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THE PATTERNS OF READER AND
EDITOR INTEREST IN SPORTS NEWS
AND COVERAGE OF SPORTS NEWS BY A DAILY NEWSPAPER:
A SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF SPORTS PAGES STAFF

AND SPORTS NEWS READERS OF THE (LANSING) STATE JOURNAL

 

BY

Elise Christine Bates

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

School of Journalism

1979

Accepted by the faculty of the School of Journalism,
College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michigan State
University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the Master of Arts degree.

VMM MAM

Director of Thesis

ABSTRACT

THE PATTERNS OF READER AND
EDITOR INTEREST IN SPORTS NEWS
AND COVERAGE OF SPORTS NEWS BY A DAILY NEWSPAPER:
A SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF SPORT PAGES STAFF
AND SPORTS NEWS READERS OF THE (LANSING) STATE JOURNAL

 

BY

Elise Christine Bates

The study assessed, through mail survey techniques,
the perceived interest and satisfaction sports editors,

writers and readers have in the (Lansing) State Journal

 

sports pages and factors which influence sports news
coverage in the newspaper.
The findings, reported in descriptive terms, provide

data that indicate that State Journal sports readers vary in

 

terms of a demographic profile but that generally, sports
readers are also sports enthusiasts or spectators.

It appears that State Journal sports staffers have

 

a good perception of their readers' interest in sports news,
but underestimate readers' satisfaction with the sports
section. The findings indicate that sports writers interact
with certain sports readers more than do sports editors and
finally, that there are a number of news room and personal

factors influencing sports staffers' sports news judgments.

Elise Christine Bates
The study points out the need for further research

with a larger representative sample and more newspapers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Vishwa M. Mishra,
who, with my appreciation, proved a very capable and helpful

adviser.

I would also like to express gratitude to my parents
for being supportive throughout my graduate career and to
my special friends, Val Olson, Rosanne Singer, Cathy Ewert
and to Gregory Boyd, without whom, my perspective may have

wandered.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . .. . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND ASSUMPTIONS AND
RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY . . . . . .
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . .
BACKGROUND ASSUMPTIONS . . . . . .
RATIONALE. . . . . . . . . . .
II. THE PROBLEM, DEFINITION OF TERMS AND

ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY . . . . .
THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O
CONCERNS OF THE STUDY. . . . . . .
DEFINITION OF TERMS . . . . .

ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF
THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . .
III. THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY . . . . .
HYPOTHESES . . . . . . . . . .
METHODS O O O O O O O O O O O
SAMPLE O O O O O O O O O O O O
QUESTIONNAI RES 0 O O O O O O O O
PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA . . .
IV. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY . . . . . . .

DEMOGRAPHIC AND PSYCHOGRAPHIC PROFILE
OF RESPONDENTS . . . . .

NEWSROOM AND PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING
SPORTS STAFFERS' SPORTS NEWS JUDGMENTS
SPORTS WRITERS' AND EDITORS' INTERACTIONS
WITH SPORTS READERS. . . . .

ESTIMATION OF READER INTEREST AND
SATISFACTION IN SPORTS NEWS BY
SPORTS STAFFERS . . .
INTEREST AND SATISFACTION REPORTED BY
READERS IN SPORTS NEWS. . . . . .

iii

ll
14
15
15
16
l7
19
20
20
21
27
28
29

30

30
35

40

42
45

Chapter

V. CONCLUSIONS, GENERALIZATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

CONCLUSIONS .

GENERALIZATIONS.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

APPENDICES

Appendix

A. COVER LETTERS.

B. QUESTIONNAIRES

C. TABLES . .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

iv

54

54
55
56

60
62
68

95

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. How frequently do you read the State
Journal? . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2. How much of the State Journal do you
read on any average day? . . . . . . 68

3. How often do you participate in vigorous
exercise? . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4. How often do you participate in athletic
eventS?O O O O O O O O O O O O 69

5. How often do you watch sporting events in
person or on television? . . . . . . 70

6. How interested are you in sports news? . . 70

7. Which of the following sources for sports
news do you prefer?. . . . . . . . 71

8. Which of the following sources of sports
news do you find most trustworthy?. . . 72

9. How frequently do you read the sports
section in the State Journal? . . . . 73

10. How much of the State Journal sports
section do you read on any average day? . 73

11. How much sports news does the State
Journal give you? . . . . . . . . 74

12. How much interest do you have in the following
types of sports news?

Professional . . . . . . . . . 74
13. College sports news . . . . . . . 75
14. High school sports news. . . . . . 75
15. City league sports news. . . . . . 76
16. Sports features . . . . . . . . 76

V

Table
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

How interesting is the sports section?. .
How understandable is the sports section?.
How lengthy are the stories? . . . . .
How comprehensive are the stories? . . .
How opinionated is the sports section?. .
How adequate is the sports section?. . .

How many years of schooling did you
complete?. . . . . . . . . . .

Would you please indicate which of the
following age groups corresponds to
your age?. . . . . . . . . . .

Would you please indicate your family's
income group for 1978 before taxes? . .

What is your sex?. . . . . . . . .

Are you employed with the State Journal
as a reporter or editor?. . . . . .

For how many years have you been employed
in the sports department of the State
Journal? . . . . . . . . . . .

How many years total experience do you
have working with sports news?. . . .

What level of interest does the community
for which you are writing have in
sports news?. . . . . . . . . .

What level of interest do State Journal
readers have in sports news? . . . .

In your opinion, do the employes in the
State Journal sports department interact
with sports readers? . . . . . . .

In your opinion, how frequently do State

Journal sports writers interact with
sports readers?. . . . . . . . .

vi

Page
77
77
78
78
79

79

80

81

82

82

83

83

83

84

84

85

85

Table

34.

35.

36.
37.
38.
39.

40.

41.

42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.

50.

51.

In your opinion, how frequently do
State Journal sports editors interact
with sports readers? . . . . . .

In your opinion, how interested are
State Journal sports readers in the
following types of sports news?

Professional sports news . . . .
College sports news . . . . . .
High school sports news. . . . .
City league sports news. . . . .

Sports features . . . . . . .

In your opinion, how interested is your
publisher in sports news?. . . . .

In your opinion, how often do the following
factors influence State Journal sports
coverage?

Perceived reader interest . . . .
Perceived community interest . . .
Perceived publisher interest . . .
Reporter interest. . . . . . .
Editor interest . . . . . . .
News room policies . . . . . .
Available news hole . . . . . .
Deadlines . . . . . . . . .
Category of news . . . . . . .

In your opinion, how frequently are State
Journal sports writers and editors news
judgment decisions based upon their
own intuition of what is newsworthy
rather than on specific sports news room

guidelines or policies? . . . . .

In your opinion, how satisfied are State
Journal readers with the sports section

vii

Page

85

86
86
86
87

87

87

88
88
88
89
89
89
90
9O

90

91

Table Page
51. of the newspaper? . . . . . . . 91

52. How frequently do you participate in
vigorous exercise?. . . . . . . 92

53. How frequently do you participate in
athletic events? . . . . . . . 92

54. How satisfied are you with your job
in the sports department? . . . . 92

55. How frequently do you watch sports
on television or in person? . . . . 93

56. How many years of schooling did you
complete?. . . . . . . . . . 93

57. Would you please indicate which of the
following age groups corresponds
to your age?. . . . . . . . . 94

58. What is your sex?. . . . . . . . 94

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND ASSUMPTIONS

AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
INTRODUCTION

Decisions on sports news coverage in U.S. daily
newspapers involve several aspects of news judgment.
Available space, the number of sports activities, and the
different types of available sports events are only a few
of the variables involved. The question then arises: Who
decides which of these sports to cover, how much space to
allot each sport and in what order of importance the sports
stories should appear? It can be assumed an editor accepts
the responsibility for these decisions.

A second question is then raised: How are these
decisions made? It is doubtful specific rules exist for
sports page make up, for on no day are the sports pages
exactly alike. It follows that perhaps "editors'
intuition" serves as the single greatest factor in sports
news decisions.

A look at editors' intuition raises yet another
question. What is this intuition based upon? The editors'
personal feelings are certainly involved, but more impor-
tantly, the editor second guesses his or her readers.

1

2

Decisions based upon editors' perceptions of what readers
want to see are intrinsic to all aspects of newspaper
management. Sports editors and their staffs may have based
several perceptions of their readers' interests and prefer-
ences by interacting with certain readers, by noting the
personalities of spectators at actual sports events, or by
being avid sports fans themselves. The assumed interaction
or contact between sports page staffers and certain sports
news readers emerges, then, as a determinant of sports news
coverage by newspapers. Consequently, in allotting news
space for sports, it is difficult for news staffs to gauge
and accurately meet the interests of their readers without
adequate interaction with them. Interest is a somewhat
nebulous concept but is defined here as the "predisposition
to pay attention". Sports news staffs must then determine
to what extent readers are predisposed to pay attention to
sports news.

Several studies have looked at news staff percep-
tions of their readers' interest under different categories,
such as local, national, international and science news.
The studies often found the editors and readers in
substantial disagreement over story preferences by the
readers. Other relevant studies examine news hole and news
judgment policies as well as the activities of editors and
publishers of daily newspapers.

It appears, however, that no study similar to the

one proposed here has been conducted. Nor are there

available research findings that relate sports news and
reader interest in sports news in similar fashion as this
study attempts.

Sports reporting and writing are, however, looked at
in research articles by Novak1 and Witteman.2 In regard to
readers' and editors' varying perceptions of newspapers, two
studies examined news staff perceptions of reader interest
in news as compared with actual reader interest. Both used
Q-sort technique to determine story preference.

Starck focused on producer/consumer perceptions of
daily newspaper functions. Using Q-sort technique among
thirty-nine respondents, Starck concluded that the higher
educated news staff members were more aware of their
readers' perceptions and that in general, the news staffs
and readers perceived the functions of a daily newspaper
similarly.3 Also using Q-sort technique, Atwood studied
thirty subscribers and several editors to determine story
preferences. His study found that age, education and sex do
not appear to be consistently related to story preference
type. Specifically, Atwood found the impact of a story was

the preferred news element among readers while conflict

 

1Michael Novak, "The Game's the Thing: A Defense
of Sports as a Ritual," Columbia Journalism Review, 15(1976):
33-36.

 

2Paul A. Witteman, "Rite of Spring: Covering Hank
Aaron," Columbia Journalism Review, 13(1974): 3-4.

3Kenneth Starck, "Producer/Consumer Perceptions of
the Function of the Daily Newspaper," Journalism Quarterly,
51(1974): 670-676.

 

rated second. Differences among preference types in his
study centered on the oddity element of news stories. The
prominence of events or persons was not found to be a
determinant of story selection among readers.4

Greenberg, administering a semantic differential
scale on 200 newspaper subscribers, found that editors and
readers differ greatly in perceived judgment of both daily
and weekly newspapers. The discrepancies led Greenberg to
conclude there is not enough effective communication between
editors and a segment of their readers.5 Martin, O'Keefe
and Nayman used other techniques, such as interviews with
editors and readers and content analysis of a newspaper
covering a controversial subject, to study opinion agreement
between editors and their readers. Martin et al. found that
editors' decisions may be most influenced by their percep-
tions of the majority opinion in their communities. They
found that editors with higher education have higher accuracy
in perceiving their readers' opinions.6

The nationwide Harris Survey dealt most specifically

with the differences between editors and readers in regard

 

L. Erwin Atwood, "How Newsmen and Readers Perceive
Each Others' Story Preferences," Journalism Quarterly, 47
(1970): 296-302.

 

5Bradley S. Greenberg, "Community Press as Perceived
by Its Editors and Readers," Journalism Quarterly, 41(1964):
437-440.

6Ralph K. Martin, Garrett J. O'Keefe and Ogus B.
Nayman, "Opinion Agreement and Accuracy Between Editors and
their Readers," Journalism Quarterly, 49(1972): 460-468.

 

 

 

to sports news interest. The survey found 75 percent of
newspaper editors interviewed believed readers have a high
interest in sports, while only 35 percent of the public
surveyed expressed such an interest. While the survey
concluded that staffers overestimated the interest the
public has in sports news, it did not identify the variables
which might account for the difference.7
Several studies do, however, deal with the many
and somewhat undetermined variables in editor/reader percep—
tions of newspapers. Donohew stated the variables involved
in news play are many and that some are still uninvestigated.
Studies that indicate variables in news play other
than editor or publisher attitude include those by Donohew,9

10 ll 13

Breed, Berelson, Liebes,12 and Gieber. Specifically,

Donohew stated that each of the indicators of publishers'

 

Louis Harris, "Harris Survey," Detroit Free Press,
January 9, 1978, p. 12-B.

8Lewis Donohew, "Newspaper Gatekeepers and Forces in
the News Channel," Public Opinion Quarterly, 31(1967): 61-68.

 

9
Ibid.

loWarren Breed, "Social Control in the News Room:
A Functional Analysis," Social Forces, 33(1955): 326-327.

llBernard Berelson, "Communication and Public
Opinion," in Wilbur Schramm, ed., The Process and Effects
of Mass Communication, (Urbana: University of Illinois
fi'fe“ss,"'1954), p. 343.

12Barry H. Liebes, "Decision—Making by Telegraph
Editors--AP or UPI?" Journalism Quarterly, 43(1966): 434-442.

13Walter Gieber, "Across the Desk: A Study of 16
Telegraph Editors," Journalism Quarterly, 33(1956): 423-432.

 

 

6

attitude, publishers' perception of community opinion and
community conditions would be found to be systematically
related to each of the measurements of gatekeeper behavior
(i.e., news coverage). Liebes, using observation and mail
questionnaires, found the variables in news play include
policy, personal (editor) idiosyncracies, wire service news
budget, story primacy and space limitations. Liebes, like
Breed, found that newspaper policy has little influence in
news judgment, but that deadlines and news holes do have
some affect. To determine why some items are published and
others are not, Gieber interviewed editors about demographic
data and personal history, assigned duties, inter-personal
factors in the news room, perceptions of community and
readers and news policies. These are all factors influencing
gatekeepers in news judgment decisions.

Sports editors and writers are gatekeepers of sports
news because they determine story selection and importance.
Gatekeepers may also have several personal interests which
influence their news judgment decisions. The following
specific questions for editors were included in a study of
gatekeepers by White to determine some of the varying influ-
ences on gatekeepers: 1) Does the category of news affect
your choice of news stories? 2) Do you have any prejudices
which might affect your choice of news stories? 3) What is
your concept of the audience for whom you select stories and
what sort of person do you conceive the average reader to

be? 4) Do you have specific tests of subject matter or way

of writing that help you determine the selection of any
particular news story?14 It appears, then, that the pro-
posed study could address itself to similar questions
designed to generate data for correspondence between gate-
keepers and a newspaper's audiences.

Other influences on the gatekeeper may include a
publisher's activity or interest in sports news. In a
study of activity of daily newspaper publishers, Bowers
asked editors to appraise whether their publishers were
active in decisions on content or display of news items all
the time, often, occasionally, seldom or never. Bowers
found that l) the closer the geographical proximity of the
news event, the more active the publisher, 2) the larger
the circulation of the newspaper, the less active the pub-
lisher, and 3) publisher activity is highest in areas which
involve their personal activities.15 These conclusions
may also have some relevance to the proposed study.

Casey and Copeland used a mail questionnaire in their

16

study of advertising content and news hole policy. While

 

14David M. White, "The 'Gate Keeper': A Case Study
in the Selection of News," Journalism Quarterly, 27(1950):
383-390.

15David R. Bowers, "A Report on Activity by
Publishers in Directing Newsroom Decisions, "Journalism
Quarterly, 44(1967): 43-52.

16Ralph D. Casey and Thomas H. Copeland Jr.,
"Current 'News Hole' Policies of Daily Newspapers: A Sur-
vey," Journalism Quarterly, 34(1957): 175-186.

 

 

 

 

their findings may not be directly relevant to this study,
they do appear to be useful in formulating its conceptual
framework in that advertising and news hole can affect the
sports pages as much as editor's intuition. Using a mail
questionnaire and content analysis, Drew and Wilhoit found
there is a proportionately large display of sports in daily
newspapers. Local news was found to constitute 75 percent
of the news space (measured by column inches) on an average
day and it was found that sports news ranked next with 6
percent of the news space. There is no indication in the
study as to why sports rank second to local news in news
space, yet have one of the lowest readerships in daily
newspapers.17 This is a large discrepancy and for this
reason, sports news was selected as the topic for this
study. Sports interest and estimated interest also created
the largest difference between readers and editors in the
news items listed in the previously mentioned Harris Sur-
vey.

Several researchers studied readers' interest in
all news categories and also noted the low percentage of

18

. . 19 .
interest in sports. Swanson and Schramm and White, in

 

17
Dan Drew and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, "Newshole

Allocation Policies of American Daily Newspapers,"
Journalism Quarterly, 53(1976): 434-440.

18Charles E. Swanson, "What they Read in 130 Daily
Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly, 32(1955): 411-421.

19Wilbur Schramm and David M. White, "Age, Education
and Economic Status as Factors in Newspaper Reading," in
Schramm, ed. Mass Communications, (Urbana: University of
Illinois, 1960) p. 438-450.

 

particular studied readers' interest in sports. Swanson
determined that sports comprised nearly 12 percent of the
items on various types of pages with only 8 percent of the
total readership. In his study, he classified sports as
one of the ten least read items in the newspaper. Swanson
determined that the physical size of the newspaper, the
time of the issue and the size of the circulation do not
relate to important differences in readership. However, he
did note that the reader intensity of interest is important.
Newspaper readers often scan the sports section but do not
read any articles in particular.

Schramm and White were able to provide a demographic
profile of "sports readers" in terms of age, sex, education
and ecomonic status:

Reading of sports news is at its height in

people in their twenties, thereafter it tapers
off. It increases with economic status, and

there is considerable increase between grade
school and high school educated groups.

Three times as many men as women may read sports.20
In another study, Schramm measured the depth of reading or
the percentage of a news story which was read. This find-
ing, too, may help in the building of a conceptual frame-

work for this study inasmuch as readers may look at the

sports section every day but may not necessarily "read" it.

 

2 .
0Schramm and White, "Age, Education and Economic,"

p. 440.

10

In still another study, Schramm identifies sports
as "immediate reward news." He found sports news give a
reader a vicarious experience which may help the reader
identify with winners. Schramm labels it as a "less sophis-
ticated form of behavior,"21 and noted that, "It is a
greater reward to identify oneself with the local team which
. "22
is equally good.

Nafziger, MacLean and Engstrom also analyzed news-
paper readership data.23 Using frequency distribution
charts and factor analysis, they determined that while any
percent of readers may dip into sports news, very few of
them read more than one or two items. Bogart, in a study of
changing news interests, justified some of the interest in
newspaper sports news:

Newspapers arouse and reinforce interests

which other media help to satisfy. For example,
television has stimulated interest in spectator
sports, but this only increases the readership of
newspaper sports pages.24

Evaluating newspapers' effectiveness, Anast con-

cluded that readers primarily interested in non-controversial

 

21Wilbur Schramm, "The Nature of News," Journalism

Quarterly, 26(1949): 264.

22Ibid., p. 265.

23Ralph O. Nafziger, Malcolm MacLean Jr., and Warren
Engstrom, "Useful Tools for Interpreting Newspaper Reader-
ship Data," Journalism Quarterly, 28(1951): 441-456.

24Leo Bogart, "Changing News Interests and the News
Media," Public Opinion Quarterly, 32(1968): 562.

 

 

 

 

11

subjects (i.e., sports) are more favorable in their
evaluation of the work of the newspaper than persons with
controversial interests. Anast also determined that men
are more critical than women and the better educated are
more critical than the less educated.25
The findings from the various studies cited in the
foregoing paper provide background on news judgment and
editors' perceptions of reader interest in several news
categories in general and sports news in particular.
Additionally, the studies reflect some knowledge gaps on
sports news judgment and sports news play. This phenom-
enon alone suggests a need for a systematic study of readers'
interest in sports pages of daily newspapers. Of particular
concern are the variables which may be involved in editor
and reader perceptions of newspaper sports news. The
research findings are also useful in developing assumptions

about sports news judgment and sports editors' perceptions

of their readers.

BACKGROUND ASSUMPTIONS

Therefore, on the basis of the preceding discussion,
a set of background assumptions regarding sports news
judgment, sports news editors and sports news readers was

generated.

 

25Philip Anast, "Attitude Toward the Press as a
Function of Interests," Journalism Quarterly, 38(1961):
376-380.

 

12

First, it was assumed that sports news judgments
can be intuition-based phenomena. If there are no "sporting
guidelines" to follow, editors may base decisions on which
sports to cover and how much to cover them upon personal
intuitions about what belongs on the sports pages and in
which sports readers are most interested.

It is further assumed that readers' interest is an
important element of sports news judgment and that sports
editors' perceptions of readers' interest in sports has
some relationship with sports news coverage. The decision
as to whether a newspaper stresses professional, college or
high school sports, for example, is based upon these editors'
perceptions of what readers are most interested in.

It was also assumed that sports editors and staffers
overestimate the interest newspaper readers have in sports
news. Sports staffs may estimate a large number of their
newspapers' readers are highly interested in sports news
while a fewer number of readers than estimated will report
such an interest.

A fourth assumption was that catering to sports news
interest might be guided by the reinforcement of interest
rather than the creation of interest. The more editors feel
their readers are interested in certain types of sports news,
such as professional or college, the greater the coverage of
those sports will be.

It was assumed that perceived community interest in

sports news is related to sports news coverage.

13

It was also assumed there is not enough interaction,
operationally defined here as the contact staffers have
with sports readers, between sports editors and a segment
of their readers. It is likely sports editors have little
or no contact with most sports readers on a day-to-day
basis. They do, however, have frequent contact with
certain influential readers, defined here as readers who are
involved in sports news processes.

It was further assumed that readers with high
interest in sports news are individuals with personal
involvement in sports activities. Highly interested sports
readers are active participants in athletics, are frequent
spectators at sporting events or most frequently, View
sports events or specials on television.

Another assumption was that deadline and news hole
are related to sports news coverage. Stories arriving
after deadline will not make the paper and will be considered
"old" the next day if they concern unimportant (as defined
by the editor) sports stories. When the news hole is small,
these same stories are the first to be bumped. When the
news hole is larger, these stories and others will appear
throughout the sports pages.

It was also assumed that sports editors and sports
writers may be athletically inclined or sports oriented.
Sports staffers reflect interest in sports either by par-

ticipating or spectating.

14

Based upon these assumptions, the central proposi-
tion for this study is that newspaper sports page staffers'
perceptions of readers' interest in sports news is
a necessary component of sports news coverage by the news-
papers and that the relationship between the aforesaid

variables and sports news coverage is constant and cumulative.

RATIONALE

The justification for undertaking this study lies in
the fact that no data of significant consequence that points
out the processes through which judgment pertaining to
newspaper coverage or non-coverage of sports-related news
events is available. Other data deal with the varying
aspects of news coverage, such as gatekeepers, readers and
newspaper policy. But no such comprehensive study has been
undertaken or systematically conducted to look specifically
at such components of sports news coverage as readers,
staffers and policy as they relate to each other.

Furthermore, with the shifting demographic and
changing psychographic characteristics of the American
people, there is an increasing interest in sports-~interest
in being both participants and spectators. This increase is
further augmented by the available or increasing amount of
leisure time found in the United States. It is important,
then, to study this social phenomenon in sports and sports
news in a way that will determine the relationships involved

in the appropriate news coverage.

CHAPTER II
THE PROBLEM, DEFINITION OF TERMS

AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem. What is the level of

 

interest the State Journal's sports editors, writers and

 

readers have in sports news and what factors influence
coverage of sports news by the newspaper?

Specifically, the study had the following research
objectives:

1) to delineate State Journal sports readers'

 

interest and satisfaction with the State Journal sports

 

section;

2) to explore the sports staffers' perceptions of
sports readers' interest and satisfaction with the State
Journal sports section;

3) to determine the State Journal sports editors'

 

and writers' opinions on the frequency of their interaction
with certain influential sports readers in the community;
4) to examine demographic and psychographic profiles

of State Journal sports news readers and sports news staf-

 

fers;

5) to assess the frequency with which publisher,

15

16

community and reader interest as perceived by the staffers,
reporter and editor interest, news room policies, news hole

and deadlines influence State Journal sports coverage; and

 

6) to draw some conclusions and generalizations.

CONCERNS OF THE STUDY

The study was concerned with the examination of the
following problem questions:

1) How often do sports news staffers rely on their
personal intuition to make sports news judgment decisions?

2) What is the sports staffers' estimation of reader
and community interest in sports news? Do perceived reader
and community interest in sports news affect sports news
judgments?

3) How often do news room policies, available news
hole and deadlines influence sports coverage? How often
do perceived reader, community and publisher interest,
reporter and editor interest, and category of news influ-
ence sports news coverage?

4) Do sports staffers interact with sports readers?
How often do sports editors interact with sports readers
and how often do sports writers interact with sports readers?

5) Do sports readers reflect satisfaction with their
newspaper's sports pages or do they report that the sports
pages do not contain the sports news or level of sports

writing they would like to see?

17

6) What are the psychographic and demographic
characteristics of sports readers?
7) What are the psychographic and demographic

characteristics of State Journal sports staffers?

 

These are the problem questions this study will

attempt to explore.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The definition of several technical terms as they
are used in this study is offered here.

Certain Influential Sports Readers. This term

 

refers to a segment of the reader population who, either
through occupation or interest, is involved in sports news
processes.

These readers may be coaches, athletes, or other
persons involved in sports, who communicate their interest
in sports news frequently.

Community Conditions. This term refers to those

 

conditions which may affect the political, cultural and
economic status of the community's residents.

The presence of industry, cultural centers or
academic institutions, for example, are such community
conditions which might affect or be directly related to the
status of the community's residents. These conditions will
also affect residents' interest in such areas.

Gatekeepers. Gatekeepers are persons who control

 

18

the flow of news through news channels.

This definition is found in the vast literature on
gatekeepers in communication research. The literature
essentially suggests that gate sections are governed either
by impartial rules or gatekeepers. Gatekeepers have to
make the initial judgment as to whether a story is important
or not. In sports writing, sports editors, copy editors,
reporters and readers function as gatekeepers.

Interaction. Interaction is operationally defined

 

as the contact or communication sports staffers have with
readers.

News Hole. It is defined as the amount of space

 

available for news stories.

News Judgment. This refers to the decision as to

 

which stories appear in a newspaper.

It is based upon several predetermined criteria,
including timeliness, consequence, proximity, prominence and
human interest. Editors' perceptions of reader interest,
publisher attitude, news hole, or deadlines may also be
influences on gatekeepers' news judgments.

Readers' Interest. Interest is defined by Solomon

 

Asch as the predisposition to pay attention.

It is applied here to mean the attention paid to
sports news. It is assumed "high intensity" or high interest
readers exist. They are the readers who read the sports

pages thoroughly. There are also "scanners," or those

19

readers who may briefly glance at sports headlines and
read one or two stories, if any at all.

Sports Staffers. Sports staffers are those persons,

 

including sports reporters, sports c0py editors, and sports
editors, who are employed by the newspaper to produce or

edit sports news copy.

ORGANIZATION OF THE

REMAINDER OF THE STUDY

The remainder of this study is organized in three
additional chapters, followed by a bibliography and
appendices.

Chapter III is concerned with the methodological
considerations of the study. In it, the setting and design
of the study, as well as the method, are included.

Findings of the study are related in Chapter IV.
Conclusions and recommendations for future study are found
in Chapter V.

A bibliography, including the works cited in this
study, as well as additional relevant research studies and
certain appendices which include the cover letters, the
questionnaires and tabular presentations of the data, can

be found at the conclusion of the report.

CHAPTER III

THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

HYPOTHESES

Based upon the foregoing discussion, the following
descriptive hypotheses were formulated for this study:

It is hypothesized that sports news judgments are
based frequently upon sports writers' and editors' per-
ceived reader, community and publisher interests in sports
news, their own interest and intuition of what is news-
worthy, and on such factors as deadlines, news hole and
category of news.

It is hypothesized that sports staffers estimate
readers' interest in sports news higher than readers report
it and that sports writers interact with certain influential
sports readers more than do sports editors.

It is also hypothesized that characteristics such
as frequent exercise habits, and personal interest or
involvement as spectators or participants in athletic
activities are likely to be related to the reading of

sports news in the State Journal. Also, readers of sports

 

news are more interested in professional and college

sports news than high school or city league sports news.

20

21

These hypotheses will be descriptively analyzed and
discussed. No pretense to testing these hypotheses through

various statistical tests of significance will be attempted.
METHODS

The methods utilized in the execution of the study
consisted of techniques of mail survey. Additional data were
generated through documentary and analytical techniques of
historical method.

A mail survey research method was chosen as a
research technique over telephone surveys or person-to-person
interviews because the technique makes the inexpensive
collection of a large amount of data possible. A mail survey
can also be aimed at a large section of the population which
is not reachable by telephone (those either not home, having
no phone or unlisted numbers) or in person (those either
working, not home for large periods of time or too busy for

. . . . 1 .
personal interv1ews.) Research studies by Dillman, Wiseman,2

4

Webb,3 and Hochstim, among others, discuss the advantages

 

lDon A. Dillman, Mail and Telephone Data Collection
Methods, (New York: Wiley Interscience, 1978).

2Frederick Wiseman, "Methodological Bias in Public
Opinion Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(1972): 105-108.

 

 

3Kenneth Webb and Harry P. Hatry, Obtaining Citizen
Feedback, (Washington, D.C., The Urban Institute, 1973).

4Joseph R. Hochstim, "A Critical Comparison of Three
Strategies of Collecting Data from Households," Journal of
the American Statistical Association, 62(1967): 976-989.

 

22

and disadvantages of the various survey methods. It is
generally concluded that the three survey methods all have
advantages and disadvantages, but with care, all can be
equally reliable.

Several advantages to mail surveys have been iden-
tified. This type of survey can produce more candid results
than other research techniques because of its completion
in the privacy of the respondent's home. This can assure
anonymity for the respondent. Also, surveys completed in
the comfort of the respondents' homes and at the respon-
dents' choice of time will reduce the possible stress an
interview creates. Mail surveys are most appropriate in
a population sample which is highly motivated and
interested in the questionnaire. Because this particular
study is aimed at newspaper readers, a mail survey is seen
as highly appropriate.

This method of survey does have several limitations,
most of which can be overcome to some degree. The greatest
disadvantage to mail surveys is the possibility of a low
return rate, which may, in turn, reduce its credibility
as an unbiased procedure. Without adequate incentives or
motivation, surveys may be cast aside by respondents for
various reasons. The utility of the questionnaire has
stimulated many studies on its drawbacks and areas for
improvement.

One potential limitation that affects the return

rate in a mail survey can be found when an inaccurate or

23

incomplete list is used to draw the sample. Carter, in a
review of field research,5 warns that the mobility of
persons tends to make for the early obsolescence of such
lists. He also warns that responses will come from a
somewhat homogenous group, possibly making the sample a
biased one. People who respond, Carter found, often differ
from non-respondents in certain known characteristics (e.g.,
economic status, education and sex.) Respondents will
likely be the most opinionated and interested in the
questionnaire.

Because the mail survey is self-administered,
respondents may answer in an uncertain order, possibly
skewing the responses by reading the entire questionnaire
before answering questions or by skipping from question
to question in no apparent order. There is another limi-
tation due to self-administration, the possibility that
the questionnaire may be filled out by someone other than
the intended respondent. A final drawback to mail surveys
is the lack of opportunity for researchers to probe
respondents or to obtain in-depth answers.

In this particular survey study, the sample of
newspaper readers will be drawn from recent State Journal

subscription lists to avoid the potential complication

 

5Roy E. Carter Jr., "Field Methods in Communication
Research," Ralph O. Nafziger and David M. White, eds.,
Introductig§_tg Mass Communication Research, (Baton Rouge:
Loui§iana State University Press, 1958).

 

24

caused by obsolete or incomplete lists. It is an added
advantage for this survey that the respondents are an
already select population--newspaper subscribers. This
puts them at a usually higher educated and higher income
level and may in turn, assure the respondent's ability
and desire to complete the questionnaire and an above
average response rate.

Several research studies have been completed with
goals to improve the response rates of mail surveys. These
studies were helpful in overcoming a low response rate and
other possible difficulties in drawing the procedure for
this study. Both Dillman6 and Blumberg et_al.7 found
that high response rates to mail surveys are due not to
one single procedure, but to the combination of as many
desirable features as possible. The researchers stress
the importance of questionnaire appearance and format in
a mail survey. The preliminary work done on a survey is
crucial to a high response rate. Robinson and Agisim8

recommend pretesting the survey and then re-examining the
questions. Biased questions have to be thrown out or re-

worded. The questionnaire must also be simple and easy to

 

6
Don A. Dillman, "Increasing Mail Questionnaire Res-

ponse in Large Samples of the General Public," Public
Opinion Quarterly, 36(1972): 254-257.

7Herbert H. Blumberg, Carolyn Fuller and A. Paul
Hare, "Response Rates in Postal Surveys," Public Opinion
Quarterly, 38(1974): 113-123.

8R.A. Robinson and Phillip Agisim, "Making Mail
Surveys More Reliable," Journal of Marketing, 15(1951): 415-
424.

 

 

 

25

fill out, meaning it must be designed attractively and
concisely. Blumberg gt Sl' found the content of the
survey should contain something of interest or intrigue
for a high response rate. Also, a short questionnaire
is more likely to be returned than a longer one. The
color of paper on which the survey is printed may also
affect the response rate, researchers found. Both male
and female respondents are more likely to return surveys
printed on colored paper.

The next step of a mail survey should include con-
tacting respondents with an advance letter. Linsky9
recommends this procedure as a technique to increase the
response rate.

When the questionnaire is ready for mailing, it
should be accompanied by a personalized cover letter. For
a higher response, Dillman10 found the cover letter should
appear on appropriate letter head stationery and be hand-
signed. The letter should appeal to the respondents and
stress his or her role and importance in completing the
questionnaire. It should mention how the respondent was
selected and why the researcher wants the questionnaire

returned. Perhaps an argument for social utility and an

 

9Arnold S. Linsky, "Stimulating Responses to Mailed
Questionnaires: A Review," Public Opinion Quarterly,
39(1975): 82-101.

10Dillman, "Increasing Mail Questionnaire,"
pp. 254-257.

 

26

appeal to help should be included, Linskyll found. He
also stressed mentioning sponsoring organizations and
titles in the cover letter, as "prestige gets response."
To further increase the potential of a high return rate,
Dillman12 found the cover letter should include the
researcher's phone number, in case respondents have
questions.

Most researchers agree--the questionnaire should
also be accompanied by a self-addressed, stamped return
envelope to help assure a relatively high response rate.
Both the envelope containing the questionnaire and the
return envelOpe should be hand-stamped to increase the
effect of the personalized approach to help encourage response.
Gullahorn and Gullahornl3 found a hand-stamped return
envelope evokes a sense of obligation from the respondent.

All respondents will not reply immediately to a mail
survey. To further increase the response rate, survey
researchers recommend mailing a reminder postcard after
the bulk of the responses have been returned, and then a
second cover letter, and second questionnaire with a return
self-addressed stamped envelope to non-respondents three

weeks after the first questionnaire mailing. No matter how

 

ll
Linsky, "Stimulating Responses," pp. 82-101.

12Dillman, "Increasing Mail Questionnaire,"
pp. 254-257.

13Jeanne E. and John T. Gullahorn, "An Investigation
of the Effects of Three Factors on Response to Mail Question-
naires," Public Opinion QuarterlY. 27(1963): 294-296.

 

27

well the researcher prepares, packages and delivers the

14 noted, it is not enough. "Persistence

survey, Dillman
pays off," he wrote.
Procedurally, the writer assured the circulation

list of State Journal subscribers from which the sample

 

was randomly drawn was up-to-date and carefully compared
to local directories for accuracy in regard to names and
addresses. In addition, the writer assured that the
questionnaire was so designed and pre-tested as to make
it easier for the respondent to fill out in a short time.
Due care was exercised to increase the return rate
of the survey by including in the actual survey mailing
the questionnaire, a cover letter stressing the importance
of the respondents' reply, as well as directions for
filling out the survey, and a self-addressed, stamped
return envelope. Approximately ten days after the initial
survey mailing, a second questionnaire and a reminder
letter were mailed to those respondents who had not yet

replied.

SAMPLE

The sample for the study was a multi-staged and
stratified probability sample of 300 heads of the house-

hold in 300 households of the State Journal's primary,

 

as well as secondary markets.

 

l4Dillman, "Increasing Mail Questionnaire,"
pp. 254-257.

28

Procedurally, two representative circulation routes
from each of the circulation districts of the primary and
secondary markets were randomly selected. These random
selections generated thirty-seven sample circulation routes.
At the next stage, from these sample routes, 300 households

of subscribers of the State Journal were randomly selected

 

from the subscribers' list for the sample routes. The
distribution of these subscriber households from the thirty-
seven circulation routes was proportionate to the number

of households in each of the thirty-seven randomly selected
circulation routes.

The respondent in the household was designated as
the head of the household, operationally defined as the
chief wage earner of the family.

Of the questionnaires mailed to the 300 households,

170 were returned, giving a return rate of nearly 57 percent.

QUESTIONNAIRES

The questionnaires were so constructed as to form-
ulate the objective of the study as measurable entities.
Procedurally, each hypothesis was tested with appropriately
designed questions. The questionnaire also contained the
appropriate demographic and psychographic questions.

The questionnaire was pre-tested on randomly select-

ed State Journal subscribers and then re-examined to

 

eliminate vague or confusing questions. Biased questions

were reworded. The pre-test for the study yielded a 52

29

percent response rate.

The State Journal staffers' questionnaire was pre-

 

tested by the staff of a weekly newspaper and then

re-examined. All of the State Journal sports staffers

 

responded to the questionnaire, yielding a return of two
editors and three reporters.

The questionnaires were so designed as to be
attractive and simple to fill out. They were copied on
goldenrod-colored paper to catch the respondent's eye and
accompanied by a cover letter explaining the purpose and
the method to use for filling it out. Copies of the

questionnaires can be found in Appendix B.

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

All reader and sports staffer questionnaires were
coded by this researcher to insure reliability.
Processing and analysis of data were conducted at

the Michigan State University computing center.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study have been reported
under the following rubrics: (l) demographic and psycho-
graphic profile of respondents in both the reader sample and

the State Journal sports staff sample; (2) news room and

 

personal factors influencing sports staffers' news judgments;
(3) sports editors' and writers' interaction with sports
readers; (4) estimation of reader interest and satisfaction
in sports news by sports staffers; and (5) interest and

satisfaction reported by readers in sports news.
DEMOGRAPHIC AND PSYCHOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS

Research evidence indicates that age, sex,
education, income levels and other psychographic and
demographic variables are reliable indicators of reader
interest in sports news.

The findings indicate that most of the respondents
appear to be middle age or older than expected. For,
approximately 39 percent of the respondents reported their
age ranged from the 51 years and older age groups. In
comparison, less than 1 percent of the respondents were

20 years or younger. However, 26 percent of the respondents

30

31

belonged to the age group of 31 to 40 years.

The apparent upward age bias in favor of middle
or older age groups of the respondents might be explained
in terms of the generally older age group of the heads
of the households, changing demographics of the respondents
and obvious sampling bias inherent in the subscribers' list

of the State Journal, from which the sample was drawn.

 

As to the sex distribution of the respondents, 65
percent of the respondents are male and 32 percent are
female. Approximately 3 percent of the respondents chose
not to respond to the item dealing with their sex. Because

the questionnaire was mailed to the sample of State Journal

 

subscribers who are frequently the heads of the household,
the upward bias in favor of males could be expected. This
proportion of males as the heads of the households is
generally reliable in the greater Lansing area.

As expected, the findings indicate that the educa-
tional level of the respondents is generally high. Almost
49 percent of the respondents reported completing either
college degrees, some graduate work or advanced degrees.
In comparison, approximately 17 percent of the respondents
reported completing some college work, 26 percent reported
they are high school graduates and 5 percent reported they
had less than a high school education. Nearly 3 percent
of the respondents chose not to respond.

The apparent upward bias in educational background

of respondents can be explained in terms of highly educated

32

persons' reliance on newspapers and other print media.
Persons with higher levels of education tend to favor
daily newspapers as a source of news over news magazines or
television. Daily newspapers offer more complete coverage
of news stories and can be obtained at the readers'
discretion. Similarly, Bogart found that newspapers
and other print media arouse and reinforce interests which
other media help to satisfy.1
Income levels of the respondents varied. The
findings indicate that approximately 31 percent of the
respondents reported their 1978 family income was more than
$24,000. Approximately 18 percent reported their families
in an income level ranging from $18,000 to $23,000 while
nearly 25 percent of the respondents reported their income
ranged from $9,000 to $17,999 and 14 percent reported an
income of less than $9,000. An additional 13 percent chose
not to respond to the item dealing with income.

Income levels are generally related to education
levels. In this particular study, a large number of
respondents are over 60 years of age and likely on fixed
incomes--which would account for a number of respondents
with lower incomes and higher levels of education. Schramm
found that a person with more education, more opportunities

for wide acquaintance and experience, "even to a certain

 

1Leo Bogart, "Changing News Interest and the News
Media," Public Opinion Quarterly, 32(1968-69): 560-574.

 

33

extent, more age,‘ is more likely to be rewarded by reading

the newspaper for public affairs and related reading, than
a person with less education, experience or age.2

The respondents' inclination toward exercise and
athletic activity was hypothesized to be related to their
sports news interest. A majority, or 62 percent, of the
respondents reported they exercise frequently, while 32
percent reported they seldom or never exercise. This seems
like a large percentage of exercisers because more than
half the respondents reported they were over 41 years of
age.

On the other hand, only 44 percent of the respondents
reported they participate in athletic events while 55 percent
reported they seldom or never participate in athletic events.
These findings are reasonable insofar as team or organized
athletics are less accessible to persons than are individual
Sports, especially to older persons. Team sports also
call for organization and a greater amount of time. Many
may prefer a 30-minute jog around the neighborhood or an
hour of tennis before or after work to an evening of soft-
ball or basketball.

As expected, 86 percent of the respondents reported
they are sports spectators, either on television or live,
while only 12 percent reported they seldom or never watch

sporting events. The term "armchair athlete" was derived

2Wilbur Schramm, "The Nature of News," Journalism
gyuarterly, 36(1949): 263.

 

34
from this phenomenon. It is strengthened by the television

coverage of every major sporting highlight from celebrity
competition, college basketball and professional baseball
to the networks' game of the week, college football
tournaments and the Superbowl.

Schramm identifies a reader's or viewer's preference
for sports news as immediate reward news. A viewer "can
enjoy a vicarious experience without any of the dangers
or stresses involved.3 Sporting events also serve as social
events and home entertainment. Family and friends gathering
on football Saturdays, Thanksgiving and New Year's Day to
watch football can attest to that. The large percentage
of spectators reported in this study may also be a result
of this community's interest in local athletics, in partic-
ular, several state-ranking Class A high schools and
Michigan State University, a Big-10 university.

Findings pertaining to the State Journal staffers'

 

background indicate the five reporters and editors surveyed
are male. The staffers range in age from 26 to 60 and
have a varied level of sports news experience. Two staffers
are between 26 and 30 years old, one is between 31 and 40
years old, another is 41 to 51 years old and the other
reported he is between 51 and 60 years old.

One staffer reported he has between one to three
years of sports news experience, one reported four to six

3Ibid., p. 260.

35

years of experience and three reported more than eleven
years of sports news experience.

Equally varied is the educational background of
the staffers. Two reported some college education, one
reported he is a college graduate and the other two
staffers reported completing some graduate work.

The findings indicate that three staffers, including
one editor, are satisfied with their job in the sports
department, while two reported they are only somewhat
satisfied with their job.

Generalizing about all sports news writers, editors
and news rooms on the basis of this study is difficult, due
to the small number of respondents. What this researcher
will do, however, is present the findings and explain them

in terms applying only to the State Journal and the

 

community it serves.

NEWSROOM AND PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING

SPORTS STAFFERS' SPORTS NEWS JUDGMENTS

Several relevant research studies found that
publisher interest is frequently a factor influencing news

judgments. All five State Journal staffers reported their

 

publisher is interested in sports news, but only one staffer,

an editor, reported that publisher interest is frequently

 

a factor influencing State Journal sports news coverage.

 

The other four reported publisher interest is only occasion-

ally a factor influencing sports news coverage.

36
These results fail to support Bowers' findings that

publisher activity is highest in areas involving the
publishers' personal interest.4 It is important, however,
that not one of the staffers reported publisher interest
is 92335 a factor influencing sports coverage.

As hypothesized, all five staffers reported that
perceived reader and perceived community interest are factors
which influence sports news judgments. Specifically, the
two editors reported both perceived reader and community
interest are factors frequently influencing sports coverage,
while all three writers reported they are only occasionally
factors.

These results support the findings of Martin et al.
that there is some association between the editors'
perception of community opinion and news play.5 In this
community in particular, editors and writers may judge
community and reader interest, again, by the number of
spectators attending sports events. For example, their
perceptions of community interest are likely increased by

large attendance figures at Michigan State University sports

 

4David R. Bowers, "A Report on Activity by Publishers
in Directing Newsroom Decisions," Journalism Quarterly,
44(1967): 43-52.

 

5

Ralph K. Martin, Garrett J. O'Keefe and Oguz B.
Nayman, "Opinion Agreement and Accuracy Between Editors and
their Readers," Journalism Quarterly, 49(1972): 460-468.

 

37

events or at local championship high school athletic
competitions.

The findings pertaining to the discrepancy
between the editors' and writers' perception of how much
influence the two factors have is interesting. If the
two editors base their news judgments on perceived reader
and community interest often, then, the two factors
influence them when assigning stories, writing editorials
and editing copy. The writers, however, reported that
editors' interest is more frequently a factor influencing
the writers' sports news coverage than either perceived
reader or community interest.

All five staffers reported editor and writer interest
are factors influencing sports news coverage, but two

writers reported that editor interest is frequently a

 

factor. The two editors reported editor interest is only

occasionally a factor influencing sports news coverage.

 

These results may illustrate the phenomenon of
hierarchical control in the sports news room. The
phenomenon explains why the editors rely on perceived
community and reader interest more often than their own
interest, and how the writers are influenced more by editors,
who, ultimately make most of the decisions regarding sports
news coverage.

Response to the item regarding sports news room
policy as a factor influencing sports coverage varied. One

editor reported that sports news room policy is frequently

38

influential, while the other editor reported policy is
seldom influential. The three writers reported policy is
occasionally influential. The inconsistency in the staffers'
response means that news room policy regarding sports news
coverage is just that--inconsistent. Policy that does exist
has to be so flexible as to include the seasonal sports
changes, increased coverage of local championships and
special events. Liebes also found that news room policy
has little influence over news coverage. Amount of news
coverage to be awarded any special event is determined
by other factors, Liebes found, such as the amount of
available news hole and deadline.6
Both editors and two writers reported that
available news hole frequently influences sports news
coverage. The third writer reported it is only occasion-
ally a factor. Deadlines influence sports news coverage
occasionally, reported four staffers. The fifth, a
writer, reported deadline is frequently influential.
Several other research studies indicate that deadline and
news hole influence all news coverage during all seasons.
It is unlikely that even publisher's activity in the news
room could influence news coverage by delaying deadlines.
Publisher activity could, however, likely affect news

hole on certain days.

 

6Barry H. Liebes, "Decision-Making by Telegraph
Editors--AP or UPI?" Journalism Quarterly, 43(1966): 434-
442.

 

39

The staffers also reported that the specific
category of sports news frequently influences sports news
coverage. This was expected. It relates to the concept
of perceived reader and community interest as a deter-
minant of sports news coverage. That is, sports events
which readers are most interested in tend to be those
closest to home and those which are most preferred and in
turn, those most attended, such as college football or
basketball. Intuition was the final influential factor
about which the sports staffers were surveyed. All five
staffers reported that news judgments are indeed based
upon their own intuition of what is newsworthy. This
supports the assumption that sports staffers' news judgments
are intuition-based as well as data-based phenomena and
follows the foregoing discussion concluding that sports

news room policies at the State Journal are inconsistent

 

as factors influencing sports news coverage. Therefore,
sports staffers must rely not only on their editors'
directions when judging sports news, but they must rely
also on their own intuition to make other news coverage
judgments.

The readers' written comments in spaces provided on
the questionnaire indicate that several respondents perceive
reporters' intuition as a part of sports news coverage.
Several of the respondents, for instance, commented on a

particular writer's insight or writing ability.

SPORTS WRITERS' AND EDITORS'

INTERACTION WITH SPORTS READERS

Another important determinant of sports news cover-
age is the level of interaction, defined here as contact,
between sports staffers and certain influential sports
readers. Without adequate interaction with readers, it is
difficult for news staffers to accurately gauge and meet
the interests of their readers.

The findings indicate that all State Journal sports

 

department employes do interact with readers but that the
editors tend to estimate employe and reader interaction
higher than writers estimate it. One writer reported that
employes do interact with readers and commented alongside,
"But not enough." This supports the assumption that there
is not enough interaction between sports readers and
staffers.

Both editors reported that sports writers

frequently interact with readers, but the three writers

 

reported that they, as writers, only sometimes interact with

 

readers. Similarly, both editors reported that they, as
editors, frequently or sometimes interact with readers,
while all three writers reported that, in their opinion,
editors rarely interact with readers. The writers'
response supports the hypothesis that sports writers
interact more with certain readers than do sports editors.

The editors may overestimate employe-reader

40

41

interaction to satisfy their own egos. The editors'
overestimation could be an honest but unrealistic response
reflecting the intentions of communicating more often
with readers but the inability to do so because of time
constraints. Greenberg, too, found there was not enough
effective communication between editors and some segments
of their readers.7
The writers' response to the interaction item
may be a sign of frustration; while wishing they could
interact more with readers, it is possible the reporting

situation and additional time constraints prevent it.

State Journal sports writers spend much of their time

 

summing up city league softball statistics, for example,
rewriting wire stories and taking down phoned in reports
of local high school sports action. (It is not financially

feasible for State Journal sports reporters to cover every

 

local high school's Friday night competition and to have

adequate stories written for the Saturday morning edition.)
Interaction with readers can provide a means for

staffers to gauge reader interest. Discussion of staffers'

response to estimating reader interest follows.

 

7Bradley S. Greenberg, "Community Press as
Perceived by Its Editors and Readers," Journalism
Quarterly, 41(1964): 437-440.

 

 

ESTIMATION OF READER INTEREST AND SATISFACTION

IN SPORTS NEWS BY SPORTS STAFFERS

Sports staffers' estimation of reader interest in
sports news is an important indication of the staffers'
awareness and concern for their readers' satisfaction and
ultimately, their own satisfaction as reporters and editors.

The findings indicate four staffers reported that the
community for which they are writing is interested in sports
news, while the fifth staffer reported the community is
only somewhat interested in sports news. Not surprisingly,
all five staffers reported that in their opinion, §E§E§
Journal readers are interested in sports news.

The Harris Survey8 found the high estimate of
reader interest in sports news to be a nationwide

phenomenon among newspaper staffers. The State Journal

 

staffers' estimation is, however, much closer to their
readers' reported interest, than the difference between
the staffers' estimation and reported reader interest
in the Harris Survey.

The State Journal staffers' high estimate of

 

reader and community interest in sports news may be the
result of several different factors. Staffers' egos might

lead them to a high estimation of reader interest. It

 

8Louis Harris, "Harris Survey," Detroit Free
Press, January 9, 1978, p. 12-B.

42

43

seems likely that if the staffers are interested in
sports news, they perceive a high number of others to also
be interested in sports news.

Another factor influencing the staffers' estimate of
interest is that reader interest in sports news in this
community peaks during the school year and particularly
during championships or playoffs in which local schools or
professional teams are participating. Interest may
increase in a sport such as high school cross country,
as soon as a local school has an outstanding runner and
eventually, an outstanding season. "It is a greater
reward," Schramm wrote, "to identify oneself with the
local team which is winning a championship than with a
faraway team equally good."9

It is important to note also that this survey
was completed in June, 1979. Nearly three months earlier,
Michigan State University won the 1979 National Collegiate
Athletic Association basketball championship. Even in

June, references to the basketball team and its members

appeared almost daily in the State Journal. Although

 

Swanson found that time, or season of issue, does not
relate to important differences in readership,10 this

researcher believes that interest in sports news during

 

9Schramm, "Nature of News," p. 265.

10Charles E. Swanson, "What they Read in 130 Daily
.Newspapers," Journalism Quarterly, 32(1955): 411-421.

44

that particular season may have been estimated high by
staffers and reported high by readers because of the MSU
basketball triumph.

The staffers' response to the item about reader
satisfaction varied. Two staffers reported that readers

are satisfied with the State Journal sports section, while

 

two reported their readers are only somewhat satisfied.

The fifth reported he was not sure about reader satis-
faction. A communication gap could explain this response

in that some of the staffers may not receive an adequate
amount of feedback regarding their readers' satisfaction.
The varied response to this item may reflect the varied
levels of interaction the staffers reported with readers.
Those staffers who do interact with readers may receive only
negative feedback, which would also taint their perception
of reader satisfaction.

The staffers also reported that readers are
interested in professional and college sports. Only one
staffer, an editor, reported readers are very interested
in high school sports, while the four other staffers
reported readers are interested or only somewhat interested
in high school sports. All five staffers reported
readers are interested or somewhat interested in city
league sports news and interested or somewhat interested
in sports features. The outdoor editor also reported
that readers are interested in outdoor news.

The staffers' estimate of reader interest in

45

these different types of sports news may be based on their
interaction with readers and feedback from readers as well
as on their personal interest. The outdoor editor's
response verifies that. Along with interaction, sports
editors and writers use participation or spectator attendance
to judge interest. Professional and college sports draw
larger audiences than high school or city league sports
events and thus, more news coverage.

The accuracy of the staffers' estimation of reader
interest will be discussed with readers' reported interest

in the following rubric.

INTEREST AND SATISFACTION

REPORTED BY READERS IN SPORTS NEWS

It was hypothesized that sports writers and
editors tend to overestimate the interest all newspaper
readers have in sports news. The questionnaires were
designed so as to test this hypothesis.

The findings indicate that the State Journal

 

staffers' estimate of reader interest was fairly accurate,
for 73 percent of the respondents reported interest in
sports news while approximately 24 percent of the
respondents reported they have little or no interest in
sports news. In addition, approximately 79 percent of

the respondents reported they read the State Journal

 

sports section while 12 percent reported they seldom or

never read the sports section.

46

The staffers' high estimate and the readers'
reported high interest indicate that the staffers have a
good idea of their community's interest in sports news.
They appear to be more perceptive of their audience's
interest than newspaper staffers nationwide who, in the
Harris Survey, estimated 75 percent of their readers are
highly interested in sports news. Yet, only 35 percent
of the readers in the Harris Survey reported an interest
in sports news. This figure makes this community's
interest in sports news appear exeptionally high.

Newspaper subscribers tend to fit into a class of
people with higher levels of income and education and belong
to higher age groups, and quite often, they are male, as
previously mentioned. This study found that respondents'
participation in exercise or athletic events was also high.
Therefore, the overwhelming interest readers expressed in
sports news could be a result of the sampling bias found in
this study.

Also, the amount of interest expressed by the
respondents and the degree to which they read the newspaper
were not measured specifically by this survey. Several
respondents may have classified themselves as "sports
readers," while they may only be "scanners." Reading the
sports section may mean to some, reading the headlines
and picture outlines. To others, it may mean memorizing
the statistics and imagining every game report in their

mind. This phenomenon, too, would account for the high

47

number of readers who reported interest and reading of
sports news.

The staffers were also relatively accurate in
their estimation of reader interest in professional,
college and high school sports and sports features,
although they overestimated reader interest in city league
sports news. The findings indicate 64 percent of the
sports readers are interested in professional sports
news, while 19 percent reported they had little or no
interest in professional sports news. Approximately 75
percent of the respondents reported they are interested in
college sports news, while 11 percent reported they are
only somewhat or not at all interested in college sports
news.

A fewer number of respondents (44%) reported they
are interested in high school sports news, while 40
percent reported they had little or no interest in high
school sports news. Only 18 percent of the respondents
reported interest in city league sports news while 61
percent of the respondents reported they are only somewhat
or not at all interested in city league sports. Also,

47 percent reported they are interested in sports features,
while 28 percent reported they had only somewhat or no
interest in sports features.

Reader interest in professional sports news is
also seasonal. At the time of this survey, completed in

early June, college and high school sports schedules had

48

ended for the year and professional baseball was several
weeks into its season. Schramm wrote that one of the ac-
complishments of mass communication has been to bring

far corners and far away people almost next door. "It
becomes relatively easy for thousands of sports fans who
have never been in South Bend to feel like alumni of Notre
Dame."11 Likewise, it becomes relatively easy for
residents of the Lansing area to identify with almost any
professional team, and most likely, the Detroit teams.

The number of respondents interested in college news
results from the fact that several members of the community
are associated with or attended Michigan State University.
Readers' self-identification with the news seems to be an
important factor in selection of one item over others,
Schramm found.12 MSU sports events are also attended heavily
by community members, which enforces their interest in the
reading of sports news.

The key to high school Sports interest is also
found in participation. Nearly 50 percent of the
respondents reported interest in high school sports. As
Schramm found, self-identification with the news is an
important factor in reading selection. These respondents

could be associated with area high schools, parents of

 

11Schramm, "Nature of News," p. 265.

121bid., p. 267.

49

high school athletes or ex-high school athletes themselves.
The greatest discrepancy in the staffers'

estimation of sports news interest was found in their

estimation of reader interest in city league sports. Ed

Senyczko, the State Journal sports editor, said the

 

newspaper goes out of its way to satisfy readers with an
entire Sunday page devoted to city league bowling during

13 He attributed the justification for this

bowling season.
practice to certain readers' interests in bowling. It is
apparent the staffers may estimate reader interest in city
league sports high because of the amount of interaction
and feedback they receive from certain readers who are
active in such sports.

Interest in sports features is likely determined
by the subject matter of the story. Nearly 50 percent
of the respondents reported such an interest. Sports
features satisfy several needs; they provide some of the
trivial facts sports enthusiasts like and they relate
personality and real life situations with which readers
can identify.

The staffers estimate their readers' satisfaction
with the sports section lower than they estimate their
readers' sports news interest. The findings indicate

71 percent of the respondents reported the sports section

is interesting while 12 percent reported it is not at all

 

13Interview with Ed Senyczko, at the State Journal,
October 18, 1978.

 

50

interesting. Also, approximately 77 percent of the
respondents reported the sports section is understandable
while only 5 percent reported it is not at all understand-
able. About 65 percent of the respondents reported length
of the sports stories is about right while 11 percent
reported the stories are not lengthy at all. Approximately
60 percent of the respondents reported the stories are
comprehensive while only 14 percent reported the stories
are not at all comprehensive. Also, 57 percent of the
respondents reported the sports section is adequate
while 17 percent reported it is not at all adequate.
Approximately 33 percent of the respondents reported the
sports section is very opinionated while 37 percent
reported it is about right.

This particular item appeared near the bottom of
page two of the questionnaire. Three filter questions

preceded it (Do you read the State Journal? Are you inter-

 

ested in sports news? and, Do you read the sports section?)
which eliminated several respondents from the percentage
rates reported here.

The State Journal has an advantage, of course,

 

in that there is no competitive daily newspaper in this
area with which readers can compare local sports coverage.

Many residents receive the Detroit Free Press and the

 

Detroit News, which cover Michigan State University

 

sports, but neither newspaper covers Lansing Community

College, Lansing high school or city league sports.

51

The staffers' low estimate of reader interest
could be a result of inadequate interaction with readers,
negative feedback or the number of complaints the staffers
receive regarding sports coverage. The staffers' low
estimate may also be ego-oriented--a reflection of their
own lack of satisfaction with the sports section.

Of all the sources of sports news, television is
preferred almost as much as newspapers by the respondents.
Approximately 31 percent of the respondents reported
newspapers are their preferred source for sports news, while
30 percent of the respondents prefer television and approx-
imately 26 percent reported both newspapers and television
are their preferred sports news source. Only 2 percent
of the respondents reported magazines as a preferred
source, 1 percent prefer radio and less than 1 percent
reported other persons as a preferred source.

In comparison, the respondents reported television
is more trustworthy as a source of sports news than
newspapers. Approximately 33 percent of the respondents
reported television is the most trustworthy source for
sports news, while approximately 25 percent reported
newspapers are the most trustworthy source. Sixteen
percent reported both newspapers and television are
trustworthy. Additionally, approximately 8 percent
reported magazines as most trustworthy and 4 percent

reported radio as most trustworthy.

52

Previous research studies have indicated that
newspapers and other print media arouse and reinforce
interests which other media help satisfy. For example,
television viewers watch a football or basketball game
and then read about the event in the sports section the
next day, possibly looking for more details or statistics
or maybe, looking for some insights into the event which
will explain the outcome. Sports readers are rewarded
when they read in the newspaper the next day that their
perceptions about the game were right or at least comparable
to a sports columnist's.

Television is the favorite source for sports news
and events and may be considered more trustworthy for one
single reason, "seeing is believing." Sports enthusiasts
want to see the action themselves, or on television,
rather than read it in a newspaper.

A majority of the respondents offered comments
and voiced their approval or disapproval of the sports
section in space provided at the end of the questionnaire.
One frequent comment served as an indication of just how
well the respondents do or don't read the sports section.
These respondents expressed their dislike for a particular
writer who had an almost daily column and clearly
expressed opinions. The respondents didn't indicate
in their comments that the reporter had left the State
Journal four weeks earlier for a similar position with

a Detroit newspaper. Because they indicated the reporter

53

was still writing for the State Journal, this researcher

 

questions the depth in which the respondents read the
newspaper.

Several other respondents regretted that that
particular reporter had departed. Some respondents
wanted more local coverage and some wanted less localized
coverage. Some expressed their dislike of wire stories
on the first page of the sports section while other
preferred the wire stories to local reporting. Some
respondents expressed their personal interests by writing
that they wanted more boxing or golf or less outdoor
news or bowling.

The comments indicate how each respondent perceives
the sports section and the factors influencing news cover-
age. Several mentioned the editor favorably and made
insightful comments about news coverage and writing in
general. They appeared to be respondents who sense that
the sports pages are written and edited by individuals
and are based somewhat on the individuals' own preferences,

as hypothesized.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, GENERALIZATIONS

AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
CONCLUSIONS

The findings, reported here in descriptive terms,
provide data about sports readers and staffers of the State
Journal sports section. From such data, it appears

generally that State Journal sports readers vary in terms

 

of their demographic profile but that sports readers are
generally also sports enthusiasts or spectators.

It also appears that the State Journal sports

 

staffers have a good perception of their readers' interest
in sports news but underestimate readers' satisfaction with
the sports section. The findings indicate that sports
writers interact with certain influential sports readers
more than do sports editors and finally, that there are a
number of news room and personal factors influencing sports
staffers' sports news judgments.

The phenomenon of reader and sports staffer inter-
action as a factor influencing news judgment requires more
research and more refined methodology. Because of the lack

of study on sports news judgment and sports news play, the

54

55

formulation of a middle range theory is represented in this

study in the preliminary stages.
GENERALI ZATIONS

Because of the sampling considerations, it is
risky to make generalizations about daily newspaper sports
department staffers, factors influencing their news judg-
ments, their perceptions of reader interest and about the
readers' interest and inclination toward sports news.

The researcher can do little more than speculate about the
diverse components of such facets of sports news.

Nevertheless, the researcher is confident her
findings have provided some heuristic evidence toward the
central proposition that newspaper sports staffers base
their sports news judgments on factors other than news
room policy, deadlines, or news hole and that personal
intuition of what readers want to see, perceived from
interaction with certain influential readers, also plays a
part in influencing sports news staffers' judgments.
Continued research based on a more representative sample
is necessary to determine the relationships and degree
to which these factors influence news judgments as well
as to establish a demographic and psychographic profile of
sports news readers and sports news department staffers.

Suggestions for the development of similar studies follows.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Any speculation made in this study could be
supported by further research utilizing a larger represen-
tative sample. Such a sample would provide more reliable
data on psychographic and demographic profiles of sports
readers. The study could answer the following questions:
Are sports readers highly educated, in high income levels,
and generally older, or are they persons with some or no
college education, middle income and young, or male or
female? Is it even possible to establish a clear-cut
picture of the daily newspaper Sports reader?

Within the framework of these questions, it would be
interesting to compare male and female Sports participation
or Spectator habits with their tendency toward Sports news
interest. Is rate of participation and predilection toward
sports news higher or lower in either sex? Additionally,
what are the tendencies for upper income or education level
or age group respondents toward Sports participation and
Sports news interest? How do they compare to respondents
in lower income and education levels and lower age groups?

Such a study Should include questions designed to
determine the readers' degree of interest in sports news.
Are respondents "scanners" or "readers?" This could be
determined by surveying respondents about the length of time
it takes for them to read the Sports section or about how

many stories they read within the sports section. This is

56

57

likely to decrease the number of respondents who would
normally call themselves "sports readers."

On a larger scale, this study could yield more
interesting findings if it were conducted simultaneously in
two or more cities where certain community conditions could
serve as a control. For instance, Lansing area reader
interest in all sports news was found to be relatively high.
IS it because a Big-10 university is located within it?
Respondents reported more interest in college sports news
than in either professional or high school sports news. If
this study were conducted in Grand Rapids, which has no
major college or professional Sports teams or in Detroit,
which has both college and professional Sports teams, would
respondents in those two localities differ from Lansing area
respondents? The findings of such a survey would indicate
the importance of community conditions as they relate to
readers' Sports news interest.

Again, such a study would lead to the determination
of sports news reader profiles and could answer questions
such as these: Do sports news readers in a college
community differ from sports news readers in a "non-college
community?" Do readers' sex, income, age, education or
participation in sports activities vary in the two
communities?

A similar study, conducted within one city but
aimed at two newspapers, would give a clear indication

of reader satisfaction and preferences in sports news

58

writing. For example, in Lansing, readers of the State

Journal and the Detroit Free Press could be surveyed about

 

their preferred source for sports news, most trustworthy
source, preferred sports writing style and coverage.
Do Lansing sports news readers prefer to read about

Michigan State University sports in the Detroit Free Press

 

or in the State Journal? If so, why? The findings of

 

such a study would indicate to State Journal Sports depart-

 

ment staffers the areas of Sports news which need improvement
to satisfy their readers and in the long run, to keep readership
figures as high as possible.

Further research is also necessary to establish the
roles of the Sports editors and writers and the extent to
which their news judgments are influenced and by what. A
questionnaire Similar to the one used in this study would be
useful. This researcher would recommend, however, that
to determine the extent of each influence, a question
regarding rank or importance be used. For example, "Rank
the following factors from 1 to 4 in order of most
influential on Sports news coverage to least influential."
The response to such a question may give some indication
as to whether publisher interest plays a larger role
in news judgment than editor interest or vice versa.

The findings will also give an indication of how much
influence reader and community interest have on Sports
coverage.

A study establishing the staffers' perceptions of

59

readers' characteristics would also be interesting and

useful. Are State Journal staffers writing for a specific

 

audience? For example, are they writing for an all male,
college educated, upper income level audience? If they
perceive their audience as a certain type of person they
may be missing the boat, and losing several other types
of readers.

A "two-newspaper study," one similar to this but
conducted in two cities, would also yield interesting
findings about the Sports staffers, influences on them and
their perceptions of readers. For example, would sports

staffers of the Grand Rapids Press estimate their readers'

 

interest in Sports news as high as State Journal staffers

 

estimate theirs? How would they break down their estimation
of reader interest in professional, college or high school
Sports news? A comparison of the two newspapers' staffers'
responses would indicate any differences in Sports staffers'
perceptions of reader interest while indicating differences
in influences on Sports news coverage between the two

newspapers.

APPENDIX A

60

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

SCHOOL 0! JOL RNALISM - LINTON HALL EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ‘ ‘24

Dear Friend:

Your opinion is important for the completion of this
study on the sports section of the Lansing State Journal.

Your name was randomly selected by me from a partial
list of State Journal subscribers to take part in the survey.
I am a graduate student in journalism at Michigan

State University and am completing my thesis on sports
writing in the State Journal. The questionnaire is a large
part of the thesis.

To complete the survey, simply place a check mark in the
appropriate spaces and return the questionnaire in the enclosed
stamped envelope. Any additional comments are welcome.

Anonymity is guaranteed. Your answers will not be
identifiable and information shared with me will be kept
confidential.

Please take a few minutes of your time right now to
complete the questionnaire.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Elise C. Bates

61

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

SCHOOL OF 10L RNALISM - UNION HALL EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 0824

Dear State Journal staffer:

Your opinion is important for the completion of this study
on the sports section of the State Journal.

I am a graduate student in journalism at Michigan State
University and am completing my thesis on sports writing in
the State Journal. The questionnaire is a large part of the
thesis.

The results of this questionnaire will be compared to the
results of a similar study given to randomly selected State
Journal readers.

To complete the survey, simply place a check mark in the
appropriate spaces. Any additional comments are welcome.

Anonymity is guaranteed. Your answers will not be identifiable
and information shared with me will be kept confidential.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Elise C. Bates

APPENDIX B

62

Lansing State Journal Reader Survey

Some subscribers of the State Journal read it quite often while
others never get a chance to read it. How frequently do you read
the State Journal?

I. frequently 2. occasionally 3. seldom 4. never

[IF YOU DO NOT READ OR RECEIVE THE STATE JOURNAL, TURN DIRECTLY
TO QUESTION 16.]

How much of the State Journal do you read on any average day?
l.___all of it 2.___most of it 3.___about half

4.___skim lightly 5.___hardly any

How often do you participate in vigorous exercise?
l.___frequently 2.___occasionally 3.___se1dom 4.___never
How often do you participate in athletic events?
l.___frequently 2.___occasionally 3.___seldom 4.___never
How often do you watch sporting events in person or on television?
l.___frequent1y 2.___occasionally 3.___seldom 4.___never
How interested are you in sports news?

l.___very interested 2.___interested 3.___not sure
4.___somewhat interested 5.___not at all interested

[IF YOU HAVE NO INTEREST IN SPORTS NEWS 0R ARE NOT SURE OF YOUR
INTEREST, TURN DIRECTLY TO QUESTION 15.]

If you are interested in sports news, which of the following sources
for sports news do you prefer?

l. newspapers 2. television 3. radio 4. magazines

5. other persons 6. other (SPECIFY)

 

Which of the following sources of sports news do you find most
trustworthy?

l. newspapers 2. television 3. radio 4. magazines

5. other persons 6. other (SPECIFY)

10.

ll.

12.

13.

63

How frequently do you read the sports section in the State Journal?
1. frequently 2. occasionally 3. seldom 4. never

[IF YOU DO NOT READ THE SPORTS SECTION OF THE STATE JOURNAL, TURN
DIRECTLY TO QUESTION 16.]

How much of the State Journal sports section do you read on any
average day?

l.___all of it 2.___most of it 3.___about half

4.___skim lightly 5.___hardly any

How much Sports news does the State Journal give you?

l.___nearly all 2.___yery little 3.___don't know

How much interest do you have in the following types of sports news?

very somewhat no

interested interested,i_;grgfiteduintezeat

 

profeSSioniI sports

 

college sports

 

high school sports

 

city league sports

 

sports features ‘

 

 

 

 

 

other (SPECIFY)

 

Now I would like you to indicate how you feel about the reading
matter in the sports section of the State Journal.

about not don't

. ‘EufiLJ2§E£“E£_ALLJhnnL_
Row INTERESTING is the sports section?

 

How UNDERSTANDABLE is the sports section?

 

How LENGTHY are the stories?

 

How COMPREHENSIVE are the stories?

 

How OPINIONATED is the sports section?

 

How ADEQUATE is the sports coverage?

 

 

 

 

 

 

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

64

What one aspect do you like BEST about the sports section of
the State Journal?

 

What one aspect do you like LEAST about the sports section of
the State Journal?

 

How many years of schooling did you complete?

1. nine or less 4. some college 7. M.A. completed
2. some high school 5. college graduate 8. Ph.D. completed
3. high school graduate 6. some graduate work

Would you please indicate which of the following age groups
corresponds to your age?

1. 20 or less 3. 26-30 5.__'41-50 7. over 60 years
2. 21-25 4. 31-40 6. 51-60

Would you please indicate your family's income group for 1978
before taxes?

1. less than $3,000 5. $15,000 - 17,999
2.""$3,000 - 5,999 6.""'$la,000 - 20,999
3.:S6,000 - 8,999 7.:szl,000 - 23,000
4.__$9,000 - 14,999 8._$24,000 - and over

What is your sex?
1. male 2. female

Would you like to add any comments or suggestions regarding
the sports section of the State Journal?

 

 

 

COULD YOU PLEASE CHECK IF YOU MISSED ANY QUESTIONS. THANK
YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION!

65

State Journal Sports Staff Questionnaire

0
Are you employed with the State Journal as a

l. reporter 2. editor 3. other (SPECIFY)

 

For how many years have you been employed in the sports department
of the State Journal?

1. less than one year 2. l to 3 years 3. 4 to 6 years

4. 7 to 10 years 5. 11 years or more 6. other (SPECIFY)
How many years total experience do you have working with sports news?
1. less than one year 2. 1 to 3 years 3. 4 to 6 years

4. 7 to 10 years 5. 11 years or more 6. other (SPECIFY)
Some communities are very interested in sports news while others
have no interest at all. In your opinion, what level of interest
does the community for which you are writing have in sports news?
1. very interested 2. interested 3. not sure

4. somewhat interested 5. not at all interested

Some State Journal readers are very interested in sports news while
others have no interest at all. In your opinion, what level of
interest do State Journal readers have in sports news?

1. very interested 2. interested 3. not sure

4. somewhat interested 5. not at all interested

In your opinion, do the employee in the State Journal sports
department interact with sports readers?

1. yes 2. no 3. don't know

(IF THE EMPLOYES DO NOT INTERACT WITH READERS, TURN DIRECTLY TO
QUESTION 9.)

In your opinion, how frequently do State Journal sports writers
interact with sports readers?

1. frequently 2. sometimes 3. rarely 4. never

In your opinion, how frequently do State Journal sports editors
interact with sports readers?

I. frequently 2. sometimes 3. rarely 4. never

10.

11.

12.

66

The following four categories represent different characteristics
of sports readers. In your opinion, who are readers of State Journal
sports in terms of these characteristics?

AGE:

1. 20 or less 3. 26-30 5. 41-50 7. over 60 years

2. 21-25 4. 31-40 6. 51-60

EDUCATION: (years of schooling)

1. nine or less 4. some college 7. M.A. completed
2. some high school 5. college graduate 8. Ph.D. completed
3. high school graduate 6. some graduate work

INCOME:

1. less than $3,000 5. $15,000 - 17,999

SEX:

1. male 2. female

In your opinion, how interested are State Journal sports readers
in the following types of sports news?

somewhat t at all
terested in rested ted interested

 

In your opinion, how interested is your publisher in sports news?
1. very interested 2. interested 3. not sure

4. somewhat interested 5. not at all interested

In your opinion, how often do the following factors influence
State Journal sports coverage?

t1 occasionall seldom

  

   

ICE rea res
ICE commun r
rce S r e S
ere
es

s

o news
, proximity or
cular

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

67

In your opinion, how frequently are State Journal sports writers
and editors news judgment decisions based upon their own intuition
of what is newsworthy rather than on specific sports news room
guidelines or policies?

1. frequently 2. sometimes 3. rarely 4. never

In your opinion, how satisfied are State Journal readers with the
sports section of the newspaper?

l.___highly satisfied 2.___satisfied 3.___not sure
4.___somewhat satisfied 5.___not at all satisfied
How frequently do you participate in vigorous exercise?
l.___frequently 2.___sometimes 3.___rare1y 4.___never
How frequently do you participate in athletic events?
l.___frequent1y 2,___sometimes 3.___rarely 4.___never
How satisfied are you with your job in the sports department?
l.___highly satisfied 2.___satisfied 3.___not sure
4.___somewhat satisfied 5.___not at all satisfied
How frequently do you watch sports on television or in person?
l.___frequent1y 2.___sometimes 3.___rarely 4.___never
How many years of schooling did you complete?
l.___nine or less 4.___some college 7.___M.A. completed
2. some high school 5. college graduate 8.___Ph.D. completed

3. high school graduate 6. some graduate work

Would you please indicate which of the following age groups
corresponds to your age?

1. 20 or less 3. 26-30 5. 41-50 7. over 60 years
2. 21-25 4. 31-40 6. 51-60

What is your sex?
1. male 2. female

Would you like to add any comments or suggestions regarding the
sports section of the State Journal?

 

 

COULD YOU PLEASE CHECK IF YOU MISSED ANY QUESTIONS. THANK YOU
FOR YOUR COOPERATION.

APPENDIX C

68

TABLE l

0.1. Some subscribers of the State Journal read it quite
often while others never get a chance to read it.
How frequently do you read the State Journal?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
frequently 151 88.8
occasionally 14 8.2
seldom 2 1.2
never 1 .6
no response1 2 1.2
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 2

0.2. How much of the State Journal do you read on any
average day?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
all of it 37 21.8
most of it 76 44.7
about half 38 22.4
skim lightly 15 8.8
hardly any 1 .6

no response 3 1.8
Total 170 100.0
1

This category also includes those respondents who do
not read or receive the State Journal, those who are not
interested in Sports news and those who do not read the
sports section.

How often do you participate in vigorous exercise?

69

TABLE 3

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
frequently 38 22.4
occasionally 71 41.8
seldom 43 25.3
never 15 8.8
no response 3 1.8
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 4

How often do you participate in athletic events?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
frequently 21 12.4
occasionally 53 31.2
seldom 42 24.7
never 51 30.0
no response 3 1.8
Total 170 100.0

70
TABLE 5

How often do you watch Sporting events in person or
on television?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
frequently 90 52.9
occasionally 56 32.9
seldom 16 9.4
never 5 2.9
no response 3 1.8
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 6

How interested are you in sports news?

 

 

Response Number Percent
very interested 61 35.9
interested 63 37.1
not sure 2 1.2
somewhat

interested 33 19.4
not at all

interested 8 4.7

no response 3 1.8

 

Total 170 100.0

71

TABLE 7

If you are interested in sports news, which of the
following sources for Sports news do you prefer?

 

 

Response Number Percent
newspapers 53 31.2
television 51 30.0
radio 2 1.2
magazines 4 2.4
other persons 1 .6
other 2 1.2
newspapers and

television 44 25.8

no response 13 7.6

 

Total 170 100.0

72

TABLE 8

Which of the following sources of Sports news do you
find most trustworthy?

 

 

Response Number Percent
newspapers 43 25.2
television 56 32.9
radio 6 3.5
magazines 14 8.2
other persons 0 0.0
other 5 2.9
newspapers and

television 27 15.8

no response 19 11.5

 

Total 170 100.0

73
TABLE 9

How frequently do you read the sports section in the
State Journal?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
frequently 106 62.4
occasionally 28 16.5
seldom 17 10.0
never 4 2.4
no response 15 8.7
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 10

How much of the State Journal Sports section do you
read on any average day?

 

 

Response Number Percent
all of it 31 18.2
most of it 54 31.8
about half 17 10.0
Skim lightly 42 24.7
hardly any 10 5.9
no response 16 9.4

 

Total 170 100.0

74

 

 

 

TABLE 11
Q.ll. How much sports news does the State Journal give

you?

Response Number Percent
nearly all 91 53.5

very little 38 22.4

don't know 21 12.4

no response 20 11.7

Total 170 100.0

TABLE 12

Q.12. How much interest do you have in the following
types of Sports news?

 

 

Professional

Response Number Percent
very interested 46 27.1
interested 67 39.4
somewhat

interested 28 16.5

no interest 5 2.9

no response 24 17.1

 

Total 170 100.0

75

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 13
College
Response Number Percent
very interested 74 43.5
interested 54 31.8
somewhat
interested 16 9.4
no interest 3 1.8
no response 23 13.5
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 14
High School
Response Number Percent
very interested 29 17.1
interested 45 26.5
somewhat
interested 50 29.4
no interest 18 10.6
no response 28 16.5

 

Total 170 100.0

76

TABLE 15

City League

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
very interested 10 5.9
interested 21 12.4
somewhat

interested 40 23.5

no interest 64 37.6

no response 35 20.6
Total 170 100.0

TABLE 16

Sports Features

 

 

Response Number Percent
very interested 24 14.1
interested 56 32.9
somewhat

interested 40 23.5

no interest 8 4.7

no response 42 24.8

 

Total 170 100.0

77

TABLE 17
0.13. Now I would like you to indicate how you feel about
the reading matter in the sports section of the State
Journal.

How INTERESTING is the sports section?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
very 12 7.1
about right 109 64.1
not at all 20 11.8
don't know 10 5.9
no response 19 11.1
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 18

How UNDERSTANDABLE is the sports section?

 

 

Response Number Percent
very 25 14.7
about right 107 62.9
not at all 8 4.7
don't know 10 5.9
no response 20 11.8

 

Total 170 100.0

78

TABLE 19

How LENGTHY are the stories?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
very 3 1.8
about right 110 64.7
not at all 18 10.6
don't know 15 8.8

no response 24 14.1
Total 170 100.0

TABLE 20

How COMPREHENSIVE are the stories?

Response Number Percent
very 8 4.7
about right 94 55.3
not at all 23 13.5
don't know 22 12.9

no response 23 13.6
Total 170 100.0

79

TABLE 21

How OPINIONATED is the sports section?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
very 56 32.9
about right 63 37.1
not at all 3 1.8
don't know 27 15.9
no response 21 12.5
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 22

How ADEQUATE is the sports section?

 

 

Response Number Percent
very 10 5.9
about right 87 51.2
not at all 28 16.5
don't know 21 12.4
no response 24 14.0

 

Total 170 100.0

0.16.

80

 

 

 

TABLE 2 3

How many years of schooling did you complete?
Response Number Percent
nine or less 4 2.4
some high school 5 2.9
high school grad 44 25.9
some college 29 17.1
college graduate 39 22.9
some grad work 16 9.4
M.A. completed 18 10.6
Ph.D. completed 10 5.9

no response 5 2.9
Total 170 100.0

81

TABLE 24

Q.17. Would you please indicate which of the following
age groups corresponds to your age?

 

 

Response Number Percent
20 or less 1 .6
21-25 26 15.3
26-30 18 10.6
31-40 22 12.9
41-50 31 18.2
51-60 31 18.2
over 60 years 36 21.2
no response 5 2.9

 

Total 170 100.0

82
TABLE 25

0.18. Would you please indicate your family's income group
for 1978 before taxes?

 

 

 

Response Number Percent
less than $3,000 6 3.5
$3,000-5,999 5 2.9
$6,000-8,999 12 7.1
$9,000-14,999 26 15.3
$15,000-17,999 16 9.4
$18,000-20,999 21 12.4
$21,000-23,999 9 5.3
$24,000 and over 53 31.2
no response 22 12.9
Total 170 100.0
TABLE 26

0.19. What is your sex?

 

 

Response Number Percent
male 111 65.3
female 54 31.8
no response 5 2.9

 

Total 170 100.0

0.1.

0.2.

83

TABLE 27

Are you employed with the State Journal as a:

 

 

 

Response Number

reporter 3

editor 2

Total 5
TABLE 28

For how many years have you been employed in the
Sports department of the State Journal?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
less than 1 year 0 1
1 to 3 years 1 0
11 years or more 1 2
Total 2 3
TABLE 29

How many years total experience do you have working
with sports news?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
l to 3 years 0 1
4 to 6 years 1 0
11 years or more 1 2

 

Total 2 3

0.4.

84

TABLE 30

Some communities are very interested in sports news
while others have no interest at all. In your opinion,
what level of interest does the community for which you
are writing have in sports news?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
very interested 1 2
interested 1 0
somewhat
interested 0 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 31

Some State Journal readers are very interested in
sports news while others have no interest at all.
In your opinion, what level of interest do State

Journal readers have in Sports news?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
very interested 1 2
interested 1 l

 

Total 2 3

85

TABLE 32

In your opinion, do the employes in the State
Journal Sports department interact with sports
readers?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
yes 2 3
Total 2 3

TABLE 33

In your opinion, how frequently do State Journal
Sports writers interact with sports readers?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 2 0
sometimes 0 3
Total 2 3

TABLE 34

In your opinion, how frequently do State Journal
sports editors interact with Sports readers?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 1 0
sometimes 1 0
rarely 0 3

 

Total 2 3

86
TABLE 35

In your opinion, how interested are State Journal
Sports readers in the following types of sports news?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Professional

Response Editors Reporters
very interested l 2
interested l 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 36

College
Response Editors Reporters
very interested 1 2
interested l 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 37

High School

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
very interested l 0
interested 0 2
somewhat

interested I l

 

Total 2 3

87

TABLE 38

City League

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
interested l l
somewhat
interested 1 2
Total 2 3

TABLE 39

Sports Features

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
interested 2 2
somewhat
interested 0 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 40

0.11. In your opinion, how interested is your publisher
in sports news?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
very interested l 1
interested l 2

 

Total 2 3

Q.12.

88
TABLE 41

In your opinion, how often do the following factors
influence State Journal Sports coverage?

Perceived reader interest

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 2 0
occasionally 0 3
Total 2 3

TABLE 42

Perceived community interest

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 2 0
occasionally 0 3
Total 2 3

TABLE 43

Perceived publisher interest

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 1 0
occasionally 0 2
seldom 1 l

 

Total 2 3

89
TABLE 44

Reporter interest

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 1 2
occasionally 1‘ 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 45

Editor interest

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 0 2
occasionally 2 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 46

News room policies

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 1 0
occasionally 0 3
seldom l 0
Total 2 3

90

TABLE 47

Available news hole

 

 

 

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 2 2
occasionally 0 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 48

Deadlines
Response Editors Reporters
frequently 0 l
occasionally 2 2
Total 2 3

TABLE 49

Category of news

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 1 2
occasionally 1 0

 

Total 2 2

0.13.

0.14.

91
TABLE 50

In your opinion, how frequently are State Journal
Sports writers and editors news judgment decisions
based upon their own intuition of what is newsworthy
rather than on specific Sports news room guidelines
or policies?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 2 2
sometimes 0 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 51

In your opinion, how satisfied are State Journal
readers with the sports section of the newspaper?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
satisfied 1 1

not sure 1 0
somewhat

satisfied 0 2

 

Total 2 3

92
TABLE 52

0.15. How frequently do you participate in vigorous exercise?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 0 2
sometimes 1 1
rarely l 0
Total 2 3

TABLE 53

0.16. How frequently do you participate in athletic events?

 

 

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 0 2
sometimes 1 0

rarely l 1

Total 2 3

TABLE 54
Q.17. How satisfied are you with your job in the sports

department?

Response Editors Reporters
highly satisfied 1 1
satisfied 0 1
somewhat satisfied 1 1

 

Total 2 3

93
TABLE 55

Q.18. How frequently do you watch sports on television
or in person?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
frequently 0 2
sometimes 2 1
Total 2 3

TABLE 56

0.19. How many years of schooling did you complete?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
some college 1 1
college graduate 0 1
some grad work 1 l

 

Total 2 3

Q.20.

Q.21.

94

TABLE 57

Would you please indicate which of the following age
groups corresponds to your age?

 

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
26-30 1 1
31-40 0 1
41-50 0 1
51-60 1 0
Total 2 3
TABLE 58

What is your sex?

 

 

Response Editors Reporters
male 2 3
female 0 0

 

Total 2 3

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