assumptions. However, because of the wide variance in the number of hours of participation reported in each of the three major modes of participation, it was suggested by the Office of Research Consultation that data be subjected to logarithmic transformation. A transformation is "any systematic alteration in a set of scores whereby certain character— istics of the set are changed and other characteristics remain unchanged."4 The logarithmic transformation was selected because means and standard deviations of the data tended to be proportional.5 This procedure strengthened the power of the analysis of variance statistical tests, while not fundamentally altering the data used in the tests. The sixth null hypothesis tested was: Hypothesis 6: Respondents grouped according to age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal school- ing or parental responsibility will not differ sig- nificantly in their patterns of participation in continuing education activities. Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were performed to determine the significance of 4 5 Ibid., p. 63. Ibid., p. 65. 116 differences in patterns of participation of respondents grouped and compared by the several demographic and positional characteristics. The results of this series of analyses are summarized in Table 26 and discussed in further detail below. The multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated that respondents grouped and compared according to the demographic and positional characteristics of age, occu- pation and level of formal schooling differed signifi- cantly (p < .05) in their patterns of participation in continuing education activities. Thus, that portion of null Hypothesis 6 pertaining to those variables was rejected. The portion of null Hypothesis 6 pertaining to sex, marital status, income and parental reSponsibility was not rejected. Further analysis of differences in patterns of participation of respondents grouped by age, occupation and level of formal schooling was pursued with post hoc analysis techniques. Attention was first focused on the age variable. Of interest was the identification of where, within the patterns of participation of respondents grouped by age, differences in participation were occurring. Specifically, the significance of differences among respondents grouped by age in each of the three modes of participation, considered individually, was examined. 117 TABLE 26 SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES OF VARIANCE IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY DEMOGRAPHIC AND POSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS ___.__~ _....._.___—__—__. Degrees of Characteristic F-Ratio Freedom P Age 2.3660 9 and 496 .0127* Sex 1.9284 3 and 204 .1262 Marital Status .6834 9 and 496 .7243 Occupation 3.5668 12 and 496 .0001* Income 1.0520 12 and 529 .3993 Level of Formal * Schooling 2.2955 12 and 526 .0075 Parental Responsibility .7378 6 and 408 .6195 * Denotes significance at .05 level. 118 This was accomplished through use of univariate analysis of variance techniques testing for differences significant at the .016 level. Adopting this reduced alpha level to evaluate univariate analysis of variance results following multivariate tests is often referred to as "testing at a guarded F." The results of the univariate analysis tests as applied to the age variable are reported in Table 27. Statistically significant differences were found in par- ticipation associated with nonschool programs among respondents grouped according to age. Differences were not statistically significant in the participation associated with school-related programs or with indepen- dent learning activities when respondents were grouped by age and compared. The question then arose as to how the age groups actually compared to one another with reSpect to their participation in nonschool-related program sponsored continuing education activities. As reported in Table 28, a comparison of the number of hours participation for each age group in nonschool institutional activities indicated that the group comprised of respondents sixty— five years of age or more appeared to participate sub- stantially less than did the other three age groups. Attention was then focused on differences earlier determined to exist in the patterns of participation 119 TABLE 27 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY AGE Multivariate D.F. = 9 and 496 P < .0127 F-Ratio = 2.3660 Univariate . Hypothesis Univariate Variable Mean Square F P < Participation in School-Related Programs 12.1155 2.2714 .084 Participation in Nonschool Insti- . tutional Programs 27.7602 3.5594 .0153 Participation in Independent Learning 5.2997 .7346 .5325 D.F. for Hypothesis = l D.F. for Error = 266 TABLE 28 RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY AGE WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICIPATION IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH NONSCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS _f Age Group N (Hours of giigicipation) 25-44 126 384.6 18-24 36 379.2 45-64 35 303.3 65 and over 13 184.8 120 among respondents grouped by occupation. Again, of interest was the identification of where, within the patterns of participation, differences occurred. Uni- variate analysis of variance was performed, testing for significance at the .016 level for differences of par- ticipation within each of the three mode categories of participation of respondents grouped by occupation. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 29. The univariate analysis of variance of partici- pation within each of the three modes disclosed that respondents grouped by occupation differed significantly (p < .016) in their participation in nonschool institu- tional learning activities. Differences were not sig- nificant at this level in either the school—related institutional or independent study mode categories. The several occupational groups were ranked according to the mean number of hours of participation in nonschool institution-sponsored continuing education activities. This ranking, reported in Table 30, suggests that professionals participated substantially more than all other groups in this mode of continuing education activity; that skilled, semi-skilled and nonskilled, and homemakers participated about the same number of hours, and that retired adults participated markedly less than any of the other groups considered. .u u: III , 121 TABLE 29 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY OCCUPATION Multivariate D.F. = 12 and 513 P < .0001 F-Ratio = 3.5668 Univariate Variable Hypothe51s Univariate P < Mean Square F Participation in School-Related Programs 4.3217 .8166 .5160 Participation in Nonschool Insti- tutional Programs 57.2971 8.1294 .0001 Participation in Independent Learning 9.2867 1.3237 .2625 D.F. for Hypothesis = 1 D.F. for Error = 196 TABLE 30 RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY OCCUPATION WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICIPATION IN LEARNING ACTIV- ITIES ASSOCIATED WITH NONSCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS Occupational N Mean Hours. Group of PartiCipation Professional 51 578.4 Semi-Skilled or Nonskilled 40 328.0 Skilled 45 288.1 Homemaker 43 241.2 Retired 12 69.0 122 The final demographic-positional variable investi- gated with post hoc techniques was level of formal school- ing. Univariate analysis of variance was performed in order to determine the statistical significance of dif- ferences in participation of respondents classified by level of formal schooling within each of the three par- ticipation mode categories. The results of this analysis were reported in Table 31. The univariate analysis of variance determined that respondents grouped by level of formal schooling differed significantly (.016 level) in their participation in nonschool institutional learning activities. Dif-' ferences were not significant at this level for either school-related or independent study. However, the .03 level of significance of differences in the school-related institutional mode indicated differences in this mode warranted further attention. Respondents, grouped according to level of formal schooling, were compared with respect to the extent of their participation in the school-related institutional mode and nonschool institutional mode of activity. As reported in Table 32, ranking of the level of formal schooling groups according to the mean number hours of participation in the nonschool institutional mode depicts an almost direct relationship between years of schooling completed and the extent of participation in this mode. 123 TABLE 31 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING Multivariate D.F. = 12 and 526 P < = .0075 F-Ratio = 2.2955 Univariate . Hypothesis Univariate Variable Mean Square F P < Participation in School-Related Programs 14.4059 2.7225 .0307 Participation in Nonschool Insti- tutional Programs 30.8251 4.0522 .0036 Participation in Independent Learning 12.4979 1.7532 .1398 D.F. for Hypothesis = 4 D.F. for Error = 201 TABLE 32 RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING WITH RESPECT TO THEIR PARTICIPATION IN NONSCHOOL INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS Level of N Mean Hours Formal Schooling of Participation Completed 13-15 Years 23 517.4 Completed 16 or more Years 67 509.4 Completed 12 Years 46 257.2 Completed 8-11 Years 64 236.2 Completed less than 8 Years 6 185.2 124 A dramatic distinction was evident between those com- pleting more than twelve years and those completing twelve years or less. Those completing less than eight years participated substantially less than any other group in this mode of continuing education activity. A similar ranking of respondents according to the extent of participation in the school-related institu- tional mode of continuing education activity is reported in Table 33. This ranking revealed a less direct relation- ship between level of schooling and extent of participation. While the greatest participation was by those completing more than twelve years of schooling, the direction of the relationship was reversed for those completing twelve years or less. Those completing less than eight years participated to a greater extent in this mode than did those with eight to eleven years of schooling, and both of these groups participated more than did those com- pleting twelve years of schooling. Having pursued with post hoc techniques the investigation of differences in patterns of participation evidenced by respondents grouped according to several demographic and positional variables, attention reverted to consideration of participation patterns generally. Of special interest was the relationship of such patterns to the social—psychologically related variables of respondents' orientation toward learning and their 125 TABLE 33 RANKING OF RESPONDENTS GROUPED BY LEVEL OF FORMAL SCHOOLING WITH RESPECT TO HOURS PER YEAR OF PARTICIPATION IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL-RELATED INSTITUTIONS Level of N Mean Formal Schooling (Hours of Participation) 13-15 Years 23 125 16 or more Years 67 124 Less than 8 Years 6 112 8-11 Years 65 87 12 Years 46 65 126 orientations toward continuing education institutions. Null Hypothesis 7 addressed the relationship of partici- pation patterns to learning orientation: Hypothesis 7: There will be no differences~in the patterns of par- ticipation in continuing education activities of respondents grouped and compared by their orien- tations toward learning. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine the significance of differences in patterns of participation of respondents grouped by primary learning orientation. The results are reported in Table 34. A multivariate F—Ratio of 1.4840 was obtained (with 21 and 548 degrees of freedom), which was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, null Hypothesis 7 was not rejected at this level of significance. While the results of the analysis were not suf- ficient to reject the null hypothesis, it was apparent that differences in patterns of participation among respondents of differing orientation toward learning were significant at a relatively high (p < .08) con- fidence level. The results of the univariate analysis indicated that such differences in participation were largely centered in the independent learning activities mode of continuing education activity. 127 TABLE 34 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY LEARNING ORIENTATION Multivariate D.F. = 21 and 548 P < = .0765 F-Ratio = 1.4840 Univariate Variable HypotheSis Univariate P < Mean Square F Participation in School-Related Programs 1.7774 .3208 .9440 Participation in Nonschool—Related Programs 6.1958 .7690 .6140 Participation in Independent Learning Activities 16.3917 2.4083 .0220 D.F. for Hypothesis = 7 D.F. for Error = 193 128 Hypothesis 8: Respondents grouped according to their dominant orientations toward continuing education insti— tutions will not be significantly different in their patterns of participation in continuing education activities. Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were used to determine the significance of such dif- ferences. The results were reported in Table 35. A multivariate F-Ratio of 1.3445 was obtained (with 9 and 379 degrees of freedom), which was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, null Hypothesis 8 was not rejected. The results of the multivariate analysis tests indicated that the overall patterns of participation in the three modes of continuing education activity were only slightly (p < .21) related to differences in respondents' institutional orientation. However, it was noted from the results of the univariate analysis that differences in the school-related institutional mode were substantially more significant than in either of the other two modes of continuing education activity. This finding suggested that, to the extent participation is related to institutional orientation, the relationship is manifested primarily in the participation of adults in activities sponsored by school-related institutions. 129 TABLE 35 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN PATTERNS OF PARTICIPATION AMONG RESPONDENTS GROUPED AND COMPARED BY ORIENTATION TOWARD CONTINUING EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Multivariate D.F. = 9 and 379 P < = .2122 F-Ratio = 1.3445 Univariate . Hypothesis Univariate Variable Mean Square F P < Participation in School-Related Programs 14.4475 2.6261 .0524 Participation in Nonschool Programs 7.8241 .9982 .3954 Participation in Independent Learning .8314 .1172 .9500 D.F. for Hypothesis = 3 D.F. for Error = 158 130 Summary In this chapter the results of the data analysis relevant to the purposes of the present study were pre- sented. Respondents to the questionnaire were described in terms of their demographic and positional character- istics, their orientations toward learning and their orientations toward continuing education institutions. The extent of participation in continuing education activities reported by these respondents was also described, both in the context of major modes of par- ticipation and in some specific continuing education program and activity areas. In order to accomplish the purposes of the study, eight hypotheses were posed and tested. The statistical procedures used to test each of the hypotheses were reviewed, and the results of these tests were reported. CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The objective of this chapter is to present a summary of the study, a discussion of the findings and the conclusions that resulted from the investigation, to discuss implications, and to present recommendations for further research. Summary Purpose of the Study ‘KThe steady expansion in the variety of activities available to adults for pursuit of their learning interests has prompted the need for continuing educators to better understand what factors affect individuals' decisions to participate in different modes of continuing education. Effective management of continuing education resources is enhanced by an understanding of what influences adults' participation choices and their volition to undertake certain kinds of continuing education activities as opposed to others. 131 132 The purpose of this study was to examine the con- tinuing education activities engaged in by adults, inclusive of school and nonschool institutionally sponsored program activities and essentially self-directed activities, and to determine the extent to which the participation patterns were related to certain demographic-positional and social- psychological variables. Specifically, the demographic- positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling and parental responsibility, and the social-psychological characteristics of orientation toward learning and orientation toward con- tinuing education institutions, were analyzed as they related to differences in adults' modes of participation in continuing education activities. Limitations of the Study The limitations included: 1. The study was limited geographically to Jackson County, Michigan. A sample population was sys- tematically selected from this area and analyzed. .Findings may or may not be applicable to wider populations. 2. The use of a questionnaire as the sole means for gathering data limited the information obtained to written responses to prearranged questions. Although the questionnaire items were tested with 133 a population segment similar to the sample popu- lation, the possibility remained of variation in the interpretation of the questions among the respondents. Further analysis of the suppliers of data suggested that some segments of the population were not fully represented in the sample, while others may have been over-represented. Specifically, those with less than eight years of schooling appeared under- represented and those with sixteen or more years appeared over-represented. It might also be assumed that use of telephone directories as the basis for identifying the sample population precluded appro- priate representation of economically disadvantaged adults. The concepts of learning orientations and insti- tutional orientation were drawn from related theories because of their assumed relatedness to individuals' decisions regarding participation in -continuing education activities. Findings are therefore limited by the meanings attached to each concept as it has been applied in the course of this study. Analysis techniques necessitated the use of various criteria in classifying respondents with respect 134 to primary mode of participation, primary orien- tation toward learning and dominant institutional orientation. While these criteria were applied consistently in each respective case, some bias may have resulted because of inherent differences in the nature of learning activities, learning orientations or institutions in question. The methodology adopted by this study necessarily limited the kinds of learning activities considered in the assessment of individuals' participation in continuing education activities. The alternatives for learning included in the questionnaire were. selected on the basis of earlier related research findings, and modified or extended only at the suggestion of persons knowledgeable of the specific continuing education resources existent in the Jackson County area. While it is believed the organizations, institutions and learning activi- ties included as possible components of individuals' patterns of participation are representative of learning resources generally available in mid-sized urban centers and associated suburban and rural areas, no attempt was made to insure that this was the case. 135 Design of the Study The study analyzed the patterns of participation in continuing education activities of adults residing in Jackson County, Michigan; a mid-sized urban center and associated suburban and rural areas. A sample population was identified by systematically selecting names from directories of telephone companies serving the county. Data regarding the nature and extent of the continuing education activities of the sample population, their demographic and positional characteristics of interest, their orientations toward learning, and their orientations toward continuing education institutions were obtained with a mailed questionnaire. The research methods used in the study were both descriptive and comparative. Respondents, grouped by various criteria, were compared with respect to their orientations toward learning, their orientations toward continuing education institutions and their participation in continuing education activities. Comparisons of par- ticipation were based on a categorization of continuing education activity into three types, or modes of activity: 1. Participation in organized activities sponsored by school-related institutions; 2. Participation in organized activities sponsored by nonschool-related institutions; and 3. 136 Participation in activities that essentially are self-initiated, and self-directed, and conducted independently from any institutional sponsorship. Data were statistically analyzed, using chi square tests for homogeneity and multivariate and univariate analysis of variance. Findings 1. Statistically significant differences in orientation toward learning were found among adults compared according to sex, occupation and income. Such dif- ferences were not found among adults compared according to age, marital status, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility. Statistically significant differences in orientation toward continuing education institutions were found among adults compared according to parental responsi- bility. Similar differences were not determined for adults compared according to age, sex, marital .status, occupation, income or level of formal schooling. Statistically significant differences in primary mode of participation were found among adults grouped according to occupation. Such differences were not found among adults grouped according 137 to age, sex, marital status, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility. Differences in primary mode of participation were not statistically significant when adults were compared by learning orientation. Differences in primary mode of participation were statistically significant when adults were com- pared according to dominant institutional orien- tation. Statistically significant differences in patterns of participation were found among adults compared according to age, occupation and level of formal schooling. Patterns of participation among adults compared according to sex, marital status, income or parental responsibility were not statistically significantly different. Statistically significant differences in patterns of participation were not found among adults com- pared according to orientation toward learning. Statistically significant differences in patterns of participation were not found among adults com- pared according to their orientation toward con- tinuing education institutions. 138 Conclusions The utility of statistical analyses of data ulti- mately rests in the applicability of the findings to real- life questions and issues. The present study addressed several questions concerning decisions made by adults regarding their choices of continuing education activity. The conclusions drawn from the findings of the study are reported below as they apply to these questions. Demographic and Positional Charac- tefistics RElated to Learning Orientation Are adults' orientations toward learning related to' any of the demographic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal schooling or parental responsibility? It can be concluded from the findings that the characteristics of sex, occupation and income are strongly related to the orientations toward learning of the adults included in this study. The results of the analysis showed adults grouped and compared according to sex, occupation and level of income were significantly different (at the .05 level) in their primary orientations toward learning. Also, age is apparently related, but to a lesser degree to learning orientation. Respondents' parental responsibility and marital status are slightly related to learning orientation; while there is apparently little 139 relationship between level of formal schooling and learning orientation. Differences among men and women are most notable as each group related to "The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal" and "The Desire to Escape." Men are strongly oriented to personal goal attainment while giving little importance to the need to escape daily routine. On the other hand, women are strongly oriented toward a desire to take part in an activity and to escape daily routine. A distinct contrast exists between workers clas- sified as either professionals or skilled workers and workers classified as semi-skilled or nonskilled. Pro—' fessional personnel and skilled workers are strongly oriented toward personal goal attainment and show little concern for a desire to escape daily routine. Semi-skilled and nonskilled workers are strongly oriented toward a desire to escape daily routine and negatively oriented toward personal goal attainment. The learning orientations of homemakers are directly associated with a desire to escape daily routine and engage in other activities. Indeed, except for a slightly positive orientation toward religious goals, this group was negatively oriented toward all other classifications of learning orientation. The findings 140 suggest that homemakers have little concern, if any, with continuing education for the sake of personal goal attain- ment. Adults of differing levels of income demonstrate three distinctly differing orientations toward learning. Adults earning relatively low incomes ($6,000 or less) are not oriented toward personal goal attainment. They are strongly oriented toward a desire to escape daily routine. For those of the middle income ranges ($6,000 - $11,999, $12,000 - $17,999) personal goal attainment is progressively more important, with this goal being predominantly important to those earning $18,000 - $23,999. The desire to escape daily routine decreases in importance with each sucCeed- ingly higher income classification. Relatively wealthy adults demonstrate a third pat- tern of learning orientation. Adults earning $24,000 or more are unique among the groups defined by income in that they are strongly oriented toward "The Desire to Know," "The Desire to Reach a Social Goal" and "The Desire to Meet Formal Requirements." None of the other income groups are strongly oriented toward any of these goals. Findings regarding the orientations toward learning of groups classified as economically disadvantaged and non- skilled and semi-skilled are in sharp contrast with commonly held assumptions about educational motivations of these groups. Whereas it might have been expected that 141 individuals with low incomes or nonskilled occupations would characteristically view participation in continuing education activities as a means of economic or occupational advancement, this was not suggested by this study. Instead, members of these groups primarily viewed participation in continuing education as a means of escape from daily routine. Demographic and Positional Charac- teristics Related to Insti— tutional Orientation Are adults' orientations toward continuing education institutions related to any of the demographic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, level of formal school- ing or parental responsibility? - It can be concluded from the findings that of these characteristics parental responsibility is most strongly related to the orientations adults have toward continuing education institutions. Differences in the institutional orientation of adults with differing parental responsi- bilities were statistically demonstrated at the .01 level in the analysis of data. The characteristics of age, sex, occupation and income appear to be related to institutional orientation, though not as closely. Level of formal schooling and parental responsibility appear to have little relationship to individuals' institutional orien- tation. 142 Parents with children still living at home were more oriented toward school-related institutions. This orientation was perhaps reflective of the extensive contact parents have with schools through their children. Parents whose children had left home, however, were more strongly oriented toward nonschool institutions. The greatest difference noted in institutional orientation occurs between parents and nonparents. Non- parents are strongly oriented toward activities not associated with any institution, while parents are more oriented toward school-related and nonschool institutions. The characteristics of age, sex, occupation and‘ income are apparently somewhat related to institutional orientation. Adults grouped by these characteristics and compared demonstrated differences statistically significant at the .25 level. Marital status seemed to have little relationship and level of formal schooling had even less relationship to institutional orientation. Demographic and Positional Charac- tefiStics ReIated to Participation Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to any of the demographic and positional characteristics of age, sex, marital status, occupation, level of formar‘ schooling or parental responsibility? The findings of the study demonstrate that the characteristics of age, occupation and level of formal 143 schooling are strongly related to adults' patterns of par- ticipation in continuing education activities. Statisti- cally significant differences (p < .05) in patterns of par— ticipation were demonstrated when adults were grouped and compared by these variables. Additionally, there were statistically significant (a < .05) in the primary modes of participation of adults compared by occupation. Level of formal schooling was similarly, though not as closely, related to differences in primary modes of participation. Other demographic and positional characteristics that appear moderately related to participation include sex and income. The characteristics which appear least related to participation are parental responsibility and marital status. The findings of this study support previously revealed relationships between the demographic and positional characteristics of age, occupation and level of formal schooling and adults' participation in continuing education activities. However, the dimensions of these relationships have been extended. Whereas these variables had been previously associated with participation in organized continuing education programs, the findings of this study suggest a more pervasive relationship. The current study associates these characteristics with dif- ferences in the choices of where and how adults participate, and the extent of their participation. 144 In comparisons of adults grouped by age, occupation and level of formal schooling, differences in patterns of participation are centered in the nonschool mode of con- tinuing education activity. Therefore, it is further con— cluded that differences in patterns of participation among adults occur primarily in activities associated with non- school institutions. The data regarding participation of adults in this mode suggests that older adults participate substantially less than do younger adults. Also, adults classified as professionals seem to participate substantially more than adults of other occupational classifications. The extent of participation by skilled, semi-skilled and nonskilled, and homemakers in this mode is relatively uniform. Those adults who complete more than twelve years of schooling participate significantly more in nonschool program activities than do those completing twelve years or less. The extent of participation within these two groups was relatively uniform. Relationship of Participation to InstitutionaI*Ofientation Are the patterns of adults' participation in con- tinuing education activities related to adults' orientation toward continuing education institutions? Adults who participate primarily in one mode of continuing education activity, as one would expect, are 145 dominantly oriented toward institutions associated with that mode of activity. The results demonstrated dif- ferences statistically significant at the .05 level in the primary modes of participation of adults grouped by domi- nant institutional orientation. However, approximately 50 percent of those adults sampled did not participate primarily in one mode of con- tinuing education activity. These individuals participated proportionately in each of the modes. Significant dif- ferences in the patterns of participation of these adults surprisingly were not demonstrated when comparisons were made between groups defined by dominant institutional orientation. Therefore, it was concluded that partici- pation in continuing education is somewhat related to adults' orientations toward continuing education insti- tutions, but that further study is required in order to determine the specific nature of this relationship. Relationship of Participation to Learning Orientation Are patterns of participation in continuing education activities related to adults' orientation toward learning? Findings indicated that participation in continuing education is related to adults' orientation toward learning. Differences in patterns of participation among respondents grouped by learning orientation were statistically 146 significant at a relatively high level (p < .08). While this level of significance was not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis, it did indicate an operationally important relationship exists between patterns of par- ticipation and orientations toward learning. Implications Implications for Continuing Educators Findings regarding the orientations toward learning of groups classified as economically disadvantaged and nonskilled and semi-skilled should lend some direction to those agencies and organizations seeking to assist the' economically disadvantaged through the provision of various educational programs. It is apparent that the target population and the sponsors of many of these programs entertain quite different views with respect to a rationale for participation. The implications are far reaching as they relate to participant recruitment, retainment and instructional design. Findings with reSpect to the orientation of women toward learning have important implications for continuing educators. Regardless of the objectives of programs, if they are to attract women as participants some visi- bility must be given to the activity/escapist benefits to be derived from participation. However, the need is not merely for places to take part in activities, or for 147 places for women to seek refuge from daily routine. More importantly, continuing education programs and activities should afford women both the opportunity and assistance necessary for positive self-growth experiences. It seems clear from the findings relating demo- graphic and positional variables to participation that these characteristics bear consideration as continuing educators design programs for specific clientele, or seek to identify and recruit potential clientele for existing or planned programs. The study did not determine a causal relationship between any of these variables and partici- pation. The strength of the relationships determined here, considered with previous findings, does, however, suggest that the nature of some adults' participation can be antici- pated through knowledge of these background characteristics. Implications for Further Research The experience and the findings of this study yield several implications for consideration as other studies of similar intent may be undertaken. 1. Adults reported a wide variation with respect to the kinds of activities they participated in and the extent of their participation. The extent of this variation warrants verification through more intensive face—to-face survey procedures. 148 The relationship of participation in continuing education activities to adults' previous schooling was again demonstrated by findings of this study, as it has been demonstrated so consistently in the findings of earlier related studies. Differences in patterns of participation identified in this study suggest that the established correlation between level of completion in formal schooling and the propensity to participate in continuing education transcends any real or expected learned affinity for schools. Implied is a difference in attitude toward learning that is manifested not only in the volition to participate in continuing edu- cation activities, but also in the differing choices made by individuals regarding the nature of these continuing education activities. More intensive assessment of the orientations toward learning of adults with common educational background may provide some clue as to the attitudes that seem to come with added years of experience in the school- ing systems. The relationship of participation in continuing education and adults' orientations toward learning merits further investigation along other lines. Given the striking differences in learning orientation among men and women and among 149 economically disadvantaged and others of higher income groups, the potential importance of this factor as it may apply to motivation to partici- pate in continuing education is apparent. The findings of this study did not demonstrate adultS' institutional Orientations qubecstyenglxrmm Mun-.s- r '7" related to their participation in continuing education activities. However, the logic of the proposition compels another look at this issue. The orientations of adults toward specific insti- tutions' i°e-' PHEiEEMEEheglaamshgrsheslmprwm libraries, should be assessed and analyzed as related to differences in patterns of partici- pation. Future studies with a positive—negative orientation format for assessment of institutional orientation might permit a more precise determi- nation of the relationship of institutional orien- tation to patterns of participation. The three-part classification of continuing edu- cation activities adopted by this study as a basis of comparing participation patterns of individuals was a logical, but not necessarily the most appropriate format for this purpose. An intensive analysis of critical differences in commonly recognized continuing education activities might 150 produce a different classification system that could be applied in comparative studies of both general and specific populations. 6. This study investigated several factors, considered individually, as they related to participation in continuing education activities. A major need exists to conduct studies which determine the inter- relationship of these factors and others with par- ticipation in continuing education. Concluding Statement What it is that prompts adults to participate in continuing education activities in such diverse ways is a difficult and largely unanswered question. Yet, it is a critically important question for professional continuing educators managing limited resources in a society with expanding continuing education needs. Finding answers to this question is complicated by the lack of a common under- standing of continuing education, both by professionals in the field and by those adults perceived as participants. This lack of clarity as to what is being investigated makes asking the right questions--and providing useful reSponses to these questions--equally difficult. The approach used in this study was to broadly characterize continuing education, to delineate generally different modes of continuing education activities, and 151 to associate various characteristics of adults with dif- fering patterns of participation in these modes of con- tinuing education activities. The findings are important as they are considered with those of other studies completed and yet to be undertaken. Additionally, the researcher believes that the approach used here offers a reasonable means of further pursuing the question of participation in continuing education. It is hoped that this study will make a contribution to the practitioner who is responsible for developing and implementing continuing education programs as well as to the researcher who wants to probe this area of participation further. APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE JACKSON CONTINUING EDUCATION PROJECT Please respond to all items. Your Age:____ Sex: M 1“ Marital Status: _single, ____married, _separated, _widowed. Your Occupation: . Occupation of Spouse . In which of the following categories does the combined income of you and your spouse fall: _below $6,000 ____$6,000-11,999 ___$12,ooo-$17,999 _s1s,ooo-$23,999 _$24,000 or more Circle the number of years you haveocompleted in school: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Z 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20+ Number of Children:______ Number of children still living at home with you;_____ During this past year (365 days), approximately how much time did you spend participating unplanned 1earning_activities associated with each of the following: (Please enter the number of days in the space provided and then circle the number of hours generally spent during each of those days) Number of Number of hours Days each day (gircle one) On the job where you work . Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ Correspondence study Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Business, Vocational or Technical School Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Church or Synagogue Education Program Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ Travel-Study Program Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Cooperative Extension Service _ Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ YMCA, YWCA or similar agency Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Self-directed Library Study . Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5_ 5+ Public School Adult or Community Education Program Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ Professional or Trade Association Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ Educational TV or Radio Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Community College ‘ Less than 1 1 2 3 4 5 5+ Club, Fraternity or Sorority Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Individual Reading ' . Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ University or Four Year College ' Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Other (please eXplain): Less than 1 l 2 3 4 5 5+ Form: 152 .00? OH Hznou on pom nouumn a“ 09 .mm1ll. \3ucomonn he aonm ownmnu a mouse oa .NN \,den on NOHHHnm ms m>onasH oh .Hmlll \3 mnoNOHnso \) museumdsoo Hmsomnmn he ovonwas OH .NN .) wcH>HH aHHov mo no $an3 65 .0223 on .2 .aHamaoHHun of 8H5 on .H~ «558 658.0 .33... so. on OH soNHuHo .3 as on .3 o>Hmoon mmHsnmnuo uoa oHsoo H \u>Huuommu ones s 080003 09 .Hm HsuwcHsoos wsHauoSom um appunWOH .0NIII. wwwmwmwmawou oHnHwHHm oaooop 09 .m «\amaoHaonn Honounon umwnom oa .on omHH as so munoaHmaH o>n£ or: mmocu xx wcchoHob no «mean a Hoou o9 .0 \.unuaoonm>va Hunoanun .5 mo oaoHuuvsussouun nuH3.mHosou 09 .NH \. exam.sso ouH nom hose» on .N unseen on numno sH nnmaH ow .mN .\ muoHuom no wchp Mu .\.0Hnoon so: wsHuooa no maoHAonn «nu no xooHuso he someone oH .mH HHms HoaanHnm as o>onmsH ca .0 1i unamoan any ousoHnonxu oH .mN \. mmHuHau non >8 . 8 0 I'll \. 0 .III' \3 human Hmavw>HmsH mo Huqu nocuo uuo mafia as oxen oh NH mo mucoaonHauon ecu noes OH m ouaoononooaH «nu house on .NN axequnoHuHuunaou guH3.ns omox oa .oH x; msoHnona «moon HmsanHnu .5 oHnoon HuHsowsou huHensaoo oeoumnooca oH .mlll n.5uoHoou onuuonoons oH .oN :uHa mounHosmuw ofiouon on .nH \3 mmHuHHHonsonmon unusoanvon somnon o no aonm hush mnaoa Bow m o>m£ ow .n .sHusnoN neon HHHmHsm on .nN \.mHoohE ounH nuanusH anw 09 .HH uuaUHuHunou hansssou unu snos sOHmoHa no .osoHnHo .oenwov c snap on .N \J on ouwenoo now unwound on .cN sH oumonounH he humHuao oh . x.muususoo HoHoom axes OH .H NH nwcHumm nsowv AwsHuem nsowv chHuom naowv oz 09 o: 0H u: 09 or ea oz 09 uswunonaw unounoesH ucmunonsu unmunoosH usounoaaH noeoz aomHom eoaHuoBOm hHunosvonh hHunosuonh . hn0> n . e n N H ”owaHuun neon mo uHmap any we vnaoaouo manoHHow on» own. .noh on .on vHsoa no .mH nsomnon can «0 some unsunonsH so: so wsHveoouvHAn no c.n.N.Hv unosouwun some «won one mHHauonoo usoEUuuum some one“ .uH uHsnon vHaoa manage one .mosoa .osHu NH om om uana no .moHuH>Huuo wchnuuH sH no>Huuao£u 0>Ho>nH nosHuuaoo oHnooe as: «common mace one wsHaoHHou any HH dowuuaw 1J54 A He amzHHauozs so» A He amzHHempzs son A He amzHHmmpzp son zomenm sense mun eon zomamn azoomm men «on zOm¢mm nmaHn men eon quhdm Know ozHH uoz on uoz ustz nonsosom nno> n no uanz e m N H O "AsHoHeXo omooHev noxuo omoHHoo new» noon no huHmno>Hc0 . . . . . preame HmapH>Hpcn hanonom no muchouonm .nsHu . . . . . . oNOHHoU huHcsfisou . . . oHomm no >9 HmsOHumusom sOHunHuomm< omnnH no anOHmmouonm . amnwonm amnmonm noHumusom >uHassnoo no uHao< Hoonuw oHHnom . neaum nuaanH emuumpHeunHom aonomo nsHHEHn no <03» .<0x> ooH>nom sonsouxm o>Huonoecoo . . . . amnwonm hosumlHo>onH eOHuousvw oawownchm no nunsno Hoosom HmUHsnuoH no HmcoHumoo> .mmonHmom . . . . nvauo oucovsonmmnnoo . . . q . . . . xnos.ooh snags no“ ecu so announces mnHaoHHON onu on msHonoouo some oumm .50h‘ou unmunonsH umos mchn mm HH soHuomm nH vooHHnuoss soawncomaon wanna ecu mo roam nom moHuH>Huua wsHsnon aH owowcu on ones son NH 30% on up vHsoa onup moumHH eonaouoonn no .mcoHuouHsowno .mouoHe man no some ouoHnnonenm so; when omnon HHH GOHuuom APPENDIX B LETTER ACCOMPANYING THE QUESTIONNAIRE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY mm- LANSING - mm «on COLLIGI 0’ EDUCATION 0 BRICKSON HALL January 21, 1975 Dear Friend: we are conducting a study of the things adults want to learn more about and some of the ways they go about it. Our purpose is to improve the learning Opportunities for adults living in the Jackson area. Your assistance is needed in the completion of the attached questionnaire if this study is to be a success. Your household is one of a few that have been selected to represent the community of Jackson. Only a limited number of households were selected to participate in this study. Therefore, it is yggy important that we receive your completed questionnaire. The success of this study is totally dependent upon your help. It will take just 15 minutes to complete the questionnaire. we assure you all replies will be treated confidentially. No names or addresses will be used in reporting the results of the study. - In appreciation of your cOOperation, a summary of the results will be made available upon request. ’ Res ectfully, Archibald 8. Shaw, ProELssor Continu ng Educat on and Higher Education C . B. Poulton Project Researcher .155 APPENDIX C FOLLOW-UP POST CARD Dear Friend, Several days ago you received a questionnaire titled Jackson Con— tinuing_Education Project. As of this date, we have not received this questionnaire back from you. Please, let me emphasize how important it is that each questionnaire be completed and returned as soon as possible. When only a few households are selected to represent the entire community of Jackson, the importance of your thoughts cannot be over-emphasized. There are no "best" responses to the questionnaire. We are looking for the honest opinions of a cross—section of the people who live in the Jackson area. Please take the few minutes necessary to complete the questionnaire and insure that your thoughts are reflected in the findings. It will hopefully make Jackson an even more interesting place to live. ' If you have returned the questionnaire in the last few days, please accept our sincere thanks. We will be looking for it in the mail. Sincerely, 156 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Babbie, Earl S. Survey Research Methods. Monterey, Calif.: Wadsworth Co., 1973. Brunner, Edmund de 8.; Wilder, David S.; Kirchner, Corinne; and Newberry, John S. Jr. An Overview of Adult Education Research. Chicago: Adult Education AssociatiOn, 1959. Etzioni, Amitai. A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organi— zations. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Houle, Cyril. The Inquiring Mind. Madison, Wisc.: Uni- versity ofiWisconsin Press, 1961. International Standard Classifications of Occupations. International Labour OffiCe. Geneva, Switzerland, 1958. Johnstone, John C., and Rivera, Ramon J. Volunteers for Learning. Chicago: Aldine Publishifig Company, 1965. Kirk, Roger. Experimental Design: Procedures for the BehavioraI‘Sciences. BEimont, Caiif.: Brooks- Cole Publishing Company, 1968. Kleis, Russell J., ed. An Area Approach to Continuing Education: Report of Study and Recommendations for a Coordinated System of Continuing Education. Edfication Puincations Services, MiChigan State University, 1967. , and Butcher, Donald. Administration of Continuing Education. Edited by Nathan C. Shaw. WaShington, D.C.: National Association of Public Continuing Adult Education, 1969. Lathrop, Richard G. Introduction to Psychological Research. New York: Harper and Row, i969. 157 158 Liveright, A. A. A Study of Adult Education in the United States. Boston: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1968. London, Jack; Wenkert, Robert; and Hagstrom, Warren. Adult Education and Social Class. Berkeley, Calif.: Survey Research Center, University of California, 1963. Rose, Arnold M. Theory and Method in the Social Sciences. Minneapolis, Minn.: UniVersity of Minnesota—Press, 1954. Sheffield, Sherman B. "The Orientations of Adult Learners." In The Continuing Learner. Edited by David Solomon. Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1964. Thorndike, Edward L. Adult Interests. New York: The Macmillan Company,’1935. Tough, Allen. The Adult's Learning Projects. Toronto, Ontario: The Ontario Institute for Studies in ' Education, 1973. U.S. Bureau of the Census. County and City Data Book 1972 (A Statistical Abstract SupplemenE). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973. Wann, Marie D., and Woodward, Marthine V. Participation in Adult Education: A Statistical AnalyEis of the Adult Education Data Obtained in the October 1957 Current Population Survey of—the Bureau of Census. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1959. Publications Allport, Gordon W. "The Psychology of Participation.“ Psychological Review 52 (May 1945). Brown, M. Alan; Knox, Alan B.; and Grotueschen, Arden. "Persistence in University Adult Education Classes." Adult Education 16 (Winter 1966). Burgess, Paul. "Reasons for Adult Participation in Group Educational Activities." Adult Education 22 (1971). Douglah, Mohammed. "Some Perspectives on the Phenomenon of Participation." Adult Education 20 (Winter 1970). 159 Douglah, Mohammad and Moss, Gwenna. "Differential Par- Essert, Gordon, ticipation Patterns of Adults of Low and High Educational Attainment." Adult Education 28 (Summer 1968). Paul L., and Spence, Ralph B. "Continuous Learning Through the Educative Community. An Exploration of the Family Education, The Sequential Unit, and the Complementary Functional Systems." Adult Education 18 (Summer 1968). C. Wayne, and Babchuck, Nicholas. "A Typology of Voluntary Associations." American Sociological Review 24 (January 1959). Jackson, Keith. "Community Adult Education-~The Role of the Jacoby, Verner, Professional." Adult Education (September 1971). Arthur P., and Babchuck, Nicholas. "Instrumental and Expressive Voluntary Association." Sociology and Social Research 47 (July 1963). Coolie, and Newberry, John. "The Nature of Adult Participation." Adult Education 9 (Summer 1958). Knox, Alan. "Clientele Analysis." Review of Educational London, Research 35 (June 1965). . "Factors Related to Educative Activity by Non- College Bound Young Adults." Final Report, Project Number 7-1826. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 1970. , and Sjogren, Douglas. "Motivation to Participate and Learn in Adult Education." Adult Education 12 (Summer 1962). , and Videbeck, Richard. "Adult Education and Adult Life Cycle." Adult Education 13 (Winter 1963). Jack. "The Influence of Social Class Behavior Upon Adult Education Participation." Adult Education 20 (Spring 1970). 160 Unpublished Materials Coolican, Patricia M. "Self—Planned Learning: Impli— cations for the Future of Adult Education." Syracuse, N.Y.: ‘Educational Policy Research Center, Syracuse University Research Corporation, 1974. Devlin, Lawrence E. "Participation in Adult Education and Occupational Mobility." Ph.D. dissertation, Chicago University, 1970. Dickenson, Gary. "Educational Variables and Participation in Adult Education." A paper presented to the Adult Education Research Conference. New York, February 1971. Ewigleben, Robert L. "The Identification and Analysis of the Factors Contributing to the Drop-out Rate Among Participants in Classes of the Lansing Adult School Programs." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959. LeClair, Lowell Vincent. "A Study of the Relationship of Three Factors: Perceived Need Deficiency, Importance of Need Fulfillment, Perception of Education as a Mobility Factor--to Participation in Educational Activities." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969. Murtaugh, Leonard Paul. "Participation in Adult Education Programs and Attitudes Toward Public Schools.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. Seaman, Don Ferris. "The Relationship Between Extent of Educative Behavior by Industrial Employees in Florida and Their Attitudes Toward Continuing Education." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State -University, 1968. III-H1! I it'll "I7'11?lllllllflll|illi