ADOPTION AND INTERNALIZATION 0F

' EOIIcATIONAL INNOVATIONS AMONG
. TEACHERS III TIIE PILOT SECONDARY
SCHOOLS OE WEST PAKISTAN

 

I , I ‘ Thesis ‘fOr'theIDe‘gTee’Of Ph'LDI‘ ' r _

w , = MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
  "ANWARuKHALIL KHAN
196,8: '

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Michigan State
University

   
 

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Adoption and Internalization of
Educational Innovations
Among Teachers in the Pilot
West Pakistan

Secondary Schools 0
presente by

Anwar Khalil Khan

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

_Eh..D_._ degree in _Educati_on

Major professor

fl/

Date Jul 22 1968

0-169
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ABSTRACT

ADOPTION AND INTERNALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS
AMONG TEACHERS IN THE PILOT SECONDARY SCHOOLS
OF WEST PAKISTAN

by Anwar Khalil Khan

The purpose of this study was to examine factors
related to adOption and internal acceptance of educational
innovations in formal organization. This study was also
designed to provide basic information concerning the four
interrelated items--the innovation, its diffusion, the
characteristics of the social system, and the time of
adoption. In particular, the objectives of this study
were:

(i) to determine how certain educational innovations
are adopted and internalized by the pilot second—
ary schools; and to analyze the factors related
to teacher adoption and acceptance.

(ii) to formulate, from the insight gained from the
findings, suggestions for policy makers and edu-
cational administrators on how to facilitate the
acceptance of innovations in the common secondary
schools of West Pakistan.

A field study was conducted in a representative sam-

ple of pilot schools of West Pakistan (N = 6). All teachers

in these schools were asked to fill out a questionnaire in

a group situation. The innovations investigated were:

 

Anwar Khalil Khan

(1) introduction of vocational curricular subjects; (2)
teaching of science through laboratory method; (3) employ-
ment of educational guidance; (4) use of objective tests;
(5) in-service training of teachers. Twenty-six hypotheses
predicting directional relationships between twenty-seven
independent and two dependent variables were postulated.
Independent variables included: (1) demographic; (2) insti—
tutional; (3) communication; and (4) personal disposition
toward change variables. The two dependable variables were:
(1) adOption; (2) internalization.

Pearsonian product-moment correlation coefficients
was employed to indicate the magnitude of the relationship
between independent and dependent variables.

Among the independent variables, demographic,role
satisfaction, teacher's perception of student benefit from
the innovations, perceived change orientation of the head—
master, self—designated opinion leadership and time of
awareness of innovations were found to be significantly
related to innovations adoption and internalization. Self
perceived change orientation was also significantly cor—

related with innovations adoption and internalization.

ADOPTION AND INTERNALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS
AMONG TEACHERS IN THE PILOT SECONDARY SCHOOLS

OF WEST PAKISTAN

BY

Anwar Khalil Khan

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1968

This work is dedicated to my mother—in—law

Saida Begum

ACKNOWLED GMEN TS

To Dr. John H. Suehr, my thesis advisor, I extend my
great appreciation. I am indebted to him for accepting
chairmanship of my guidance committee in September, 1965,
and has since remained a constant friend and a stimulating
guide. Dr. Suehr has been instrumental in guiding this
study from the beginning to the very end.

I am also grateful to the members of my doctoral
committee--Dr. Ernest O. Melby, Distinguished Professor of
Education; Professor Cole S. Brembeck and Professor James B.
McKee--for their invaluable suggestions and assistance.

Significant advice, encouragement and suggestions
have come from Dr. Everett M. Rogers, Professor of Communi—
cation, Michigan State University. I am greatly indebted
to him.

I‘am indebted to Jamia Millia, Karachi, West Pakistan,
for granting me leave of absence to study for a higher degree
at Michigan State University. I owe a great deal to Dr. Ken-
neth J. Rehage, Director, Ford Foundation Pakistan Education
Project, University of Chicago for providing financial as-
sistance for the field trip to West Pakistan for conducting

this'study.

iii

Let me also express my sincere thanks to the teachers
of Pilot Secondary Schools in West Pakistan who participated
in conducting the study with active cooperation.

Mr. Donald Schwartz and Mr. Richard Joyce helped me
in preparing the proposal and analysis of data. They have
my most profound appreciation.

Finally, I wish to express my deep appreciation for
the patience and sacrifices of my wife Jahan Ara, who accom-

panied me in February, 1968, to the U.S.A.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . .,. . .

CHAPTER
I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . .

Defects in the Present System
of Education. . . . . . . . .
The Establishment of Education
Extension Center. . . . . . .
The Scheme of Pilot Secondary
Schools in West Pakistan. . .
Criteria of Selection of the
Pilot Secondary Schools . .

Special Function of the Pilot Schools

The Curricula of the Pilot
Secondary Schools . . . . . .
Concluding Remarks. . . . . . .

II THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. . . .

Structural Effects. . . . . . .
Communication Variables . . . .
Social System Variables . . . .
Decision-Making Structure . . .
Consequences Variables. . . .

Tradition of Diffusion Research

III RESEARCH DESIGN, REVIEW OF LITERATURE,

AND PRESENTATION OF HYPOTHESES. .

Page

. iii

.Viii

. l6
. l7

. l9
. 20

. 27
. 30

. 33
. 34

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER
III (Continued)

Importance of the Problem .
Definition of Terms . . . .
Overall Design. . . . . . .
Innovation Internalization.
Selection of Innovations. .

Selection of Dependent Variables.
Selection of Independent Variables.
Review of Literature and Presentation

of Hypotheses . . . . . .
1. Demographic Factors. .
II. Institutional Factors.
III. Communication Behavior

IV. Personal Disposition Toward Change

IV METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION

O

Universe and Population of the Study.

Data Gathering Instrument .
The Questionnaire . . . . .
Data Collection . . . . . .
Treatment of Data . . . . .

Operationalization of Concepts and

Scale Construction. . . .

V FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O

O

0

Characteristics of the Respondents.

Scale Validation. . . . . .
Preliminary Observations. .
Testing of Hypotheses . . .

Differences in the Categories of Schools.

Major Summary Findings. . .
Awareness of Innovations. .

0

VI CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations for Educational Change.

Change in the Behavior Patterns

of Teachers . . . . . . .

In-Service Education of Teachers.

Support of Innovation . . .

The Organizational Climate of Schools

Feedback. . . . . . . . .

Student Feedback and Evaluation

The Diffusion of New Methods.
Information--Affiliate System .

vi

Page

45
48
S1
54
58
61
61

64
64
65
77
80

81

82
83
84
85
87

87
92

92
94
97
98
120
121
123

131
131

134
135
138
140
143
146
148
148

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER Page
VI (Continued)
Involvement in Decision-Making . . . . . 149
SGlf-Renewal o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 150
Recommendations for Future Research. . . 152

BIBLIOGRAPHY. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 154

APPENDICES. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 160

vii

LI ST OF TABLES

Table ‘ Page

I Four Dissonant-Consonant Types on the
Basis of Individual Attitudes Toward
an Innovation and Overt Behavior

Demanded by the Organization . . . . . . 29
II Characteristics of Respondents . . . . . . 92
III The Distribution of Years of Experience

in the Pilot Schools . . . . . . . . . . 94
IV Predicted and Obtained Relations

Between Independent and Dependent
variables. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 115

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Paradigm of Variables and Conceptual

Relationships in the Diffusion

Within Educational Organizations . . . . 35
2 Paradigm of Innovation Adoption. . . . . . 41
3 A Model of Innovation Dissemination

in an Institution. . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4 Paradigm of Innovation Decisions

in Formal Organizations. . . . . . . . . 53
5 Sample Stratification: Type of

setting. . . O O . O O C O O O O O O O O 83
6 Year of Awareness of Vocational

Education. . O . O O O . . O . O O O O O 124

7 Year of Awareness of Science Teaching
Through Laboratory Method. . . . . . . . 125

8 Year of Awareness of Educational
Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

9 Year of Awareness of Objective Tests . . . 127
10 Year of Awareness of In—Service
Education. 0 . . I . O O . . O . . O O 0 128
11 Year of Adoption of Objective Tests. . . . 129
ix

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
A Variable List for the Questionnaire . . . 160
B Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Undivided India was ruled by the Britishers over a
century. India became free from the British yoke on August
15, 1947. At that time the Muslims of the sub-continent
demanded separate home land where their values and culture
should be safeguarded. Consequently, Pakistan came into
existence on August 14, 1947.

The origin of the system of education which is preva—
lent today can be traced to the beginning of the nineteenth
century when the government had surveys made of the prevalent
systems of education with a View to reorganizing education
to suit the needs of the time. Consequent on Macaulay's
Minute (1835) regarding the educational policy of the future,

. . . that the great object of the British

government ought to be the promotion of

European literature and science among the

natives of India; and that all the funds

appropriated for the purpose of education

would be best employed on English education

alone (pp. 50-51).

The Minute of Lord Macaulay and subsequent resolutions
passed by the Government in 1835 led to the establishment of

schools teaching EurOpean literature and science. Macaulay

felt that there was little in Indian language and culture

which could be used for education. "He wanted to sweep
away everything of the past and to modernize entirely, on
English lines - to write on the clean slate of the Indian
mind the word “English!" (Andrews, 1913, p. 26). Macaulay
also saw little of permanent value in.beginning at the bot-
tom with the indigenous schools and thus giving the masses
an opportunity for elementary education. In other words,
the indigenous schools were to be ignored, no financial aid
given to them, and no efforts made to improve the instruc-
tion. The education which Indians received under the British
rule was a borrowed and imitated article. It did not co-
operate with the national genius of its being and hence it:
was powerless to enrich the likelihood of its soul.

As a consequence another unfortunate development had
been that, because of the almost exclusive emphasis upon
literary education, students had little preparation for any—
thing except government or clerical service. Education had
been little concerned with science, technology, and the
actual doing of things. A result closely associated with
the preceding was the striking uniformity of product of the
educational system and the lack of much attention to individ-
ual differences. The type of education inaugurated by Mac-
aulay's Minute also strengthened a method which emphasized
memorizing rather than thinking; imitation rather than
originality; and, routine rather than initiative.

Finally, the educational system which gradually re-

sulted from Macaulay's Plan was too official, too rigid, and

 

too highly centralized. Personal influence and local re-
sponsibility diminished, while official dominance increased.
Local experimentation and differentiation was discouraged

by a rigidly controlled system centralized in a comparatively
small group of people. The school curriculum and methods

of instruction were largely determined by the demands of the
universities. The whole educational organization had been,
in many ways, as foreign to the Indian people as the Western
learning it had espoused.

The education imparted in these schools became a pass-
port for entering into Government services. The system
created was designed to produce Government servants. As a
result of this, education was imparted with the limited ob-
ject of preparing pupils to join the services and not for
life. The range of educational opportunities was limited
to those who contributed to the attainment of competence
in some of the skills of Government. In these schools the
standard of achievement in literary subjects was from the
very beginning high but little or no progress was made in
training the students in the practical side of science.

It may, therefore, be concluded that some of the defects
persisting today owe their origin to the policy pursued in
the past.

Certain specific defects grew out of the system of
secondary education in vogue during the years 1854-1882:
the mother tongue was completely neglected as a medium of

instruction; nothing was done to train teachers; and, the

courses of study became too academic and unrelated to life
mainly-because there was no provision for vocational or
technical courses. One further defect was that external

examinations dominated the educational system.

Defects in the Present System of Education

(1) The existing program of secondary schools was academic-
ally narrow, bookish and mechanical, stereotyped and
rigidly uniform and did not cater to the different apti-
tudes of students. According to the Report of the Com—
mission on National Education, Government of Pakistan
(1959):

The present curricula for secondary schools
lay too much stress on mental ability - par-
ticularly in literary subjects - too little
on other equally important attributes of the
developing boy or girl, and on developing
skills or fostering a pride in dexterity and
technical achievement (p. 111).

(2) There was little diversification in the courses with
the result that all the students had to study the same
content irrespective of their present interest and future
needs. In the words of the Report of the Commission on

National Education (1959):

When in this century our society underwent a
rapid series of changes our schools remained
static, isolated from the social, economic

and industrial revolution around them, and
failed to meet contemporary demands. The main
weakness of secondary education is the absence
of full opportunities for training in technical
and other vocational subjects, and its in-
flexibility and lack of diversification which

fails to correspond to social needs and
individual aptitudes and interests (p. 111).

(3) The methods of teaching were mechanical and repetitive.

(4)

Prevailing teaching methods could only be described'as
the mechanical communication of theoretical book-learning
to reluctant children. Too much stress was laid on
memorization of facts without understanding the implica-
tions and far too little on initiative, inquiry, inde-
pendence of thought, habits of industry and self-
reliance. The Report of the Secondary Education Com-
mission, Government of India (1953), While discussing
the weaknesses in the present system reported:

Another serious defect which vitiates present

day teaching is its excessive domination by

Verbalism, i.e., the tendency to identify

knowledge with words, the delusion that if a

student is able to memorize or repeat certain

words he has grasped the facts or the ideas

that they are meant to convey (p. 110).
A large percentage of teachers at the secondary stage
were untrained; few Opportunities for in-service courses
were available; the teachers were poorly paid, thus not
attractive to suitable people. The Report of the Com-
mission on National Education, Government of Pakistan
(1959) described the situation as:

The teachers work to prescribed syllabuses and

textbooks in over-crowded classrooms; in addi-

tion many labour under the handicap of in-

sufficient training, low salaries, and little

standing in the community; it is a small wonder

that the best talents are not attracted to

teaching and that these conditions have led

to a deterioration of standards and sense of

frustration among the teaching profession
(p. 112).

 

(5) The system of external examination determined not only
the contents of education but also the method of teach-
ing - in fact, the entire approach to education. The
matriculation examination at the end of secondary school-
ing determined if the candidate shall be permitted to
enter college; and, the grades he obtained greatly af-
fected his chances of employment. Commenting on the
situation, Curle (1966) writes:

The purpose of these formalized examinations
is, obviously, to maintain control of academic
standards in a system in which the existence of
a large number of institutions of varied cali-
ber might bring about a decline in quality.
Yet the very rigidity of the system has itself
led to serious lapses of standards (p. 61).
The following excerpt from the Report of the Commission
(5‘?
on National Education (1354) well summarizes the criticism:
The present system of examination has been
widely criticized. We have heard that it is
responsible for many of the weaknesses in our
education. For most students the examination
has come to be more important than the acqui-
sition of knowledge.I Students have postponed
their studying to the few weeks before the
examination and, in consequence, have not learned
the habit of sustained effort and application.
Teachers have taught only the basic minimum of
what was required by the syllabus and have
substituted cramming for education (p. 23).

As the objective of colonial power differed vitally from
those of National Government, the inherited system of edu-
cation failed to meet the new hOpes and aspirations of the
peOple. After independence and on the establishment of
Pakistan, the educational objectives of the country have
undergone changes. At a conference convened in November

1947, shortly after Pakistan's independence, Mohammad Ali

 

 

 

Jinnah, the Father of the Nation, thus expressed the Nation's
Goals:

The importance of education and the right type of
education, cannot be over-emphasized.‘ Under for-
eign rule of over a century, sufficient attention
has not been paid to the education of our peOple,
and if we are to make a real, speedy and substantial
progress we must earnestly tackle this question and
bring our educational policy and programme on the
lines suited to the genius of our peOple. Consonant
with our history and culture and having regard to
the modern conditions and vast developments that
have taken place all over the world. . . There is
no doubt that the future of our State will and must
depend on the type of education we give to our
children and the way in which we bring them up

as the future citizens of Pakistan. Education

does not merely mean academic education. There

is immediate and urgent need for giving scientific
and technical education to our people in order to
build up our future economic life and to see that
our peOple take to science, commerce, trade and,
particularly, well-planned industries.. We should
not forget that we have to compete with the world
which is moving very fast in that direction. At
the same time, we have to build up the character

of our future generation. We should try, by sound
education, to instill into them the highest sense
of honour, integrity, responsibility and selfless
service to the nation. We have to see that they
are fully qualified and equipped to play their part
in the various branches of national life in a man-
ner which will do honour to Pakistan (p. 5).

Having pointed out the weaknesses in the educational
system of Pakistan and the objectives to be aimed at, it
was therefore necessary to substantially improve the exist-

ing pattern of secondary education.

The Establishment of Education Extension Center

Social institutions usually come into existence as a

result of certain crises, and their primary aim is to offset

and ameliorate the conditions which give birth to them.

This crisis was the genesis of the establishment of a num-
ber of pilot secondary schools in West Pakistan and Education
Extension Center at Lahore in 1958.

The crisis was that the schools had become cramped
in their vision and outmoded in their approach to educa-
tion. Pakistan came into being to preserve certain values
of life, and to work for the economic, social, and spiritual
upliftment of the masses.

But the schools subsisted on outmoded objectives,

practiced traditional methods, and were, there-

fore, unable to produce the type of persons who

could meet the challenges of life and also could

contribute towards the accomplishment of the ideas

for which Pakistan had come into existence. This

was in large part the fact that the teacher, the

backbone of every school system, had not only

stopped growing professionally, but had also failed

to perform normal duties diligently (Jaskani, 1965,

p. 1).

This was the state of affairs when the country decided
to embark upon ambitious schemes for economic, social and
educational development. The aspirations and needs of
Pakistan would be frustrated if arrangements for the re—
orientation and motivation of teachers were not immediately
made. The Educational Conference, held under the aegis of
the Government of Pakistan, Education Division, in Decem-
ber, 1951, was of the opinion that "the teacher, being the
pivot of the educational system, needs to be retrained in
modern techniques and in educational ideology of Pakistan
(p. 435). The Conference recommended the establishment of

261 centers (80 in East Pakistan and the rest in the Pro-

vinces and States of the West Wing),

L;

to institute comprehensive refresher courses.

Each refresher course will be of three months'

duration and . . . will attempt to bring the

teacher's knowledge up to date in various fields

of study, acquaint him with new teaching tech-

niques . . . and train him in an appreciation of

fundamental principles of Islamic ideology (p. 435).

Nothing seems to have been done regarding the Opening
of such a large number of Centers, though some provinces
did provide in their budget paltry amounts for conducting
short term refresher courses. The problem of staffing these
centers might also have prevented the implementation of this
proposal. While these ambitious plans did not materialize,
it is significant to note that educational leaders at that
time were aware of the dire need for upgrading teachers on
a large scale.

Earlier planning was ambitious but haphazard, and
unrealistic. The political segmentation of the West Wing
into provinces and states was found to be a hindrance in
the development of this idea. An important step had to be
taken to integrate all provinces and states into the West
Pakistan province. Political unity combined with sagacity
in planning made it possible to introduce elements of
realism, prudence, and comprehensiveness in developmental
schemes, including those in the field of education.

When the outline of the scheme on Education and
Training was prepared by the Planning Commission in May,
1956 for inclusion in the First Five Year Plan (1956-60),
the number of centers previously proposed was reduced to

five and a new nomenclature was used for them, namely,

Education Extension Centers. These Centers were to provide

—¥—

10

in-service education to (a) teachers, (b) educational offi-
cers, (c) vocational teachers, and (d) physical education
teachers.

It was not only the reorientation of teachers and
school administrators that received attention. Attempts
were also initiated to improve the general pattern Of
secondary education by introducing "a more diversified and
enriched series of courses to prepare rounded citizens in
terms of their capabilities." (First Five-Year Plan, [1956-
60] p. 32) The concept of multi-purpose schools providing
.general education with a practical bias fascinated the
education planners. This type of school.became the cher-
ished goal of the educational system in Pakistan as only
such schools would be expected to provide

a solid basis for specialized training, by

educating pupils in principles, by assisting

them to reach mental and manual maturity, and

by providing them with guidance and information

concerning Opportunities in various occupations

(Ibid., pp. 233-34).

The First and the Second Five-Year Plans provided funds

for introducing diversified courses in a number of schools.
But this concept has taken time to implant itself on Paki-
stan soil because manual dexterity and mental maturity
never went together in schools. It was, perhaps, neces-
sary to demonstrate the advantages of the multi-purpose
program through some model schools.

The need for improving the quality of teaching and

providing diversified courses had, however, been identified.

What was now needed was to make a thorough study of the

11

issues involved and to discover the means for introducing
the necessary changes. It also seemed expedient to profit
from the experiences of other countries where such programs
have been carried out successfully.

Accordingly, with the concurrence of the Central
Ministry of Education, the Education Departments of East
and West Pakistan requested the Ford Foundation of the
United States of America to provide resources for a team
of Pakistan educationists to study the program of compre-
hensive schools in other countries; to make available the
services of U.S.A. consultants in drawing up plans suit-
able for conditions in Pakistan; and to provide financial
aid in implementing these plans.

The Ford Foundation with an abiding faith in education
as a vehicle for social change, readily responded to this
request and asked the University Of Chicago to organize a
study tour of Pakistan educationists and to provide advisory
services to the Government of Pakistan in formulating their
schemes for the improvement of secondary education.

The group visited schools and training colleges and
conferred with the educational leaders of Turkey, Switzer-
land, West Germany, France, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Great
Britain and U.S.A. They also observed the extension educa—
tion techniques in operation and visited typical compre-
hensive schools.

The study tour lasted four months. It was in July,

1957, that the Pakistan team and the American consultants

 

12

spent a full week while in the United States of America in
formulating identical schemes for each wing of Pakistan.
These are known as (a) scheme for the establishment Of
Education Extension Center at Lahore and Dacca, and (b)
scheme for the development of twenty Pilot Secondary Schools

each in East.and West Pakistan.

A. General Description of the Scheme

West Pakistan had decided to reorient and enrich its
education to meet the growing and varying needs of its
people by diversifying the school program and by introducing
modern methods of teaching. These objectives could be
realized only if the teachers were given the chance to
improve their professional competence and skills. It
was, therefore, necessary to retrain and reinspire teachers,
headmasters and headmistresses, inspectors (supervisors),
and other educational officers. To meet this need, it was
proposed to establish an Education Extension Center with
an appropriate faculty, and coordinate programs of in-
service education for educational personnel.

The Center in West Pakistan was designed to perform
the following functions:

1. To enable inspectors and other education

officers to acquire better understanding
of the present-day needs for education and

greater skill in discharging their re-
sponsibilities.

l3

2. To arrange short in-service courses for the
teachers with a view to enhancing their
knowledge and teaching skills.

3. To train headmasters in the democratic pro—
cedures of school administration as well as
in exercising their leadership toward the
improvement of classroom instruction and

_general tone of the schools.

4. To disseminate among educational Officers
and teachers knowledge of modern methods
of instruction, use of audio—visual aids
and other instructional materials.

5. To organize conferences for the tOp—ranking
officers of the Education Department.

6. To stimulate and guide the proposed multi—

purpose courses in the Pilot Secondary
Schools (Jaskani, 1956, pp. 10-11).

B. Staff of the Center

In order to discharge the above functions, the Center
should have a staff consisting of the Director, one or two
Deputy Directors, and eight to ten subject specialists.

The scheme further proposed that at least six members of
the staff should be trained abroad in the techniques of
in-service education and in one or two special areas of
curriculum. It also envisaged the appointment of foreign

advisers to the Center for a number of years.

C. Building and Equipment

The scheme also envisaged the construction of a campus

having an academic block with conference rooms, library,

14

classrooms, projection rooms, offices, etc.; three hostels,
a cafeteria, and residential quarters for the staff and the

establishment.

D. Kinds of Activities

Some of the activities that the Center was expected
to organize are:

1. Intensive courses of apprOpriate length of
time in such areas as teaching of science,
language, social studies, math, etc., general
problems of curriculum development, techniques
of evaluation, guidance and counseling, super—
vision of instruction, etc.

2. Conferences of relatively short duration for
the tOp ranking Officials to study certain aspects
of planning and to consider matters of broad
educational policy.

3. Seminars for small groups for making a systematic
study of the common problems of the participants.

4. Workshops on specific problems requiring actions.

5. Dissemination of information about educational
development to educators throughout the Province
by publishing bulletins, reports, etc.

6. Follow-up study of the performance of officials

who have participated in any of the courses or
workshops (Ibid., p. 12).

The Scheme of Pilot Secondary
Schools in West Pakistan

The studngroup also prepared a scheme for the develop-
ment Of‘pilot secondary schools in East and West Pakistan.

The need for developing these types of experimental model

15

schools arose from the following factors:

1.

It

existing

The existing program of secondary schools was
academic, narrow, and bookish and provided no
Opportunities to the students for inculcating
manipulative skills.

It did not provide varied learning experiences
for pupils of different abilities and aptitudes.

There was little diversification in the courses

with the result that all the pupils had to study
the same content, irrespective Of their present

interests and future needs.

The existing program did not contribute to the
dignity of labor.

The methods of teaching were mechanical and
repetitive. Students were taught merely to
pass the public examinations (Ibid., p. 14).
was, therefore, proposed to convert twenty-three

schools into pilot secondary schools to show the

way toward rectifying the weaknesses of the schools by

providing diversified programs of education, and:

l.

2.

5.

In

program,

To meet the differing abilities and aptitudes
of the students;

To provide useful experiences to those who
will pursue their studies at colleges and

universities as well as to those who will

enter vocations after completing secondary
education;

To offer technical and commercial courses in
boys' schools in the urban areas and technical
and agricultural courses in boys' schools in
the rural areas;

To offer home economics in girls' schools
with commercial courses;

And to offer an expanded science program in
all these schools (Ibid., p. 15).

order to meet the requirements of the diversified

it was considered essential:

16

To set up well equipped workshops, laboratories,
etc.;

To introduce counseling and guidance services
in these schools;

To establish small libraries consisting of
modern useful books;

And to give enough freedom to these schools in
experimenting with new techniques of instruc-
tion and evaluation (Ibid., p. 15).

Criteria of Selection Of the
Pilot Secondary Schools

It should be readily apparent that the selection of

specific schools to participate in the program of pilot

secondary schools is a matter of utmost importance to the

success of the endeavor. These are some of the following

_general criteria:

1.

The schools should be equitably distributed
throughout the province so as to be broadly
representative of the economic, cultural and
physical characteristics of the regions.

The schools as a whole should represent a
diversity of communities and they should be
representative of both urban and rural areas.

Each school should possess the potential for
outstanding leadership of a modern program
of secondary education.

Each should enjoy significant community inter-
ests and respect.

Each school should be so situated as to make
its progress and findings readily observable
and available to many Other schools in its
region.

The schools as a group should include public,
private, boys' and girls‘ schools.

7.

17

One or more of the selected schools should
be in close proximity to the Extension
Center.

Special Function of the Pilot Schools

The pilot schools have been designed to provide a

pattern for re-structuring secondary education in the

Provinces. They have been given both the challenge and

the opportunity to demonstrate the role that the second-

ary schools must play in a developing nation. These

schools are expected to show:

1.

How to devise a school program to meet the
varying needs of pupils;

How to improve the quality of education;
How to equip students for taking up useful
vocations after completing secondary school

education;

How to reduce the waste of manpower occasioned
by drop-outs and failures;

How to involve students in their own improvement
andqgrowth;

How to instill qualities of leadership in the
students;

How to bring the school and the community
closer together.

Some of the other functions of the pilot schools

are that they should deliberately encourage critical ex-

amination of their program by their faculties, students,

and community. They should demonstrate the effectiveness

18

of new methods and techniques and experiment with improve-
ments in the examination system. These schools should
also

provide school situations within which deliberate
experimentation with both curriculum and methods
of instruction may be carried out, enabling educa-
tional policies to grow out of careful study and
experimentation within our own schools under con-
ditions typical to the country. Lastly, as the
program develops it will be possible to bring head-
maSters and teachers of other secondary schools to
the pilot schools where direct experience in the
situation, face-to-face contact with the students
and direct Observations in classroom, laboratories
and workshops will be far more significant than
published materials in demonstrating the value of
similar changes throughout the country. Thus, the
pilot schools will be a major asset to the in-
service training program of the extension services.
Government of Pakistan, Scheme for Development of
Pilot Secondary Schools in Pakistan, p. 5.)

The provision of funds for the development of twenty
pilot secondary schools in West Pakistan was made in the
Second Five-Year Plan. As such, the phased implementation
of the scheme started from the year 1960-61. However, the
selection of the high schools was made earlier. The origi-
nal scheme envisaged that:

1. Technical, commercial, and scientific courses

be introduced in approximately ten urban
schools;

2. Technical, agriculture, and scientific courses
be introduced in five rural schools;

3. Home economics and scientific courses be
introduced in five girls' high schools.
When this scheme was prepared and approved for West
Pakistan, the federal area of Karachi, directly administered

by the Government of West Pakistan, was excluded from its

19

purview. In 1961, the Karachi area became an administra-
tive unit of West Pakistan province. Accordingly the
Government of West Pakistan had sanctioned the development
Of three high schools in Karachi into pilot secondary
schools - one Government school for girls and two non-
Government schools for boys. Thus, the total number of
pilot secondary schools being developed in West Pakistan is

twenty-three - sixteen for boys and seven for girls.

The Curricula of the Pilot Secondary Schools

While these schools provided increasing Opportunity
for students to receive some specialized training, this was
not to be carried out at the expense of the program for
’general education. It was proposed that pilot schools should
Offer a more diverse and richer series of courses, with
emphasis upon areas within which there was great need of
specially trained personnel. It was intended that in sev-
eral schools programs would be set up to demonstrate needed
developments in scientific education, in technical and pre-
vocational areas, in home economics, in business and commer-
cial education, and in agriculture education. In addition,
the present general science programs should be improved
with laboratory experiences to make it more realistic and
to have more emphasis on science in everyday life.

The senior secondary stage (from class IX to X) would

provide a wider choice of electives to enable students to

20

make a selection according to their interests and future
_goals. In addition to common core subjects like Urdu,
social studies, English, religious education and physical
education, the students would be provided with opportuni-
ties to select from the following groups:
(2) Science
(3) Technical

(4) Agriculture )
(5) Commercial

(1) Humanities 2

For Boys

and

(2) Science For Girls

(1) Humanities }
(3) Home Economics

Concluding Remarks

Although the scheme for the develOpment of pilot
secondary schools and the establishment of the Education
Extension Center have been sanctioned separately, yet these
are supplementary to each other and constitute a two-frontal
attempt to improve secondary education. One aims at broad-
ening the educational base and at the same time individual-
izing instruction. The other aims at reorienting school
teachers and administrators to their new responsibilities
and equipping them with such skills and competencies as
may enable them to meet the new challenge. The pilot
secondary schools are the educational laboratories where
newer and more effective techniques of instruction, eval-

uation, and guidance may be treated and develOped. The

 

21

Education Extension Center provides necessary guidance to
these schools and acts as a clearing house for disseminat-
ing to other schools in the Province the methods and de-

vices that are successfully tried in the pilot schools.

 

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In his discussion of "bureaucracy," Weber (1947)
assumed that an organization has a primary objective. To
reach this objective, sub-goals must be established and
specific means chosen for their attainment. This, in
turn requires a differentiation into specialized tasks
which must be carried out dependably in a coordinated
manner. Tasks are combined into positions (offices or
jobs) and individuals are assigned to these positions.

Each position has a formal or informal job description
which specifies what the incumbent of the position is ex-
pected to do. To have further assurance that the system
will work properly, rules and policies are promulgated

as guides to the behavior of the participants. Finally,

a control mechanism is established whereby the various
positions are linked together by a chain of command so that
the authority and responsibility of each position is clear.
Thus, when an innovation or change has been adopted by high-
level decision-makers, especially in an authoritarian or-

ganization, adoption rate is expected to be relatively

22

 

23

high since the low—ranking members tend to comply in ac-
cordance to their role expectation.

For the purpose of internally comparing various types
of organizations, the degree of formalization of bureaucrati-
zation may be used. A relatively high formalized organi-
zation is composed of the following elements:

1. Centralization of control.

2. Differentiation of functions.

3. Qualification for office or position -
more emphasis on competence.

4. Objectivity - more clearly defined role-
responsibility for each position.

5. Precision and continuity - more uniform

position behavior and consistent response

over time (Friedrich, 1952).
A review of literature on administration reveals two
_general approaches to the study of the process of adminis-
tration. One approach generally attends only to the struc-
tural aspects of organization, the second attends primarily
to aspects of human behavior within structured organizational
settings. The former approach in its extreme assumes human
behavior to be a constant; i.e., the persons inhabiting a
formal organization are viewed as non-interacting entities
within the organization and the focus of the study is the
manipulation of structural variables in relation to organi-
zational output. Simon (1957) attempts to refute this
orientation when he suggests,

. . . if there were no limits to human rationality,

administrative theory . . . would consist of a
single precept: always select that alternative,

 

 

24

among those available, which will lead to
most complete achievement Of your goals
(p. 240).

Parsons (1964) also supports the view that both
dimensions are necessary to the study of organization:

Like any social system an organization is
conceived as having a describable structure.
This can be described and analyzed from two
points of View, both of which are essential

to completeness. The first is the ‘cultural-
institutional' part of View which utilizes

the values of the system and their institu-
tionalization in different functional contexts
as its point of departure; the second is the
fgroup' or 'role' point of view which takes
sub-organizations and roles of individuals
participating in the functioning of the organi-
zation as its point of departure (pp. 35-36).

The approach taken is that the effectiveness and
efficiency of a formal organization is a function of both
structurally-related and behaviorally-related variables and
that the interaction of the two dimensions results in a
Gestalt which, as a whole, is greater than the sum of the
'two parts.|

A useful model for conceptualizing role-personality
interaction in the administrative process is provided by
Getzels (1958). He conceives administration as a social
process in which:

we may conceive of administration structurally

as the hierarchy of subordinate-superordinate -

relationships within a social system. Functionally

this hierarchy of relationships is the focus for
allocating and integrating role and facilities in

order to achieve gOals of the Social System (p.
151).

 

 

25

. . . administration always Operates in an inter-
personal - or, if you will, social relationship
that makes the nature of relationship the crucial
factor in the administrative process (pp. 151-152).
Getzels asserts an organization may be viewed "as
involving two classes of phenomena, which are at once con-
ceptually independent and phenomenally interactive" (p.
152). The first he calls the nomothetic or normative di-
mension which is the institution with certain roles and
expectations intended to fulfill the goals of the institu-
tion. The second he terms the ideographic dimension which
is taken as the individual with a certain personality and

need - disposition who "inhabits" the institution. The

concepts are presented graphically as:

NOMOTHETIC DIMENSION

Institution————9Role-———9Expectation

Social Observed
System Behavior

Indi- Person- Need-
vidual ality ‘———2 disposition

IDIOGRAPHIC DIMENSION

Getzels further asserts that the two dimensions
interact in determining the observed behavior of a person
in an organization and Offers the equation B = f (RXP);
i.e., behavior is a function of the interaction of role

and personality.

26

The system becomes a dynamic one when it is investi-
gated over a period of time. In fact, one way to evaluate
the growth, effectiveness and efficiency of an organization
is to study the dynamic process of change that takes place
within an organization. It is to recognize that successful
efforts at planned change must take as a primary target the

improvement of organization health - the school system‘s

 

ability not only to function effectively, but to develop

and grow into a more fully—functioning system. After examin-
ing closely the literature on the diffusion of innovations,
one concludes that organization properties have often been
treated peripherally. A good deal of attention is paid to
the individual innovator, to when he adopts the innovation,
and why. But the literature remains nearly silent on the
organizational setting in which innovations take place.

More recently, however, a few investigations suggest that
such structural effects may be of much importance in explain—
ing individual innovative behavior.

In an analysis of the diffusion of innovations to
teachers in Thai Government Secondary Schools, Mortimore
(1968) found very low correlations, most of which were not
significant, between 51 independent variables, and (1)
teacher's awareness of new educational innovations, (2)
favorable attitudes toward these new ideas, and (3) inno-
vativeness. One reason for these low relationships very
likely is the fact that structural factors were almost

entirely ignored.

 

27

Another evidence is provided by Quader's (1966)
analysis of data from some 600 villages in 26 Philippine
neighborhoods. He found that the compositional effects
(of neighborhood mean education, mass media exposure, etc.)
were about as effective as predictors of individual inno-
vativeness as were individual variables like education,

media exposure, etc.
Structural Effects

They are effects on his behavior of the social struc-
ture of the system in which the individual is a member.
One can conceptualize a teacher‘s innovative behavior as
explained by two types of effects: (1) the individual's
personality, communication behavior, and attitudes; and
(2) the make-up and norms Of his school, i.e., its social
structure. The first class of variables are individual,
the second are system variables. Both are used to predict
a dependent variable at the individual level.

Rogers and Jain (1968) put it in mathematical ex-

pression . . .

A
Y.. = a + b. + x.. + c. x..
13 1 13 1 13

A
Where Yij represents a teacher's (predicted) innova-
tive behavior; xij represents a teacher‘s position on some

predictor of his innovativeness, for example, his level of

formal education; and Iij represents his school's model

28

position on some predictor of innovativeness, for example,
the average level of formal education of his fellow teachers
(p. 9).

The amount of variance in Y, teacher innovativeness,
explained by X,s, the system variables, is due to structural
effects.

Thus, the group or the social system has norms which
affect human behavior, for the system is an important refer-
ence group, influence on the individual's decisions, and
exercise social control of the system over the individual
behavior.

Past diffusion research have been mostly concerned
with dependent variables such as the time of awareness and
the time of adoption of innovations. Lin (1966) in his
study, measured two new dependent variables in studying

diffusion within organization: (1) innovation internaliza-

 

tion (defined in the definition of terms) and (2) change

orientation (also defined in the definition of terms).

 

In the few studies dealing with educational diffusion
within organizations, teacher innovativeness seems to be
the most commonly studied variable. A major dependent

variable in studies of forced innovation decision, where

 

the individual has no legitimate influence, should be the
teacher's attitude toward the innovation(s).

Another variable in the case of forced decision
which often occur in organizational settings might be

studied. Innovation dissonance is the discrepancy between

29

the organization members' (teachers') attitudes toward the
innovation and the overt behavior (adOption or rejection)
of the innovation as demanded by the organization (the
social system).

TABLE I - Four Dissonant - Consonant Types on the Basis

of Individual Attitude Toward an Innovation and
Overt Behavior Demanded by the Organization.*

 

 

Members' Attitude Overt Behavior Demanded by the

 

 

 

Toward the Organization
Innovation Rejection Adoption
Unfavorable I. Consonant Pressures II. Dissonant
Rejector towards Adopter
Consonance
P to C** P to C**
Favorable III. Dissonant Pressures N.Consonant
Rejector toward I AdOpters
Consonance

 

*Source: Knowlton (1965, p. 53)
**Pressures toward Consonance

Type I and IV are consonants because their behavior
is in line with their attitudes. Type II and III have
cognitive dissonance (Frestinger, 1957), because the atti-
tude of the member toward the innovation is discrepant
with his behavior within the organization. In short, when
an individual‘s cognitive system is dissonant with the overt
behavior toward an innovation demanded by the organization,
the individual will attempt to reduce the dissonance by
either changing his attitudes or his behavior.

The individual's degree of understanding and his

knowledge of the innovation is another dependent variable.

3O

Mere awareness of an innovation in an organization does
not tell us much. Even if an individual has a favorable
attitude toward the innovations and has adopted without
understanding the consequences of the innovation, there

is greater chance of its misuse.

Communication Variables

Communication is central to any social system.

Katz and Kahn (1966) defined organizations from an “Open
system" point Of view, characterizing them as both an ener-
.gic and an informational system. Diffusion, in essence, is
a communication process. In organization setting, the na-
ture of the diffusion process for an innovation will be
largely determined by the nature and amount of communica-
tion among the members.

Downward communication refers to the flow of informa-
tion from superiors to subordinates. Upward communication
is the flow of messages ascending the hierarchical ladder.
Upward communication, like downward, is essential for ef-
fective functioning of an organization. There is some evi-
dence that upward communication is often at least as inade-
quate as downward communication, and is perhaps less accurate
because of the selective filtering of information which
subordinates feed to their superiors (Likert, 1961). Katz
and Kahn (1966) Observe that in coercive organizations,

subordinates try to protect their position by screening

31

facts to accord with the perceived emotional biases of
their superiors.

When upward communication in an organization is
quite limited, it becomes difficult to evaluate the 'true'
reactions of organizational members toward the innovations
advocated by the superiors. Initial resistance to the
innovation may be distorted. Likert (1961) Observes that
'exploitative authoritarian' organizations are characterized
by inadequate and inaccurate upward communication, whereas
'participative‘ organizations have a great deal of feed-
back information. The participative system provides an
organizational climate healthy for the diffusion of innova-
tions, as superiors have adequate and relatively accurate
feedback information as to how teachers are reacting to
innovations.

Horizontal communication occurs between individuals
at the same hierarchical level. Katz and Kahn (1966) ob-
serve:

Communication among peers in addition to provid-

ing task orientation, also furnishes emotional

and social support to the individual . . . .

Hence, if there are no problems of task coordina-

tion left to a group of peers, the content of

their communication can take forms which are

irrelevant and destructive of organizational

functioning (p. 244).

In educational organizations, there seems to be a

_great deal of horizontal communication, but we know less

about the role horizontal communication plays in the dif-

fusion of educational innovations. Since horizontal

32

communication is characterized by high 'homophily,‘ it
provides a climate for free and frank discussion about the
innovation and in this process even peers can exert some
influence for adoption. Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) have
analyzed in great detail how various informal channels

of communication interact with the mass media to shape
opinions, attitudes and behavior. Of particular interest
is their discussion of "Opinion leaders" -- those individ-
uals whose social positions, experience, and personality
characteristics make them especially influential in the
informal communication network of a system. The role of
personal influence, persuasive or otherwise, has also been
emphasized in research on the diffusion of innovation (Katz,
Levin, and Hamilton, 1963). Although most of these studies
of informal, persuasive influence have been conducted in
communities or rural areas, the generalizations drawn from

the research appear to be applicable to formal organizations.

Social System Variables

Social system norms have an important impact on the
diffusion and adoption of new ideas. If a system's norms
are progressive and encourage change, educational innova-
tions are likely to diffuse rapidly. There is evidence from
numerous studies that a system's norms affect the rate of

diffusion (Rogers with Shoemaker, 1968).

33

Leadership makes an important contribution to or-
ganizational effectiveness. The style Of leadership recom-
mended by Likert (1961) is best illustrated as the,

"principle of supportive leadership," defined

as "a maximum probability that in all relation-

ships with the organization each member will in

the light of his background, values, and expecta-

tions, View the experience as supportive and one

which builds and maintains his sense of personal

worth and importance." (p. 103)

The supportive leadership climate creates the conditions
that lead to a full and efficient flow of relevant messages
in all directions throughout the organization. This kind
of system will facilitate the free flow of innovations and

lead to adoption of innovations by the organizational mem-

bers.

Decision-Making Structure

Some organizations have centralized decision-making
structure that does not involve the members to make decisions.
Non-participation Often results in resistance, especially
in educational organizations where teachers perceive them-
selves capable of making innovation decisions. In contrast,
if the teachers are involved in innovation decisions affect-
ing them, there will be more enthusiasm to implement the
decisions.

Evidence supporting the proposition that partici-

pation of the system's members in innovation decisions

34

leads to a more rapid rate of adoption is provided by Gittell
and Hollander (1968) in an analysis of six urban school
districts. They found that,

because participants in the policy process are

so limited, alternatives are also limited, and

school policy choices are narrowly conceived.

Innovation is rare, and creativity competition,
and experimentation are discouraged (p. 197).

Consequences Variables

It has been said that “this is a time Of great inno-
vation but very little change in education.“ (Rogers, 1968)
Many new ideas are being disseminated and adopted in educa-
tional institutions without knowing much about the conse-
quences of the diffusion of innovations. Organizational
researchers have been concerned with such dependent variables
as member-satisfaction or morale. These variables, if trans-
lated in terms of educational organizations, may provide

meaningful indicators of innovation consequences.

Tradition of Diffusion Research

The study of diffusion Of agricultural innovations,
in rural sociological approach is best represented by the
Ryan and Gross study (1943) of Hybrid Seed Corn, the study
of informal communication pattern by Lionberger (1949), and
the Wilkening Studies (1946) of sociometric data on soil

conservation. This tradition also provided for the

35

 

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36

significant summarizing document on diffusion of innovation
by Rogers (1962).

Since the late 1920's, the major contribution to the
study of educational innovations has come from Teachers
College, Columbia University, under the guidance of Mort
and best summarized by Ross (1958). The central theme of
this study is the adaptability of schools to new practice.
Comparatively recent efforts include Carlson's study of
adOption of educational innovations (1965) and J. Coleman‘s

study of school climates (1961).

 

A series of systematic investigations was made by
the Columbia University Bureau of Applied Social Research
in the study of diffusion of medical drugs under the leader-
ship of Katz, Menzel and J. Coleman (1954).

Dissemination of scientific information is another
approach to studying innovation diffusion. Centers to study
the Optimal process of dissemination of scientific informa-
tion to practitioners and fellow scientists have been es-
tablished at the Johns Hopkins University Center for Research
in Scientific Communication, the University of the State of
New York at Albany, Center on Innovation in Education, and
the University of Michigan Center for Research on the Utili-
zation of Scientific Knowledge.

In summarizing the findings of past research on
characteristics of innovations as they influence rate of

adoption, Rogers (1962) states:

37

1. The relative advantage of a new idea, as per—
ceived by members of a social system, affects
its rate of adoption (p. 126).

2. The compatability of new ideas as perceived
by members of a social system, affects its
rate Of adoption (p. 127).

3. The complexity of an innovation as perceived
by members of a social system, affects its
rate of adoption (p. 130).

4. Divisibility of an innovation, as perceived
by members of a social system, affects its
rate of adoption (p. 131).

5. The communicability of an innovation, as per-
ceived by members of a social system, affects
its rate of adoption (p. 132).

 

The importance of communication to diffusion and
adoption of innovations has been recognized by researchers.
One concept is the differential impact of various communi—
cation media at the several adoption stages; evidence of
this assertion has been found in reference to the .numerous
studies which have examined this variable and its relation-
ship to diffusion and adoption. Rogers (1962) cites studies
by Ryan and Gross (1943), Wilkening (1952), Rogers and Beal
(1958), and Rahim (1961) to substantiate his generalization
that,

Impersonal sources of information are more im-

portant than personal sources for relatively

early adopters of innovations than for later

adopters (p. 179).

Cosmopolite sources of information are more

important than localite sources for relatively

early adopters of innovations than for later

adopters (p. 179).

Earlier adopters utilize information sources

that are in closer contact with the origin of
new ideas than later adopters (p. 181).

38

Finally Rogers states that "Earlier adopters utilize
a greater number of different information sources than do
later adopters" (p. 181).

Social system norms are now recognized as greatly
influencing the probability that any given innovation will
be diffused, adopted or rejected. Linton (1952) has said
the following in support of the generalization:

If we know what a Society's culture is, including

its particular system of values and attitudes, we

can predict with a fairly high degree of proba-

bility whether the bulk of its members will welcome
or resist a particular innovation (p. 74).

 

One particularly significant finding of past diffusion
research is that, when plotted over time, adoption of an in—
novation follows a bell-shaped curve. When plotted cumula—
tively, this adoption is essentially "S" shaped. Rogers
(1962) concludes that: ". . . adOption distribution follow
a bell-shaped curve over time and approach normality."

Based upon the empirically determined tendency for
adoption to follow a bell-shaped curve, research workers in
the field of diffusion have categorized adopters by dividing
the continuum into stages. Rogers (1962), has reviewed
categorization systems advanced thus far and postulates
five stages, as follows:

1. Awareness stage, at which the individual is

exposed to the innovation but lacks complete
information about it. The individual is aware

of the innovation, but is not yet motivated
to seek further information (pp. 81-82).

 

39

2. Interest stage, characterized by efforts of
the individual to seek additional information
about the innovation. The individual favors
the innovation in a general way, but he has
not yet judged its utility in terms of his
own situation (p. 82).

3. Evaluation stage, at which the individual
mentally applies the innovation to his present
and anticipated future situation, and then de-
cides whether or not to try it (p. 83).

4. Trial stage, at which the individual uses the
innovation on a small scale in order to deter-
mine its utility in his own situation (p. 84).

5. Adoption stage, which represents a decision
by the individual to continue full use of
the innovation (p. 86).

 

Studies by Wilkening (1952), Rogers and Beal (1958),
Beal and Rogers (1960), Copp and Others (1958), Rogers and
Pitzer (1960), Rahim (1961), Beal and Rogers (1957) and
Katz (1961) have led Rogers (1962, p. 99) to generalize
that ". . . impersonal information sources are most important
at the awareness stage, and personal sources are most im-
portant at the evaluation stage in the adoption process."
Substantiated by the findings of studies conducted under
the auspices of Beal and Rogers (1957), Wilkening and Others
(1960), Ryan and Gross (1943), and Katz (1961), Rogers (1962)
further concludes that,
cosmopolite information sources are most im-
portant at the awareness stage, and localite
information sources are most important at the
evaluation stage (p. 102).

Rogers (1962, p. 306) developed an adoption paradigm as

indicated on page 41.

40

In short, a systematic, comprehensive effort in sum-
marizing and conceptualizing the findings in the various
disciplines was made by Rogers (1962). It is, to date, the

best documentation of empirical evidence of diffusion research.

 

41

 

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH DESIGN, REVIEW OF LITERATURE, AND

PRESENTATION OF HYPOTHESES

A formal organization differs from other kinds of
social systems in that the power structure is clearly de-

lineated, roles and positions are well defined, and com-

 

pliance in accordance with the position held and fulfill-
ment of hierarchical demands are usually in effect. Thus,
when an innovation or change has been adopted by high level
decision-makers, adoption rate is likely to be relatively
high since the low-ranking members comply in accordance
with their role-expectations.

However, the success of an innovation or change
should be measured beyond the adoption rate exhibited by
the members of the organization. Different degrees of com-
mitment to an innovation will be found amoung members as a
result of variations of internal acceptance. As members
perceive an innovation to be relevant to their role per-
formance and personal satisfaction in the organization,
adoption more likely takes place. In contrast to this

internal acceptance, compliant acceptance is defined as the

42

 

Evil!) I f

 

 

m
g,

43

use of the innovation whether the member sees the innovation
as relevant or irrelevant to his role performance and per-
sonal satisfaction in the organization (Lin, 1966).
This study examines factors which are related to

the degree of internal acceptance of educational innovations
among teachers. The study investigates one aspect of insti-
tution building in West Pakistan, the adoption and intern-
alization of improved educational practices among the Pilot
Secondary Schools of West Pakistan. The importance of this

aspect of institution-building is apparent from the defini-

 

tion of the term "institution-building:"
Institution building is the planning, structuring,
and guidance of new or reconstituted organizations which
(a) incorporate, foster, and protest normative relationship
and action patterns, (b) perform functions and services which

are valued in the environment, and (c) facilitate the assimi—

 

lation of new physical and social technologies.*

The introduction of new educational technologies is
an important function of any agency engaged in educational
technical assistance in a developing country; but, for in-
stitution-building to occur, these educational innovations
must be diffused and adopted. In the case of the present

educational institution-building effort under study, one

 

*Taken from Inter-University-Research Program in
Institution Building, "Description of the Research Program,"
Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of
Public and International Affairs, 1964. Underscoring by
the writer.

 

44

measure of program impact is the extent to which teachers
in "target" schools embrace and accept change; because
this is the goal Of the institution being built.

The objectives of this study are:

1. To determine how certain educational innovations

are adopted and internalized by the Pilot
Secondary Schools; and to analyze the factors
related to teacher adOption and acceptance.

2. To formulate, from the findings, practical

suggestions for school administrators on how
to facilitate the acceptance and adoption of
innovation in the secondary schools of West
Pakistan.

The methodology for this study is one in which data
are gathered via self-administered questionnaires to teachers
at one point in time during 1968. The respondents, who are
the teachers in the Pilot Secondary Schools, have been
asked to recall information like time of adoption and sources
of knowledge or practice on a number of recently introduced
educational innovations. This method allows one to partially
reconstruct the time dimension of diffusion and adoption,
and past investigations suggest it is highly accurate if
certain precautions are followed. This method is deemed
most apprOpriate in the present case in terms Of resources
and the exploratory nature of the investigation in the West
Pakistan culture. In both form and substance, the study is
patterned closely after a study accomplished in Michigan
State University (Lin, 1966).

The investigation will also serve as a base line for

more extensive and comprehensive later studies of the

 

 

45

diffusion and adOption of educational practices among other

schools of West Pakistan.

Importance of the Problem

A considerable body of research literature has been
accumulated about the communication and adoption of innova-
tions; Rogers (1966) reported more than one thousand differ-
ent publications on this tOpic by October 1, 1966. Less

than two hundred of these studies were concerned with the

 

diffusion of educational ideas and all but about ten of
these educational diffusion studies were conducted at one
university under the direction of one man and with a rather
stereotyped method.*

Only one of the educational innovation diffusion
studies prior to 1968 was conducted outside the United
States. Important results from these studies have aided
the United States public schools in adopting innovations.
For example, Mort (1946) found that average school ". . .
lags 25 years behind the best practice." Comparatively
speaking, educational change is a much slower process than
changes which take place in agriculture or medicine (M.

Miles, 1964; and Rogers, 1965).

 

*These studies are synthesized in Everett M. Rogers,
Diffusion of Innovations, New York: Free Press, 1962.

46

Why is the diffusion and adoption of educational ideas
and practices much slower than that of farm innovations and
medical drugs (where the rate of diffusion is seldom more
than five to ten years)? Eichholz and Rogers (1962) sug-
gested the following reasons:

1. The absence of scientific sources of innovation
in education.

2. The lack of change agents to promote new
educational ideas.

3. The lack of economic incentive to adopt.

In addition, it should be pointed out that farmers

 

and medical doctors are quite different from teachers in
that the farmers are independent entrepreneurs, while tea-

chers are members of complex organizations in which freedom

 

of choice is affected by the nature of the institution as
created by its leader and members. Moreover, the impact
Of educational change is less easily assessed and often
the decision in regard to the adoption of certain changes
are not made at the individual level so "adoptive behavior"
as such may not be a meaningful research variable.

There is some recent data that while Mort may have
been correct in describing a 25 year rate of diffusion (for
the average innovation) among public schools in the 1930's
and 1940's, the rate of educational diffusion has increased
considerably in the post-Sputnik era. Carlson (1965), for
instance, found that modern math reached 80 per cent adoption
in five years among the schools of Allegheny County, Pennsyl—

vania. His study shows that diffusion of educational practices

 

47

can be increased where a credible source of innovation-
develOpment is utilized; where audio-visual materials are
prepared to accompany a new textbook; and where the organi-
zational structure seemed to act as a facilitator rather
than a resistor to change.

Thus, the present study is novel in that it investi-
gates the adoption and internalization of educational
innovations in a setting where unique social-organizational
factors are of considerable importance; because Pakistan

school teachers, administrators and Ministries of Education

 

form parts of an educational bureaucracy in quite a differ-
ent manner than in the United States where educational
control is much less centralized, or than was the case with
farmers, medical doctors, and others who have had shared
the focus of most research on the diffusion Of innovations.
The present research is further unique because it
has been conducted in a developing country, Pakistan, where
no previous studies of educational change have been completed.
This void is especially significant in view of implications
for institution-building in developing countries; where
considerable resources are expended in changing educational
institutions; but where little research has been accomplished
for the development of educational institutions. Certainly,
research on diffusion of educational innovations lies at
the core of institution-building in the case of the Educa—
tion Extension Center and the University of Chicago-Ford

Foundation Project.

48

This research is consistent with several of the
guiding concepts stated by the Inter-University-Research
program in Institution Building (1964).

Four key elements in the analysis of institution-
building play crucial roles in this research:

1. Leadership. The extent that administrators,
consultants and change agents throughout the
educational system influence diffusion and
the adoption of educational innovations by
Pilot Schools, and eventually by other schools
in the Pakistan educational system.

2. Doctrine. Although perhaps not such a central
concept in the present study as leadership,
organization, and environment, doctrine is highly
related. Certain doctrines of the Central Ministry
of Education and the Extension Center clearly
will affect the diffusion process; an example
is the doctrine of centralization of decision-
making on new practices.

 

 

3. Organization. This element is central to this
study. "The introduction of new technologies
take place in and through organization.“ The
present study differs from almost all past dif-
fusion research in that the major emphasis is
placed upon the effects of the organizational
structure on communication and adoption patterns.

 

4. Environment. This element is necessarily con-
sidered at all stages of the study, but does
not enter directly into the research design.

Definition of Terms

Change Orientation. An individual's degree of general

 

predisposition toward accepting change (Lin, et_§l., 1966).

Diffision of Innovation. The process by which an

 

innovation is transferred over time from one person or

aggregate of persons to another person or aggregate of

49

persons in a social system (Rogers, 1962, p. 12). In a
broader sense, diffusion is defined as the process of
transmitting a message from a source system, be it a person
or aggregate, through a second system, which acts first as
a receiver than as a source, to a third and to later
systems (Lin, 1966).

Innovation Assimilation. The extent of integration
Of an innovation or change in a defined social system (Lin,
1966).

Innovation Decision Process. The mental process “'

 

through which an individual passes from first knowledge of
an innovation to final decision to adopt or reject the in-
novation (Rogers and Shoemaker 1966). They redefine the

five “stages" as four “functions“ and conceptualize the

/functions as (1) knowledge (awareness), (2) persuasion

(attitude formation and/or change), (3) decision (adoption
or rejection), and (4) confirmation (reinforcement).
Institution Building. The planning, structuring
and guidance of new or reconstituted organizations which
(a) incorporate, foster, and protect normative relationship
and action patterns, (b) perform functions and services
which are valued in the environment, and (c) facilitates
the assimilation of new physical or social technologies.
(Inter-University Research Program in Institution-Building,
University of Pittsburgh, 1964).
Innovation Internalization. The extent to which a

teacher perceives the innovation as relevant or valuable

 

 

50

to his role performance in the school. In other words,
the degree of a teacher's attitudinal acceptance of a
specific innovation (Lin, 2;. al., 1966).

Organization or Institution. A system with the
following attributes:

1. A number of Offices with specified functions;

2. Offices structured along hierarchical lines;

3. A limited number of officers in charge of all
functions and products of the system;

4. Within each Office are specific positions which
have specific roles in terms of the functions
or products of the system;

 

5. Rewards and punishments are regulated according
to established rules which usually specify the
required competence of the occupant of the
position.

6. Operational communication and interaction,
except in infrequent deliberately arranged
occasions, takes place along the lines of
hierarchical structure (Lin, 1966).

Pilot Secondary Schools. With the help of consult-

 

ants from the University of Chicago and West Pakistan Edu-
cation Extension Center, twenty-three secondary schools

are encouraged to experiment in curriculum developments,
testing programs, audio-visual aids, and guidance programs.
The schools also Offer instruction in agriculture, commer-
cial subjects, home economics, and industrial arts. The
schools have selected teachers from all over West Pakistan
and aim at higher quality instruction in mathematics, science,
language usage, social studies and other aspects of general

education. These schools are the pioneer schools and the

51

best equipped institutions, with the professionally best

trained personnel in West Pakistan.

Overall Design

This study is designed to provide basic information
concerning the following four interrelated elements - the
innovation, its diffusion, the characteristics of the social
system, and the time of adoption. The paradigm on page 53

provides a model from which hypotheses may be generated

 

and tested.

The problem has been approached in (1) innovation
diffusion studies, (2) formal organization studies, and
(3) social influence studies.

Rogers (1960) suggested five stages of the adoption
process: (1) awareness, (2) interest, (3) evaluation,

(4) trial, (5) adoption. He also discussed disadoption
and continuation phenomena after the state of adoption

and rejection. In a formal organization setting, the low
ranking members are generally not involved in decision-
making; thus, they are usually alienated from the adoption
process. AdOption by high level sources, however, does
not imply the ultimate success of the innovation in a for-
mal organization. The problem process under consideration
by this study should add a new, unexplored, yet important
dimension to the area of diffusion research; that is,

internal acceptance of innovations. Social psychologists

 

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«COHHDHHHmCH CO CH COHHOCHEmmmHQ COHHO>OCCH Ho HOOD: C I m musmHm

53

(Frestinger, LePiere, etc.) have empirically demonstrated
that under certain conditions behavioral change does not
imply attitudinal change. A basic assumption of this study
is that attitudes are related to behavior and that teachers
who have a low level of internalization of an innovation
will be less effective users of that innovation.
Lin eg_al., (1966) have formulated a paradigm Of

innovation decisions in formal organization which points
out that the functional unit of adOption and the decision-

making unit may not always be the same. The paradigm is

 

outlined as follows:

 

 

Figure 4 - Paradigm of Innovation Decisions in Formal
Organizations

 

1. The Individual as the Functional Unit Of AdOption.
(compliant adoption behavior is not required of all

members)
Type of Innovation Decision Decision-making Unit
A. Optional . . . . . . 1 Individual member
B. Contingent . . . . . l The Organization

(enabling decision)

a. by a collective enabling
decision
or
b. by an authority enabling
decision

2. Individual members

a. by an optional adoption
decision

II. The OrganiZation as the Functional Unit of Adoption
(compliant adoption behavior is required of all members)

C. Collective . . . . . 1 Members as an aggregate
D. Authority . . . . . 1 Officers of the organization

54

l. Stimulation of interest in the need for the new idea

 

(by stimulators)
2. Iniation of the new idea in the social system
(by initiators)

3. Legitimation of the new idea

 

(by power holders or legitimizers)
4. Decision to act (by members of the social system)

5. Action or execution of the new idea.*‘

 

*The basis for the model is Beal (1957, pp. 17-22)
and Beal and others (1964), Agger and others (1964, p. 40)
conceive of a series of six stages in the collective deci-
sion-making process; their stages bear striking resemblance
to this model, especially to Stimulation,.iniation, and
legitimation.

However, the success of the innovation should be
measured beyond the adOptive point exhibited by the members
Of the organization since different degrees of effort or

commitment to an innovation will be found among members

after they have adopted.

Innovation Internalization

In his discussion of bureaucratic structure and per-
sonality, Merton (1957) stated:

If a bureaucracy is to operate successfully, it

must obtain a high degree of reliability of be-
havior, an unusual degree of conformity with pre-
scribed patterns Of action . . . Disciplines can

be effective only if the ideal patterns are
buttressed by strong sentiments which entail de-
votion to one's duties, a keen sense of limitation

of one's authority and competence, and methodological

55

performance of routine activities. The efficiency
of social structure depends ultimately upon infus-
ing group participants with appropriate attitudes
and sentiments (p. 199).

Bernard (1938) in discussing authority, states:

A person can and will accept a communication as
authoritative only when four conditions simul-
taneously obtain: (a) he can and does understand
the communication; (b) at the time of his decision
he believes that it is not inconsistent with the
purpose of the organization; (c) at the time of
his decision he believes it to be compatible with
his personal interest as a whole: and (d) he is
able mentally and physically to comply with it
(pp. 163<17l).

 

Thus, in a formal organization, the achievement of
organizational goals has to be heavily dependent upon the
sentiments and attitudes of its members; in other words,
the degree of internal acceptance of a change. Parsons
(1951) also emphasized the importance of internal accept—
ance when the organization is undergoing changes.

Hall (1947) and Mann (1957) have suggested that there
are certain psychological and sociological facts which
must be taken into consideration in attempting to change
the attitudes and behavior of an individual or a group in
an organizational setting.

Kelman (1961) discussing social influence and opinion
change prOposed three distinct processes from which adopt-
ive behavior may be induced. In the "compliance" situation,
he stated, "the adoptive behavior is observed only when
surveillance of the influencing agent is in effect.“ In

the “identification" situation, the adOption behavior will

56

persist as long as the individual's relationship with the
influencing agent continues. In the "internalization"
situation, the adOptive behavior will be retained as rele-
vant to the values of the individual. In the words of
Kelman:

Compliance can be said to occur when an individual
accepts influence from another person or from a
_group because he hopes to achieve a favorable re-
action from the other. He may be interested in
attaining certain specific rewards or in avoiding
certain specific punishments that the influencing
agent controls. '

Identification can be said to occur when an indi-
vidual adopts behavior derived from another person
or a group because this behavior is associated with
a satisfying self-defining relationship to this
person or group.

 

Internalization can be said to occur when an indi-
vidual accepts influence because the induced be-
havior is congruent with his value system (p. 15).

 

Internalization of group norms can come about through
identification with fellow group members who share the same
common fate. Pe0ple take over the values of their group
because they identify with their own kind.

Katz and Kahn (1966) have suggested three factors
which contribute to internalization of group objectives:

1. Participating in important decisions about
group objectives;

2. Contributing to group performance in a signifi-
cant way; and

3. Sharing in the rewards of group accomplishment.

The internalization of organizational goals is the

most effective motive of patterns and the most difficult

57

to evoke within the limits of conventional organizational
practice. The extent of internalization thus depends upon
the character of the organizational goals and their con-
gruence with the needs and values of the individual. It
depends also on the extent to which the individual shares
actively in the determination of organizational decisions
and in the rewards which accrue to the organization. High
internalization of organizational goals tend to result in
high productivity and innovativeness.

Internal acceptance is especially important in an
organization where role-monitoring is not very rigid.
For instance, in an educational system, where an innova-
tion will be carried out by the teachers, successful adoptions
to a great extent depends upon internal acceptance by the
teachers - as compatible to their role-expectations and
their role-performance.

‘

The degree of innovativeness of an individual has I

W...,...—...,... —...-—«—- ' uh“, +

usually been measured by comparing the individual's adoption]

.1
1

time for a given innovation to the adoption time of others
in similar social systems. The paradigm of innovation
decision in formal organization clearly indicates that when
the organization is the functional unit of adoption, indi-
vidual adOption time does not differentiate members of the
organization in terms of their degree of innovativeness.
For a given organization, all members “adOpt" at the same
time. However, when the individual is the functional unit

of adoption, individual adoption time is free to vary and

58

can be used as a meaningful variable in organizational
research. For purposes Of this study one innovation (use I
of objective tests) has been selected so that individual '
adoption time may be used as a dependent variable. Other
innovations have been selected for which the organization i
is the functional unit Of adoption and in this case innova-
tion internalization constitutes the main dependent variable.
The problem under consideration thus becomes a sig-
nificant one which contributes to various research tradi-
tions. At the same time it also has some important bearing
in solving various practical problems. For instance,
institution-building is a central issue in any developing
country and research is needed to study the processes and

effects of change and innovation brought into an organization.
Selection of Innovations

For purposes Of this study five educational practices
new to the Pakistan educational system will be used to study
the adoption process. The five types vary widely in the
manner they affect individual teachers, schools, and the

prevailing conception of the purpose of education in Pakistan.
1. Vocational Curricular Subjects

The main weakness of secondary education in Pakistan
is the absence of Opportunities for training in technical

and vocational subjects; and, its inflexibility - a lack of

59

diversification corresponding to social needs, individual
aptitudes and interests. The present curricula for secondary
schools lays too much stress on literary subjects and too
little on other equally important attributes of the develop-
ing boy or girl - physical well-being, personality, and
fostering a pride in dexterity and technical achievement.
The Report of the Commission on National Education
(1959) stressed the need for the introduction of practical
arts at the secondary stage and suggested the following
subjects be introduced at this stage:
a. Workshop courses in metal work, woodwork, and
applied electricity for boys who wish to take
up eng1neer1ng.
b. Agriculture courses for boys.

c. Commercial subjects for students wishing to
enter clerical professions.

d. Home economics for girls.
e. Courses in art, artistic and ornamental crafts
for both boys and girls.

2. Science Laboratories

Science has long been theoretically taught in the
secondary schools of Pakistan with very few or no Oppor-
tunities for doing practical experiments. Pilot schools
are especially encouraged to use laboratory methods of
teaching through the provision of laboratory facilities

and science equipment.

 
 

 

 

60

3. Student Personnel Services: Educational Guidance

The program of diversification of courses at the
secondary stage cannot be fully implemented unless there
is provision for guidance services. The scheme of pilot
schools has rightly introduced the service by providing a
full time guidance teacher trained at the Education Exten-
sion Center, Lahore. This innovation is only introduced

in the Pakistan pilot schools.

4. In-Service Training of Teachers

In-service teacher education assumes added signifi-
cance in Pakistan where educational institutions are ex-
tremely tradition bound with a built-in cultural lag; where
large numbers of teachers are without professional training
and where colonial rule placed no premium on creative think—
ing or self advancement. The Commission on National Educa-
tion (1959), recognized and recommended that:

Apart from the fact that large numbensof our

teachers at all levels are untrained, and

continued and vigorous efforts are thus needed

to equip them professionally for their work,

it must be recognized that no teacher once

trained can, throughout his career, be regarded

as fully competent without periodic refresher

courses (p. 271).

Gilchrist (1959) suggested that “in-service educa-

tion should cause people to change and to grow" (p. 18).

 

61
5. Classroom Techniques: Objective Tests

The use of objective tests as a device for evaluat-
ing the students‘ academic achievement were never used or
thought necessary by teachers in Pakistan. Teachers relied
solely on the subjective essay type of tests. Pilot Schools,
for the first time, introduced the idea of objective tests,
including construction and administration, as a means of

pupil evaluation.

Selection of Dependent Variables

The dependent variables are time of adoption of in-
novations and innovation internalization. Time of adoption
is used as a dependent variable only for those innovations
which can be adopted by individual teachers, in this case,
the use of objective tests. Innovation internalization is
measured with a four-item scale relative to each of the
innovations in this study. Because internalization and
adoption time may be used as dependent variables for Ob-
jective tests, this permits investigation of the relation-
ship between attitudinal acceptance and use, thus providing
evidence on the relationship between teacher attitudes and

teacher behavior.

Selection of Independent Variables

A large number Of independent variables are selected

 

 

62

for this investigation because of the exploratory nature
of this study in Pakistan culture. The study is closely
patterned after a similar investigation in the U.S. (Lin
pp 31., 1966) with certain adaptations relevant to the

school system in Pakistan.

I. The Demographic Category of Variables Includes:
1. Age
2. Educational level attained
3. Teaching salary
4. Number of courses taught

5. Length of employment

II. The Institutional Category Includes:
A. Role Perception Variables such as:

1. Role satisfaction: the extent to which the teacher
is satisfied with his work and working environment.

2. Feeling of security: the extent to which the
teacher feels secure in the school.

3. Self-rated teaching ability: the teacher's
perception of his own teaching ability.

4. Participation: the extent to which the teacher
perceives himself taking part in decision-making
in the school.

B. PerceptiOn of One's Superior variables include:

1. Perceived change orientation of the Headmaster/
Headmistress.

2. Perceived psychological distance between self
and the Headmaster/Headmistress: the teacher's
perception of the degree of psychological dis-
tance between himself and the Headmaster/Head-
mistress.

63

3. Perceived source credibility of the Headmaster/
Headmistress: how the teacher perceives him/her
as a source of information.

4. Reported performance feedback from the Headmaster/
Headmistress, the extent to which he/she tells
the teacher how he/she is doing.

5. Vertical communication: the teacher's perception
of how Often he/she talks with the Headmaster/
Headmistress.

6. Perceived Headmaster/Headmistress's support of
the innovation: the extent to which the teacher
thinks his/her Headmaster/Headmistress supports
the innovation.

C. Peer Relationship variables include:

1. Self-designated Opinion leadership: Rogers and
Carpano's (1962).

2. Perceived frequency of horizontal communication
about the innovation: how Often the teacher
talks with other teachers about the innovations.

3. Perceived cohesiveness of teaching staff: how
the teacher thinks other teachers in the school

,get along as a group.
D. Perception of Students variables include:

1. The teacher's perception of student benefits
from the innovations.

2. The teacher's perception of student attitudes
toward the innovations.
III. Communication behavior (includes two such areas)
A. General Communication Behavior variables include:

General mass media exposure: which covers radio,
newspaper, magazines, etc.

B. Professional Communication Behavior variables include:
1. Number of professional journals read regularly.
2. Frequency of professional meetings attended.

3. Number of in-service education courses attended.

 

 

64
4. The teacher's perception of how adequate is
his/her knowledge about the innovations.
5. Time of awareness of the innovations.

IV. Personal Disposition Toward Change:
includes the following variable:

Self-perceived change orientation.

Review of Literature and

Presentation of Hypotheses

In this section, an attempt is made to present
variables which are considered important in predicting the
dependent variables:

1. Time of adOption of an innovation, and

2. Internal acceptance of innovations.
(Internalization)

For each set of hypotheses, a review of some relevant studies

are presented.

1. Demographic Factors

 

In almost all previous innovation diffusion research
a number of demographic factors have been correlated with
the main variable under study. For example, Lin ep_al.
(1966) in a study of the diffusion of an educational inno—
vation within three U.S. secondary schools found no signifi-
cant relationship between age or teaching salary and in-
ternalization, but found a positive correlation between

educational level attained and internalization. Generally

  

65

speaking, diffusion research in the rural sociology tradi-
tion has found a negative correlation between age and time

of adoption.

H1: The Older a teacher is the later he will
have adopted an innovation and the less his
internalization of an innovation.

H2: The higher the educational level attained by
a teacher, the earlier he will have adopted
an innovation and the higher his internaliza-
tion of the innovation.

H3: The higher the teacher‘s salary, the earlier
he will have adOpted an innovation and the
higher his internalization of an innovation.

H4: The greater the number of courses the teacher
has taught, the earlier he will have adopted
an innOvation and the higher his internaliza-
tion of an innovation.

H5: The longer the teacher has been employed in
a school, the later he will have adopted an
innovation and the less his internalization
Of an innovation.

II. Institutional Factors

 

A. Role Perception

Analysis of the study by Katz, Maccoby (1950) and
Morse showed that pride in the work group was the only
measure of job satisfaction "which shows a distinct rela-
tionship of productivity," that is the high production groups
showed greater pride in their work than did the low produc-
tion groups. Schaffer (1953) correlated an over—all job
satisfaction measure for each individual with the mean of
the 12 need satisfaction scores for each individual and_got
a correlation coefficient + .44. This is to say, knowing

an individual's score on these needs it is possible to

66

predict his over-all satisfaction. High satisfaction,
thus, may be defined as the feeling of well being experi-
enced by the individual when his needs are being filled
to his satisfaction. Thus, we may hypothesize:

H6: The more a teacher is satisfied with his

work,the working environment, the earlier
he will have adOpted an innovation and

the greater his degree Of internal accept-
ance of the innovation.

An excellent study by Bachr and Renck (1958) re-
vealed that job satisfaction is a component of morale.
Seventy-six items attempting "to cover all the influences
which affect the worker on the job" were put into fourteen
categories: (1) job demands, (2) working conditions, (3)
pay, (4) employee benefits, (5) friendliness and cooperation
of fellow employees, (6) supervisor-employee interpersonal
relations, (7) effectiveness of administration, (8) confi-
dence in management, (9) technical competence of supervision,
(10) adequacy of communication, (11) security of job and work
relations, (12) status and recognition, (13) identification
with the organization, (14) Opportunity for growth and ad—
vancement. Lin 33 a1. (1966) found indirect support for
the relationship between a teacher's feeling of security
and innovation internalization. In their study, feelings
of security were positively related to level of non-teaching
income and the latter, in turn, positively correlated with
innovation internalization. They posit: "Perhaps when a

teacher . . . feels more secure . . . the uncertainty in-

volved in confronting change becomes less threatening."

 

67

H7: The greater a teacher‘s feeling of security
in the school environment, the earlier he
will have adopted an innovation and the

.greater his internal acceptance of innovation.

Self-perception of teaching ability has also been
found related to innovation internalization. The data in
Lin pp a1. indicated that the better a teacher thought his
own teaching ability, the more likely he was to have a
positive attitude toward an innovation.

H8: The more a teacher perceives himself to be

a good teacher, the earlier he will have
adopted an innovation and the greater his
internal acceptance of innovations.

Group participation is another important variable
affecting success of change in an organization. Coch and
French (1948) found that participation and group discussion
were effective ways to overcome resistance to change. Mann
and Neff (1961) found that participation in problem-solving
is important in bringing about motivation for change.
Levine, Jacob and Butler (1953) found that group decision
is superior to lecture in fostering behavior change. Par-
ticipation is the degree to which members of a social system
are involved in the decision-making process. There is ex-
tensive empirical support for the generalization that satis-
faction with a collective innovation decision is positively
related to the degree of participation by members of the
social system in the decision. One of the most cited evi-

dence of this proposition is the investigation by Lewin

(1947) on lecture/group discussion methods in convincing

68

housewives to adopt new food products. A follow-up of

the women showed dramatic differences, with only 3 per
cent of the lecture groups serving unpopular foods as com—
pared to 32 per cent of the discussion group. Katz and
Kahn (1966) made the observation:

Group interaction, as it reaches the point of

discussion, makes salient the group norms or

consensus. Norms imposed from without may vary

in clarity, visibility, and psychological

nearness. After a discussion has finally

reached consensus, the group norms are

abundantly clear and psychologically real

to the members (p. 402).

Davis (1965) provides supportive evidence about member
participation in collective decisions. He studied the adoption
of educational innovations in an innovative and non-innova-
tive liberal arts college. The progressive organization
featured a high degree of involvement of faculty in collect-
ive innovation decision-making. Such participation built
commitment to the total institution and encouraged accept-
ance of collective decisions. In a somewhat similar study,
Quennly and Street (1965) investigated an innovative and
laggardly elementary school in Chicago. They found wider
teacher participation in innovation decisions in the more
progressive school system. Lin ep}al., also found the
relevancy Of the importance of teachers“ participation in
school decision-making process for facilitating teacher
acceptance of an innovation. It is thus hypothesized:

H9: The more teachers perceive themselves partici-

pating in school decision-making, the earlier

they will have adopted an innovation and the
greater their internal acceptance of innovations.

 

69

B. Perception of One's Superior

An important relationship in the power structure of
a formal organization is that between the subordinates and
superior. Mann (1957) indicated that expectations of the
superior are more important forces for creating change in
an individual than the expectations of his subordinates.

The Hawthorne studies demonstrated that psychological rather
than physiological reaction contributed to the results of
constant increase of production rate (1941). Likert, in
stressing the need for both upward and downward communica-
tions, stated that employee-centered rather than job-centered
superior style is more likely to induce high production rate.
Levinson (1965) discussed the importance of organization
affiliation and introduced the concept of reciprocation
which he defined as a continuous process of fulfilling mu-
tual expectations, or carrying out a psychological contract,
and/or enhancing the man-organization relationship.

Lin ep_al. found a relationship approaching signifi-
cance between teachers' perception of their superior's
change-orientation and internal acceptance of an innovation.

H10: The more change-oriented a teacher perceives

his principal to be, the earlier he will have
adOpted an innovation and the greater his
internal acceptance of the innovations.

Thus, it also seems that the relationship between
a teacher and the principal should be personal rather than
institutional; employee-centered rather than job-centered;

and helpful rather than rigidly controlled as perceived by

70

the teacher, if he is to accept an innovation being diffused
by the organizational hierarchy. This may be termed as
"psychological distance." The shorter this psychological
distance between the teacher and principal, as perceived by
the teacher, the more likely is the teacher to internally
accept the innovation.

H11: The greater the psychological distance

between the teacher and his principal as
perceived by the teacher, the later he
will adOpt an innovation and the less his
internal acceptance of an innovation.

A communication is an interpersonal behavior event.
Whether or not a communication is effective in changing
attitude will depend very much upon how the communicator is
perceived by his audience. Review of the research in this
field shows that there is ample experimental evidence in

support of this assumption. Studies have determined that

among other characteristics the credibility - attractiveness

 

 

and group affiliations of the communicator, as perceived by
the audience, are important factors in determining effective-
ness. In Hovland and Weiss (1951) marked differences in the
immediate effects of trustworthy and untrustworthy communi-
cation on opinions were found. Twenty-three per cent of

the subjects changed their Opinions in the direction advo-
cated by the communication when a trustworthy communicator
was used; less than seven per cent changed when an untrust-
worthy communicator was used. Lin ep a1, (1966) found a

positive correlation between teacher‘s perceptions of the

 

71

source credibility of their principal and internal accept—
ance of a school adOpted innovation. This led to the
hypothesis:

H12: The more credible the principal is per-

ceived as a source of information by the
teacher the earlier he will have adopted
an innovation and the greater his degree
of internal acceptance of innovations.

Mandell and Duckworth (1955) found that the over-
all morale of 64 trades employees in civil service was high
if they said that their "superior lets them know how they
are doing." Costello and Zalkind (1963) emphasized the
importance of “knowledge of results" in a person‘s perform-
ance in his organization. They suggested that (1) the
knowledge of the results of one's learning efforts almost
universally increase the speed of learning and the level
of proficiency achieved; (2) the more specific the know-
ledge of performance the more rapid is the improvement and
the higher is the level of performance; (3) the longer the
delay in giving the knowledge of performance, the less
effect the given information has; and, (4) giving the
learner knowledge of his results tends to increase his
motivation to learn.

Comrey, High and Wilson found that production was
correlated significantly with the amount of communication
downward. These statements point out the importance of

downward feedback in an organization and it led to hypothe-

size:

72

H13: The more frequently the teacher receives
feedback from his principal on the ade-
quacy Of his work related performance the
earlier he will have adopted an innovation
and the greater the degree of his internal
acceptance of innovations adopted by the

school.
Likert (1961) suggested that job satisfaction may
be linked with the amount of new information transmitted
from a superior to his subordinates. Mann (1957) also
indicated that the more meaningful and relevant the material
the greater the likelihood of acceptance of change induced
by the organization. It is thus hypothesized:
H14: The more frequently a teacher communicates
with his principal the earlier he will have

adOpted an innovation and the higher the
degree of the teacher's internal acceptance

of innovations.

In a study of Diffusion and Innovation by Lin pp pp.
it was found that certain relationships with administrators
were related to the teachers' acceptance of the innovation.
Important were teacher perceptions of the degree to which
the school superintendent supported the innovation. It is
hypothesized:

H15: The more the teachers perceive the principal

to support innovations, the earlier they
will have adOpted an innovation and the

lgreater the degree of teachers‘ acceptance
and internalization of innovations.

73
C. Peer Relationships

Likert pointed out that good communication and high
performance go together. The Hawthorne Studies (1941) have
shown that horizontal communication is the most important
factor in affecting the production rate. Guion (1958)
found that morale was associated with absence of conflict
in the work group. On the other hand, Guion also found
that the process of successful change in a hierarchical
organization will start and continue to the extent that
the members perceive the behavior of superiors, peers, and
subordinates to be in keeping with the norms of behavior
in the larger organizations. Mechanic (1963) discussed
that although there is a formal patterning of power within
organizations an informal power structure may develop which
is congruent with the formal organization. The influence
that lower ranking personnel achieve tends to be character-
ized by an ability to thwart or resist change.

It appears that there are at least three elements
at work in regard to the interaction Of formal and informal
leadership; (1) vertical communication between the subor-
dinate and his superior; (2) horizontal communication between
the subordinate and his peers in the work group, and (3) the
norms of the work group. It should be pointed out that all
these relationships are psychological in nature, for what
the member believes to be the relationships is much more

important than what the relationships actually are.

 

74

Lin pp pl, (1966) found a positive relationship be-
tween self—designated opinion leadership and internal ac-
ceptance of an innovation suggesting that teachers in
innovative schools who see themselves as highly sought
sources of information tend to be more favorable to school
adOpted innovations. These teachers appear to be attempt-
ing to adhere closely to the innovative norms of their
schools.

From these findings the following hypotheses may be
formed:

H16: The more a teacher perceives himself to

be an Opinion leader for his professional
peers, the earlier he will have adopted the
innovation and the greater his internaliza-
tion of innovation.

H17: The more frequently the teacher engages in

horizontal communication, the earlier he
will have adopted an innovation and the
greater his internalization of innovation.

Industrial social psychology received its major im-
petus from the work of Eton Mayo (1931) at the Western
Electric Company. The investigators demonstrated that the
norms of informal work groups could affect productivity
positively or negatively, depending upon the relationship
of the informal norms to the goals of the organization.

In their famous Hawthorne Study, they found that the result
"was a clear and sustained increase in productivity."

Likert (1961) review of the research in this area

concludes:

75

Work groups which have high peer group loyalty

and common goals appear to be effective in

achieving their goals (p. 30).

The most impressive demonstration of this principle
comes from the study of Seashore (1954). He found that
highly cohesive groups showed much less within group varia-
tion on production than low cohesive groups, but that the
production variation between groups was greater for the
more cohesive groups. Further, Likert (1961) found that

the high cohesivquroups were above average in performance

 

when they accepted company goals and below average when
they rejected company goals, whereas the low cohesive groups
tended to be more average in performance.

He graphically presents:

92 //

/
,/ /’Q§1Toward
accepting goals

91

 
  
    
 

90

89K Toward-’/|
rejectingqgoals

 

88

 

Low High
Peerégroup Loyalty

Relationship of peer—group loyalty to pro-
ductivity when motivation is toward accepting
versus rejecting company goals. (From Npp
Patterns of Management, Rensis Likert, New
York: Mc-Graw Hill, 1961, p. 32).

 

Lin pp pp. in their study found a significant cor-
relation between perceived cohesiveness of the school faculty

and change orientation; and, a correlation approaching

76

significance between school cohesiveness and internal ac-
ceptance of an innovation. It is therefore hypothesized:
H18: The more cohesive the teacher perceives
the faculty of his school to be, the
earlier he will have adopted an innova-

tion and the greater his degree of in-
ternalization of innovations.

D. Perception of Students

Taking the teacher's perceptions of the educational
efficacy of an innovation as an index of the consequences
of that innovation, Lin pp pl. (1966) the data indicate a
strong positive relationship between this variable and the
degree of internalization of the innovation. Teachers who
think an innovation has beneficial consequences for their
students tend to have a more positive attitude toward the
innovation. It is thus hypothesized:

H19: The more a teacher perceives student's

benefit from an innovation the earlier

he will have adopted the innovation and
the greater his degree of internal ac-

ceptance of an innovation.

Lin pp pp. also found a very high positive correla-
tion between a teacher‘s perception of students' attitudes
toward an innovation and the teachers' internalization of
the innovation.

H20: The more favorable a teacher perceives

his students to be toward innovations,
the earlier he will have adopted an in—

novation and the greater his internali-
zation of an innovation.

 

 

77

III. Communication Behavior

 

Among other kinds of external influences which are
widely believed to be effective in changing of attitudes
are those which are exerted by mass media of communication,
such as the radio and the press. Intensive exposure is
usually successful in acquainting a person with some topic
or product, but whether or not he takes action on it de-
pends upon several factors: (1) the strength of his atti-
tudes pertaining to the item, (2) whether his attitudes
are conducive to or Opposed to the action, and (3) whether
action is clearly outlined in the communication.

Rogers (1962) has summarized the literature on the
diffusion Of innovations and offers the following generali-
zation: ". . . impersonal sources of information are more
important than personal sources for relatively earlier
adopters of innovations than for later adOpters. . .“

The assumption is that individuals who have greater exposure
to mass media are more aware of changes occurring outside

of their local social system. The framework draws its
support from the research by Katz on mass communications,
through which the hypothesis of the two-step flow of com-
munication had been develOped. The hypothesis prOposed

that

. . . influences stemming from mass media first

reach 'Opinion leaders‘ who, in turn pass on

what they read and hear to those of their every-
day associates from whom they are influential

(p. 61).

78

The two-step flow hypothesis is represented diagrammatically

as under:

 

  

Primary
Group

    
 

 

Message—————————9

 

Primary
Group

   

 

 

  

 

Larger Social
Structure

    
 

The two-step flow hypothesis suggests that mass com-
munication messages are mediated by the reference groups
of the recipient and the social structure in which they
are imbedded. When an educational leader reads or hears
about guidance, for example, the hypothesis suggests that
his response is not directly determined by the message but
is determined largely by his relationship with other persons
whom he sees as important to him.

H21: The more exposure a teacher has to general

mass media, the earlier he will have adopted
an innovation and the greater his internal
acceptance of innovation.

H22: The more frequently the teacher attends

professional meetings, the earlier he will
have adopted an innovation and the greater
his internal acceptance of innovations.

Lin pp pp. (1966) found a high correlation between
teachers' perception of the adequacy of the knowledge about
an innovation and innovation internalization.

H23: The more adequate the teacher‘s perception

of the adequacy of his knowledge about an
innovation the earlier he will have adopted

 

 

79

an innovation and the greater his internal
acceptance of an innovation.

The quality of education depends upon the quality of
the teacher, and the quality of the teacher in turn depends
upon the quality of human material that is attracted to the
profession and the quality of the preparation received.

The teaching profession is one of those in which continuous
training is required. Teachers have to keep themselves con-

stantly abreast of the rapid changes that take place in

 

society and also the developments in science and in teach-
ing methods that call for frequent adjustment of the educa-
tion system. In-service education has come to be recognized
as indispensible for the healthy_growth of a progressive
teaching profession. If the teacher is to bring his tech-
niques and practices in line with the latest trends in
education he must continue his education throughout the
period of his service; for "a teacher who does not grow
tends to stagnate and become mechanical." (Kandel, 1933,
p. 526)
H24: The more a teacher attends in-service

courses, the earlier he will have adopted

an innovation and the greater his internal

acceptance of innovations.

Rogers reports a summary of data from a number of
diffusion studies which indicates that the earlier an indi-
vidual becomes aware of an innovation the sooner he tends
to adOpt that innovation. However, Lin pp pp. found a

non-significant relationship between time of awareness and

 

80

internalization of a school adOpted innovation. Thus, it
is hypothesized:
H25: The earlier a teacher becomes aware Of an
innovation, the earlier he will have adopted

an innovation and the greater his internal
acceptance Of innovations.

IV. Personal Disposition Toward Change

Lin pp pp. found a very high positive relationship
(r = .50) between a teacher's_genera1 predisposition toward
accepting change and his internalization of an innovation.
Thus, it is expected:
H26: The more change-oriented a teacher is the
earlier he will have adOpted an innovation

and the greater his internalization of in-
novations.

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION

The field study was conducted in a sample of pilot
secondary schools of West Pakistan. The unit of analysis
was the teacher in the pilot schools. The process of col-
lecting data was accomplished primarily by one instrument -
response to a highly structured questionnaire. (The question-
naire is closely patterned after that of Lin pp pp. [1966]
with adaptations appropriate to the innovations in this
study and the Pakistan school situation.) In addition, per-
sonal depth interviews were used to go more deeply into
certain areas of crucial need where detailed information
or clarification was needed. Also, information was gathered
by attending a faculty meeting at the West Pakistan Education
Extension Center, Lahore, visiting the schools, and partici-
pating in the work-shOp. Educational documents, records and
literature were systematically analyzed. Further information
in depth was gathered personally from the Director, West

Pakistan Education Extension.

81

82

Universe and POpulation of the Study

The representative sample of the study consists of
six pilot schools scattered at random throughout West Paki-
stan. The population consists of teachers from these
schools.

In total, there are twenty-three pilot secondary
schools in West Pakistan, twenty-one Government schools and
two privately managed. In the study, only Government pilot
schools were utilized as the basis for sampling. There are
fourteen boys and seven girls pilot schools. Because in
boys' schools there are mostly male administrators and
teachers, and in the girls' schools mostly female adminis-
trators and teachers, the data from each type of school
should be analyzed separately in order to determine if these
differences affect variable relationships between the two
types of schools.

Six boys' schools are classified as urban (do not
teach agriculture) while eight boys‘ schools are classified
as rural (those which teach agriculture). The criterion
on which the decision to teach or not teach agriculture was
made reflects the general degree of cosm0politeness of the
community in which the school is situated. The data from
each type of boys' school were analyzed separately to deter-
mine if urban-rural differences in the school setting affect
variable relationships within each type Of school. The

following figure represents the sample stratification:

83

Figure 5. Sample Stratification: Type Of Setting

 

 

Urban Rural
School N = 6 School N = 8
3‘ School Sample N = 2 School Sample N = 2
8 Teacher Sample N = 80 Teacher Sample N = 67
School N = 7
fl School Sample N = 2
5 Teacher Sample N = 59

 

 

Data Gathering Instrument

The instrument was a highly structured questionnaire
with multiple choice responses administered to all the sub-
jects in the sample. The instrument consists of five selected
innovations and eight independent variables categories. The'
independent variables are related to the demographic; insti-
tutional (includes role perception, perception of one's
superiors, peer relationship and perception of student);
communication behavior, and personal disposition toward
change (includes self-perceived change orientation). The
instrument was pretested on one non-government pilot second-
ary school, Karachi. Appropriate changes were made after
the pretest was taken.

Five copies Of the mimeographed instrument was sent
to three experienced headmasters. The selection was on the

basis of the researcher‘s perception of their cooperation.

84

Step 1. Please indicate categories that do not
exist as "need“ for teachers in the pilot
schools.

Step 2. Please indicate items that are not clear

to the average secondary school teacher in
West Pakistan.

3

8

Step 3. Please mention area on items of “need“
that have not been included in the
questionnaire.

Step 4. Please indicate the “statement" and "direc-
tions" that are vague or not clear.

Step 5. Please write your reaction and attitude
to such instrument
Three of the headmasters responded and their sugges-

tions were incorporated as much as possible.

The Questionnaire

The final questionnaire used in this study contained
109 items. In the beginning, the general purposes of the
study were described in great detail, and the confidential
nature of the questionnaire emphasized. The respondents
were not asked to write their names. The researcher re-
peatedly emphasized the annonymous nature of the question-
naire. The subjects were assured that individuals or schools
would not be identified and the information would be used
strictly for the purpose of research.

The respondents experienced some difficulty in re-
sponding to the questionnaire. The teachers werquenerally

unaccustomed to respond to such an instrument. They were

 

 

85

characterized by a sense of suspicion that the information

might be used against them.

Data Collection

The researcher personally went to Pakistan in the
month of November, 1967 for the collection of data. The‘
researcher made an appointment with the heads of the schools
in the sample and talked about the purpose of the study.

At the scheduled time, the teachers were gathered in the
library or the staff room. The headmaster/headmistress
introduced the researcher to the teachers, the researcher
explained the purpose of the study and thanked them for
their cooperation. The researcher did his best to make
them feel free, independent, and honest while responding
to the instrument.

The questionnaire was passed out and pencils supplied.
The teachers were also reminded not to talk or discuss among
themselves. The researcher stood aside ready to help them
if they experienced any difficulty in understanding the
questionnaire.

The questionnaires were administered to the group
for several reasons: (1) it achieved maximum control in a
field situation, (2) it saved time for both the researcher
and the respondents, (3) it was economical and (4) it was
less disruptive of the school time—table. The test was

usually completed within an hour.

86

The schools in the sample were visited in December,
1967 and January, 1968. The time gap was due to the fact
that the schools were scattered throughout West Pakistan
and it took time to travel from one school to another.

The schools 1 and 2 (Urban Girls‘ Schools), the first
completed questionnaire, took thirty-five minutes and the
last took fifty-five minutes. The teachers talked quite a
bit among themselves and raised their hands for clarifica-
tions. In these schools the total number of teachers were
sixty-four and fifty-nine, respectively, who took the test.

In schools 3 and 4 (Urban Boys' Schools), the first
completed questionnaire took thirty-nine minutes and the
last one took sixty-five minutes. Ninety—four teachers and
eighty completed the test.

In schools 5 and 6 (Rural Boys‘ Schools), the first
completed questionnaire took thirty minutes and the last:
took fifty-eight minutes. Seventy-six teachers and sixty-
seven took the tests. In school 5, at the beginning of the
meeting, there were five more teachers present and they left
the room when the questionnaires were being passed out with-
out mentioning any reasons. The possibility might be the
.general resentment, suspicion and skepticism regarding the
researcher's purpose, because in many areas it was beyond
their comprehension that fundamental research could be made

based on teachers' perception, attitudes, etc.

87

Treatment of Data

The origina1.questionnaire was returned to Michigan
State University, coded, and punched on IBM cards. With
the assistance of the MSU College of Education Research
Services, the data were prepared for analysis on MSU's CDC
3600 computer.

Pearson Product-Moment zero order correlation coeffi-
cients were computed to indicate the magnitude of the rela-
tionship between each independent variable and each dependent
variable for:

1. Girls' Schools

2. Boys' Rural Schools

3. Boys' Urban Schools

The hypotheses were tested on the basis of the sta-
tistical significance or non-significance of the zero-order
correlation according to the size of the sample (number of

teachers).

Operationalization of Concepts
and Scale Construction

The conceptual and Operational definitions along with
some sample items used were:

1. Internalization: The extent to which a teacher
perceives innovation or change as relevant to his role per-

formance in the school. It is the sum of scores a teacher

88

obtains from his responses to questions concerning the sig-
nificance of change to his performance as a teacher and the
educational system as a whole.

e.g., I think educational guidance represents an
improvement in educational practice at my
school.

1. agree very much

2. agree on the whole

3. agree a little

4. don't know

5. disagree a little

6. disagree on the whole

7. disagree very much

2. Psychological distance: The extent of closeness
a member perceives the social relationship of himself and
superior in the organization. Operationally, it is the dis-
crepancy between the perceived social distance score between
"teachers" and "your headmaster/headmistress“ and the per-
ceived social distance score between “yourself" and "your
headmaster/headmistress."

3. Source credibility: The perceived degree of
reliability placed upon the source of a message, independent
of the nature of the message. Operationally, it is the sum
Of scores a teacher obtains in his responses to the Berlo-
Lemert-Mertz (1966) source credibility scale on the dimen-

sions of competence and safety.

89

4. Feedback: The evaluative information received
by a person in regard to his role performance and his atti-
tude toward his role in the social system. Operationally,
it is the sum of scores a teacher obtains in his/her respon-
ses to questions on how often his/her headmaster/headmistress
talks to him/her about his/her teaching performance in the
school.

e.g., He/she gives me encouragement in my work.

5. Change orientation of the headmaster/headmistress
(general attitude toward change): The perceived degree of
general predisposed favorable attitude toward change and
innovations. Operationally, it is the sum of scores a
headmaster/headmistress Obtains in teachers' responses to
questions relating to personal adjustment to changes in
_general in the school.

e.g., Personally, I feel I can adjust to changes
easily.

6. Vertical communication: The extent of communica-
tion which takes place between persons of different hier-
archical positions formally defined in an organization.
Operationally, it is the sum of scores a teacher Obtains
in his responses to the questions on the frequency of his
talking with the headmaster/headmistress on work-related
problems.

e.g., Compared with an average teacher, the head-

master/headmistreSs talks to me about the
problem of teaching my subject matter(s).

 

 

 

- .2. ~
. -_¢ - .--_--"‘

90

7. Horizontal communication: The extent of com-
munication takes place between persons of similar hierarchical
positions defined formally in an organization. Operationally,
it is the sum of scores a teacher Obtains in his responses
to the questions on the frequencies of his talking with other
teachers in the school on school activities.

e.g., Compared with an average teacher, I talk to
other teachers about non-academic school
activities:

1. much more frequently

2. more frequently

3. about the same amount
4. less frequently

5. much less frequently

8. Feeling of security: The extent to which the
values held by a person, perceived by him as essential to
his existence, are not threatened by stimuli received in the
specified system. Operationally, it is the sum Of scores a
teacher obtains in his responses to questions dealing with
how compatible he thinks his role as a teacher and his per-
sonality are, how safe he thinks he is in the school, and

how much he believes others in the school like him.

e.g., Compared with an average teacher, I would
say I get along well with other teachers.

9. Group cohesiveness: The extent to which a person
perceives the membership of a defined group as valuable and
attractive. Operationally, it is the sum of scores a teacher

obtains in his responses to the questions on how much he wants

 

 

 

91

to stay in the school and how well teachers get along with
one another in the school as perceived by him.

e.g., I feel I am really a part of this faculty.

10. Decision-making participation: The extent to

which a person perceives himself as taking part in discus-
sion or exchange of ideas to make decisions which affect

the whole group. Operationally, it is the sum of scores

a teacher obtains in his responses to questions on how often
he attends decision-making discussions and how influential
he perceives he is with headmaster/headmistress in making
decisions.

e.g., I don't think I can influence the decisions
of the headmaster/headmistress regarding
things about which I am concerned (a nega-
tive statement).

Demographic and background variables such as age,

educational background, income, length of service in the

school, number of subjects taught, and others were also

included in the questionnaire.

CHAPTER V

FINDINGS

Characteristics of the Respondents

Table 1 describes the characteristics of respondents
in the three categories of schools. These categories are:

Category GU - Girls urban pilot schools

Catetory BR - Boys rural pilot schools

Category BU - Boys urban pilot schools

TABLE II - Characteristics of Respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

School School School
Category Category Category
(GU) (BR) (BU)
Age 20-24 28.8% 9.0% 8.8%
25-29 47.5 25.4 28.8
30-34 15.3 37.3 20.0
35-39 3.4 11.9 15.0
40-44 3.4 9.0 12.5
45-49 1.7 4.5 1.3
50-54 0 1.5 1.3
55-59 0 1.5 2.5
100% 100% 100%

 

92

93

TABLE II--Continued

 

 

 

 

 

 

School School School
Category Category Category
(GU) (BR) (BU)
Educational
Background
High School 1.7% 9.0% 13.8%
Intermediate 6.8 14.9 15.0
Bachelor's 32.2 9.0 10.0
Master's 27.1 11.9 15.0
B.Ed. 50.5 50.7 38.8
Others 1.7 4.5 7.5
100% 100% 100%
Annual Income
(in Rupees)
2500 or less 54.2 37.3 42.5
2501-3000 13.6 14.9 5.0
3001-3500 8.5 13.4 7.5
3501-4000 16.9 23.9 23.8
4001-4500 6.8 10.4 11.3
100% 100% 100%

 

Some columns do not total 100% due to rounding error

The schools differ on the ages of the teachers;
schools in GU category tend to have younger teachers than in
BR and BU categories. There is a tendency for the schools
in BR category to have more trained teachers than those in
GU and BU categories. The teachers holding master's degrees
are more in GU category than in ER and BU categories. The
teachers in BR and BU categories receive more annual salary

than the teachers in GU category.

94

TABLE III - The Distribution of Years of Experience in the
Pilot Schools

 

 

 

 

 

 

Years in Category Category Category
present (GU) (BR) (BU)
school Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %
lst year 10 16.9 16 23.9 15 18.8
2nd year 11 18.6 7 10.4 7 8.8
3rd year 5 8.5 11 16.4 13 16.3
4th year 13 22.0 8 11.9 10 12.5
5th year 6 10.2 5 7.5 8 10.0
6th year 3 5.1 6.0 10 12.5
7 or more 11. 1912 1_§. 2.31.9. 11 2.11;.
{Median 4 years 3 years 4 years

 

The median amount of teaching experience in the pilot
schools in GU is 4 years; in BR 3 years; and in BU 4 years.

Scale Validation
General Procedure
1. Certain items were eliminated which correlated

with other items below .20;

2. Certain items were reversed which were worded
negatively; and

3. The remaining items were summed to produce the
final index.

To test the hypotheses, the scales were revalidated
by computing inter-item correlation coefficients for each
scale. Such coefficients were computed for each of the
three categories.

1. Internalization: The 90 inter-item correlation

coefficients (six for each innovation for each category)

95

ranged from -.05 to .86. The median correlation was .39.

2. Psychological distance: The 45 inter-item cor-
relation coefficients (fifteen for each category) ranged
from -.06 to .68. The median correlation was .29. Within
this variable there seemed to be two kinds of items; one
relating to “involvement in decision-making," and the other
relating to “personal warmth.“

3. Feedback from the Headmaster/Headmistress: The
18 inter-item correlation coefficients (six for each cate-
gory), all in the expected directions, ranged from .22 to
.73. The median correlation was .47.

4. Perceived change orientation of the Headmaster/
lHeadmistress. The 9 inter-item correlations (three for
each category), all in the expected directions, ranged from
.14 to .54. The median correlation was .45.

5. Feelings of security: The 9 inter-item correla-
tions, (three for each category) ranged from .05 to .36.
(One item was weak and correlated low among each category
(of schools and thus eliminated. The remaining items were
summed to produce the final index.

6. Group cohesiveness: The 9 inter-item correlations
.ranged from .22 to .73, all in the expected directions.

7. Source credibility: Since it was theoretically
assumed that there were two independent dimensions of source
credibility; namely, competence and safety, the two groups

of correlations were investigated separately.

96

The 9 inter-item correlations for the competence
dimension (three for each category) ranged from .23 to .8.
For the safety dimension, the 9 inter-item correlations
(three for each category) ranged from .09 to .73.

8. Vertical communication: The two item correla-
tions were .48, .59 and .62 for each category of schools
respectively.

9. Role satisfaction: The 18 inter-item correla-
tions, all in the expected directions, ranged from .16 to
.62. The median correlation was .37.

10. The Headmaster/Headmistress support of the
innovations: The 30 inter-item correlations (ten for each
category), ranged from .08 to .67. The median correlation
was .28.

11. Students' attitude: The 18 inter-item correla-
tions (six for each category), ranged from -.90 to .49;
one being in the wrong direction throughout. Since one
item was weak especially for category 3, the decision was
reached to sum up all the items.

12. Students' benefit: The 30 inter-item correlations
(ten for each category), ranged from .03 to .61. The median
correlation was .31. Since no item was particularly weak,
all were summed to produce the final index.

13. Self-rated teaching ability: The 108 inter-item
correlations (thirty-six for each category), ranged from
-.05 to .79. One item was weak in the GU category only, so
the decision was reached that all the items be summed to

produce the final index.

97
Preliminary Observations

Rogers (1965) suggested that educational diffusion
studies should attend to decision-making process in order
to determine at what level in the school system the decision
to adopt or reject an innovation is made. This considerav
tion was important in determining whether adoption time was
a meaningful variable in the institutional context. Four
types of decision-making (paradigm outlined in Chapter III)
were specified by Rogers. The four represent a continuum
ranging from voluntary individual decisions to organizational
decisions demanding members (teachers) compliance. In this
context, two types of decisions are taken into consideration
to make the following discussion clear:
1. An Optional decision is made when an individual
15 orced to make a final adOption - rejection
choice but may be influenced by the norms of the
social system in reaching the decision.
2. An authority decision is one which an individual

has to adOpt or reject as the result of an order
by others.

 

In this research context, adOption Of objective
tests as an individually adOpted innovation has been investi-
gated where individual teachers in a school may be free to
adopt this innovation. In the case of five innovations
studied, individual adOption was not considered as a mean-
ingful variable. First, it was clear that the decision to
adOpt four innovations was not accomplished by the teachers
in the pilot schools of West Pakistan. For innovations of

this type, all teachers in the school theoretically “adopted“

 

 

 

98

the innovations at the same time. Second, because all
teachers in these schools “adopted“ at the same time there
should have been no variability in individual adOption time.
Compliant adoption behavior is expected on the part of the
teachers when the school is the functional unit of adoption.
In other words, when the organization (school) is the func-
tional unit of adoption, the decision to adOpt requires that
all members (teachera comply with that decision. Adoption
time is simultaneous for all the members of the organization.

at the time the innovation is put into practice. When the

 

individual is the functional unit of adoption, compliant
adoption behavior is not required and there can be individual
differences in adoption time. Thus in regard to the innova-
tions under study, innovation internalization, defined as

the degree of a teacher's attitudinal acceptance of a specific
innovation is a meaningful dependent variable. It was

assumed that a high internalization score should be related

to a high positive attitude, i.e., a teacher who had internal-
ized the innovations would have favorable attitude toward
these innovations. The utility of the variable for studying
educational change is indicated by the number of factors

with which it was significantly correlated.
Testing of Hypotheses

In this section, an attempt has been made to test 52
hypotheses predicting directional relationships between

twenty-six independent and two dependent variables. A

99

tabular summary of the predicted relationships have been
provided in Table II. The Pearsonian product-moment cor-
relation coefficient was Obtained from analysis of the
data from teachers' questionnaires to show which hypotheses
(predicted relationships) are supported.

H1: The older a teacher is the later he will

have adopted an innovation and the less
his internalization of an innovation.

(Predicted Direction) (Predicted Direction)
Categories + -
of Schools Years of AdOption Internalization
GU .41** -.36**
BR .38** -.28*
BU .23 -.45**

The hypothesis says, in essence, that age will be
inversely related to adoption and internalization of inno-
vations; i.e., younger teachers tend to adOpt innovation
(objective tests) relatively earlier and tend to have greater
internalization of innovations than do their colleagues.

The predicted relationship is supported by the analysis.
Thus, the hypothesis is supported.
H2: The higher the educational level attained
by a teacher, the earlier he will have adopted

an innovation and the higher his internaliza-
tion of the innovation.

Categories — +

of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU -.35** .33*
BR -.21** .30*
BU -.21** .29*

 

*Significant at .05

**Significant at .01

100

The hypothesis says, in essence, that the teacher
who has attained a high level of formal education adOpts
the innovations earlier and his attitude toward these in-
novations is highly positive. The relationship between
dependent and independent variables is significantly cor-
related. Thus, the hypothesis is clearly supported.

H3: The higher the teacher's salary, the

earlier he will have adopted an innovation
and the higher his internalization of an

innovation.
Categories - +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.68** .36**
BR -.56** .27

In BR category, under internalization, the r does
not reach significance, yet the score is in the expected
direction. The hypothesis tends to be supported. Teachers
who get higher salaries tend to adopt and internalize
innovations.

H4: The longer the teacher has been employed

in a school the later he will have adOpted

an innovation and the less his internaliza-
tion of an innovation.

Categories + -

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .41** -.24**
BR .35** -.29**
BU .48** -.23*

The hypothesis says, in essence, that the length of

service in the pilot schools will be inversely related to

 

 

101

adoption and internalization of educational innovations;
i.e., teachers with less years of employment in the schools
tend to adOpt innovations relatively earlier than do their
colleagues who have more years of employment. The predicted
relationship is supported by the analysis. The hypothesis
is thus supported.

H5: The greater the number of courses the

teacher has taught, the earlier he will

have adopted an innovation and the higher
his internalization of an innovation.

categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.31* .30*
BR -.18* .20*
EU -.22* .27*

Significant correlation between the number of courses
a teacher has taught and his adoption and internalization of
innovation is found.
The hypothesis, therefore, is supported.
H6: The more a teacher is satisfied with his work
and working environment, the earlier he will

have adopted an innovation and the_greater
his degree of internal acceptance of the

innovation.
Categories — +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU —.28* .24*
BR -.31* .27*
BU -.40** .31**

The hypothesis says that an innovative teacher is
more satisfied with the school environment and thus he is

the early adopter and his degree of internalization is

 

102

greater than those who are not satisfied with their working
environment in their schools. The predicted relationship
has been found between the role satisfaction of a teacher,
his adOption, and his internal acceptance of the innovations
across the three categories of schools. Thus, the hypothesis
is supported.

H7: The greater a teacher's feeling of security

in the school environment, the earlier he

will have adopted an innovation and the
greater his internal acceptance of innovation.

Categories - +

of schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.l33 -.03
BR -.15 -.02
BU .09 .22

The predicted relationship was not found between the
teacher's feeling of security and his early adoption and
greater internalization of innovations. This may be the
result of either a poor scale, or due to the fact that the
older teachers had tenure and the younger teachers who were
more innovative tended to feel insecure because they were
not yet permanent. The hypothesis is not supported.

H8: The more a teacher perceives himself to

be a good teacher, the earlier he will

have adopted an innovation and the greater
his internal acceptance of innovations.

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .04 .25
BR .17 .13

BU .19 -.Ol

103

The above correlations indicate that the predicted
relationship was not found between the self-rated teaching
ability and adOption and internalization of innovations.
The hypothesis, therefore, is not supported.

H9: The more teachers perceive themselves

participating in school decision-making,
the earlier they will have adOpted an
innovation and the greater their internal
acceptance of innovations.

Decision—making variables were broken down into two
sub-divisions: One was related to influencing the Head-
master at the time of his making decisions about the teacher;

and the second was related to the concept of the headmasters'

asking the Opinion of the teacher at the time of decision

making.
Influencing the Headmaster
Categories - +
of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU .20 .13
BR .07 .08
BU .09 .08

The Innovative teachers across the three categories
did not perceive themselves as influencing the decisions
made by the headmaster. The relationship between the in-
dependent and dependent variables was found to be inverse.
This part of the hypothesis is not supported.

Opinion Asked

Categories + -

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .33** -.24*
BR .22* -.21*

BU .38** -.12

104

Significant correlation was found between the tea-
chers who perceived that their opinions were sought by the
Headmaster at the time of making decisions and their early
acceptance and higher internalization of innovations adopted
by the school. It is interesting to note that the innova-
tive teachers perceived themselves as more asked by the
Headmaster for their opinions; but it was not possible for
them to exert their personal influence on the Headmaster
to alter or influence his decisions.

H10: The more change-oriented a teacher perceives

his Headmaster to be, the earlier he will

have adOpted an innovation and the greater
his internal acceptance of innovations.

Categories - +

of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU -.4l** .42*
BR -.37** .28*
BU -.26* .38**

Change orientation of the Headmaster as perceived by
the teacher is significantly correlated with the teacher's
earlier adoption and internal acceptance of innovations.
The hypothesis is thus supported across the categories.

H11: The greater the psychological distance

between the teacher and his Headmaster,

as perceived by the teacher the later he
will have adOpted an innovation adopted

by school.
Categories + —
of School Adoption Internalization
GU .29* -.19
BR .28* -012

BU 023* -03l**

105

The first part of the hypothesis relating to adop-
tion was significantly correlated across the categories;
but internalization scores, though in expected direction,
are not significantly correlated in GU and BR categories
of schools. The hypothesis tends toward rejection.

H12: The more credible the principal is per-
ceived as a source of information by the
teacher the earlier the teacher will have
adOpted an innovation and the greater his
degree of internal acceptance of innova-
tions.

Source credibility scales were divided into two cate-

gories; Competence and Safety dimensions.

(1) Competence

Categories - +
Of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU —.41** .20
BR -.33* .29
BU -.26* .25*
(2) Safety
Categories - +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.07 .08
BR .04 -.00.7
BU .006 .03

The teachers who perceived the Headmaster as compe-
tent tended to adOpt and internalize innovations.

H13: The more frequently a teacher receives
feedback from his Headmaster on the
adequacy of his work related performance
the earlier he will have adOpted an in-
novation and the greater the degree of his
internal acceptance of innovations adopted
by the school.

106

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.14 .22
BR -.36** .18
BU -.07 .14

Correlations, though in the expected directions, did
not reach significance except in BR category where a signifi-
cant relationship was found between the headmaster's feedback
on the adequacy of teacher's work related performance and
early adoption of innovations by the teacher. The hypothe-
sis does not seem to have been supported.

H14: The more frequently a teacher communicates

with his Headmaster the earlier he will
have adopted an innovation and the higher

the degree of the teacher's internal ac-
ceptance Of innovations.

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.51 .14
BR -.26* .13
BU -.07 .11

All correlations are in the expected directions,
but they are very low. NO relationship was found between
vertical communication, early adOption and internalization
of innovations. These low correlations may be attributed
to the Older teachers communicating more with the Headmaster
because of their long tenure and the prestige they had.
The hypothesis (predicted relationship) is rejected.
H15: The more the teacher perceives the Head-
master to support innovations, the earlier
they will have adopted an innovation and

the greater the degree of teachers accept-
ance and internalization of innovations.

107

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.17 .10
BR -.26* .16
BU —.24* .25*

On the whole, no strong relationship was found be-
tween the Headmaster's support of innovation and the early
adOption and greater internalization of innovations by the
teachers. Although all the scores across categories are in
the predicted direction only in the BU category was a sig-
nificant relationship found. However, the hypothesis must
still be rejected.

H16: The more a teacher perceives himself to

be an opinion leader for his professional
peers, the earlier he will have adopted

the innovation and the greater his inter-
nalization of innovation.

Categories - +

of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU —.37** .22**
BR -.23* .16*
BU —.35** .20*

Significant correlations were found between the
teacher's perception Of himself as an opinion leader and
his early adoption and greater internalization of innova-
tion. Thus, the hypothesis is supported.

H17: The more frequently the teacher engages

in horizontal communication, the earlier he

will have adOpted an innovation and the
.greater his internalization of innovation.

Categories + -

of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU -.06 -.07
BR -.13 —.17

BU -.Ol -.05

108

Innovative teacher's horizontal communication be-
havior was negatively correlated with their earlier adoption
and_greater internalization of innovations. The hypothesis
was not supported; in fact, the scores, while not,signifi-
cant, were in the Opposite directions. The reason why
early knowers and adopters would communicate less frequently
was not readily apparent. One possibility may be that early
adopters were perceived by other teachers as deviants from
"traditional" educational norms and general communication
with them was reduced. A methodological clue was that the
horizontal communication scale was rather weak and its re-
lationship with other variables might have been confounded.
It appears that these relationships demand further investi-
.gation.

H18: The more cohesive the teacher perceives
the faculty of his school to be, the earlier
he will have adopted an innovation and the

‘greater his degree of internalization of
innovations.

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU —.04 .05
BR -.32* .17
EU -.099 .05

Cohesiveness of the faculty was not significantly
correlated with adoption and internalization of innovation.
The hypothesis is not supported. The scores are very low
and may suggest that the scale to measure this variable
might be weak. One other reason could be that early adopters

and greater internalizers of innovation might not perceive

109

cohesiveness of the faculty as a sufficient condition for
early adoption and internalization.

H19: The more a teacher perceives students
benefit from an innovation the earlier
he will have adopted the innovation and
the greater his degree of internal
acceptance of an innovation

Categories - +

Of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.31* .25*
BR -.40** .69**
BU -.35** .37**

Teachers' perception Of student benefit from innova-
tions was significantly related to early adOption and
internalization. Taking a teacher's perception of the
educational efficacy of an innovation as an index Of the
consequences of the innovation, the data indicate a strong
positive relationship between this variable and the adoption
and internalization. In other words, teachers who think
innovations have beneficial consequences for their students
tend to have a more positive attitude toward the innova-
tions. It is evident that innovation internalization is
a crucial factor in educational change research and teacher
perception of student benefit from innovations are predic-
tive Of the resulting success or failure of an innovation
in a school. The hypothesis is supported.

H20: The more favorable a teacher perceives

his students to be toward innovation,
the earlier he will have adOpted an

innovation and the greater his internali-
zation of innovations.

110

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.46** .24*
BR —.35** .53**
BU -.23* .39**

The hypothesis is supported.

H21: The more exposure a teacher has to
.general mass media, the earlier he will
have adOpted an innovation and the
.greater his internal acceptance of
innovations.

The mass media sources are divided into two cate-

gories, radio and print (newspapers, etc.).

(1) Radio
Categories — +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .12 -001
BR 017 ".22
BU .16 -010
(2) Print
Categories - +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -018 023
BR -006 -001
BU .16 .03

The hypothesis is not supported.

Possibly educators do not utilize the mass media for
information about innovations or the mass media do not ade-
quately report educational innovations. Since the most
efficient way to transmit information widely is through
mass media channels, this finding suggests the need to in-

vestigate and develOp mass media Channels that spread

lll

knowledge about new educational practices. The potential
of mass media channels for diffusing new educational ideas
and practices is far from being realized.
H22: The more frequently the teacher attends
professional meetings, the earlier he will

have adOpted an innovation and the greater
will his internal acceptance of innovations.

Categories + -

Of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU -.29 -.02
BR .20 -.07
BU -.25 .14

The relationship between the frequency of professional
meetings and adoption and internalization of innovations was
found to be inverse in the case of GU and BU for adoption
and BU for internalization. The results indicate a lack
of confirmation for the hypothesis. The reason for such
low correlations may be attributed to the fact that older
teachers might be attending professional meetings, while
innovative younger teachers may not be interested or in-
vited to these meetings.

H23: The more adequate the teacher's perception

of the adequacy of his knowledge about an
innovation the earlier he will have adopted

an innovation and the greater his internal
acceptance of an innovation.

Categories - +

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -.22 .26
BR -.33** .36**
BU -.19 .17

The correlations showed the expected relationships;

however, they failed to reach the .05 significant level in

__m_ -~‘ r‘—z-_fi‘-z_r, _~- . r.- —

112

GU and BU categories. Significant correlations were ob-
tained in the BR category. Teachers in the BR category
perceived a relationship between their adequacy of knowledge
about the innovations and early adoption and internalization.
The hypothesis on the whole is not confirmed across cate-
gories.

H24: The more a teacher attends in-service

courses, the earlier he will have adopted

an innovation and the greater his internal
acceptance of innovations.

Categories + -

Of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU .29* -.30*
BR .31* -.19
EU .39** -.22

The correlations reached near significance; in the
GU category a significant relationship was found between
independent and two dependent variables. The teachers who
attend in-service courses tend to adopt but whether or not
they internalize is not confirmed. Thus analysis fails to
support the hypothesis across categories.
H25: The earlier a teacher becomes aware of
an innovation, the earlier he will have
adopted an innovation, and the greater
7 his internal acceptance of innovations.
Awareness scores have been computed separately for

each innovation studied for each category of schools.

(1) Vocational subjects

Categories + -

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .56** -.46**
BR .35** —.23*

BU .27** -.24*

113

(2) Laboratory method Of science teaching

Categories + -

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .53** -.49*
BR .27** -.19
BU .42** -.36*

(3) Educational guidance

Categories + —

of Schools AdOption Internalization
GU .57** -.49**
BR .24* -.24*
BU .35** -.37**

(4) Objective tests

Categories + -

of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU .71** -.47**
BR .43** -.31**
BU .51** -.27*

(5) In-service training

Categories + -

of schools Adoption Internalization
GU .41** -.29**
BR .29** —.23**
BU .37** -.36**

H26: The more change-oriented a teacher
is the earlier he will have adopted
an innovation and the greater his

internalization.
Categories - +
of Schools Adoption Internalization
GU -052** 022
BR -.59** .27*

BU -057** 024*

114

The hypothesis concerning change orientation Of a
teacher and his early adOption of an innovation is sup-
ported. The hypothesis relating to internalization is
not confirmed, although expected significant correlations
are found in BR and BU categories.

Data presented in Table II makes it possible to
draw profiles of those government pilot secondary school
teachers in West Pakistan who (1) are innovative - adOpt
educational innovations earlier, and (2) assimilate (in-
ternalize) educational innovations to a greater degree.

Teachers who are the early adopters and internal
acceptors Of educational innovations tend to be younger
and have attained a higher level of formal education.

Early adOpters (teachers) tend to have higher salaries;
teach more numbers of courses (subjects) and have less

years of service in the pilot schools. They view them-
selves as satisfied with their roles as educators. They
perceive themselves as more asked for opinion in the de-
cision-making process by the Headmasters and View less
psychological distance between themselves and their Head-
masters. They also perceive their Headmasters as change
oriented. They perceive themselves as oriented or receptive
to change; and, moreover, consider themselves Opinion lea-
ders on the subject of educational innovations. Communica-
tion between themselves and teaching colleagues is relatively
infrequent. These teachers appear to be especially sensi-

tive to the evaluation and attitudes which students place

 

115

TABLE IV - Predicted and Obtained Relationships Between
Independent and Dependent Variables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Predicted directional relationship of inde-
pendent with dependent variables ( ) and
correlation coefficients resulting from
analysis of data
Time of Adoption Internalization
GU BR BU GU BR BU
I. DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
** ** *3! * **
** ** ** * * *
2. Educational level (-).34 (-).21 (—).21 (+).33 (+).30 (+).29
** ** *1); ** *1:
3. Salary (-).68 (-).56 (-).32 (+).36 (+).27 (+).43
4. Years of teaching
experience at
school by which ** ** ** ** ** *
now employed (+).4l (+).35 (+).48 (-)-.24 (-)-.29 (-)-.23
5. No. of courses * * * * * *
taught (—)-.31 (-)-.18 (-)-.22 (+).30 (+).20 (+).27
II. INSTITUTIONAL
A. Role Perceptions
* 'k ** * * *1:
1. Role satisfac-(-)-.28 (-)-.31 (-)-.40 (+).24 (+).27 (+).31
tion
2. Feelings of
security (-)-.13 (-).15 (-).09 (+)-.03 (+)-.02 (+).22
3. Self-rated
teaching
ability (-).04 (-).l7 (-).l9 (+).25 (+).13 (+)-.01
4. Perceived level
of participati n
in work relate
problem-solvi
and decision-
making
(a) Influcig
Headmaster
(-).20 (-).7 (-).09 (+).13 (+).08 (+).08
**significant at .01
*significant at .05

 

TABLE

116

IV - Continued

 

 

 

Independent Variables

Time

Dependent Variables

of Adoption

Internalization

 

GU

BR

BU

GU

BR

BU

 

II. INSTITUTIONAL

(continued)
A. 4. (cont'd.
(b) Opinion
asked

B. Perception of
Students

 

l. The teacher's
perception of
student bene-
fit from the
innovations

2. The teacher's

perception of

student atti-
tude toward
the innovation

III. COMMUNICATION

BEHAVIOR

A. General Communi-

cation Behavior

 

1. Mass media
(1) Radio
(ii) Print

Professional

pommunication
Behavior

B.

 

 

 

1. Frequency of
professional
meetings
attended

**

(+).33

(-)-.31

*‘k

(-)-.46

(-).12

(-)-.18

(+)--29

 

(+).22

**

(-)-.40

**

(-)-.35

(-).02

 

 

**

(+).38

**

(-)-.35

*‘k

(-)-.23

(-).16
(-).16

-.25

 

 

(-)-.24

(+).25

(+).24

(+)-.01

(+).23

(-)-.02

 

(-)-.21

**
(+).69

**

(+).53

(+)-.22

(+)-.01

(-)-.07

 

(-)-.12

**
(+).37

**

(+).39

(4')".10

(+).03

(-).14

 

 

117

TABLE IV - Continued

 

 

 

Independent Variables

Time of Adoption

Dependent.Variables

Internalization

 

GU

BR

BU

GU

BR

BU

 

III. COMMUNICATION
BEHAVIOR (cont'd.)

B. 2.

3.

The teacher's
perception
about ade-
quacy of
knowledge
about the
innovations

No. of in-
service
courses at-
tended

C. Perception of
SuperyIsors and

 

Supervisor

 

Relations

 

l. Perceived chan

orientation of
the Headmaster

Perceived psy-
chological
distance be-
tween self

and the
Headmaster

Perceived
source
credibility
of the
Headmaster

(i) Competence

(ii) Safety

(-)-.22

(+).29

**

(-)-.41

(+).29

**

(-)-.41

(-)-.07

 

 

**

(-)-.33

(+).31

**

(-)-.37

(+).28

**

(-)-.33
(-).04

 

(-)-.19

**

(+).39

(-)-.26

(+).23

(-)-.26

(-).006

 

 

(+).26

(-).30

(+).42

(-)-.19

(+).20

(+).08

 

**

(+).36

(-)-.l9

(+).28

(-)-.12

*

(+).29

(+)-.007

 

(+).l7

(-)-.22

(+).38

**

(-)-.31

(+).25

(+).03

 

 

118

TABLE IV - Continued

 

 

 

Independent Variables

Dependent Variables

Time of AdOption

Internalization

 

GU

BR

BU

GU

BR

BU

 

III.

C.

D.

COMMUNICATION
BEHAVIOR (cont'd.)

4.

Reported per-
formance
feedback

from the
Headmaster

Vertical
communica-
tion

Perceived
Headmaster's
support of
innovation

Peer Relation-

 

ship

1.

Self-desig-
nated Opinion
leadership

Perceived
frequency of
horizontal
communication

Perceived co-
hesiveness of
teaching
staff

Time of
awareness
of the
innovations

(i) vocational
subjects

(ii) science

 

(-)-.14

(-).05

(-)-.17

**

(-)-.37

(+)-.06

(-)-.O4

**
(+).56
**

(+).53

**
(-)-.36

(-)-.26

(-)-.26

(-)-.23

(+)—.13

(-)-.32

**
(+).35
**

(+).27

 

 

(-)-.07

(-)-.07

(-).24

**

(-)—o35

(+)-.01

(-)-.09

**
(+).27
**

(+).42

 

 

(+).22

(+).14

(+).10

**

(+).22

(-)-.07

(+).05

**

(-)-.46
*

(-)-.47

 

(+).18

(+).13

(+).16

(+).16

(-)-.l7

(+).l7

(-)-.23

(-)-.19

 

(+).14

(+).11

(+).25

(+).20

(-)-.05

(+).05

(-)-.24
*

(-)-.36

 

 

 

119

TABLE IV - Continued

 

 

 

 

 

Independent Variables Dependent VariableS‘
Time of Adoption Internalization
GU BR BU GU BR - BU
III. COMMUNICATION
BEHAVIOR (cont‘d.)
D. 5. (cont'd.) “
(iii) Educational ** * ** ** * **
_guidance (+).57 (+).24 (+).35 (-)-.49 (-)-.24 (-)-.37
(iv) Objective ** ** ** ** ** *
(v) In-service ** ** *‘k ** ** **
education (+) 041 (7") .29 (+) .37 (-)-029 (-)-023 (-)-036
IV. PERSONAL DIS-

POSITION TOWARD

CHANGE
1. Self-perceived
change ** ** * * * *

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

upon the beneficiality of educational innovations. Teachers
in this group appear to attend more professional meetings and
also attend in-service courses to keep themselves informed
about new trends in education. Lastly, these innovative
teachers tend to have early awareness of these innovations.

Early adOpters of innovations do not perceive themselves
as secure in their positions in the pilot schools; do not per-
ceive themselves as good teachers (defined as to follow the
text and prepare the students for the public examinations).
They do not perceive themselves as influencers of Headmasters
in making decisions. They do not perceive Headmasters as a

credible source Of information about the innovations and

120

infrequently receive feedback from their Headmasters about
the adequacy of their work-related performance. They do
not perceive themselves as more frequently communicating
with their.Headmasters. These teachers do not perceive the
Headmasters as a strong supporter of educational innovations
and change; and they do not feel the faculty is cohesive.
The findings also suggest that these teachers do not per-
ceive-that mass-media plays an important role in giving
them information about innovations. Another interesting
characteristic of individuals comprising this group of
teachers is that they do not perceive themselves as having

adequate knowledge about innovations.

Differences in the Categories of Schools

Generally speaking, teachers in all three categories
of schools have similar characteristics and attitudes toward
change in educational practice. However, there are some
differences found which are reported as follows:

1. Teachers in BU perceive less psychological
distance between themselves and their Head-
masters than the teachers in GU and BR
categories.

2. Teachers who perceive themselves as early
adopters of educational innovations in BR
category also tend to receive more frequent
feedback from their Headmaster.

3. Teachers in BR category tend to have more
frequent communication than do the teachers
in GU and BU categories.

121

4. Teachers who tend to adopt innovations
earlier and internalize greater in BU
categories perceive that their Headmaster
supports educational innovations. Early
adOpters in BR category also perceive the
Headmaster as a supporter of innovations.

5. Innovative teachers in BR category perceive
the faculty as cohesive.

6.‘Teachers who perceive themselves as early
adopters and internalizers of innovations
feel they have adequate knowledge about*
the innovations. '

7. Teachers in GU category who perceive them-
selves as innovators tend to feel they
attend more in-service courses. Early

adOpters attend more in-service courses
across categories.

Major Summary Findings

I. The earlier in time teachers adopt an educational innova-
tion, the more likely they were to:
.be younger
.have more years of education
.have higher teaching salaries
.have fewer years of employment in the pilot schools
.have taught more numbers of courses
.feel a lack of security in the school environment
.be more satisfied with their job

.think the faculty of their schools lacked
cohesiveness

.think that they were not good teachers

.think that their opinions were sought by the
Headmasters

.think their Headmasters accepted change

 

 

 

122

.feel closer to the Headmasters

.consider the headmaster as a good source of
information

.think the Headmaster failed to frequently discuss
their teaching performance with them

.communicate infrequently with the Headmaster

.think that the Headmaster did not support
innovation

.think themselves opinion leaders

.communicate infrequently with fellow teachers
about general school matters

.feel students benefited greatly from the
innovations

.feel their students liked the innovations
.think they have an early awareness of innovations

.think they are predisposed to accepting change
and innovations in the school

.have less exposure to mass media
.have less attendance at professional meetings

.perceive themselves to have inadequate knowledge
about the innovation

.have attended more in-service courses

II. The more favorable teachers' attitudes were toward a
school-adOpted innovation (internalization), the more
likely they were to:

.be younger

.have more years of education

.have fewer years of employment in the school
.have taught more numbers of courses

.be more satisfied with their job

 

 

 

123

.think their Headmasters also accept change

.think themselves Opinion leaders.

.feel students benefit greatly from the innovations
.feel their students liked the innovations

.think they had early awareness Of innovations-
Awareness of Innovations

At the time the data were collected, each Of the five
innovations studied was familiar to most Of the sample tea-
chers. Figures 6 to 10 give the cumulative percentage of
teachers‘ awareness reported in each category of schools.

Figure 11 shows the adOption of Objective tests studied
in depth in each category of teachers. Teachers were asked
to recall the time when they first used the innovation.

This also shows the increasing use of Objective tests by
teachers over the ten years prior to the collection Of data.

It is important to note that these awareness figures -
even to the extent that they accurately reflect reality -
say little about the extent of knowledge possessed by the
teachers. Numerous and extended conversations with the tea-
chers suggest that the average pilot secondary school teacher
understands very little about the innovations under study.

Few texts and/or articles dealing with these subjects
have yet appeared in the Pakistani language, and while English
language texts and/or articles in some numbers are to be found
in the Extension Center library and offices of the Headmasters,

the average teacher possesses neither ready access to such

 

 

124

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130

information sources nor do they yet have the initiative to
use them.

Adoption of improved practices, as one might expect
has lagged behind awareness in more or less predictable
patterns. Individual teacher adoption of improved educa-
tional practices should move rather rapidly once the
Ministry of Education and the Education Extension Center
have been organized to provide personnel with the neces-
sary skills and materials. Positive attitudes toward the
beneficiality of change and improvement attests to the
favorable organizational climate.

Reported teachers' adoption of an innovation does
not coincide with impressionistic evidence Obtained from
Observations made while visiting pilot schools in West
Pakistan. Perhaps it may be seen as suggesting the poten-
tialities of teachers to accept future changes rather than
as a measure of past adOption. The impression that adoption
falls far short of observed adoption also suggests that
some objective measures of adOption, frequency, intensity,
and/or competency of use be included in future research
designs conducted in the pilot schools of West Pakistan.
Mortimore (1968) observed that "survey research method—
ology in developing areas would perhaps prove much more
reliable were it wedded or combined with Observation"

(p. 142).

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

In previous chapters the historical background of the
need for the establishment of pilot schools in West Pakistan
was discussed; the theoretical considerations and the dif-
fusion research traditions were reviewed and both research
design; methodology and the correlational analysis to test
the hypotheses were reported. In this final chapter there
remains the need to examine insights from the questionnaire
responses of teachers, the literature, and personal depth
interviews with the personnel of the Educational Extension
Center with the intent of determining their implications
for educational change and future research.

Recommendations For
.Educational Change

The following recommendations for educational change
in the pilot secondary schools are Offered with the hope
that these changes will bring about improvement in the sys-
tem of education and thereby life for all in Pakistan.

1. Greater attention should be given to the desired

outcomes of educational innovations. While rapid diffusion

131

 

 

 

132

may in some instances be a worthy goal, the insight gained
from the present study indicates that although awareness

and use of five innovations diffused at a fiarly rapid pace,
most of the innovations were not effectively employed in
pilot schools. Lacking in the research design was a preced—
ence for collecting data on the qualitative aspects of inno-
vation and internalization. The awareness of the innova-
tions' existence was measured, but not the degree to which
respondents possessed adequate knowledge to prOperly use

the innovations. Both personal observation and discussions
with teachers in the sample suggest that only a small minority
of pilot school teachers possess an understanding of these
innovations in sufficient detail to permit effective utiliza-
tion.

Few reforms in the content and method of teaching are
of any value until they are understood by the teachers who
are to apply them. Understanding must accompany acceptance;
the travesty that can result from misinterpretation by
teachers can do more to discredit innovation than does direct
Oppostion. A teacher who has accepted an innovation but
does not understand it can do great harm. The best innova—
tion will fail in the hands of uncomprehending practitioners.

A particular educational innovation may fail to be
introduced into an area because of any one or all of several
reasons:

1. because the teachers do not know about it,

 

 

 

133

2. because the necessary material and equipment are
not available or costs too much to install or
maintain,

3. because the innovations call for knowledge and
understanding that people do not possess,

4. because teachers and administrators are conserva-
tive and/or suspicious of innovations.

One is inclined to assume if pilot schools show that
selected teachers can successfully use the innovations then
plans may be safely made for diffusion all over Pakistan.
Yet, many administrators know that it is just at this point
where an innovation must spread from the few to the many,
that real problems begin. Bruner (1961) has taken as a
working hypothesis "that any subject can be taught effec-
tively in some intellectually honest form to any child."
(33). There may be some basis for this hypothesis, but
administratively speaking, the vital question is, "Can it
be taught by any teacher?" If Pakistan must rely on the
services of a high proportion of "low-paid, poorly educated,
and unqualified" teachers, it is important to know if their
failure to use new techniques is due to conservatism or be—
cause they call for knowledge, understanding, or qualities
that the average teacher does not possess. To remedy this
situation and to bring about change in the educational sys-
tem of Pakistan involves better education, higher qualifica-
tions, and consequently higher pay for the service as a

whole.

 

 

 

 

 

 

134

2. Change in the Behavior
Patterns of Teachers

Understanding of innovations are not enough unless
it is accompanied by a change in the behavior pattern.of
teachers. Change in a behavior pattern usually implies a
change of some depth in the values, attitudes, and skills
of the teacher; and, a deeper involvement in adopting the
innovations, and increased problems of relearning and deal—
ing with internal resistance to change. This type of
adoptive behavior requires a deeper understanding on the
part of pilot school teachers as well as greater awareness
of the principles underlying the new practice.

Most significant adoptions of new educational prac-
tices really are adaptation rather than adoption. What is
passed on is a new pattern of behavior for a new educational
system. One implication of this principle is that the dis-
seminiation of new practices must include orientation of
the adopters (teachers) to the basic principles and con-
ceptions involved in the new educational practice in order
to make creative adaptations possible. Addaptation calls
upon the teacher to use creative insight. If adoptation
means adaptation, then a rather different model will re—
sult from one teacher to another rather than mere imitation
of a model. Certain variations of performance are required
by different types of students, but particularly by the

personal style of teachers. Because an innovation is not

 

 

 

 

 

135

an imitative process, the teacher must understand the goals
and principles involved rather than just the form of the
practice. Thus, it is suggested that the Education Exten-
sion Center should do everything possible to ensure that
the innovations are understood by the teachers in the pilot
schools.

(i) Most significant adoption of new educational
practices require significant changes in the
values, attitudes and behaviors of the educators.

(ii) The concept of "educational invention" has not
been developed adequately in the field of educa-
tion. There are very few adequate procedures
for identification and validation of really new
practices. This means that there is often a
large volume of "poorly described, nonvalidated"
practices tempting uncritical adoption efforts
by educators. Or, there is a large supply of
creative practices which remains invisible and
also inaccessible to review and consideration
by teachers.

 

3. In-service Education
of Teachers

Change in educational practice is produced through
in—service education which develOps new perceptiOns and
skills. Thus, it is suggested that:

(i) In-service education courses should be organized
by the Education Extension Center for key teachers
in the pilot schools who then may become resource
persons and leaders for other teachers on the
staff.

(ii) Workshop opportunities should be provided for
headmasters/headmistresses which may produce
change in their work style.

(iii) Because of teacher transfer, a continuous program
of in—service education in the skills necessary
to implement innovations must be available for
new teachers brought into the pilot schools.

 

 

136

(iv) Young teachers should be encouraged to attend in-

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

service courses organized by the Education Exten-
sion Center because they tend to be potential
early adopters of innovations. Successful com-
pletion of the training should be accompanied by
suitable increments in salary. Selected innova-
tive teachers from among the pilot schools should
be selected and sent to the Center for in-service
training. These teachers when they go back to
their respective schools should serve as agents
for change.

Professional pride depends largely upon profes-
sional competence, and for this reason the con-
tinuing education of teachers should be three
months (preferably during the summer vacation).
The accreted experience of years can change them
into master teachers. There is another factor in
professional pride: the sense of belonging to

the group. This can be fostered by encourage-
ment and support (but not control) to pilot school
teachers' professional organizations. At the pres—
ent such of these as exist at all are chiefly con—
cerned with improvement of teachers' living con-
ditions. In the future they will constitute a
forum for an exchange of professional experience.

AdOpters, despite the fact that they made more
effort to acquire information by attending in—
service courses and seminars, nevertheless were
somewhat more likely to feel that information
available to them was inadequate. Apparently,
they might be measuring it against their need
which may be expected to increase once the
teachers seriously consider adopting a new edu-
cational innovation. It is thus suggested that
the staff of the Center should pay more atten-

_tion and give more emphasis to this aspect.

The Extension Center with the help of the State
Department of Education should encouarge the
formation of teachers' associations for the dif-
ferent pilot school subjects with the hope that
they will stimulate initiative, openness to expe-
rience, and a willingness to experiment with new
teaching practices. The Extension Center and
the Department of Education should jointly as-
sist the subject teachers' association with
periodic seminars and the publishing of journals
in the regional languages. The Center should
coordinate the work of each regional association
to all West Pakistan subject teachers' associa-
tions and help in running journals at the na-
tional level for the use of teachers all over
Pakistan.

 

 

 

137

To sum up, it is necessary to help teachers in the
pilot schools understand the primary features of the inno—
vations with a View of developing improved teacher compe-
tence and more sensitive awareness of the learning process.
In View of the lack of relationship found between teacher's
adequacy of knowledge and his adoption and internalization
behavior, it is imperative that such in—service programs
for teacher suggested above be strongly encouraged.

Innovations in education require great emphasis on
the amount and type of support which the teacher receives
during the trial period before consolidating ti as a part
of his internal repertoire of values and skills. This means
that pilot schools should have an institutionalized, con-
tinuing in-service training program for teachers to keep
them abreast of innovations. The in-service program so
designed will provide the Center with continuous feedback
from the teachers concerning their commitment and evalua-
tion of the program. Schools in Pakistan have lagged in
institutionalizing in—service training as a function of
the manpower recruiting and development program. There
has been very few innovations in the techniques of identi-
fying and recruiting such manpower or in providing the
type of continuous in-service training and involvement in
goal-setting and program development which are needed to
provide an adequate sense of personal fulfillment and

social significance to the role of the teacher.

 

138

Jung, Fox and Lippitt(l967) have suggested three
categories of training, which are considered important, and
may be adOpted in the case of pilot school systems in West
Pakistan:

1. The first involves training teachers to use, and

to demonstrate to other teachers, action—research
skills for develOping and adopting innovations in

their classroom.

2. The second category involves training teachers to
contribute to research within the system.

3. The third class involves training school adminis-
trators to research utilization and application,

in using action research skills to provide leader—
ship for change in the larger system (p. 84).

4. Support of Innovation

What actions of the headmaster/headmistress facili-
tates or inhibits the innovativeness of teachers? The sub-
stantiated assumption is that the headmaster (leader) plays
an important role in stimulating creative classroom teach—
ing and the adoption of educational innovations. Cheser,
Schmuck and Lippitt (1963) report that there is a high and
significant correlation between the amount of staff innova-
tiveness, as measured by the mean number of new practices
developed by each teacher, and the staff's perception of
the principal's support for innovative teaching. The find- 3
ing sbustantiates the notion that the principal can have a
direct influence upon his staff; he may encourage a climate};

where the staff publicly supports innovation. Thus, the

 

 

139

principal's attitude toward innovations influence staff
norms; and, both his orientation and peer standards com—
bine to influence actual staff innovativeness.

The work of the best teacher can be crippled if they
are not permitted, encouraged and helped to go beyond the
departmental prescriptions. The success of the pilot
schools will depend upon a flexible approach, where these
schools and the innovative teachers in them are allowed to
experiment. If the headmasters in these schools are not
perceived as change-oriented, it is very likely that the
teachers will not attempt to adopt and utilize innovations.

Certain general conditions are necessary to promote
this dynamism in the pilot schools, some of the more impor—
tant are:

(i) The individual teacher is more likely to adopt
innovations in education and to try changes in
the teaching practice if there is a feeling of
experimentation all over the system; and, if he
sees his small contribution as part of a major
social revolution.

(ii) The innovative teacher must have much more than
the passive acquiescence of the school inspector
who visits schools under their jurisdiction for
the purpose of inspection. He must feel that
officers of the Education Department are per-
sonally eager to see experimentation and they
are willing to accept a proportion of failures
as part of the price.

(iii) The inspectors, as mentioned above, are key fig-
ures in any reform of classroom practice. They
should be consulted from the very beginning.
Pilot schools can be no more dynamic than the
inspectors will let thme be. This is why it is
also suggested that the Center should organize
in-service educational programs for inspectors
of schools.

 

 

140

(iv) The sympathy and support of the headmasters and
influential teachers must be present if youthful
ardor to experiment and to explore is to prevail.
Teachers will adopt and internalize innovations
if they feel that they have the general support
of the profession.

(v) Teacher's inner sense of security should be
strengthened. The research conclusively demon-
strated that no adoption and internal acceptance
of innovations is possible unless the teacher
feels secure enough in the school.

If measures like those described above can be taken,
the pilot schools will become "Schools for Inquiry" and
will put dynamism into the system, and help raise flexible
standards for a continually adapting system to meet the
demands of a changing society. Structurally, there is need
to provide for a degree of teacher autonomy which supports
innovativeness of classroom teachers. Particularly the
headmaster needs skills to assess the nature of the support
climate needed by individual teachers. The teachers need
explicit influence in the system--both horizontally and
vertically--in order that innovativeness may emerge.

5. The Organizational Climate
of Schools

Pilot schools differ from each other in their "feel."
Each school seems to have a "personality" of its own. This
may be viewed from "Open" to "closed." To use Lewin's

terms, the Open climate is described as marked by "func-

tional flexibility," and the closed climate as distinguished

141

by "functional flexibility," and the closed climate as
distinguished by "functional regidity." (1935, pp. 194-
238) .

Hapin (1966) writes that the Open Climate depicts
a situation in which the members enjoy extremely high
"Esprit." The teachers work well together without "bick-
ering and griping" (low disengagement). They are not bur—
dened by routine work; the group members enjoy friendly
relations with each other. The teachers experience con-
siderable job satisfaction and are proud to be associated
with their school. The principal sets an example by work-
ing hard himself. He can either criticize the actions of
the teachers or go out of his way to help a teacher. He
is flexible; the rules which he sets up are not inflexible
and impersonal. He does not have to "emphasize production";
not does he need to closely monitor the teachers' activities.
He encourages and appreciates leadership behavior that emerge
from the teachers.

In contrast, the Closed Climate describes a situ-
ation in which teachers experience little satisfaction in
respect to either task-achievement or social needs. The
teachers are not cohesive; consequently, group achievement
is minimal. To secure some sense of achievement, the major
outlet for the teacher is to do "housekeeping" duties. The
principal is highly reserved and impersonal in controlling

and directing the activities of the teachers. He emphasizes

 

 

 

142

production. He sets up arbitrary rules and regulations
about how things should be done. He fails to motivate the
teachers by example. He is not concerned with the social
needs of the teachers. He does not provide adequate leader-
ship for the group.

These two climates have been contrasted to make a
distinction for the pilot schools. The creation of an open
climate is conducive and supportive of educational change,
and adoption and acceptance of innovations. This dynamic
climate largely and mainly depends on the leadership style
of the headmaster.

Following are some of the suggestions for the crea-
tion of an educational climate to facilitate innovations'

diffusion among the pilot schools:

(i) There must be created a social, political and
educational climate, among the peOple who are
in a position to influence and control decision-
making on educational matters, that is conducive
and supportive of educational change.

(ii) The peOple who are to make such changes in such
a supportive climate must themselves be living
examples who understand the reasons for change;
who are sympathetic to the trial of new programs
and practices; who have personal disposition and
desire to improve the quality of education.

(iii) This climate must be created at all levels at
'which decisions are made. Change cannot be
brought about unless those occupying tOp posi-
tions in the hierarchy of the pilot schools
deliberately and overtly set about to build a
climate through advocacy, initiating proposals,
explanations, definitions and clarifications
that will be conducive to change. Administra-
tors will need to play a more active part, with
something that comes nearer to persuasion than

 

 

 

 

143

to pressure, but which still leaves no doubt in
the teachers' mind that the Education Department
and its Officers favor change and innovation.
But behavior must be sensitive and moderate,
or the teachers will regard the innovations as
the department's latest fad and may apply them
with apathetic misunderstanding.

(iv) The headmaster can certainly help build a staff
climate with norms for experimentation and free-

dom to observe and help the development of staff
teams to work on the innovation trial.

6. Feedback

By feedback, we mean information that comes from the
receiver to the sender and tells him how well he is doing.
Teachers, at the time of talking informally with them, dis—
closed that the majority of teachers received very little
feedback about whether their new practices were highly suc-
cessful, moderately successful, or failing. The farmer
quickly knew how much corn per acre was being produced by
the hybrid seed; the doctor gets quick feedback as to whether
his intervention reduced an epedemic; and, the physical en-
gineer receives objective records about the output of a
machine. But the teacher, typically lacks standards for
his performance, and criteria for checking the effective-
ness of his efforts. Neither competitive challenge nor
good channels of communication were present to stimulate
sharing and improvement of educational practice. There is
another characteristic of the situation where teachers get

very little feedback about the effectiveness of their

 

 

 

 

144

adoption efforts. The teacher typically lacks the criteria
and the tools to make this type of check.

We must find effective and appropriate ways of link-
ing creative innovators to other teachers in the system to
provide for the spread and successful adaptation of educa-
tional innovations. There is also a closely related need
for continuous evaluative feedback throughout the system,
to identify growth needs, and to support Objective problem—
solving and decision-making. Lack of timely feedback to
teachers is most critical and one of the reasons why many
adoption efforts are unstable. There should be feedback
to reinforce change efforts, to tell the teacher whether
his tryouts are successful, and in the direction he had
hoped for. In the classroom, teachers are usually in the
dark about whether there is any evidence that tells them
that there has been any payoff at the level of learning
efficiency.

There should be Open channels of communication and
an effective system of feedback to disseminate accounts of
the methods and results of change programs to non-pilot
schools, to the Ministry of Education, and to training col-
leges. Communication from the Center, and from the state
headquarters, to the regions as the key unit of administra-
tion is defective. Directives move from the higher to the

lower units in the hierarchy, but the flow of information

in the reverse direction is not equally well provided for.

 

 

 

145

Within the bureaucracy, status structure is a barrier to
the flow of information from the lower to the higher levels.
Many officials do not have sufficient tolerance for sugges-
tions coming from those below. The strategy for a change
should begin with the central administrative group. Using
a self-study approach with feedback, the intent should be
to free that group for more Open, collaborative, systematic
problem-solving that will deepend their motivation for
change. To the degree that the administrative group has
experienced a genuine change in.its own climate, they will
provide for further problem solving and feedback efforts
both downward and upward in the system. The system, as a
result, will experience a climate change that will initiate
the structural changes needed to support comprehensive self-
renewal efforts.

A focal administrative group is needed that will work
together with teachers on an equal-status, problem-solving
basis. An open climate will develop a climate for inquiry.
When people are more open and authentic they trust others
to be the same; they also become more committed to change.
These norms will form an organizational climate for con—
tinued change and improvement in the system of education

in Pakistan.

 

 

 

146

7. Student Feedback
and Evaluation

The data in this study indicate a strong positive
relationship between teacher's perception of student atti-
tude and beneficiality of innovations resulting in the
early adoption and the greater degree of internalization
of innovations. This finding suggests that the teacher
should try to get continuous feedback from students re—
garding the effects of innovation upon them; and, he should
attempt a long-term objective evaluation as to whether or
not the innovations have improved the classroom learning
environment. A pre—requisite to obtaining feedback is the
creation of an atmosphere in which free communication can
flow from students to teacher and vise versa. Feedback
from the student is invaluable for the classroom teacher
trying to judge the effectiveness of educational innova—
tions. In the Pakistan educational system teachers View
feedback as something that should proceed from teacher to
student only. When they do solicit feedback from the stu-
dents, it is in a forced way that encourages the students
to give the reaction that he thinks the teacher wants him
to give.

If the teacher is interested in receiving honéSt
feedback from the students about the innovation (new prac-
tice in the classroom), he should ensure that the communica—

tion atmosphere is open, where students have the freedom to

 

 

 

 

 

147

honestly express their feelings. This climate may help
set the stage that would involve the students even~more in
the process of change, self—development and growth. There-
fore, the classroom atmosphere should be supportive, yet
confronting.

The teacher's objectivity is a critical element in
his attempt to validly evaluate his innovative practices.
The more objective his method of evaluation is, the more

certain he can be about how worthwhile the new teaching

 

techniques have been. One of the evaluation techniques
may be for the teacher to bring in a colleague to observe
him while teaching. If his evaluation shows his teaching
innovation failed completely in its purpose or had very
little effect, the teacher should review the phases in the
problem-solving sequence to see whether the fault lay in
problem identification, diagnosis, plan development, adap-
tation and execution, or feedback. Teachers usually avoid
observing each other at work and frequently hesitate to
innovate new practices because they assume that their de-
viancy would be negatively evaluated by their peers. The

importance of internal feedback cycle in relation to one's

 

own conception of one's role on the job should also be em—

phasized.

148
8. The Diffusion of New Methods

Elasticity and dynamism of the pilot schools in it-
self is obviously of limited value unless the innovations
practiced and developed by these schools are spread more
widely through the system as a whole. There is no doubt
that it takes a great deal of administrative skill and
perseverance to get innovations understood and accepted
by the body of average teachers, even when such innovations
have proved their value. The difficulties are multiplied
tenfold when teachers are expected to accept, not just a
new technique for achieving the old ends, but methods that
employ in themselves a new concept of the very purpose of
education. This is why it is such a long and burdensome
task to convert a school system based primarily on memoriza-
tion into one involving active thinking, understanding and
problem-solving.

Thus, the usual devices for in-service training
courses and visits of long duration to see the pilot schools
in action should be adopted on a large scale. Pilot schools
must find effective and appropriate ways of linking creative
innovators to their teachers to provide for the diffusion

and successful adoption of educational innovations.
9. Information--Affiliate System

The purpose of suggesting this affiliate relation-

ship would be the active exchange of information between

 

 

 

 

 

 

149

the pilot schools and the Education Extension Center con—
cerning innovations in educational content, methodology,
and models of change procedure. The pilot school, it is
suggested, should be responsible for contributing informa-
tion concerning the use of innovations. The responsibility
of the Center should be to send news letters containing
information from other pilot schools that are collaborating
more intensively in developing and studying change proce-
dures. The pilot schools should also be invited to periodic
regional conferences of secondary schools to review the ac-
tivities of the Center, and to consider dissemination and
adaptation of innovations to other schools in Pakistan.
The Center should be responsible for soliciting informa—
tion concerning innovations, reporting it in the news let-
ters, conducting the periodic conferences, and coordinating
the dissemination efforts.
10. Involvement in
Decision—making

Teachers who will implement decisions should be in-
volved in making them. The effectiveness of improvement
efforts in the teaching-learning process is enhanced when
they take place under the following conditions: The efforts
are planned (a) by the teachers, (b) in response to needs
which they identify from analysis of their school situation,

(c) under conditions of mutual trust and respect, and (d)

 

 

 

 

150

where feedback concerning the effectiveness of their ef-
forts is available.

Decisions to adopt or reject the innovations should
be made more and more on the basis of knowledge and compe-
tence, and less and less because someone with more formal
authority says so. Shared decision-making should be more
typical. This will have two basic effects: (a) decisions
are usually of higher quality, since more relevant informa-

tion has fed into them, and more importantly. (b) teachers

 

are committed to carrying them out. Group decisions to

accept result in group norms to adopt.

ll. Self—Renewal

A self—renewing school system has the ability to con-
tinuously sense and adapt to its changing external and in-
ternal environment in such a manner as to strengthen itself
to fulfill the goals of providing quality education for stu-
detns that is suited to their aptitudes, interests and goals.
This statement has some important implications:

(a) The kind of change we seek should be growth and
development of the school as a social system--
growth toward increased problem-solving effec-
tiveness and greater capacity for adaptation and
change.

(b) The focus should be upon the school as a socio—
technical system. What happens in the classroom
and to the students, is to a large extent in-
fluenced by what happens in the larger system.
Thus, to be able to effect enduring change at
the classroom level, it is necessary to effect
concurrent changes at higher echelons where top
policy decisions are made.

151

(c) The fundamental criterion of the success of
these innovations in pilot school and their dif-
fusion to other secondary schools in Pakistan
should be improvement inthe kind and quality of
learning experiences which the schools provide.
(d) A crucial issue is: Has the pilot school system
become self-renewing, continuing to improve and
develop under its own initiative after the con-
sultant's encouraged change effort is terminated?
In short, the essence of all the recommendations con—
tained herein is that only an elastic and dynamic system of
education can provide the needed conditions to encourage
initiative, experimentation and creativity among teachers
and thereby lay the foundation of educational progress.
The policy-makers and administrators relating to pilot
schools should learn to delegate authority and responsibil-
ity to trust teachers; to involve teachers in the decision-
making process; to encourage the capacity for leadership
amongst teachers; to treat each pilot school as having a
developing personality of its own. This would need dynamic
leadership at all levels. Leadership, determined to give
education a new deal; to free teachers, educational officers
and administrators, that they may become integral forces in
a great do0perative endeavor.
In compiling some generalization on innovations in
education, Miles (1964) noted that characteristics of the
school system, of the innovating persons or groups and of

other relevant outside (the school) group were important

factors influencing innovation in the schools. A favorable

 

 

 

 

152

environment, progressive community norms, availability of
resources, and innovative administrators, facilitated inno-
vation in the schools.

Recommendations for

Future Research

The present study, as pointed out in Chapter III,
is novel because it is one of the few studies of educational
diffusion attempted in a cross-cultural setting. As such,
some of the methodological experiences may be useful to
future diffusion researchers. The present thesis is one
attempt at understanding the complex processes of educa-
tional innovation diffusionshitme pilot schools--a begin-
ning of a possible research program to be extended over
several years. The organization of such research programs
should be interdisciplinary in nature.

The first research methodology which deserves more
consideration than it has thus far been given should entail
the continuous study of selected educational changes from
the time of their introduction in the social system. Stud-
ies should be conducted "before" and "after" to identify
those factors influencing various members of the educational
hierarchy to react favorably or unfavorably to innovation.

If further research is to be undertaken in Pakistan,
it is suggested that greater results might be obtained from

employment of intensive action research rather than survey

 

 

 

153

research methodology. The result will be a more accurate
understanding of the qualitative aspects of innovation dif—
fusion in‘a social system like the Pakistan Ministry of
Education. A detailed, comprehensive study involving a
national sample of pilot and non-pilot secondary schools

in Pakistan would be both theoretically and socially sig-
nificant. Further investigation into the process of inno-
vation diffusion and assimilation among teachers in inno-
vative secondary schools are anticipated which will con-

tribute to the development of theory and practice in

 

institution-building through change.

Emphasis should be put on study of the consequences
resulting from adoption of innovations in an institution,
as well as on the components and functions of institutional
feedback and reinforcement system. The later largely have‘

been ignored in previous diffusion research.

 

 

 

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APPENDICES

 

 

APPENDIX A

VARIABLE LIST FOR THE QUESTIONNAIRE

 

 

Variables

Questionnaire
Item Number(s)

 

II.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Time of AdOption . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Internalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Demographic

1. Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Educational level attained . . . . . . .
3. Teaching salary . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Length of service . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Number of courses taught . . . . . . . .
Institutional

A. Role Perceptions
1. Role satisfaction . . . . . . . . . .
2. Feelings of security . . . . . . . .
3. Self-rated teaching ability . . . . .
4. Perceived level of participation in

work-related problem-solving and
decision making . . . . . . . . . . .

B. Perceptions of superiors and
superior relations
\f-b
V I o I
1. Perceived psychological distance
between self and headmaster . . . . .

160

32

12

63
67

7O

34

85

31

66

69

78

38

9O

 

 

 

 

161

 

Questionnaire

Variables Item Number(s)

 

2. Perceived source credibility
Of headmaster o o '0‘ o o o o o o o o 91 - 98

3. Reported performance feedback
from the headmaster . . . . . . . . 99 — 101

4. Perceived change orientation
of the headmaster . . . . . . . . . 81 - 84

5. Perceived vertical communication
‘with the headmaster . . . . . . . . 103 - 104

6. Perceived Headmaster's support
of the innovation . . . . . . . . . 34 - 38

 

C. Perceptions of Peers and peer relations

1. Self-designated opinion
leadership score . . . . . . . . . 54 - 59

2. Perceived cohesiveness of
SChOOl faculty 0 o o o o o o o o o 105 — 108

3. Perceived frequency of general
horizontal communication . . . . . 109

D. Perceptions of Students

1. Perceived student benefits
from the innovations . . . . . . . 48 — 52

2. Perceived student attitude toward
the innovations o o o o o o o o o o 44 - 4 7

III. Communication Behavior
A. General Communication Behavior
1. General mass media exposure . . . . 6 — 9
B. Professional communication behavior

1. Frequency of professional
meeting attendance . . . . . . . . 10

 

 

 

162

 

IV.

Variables

2 2. Perceived adequacy of informa-
tion about the innovation . . .

3. In-service education
courses attended . . . . . . .

Personal Disposition Toward Change .

Questionnaire
Item Number(s)

o o 39 - 43
. . ll
0 o 60 - 62

 

 

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

In the following sequence of questions please circle
the number of the correct answer and, where requested,
write in the information which we have asked you to provide:

1. Age:
1. 20 - 24
2. 25 - 29
3..30 — 34
4. 35 - 39
5. 40 - 44
6. 45 - 49
7. 50 - 54
8. 55 - 59
9. 60 or over

2. Educational Background:

 

1. High School certificate
Intermediate

Bachelor's Degree

Master's Degree

Graduate Diploma/Education
Doctor's Degree

Other (specify)

\IONWDWN
o 0000.

3. What was your income as a teacher here last year?

2500
2501

or less
- 3000

3001
3501
4001
4501
5001
5501
6001

3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500

OKD®\IO\W:I>WNH

H

6501 or more

4. For how many years have you been a teacher in this school?
is
is
is
is

This
This
This
This

first year here
second year here
third year here
fourth year here
This is my fifth year here
This is my sixth year here
. I have been here for seven or more years.

my
my
my
my

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

163

164

5. What subjects and to what classes are you teaching at

10.

11.

present?

Number of courses
What subjects

 

 

 

 

How many newspapers did you read yesterday?

 

How much time did you spend yesterday listening to the
radio programme other than the educational?

1. None

2. 1 - 15 minutes

3. 16 - 30 minutes

4. 31 — 45 minutes

5. 46 - 60 minutes

6. More than one hour

How many books have you read since yesterday?

How many magazines did you read yesterday?

 

Compared with other teachers in this school, I have
attended regional teachers' association meetings:

very frequently

quite frequently
about the same number
seldom

rarely

never

ONU‘MhOoNI-J
.0000.

Compared with other teachers in the school, I have
attended in-service training courses:

very frequently

quite frequently
about the same number
seldom

rarely

never

O\U'|J>U)Nl—‘
00.000

 

 

 

 

165

12. Vocational subjects (vocational agriculture in boys'

13.

14.

15.

schools, home economics in girls' schools and technical
subjects in all schools) could constitute an improve-
ment in educational curriculum in any school.

1. agree very much

. agree on the whole

. agree a little

. don't know

. disagree a little

. disagree on the whole
. disagree very much.

\lmU‘lDWN

I think vocational subjects represent an improvement
in the curriculum at my school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IOWMIbWNI"
0000000

I think vocational subjects are unnecessary in our
educational system.

1. agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\JONU'IQWN
000000

To me, vocational subjects are one of the worst things
to come in our educational system.

1. agree very much
2. agree on the whole
3. agree a little
4. don't know
5. disagree a little

6. disagree on the whole
7. disagree very much

 

 

 

 

166

16. Science laboratory experiments could constitute an

17.

18.

19.

gianpubmJH
O O O O O O O

improvement in educational practices in any school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little
don't’know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

I think science laboratory experiments represent
improvement in educational practice in my school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lth-WNH
O...

I think science laboratory experiments are unnecessary
in our educational system.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lONWIbbJNH

To me science laboratory experiments are one of the
worst things to come to our educational system.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmUlnbUONl—l

 

 

 

167

20. Educational guidance could constitute an improvement

21.

22.

23.

in educational practices in any School.

agree very much~
agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lbWNl"
000000 0

I think educational guidance represents an improvement
in educational practice at my school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'IIbUONI-J
0000000

I think educational guidance is unnecessary in our
educational system.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lONWthNl-J
000000 0

To me, educational guidance is one of the worst things
to come to our educational system.

. agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lOWU'lthNi-J
O

 

 

 

 

168

24. The use of objective tests could constitute an improve-
ment in educational practices in any school.

agree very much
~agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'ltwaI—I
o o o o o o o

25. I think the use of objective tests along with essay type
tests represent an improvement in educational practice
in my school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

 

\lmU'lIbWNl"
0.00000

26. I think the use of objective tests is unnecessary in
our educational system.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lQWubWNH
000000.

27. To me, the use of objective tests is one of the worst
things to come to our educational system.
l._agree very much
. agree on the whole
. agree a little
. don't know
. disagree a little
. disagree on the whole
. disagree very much

\lOAWkWN

 

 

28.

29.

30.

31.

169

In- -service education could constitute an improvement
in professional growth of any teacher.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very little

\lmmnBWNl-J
o o o o o o o

I think in-service training represents an improvement
in educational practices at my school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lCNU'lthNH
0.0...

I think in- service training is unnecessary for teachers
in our educational system.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

CDU'IU'IfiwNH
coco...

me, ineservice training is one of the worst things
come to our educational system.

(TI-f!
00

,agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IOWU'IIBWNH
0000000

 

 

 

 

170

I first used objective tests (if you have) in
(month), (year).

I first heard about:

 

 

 

 

1. Vocational curricular subjects in (year).
2. Science experiments in labs in. . (year).
3. Educational guidance (year).
4. Objective tests 7 ‘ (year).
5. In—service training (year).

 

I think the Headmaster/Headmistress supports vocational

35.

36.

37.

subjects:

whole heartedly
somewhat

not sure

not very much
not at all

UTQUJNH
no...

I think the Headmaster/Headmistress supports the teaching
of science subjects:

1. whole heartedly
2. somewhat

3. not sure

4. not very much
5. not at all

I think the Headmaster/Headmistress supports educational
guidance-for students:

whole heartedly .
somewhat

not sure

not very much

not at all

UlnwaH
0000 o

I think the Headmaster/Headmistress supports the use of
objective tests:

whole heartedly
somewhat

not sure

not very much
not at all

mprI—I

 

 

 

 

171

I think the Headmaster/Headmistress supports in-service
training of teachers:

whole heartedly
somewhat

not sure

not very much
not at all

01.5me
00000

If asked to judge my knowledge of vocational curricular
subjects I would consider myself to be:

extremely well informed
quite well informed
about average

not very well informed
not at all well informed

LflrbUJNH
00000

 

If asked to judge my knowledge of science experiments
in the laboratory I would consider myself to be:

extremely well informed
~quite well informed
about average

not very well informed
not at all well informed

U1hWNI-4
no...

If asked to judge my knowledge of educational guidance
I would consider myself to be:

extremely well informed
quite well informed
about average

not very well informed
not at all well informed

U'lrwaH
00000

If asked to judge my knowledge of the use of objective
tests, I would consider myself to be:

. extremely well informed
. quite well informed

. about average

. not very well informed

. not at all well informed

Mbwwl‘

 

 

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

172

If asked to judge my knowledge of workshop and in-service

training I would consider myself to be:

. extremely well informed
quite well informed
about average

not very well informed
not at all well informed

WQWNH
0

Since we began vocational curricular subject my students'

attitude toward it has been, on the Whole:

. extremely enthusiastic
quite enthusiastic

so, so

not very enthusiastic
not at all enthusiastic

WIbWNl—J
o. 0

Since we began science experiments in the laboratory my
students' attitude toward it has been, on the whole:

1. extremely enthusiastic
. quite enthusiastic

. so, so

not very enthusiastic
not at all enthusiastic

UlnbLUN

Since we introduced guidance program my students'
toward it has been, on the whole:

. extremely enthusiastic
. quite enthusiastic

so, so

not very enthusiastic

. not at all enthusiastic

1
2
3
4
5

Since we began using objective tests my students'
toward it has been, on the whole:

extremely enthusiastic
quite enthusiastic

so, so

. not very enthusiastic
not at all enthusiastic

UlubWNl-J

attitude

attitude

 

 

173

48. My personal View regarding the vocational subjects is
that the students:

49.

50.

51.

52.

U'lnwaF"
O 0..

benefit greatly
benefit somewhat

not sure

do not benefit much
do not benefit at all

My personal View regarding the teaching of science sub-
jects is that the students:

mwaI—I
90...

benefit greatly
benefit somewhat

not sure

do not benefit much
do not benefit at all

My personal View regarding educational guidance is that
the students:

UlowaI-J
.0000

MY

benefit greatly
benefit somewhat

not sure

do not benefit much
do not benefit at all

personal View regarding the use of objective tests
that the students:

benefit greatly
benefit somewhat

not sure

do not benefit much
do not benefit at all

personal view regarding the in—service training of

teachers is that the students:

U‘IQWNF“
o o o o o

benefit greatly
benefit somewhat

not sure

do not benefit much
do not benefit at all

 

\mflill

  

.3915 333‘

,. --"r-
ms: .t
w , E
L'J?'.' lag;
mod 2'“

‘- a «.17-7 ~_

, - l
‘ such

174

53. Check the tOpics in the following list which you have
heard about and/or discussed with other people in your
school during the last six months.

Science and experiments

Vocational agriculture

Use of radio aids audiovisual aids in classes
Guidance and counseling

Technical subjects

.Assignment of books from library

Objective tests

Home-economics

Commercial courses

omqmmhwwH
o o o o o o o o 0

Please answer the following six questions in terms of the
item you checked in the previous question.

 

54. During the past six months have you told anyone in your
school about any of the above topics?

1. yes 2. no

55. Compared with your circle of friends in the school are
you (a) more or, (b) less likely to be asked for opinions
about these topics?

1. more
2. less
3. same amount

56. Thinking back to your last discussion about any of the
topics (a) were you asked for your opinion, or (b) did
you ask someone else?

1. I was asked
2. I asked someone else
3 . same amount

57. When you and your colleagues discuss any of these topics,
what part do you play? (a) mainly listen, or (b) try to
convince them of your ideas?

1. mainly listen
2. try to convince
3 . same amount

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

175

Which of these happens more often, (a) you tell your
colleagues about these topics, or (b) they tell you
about these topics?

1. I tell them
2. They tell me
3. same amount

Do you have the feeling that you are generally regarded
by your colleagues as a good source of opinion about
these topics?

1. yes 2. no

If we want to maintain a healthy and stable educational
system we must keep it the way it is and resist the
temptations to change.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmmwal-J
0000000

Most changes introduced in the last ten years have con-

tributed very little in promoting education in our school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lrb-WNH
0 000000

I really believe we could have done a much better job or
at least done just as well if things haven't been changed
so much in our schools.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IONUTubWNl-J
0000000

'2.

 

 

63.

64.

65.

66.

176

Generally speaking, I don't like being a teacher.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lbUJNH
00000..

I like my teaching job in this school.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU‘IthNI-J
0000000

I am far from satisfied with the school environment
here.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lChU'lnbwwl-J
on... o o

I have some very good reasons to refuse the general
feeling that anyone can be a teacher.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lO‘U‘IanNl-J
ooooooo

 

177

67. I really don't feel secure and relaxed as a teacher in
this school.

agree very much

agree on the whole

agree a little

don't know

disagree a little

disagree on the whole

disagree very much

\lChU'IthNH
.000 000

68. Compared with an average teacher, I would say I get along
well with other teachers.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree_a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

 

HHIHHIHlH

\lmU19wNI—J
o o o o o o o

69. I really feel at home in this school as nothing makes me
nervous or uneasy.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IQWQWNI-J
000.000

70. How would you rate yourself in teaching ability compared
with secondary teachers in general?

outstanding

among the best

good .
above average

average

below average

among the poorest

\lmmanNH
coco...

 

71.

72.

73.

74.

178

Where would you rank your ability to become a teacher
on educational radio?

outstanding

among the best
good

above average
average

below average
among the poorest

\lmU‘lanNl-J
0000000

How would you rate your ability to get along with stu—
dents compared with teachers in general?

outstanding
among the best
good

above average 1
average j
below average

among the poorest

 

\lmmvbWNl-J
000000.

How would you rate your ability to enrich instruction
(go beyond the book) compared with teachers in general?

outstanding

among the best
good

above average
average

below average
among the poorest

\lONU'lh-UJNH
cocoon.

Where would you rank your methods of teaching compared
with other secondary teachers?

1. outstanding i
2. among the best l
3. good i
4. above average
5. average '
6. below average §
7. among the poorest 5
|

179

75. How would you rate yourself in teaching-ability compared
with other teachers who have the same number of years
of teaching experience?

outstanding

among the best
good

above average
average

below average
among the poorest

\lmU'ltbLUNH
0 00.000

76. Where would you rank your methods of classroom discipline
compared with other secondary teachers?

outstanding

among the best
good

above average
average

below average
among the poorest

\IOAU'Iul>-LJLJK\.>|""I
0000000

77. How would you rate yourself in ability to teach your
major subject compared with other teachers of that subject?

outstanding

among the best
good

above average
average

below average
among the poorest

\lOWU'IIbUONH
o o oo o oo

78. Where would you rank your ability to teach a class higher
than the one you are teaching?
1. outstanding

. among the best

. good

. above average

. average

. below average

. among the poorest

\IONUlnbLAJN

 

180

79. I don't think I can influence the decisions of the
Headmaster/Headmistress regarding things about which

I am concerned.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lONWnbeNH
o o 0000 o

80. The Headmaster/Headmistress asks my opinion when a

problem comes up that involves my work.

\lCWU'lD-WNH
0000 o o.

How do
to the

81.

\lONU'lnbLJONH
0000.00

82.

agree very much
agree on the whole
agree a little
don't know
disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

you think your Headmaster/Headmistress would react

following four questions?

he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she

schools."

\lONflflbUONF‘
00....

he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she
he/she

would
would
would
would

.would

would
would

.would

would
would

.would

would
would
would

"Personally, I feel I can adjust to changes easily."

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

not know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

"Most changes introduced in the last ten years have
contributed very little in promoting education in our

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

not know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

 

 

181

83. "If we want to maintain a healthy, stable educational
system we must keep it the way it is and resist the
temptation to change."

he/she would agree very much
he/she would agree on the whole
he/she would agree a little

he/she would not know

he/she would disagree a little
he/she would disagree on the whole
he/she would disagree very much

\ICNU'IQWNI‘J
o o o o o o o

84. "I really believe we could have done a much better job,
or at least done just as well, if things hadn't been
changed so much in our schools."

he/she would agree very much
he/she would agree on the whole
he/she would agree a little

he/she would not know

he/she would disagree a little
he/she would disagree on the whole
he/she would disagree very much

\lmU'Ih-le-H
0000000

85. My Headmaster/Headmistress usually doesn't eXplain his
decisions to me about matters in which I am involved.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\ICWUTQWNH
o o o o o o o

86. He/she acts on things which may involve me without con—
sulting me first.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lIhUONH
o o o o o o o

 

 

182

87. He/she makes me feel at ease when speaking with him/her.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\ICWU'IvbWNl-J
o. o o o o o

88. He/she is friendly to me and I can easily approach him/
her.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IQWQWNH
00000.0

89. He/she is usually very warm and understanding when he
talks with me.
1 agree very much
agree on the whole
agree a little
don't know
disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lthUJN

90. He/she gets along with me very well even when there is
no official business involved.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmkfianNH
oooo coo

 

.0.0..\l1fi0ul.f1’u‘l\Yl0

 

:3 um

 

183

Please evaluate your headmaster/headmistress in terms of
the following adjective pairs. Check one and only one of
the seven points of each item. For example:

 

 

 

active extremely quite not sure somewhat quite extremely

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

active active inactive inactive inactive

:3” :2: E!

E .C 5 £1 E

m a) 3 a) 3 a) m

H +) w o +1 H

+J'-H 5 4J E w: u

xsooosx

m tr :n c m tr 0
91. educated uneducated
92. untrained trained
93. informed uninformed
94. inexperienced experienced
95. subjective objective
96. honest dishonest
97. safe dangerous
98. closeminded openminded

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

184

99. As compared with other teachers, the principal talks
to me about my class work.

much more frequently

more frequently

just about the same amount as other teachers
less frequently

much less frequently

U'lerNI-J
00000

100. He gives me encouragement in my work.

1. very frequently

2. quite frequently

3. just about the same amount as he does other teachers
4. quite infrequently

5. never

101. He offers suggestions to help improve my teaching per-

 

formance.

1. very frequently

2. quite frequently

3. just about the same amount as he does other teachers
4. quite infrequently

5. never

102. He lets me know if he has heard any criticisms about
my teaching performance.

very frequently

quite frequently

just about the same amount as other teachers
quite frequently

never

U'InwaH
00000

103. Compared with an average teacher he talks to me about
discipline problems.

much more frequently

more frequently

about the same amount as other teachers
less frequently

much less frequently

mnwaF‘
0..

 

185

104. Compared with an average teacher,.he talks to me about

105.

106.

107.

the problems of teaching my subject matter(s).

much more frequently

more frequently

about the same amount as other teachers
less frequently

much less

U'lu-bUONI-J
.9000

If I had a chance to do the same kind of teaching for
the same pay in another school, I would consider moving.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\IC‘U'InbUONI—J
o .000 o o

The teachers in this school get along with one another
better than those in other schools in this region.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lONU'lbeNH
0000000

The teachers really help each other on the job in this
school as compared with teachers in other schools in
this region.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmmuwaF-J
000 o o. o

 

186

108. I feel I am really a part of this faculty.

agree very much

agree on the whole
agree a little

don't know

disagree a little
disagree on the whole
disagree very much

\lmU'lerNH
.0000 o o

109. Compared with an average teacher, I talk with other
teachers about non-academic school activites.

much more frequently

more frequently

just about the same amount as other teachers
less frequently

much less frequently

WDWNH
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HICHIGRN STRTE

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