THE ABSENCE OF THE FATHER DURENG EARLY CH§LDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE OEDQPAL SITUATWN AS REFLECTED IN YOUNG ADULTS Thesis hr than Down of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STA?! UNWfiRSFi’Y Mary M. ‘Laichw 19.58 _"'l k‘ x TH EBIS ! tmxtxtuttjgtutxmgtttumt\um 2.; This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE ABSENCE OF THE FATHER DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE. OEDIPAL SITUATION AS REFIECTED IN YOUNG ADULTS x presented by Mary M. Leichty ‘ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _Eht.D.__ degree in lsychology WW. Major professor Date June_2.0_,_ I . i 0-169 THE ABSENCE OF THE FATHER DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE OEDIPAL SITUATION AS REFLECTED IN YOUNG ADULTS By Mary M. Leichty A THESIS Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHIIDSOPHY Department of Psychology 1958 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express appreciation to all those who made the completion of this thesis possible. ESpecially, she wishes to thank Dr. Albert I. Rabin, chairman of her committee, for his valuable suggestions and encouraging support. The other members of her committee, Dr. M. Ray Denny, Dr. Donald M. Johnson, and Dr. Walter F. Johnson, also offered many helpful suggestions. Further, she wishes to thank Professor Paul Bagwell, head of the Communication Skills department, for permission todbtain subjects from those classes. The clerical staff of the department was also helpful in that task. The writer wishes to express her deep appreciation for the assistance given by Mrs. Mary Cross, secretary of the Psychological Clinic. Thanks are extended to Mrs. Alice Lawrence who typed the final manuscript. Finally, the writer wishes to thank her husband and family for the help and encouragement offered during the preparation of this thesis. THE ABSENCE OF THE FATHER DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT UPON THE OEDIPAL SITUATION AS REFLECTED IN YOUNG ADULTS By Mary M. Leichty AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology Year 1958 .Approved zé?2;Z:;617;E;:§%§?é;g;¢é: —4. Mary M. Leichty The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of absence of the father on the resolution of the Oedipal con- flict. .A review of the literature dealt with the differing points of views of the Freudian and neoéFreudian schools of psychology in respect to this developmental period. Four hypotheses were formulated: (1) More of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will maintain strong attachment to the mother; (2) fewer of the experimen- tal subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong castration anxiety; (3) fewer of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong identification with the father, and identification of the experimental subjects will be more diffuse than will be the case with the control subjects; (4) fewer of the experi- mental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will choose their fathers as the type of figure adapted for their ego-ideal. The subjects were 62 male college freshmen. The experi- mental group was composed of 35 subjects who were between the ages of three and five while their fathers were overseas with the armed forces during World War II. The control group was composed of 29 subjects whose fathers were not overseas when the boys were between the ages of three and five. The Blacky Test and Cards 1, 7§M and SEQ of the Thematic Apperception Test were administered to each group. Responses to multiple choice inquiry items of the Blacky Test and to items composed for the TAT cards were analyzed statistically, using the Chi- square technique. Global response to the Blacky Test was analyzed, using the Rank Test. Global reaponse to the TAT cards was also analyzed with the sign test. On the basis of analysis of the data obtained from the Blacky Test, support was obtained for three of the four hypo- theses. (l)There was some evidence to indicate that Oedipal intensity is greater in those subjects who were separated from their fathers. However, the data was contrary to one aSpect of the first hypothesis, in that the control group rather than the experimental group tended to choose the mother as anaclitic love object. The experimental group appeared to make a narcissistic choice of love object. (2)The hypothesis dealing with identifi— cation, which was formulated in accordance with Freudian theory, received the most consistent support. However, an attempt was made to interpret these findings also from the nee-Freudian point of view. (3)The hypothesis dealing with the choice of the father as ego-ideal was somewhat supported by the data. (4)The hypothesis dealing with castration anxiety was not supported by the data. The TAT cards did not prove to be a fruitful measure of the hypotheses. Possible reasons for this and ways in which it might be deve10ped into a more adequate instrument for studies such as the present one were discussed. Implications of the findings were discussed. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. INTRODUCTION.{ ..................... ...... 1 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE... .............. 5 Infantile Experience.................. 3 The Oedipal Complex in Theory......... 4 Studies of the Oedipal Complex........ 6 Resolution of the Oedipal Complex..... 8 Father Separation in the Resolution of the Oedipal Complex........ 13 III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................. 18 IV. HYPOTHESES.................. ............. 20 v. EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE................,.. 22 subjeCtSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeee 22 Description Of TeStSOO‘eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 24 The BlaCkyTestOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOO 25 The Thematic_Apperception Test.... 51 VI 0 RESULTS OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 58 Hypotheses O O O O O O O O O O O O O C C O I O O O O O O O O O O O 38 Summary of Results.................... 54 Additional Data. 0 O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 54 VII 0 DISC USSIOiq O O O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO '0 0 O O O O O O 59 Hypotheses. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 59 Thematic Apperception Test............ 65 VIII . COIQ‘CLUSIONS . . O . . . . . . . . C . . C . . . . . . . . C C O . . . . 67 H . SUIVHVj-ARY ...... . C . ............... . ........ . 7 l ' BIBLIOGRAPHY............ ......... ........ 75 APPEL‘ODIXOOOOOOOOO00......0.0.0.... ....... 77 II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XVII. XVIII. XE. Agreement of judges on TAT Cards.. Item response to Blacky Cartoon IV Global response to Blacky Cartoon IV.... Item reSponse to Blacky Cartoon XI Global response to Blacky Cartoon XI: Anaclitic Love Object.......... Item response to Blacky Cartoon VI Glooal response to Blacky Cartoon VI.... Response to TAT Card SRM.......... Item response to Blacky Cartoon VII..... Global response to Blacky Cartoon VII... Number of subjects giving ambivalent responses to Blacky Cartoon VII Response to TAT Card 1...... ...... Item response to Blacky Cartoon X. Global response to Blacky Cartoon X ..... Response to TAT Card 7RM.......... Summary of reSponse to Blacky Cartoons IV, VI, VII, X, XI.... Global response to Blacky Cartoon XI: Narcissistic Love Object....... Response to Blacky Cartoons I, II, III, V, VIII, IX... ..... Number of subjects in each sibling pOSitionOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00...... Page 32 59 4o 42 45 44 45 46 47 49 49 SO 52 55 55 55 56 5’7 58 INTRODUCTION With the emergence and rapid growth of sociology and anthropology as independent disciplines, a number of followers of Freud became dissatisfied with certain of his concepts. These so-called neo-Freudians attempted to incorporate socio- logical principles into the framework of psychoanalytic theory and in the process rejected or minimized certain of the Freudian postulates. Two crucial points of difference were the finality of infantile experience and the role of the Oedipal conflict in psychological development. It is not surprising that the testing of the validity of psychoanalytic concepts has proved a very difficult matter. While descriptions of psychoanalytic processes are clear as a part of the whole structure of psychoanalysis, they tend to lose their definiteness when transferred to the laboratory. It is difficult, if not impossible, to establish artificially in the laboratory conditions comparable to the psychoanalytic processes of real life and manipulation of the life experiences of human beings must of necessity be limited. Some attempt has been made to experiment with lower animals in such studies as those of Hunt (26) on hoarding'behavior in rats; Miller (34) on aggression in rats; Kahn (29) on the effects on mice of trauma at various ages; and of Levy (31) on the sucking drive in puppies. But animals cannot be used for the study of many analytic concepts; for example, the development of lower animals does not lend itself to the observation of the Oedipal complex. The most satisfactory approach to validating psycho- analytic concepts would be to utilize human subjects under conditions as they occur in the natural course of events, but suitable times when these conditions occur are very rare. The present study is an attempt to take advantage of such a fortuitous combination of circumstances in order to examine the above mentioned differences in theory between the orthodox Freudian and neo-Freudian points of view, particularly in relation to the resolution of the Oedipal conflict. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Infantile Experience Freud emphasized the importance of the early years of life on adult personality. Since analytic experience has convinced us of the complete truth of the common assertion that the child is father of the man and that the events of the first years of life are of paramount importance for his whole subsequent life, we should be cape- cially interested if there were something that could be described as the central experience of this period of his childhood.(l7) The neo-Freudians could not accept this emphasis on a few early years of life. They attempted to understand the deve10pment of the child in terms of growth continuously affected by interpersonal relationships provided by the culture. Adler (l) felt that man is primarily a social creature, not a sexual creature, who is motivated more'by expectations of the future than by experiences of the past. Sullivan (50) does not believe that personality is set at an early age, rather that it may change at any time as new interpersonal situations arise, because the human organism is extremely malleable and plastic. Horney (24) believes that early experience only sets the pattern for later expec— tations and later techniques of adaptation. The Oedipal Complex in Theory A second basic theoretical difference between the Freudian: and neo—Freudians is in the concept of the Oedipal complex. In his Qggling g; Psychoanalysis (l7) Freud has described it as follows. The child's first erotic object is the.mother's breast and love, in its beginnings, attaches itself to the satisfaction of the need for food. The first object gradually becomes differentiated into the person of the mother who, through.her care, arouses in the child many physical sensations, both pleasant and unpleasant. At the age of two or three interest in the genitals develOps rapidly. Freud felt that at this time the boy became his mother's lover. "In a word, his early awakened masculinity makes him seek to assume, in relation to her, the place be- longing to his father." (17) His father becomes a rival who stands in his way and whom he would like to push aside. This is the Oedipal complex, defined as sexual love for the parent of the Opposite sex and death wishes for the same- sexed parent. A corollary of the Oedipal complex is the Oedipal conflict in which the boy is torn between desire to possess his mother and fear of castration by the father be- cause of that desire. The child works through the Oedipal complex during the so-called Oedipal period, which lasts between the approximate ages of three and five. Freud also believed firmly in the phylogenetic origin of the Oedipal complex. The phylogenetic foundation has so much the upper hand in all this over—accidental experience that it makes no difference whether a child has really sucked at the breast or has been brought up on the bottle and never enjoyed the tenderness of a mother's care. (17) He further felt that the Oedipal complex and its accompany- ing conflict is experienced by every individual, regardless of culture. Our interest will be still more attracted by the influence of a situation which every child is fated to pass through and which follows inevitably from the factor of the length of his dependence in childhood and of his life with his parents. I am thinking of the Oedipal complex. (17) The neo-Freudians reject the universality of the Oedipal complex and trace conflict when it occurs to cultural and in- terpersonal factors.\ Horney (24) feels that the Oedipal complex, instead of being a biologically given phenomenon, is culturally determined by such factors as lack of harmony in marriage, unlimited authoritative power of the family, \taboos on sexual outlets for children“ and tendencies to keep a child infantile and emotionally dependent on the parents. She says, I doubt very much that the sexual undercurrents in the child's relations to the parents would ever be strong enough to effect a potential disturbance. At any rate, I know of no case in which it was not neurotic parents who by terror and tenderness forced the child into these passionate attachments, with all the implications of possessiveness and jealousy described by Freud. (24, p. 84) Adler, whose theory was built around a core of motivation based on social urges, felt that the Oedipal situation devel- ops as a result of pampering the child. The child turns to whichever parent pampers him the most and the Oedipal com- plex "is not a fundamental fact but is simply a vicious unnatural result of maternal overindulgence." (l) IFromm (18) agrees with Freud that there are sexual strivings in children and that strong dependency ties are formed with the parent but he does not accept that the Oedipal complex is universal nor that the tie with the mother is essentially sexual. The conflict between father and son is the result of authoritarianism on the part of the father rather than of sexual rivalry. To an even greater degree Sullivan (50) emphasizes interpersonal relationships in the so-called Oedipal com- plex. The child will develop a greater feeling of warmth and attraction for the parent who treats him with the greatest consideration. The parent is usually more autho- ritarian toward the child of the same sex as himself, which makes the child feel more resentful toward him than toward the Opposite-sexed parent. Studies of the Oedipal Complex The influence of childhood experience on adult person- ality is the cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory. The adequate resolution of the Oedipal conflict between the ages of three and five may be considered the gig; gga £9; for the develOpment of the normal adult personality. One would ex- pect that the literature would report many studies testing these assumptions but Winch (55) notes that at this point most, if not all, of our propositions regarding the influ- ence of early childhood experiences on personality develop- ment are in the realm of belief rather than tested generalizations. This point is well taken and amply sub- stantiated if one examines the literature. Frequently the studies reported are uncontrolled or merely descriptive. Illustrative of such studies are several which purport to show that the absence of the father is important in the resolution of the Oedipal conflict. One was done by ‘N. Stendler (47) who, in an uncontrolled study using only twenty children, concluded that overdependency as a general\ characteristic was related to the absence of or weakness of the father. Weiss (55) reported the analysis of a child 1 whose father died when he was three years, three months old. This child had insomnia, anxiety about his mother, and eb- sessive thoughts about an angry father. The Oedipal conflict could not be resolved because the image of a fearsome father could not be tested against reality since the father was dead. Heilpern-Fuchs (22) reported five case studies of step-children. She felt that the children's difficulties were due to derangement of libidinous relations between them and the step-parents.- When the step-parent appeared on the scene, the Oedipal conflict was re-activated in the step- children, and emotional problems developed. Some objective studies of Oedipal relationships have been done. (44) In his review of them, Sears suggested that "the sub-cultures in which peOple grow up are too varied as to detail ever to permit of the kind of generali- zations that Freud has made concerning the role of specific members of the family." (44) Sears further stated that Freud was able to abstract one of the not too un- common developmental patterns. But other sequences have been Observed too, and lead inescapably to the conclusion that Freud vastly underated the importance of the child's immediate social milieu as a source for these kinds of learning, and overated the uni- formity of family patterns." (44) Sears reached these conclusions on the basis of studies such as that of Terman (52) which utilized a 5-point scale rating attachmentto and conflict with each parent. .Another study he quoted is that of Stott (49) in which adolescents were asked what there was about each parent that was criticizable. These would appear to be studies of conscious attitudes to- ward parent figures. This is not necessarily comparable to Freud's Oedipal complex. In orthodox analytic theory, the child works through the Oedipal complex when he is approxi- mately between the ages of three and five. As the organism continues to develop, Oedipal material is repressed into the unconscious. The conscious attitudes of adolescents toward their parents would not be an adequate criterion on which to base a study of the Oedipal situation. Resolution of the Oedipal Conflict ‘ In the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, the boy is said by the Freudians to give up his object choice, his desire to possess his mother sexually, and, because of castration fear, to replace this object choice by identification.with his father.’ The closest identification takes place with that parent who was the source of the more decisive frustration. For boys this is usually the father, because he acts as the frustrator of the boy's Oedipal simpulses. Psychoanalytic writers generally consider identification to be an uncon- scious process as distinguished from conscious imitation. It is the process by which.a person takes over features of another person and makes them a part of himself, so that they become a more or less permanent part of his personality. , The concept of identification has been one of the most controversial of the psychoanalytic concepts and there have been various interpretations of it. Knight (50) says that identification is based on a subtle interaction of intro- jection and projection. Balint (4) feels that it is closely related to displacement and is the means by which the child gets to know the external world. Several learning theorists have attempted to draw together psychoanalysis and learning theory and in the process have made their own.interpretations of the concept of identification. Miller and Dollard (35), as did other learning theorists, quarreled with the Freudian concept that to identify is instinctive. They attempted to analyze and understand human social relations in terms of the principles of learning. They felt that social roles are learned through social imitation. Mowrer (56) postulates a two factor theory of imitative learning. Martin (32) posits l J that the child assumes certain values because he consciousLy imitated the behavior of adults and peers and was rewarded for it. Tolman (51) considers identification to have three aspects, a person copies an older individual, he adheres to any group of which he feels a part, or the individual accepts a cause. Sears (44) felt that object choice is essentially a function of learning and what is learned is a function of the environment. He believes there can be no universal pat- tern of object choices. Identification, however, is only one aspect of object choice. Fenichel stated specifically that 'it would be wrong to imagine that in childhood there are no other objects than the parent of the opposite sex." (14, p. 98) That at least some object choices are a func- tion of learning and the environment is implicit in Fenichel's statement that children would probably make more use of other children as object choices if education did not aim at prohibiting such choices. These studies illustrate the confusion which has arisen in relation to the concept of identification. It has been re-defined and re-formulated. in so many contexts that frequently it is questionable whether two authors are talking about the same term. The neo-Freudians have, to a large extent, ignored identification at least as the concept was postulated by Freud. Adler (l) discussed social feeling as taught by the society but especially by the mother. When the mother is too indulgent the child refuses to allow his social feeling to 11 extend to other people. The normal attitude.for the child would be an almost equal interest in his father and mother. But external circumstances, the father's personality, a pampering mother or illnesses may tend to create a distance between the child and the father and thus hinder the expan- sion of social feeling. If the father's pampering pre- dominates, then the child turns to him and away:from his mother. Horney (25) neglected identification, though her idealized.ig§gg may be compared to it. Horney called the idealized image a fictitious or illusory self. "It is an imaginative creation interwoven with and determined by very realistic factors. It usually contains traces of the person's genuine ideals." (25, p. 108) Everyone constructs a sense of self which supplies integrative and positive strivings in dealing with.the world of people and things. Fromm (19) has spoken of internalization, man's need for a sense of identity. At first the child's relationships are rooted in the mother. If this persists too long it is unhealthy. It is most satisfying if the roots are in a feeling of brotherliness for other people. Man wants to be a unique individual. If he is not able to attain individual- ity himself, he identifies with another individual or group. This is an identity arising from a sense of belonging to someone, not of being someone. ~Sullivan (50) utilized the concept of the significant 12 pphgp. This figure is any one of significance to the child, mother, nurse, or their surrogates. The child ex- perience himself and appraises himself in terms of what the significant other manifests. Whatever attitude is expressed toward him, whether it be reapecting or loving, derogatory or hateful, that attitude the child will adopt toward himself. Brodbeck (11) has criticized Oedipal motivation as a determinant of identification. He felt that it is not pos- sible to use a simple and exclusive Oedipal theory. Identi- fication is a slow and gradual change in social influence and there is continued parental influence throughout adoles- cence. He suggested that factors other than sexual frustra- tion lead to parental identification in childhood. He believed that parental identification arises before the Oedipal rivalry and, itself, contributes to the development of Oedipal conflicts. He has concluded that "...there are multiple and independent determinants of identification and that, by and large, the value systems of adolescents are on the whole not patterned in the degree or manner implied by the exclusive and simple use of the Oedipal theory." (ll, pp. 60-61) That there are multiple determinants of identification is not necessarily contrary to Freudian theory.“ Fenichel (14) Spoke of primary identification occurring during the oral stage of psychosexual development. At this time, by intro- jecting the love object, the infant achieves a state of 15 identification. Fenichel felt that this is only the first of several ways in which the develOping erganism estab- lishes object relationships, a process which may be said to culminate in secondary identification, the end product of the Oedipal conflict. Mowrer (56) also offered an alternative to the Oedipal eXplanation of identification. A major problem in identi- fication is how the boy shifts over to like his father more than his mother, to identify with him. According to Mowrer, the process of identification is accomplished more smoothly in those societies which provide opportunity for the mother to say, when the boy is three or four years old, "Go along with your father." It is thus that the fathers begin to do things with their sons and the identification process is started. He feels that there is greater solidarity in those societies which provide ample opportunity for sons to identify with their fathers in this way. Father Separation in the Resolution of the Oedipal Conflict If there is no father present with whom the boy can identify, resolution of the Oedipal conflict cannot be com— plete and, according to orthodox Freudian theory, the effects will be evident in the adult personality. The literature reports no systematic attempts to study the effects of the unavailability of the father on the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, but there have been attempts to study the effects of father absence on early childhood development. 14 The study most relevant to this problem is that of Stolz and her collaborators. (48) This is an extensive study which utilized interviews with both the fathers and the mothers as well as projective play with and observa- tions of the children. This study showed that emotional adjustments which might have affected the resolution of the Oedipal conflict were faced by children who were born during World War II while their fathers were overseas. On the fathers' return they were not, in general, ready to accept their unknown children; nor were their offspring ready to accept them, but rather treated them as strangers. The fathers thought their children spoiled and too depen— dent on their mothers. The separated fathers felt that their children had more serious problems in eating, elimination, and sleeping habits than the non-separated fathers felt concerning their children. The separated children were found to have significantly greater negative feelings toward their fathers than the non-separated children. The separated children were also more aggressive in their play, but there was no significant difference be- tween the separated and non-separated children in repression of aggression. It was hypothesized in Stolz's study that children separated from their fathers would not feel as close a relationship with the father as would non-separated children. When each group (separated and non-separated) was composed of 15 boys and girls together as a unit, this hypothesis was not supported. However, it gag found that the scores of the separated boys were significantly different from the scores of the separated girls, this difference being in the direc— tion hypothesized.‘ In other words, the separated boys were as hypothesized, but the separated girls were like what the non-separated group was eXpected to be. There was no signi- ficant difference between the scores of the non-separated girls and the non-separated boys. It was also hypothesized that the war-separated children would be less likely to accept their fathers' standards than would the non-separated group. Again it was found that the scores of the separated boys confirmed the hypothesis, but the separated girls responded contrary to the hypothesis. The separated boys reaponded in a way significantly less conforming to their fathers' standards than did the non- separated children. The war-separated girls responded in a way which was significantly more conforming than the non-separated children. This study suggested that the fathers' absence had a different effect on boys than on girls and Stolz felt that this may be the result of the differing process of identifi- cation in boys and girls. Other studies have elso shown that the father-child relationship was a difficult one after separation. Young (54) found that the most common traits among a group of prOblem children were difficulties of discipline, excessive excitement, and irritability. There was more disturbance among the boys 16 of the group than among the girls, and in 15.5% of the cases, the father being in service, or about to be, was considered the most important cause of the disturbance. Igel (27) reported on cases selected for study because the father was in the armed forces. The parents reported that undesirable behavior began after the father's enlistment. However, Igel noted that these cases were referred to the agency before the drafting of the father and he felt that the father may have enlisted because the family relations were already upset; problems already present became apparent when intensified by separation. Sears g: g; (45) reported that boys from father— absent homes were less likely to fantasy aggression toward the father than were boys from father-present homes. This would support Freud and Burlingame (15) who noted that there may be differences between the actual characteristics of an absent father and the father image in the child's mind. The child, perhaps, does not have fantasy aggression toward an absent father because he has created in his mind a certain kind of father image, toward which he does not feel hostile. Bach (5) in a controlled study showed that father-separated children tend to produce an idealized fantasy picture of the father. He felt that this fantasy picture may be a handicap in re-establishment of a realistic father-child relationship. However, he found a relationship between the child's fantasy and the father-typing provided by the mother. If the mother was antagonistic or contemptuous toward.the father, the child showed more aggression toward the father. 17 The communal settlements, or Kibbutzim, of Israel have provided a unique opportunity to study personality develop- ment when children are brought up primarily outside the nuclear family. Irvine (28) concluded, on thetlasis of her impressions, that perhaps the super-ego is less completely internalized in Kibbutz-reared children than is considered normal in European children;\that no one feels guilty because the whole group tends to be responsiblei She also felt that the Oedipal conflict may be less intense in Kibbutz children because the boy's relationship with.his father is less fraught with hostility and jealousy.\ Rabin (40), utilizing the Blacky Test in a study of Kibbutz children, obtained results to some degree supporting Irvine. He found that the type of family structure has considerable influence on the nature of the identification process. Boys from the Kibbutzim did not show as close identification with the father as did boys raised in the nuclear family. He also reported, agreeing with Irvine, that Kibbutz children show less Oedipal intensity than do children reared in the Israeli nuclear family. Gardner (20) believes that prolonged absence of the father, as in divorce, may impair the child's self-concept because the child feels unworthy of the father's remaining. The child's concept of human beings is impaired. For the child the behavior and worth of parents are the models for his evaluation of the behavior and worth of alllsn and women.... The expected and hoped- for stability of love relationships of all persons - including those directed by and directed toward him - must be drasticall modified at this period then one parent leaves him . Love relationships withhhuman beings no longer appear sufficiently stable - they may be hazardous and lead to eventual hatred and abandon— ment. (20, p. 59) 18 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM During World War II many fathers were called into the armed forces and were away during the period when their sons were, according to analytic theory, working through the Oedipal complex. When the father left home the boy was left in undisputed possession ofthe field so that his yearning for his mother could be indulged without experiencing the castration anxiety which, again according to psychoanalytic theory, would be associated with it if his father were present. This environment would also be fertile ground for excessive gratification and overindulgence of the boy's desire for his mother, a situation which fulfills Fenichel's criteria for circumstances which may lead to fixation at a particular level of development. The consequence of experiencing excessive satisfac- tion at a given level is that this level is renounced only with reluctance.... Most frequently, however, fixations are rooted in experiences of instinctual satisfaction which simultaneously gave reassurance in the face of some anxiety. Such simultaneous satis- faction of drive and of security is the most common cause of fixations. (14, p. 65—66) The orthodox Freudians believe that an inadequately resolved Oedipal conflict will leave a permanent effect on adult personality. Thus, if the boys whose fathers were separated from them during the Oedipal period have been l9 unsuccessful in resolving the Oedipal conflict, they should now, as young adults, show evidences of it. The present study is an attempt to examine the effects of absence of the father during this crucial developmental period on the resolution of the Oedipal conflict. 20 HYPOTHESES [In resolving the Oedipal conflict the boy renounces his mother as an object choice because of castration fear and replaces it regressively by identification with his father. According to Freud (16) the Oedipus complex is "smashed to pieces by the shock of threatened castration." It is the father who is seen as hostile and threatening because he feels him to be his rival. If the father is not present during the Oedipal period, the boy will have no need to renounce his mother as an object choice and as an adult will still maintain her as an excessively cathected object.‘ Hypothesis I: More of the experimental subjects, as compared 4 to the control subjec s, will maintain a strong at- tachment to the mother. The mother is said to be renounced as a love object be- cause of threatened castration. If there is no father to act as a threat, the boy will not develOp castration anxiety in relation to his Oedipal wishes. Hypothesis II: Fewer of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong castration anxiety. 21 The Oedipal conflict is resolved when the boy regres- sively identifies with his father. If there is no father for the boy to identify with, his identification will be diffuse and extend to other significant figures, including feminine 01188 e Hypothesis III: Fewer of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong identification with the father, and identification of the experimental subjects will be more diffuse than will be the case with the control subjects. If identification with the father has not taken place, a boy will choose some figure other than the father to repre- sent his ego-ideal. He will feel that the ego—ideal he has established is superior to the image he has created of his father. Hypothesis IV: Fewer of the experimental subjects, as com- pared to the control subjects, will choose their fathers as the type of figure adopted for their ego- ideal. More of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will feel that their fathers are inferior to their ego-ideal. 22 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Subjects The subjects used for this study were 62 Michigan State University freshmen enrolled in the Communication Skills course. Each male student in this course was asked to fill out a questionnaire which included his date of birth, whether or not his father was overseas with the armed forces during World War II, and if so, the dates of his service. On examining this information it was found that there were 51 individuals whose fathers were separated from them for at least the period when the subject was between the ages of three and five. Fifty-six names were taken at random from those individuals who indicated that their fathers did not serve in the armed forces. This number of names, 56, was taken in order to have a leeway of 5 more possible subjects in the control group than in the experimental group. It was hoped to have control and experimental groups composed of an equal number of subjects. If, after the data was gathered, there were more than the desired number of subjects in the control group, the two groups would have been equalized by discarding names at random from the control group. No sub- jects who indicated that their fathers were in the armed forces were chosen for the control group. It was felt that 25 even though their fathers were in army camps in this country the boys may have been separated at times, or the families may have had to move around the country from place to place. It was felt that this sort of relationship would introduce a biassing factor in the control group which it would be im- possible to evaluate. This made a total of 107 subjects who were then contacted individually, by telephone, and asked to participate in an experiment, supposedly to validate a test. Adequate test protocols were eventually Obtained from 62 subjects; the remaining 45 subjects either refused to par- ticipate, or failed to report for the test. The subjects were divided as follows: Experimental gpppp - 55 male sub- jects who were between the ages of three and five while their fathers were overseas with the armed forces during World War II; Qonprol,gpppp - 29 subjects chosen at random.from those whose fathers were not overseas with the armed forces during World War II when the boys were between the ages of three and five. The experimental subjects were three years of age or younger when separated from their fathers. Nine of them were aged two; and one, born in 1959, indicated that his father was in Alaska from 1940 until the subject was almost five years old. Fathers of 20 of the subjects returned when the boys were six years old. Six fathers did not return until the boys were seven years of age. At the time of testing the control subjects ranged in age from 18 to 22. The experimental group range was from 18 to 21. Twenty-four of the eXperimental group and 21 of the 24 control group were born in 1959. Thirty-one subjects were tested in the control group. However, on examination, it was found that two test proto- cols were so inadequately marked that it was impossible to score them. For this reason they were discarded, leaving a control group of 29 subjects, and a total of 62 subjects in both experimental and control groups. Description of Tests Many studies of psychoanalytic principles have been in- adequate because they were studying unconscious processes with tools which elicit conscious material directly. Stott (49) asked adolescents what characteristics in their parents they disliked. He then correlated these responses with scores achieved by the adolescents on personality scales. He felt that this study related to conflict with the parent and its effect on personality development. Terman (52) had subjects i rate, on a 5-point scale, attachment and conflict with parents. He found little difference between the sexes in attachment to each parent, in both cases the attachment being closest to the mother. There was less conflict between the boys and their mothers than between the boys and their fathers, and a slight opposite tendency in the girls. Terman felt, however, that there was no support for the theory that the cross-sexed parent is favored. Stegner and Drought constructed an atti- tude scale to measure affection toward each parent and used it with male and female college students. They felt that 25 "the data contradict a common interpretation of the Oedipal complex theory'but this contradiction appears to be more superficial than real." (46, p. 176) These studies are examples of those which purport to examine unconscious processes by'tapping material which is conscious or very' close to consciousness. The Oedipal conflict, as it is re- solved, becomes repressed and unconscious, therefore, it is not to be expected that it would be shown in conscious ma- terial. Even though they may have been designed to examine unconscious processes, very few studies have utilized pro- jective techniques in testing their hypotheses. To avoid this inadequacy the instruments used in this study were projective tests. These tests are designed to tap material at the unconscious level. Because it was designed specifi- cally to measure psycho-sexual develOpment and object relationships, the Blacky Test was used as the major measuring device. A. The Blacky Test Blum and Hunt (9) have reviewed studies which have employed the Blacky Pictures in a number of separate areas. These areas included studies which compared Blacky data with predictions derived from psychoanalytic theory as well as studies which compared Blacky data with independent experi— mental measures. The authors felt that while the studies they quoted were not definitive in establishing the validity of 26 the Blacky Pictures, still the results should encoarage further explorations with the test. Since the Blum-Hunt review, various studies have been reported in the literature in which the Blacky test has been utilized to measure psycho-sexual develOpment. The previously quoted study by Rabin (40) used it with Israeli children. Cohen (12) used it to assess the social interaction of peOple as a function of conflict areas and defense mechanisms. Subjects were assessed for psycho-sexual conflicts and for preferred ego-defenses. The subjects were then paired in terms of the preferred ego-defense and psycho-sexual dimen- sion in which there was conflict, and also in terms of intensity of disturbance. Cohen felt that he had obtained some support for his hypothesis: if two people with a similar psycho-sexual disturbance interact in a situation which arouses that disturbance, their reaction to one another will be a function of their defense against that disturbance. Conflicting results have been reported by Blum and Kaufman (10) and by Bernstein and Chase (5) in the study of the relationship of the development of peptic ulcers to orality. Blum and Kaufman reported that ulcer patients tended to show disturbance on the oral-eroticism dimension of the Blacky. They suggested, from their findings, that there may be two different patterns of ulcer dynamics. One is the passive-dependent individual with insatiable oral demands. The other finds his oral demands unacceptable and expresses them or rejects them in a defensive manner. 27 Bernstein and Chase questioned whether the Blacky could differentiate the oral-dependent conflicts of ulcer patients from other disorders. They administered the test to ulcer patients, to non-ulcer psychosomatic cases, and to non-psychosomatic subjects (those with fractures, carci- nomas, etc.) They found that the oral-eroticism dimension did not differentiate the ulcer group from either of the others. However, they noted that perhaps the patients' oral passivity needs had been satisfied in some way, perhaps through their dependent state at the hospital, at the time of testing. Reed (41) has shown that parent—child relationships are reflected by the Blacky. He formulated ten hypotheses based on psychoanalytic theory. He found that oral-erotic disturbance in parents is related to oral-erotic disturbance in their children. Anal-retentive disturbance in the parents was related to anal-expulsive disturbance in the children. Similarly, disturbance in ego-ideal in the parents was re- lated to disturbance in ego-ideal in their children. 'Aronson (2),in an examination of the Freudian formulation regarding the etiology of paranoia, gave a battery of tests to paranoid patients, to.non-paranoid psychotics, and to normals. The paranoid patients were more disturbed than either non-paranoid psychotics or normals on the anal-reten¢ tive dimension and the internalized guilt-feeling dimension. (Hilgard (25) has presented a discussion of the Blacky as an experimental instrument. He felt that the original 28 investigation using the Blacky (6) can be considered an experiment for two reasons. First, certain conditions were specified by the experimenter and to some extent they were controlled. A specific population was used (college students) and responses were obtained under standard conditions for the Blacky. For these reasons the requirement of experimental control was satisfied. Second, Hilgard felt that there was some design present in the investigation. Theory was used and also logic of proof. He went on to say that the test could not be used to indicate the presence of a particular trait (for example, oral-eroticism) because the pictures were designed to draw out information based on the theory of libidinal stages. However, differences in the intensity of a response by two groups is not suggested by the pictures. The Blacky Test consists of 12 cartoon drawings about a dog, Blacky, and his family, composed of Papa, Mama, and Tippy, a sibling, age and sex not specified. Because the present subjects were males, Blacky was the son. The intro- ductory cartoon shows the family of dogs. Cartoon I, per- taining to oral-eroticism, shows Mama lying on the ground in an Open field with Blacky lying beside her nursing. Cartoon II deals with oral sadism and shows Blacky shaking and biting Mama's collar. Cartoon III, indicating anal sadism, shows four dog-houses, labeled Eapg, Mama, Tippy, and.Blacky. Blacky is relieving himself between the houses labeled flap; and Mama. Cartoon IV, dealing with Oedipal intensity, shows 29 Papa and Mama together while Blacky watches from behind some bushes. Cartoon V, designed to deal with masturbation guilt, shows Blacky licking his genitals. Cartoon VI, in males pertaining to castration anxiety, shows Blacky watching Tippy who is blindfolded and whose tail is resting on a block of wood. A knife is falling toward Tippy's tail. Cartoon VII, indicating identification, shows Blacky shaking his paw at a toy dog. Cartoon VIII, dealing with sibling rivalry, shows Mama and Papa with Tippy and Blacky standing to one side watching. Cartoon IX, pertaining to guilt feelings, shows Blacky being scolded by a.dream-dog. Cartoon 2, in.males indicating positive ego-ideal, shows Blacky dreaming about a black dog. Cartoon XI, in males dealing with the love ob- ject, shows Blacky dreaming about a dog with a ribbon on its neck. For the present study the Blacky was used as a group instrument, according to the standardized instructions.(6) Groups varied in size from 5 to 17 subjects. Each subject was given a test booklet (Appendix I) in which.he wrote his responses as he looked at the Blacky pictures projected on a screen at the front of the classroom. Before the first slide, the following instructions were read: What we have here is a bunch of cartoons, like you see in the funny papers, except there are no words. I'll show them to you, one cartoon at a time, and the idea is for you to make up a little story about each one - just tell what is happening in the picture, why it is happening, and so on. Since this is a sort of test of how good your imagination can be, 50 try to write vividly about how the charactersibel. You will have two minutes for each story, which means about one or two paragraphs on each cartoon. It is desirable to write as much as possible with- in the time limit. After this, the introductory cartoon was shown and the subjects were told, "Here are Papa, Mamma, Tippy, and their son Blacky." After each Spontaneous story was obtained, the subjects re- sponded to questions relating to that cartoon. (Appendix I). Though only five of the cartoons were directly related to the present hypotheses, all 12 cartoons were administered. The Blacky Test was scored, using Blum's scoring system. (7) According to this system, a single plus or a double plus is given for certain Specific responses. For example, in scoring for castration anxiety, if the subject in reSponding to Item I chooses th: item response (b), Blacky is puzzled agdggpsgp, he receives + . If he chooses item response (a), Blacky is terrified he is ggipg 32 pg ggzt, he receives + + . The number of plusses was totaled to give a numerical score. A high score indicated disturbance in the dimension under consideration. Scoring independently, two judges differed in only nine instances out of a possible 216 scorings, 96% agree- ment. In addition to this global score obtained for each cartoon, certain of the inquiry items were related to each hypothesis and responses to them examined individually. These specific items were chosen from the regular inquiry items because they were particularly pertinent to the hypotheses and/or-because 51 they were amenable to objective scoring and thus to statistical analysis. The items chosen are enumerated and discussed more fully below. B. The TAT Cards Cards 1, 7BM, and BBM from the Thematic Apperception Test (59) were used as a supplementary measure. These cards were chosen because they depicted scenes which, it was felt, would elicit stories dealing with situations relevant to the hypotheses. Card 1 shows a boy, sitting behind a table, looking down at a violin lying on the table. This was used to show identification. Card 7BM shows a grey-haired man looking at a younger man who is looking into space. This in- dicated choice of the father as ego-ideal. Card BBM shows an adolescent boy looking straight out of the picture. In the background is the dim scene of a surgical Operation. This was used to show castration anxiety. In order to preserve the format used with the Blacky test, objective items were composed to be used with each TAT card. These items are included in Appendix I, just as they were presented to the subjects. Before using them with the subjects, these items were submitted to judges. These judges were 3 advanced graduate students in Psychology. They were asked to choose which of the item-responses would show the greatest castration anxiety, close identification with the father, or choice of the father as ego-ideal. They agreed, without dissent, as to which of the'pdssible item-responses was in each case the crucial one. 52 The global judgment for the TAT was made by 2 judges. In making the global judgments (for the Blacky as well as for the TAT) the complete protocol of a subject from the experimental group was paired with the protocol of a subject from the control group. In judging the TAT a judge*was asked to choose which of each pair showed the greater degree of castration anxiety, closer identification with the father, and the greater choice of the father as ego-ideal. As noted above, response to TAT Card SBM was used to indicate castra- tion anxiety; response to TAT Card 1, identification; and reSponse to TAT Card 73M, choice of the father as ego—ideal. Degree of agreement between the two judges is shown in Table I. TABLE I Agreement of Judges on TAT Cards Card 1 Card 73M Card SBM Judgments agreed 18 25 22 Judgments disagreed _;1 __fl __2 Total 29 29 29 % Agreement 62 86 76 Agreement on Card 1 was very poor (62% agreement). On Cards 7BM-and 83M, agreement was somewhat closer, 86% and 76% re- spectively. The judges noted that in many cases their ratings were arbitrary, due to the tendency of subjects to choose the same item response and also because of the brevity of the stories given. 35 Thus, for both the Blacky Test and the Thematic Apper- ception Test, there were two types of measurements: a global one, based on the free association plus the objective response, and the other measurement, based on individual inquiry items. The specific items to be related to each hypothesis are discussed in the following section. Inquiry Items Related to Hypotheses Hngthesis I: Responses to the following questions from the Blacky inquiryl were analyzed individually to indicate Oedipal intensity and love object. Cartoon IV of the Blacky Test shows Blacky watching the mother and father dogs making love. 1) How does Blacky feel about seeing Papa and Mamma make love? 5) What will Papa do if he sees Blacky peeking? 6) What will Mama do if she sees Blacky peeking? 7) Which.would make a happier picture? a) Mama left on the outside watching Blacky together with Papa. 'b) Papa left on the outside watching Blacky together with Mama. Cartoon XI of the Blacky Test shows Blacky dreaming about a female dog. 1) Who is the figure Blacky is dreaming about? 2) Whom does the figure remind Blacky of? 5) Which of the following would attract Blacky most? a) The possibility that the dream figure looks like himself, which would increase his price. b) The possibility that the dream figure looks like Mama, which would remind him of the good old days. 1. Questions referring to each of the Blacky cartoons were taken from the Blacky inquiry items. Psychological Corp., Record Blank: The Blacky Pictures, New York, 1950. 54 c) The possibility that the dream figure looks like someone else, whom he could make happy by giving her all his love. 5) In Blacky's mind how does Mamma stack up against the dream.figure when he compares them? Hypothesis II: Responses to the following questions were analyzed individually to indicate castration anxiety. From the inquiry for Cartoon VI of the Blacky Test, which shows Tippy's tail about to be docked, these questions were used: 1) How does Blacky feel here? a) Terrified that he is going to be next. b) Puzzled and upset. c) Curious but calm. 2) What does Blacky suspect might be the reason for this scene? a) He suspects Tippy is being punished for having done something wrong. b) He suspects Tippy is the innocent victim of someone else's ideas. 0) He suspects Tippy is being improved in some way. 5) How does Blacky feel about his own tail? a) He's not particularly worried about it. b) He's thinking desperately about a way to save it. c) He thinks he might look better if it is cut off. d) He's so upset he wishes he never saw or heard of tails. The following questions were used with Card 8BM of the TAT which shows an adolescent boy looking straight out of the pic- ture. In the background is the dim scene of a surgical operation. 1) Which of the following statements best describes this picture? a) The boy is remembering part of a movie he has just seen. 55 b) The boy is dreaming of becoming a skilled and famous surgeon. c) The thought of being operated on has made this boy turn away. Hypothesis III: ReSponses to the following questions were analyzed individually to determine identification. From the inquiry for Cartoon VII of the Blacky Test, which shows Blacky being scolded, the following were used: ‘ 1) Who talks like that to Blacky - Mama or Papa or Tippy? 2) Whom is Blacky most likely to obey - Mama or Papa or Tippy? 4) Whom would Blacky rather pattern himself after - Mama or Papa or Tippy? The questions below were used with Card 1 of the TAT which shows a boy looking at a violin lying on the table in front of him. 1) Which of the following statements best describes this picture? a) His violin is on the table and he is waiting for his music lesson. b) He admires his father and is dreaming of being as great a violinist as he is. c) The boy is tired of playing the violin and would rather be playing ball. 2) What person would be most effective in getting the bo to finish his practicing? a His father. b) His mother. c) His music teacher. Hypothesis IV: Reaponses to the following questions were analyzed individually to determine ego-ideal. From the inquiry for Cartoon X, which shows Blacky dreaming about a male dog, 36 the following were used: 1) Whom does the figure remind Blacky of? 2) In Blacky's mind how does Papa stack up against the dream figure when he compares them? The questions below were used with.Card 73M of the TAT which shows a grey-haired man looking at a younger man who is look- ing into Space. 1) Which of the following statements best describes this picture? a) The boy is determined to live up to the ideals and standards of this older man whom he greatly admires. b) The older man is telling about his childhood experiences. c) The boy is anxious to go to his friends who are waiting for him. 2) If the father is giving his son advice, how would the son feel about it? a) Resentful because of his father's interference. b) Pleased because his father is helping him. c) He does not care one way or the other. Treatment of Data In the present study the hypotheses were concerned with the number of subjects falling in a particular category. Be- cause of this, and because it is a non-parametric statistical technique, Chi square was used as a test of significance of the data Obtained from each of the objective items on both the Blacky Test and the TAT. In all cases Yates correction for continuity for small samples was made as described by Guil- ford . (21) Differences at the .05 level of confidence were 57 considered to be significant. Where apprOpriate, a one- tailed test of significance was utilized. In each it is indicated whether a one-tailed or a two-tailed test was used. The scoring system for the Blacky (used for the global evaluation) gave numerical scores. Protocols from the two groups of subjects were paired and the rank test for paired observations was used in analyzing the global reSponse to individual cartoons. The gldbal judgments of the TAT were made in paired comparisons so the sign test (15) was used for this data. Different tests were used for the data from the Blacky Test and the TAT because of the differing methods of rating the data. With the Blacky, a numerical score was obtained. The data from the TAT was obtained as paired judg- ments. The rank test is more sensitive than the sign test because it takes into consideration the magnitude of scores. This means that it could be used with the Blacky data, and it would be a more sensitive measure than would the sign test. The TAT did not produce numerical scores so the rank test could not be used. 56 RESULTS Hypotheses Hypothesis I. This hypothesis dealt with the effect of ab- sence of the father on the strength of attachment felt by the subject for his mother. Tables II and III show the reaponse of the experimental and control groups to inquiry questions 1, 5, 6 and 7 of Blacky Cartoon IV, indicating Oedipal intensity. According to this hypothesis, the experimental subjects would give responses to question 1, Cartoon IV, indicating fear or jealousy. Since this was an Open-ended question, responses such as "Blacky feels ashamed" were given by the subjects. Any reSponse indicating negative feelings was considered to indicate strong Oedipal intensity. No signifi- cant difference was found between the experimental and control groups. Following the first hypothesis, more of the experimental group would expect papa to punish or reject Blacky. Table II indicates that the experimental and control groups were not significantly different in their reSponse to question 5, Cartoon IV. According to this hypothesis, the experimental group would not expect Mama to be punitive or rejecting toward TABLE II Item ReSponses to Blacky Cartoon IV Question 1 Experimental Control g2:;re p. Fear, Jealousy, negative l9 15 .54 N.S. No concern, positive _1& _16 Total 55 29 Question 5 Papa reject Blacky l4 14 .041 N.S. Papa accept Blacky _19 _15 Total 55 29 gpestion 6 Mama reject Blacky 15 10 .57 N.S. Mama accept Blacky 18 _19 Total 33 29 guestion 7 Blacky with Mama 16 10 .52 N.S. With someone else _12 18 Total 55 28* * 1 subject did not reSpond to this item. 4O Blacky for peeking. Table II shows no significant difference between the experimental and control groups in their responses to this question. As this hypothesis was stated, more of the eXperimental group would feel that Blacky should be with Mama. As shown in Table II, the experimental and control groups were again not significantly different in their response to question 7, Cartoon IV. Thus, when considered individually, none of the four inquiry items for Cartoon IV seems to distinguish the two groups in relation to Oedipal intensity. However, as shown in Table III, where the free association and reSponse to all inquiry items were considered globally, there was shown a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the direction hypothesized. TABLE III Global Reaponse to Blacky Cartoon IV Experimental Control Sum of rank scores 521 114 Indicating strong (7- 46.2 Oedipal intensity 2 2 23 p .02‘ ‘One-tailed test Tables IV and V show the reSponse of the experimental and control groups to inquiry questions 1, 2, 5, and 5 for Blacky Cartoon XI, which is concerned with the love object. 41 According to the first hypothesis, experimental subjects would say that Blacky is dreaming of Mama. As indicated by Table IV, this was found to be a non-discriminating item since all but three of the total group said that Blacky was dreaming of someone other than Mama. These three, however, were all in the experimental group. According to the first hypothesis, the eXperimental sub- jects would say that the dream figure reminds Blacky of Mama. In this case (Table IV) the tendency appears to be in the opposite direction from the hypothesis. More of the ex- perimental group chose someone else rather than Mama, while the control group was about equally divided. However, this difference is significant only between the .10 and .20 level of confidence. Following the first hypothesis, the experimental group, in responding to question 5, Cartoon XI, would choose the item response indicating that the dream figure looks like Mama, which reminded Blacky of the good old days. This item (Table IV) again showed little discriminating power, with all but five of the subjects avoiding the crucial item response. According to this hypothesis, the eXperimental subjects would say that Mama is as good as or better than the dream figure. As with question 2 for this Cartoon, the tendency appears to be in the opposite direction from that hypothesized, but the level of confidence is only .10 - .20. Thus, two of the four inquiry items pertaining to Cartoon XI and dealing with the anaclitic love object, 42 TABLE IV Item Response to BlaCky Cartoon XI Chi- Question 1 Experimental Control Square p. Dreaming of Mama 5 0 N.C.* N.S. Dreaming of someone else 50 29 Total 55 29 Question 2 Dream reminds of Mama 9 14 2.07 .10-.20** Reminds someone else 24 15 Total 55 29 guestion 5 Figure looks like Mama 4 l N C.* N.S. Looks like Blacky, someone 29 28 else Total 55 29 Question 5 Mama good as or better 10 15 2.10 .10-.20‘* Mama not as good 25 14 Total 53 29 * Not computed, eXpected frequencies too small ** Two-tailed test 45 though not significant, were found to be in the Opposite direction from that hypothesized. As shown in Table V, the glObal.score for Cartoon XI was also in the opposite direc- tion from that hypothesized, but significant only at the .54 level of confidence. TafiLE V Global Response to Blacky Cartoon XI Anaclitic Love Object Experimental Control Sum of rank scores 172 265 Indicating anaclitic love object 0- 46.2 2 .97 p. N.S. Hypothesis II. This hypothesis stated that the experimental subjects would feel less castration anxiety than would the control group. Tables VI and VII show the response of the experimental and control groups to inquiry questions 1, 2, 5 and 5 of Blacky Cartoon VI, dealing with castration anxiety. Table VIII shows response to TAT card 83M- According to this hypothesis, the control group would say that Blacky is frightened. Table VI shows that in reSponding to question 1, Cartoon VI, there was no significant difference between the two groups. As hypOthesis II was stated, the control group would say that Blacky is being punished. Table VI shows that following TABLE VI Item Reaponse to Blacky Cartoon VI Question 1 Experimental Control gguare p Blacky terrified-upset ll 12 .15 N.S. Blacky curious, calm _ge _l2 Total 55 29 Question 2 Blacky being punished 6 5 N.C.* N.S. Being improved, victim _22, _ge Total 55 29 Queetion 5 Not worried 25 21 N.C.‘ N.S. Worried _;Q __8 Total 55 29 Question 5 Papa arranged for tail 9 14 1.85 .05-.10‘*‘ Someone else arranged _25 _;5 Total 52“ 29 ‘= Not computed; cell deviation too small to use Yates correction. *‘ 1 subject did not reapond to this item. “* One-tailed test. 45 this prediction, there is no significant difference between the two groups. According to Hypothesis II, the control group, in responding to Question 5, Cartoon VI, would say that Blacky is worried about his tail. Table VI shows that there was no significant difference between the two groups in their response to this item. According to this hypothesis, the control group would say that Papa arranged to have Tippy's tail cut off. Table VI shows that there was no significant difference between the two groups, though the tendency may be in the direction hypo- thesized. Thus, when considered individually, none of the four in- quiry items for Cartoon VI support the hypothesis regarding castration anxiety. Nor is it supported when one considers the global score as shown in Table VII. TABLE VII Global Response to Blacky Cartoon VI Experimental Control Sum Of rank scores in- 215.5 219.5 dicating strong castration anxiety 6“ 46.2 z .05 p N.S. According to this hypothesis, the control group, in reSponding to TAT card SBM nould say that the Operation has made the boy turn away. As shown in Table VIII, this item TABLE‘VIII Response to TAT - Card 85M 46 Exper. Control Chi-square p Being operated on 5 7 .55 N.S. Neutral Foils 28 2 Total 55 29 Global reSponse Judge #1 Judge #2 Exper. Contr. Exper. Contr. Most castration anxiety l2 . 17 ll 18 Least anxiety 12 12 18 11 Total 29 29 29 29 z .95 1.50 p N.S. N.S. 4'7 TABLE IX Item Reaponse to Blacky Cartoon VII Chi- Question 1 Experimental Control square p Papa talks like that 7 16 6.22 .01* Mamma, Tippy 26 15 Total 55 29 Question 2 Obey Papa l5 19 1.76 .05-.10‘ Obey Mama, Tippy 18 10 Total 55 29 Question 4 Be like Papa 20 25 5.85 .01‘ Like Mama, Tippy l5 4 Total 55 29 ‘One—tailed test. 48 does not distinguish between the two groups, either in the item response or the global response. Hypothesis II, then, has not been supported by reSponse to either Blacky Cartoon VI or TAT Card 83M. Hypothesis III. This hypothesis stated that the control group would feel a closer identification with the father than would the experimental group. Tables IX through XI show the response of the experimental and control groups to Blacky Cartoon VII, dealing with identification with the father. According to this hypothesis, the control group would say, in responding to Question 1, Cartoon VII, that Papa talks to Blacky like the dog in the picture. As indicated by Table IX, the hypothesis has been strongly supported beyond the .01 level of confidence. As hypothesis III was stated, the control group would say that Papa is the one Blacky will Obey. Though Table IX indicates a low level of confidence (.05-.10), the tendency is in the direction predicted. According to this hypothesis, the control group would indicate, for Question.4, Cartoon VII, that Blacky wants to be like Papa. This hypothesis also was supported beyond the .01 level of confidence. Two out of the three inquiry items on this cartoon support Hypothesis III. As shown in Table X, there is a tendency in the hypo- thesized direction (at the .08 level of confidence) when one considers the global score for Cartoon VII. 49 TABLE X Global Response to Blacky Cartoon VII Experimental Control Sum of rank scores 286 149 6— 4602 z 1.47 p .08‘ I"0ne--tai1ed test It was hypothesized that more of the experimental sub- jects would show diffusion Of identification than would be the case with the control group. Those subjects who were ambivalent in responding to the inquiry items of Cartoon VII were considered to show diffuse identification. For example, if instead of choosing one Of the item responses Offered (Mepe, Pepe, or Tippy), the subject gave a response referring to more than one individual, or he gave a response which in- dicated inability to make a choice, this was counted as an ambivalent response. The following are illustrative of such ambivalence: Mama and Papa, all of them, no one, no feelin , don't know, either Ofpthep. As shown in Table XI, a larger number Of the experimental group than of the control group were ambivalent in their choice Of response. TABLE XI Number of Subjects Giving Ambivalent Responses to Blacky Cartoon VII Experimental Control Question 1 l5 5 Question 2 7 O Queetion 4 4 0 Total 24 5 TABLE XII Response to TAT - Card 1 SO Question 1 Question 2 Exp; Control Exp. Control_ Admire father 7 6 Father makes l6 l6 practice Neutral foils 25 25 Neutral foils 16 15 Total 52* 29 Total 52* 29 ‘ 1 subject did not Chi-sq. Chi—Square .02 respond to this not N S question computed p. ' ' P. N.S. Global Response Judge #1 Judge #2 Expr. Control Expr. Control Close identification l6 l5 17 12 Least identification l5 16 12 12 Total 29* 29* 29* 29* Z 055 .95 p N.S. N.S. * Paired for sign test 51 Thus, reSponse to Blacky Cartoon VII supports Hypo- thesis III. Re ponse to two out of three inquiry items was significant at the .01 level of confidence or better. The third inquiry item and the global response tended in the direction hypothesized. Identification appears to be more diffuse in the experimental subjects. ReSponse to TAT Card 1 does not support the hypothesis. Hypethesis IV. This hypothesis stated that the experimental group would show less tendency to choose the father as the ego-ideal than would the control group. Tables XIII and XIV show the response to inquiry items 1 and 2 of Blacky Cartoon X, indicating choice of the father as ego-ideal. According to this hypothesis, the experimental group, in responding to question 1, Cartoon X, would say that theciream figure reminds Blacky of someone other than Papa. This hy- pothesis is supported by data shown in Table XII. As hypothesis IV is stated, the experimental group would think that Papa does not compare well with the dream figure. Table XIII shows that this item did not distinguish between the experimental and control groups. Thus, only one of the two inquiry items for Cartoon X distinguishes between the two groups Of subjects. Nor did the glObal score distinguish between the experimental and control groups. Response to questions 1 and 2 suggests, however, that there may be aten- dency to respond in the direction hypothesized. TABLE XIII 52 Item Response to Blacky Cartoon X Chi- Experimental Control square p Question I Remind of Papa 4 9 2.29 .02-.05* Someone Else 29 20 Total 55 29 euestion 2 Papa as good or 15 15 .02 N.S. better Papa not as good 18 16 Total 55 29 *one—tailed test 55 TABLE XIV Global Response to Blacky Cartoon X Experimental Control Sum of rank scores 16? 268 Indicating the father or 46.2 as ego-ideal z 1 08 p N.S. The global score Obtained for Cartoon X, while not statisti- cally significant, also tends in the direction hypothesized. As shown in Table XV, the data Obtained from questions 1 and 2 for Card 71p; of the TAT did not support hypothesis IV.- TABLE XV Response to TAT - Card 79M Question l Questgon:g_ Expr. Control Expr. gentpp; Father 18 20 _ Resentful ll 5 Neutral foils _15 __§ Neutral foils _ee _e1 Total 55 28* Total 55 28* *1 blank Chi-square 1.22 Chi-square 1.11 p N.S. p N.S. O a1 e onse Qudge #1 J d e 2 Exper. Contrg;i Exper. Contrq;_ Father as ego-ideal l5 16 15 16 Neutral foils _;§ _;5, _;§ _15 Total 29* 29* 29* 29* *Paired for sign test 2 .55 2 ~55 p N.S. p N.S. Thus hypothesis IV has received only slight support from the data Obtained from Blacky Cartoon X. One of the two inquiry items supports the hypothesis at a significant level Of confidence. The response to TAT card 75M Offers no clear support for it. However, reSponse to this as well as the global response to Cartoon X is in the direction hypo- thesized. Summary Complete results in relation to the hypotheses for the Blacky Test are summarized in Table XVI. Hypotheses I, III, and IV have received some support from the response made to the Blacky Test. Hypothesis II was not supported. The TAT cards, with the exception of questions 1 and 2, Card 7pm, proved non-discriminating, since the subjects of both groups tended to answer in the same direction. Questions 1 and 2 for Card 75M did show some tendency to discriminate between the two groups but not at a significant level. Additional Data ‘In scoring Blacky Cartoon XI, what seemed to be a signi- ficantly high degree Of narcissism was Observed in the proto- cols Of the experimental subjects. Because of this, the protocols were scored formally and, as shown in Table XVI, the experimental group showed a tendency in the direction Of a greater degree of narcissism than did the control group. TAQLE XVI 55 Summary of Response to Blacky Cartoons IV, VI, VII, X, XI BIPOTHESIS I Oedipal Intensity (Cartoon IV) Question 1 2 6 7 Global p N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. p .02 Love Object Global Global huestion 1 2 5 5 Anaclitic Narcissistic Chi-square N.C. 2.07 N.C. 2.10 z .97 z 1.71 p N.S. lO-.20* N.S. .lO-.20* p N.S. p .09* HIPOTHESIS II Castration Anxiety Qpestion 1 2 5 5 Global Chi-square e 15 N 0C 0 NOC e 1085 Z .05 p N.S. N.S. N.S. .05-.10 p N.S. HYPOTHESIS III Identification geestion 1 2 4 Global Chi-square 6.22 1.76 5.85 z 1.47 p <00]. 005-010 <00]- p 008 HIPOTHESIS IV Ego-Ideal Question 1 2 Global Chi-square 2.29 .02 z 1.08 P 002-005 N.S. p N.S. *Two-tailed test N.C. - not computed because fe too small 56 TABLE XVII Global Response to Blacky Cartoon XI Narcissictic Love Object Experimental Control Sum of rank scores indicating 297 158 narcissistic love object or 46.2 2 1.71 p .09" *Two-tailed test Global ratings for Blacky Cartoons I, II, III, V, VIII, and IX were also Obtained. The results, as shown in Table XVIII, indicate that there is no significant difference between the experimental and control groups in any of these psycho-sexual dimensions. One - sibling rivalry - is signi- ficant at the .11 level of confidence, but it is not possible even to speculate regarding the meaning Of this on the basis Of these findings. Position in the family in relation to sibs was not controlled and, as shown in Table XIX, the experimental and control groups were not equated in this respect. The mode among the experimental group is to be the oldest child of the family. In the control group it is to be a middle child. This difference is not surprising when one considers the methods followed when drafting into the armed forces. It was not customary to take men with several children and those men who had more than one child tended to be in the older age groups which were not taken into the armed TABLE XVIII Response to Blacky Cartons I, II, III, V, VIII, IX Exper. Control 4- z p Cartoon I-Strong oral 259 176 46.2 .89 N.S. eroticism-Sum Of rank scores Cartoon II-strong oral 285 150 46.2 1.46 .15 sadism-sum of rank scores Cartoon III-strong oral 216 219 46.2 .052 N.S. expulsive-sum of rank ' scores Cartoon III-strong anal 172 265 4612 .99 N.S. retentive-sum Of rank scores Cartoon V—strong mastur— 201.5 255.5 46.2 .54 N.S. bation guilt-sum Of rank scores Cartoon VIII-strong sib- 291.0 144 46.2 1.59 .11 ling rivalry-sum of rank scores Cartoon IX-strong guilt 225.5 209.5 46.2 .16 N.S. feelings-sum of rank scores 57 58 forces early in the war, when the fathers Of the present sample were taken. The child's position in his family in relation to Older or younger siblings could certainly be expected to be a relevant variable in the measurement of sibling rivalry. Because Of this, the tendency toward a stronger feeling of sibling rivalry, if it does exist in the experimental group, cannot be attributed to the experi- mental variables relevant tO this study. TABIE XIX Number of subjects in each sibling position Experimental Control Oldest Child 18 8 Middle Child 7 l2 Youngest Child 1 7 Only Child _Q _2 Total 52* 29 *1 subject did not reSpond 59 DISCUSSION The purpose Of the present study was to examine the effect on adult personality structure when the father is absent during the so-called Oedipal period. Three Of the four hypotheses formulated for this study have received at least some support from the data. These hypotheses may also a be predicted from other points of view, for example, associa- tionism as well as neo-Freudianism. The present discussion is limited to the Freudian and neo-Freudian controversy. Hypotheses Hypothesis I The first hypothesis, that more separated sub- jects would maintain a closer attachment to the mother than would non-separated subjects, had two aspects. The first was that more separated subjects would evidence strong Oedipal intensity. None of the individual inquiry items distinguished between the two groups. However, in total response, there is a significant difference between the experimental and control groups, in the direction predicted. It was in relation to the second aspect of Hypothesis I that unexpected and interesting data were Obtained. It was expected that the experimental group would maintain the mother as an excessively cathected Object. Instead, the control group tended to choose the mother as an anaclitic love Object, while the eXperimental group appeared to show preference for a narcissistic love Object. An examination of response to the items used to determine the anaclitic 60 love Object showed that the control group gave responses to a greater degree, indicating, not that the love object was the mother herself, but that she was the prototype Of his love Object. The experimental group, on the other hand, gave reaponses indicating the rejection of the mother as prototype for the love Object. There seemed to be represented in the experimental group something of a negative cathexis toward the mother. For example, instead of choosing the item-response which.says Blacky is dreaming of Mama, both groups said Blacky is dreaming Of someone else. But where the control group was evenly divided between saying that the dream figure reminds Blacky of Mama and saying that it reminds Blacky Of someone else, the experimental group almost 5 to 1 said the dream figure reminds Blacky Of someone else. A Similar situation existed in the item dealing with how Mama compared to the dream figure. Two-thirds Of the experimental group said she was not as good. The control group was again about evenly divided. 9 Instead of choosing an external love Object, the experi- mental group appeared tO have turned to a narcissistic choice. Blum (p. 26) says that Later in life [when the ego has been differentiated] individuals in the face of severe stress are tempted to regain the original_idy11ic feeling of security [pf primary narcissist . . . . This return to self love as a consequence of failure to make satisfactory attachments to others is termed 'secondary narcissism'. The present data may indicate some degree of secondary.narcis~; sism in the experimental group. It can be reasoned that the 61 boy who has not made adequate resolution of the Oedipal conflict because his father was absent, will eXperience stress when his father returns. At that time his mother, very likely, would begin to show the father attention which the boy had been accustomed to receive exclusively and the boy would be expected to react negatively. In view of the present findings, one can speculate that because Of this stress, the experimental group has regressed to a narcissistic type Of Object choice, but Of course only further research can throw more light on this issue. Hypothesis II. In no aspect was this hypothesis (that more non-separated subjects would show castration anxiety) sup- ported by the data. The concept that the Oedipus conflict "is smashed to pieces by the shock of threatened castration" (16) has been considered by some to be a weak point in Freudian theory. It was difficult to account, in terms Of castration anxiety, for the passing of the Oedipal conflict in girls who cannot experience castration anxiety as a dynamic force. For this reason fear of loss of love, disappointment, shame, and fear of physical injury have been postulated to explain the resolution of the Oedipal conflict in women. (14) The neo-Freudians, with their de- emphasis of the Oedipal conflict, concerned themselves very little with castration anxiety. Their point of view, in general, is that any conflicts the child experienced in his attachments to either parent could be explained in terms 62 of his total experience throughout childhood and adoles- cence. They do not feel the Oedipal conflict to be universal, but rather something that develOps, if it does appear, because Of environmental factors. For example, Adler (1) felt that attachment to either parent was the result of pampering; Horney (24), that it resulted from sexual stimulation by the parent; Fromw(l8), that the Oedipus myth.was not a symbol of an incestuous tie with the mother, but a conflict with authority of the father. Therefore, the resolution of the Oedipal conflict would not be in.terms of threat of castration, but some change in interpersonal re- lationship. I The lack of discrimination, by means of the present techniques, between the experimental and control groups, which was shown in relation to Hypothesis II, would lend some support to the view that castration anxiety is not a relevant variable in relation to the total problem Of this study. Hypothesis III. It is in terms of identification with the father that there appears most clearly to be a difference between the experimental and control groups. From the data presented it appears that in some way the absence Of the father for a:re1atively short period Of time has affected the identification process. This is as hypothesized ac- cording to Freudian theory, but it is not necessary to ascribe the change entirely to an absence of two or three 65 years on the part of the father. As Stolz (48) has shown, the period of adjustment when the father returned was a difficult one. It is possible that this difficulty between father and child established a pattern Of relationship which maintained itself indefinitely so that close identification with the father could never be achieved. If one accepts that the identification process has been affected by the fathers' absence, a natural question follows. What kind of identifications have the young men made? No answer is provided by the present data, but one can speculate that identification in the experimental group has been more diffuse than in the control group. Though their fathers were. absent, there were usually other adult males with.whom the boys had close contacts. Many army wives returned to their parents' home for the duratiOn. In this case, the boy may have tended to identify with his grandfather. In many cases there were uncles, or even older cousins, who could serve as a mOdel. Sometimes the relationships available to the boy might be almost completely feminine, with no close male to whom he could relate. One might expect the most common pattern to be one of diffuse relationship, where there were several figures available to the boy, with no one individual in a very close association. And most important of all, for the boy, none of these adult males would have, with his mother and himself, the same relationship as would his father. Whether one accepts the Freudian concept of fixation at certain develOpmental levels or follows the neoéFreudian 64 point of view in stressing the sum total of parent-child re- lationships, the implication of the data related to Hypothesis III is that the absence of the father during this period of the child's life has in some way affected the identification process. Hypothesis IV. The present data lend only slight support to the hypothesis that boys separated from their fathers during the Oedipal period will choose someone other than the father as their ego-ideal. Both the experimental and control groups tend to choose someone other than the father as an egOPideal, but‘the tendency seems to be for a greater prOportion of the . experimental group to make this sort of choice. This tendency might be considered as a reinforcement Of the findings Obtained for hypothesis III because the concepts Of identification and ego-ideal are closely related. As already noted (p. 9) in the resolution of the Oedipal complex, Object choice is replaced by identification with the father. The Oedipus complex is regressively replaced by identifica- tion through introjection. The introjected parents combine with previously existing identifications to form the super—ego. The super—ego is not only a source Of threats and punishment but also a source Of protection and a provider of love. SO there are two aspects of the super-ego, first as a threaten- ing, prohibitive power, and second, as the pattern Of what the individual would like to be, the ego—ideal. These two aSpects of the superwego are closely interwoven as were the threaten- ing and protective powers of the parents. 65 If, as the data related to hypothesis III indicated, the identification process with the father was interfered with, one would expect the experimental group to choose some one other than the father as ego-ideal. Stolz (48) reported less conformity to father's standards in separated children than in non-separated children. The separated boys also showed a more distant emotional relationship with their fathers. This is not a climate in which one would expect the father to develOp as an ego-ideal. It is in terms of the boy's total relationship to his father that there appears the clearest differences between the two groups. It is here that the absence of the father during this devtiopmental period seems to have the most evident influence. Thematic Apperception Test The use of the TAT cards in this study did not prove very fruitful. In general, the subjects from both groups tended to choose the same item-response, so that for three out of the five inquiry items, cell frequencies were too small to compute Chi-square. As noted earlier, because Of the tendency for all subjects to choose the same reSponse, and because of the brevity of the stories given, the judges felt that the global judgment as to which subject showed the greater degree of the trait in question was in many cases arbitrary. In ad- dition, the TAT may have proved unsatisfactory because Of the nature Of the test. Because the stimulus is a picture 66 involving people in more or less structured situations, the material it taps is mdch closer to consciousness than is the material tapped by the Blacky. Further the very fact that the judges who:rated the TAT items agreed so perfectly may indicate that these items were too Obvious and that this is the reason the subjects tended to avoid the crucial responses. It is possible that the items were also too Specific. For example, if the item, He admires his father and_;e dreaming_o§ being_as great a violinist as he is, had read IQEIBOY admigee hie:father and is thinkingpof following his rofession, it is possible that it would have attracted.morep response. For the TAT to be a useful instrument in this kind of study, it would be necessary to do extensive work in.formu- lating inquiry items and in establishing Objective scoring methods for the free association. 67 CONCLUSIONS From the data presented in this study, it appears that the absence of the father during the so-called Oedipal period has affected some aSpects of personality develOpment. |In Freudian theory, the Oedipal conflict is resolved because the boy, due to castration anxiety, renounces his mother as a love Object, and substitutes identification with his father. Progress to a higher level never takes place completely. Freud's simile was an advancing army, leaving occupation troops at all important points. (14) In the adult personality structure, then, there will be incomplete transition from one psychosexual level to the next higher. Strong Oedipal inten- sity and inadequate identification with.the father, for example, are indicators of an incompletely resolved Oedipal conflict. In the present study, more of the young male adults who were separated from their fathers during this time Showed strong Oedipal intensity than does a similar group which was not separated. Fewer of the separated group felt a close 3 identification with the father then the non—separated group. More Of the separated group tended to choose someone other than the father as their ego~ideal. Insofar as one accepts these characteristics as indicating inadequate resolution of 68 the Oedipal conflict, so far is Freudian theory supported by this study. Castration anxiety which might be considered, in Freudian theory, the key to resolution Of the Oedipal con- flict, does not appear in this study to be a relevant variable. In neo-Freudian theory, emphasis is on the totality of experience throughout childhood and even into adulthood. The neo-Freudians place much less emphasis on moving from one psychosexual level to another in step-wise fashion. They cannot accept the concept that after the organism has passed beyond the so~called Oedipal period, the unresolved elements of the Oedipal conflict will be relegated to the unconscious,. unapproachable except through analysis. They feel that an Oedipal conflict, if it has developed, may be affected at any time in the organism's life if there is a change in the en- vironment. From the neo-Freudian point of view, the findings in regard to identification would not be interpreted to mean an unresolved Oedipal conflict. Their interpretation of the present data might be that fewer of the experimental group Show close identification with their fathers, not because they were separated.from their fathers during a particular period of psychosexual development, but because this separa- tion created a particular environment which hindered the development Of a close identification. That is to say, the father's being absent and the contingent prOblemS on his return Operated to create a continuing environment which 69 influenced personality development. The data related to castration anxiety would be consi- dered by the neoéFreudians as supporting their point of view. In orthodox Freudian theory, castration anxiety has a very important role. It implements the resolution of the Oedipal conflict and, though it is finally repressed into the unconscious, remains with the organism throughout life. As discussed earlier, the neo-Freudians de—emphasize castra- tion anxiety and pass over it lightly in their theories. From the present data, it does not appear to be a relevant variable. The neo-Freudians would interpret this as support for their view, that castration anxiety should not have a vital or even very important place in Oedipal theory. That the absence Of the fathers was meaningful in the development of these young adults seems to be implied by the present data, but there still remain unanswered ques- tions. Environment after the father's return was not con- trolled as a variable. One cannot say that on the father's return there was no difference in the environment Of the two groups. It is possible that self-perpetuating patterns Of relationships were established because Of the difficult adjustment period, patterns which would not necessarily have appeared had the father been present continually. The ques- tion remains, what would have been the personality development in the experimental group if the father had returned to a warm, understanding relationship, without either father or child experiencing a difficult adjustment? 70 Future research which controlled for environmental differences after the fathers! return would limit experi- mental variables to the period of the fathers' absence. This would perhaps throw more light on the prOblem of finality of experience during certain psychosexual develOpmental periods. The additional data Observed in this study also suggests an interesting area for exploration. In discussing this data, it was suggested that the experimental group had regressed to choice Of a narcissistic love Object. Further research would perhaps Show whether this interpretation was justified 71 SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of absence of the father on the resolution Of the Oedipal con- flict. A review Of the literature dealt with the differing points of views of the Freudian and neo-Freudian schools of psychology in respect to this developmental period. Four hypotheses were formulated: (l) more Of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will maintain. strong attachment to the mother; (2) fewer Of the experimen- tal subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong castration anxiety; (5) fewer Of the experimental subjects, as compared to the control subjects, will show strong identification with the father, and identification Of the experimental subjects will be more diffuse than will be the case with the control subjects; (4) fewer of the experi— mental subjects, as compared tO the control subjects, will choose their fathers as the type of figure adapted for heir ego—ideal. ‘ The subjects were 62 male college freshmen. The experi- mental group was composed Of 55 subjects who were between the ages of three and five while their fathers were overseas with thearmed forces during World War II. The control group was composed of 29 subjects whose fathers were not overseas when 72' the boys were between the ages of three and five. The Blacky Test and Cards 1, 7BM and BBM of the Thematic Appercep- tion Test were administered to each group. ReSponses to mul- tiple choice inquiry items of the Blacky Test and to items composed for the TAT cards were analyzed statistically, using the Chi-square technique. Global response to the Blacky Test was analyzed, using the Rank Test. Global response to the TAT cards was also analyzed with the Sign test. On the basis of analysis of the data Obtained from the Blacky Test, support was obtained for three of the.four hypo- theses. (l)There was some evidence to indicate that Oedipal intensity is greater in those subjects who were separated from their fathers. However, the data was contrary to one aspect of the first hypothesis, in that the control group rather than the eXperimental group tended to choose the mother as anaclitic love Object. The experimental group appeared to make a narcissistic choice of love object. (2)The hypothesis dealing with identifi- cation, which was formulated in accordance with Freudian theory, received the most consistent support. However, an attempt was made to interpret these findings also from the neoéFreudian point Of view. (5)The hypothesis dealing with choice of the father as ego-ideal was somewhat supported by the data. (4)The hypothesis dealing with castration anxiety was not supported by the data. The TAT cards did not prove to be a fruitful measure Of the hypotheses. Possible reasons for this and ways in which it might be developed into a more adequate instrument for studies such as the present one were discussed. Implications of the findings were discussed. ll 10. ll. 12. 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, A. Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind. London; Faber & Faber, 1958 Aronson, M. L. A Study of the Freudian theory of paranoia by means of the Blacky Pictures. Jo PI‘Oj e T8011. ’ 1953 , l7 , 5-19 0 Bach, G. R. Father-fantasies and father-typing in children. Child Develpp., 1946, 15, 65-80. Balint, A. Identification, Yearb. Peychoanal., 1945,» 1. 517-558- Bernstein, L. & Chase, P. H. The discriminative ability Of the Blacky Pictures with ulcer pa- tients. J. Consult. Psychol., 1955, 19, 577—580. Blum, G. S. A study of the psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development. Genet. Psychol. Monogp., 1949, 59, 5-99- Blum, G. 8. Revised scoring eystem for researchlse Of the Blacky Pictures. Ann Arbor, University Of Michigan Dept. Psychol., 1951. (mimeographed) Blum, G. S. Psychoanalytic theories Of_personality. New York; McGraw-Hill, 1955. Blum, G. S. & Hunt, H. F. The validity of the Blacky Pictures. Psychol. Bull., 1952, 49, 258-250. Blum, G. S. & Kauffman, Jewel B. Two patterns of per- sonality dynamics in male ulcer patients, as suggested by the Blacky Pictures. J. Clin. Psychol., 1952, 8, 275-278. Brodbeck, A. J. Learning theory and identification: IV, Oedipal motivation as determinant Of conscious develOpment. J. Genet. Psychol., 1954, 84, 219-227. Cohen, A. R. Experimental effedts of ego-defence preference on interpersonal relations. g. abnorm. soc. Psychol. l5. l4. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 25. 24. 25. 26. 27. 74 Edwards, A. L. Statistical methods in the behavioral sciences. New York; Rinehart, 1957. Fenichel, O. The psychoanalypic thepry Of neurosis. New York: W. W. Norton, 1945. Freud, Anna & Burlingame, D. I. Infants without families. New York; Internat'l Univer. Press, , 1944. Freud, S. Collected Papers. Vol. II, London: Insti- tute of Psychoanal. &.Hogarth Press, 1948. Freud, S. An Qntline of Psyeheanalysis, New York: W. W. Norton, 1949. Fromm, E. ,The Oedipus com lex and the Oedipus myth, in Ruth N. Anshen (Ed. The family: ite funetion and destgpy. New York: Harper, 1949. Fromm, E. The Sane Soeiety. New York: Rinehart, 1955. Gardner, G. Separation of the parents and the emo- tional life of the child. Ment. Hygiene, 1956, 40, 55-64. Guilford, J. P. Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. Heilpern—Fuchs, Else. Psychological problems Of step-children. Psychoanal. Rev., 1945, 50, 165-176. Hilgard, E. R. Experimental approaches to psycho- analysis. In E. Pumpian-Mindlin, Peychoanalysis as a eeience, Stanford, Calif., Stanford Univ. Press, 1952. Horney, Karen. The neurotic personalgty Of our time. New York: W. W. Norton, 1957. Horney, Karen. Qur inner conflicts. A constructive theory Of neurosie. New York: W. W. Norton, 1945. Hunt, J. McV. The effects of infant feeding frustra- tion upon adult hoarding in the albino rat. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1949, 56, 558-560. Igel, A. The effect of war separation on father—child relations. Eegily, 1945, 26, 5-9. l 28. 29. 50. 51. 52. 55. 54. 55- 56. 57- 58. 59- 40. 41. 75 Irvine, Elizabeth. Observations on the aims and methods Of child rearing in communal settlements in Israel. Human Relat., 1955, 5, 247-275. Kahn, M. W. The effect Of severe defeat at various age levels on the aggressive behavior Of mich. J. Genet. PsychOT., 1951, 79, 117-150. .Knight, R. P. Introjection projection and identifi- cation. Psychoanal. Quart., 1940, 9, 554-541. Levy, D. M. Experiment on the sucking reflex and social behavior in dogs. Amer. J. Orthepsychiat., 1954, 4, 205-224. Martin, W. E. Learning theory identification: III The develOpment of values in children. J. Genet.” Psychol., 1954, 84, 211-217. Meiss, Margaret I. The Oedipal problem in a fatherless child. In Ruth Eisler (Ed.) The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. New York: Int. Univer. Press, 1951. Miller, N. E. Theory and experiment relating psycho- analytic displacement tO stimulus-response generalization. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 1948, 45, 155-178. Miller, W. E. and Dollard, J. Social Learning an; Imitation. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1941. Mowrer, O. H. Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics.,» New York: Ronald Press, 1950. Mowrer, O. H. Family impact on personality. In J. E. Hulett and R. Stagner, Problems in Soegel Psycho- Tpgy. Urbana, 111.: Univer. Illinois, 1952. Murray, H. A. Exploratlpns in Personal'ty. New York: Harpers, 1949. Murray, H. A. Thematic A erce tion Test, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1945. Rabin, A. I. Some psychosexual differences between Kibbutz and non-Kibbutz Israeli boys. 4. Proj. Teep.; in press. Reed, W. W. Parent-child relationships reflected by the Blacky. Diesertation Abstr., 1955, 15, 2298. 42. 45. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 55- 76 Sanford, N. The dynamics of identification. Psyehol. Rev., 1955, 62, 106-118. Sears, R. R., Pintner, Margaret and Sears, Pauline. Effect of father separation on preschool chil- dren's doll-play aggression. thld Qevelpm., 1946: 17) 219'2450 Sears, R. R. Servey g: Objectgye studies of psycho- analypic concepts. Soc. Science Res. Counc., Bull. #51, New York, 1945. Seward, J. P. Learning theory and identification: II . Role of punishment. Q. Genet. Psyehol., 1954, 84, Stagner, R. and Drought, N. Measuring children's attitudes toward their parents. J. Educ. P chol., 1955, 26, 169-176. Stendler, C. B. Possible causes Of overdependency in young children. thld Develpm., 1954, 25, 125-146. Stolz, Lois H. Father relations of way beep children: The effect of post-war adjustment of fathers on the pehaVTpr and_personality Of first children bppp while their Tethers were overseas. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1954. Stott, L. H. Adolescents' dislikes regarding parental behavior and their significance. J. Genet. Psychol., 1940. 57. 395-414. ‘ Sullivan, H. S. Concepts Of modern psychiatry. Wash- ington: Wm. Alanson White Psychiat. Found., 1947. Tolman, E. 0. Identification and the post-war world. J. Apnorg. Soc. PsychgT., 1945, 58, 141-148. Terman, L. M. Psychological Factors in Marital Happi- ness, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958. Winch, R. F. The impact Of the family on personality, the view Of one sociologist. In J. E. Hulett and R. Stagner, PrOblems in Social Psychology. Urbana, 111.: Univ. Illinois, 1952. Young, Florence. Psychological effects Of war on young children. Amer. JLAOrthopsychiat., 1947, 17, 500-510. APPEN D IX Name = uIUynuT NU. Qan UON I 1. Is Blacky (a) happy? (b) unhappy? (c) or doesn't he feel one way or the other? How does Mama feel in this scene? (a) Very contented? (b) Pleased but tired? (c) Rather unhappy? Which would Blacky rather do? (a) Stay until his feeding is over and then go some place else; (b) Stay as long as possible to be sure he gets enough nourishment? Which one of the following best describes Minsky? (a) He's a little glutton who neVer stops eating. (b) He's got a hearty appetite which usually gets satisfied. (0) He sometimes doesn't get enough to replace all the energy he burns up. Judging by appearances, how much longer will Blacky want to be nursed by name before being weaneo?‘ (a) He'll want to be on his own fairly soon. (b) He'll want to continue being nursed until he's quite a bit Older. (c) He feels Mama would like to turn him loose right new. now.' How will Blacky feel about eating when he grows Older? (a) He will rather eat than do most anything else. (b) He will enjoy eating but Will like lots of other , things just as much. (c) He Wlll never get enough to satisfy his appetite. ohRToON Il‘ 1. Why is Blacky doing that to Mama's collar? How Often does Blacky feel like acting up this way? (a) Once in a while. (b) Fairly OIten. (c) Very Often. Blacky most often acts like this when he can't get enough of which one 01 the following? (a) Attention. (b) Milk. (0) Recreation. What will Blacky do next with Mama's collar? (a) Get tired of it and leave it on the ground. (b) Return it to mama. (c) angrily chew it to shreds. If mama comes on the scene, what will she do? (a) Feed Blacky again. (b) send him off to bed without his dinner. (c) Bark. What would Blacky do if Mama did come over to feed him? (a) He'd ignore mama and continue chewing the collar. (b) He'd put down the collar and start eating. (c) He'd get even with name by trying to bite her instead of the collar. CARTOON Ill 1. 0 What was Blacky's main reason for defecating there? (a) He wanted to spite somebody. . . . tho? (b) He was doing what Mama and Papa told him to. (c) He picked the Spot by accident. (d) He wanted to keep his own area neat and clean. Which one of the following is Blacky most concerned with here? (a) Throwing dirt over what he did SO that it will be neatly covered up. (D) Relieving himself so that his system feels more comiortable. (c) Getting rid Of his anger. Why is Blacky covering it up? (a) He wants to make as little mess as possible. (b) He doesn't want Mama and Papa to find out. (O) He's automatically dOIng what he's been taught. How does Blacky feel about the training he's been getting? (a) By relieving himself in the way he's been taught he now has an Opportunity to show his family what a good dog he can be. (b; He feels Mama and Papa are expecting too much of him at this early stage. (c) He is very happy to have control of himself. (d) He thinks he's got Mama and Papa right where he wants them. What will Mama say to Blacky? What will Papa say to Blacky? anTOON IV 1. How does Blacky feel about seeing Mama and Papa make love? . . . Why? When does Blacky get this feeling? (a) Whenever he sees Mama or Papa. (b) Whenever he sees Mama and Papa together. (c) Whenever he sees Mama and Papa making love. Which one of the following makes Blacky most unhappy? (a) Papa keeping Mama all to himself. (b) The idea that Mama and Papa seem to be ignoring him on purpose. (c) He is ashamed watching them make love out in the Open. What does Blacky suspect is the reason behind the scene he's watching? (a) He suspects Mama and Papa are planning an addition to the famiLy. (b) He suSpectS Mama and Papa are very much in love. (0) He suspects Papa is having his own way about things. (d) He suspects Mama and Papa are purposely depriving him Of attention. What will Papa do if he sees Blacky peeking? What will Mama do if she sees Blacky peeking? Which would make a happier picture? (a) Mama left on the outside watching Blacky together with Papa. . . . .‘thy? (b) Papa left on the outside watching Blacky together with Mama. . . . Why? CART 0019 V 1. How does Blacky feel here? (a) Happy, without a care in the world. (b) Enjoying himself, but a little worried. (c) Mixed up and guilty. How might Blacky feel about this situation when he is Older? (a) Happy, without a care in the world. (b) Enjoying himself, but a little worried. (0) Mixed up and guilty. (d) The situation won't come up again when he is older. Whom might Blacky be thinking about here? Does Blacky naively fear that something might happen. to him? . . . What? What will Mama say if she comes over and finds Blacky? What will Papa say if he comes over and finds Blacky? CARF'OON V l 1. How does Blacky feel here? (a) Terrified that he's going to be next. (b) Puzzled and upset. (0) Curious but calm. What does Blacky suspect might be the reason for this scene? (a) He suSpects Tippy is being punished for having done something wrong. (b) He suspects Tippy is an innocent victim of some- one else's ideas. (c) He suspects Tippy is being improved in some way. How does Blacky feel about his own tail? (a) He's not particularly worried about it. (b) He's thinking desperately about a way to save it. (c) He thinks he might loOk'better if it is cut off. (d) He's so upset he wishes he never saw or heard of tails. DO you suppose Blacky would prefer to have his own tail cut off right away rather than go through the suspense Of wondering if it will happen to him? . . . Why? Which member of the family most likely arranged for Tippy's tail to be cut off? What will other dogs in the neighborhood do when they see Tippy's short tail? (a) Start worrying about their own tails. (b) Make fun Of Tippy. (c)WWonder what's going on. (d) Admire Tippy. bliR‘l‘QUfl y J. .1. 1. Who talks like that to 3lacky - Mamma or Papa or Tippy? F0 Whom is Blacky most likely to obey - Mama or Papa or Tippy? 5. Whom is Blacky imitating here - Mama or Papa or Tippy? 4. Whom would Blacky rather pattern himself after - Mama or Papa or Tippy? 5. Blacky's diSposition, actually, is most like the dis- position Of which one - Mamma or Papa or Tippy? 6. What would Blacky hawe an impulse to do if he were in the position of the toy dog? (a) Get frighteneo and hide. (b) Stand there and take it. (c) Get mad and sulk. (d) Start fighting. CaRTOON VIII 1. What does Blacky prObaoly feel like doing now? (a) Beat Tippy up. (b) Bark happily at the group and join them. (O) Show up Tippy by doing something better. (d) Run away to Spite Mama and Papa. according to Blacky, how much praise does Tippy actually deserve? (a) He feels Tippy fully deserves the praise. (b) He feels Tippy deserves some praise, but not that much. (c) He feels Tippy deserves to be punished instead of praised. Who does Blacky feel is paying more attention to Tippy? (a) Mama. (b) Papa. (0) Both paying the same amount. How Often does Blacky see this? (a) Once in a while. (b) Fairly Often. (c) Very Often. How does Blacky think Mama and Papa really feel toward him at this time? (a) He thinks they love him more than they do Tippy. (b) He thinks they love him about the same as they do Tippy. (c) He thinks they love him less than they do Tippy. If Blacky is angry, whom is he most angry at — Mama or Papa or Tippy? . . . Why? CARTOUN IX 1. What might have happened between the last picture and this one? 2. How is Blacky's conscience here? (a) His conscience is so strong he's practically paralyzed. (b) H is conscience is bothering him somewhat, but he's mostly afraid of what will be done to him. (c) He's hardly bothered at all by his conscience, just afraid of what will be done to him. 5. Which character do the actions of the pointing figure remind Blacky of? 4. Who is really to blame for Blacky's feeling this way? (a) Himself. (b) Somebody else. . . . Who? (0) The situation couldn't be helped. 5. How guilty does Blacky feel here? (a) He feels very guilty. (b) He feels fairly guilty. (c) He hardly feels guilty at all. 6. What might Blacky do now? 7. Do you think Blacky will (a) have this feeling as long as he lives? (b) feel bad every now and then? (c) feel bad for a little while and then go out to play? -10- CARTOON A l. Whom does the figure remind Blacky of? In Blacky's mind, how does Papa stack up against the dream figure when he compares them? What would be the main reason for Blacky wanting to be like the figure in his dream? (a) Then he would show up Tippy. (b) Then he would be the envy of all male dogs. (c) Then he would be loved more by Mama and Papa. (d) Then he would be very popular with the females. What does Blacky himself probably feel about his chances of growing up to be like the figure in his dream? (a) He probably feels he has a very good chance to grow up to be like that. (b) He probably feels he has a fair chance to grow up to be like that. (c) He probably feels he has a very poor chance to grow up to be like that. Actually, what are Blacky's chances of growing up to be like the figure in his dream? (a) Very good. (b) Fair. (0) Very poor. How often does Blacky probably have this kind of dream? (a) Very Often. (b) Fairly Often. (c) Once in a while. -11- CaRTOOM AI 1. Who is the figure Blacky is dreaming about? 2. Whom does the figure remind Blacky of? 5. Which of the following possibilities would attract BlaCky most? (a) The possibility that the dream figure looks like himself, which would increase his pride. (b) The possibility that the dream figure looks like Mama, which would remind him Of the good Old days. (c) The possibility that the dream figure locks like someone else, whom he would make happy by giving her all his love. 4. Why does Blacky feel so contented while he is dreaming? (a) He feels everyone will admire him. (b) He feels Mama will comfort him. (c) He feels the dream figure will be delighted by his attentions. 5. In.Blacky's mind, how does mama stack up against the dream figure when he compares them? 6. Would Blacky rather be like the figure in his dream? . . . Why? -12- CARD I 1. Which of the following statements best describes this picture? (a) His violin is on the table and he is waiting for his music lesson. (b) He admires his father and is dreaming of being as great a violinist as he is. (c) The boy is tired of playing the violin and would rather be playing ball. 2. What person would be most effective in getting the boy to finish his practicing? (a) His father. (b) His mother. (c) His music teacher. -13- ChRD VII 1. Which of the following statements best describes this picture? (a) The boy is determined to live up to the ideals and standards of this Older.man whom he greatly admires. (b) The older man is telling about his childhood experiences. (c) The boy is anxious to go to his friends who are waiting for him. If the father is giving his son advice how would the son feel about it? (a) Resentful because of his father's interference. (b) Pleased because his father is helping him. (c) He does not care one way or the other. -14- CARD VIII 1. Which of the following statements best describes this picture? (a) The boy is remembering part Of a movie he has just seen. (b) The boy is dreaming of becoming a skilled and famous surgeon. (c) The thought of being Operated on has made this boy turn away. ' ROOM use OHLY _ R0059; 1.11,, \“eLY; ‘ec- .. ‘5' "‘MMM