u I mu m l! m mm ll’l @1121! an! nu I u m ' m R A R y 1293 6914 Michigan State University THEE’S This is to certify that the thesis entitled DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONALITY AS A FUNCTION OF SEX-ROLE ORIENTATION presented by BEVERLY JEAN POSA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M .A . degree in Psychology M M / Major professor \_/ 0-7 639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONALITY AS A FUNCTION OF SEX-ROLE ORIENTATION BY Beverly Posa A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1979 ABSTRACT DIFFERENCES IN EMOTIONALITY AS A FUNCTION OF SEX-ROLE ORIENTATION BY Beverly Posa This research investigates differences among mascu- line, feminine, and androgynous individuals in expressive behavior related to anger and sadness. Because peOple tend to display sex-role consistent behavior, it was predicted that (a) with respect to sadness, feminine types would be more expressive, responsive, feel more comfortable with its eXpression, and evaluate persons expressing sadness more positively than would masculine types; (b) with respect to anger, masculine types would be more expressive, responsive, feel more comfortable with its expression, and evaluate persons expressing anger more positively than would feminine types; and (c) the scores of androgynous individuals would fall between those of masculine and feminine individuals. Participants completed an emotions self-report survey to assess emotional behavior and the Personal Attri- butes Questionnaire to assess sex-role orientation. The results supported most of the hypotheses con- cerning sadness but not those concerning anger. Androgynous Beverly Posa individuals reported responses similar to feminine types for sadness and to masculine types for anger. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . II. METHOD . . . . . . . . . . Subjects and Procedure . . . . Instruments . . . . . . . . Personal Attributes Questionnaire Emotions Self-Report Survey . . Design. . . . . . . . . . III 0 RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O O 0 Data Analysis . . . . . . . Personal Attributes Questionnaire Emotions Self-Report Survey, Part Emotions Self-Report Survey, Part Expressiveness . . . . . . . Responsiveness . . . . . . . Orientation . . . . . . . . Evaluation . . . . . . . . Androgyny Findings. . . . . . Other Findings . . . . . . . IV. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . Methodological Issues. . . . . Expressiveness and Responsiveness. Orientation . . . . . . . . Evaluation . . . . . . . . Androgyny. . . . . . . . . ii Page iv 11 12 12 12 12 14 15 16 19 21 25 28 32 32 33 34 35 37 APPENDICES Appendix A. Personal Attributes Questionnaire . . . B. Emotions Self-Report Survey . . . . . Part I . . . . . . . . . . . Part II . . . . . . . . . . . C. Masculinity and Femininity Indices of the D. PAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . Scales Derived from Factor Analysis . . REFERENCES 0 O O O C O O O I C C O 0 iii Page 41 43 43 49 52 54 56 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Mean Expressiveness Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion . . . . . . . . 15 2. Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Expressiveness . . . . 16 3. Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Responsiveness . . . . l7 4. Mean Responsiveness Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion . . . . . . . . 18 5. Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Orientation . . . . . l9 6. Mean Orientation Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion . . . . . . . . 20 7. Summaries of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVAS for the Self and Same Sex Scales of the Evaluation Dimension . . . . . . 22 8. Mean Evaluation Scores for the Self and Same Sex Scales According to Sex Role and motion 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 23 9. Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for the Other Sex Scale of the Evaluation Dimension. . . . . . . . . 24 10. Mean Evaluation Scores for the Other Sex Scale According to Sex Role and Emotion . . . . 25 11. Mean Scores for the Dependent Variables According to Sex Role and Emotion . . . . 26 12. 3 Values of the Oneway ANOVAS for the Dependent Variables According to Emotion . . 27 iv Table Page 13. Response Percentages for Item 14 According to Sex Role and Emotion . . . . . . . . 30 14. Response Percentages for Item 37 According to Sex Role and Emotion . . . . . . . 3l CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION One of the most basic ways that females and males are said to differ is in emotionality. This assumed differ— ence is used by some people to support their belief that the sexes differ in abilities, interests, and suitability for certain types of work. Depending upon one's bias, either a physiological or sociological explanation is used to buttress such beliefs. PrOponents Of the former type of argument point to varying amounts and kinds of hormones in females and males. The hormonal changes that accompany the menstrual cycle are said to produce mood fluctuations that are responsible for women's greater emotionality. Yet investigations of possible linkages between hormone level and mood fluctuations have not yielded solid evidence to support this purported relationship](Rosenblatt & Cunning- ham, 1976). More recently, the concept of sex roles has been incorporated in environmentally-based explanations of gender differences in emotionality. According to this view, femi- nine and masculine behavior is largely normative. Certain modes of expression and reaction are deemed more appropriate 1 for one sex than the other. The accepted norms are trans- mitted through socialization; boys learn one set of emo- tional responses and girls learn another. Psychological research on emotionality has used the notion of sex role differences both in formulating hypoth- eses and in interpreting results. Ryckman (1971) found con- firmation for the prediction that females would be more irri- tated and embarrassed by critical remarks "since displays of emotion are frowned upon for males in our culture, but not for females." It is typical of much of the research in this area that no distinction is made between sex and sex role or between emotions. Various personality measures designed to test for masculinity or femininity commonly use the catchall term "emotional" as a discriminating item. The M.M.P.I. M-F scale (Dahlstrom & Welsh, 1960), the Guilford-Martin M scale (Guilford & Zimmerman, 1956), and the California Per- sonality Inventory M-F scale (Gough, 1957) each contain, in one form or another, the concept of emotionality. The pervasiveness of the stereotype that males are unemotional while females are very emotional is made clear by research findings. Williams and Bennett (1975) asked peOple to indicate whether certain adjectives were more fre- quently associated with men or women. The adjective "emo- tional" was endorsed by 98% of the male participants and 100% of the females as characteristic of women. There was somewhat less agreement that "unemotional" described men, with 92% of the male participants and 88% of the females con- curring. A study by Broverman et al. (1972) found the same high degree of endorsement by both sexes that females are very emotional, do not hide emotions, and cry very easily. Conversely, masculine stereotypes included "not at all emo- tional," "almost always hides emotions," and "never cries." It is obvious that there is widespread consensus about typical emotional expression in males and females. However, most research gives no indication of whether, or the degree to which, the well-documented sex-role standards are adhered to. The results from studies that specifically examine sex differences in emotionality are not consistent. Research findings that support sex differences in emotional behavior have indicated that females are more fearful and have a greater number of fears (Manosewitz & Lanyon, 1965), feel more depression when frustrated (Gentry, 1970), and experience more guilt (Buss & Brock, 1963) than males. In a study (Terman & Miles, 1936) that assessed differences for more than one emotion, results indicated that females recorded more anger, fear, disgust, and pity than males when asked what degree of each emotion would be aroused in vari- ous, hypothetical situations./ The Terman and Miles study, although superior because it dealt with several emotions, was flawed like the others by failing to distinguish among various aspects of emotional expression. In contrast to the research reported above, other work has found no sex differences in emotional responses. When participants were asked to describe 15 affects on a semantic differential scale as they were personally experi- enced, there were no differences between males and females (Bloch, 1957). Similarly, no sex differences occurred when respondents were given a mood-adjective checklist measuring hostility, anxiety, and depression (Zuckerman et al., 1964). Findings of intra-sex differences suggest a possible confound in much of the research on emotionality. It may be that sex-per~se is not as important as sex-role orienta- tion in determining a person's emotional response. When a distinction was made between high and low scorers on a measure of masculinity, it turned out that low scoring men were more emotionally expressive than high scoring men (Mussen, 1962). In other research (Harford et al., 1967), high masculinity scores were associated with toughness while low masculinity scores were not. The link between sex-role orientation and behavior has been most directly explored in the research on androgyny. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) was developed to dis- tinguish among masculine, feminine, and androgynous persons. Originally, Bem defined androgynous persons as those who scored either high in both masculine and feminine traits or low in both masculine and feminine traits. Because of criticism that this method failed to differentiate between high-high scorers and low-low scorers (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975), the androgynous category was revised to include only the high-high scorers. A study (Bem, 1975) using—the»BSRT-found that per- sons classified as androgynous were more likely to display sex-role flexibility than persons who were sex-typed as masculine or feminine. Because they possess traits of both sexes androgynous persons appear able to adapt their behavior to fit the situation. On the other hand, individuals whose self-image is dependent upon keeping behavior in line with an internalized sex role appear to repress behaviors that are judged inapprOpriate to that sex role (Kagan, 1964). These findings suggest that although peOple generally will report emotional behavior that is consistent with their sex role, androgynous persons should be less likely to report either of the emotional extremes associated with strongly sex-typed masculinity or femininity. r \//The present study investigates the relationship between sex-role orientation and emotional behavior. The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1974) was used to assess the degree of sex-role adherence. A self-report questionnaire was developed to assess emotional behavior. This questionnaire involved four dimensions of emotionalityzégxpressiveness, responsive- ness, orientation (cf. Allen & Hamsher, 1974), and evalu- ation. Expressiveness concerns the ability to communicate emotion; responsiveness, the frequency of emotional response; orientation, the degree of comfort a person feels with the expression of affect; and evaluation, the degree of posi- tivity toward persons (self, same sex, and other sex persons) who are expressing emotion. The emotions of anger and sadness were examined because their expression has been shown to be associated with different sex roles. [Anger was the only emotion out of 41. 20 choices that was judged as masculine (Bloch, 1957). It has also been reported that girls show fewer angry outbursts than boys (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). Sadness, and its expression by crying, is viewed as stereotypically feminine:] (e.g., Rosenblatt & Cunningham, 1976; Broverman et al., 7 1972). Hypotheses - The basic purpose of the research was to explore differences in emotional behavior as a function of sex-role orientation. Specifically, the following hypotheses were tested: (1) With respect to the emotion of sadness, persons with a feminine sex-role orientation will feel more comfortable with its expression and will evidence greater expressiveness and responsiveness than will persons with a masculine sex-role orientation. It is expected that persons who conform to tradi- tional sex roles will prefer other persons to keep (2) (3) their behavior consistent with their sex roles. Therefore, it is hypothesized that persons who are. both feminine and female will evaluate themselves and same sex persons (females) expressing sadness more positively, and other sex persons (males) less positively, than will persons who are both masculine and male. (The hypothesis is limited to persons whose sex is congruent with their sex role to avoid the conceptual and methodological problems created by feminine males.) With respect to the emotion of anger, persons with a masculine sex-role orientation will feel more comfortable with its expression and will report greater expressiveness and responsiveness than will persons with a feminine sex-role Orientation. Further, persons who are both masculine and male will evaluate themselves and same sex persons (males) expressing anger more positively, and other sex persons (females) less positively, than will persons who are both feminine and female. The scores of persons who are androgynous will fall between the scores of masculine and feminine persons. CHAPTER II METHOD Subjects and Procedure Questionnaire respondents were recruited from intro- ductory psychology classes. Because an accurate description of research is required by the university, sign—up sheets for this study invited students to earn course credit by completing an "Emotions Questionnaire." Of the 232 female participants, 104 completed the anger version of the questionnaire and 128 the sadness version. Of the 234 male participants, 120 responded to the anger questionnaire and 114 to the sadness questionnaire. The questionnaires were administered to groups of 10 to 20 persons by either a female or male experimenter. The experimenters were randomly assigned to experimental sessions. Only one version of the Emotions Self-Report Survey was given in a single session. Respondents had 50 minutes to complete the questionnaires. Instruments Two instruments were administered: (1) the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, and (2) the Emotions Self-Report Survey (see Appendices A and B). Personal Attributesguestionnaire. The FAQ is a 24-item scale containing three 8-item subscales for the measurement of masculinity, femininity, and masculinity/ femininity. Each item consists of bipolar traits with a 5-point scale between the two extremes. The items on the masculinity and femininity scale had previously been rated by college students as more characteristic of one sex but socially desirable in both sexes. The masculinity/femininity items had been rated as socially desirable for one sex but not for the other. The three subscales have been shown to be inter- nally consistent. For a sample of college students given the FAQ, the Cronbach alphas were .85, .82, and .78 for the masculinity, femininity, and masculinity/femininity sub- scales respectively (Spence & Helmreich, 1978). Separate scores for masculinity, femininity, and masculinity/femininity are obtained by summing the responses for each subscale. By using the median-split method on the masculinity and femininity scores persons can be classified as either high or low in each of these attributes. On the basis of the scores on the two subscales persons are cate- gorized as either masculine (high masculine, low feminine), 10 feminine (high feminine, low masculine), androgynous (high masculine, high feminine), or undifferentiated (low mascu- line, low feminine). Emotions Self-Report Survey. The items for this questionnaire were devised to test the dimensions of expressiveness, responsiveness, orientation toward emotion, as well as evaluation of persons expressing emotion. Items were pretested on a group of 150 college undergraduates. Based on the students' written comments, items that were unclear or redundant were omitted from the questionnaire used in the present study. Part I of the survey, consisting of 39 items, con- tains questions covering the frequency of emotional eXpres- sion in various situations, the ease of expression, and the feelings associated with emotional arousal. It also con- tains several items related to how one likes to be treated when expressing emotion and how one typically responds to others who are emotionally aroused. Part II of the survey consists of three 20-item scales designed to measure attitudes toward persons express- ing anger or sadness. Subjects were asked to use a 5-point scale separating each of 20 bipolar adjectives to describe how they felt about themselves when expressing either anger or sadness. Using the same 20 adjective pairs, the sub- jects described how they felt about same sex persons and 11 also about other sex persons when they are expressing emo- tion. The details of the scaling procedure and the scale reliabilities are presented in the next chapter. There were two forms of the Emotions Self-Report Survey: one asked about anger and the other about sadness. The sadness version of the questionnaire is presented in Appendix B. For the anger version the questions are iden- tical except for the substitutions of "anger" for "sadness" and "express anger" for "cry." Design A 2 (sex-role orientation) x 2 (sex) x 2 (emotion) factorial design was employed in this study. The dependent variables were the responses to the Emotions Self-Report Survey. CHAPTER III RESULTS Data Analysis Personal Attributes Questionnaire. The eight items comprising the masculinity index of the PAQ (Appendix C) were summed to obtain a masculinity score for each subject. Subjects scoring above 29 (median = 29.24) were classified as high masculine and those below as low masculine. For the femininity index (Appendix C), subjects scoring above 31 (median = 31.39) were classified as high feminine and those below as low feminine. The rounded-off medians are identical to the medians reported by Spence and Helmreich (1978) for a sample of college students. Because this study explores differences between masculine, feminine, and androgynous persons, the scores for the masculinity/femininity index were not computed nor were the data from the subjects who were classified as undifferentiated included in the analyses. Emotions Self-Report Survey, Part I. To obtain scales for the dependent variables a factor analysis (principal component, varimax rotation) was performed on the 12 13 items in Part I of the ESRS having ordinal level measurement. The items cencerning the frequency of emotional expression by friends (21, 23, 25) were not included in the factor analysis. Using the criterion of Eigenvalues greater than 1.00 a three factor solution was indicated. Items that loaded above .40 in the three factor solution were included in the factors. The six items that loaded on the first factor are related to how comfortable one feels with emotional expres- sion. One item in this factor is: "If a friend of the same sex has cried in front of you how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened?" This orientation factor measures attitude toward affect along an uncomfortable/ comfortable continuum. The second factor is comprised of five items that form an expressiveness dimension. Items such as, "Do you ever feel like crying but aren't able to?" loaded on this factor. The items that loaded on the third factor measure the frequency of emotional eXpression; for example, "Within the past six months how often have you cried?" The five items that make up this scale form the responsiveness dimension. A complete list of the items that comprise the three factors can be found in Appendix D. The coefficient alphas for the orientation, expressiveness, and responsive- ness factors are .80, .77, and .78 respectively. 14 The scores for the items were summed for each factor to obtain three dependent measures. The sums were reflected so that higher scores correspond to greater comfortableness, expressiveness, or responsiveness. Emotions Self-Report Survey, Part II. The three scales of Part II measure attitudes toward persons express— ing anger or sadness. Reliabilities computed for the scales indicated that the items considerate-inconsiderate, tense-relieved, defensive-open, and angry-accepting should be omitted from the scales. The coefficient alphas for the scales with the four items deleted are .90 for the self scale, .87 for the same sex scale, and .86 for the other sex scale. Scores for the 16 items in each scale were summed to obtain dependent measures for the evaluation of oneself, of same sex others, and of other sex persons. Higher scores indicate a more positive evaluation. Hypotheses l and 2 concerning the impact of sex- role orientation on various facets of sadness and anger were tested via 2 x 2 x 2 unweighted means analyses of variance on the dependent variables of expressiveness, responsiveness, and orientation. Results will be presented in terms of each of these dependent measures. 15 Expressiveness Table 1 presents the means for this dependent measure as a function of sex-role orientation, sex, and type of emotion. The combined score is the mean collapsed across emotion. Table l.--Mean Expressiveness Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Feminine 13.22 13.13 13.18 Masculine 13.45 10.00 11.82 Female 13.22 12.81 12.99 Male 13.25 10.15 11.77 Overall 13.23 11.55 12.37 It can be seen from the summary of the ANOVA pre- sented in Table 2 that there was one significant main effect and one significant interaction. The nonpredicted main effect for emotion indicates a greater expressiveness for anger than for sadness. interaction between sex role and emotion supports the hypothesis for sadness but not for anger. The Tests of simple effects resulted in a significant difference for sadness, F_(1,178) greater expressiveness than masculine persons. 26.36, p_< .01, with feminine persons reporting However, 16 Table 2.--Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Expressiveness. source as. «if. M_s a Sex Role (A) 27.27 1 27.27 3.31 Sex (B) 24.48 1 24.48 2.97 Emotion (C) 137.96 1 137.96 16.76** A x B .06 1 .06 .01 A x C 46.80 1 46.80 5.69* B x C 19.97 1 19.97 2.43 A x B x C .32 1 .32 .04 Error 1465.25 178 8.23 *p < .05. **p < .01. there was no significant effect for anger, {(1,178) = .15. The simple effects test also yielded a significant differ- ence for masculine types, F(l,178) = 32.02, p < .01, indi- cating a greater expression of anger than sadness. For feminine types there was no difference between emotions, _E_‘_(1,178) = .003. Responsiveness The ANOVA for this dimension yielded significant main effects for both emotion and sex, a significant inter- action between sex and emotion and a marginally significant interaction between sex role and emotion. Table 3 presents a summary of this ANOVA. 17 Table 3. --Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Responsiveness. Source {S d: Mg { Sex Role (A) 3.71 1 3.71 .25 Sex (B) 120.00 1 120.00 8.17*** Emotion (C) 993.85 1 993.85 67.64*** A x B 39.87 1 39.87 2.71 A x C 43.22 1 43.22 2.94* B x C 59.10 1 59.10 4.02** A x B x C 2.17 l 2.17 .15 Error 2615.37 178 14.69 *p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01. As indicated by the means in Table 4 there was greater responsiveness for anger than sadness and greater responsiveness by females than by males. Tests of simple effects were performed to assess differences between means in the interactions. For the sex by emotion interaction the analysis revealed that there was significantly greater responsiveness for anger than sadness by both females, {(1,178) = 16.37, p < .01, and males, {(1,178) = 102.23, p|< .01. There was also a significant difference between sexes with females being the more respon- sive for sadness, {(1,178) = 34.41, p < .01. Males and females did not differ for anger, {(1,178) = .003. 18 Table 4.--Mean Responsiveness Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Feminine 11.65 8.94 10.32 Masculine 12.17 5.56 9.01 Female 11.92 9.20 10.44 Male 11.96 5.38 8.74 Overall 11.94 7.33 9.57 Because the marginally significant interaction between sex role and emotion related to the hypotheses, a simple effects analysis was performed. As predicted, feminine persons reported significantly greater responsive- ness for sadness than masculine persons, {(1,178) = 17.44, p < .01. Masculine and feminine types did not differ for anger, however, {(1,178) = .44, although the means were in the predicted direction with a higher score for masculine persons. As expected, there was a significantly greater responsiveness for anger than for sadness by masculine types, {(1,178) = 66.83, p < .01, but unexpectedly the same was true for feminine types, F(l,178) = 12.05, p < .01. 19 Orientation Table 5 presents the results of the ANOVA for the orientation dimension. This analysis yielded a significant main effect for emotion. Table 5.--Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Sex) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for Orientation. Source SS SS MS { Sex Role (A) 13.58 1 13.58 .64 Sex (B) 51.96 1 51.96 2.45 Emotion (C) 340.07 1 340.07 16.06* A x B 3.57 1 3.57 .17 A x C 33.34 1 33.34 1.57 B x C 12.22 1 12.22 .58 A x B x C 3.29 l 3.29 .16 Error 1672.93 79 21.18 *p < .01. The means presented in Table 6 indicate that the direction of the main effect for emotion is opposite to that reported for expressiveness and responsiveness. For this dimension, sadness has the highest scores indicating a greater degree of comfortableness with crying than with the expression of anger. Although there were no significant effects for sex role, the patterns of the means are supportive of the 20 Table 6.--Mean Orientation Scores According to Sex Role, Sex, and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Feminine 10.49 16.50 12.09 Masculine 11.00 14.20 11.38 Female 11.86 16.20 13.00 Male 10.31 16.14 11.49 Overall 10.98 16.17 12.17 hypotheses. Feminine types report greater comfortableness; than masculine types for sadness while masculine types 3 report slightly greater comfortableness for anger than feminine types. It should be noted that the number of subjects responding was different for anger and sadness. Unlike the other dependent measures, participants answered the ques- tions in this scale only if they, or their friends, had expressed the emotion in interpersonal situations. For the anger questionnaire, 66% of the feminine group and 79% of the masculine group responded to the questions; for the sadness questionnaire, 25% of the feminine group and 12% of the masculine group responded. 21 Evaluation The hypotheses concerning the differential evalua- tions of oneself, same sex persons, and other sex persons were tested using the scale scores from Part II of the Emotions Self-Report Survey. Because the analyses included only persons whose sex and sex role are congruent (that is, feminine females and masculine males), the hypotheses were tested via 2 x 2 unweighted means analyses of variance. The ANOVA for the evaluation of oneself revealed main effects for both sex role and emotion. The results of the ANOVA for same sex persons indicated a main effect for emotion and a marginally significant interaction between sex role and emotion. The summaries of the ANOVAS for the self and same sex scales are presented in Table 7. The means for the self and same sex scales presented in Table 8 indicate that for both measures persons express- ing anger were evaluated more positively than persons expressing sadness. On the self scale, masculine males evaluated themselves more positively than did feminine females. The main effect for sex role in the self scale was examined via individual planned comparisons. The results indicated that the differences between the masculine and feminine groups were significant (p < .05) for both anger and sadness. The hypothesis that masculine males would evaluate themselves more positively when expressing anger 22 Table 7.--Summaries of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVAS for the Self and Same Sex Scales of the Evaluation Dimension. source .82 93-: as. E Self Scale Sex Role (A) 1901.38 1 1901.38 21.09** Emotion (B) 1414.29 1 1414.29 15.69** A x B 32.45 1 32.45 .36 Error 12623.14 140 90.17 Same Sex Scale Sex Role (A) 3.32 1 3.32 .05 Emotion (B) 1348.59 1 1348.59 20.70** A x B 219.17 1 219.17 3.36* Error 8924.29 137 65.14 *p < .10. **p < .01. than would feminine females was supported. For sadness, however, the difference was in the direction opposite to the one predicted; that is, the masculine group rated itself more positively than did the feminine group. For the same sex scale, a simple effects analysis of the interaction between sex role and emotion revealed a significant difference between anger and sadness for mascu- line males, F(1,137) significant difference for feminine females, F(1,137) 3.75, B < .10. = 20.32, p < .01, and a marginally Both of these groups evaluated persons 23 Table 8.—-Mean Evaluation Scores for the Self and Same Sex Scales According to Sex Role and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Self Scale Feminine Females 46.43 41.11 43.69 Masculine Males 54.65 47.43 51.15 Overall 50.65 44.18 47.42 Same Sex Scale Feminine Females 46.76 43.05 44.83 Masculine Males 49.58 40.88 45.36 Overall 48.21 42.01 45.09 expressing anger more positively than persons expressing sadness. There was not a significant difference between the masculine and feminine groups for anger, F(1,137) = 2.13, or for sadness, F(1,137) = 1.28. Although the differences did not reach significance, the pattern of means is congru- ent with the hypotheses. Same sex persons expressing anger are evaluated more positively by masculine males and same sex persons expressing sadness are evaluated more positively by feminine females. For the expression of sadness by other sex persons, it was predicted that the masculine group would rate the person more positively than would the feminine group. It was also predicted that the feminine group would rate a 24 person of the other sex expressing anger more positively than would the masculine group. The results of the ANOVA presented in Table 9 supported the hypothesis for anger but not for sadness. Table 9.--Summary of the 2 (Sex Role) x 2 (Emotion) ANOVA for the Other Sex Scale of the Evaluation Dimen- sion. Source SS g§_ SS { Sex Role (A) 526.63 1 526.63 7.80** Emotion (B) 1403.09 1 1403.09 20.79** A x B 223.86 1 223.86 3.32* Error 9246.66 137 67.49 *p < .10. **p < .01. The ANOVA computed for this scale yielded main effects for sex role and for emotion as well as a marginally significant interaction between sex role and emotion. The mean scores presented in Table 10 indicate the directions of the main effects. Persons expressing anger were evaluated more positively than those expressing sadness, and the feminine group evaluated other sex persons more positively than did the masculine group. A simple effects analysis of the interaction between emotion and sex role revealed a significant difference between anger and sadness scores for the feminine group, F(1,137) = 20.42, p < .01, and a marginally significant 25 Table lO.--Mean Evaluation Scores for the Other Sex Scale According to Sex Role and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Feminine Females 52.26 43.44 47.79 Masculine Males 45.89 . 42.12 44.06 Overall 49.03 42.80 45.94 difference for the masculine group, F(1,137) = 3.68, p < .10. Both groups rated persons expressing anger more posi- tively than persons expressing sadness. There was not a significant difference between masculine males and feminine females for sadness, F(1,137) = .46, but the difference did reach significance for anger, F(1,137)~= 10.66, p < .01. As predicted, the feminine group evaluated other sex persons expressing anger more positively than did the masculine group. Androgyny Findings The hypothesis that the responses of androgynous persons would differ from masculine and feminine persons on the six dependent variables was tested via separate one way ANOVAS for anger and sadness. It was predicted that scores for androgynous individuals would fall between the masculine and feminine scores. The means for the three sex role groups on the six dependent measures are presented in Table 11. Table 11.--Mean Scores for the Dependent Variables Accord- ing to Sex Role and Emotion. Source Anger Sadness Combined Expressiveness Feminine 13.22 13.13 13.18 Masculine 13.45 10.00 11.82 Androgynous 12.92 12.08 12.50 Responsiveness Feminine 11.65 8.94 10.32 Masculine 12.17 5.56 9.01 Androgynous 11.85 8.26 10.04 Orientation Feminine 10.49 16.50 12.09 Masculine 11.00 14.20 11.38 Androgynous 11.66 16.47 12.95 Self Scale Feminine 46.43 41.11 43.69 Masculine 54.65 47.43 51.14 Androgynous 54.83 44.83 49.79 Same Sex Scale Feminine 46.76 43.05 44.83 Masculine 49.58 40.88 45.36 Androgynous 48.17 41.38 44.78 Other Sex Scale Feminine 52.26 43.44 47.79 Masculine 45.89 42.12 44.06 Androgynous 47.81 42.16 45.04 27 Individuals in different sex role categories differed significantly on the expressiveness and responsive- ness measures for sadness but not for anger. They also differed significantly in self evaluations for both anger and sadness and in other sex evaluations for anger. They did not differ significantly for either emotion on the same sex scale nor on the orientation dimension (see Table 12). Table 12.-—{ Values of the Oneway ANOVAS for the Dependent Variables According to Emotion. Source { Source { Expressiveness Self Scale Anger .42 Anger 9.71** Sadness 13.54** Sadness 3.78* Responsiveness Same Sex Scale Anger .22 Anger 1.02 Sadness 9.73** Sadness .76 Orientation Other Sex Scale Anger .61 Anger 5.22** Sadness .52 Sadness .31 *p < .05. **p < .01. The Student Newman-Keul's procedure was used to determine which groups differed significantly from one another. For sadness in the expressiveness and responsive— ness dimensions the masculine group differed from the 28 androgynous group and also from the feminine group. On the self scale of the negative/positive evaluation dimension the masculine group differed from the feminine group for sadness. For anger on both the self and other sex scales, the androgynous and masculine groups differed from the feminine group. These results do not support the hypothesis; on none of the dependent measures did the androgynous group differ significantly from both the masculine and feminine groups. On most of the measures the androgynous group had scores similar to the masculine group when the emotion was anger and scores similar to the feminine group when the emotion was sadness. Other Findings Several questions were included in the Emotions Self-Report Survey to eXplore possible differences among masculine, feminine, and androgynous groups in behavior related to emotional expression. These items, having nominal level measurement, appear in Appendix B. The data from the items were analyzed using the Chi Square procedure. There were no differences among groups on the six questions related to how one likes to be treated when expressing anger or sadness. Neither were there differences among groups for the six questions asking how one treats other persons who are expressing emotion. There were, however, significant differences among groups on three of the 29 questions. For item 14, "Do you usually feel more com- fortable crying in front of someone of the same sex or other sex?", the Chi Square yielded a significant difference among groups for sadness (p < .01), but not for anger. There were also significant differences between the anger and sadness responses for the masculine and androgynous groups (p < .01), but none for the feminine group. (Because the response choices for the item include "same sex" and "other sex," only the data from masculine males and feminine females were used in the calculation of the Chi Squares for the masculine and feminine groups respectively.) The significant differences among groups for item 27, "Do you usually feel more comfortable when someone of the same sex or other sex cries in front of you?", were the same as those for item 14. Because the pattern of responses for item 27 is almost identical to that for item 14, only the results of the latter item will be presented in detail. For item 14 the percentages of responses in each category are presented in Table 13. The third category labeled "no difference" corresponds to the response choice "the same for both sexes" on the questionnaire. The percentages indicate that the feminine group prefers to express both anger and sadness in front of the same sex. For the masculine group there is a preference for the same sex only when expressing anger; for sadness, the preference is to cry in front of the other sex. The Table 13.--Response Percentages for Item 14 According to Sex Role and Emotion. Source Feminine Masculine Androgynous mgr. Same Sex 45.7 70.3 52.8 Other Sex 25.7 10.8 13.2 No Difference 28.6 18.9 34.0 Sadness Same Sex 58.3 16.7 27.8 Other Sex 11.1 56.7 29.6 No Difference 30.6 26.7 42.6 androgynous group, like the masculine and feminine groups, prefers to express anger in front of members of the same sex. For sadness, the androgynous group is almost equally divided between same sex and other sex choices. Thus, the results for this item indicate three different response patterns for the sex role groups. The Chi Square for item 37, "If you express sadness verbally what is your usual way of doing this?" yielded significant differences among the groups for both anger and sadness. The response categories were (1) crying, (2) quietly by explaining what is wrong, (3) loudly by yelling or screaming, and (4) other. The percentages for each response are presented in Table 14. 31 Table 14.--Response Percentages for Item 37 According to Sex Role and Emotion. Source Feminine Masculine Androgynous Amer. Cry 22.0 2.2 11.8 Quiet 20.0 32.6 39.2 Loud 38.0 50.0 37.3 Other 20.0 15.2 11.8 Sadness Cry 24.4 0 14.0 Quiet 55.6 52.5 68.0 Loud 6.7 12.5 8.0 Other 13.3 35.0 10.0 As can be seen from the table, the greatest differ- ences were for the response "crying." More persons in the feminine group reported crying when angry (22%) than in the masculine group (2.2%) or in the androgynous group (11.8%). The results of the sadness questionnaire are similar, with 24.4% of the feminine group, 0% of the masculine group, and 14.0% of the androgynous reporting that they express sadness by crying. CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION The results of the study provided partial support for the predicted differences between individuals who are sex- typed as feminine or masculine for sadness, but minimal support for the predicted differences between the two groups for anger. The hypothesis that the scores of the androgyn- ous group would fall between the scores of the feminine and masculine groups was not supported. This chapter discusses possible reasons for these findings concerning emotional behavior. Methodological Issues There are two factors that may have served to minimize the differences found in this study. First, the sign-up sheets that asked students to complete an "Emotions Question- naire" may have screened out students who feel uncomfortable with revealing their emotional behavior. Second, the in- strument used to assess emotionality relies on the self- report of the subject. Responses to the questions are affected by a person's willingness to accurately report her/ his emotional behavior on the various dimensions. The 32 33 exclusion of extreme persons and extreme responses would lead to results that are conservative estimates of the range of emotional behavior in the pOpulation. Expressiveness and Responsiveness As expected, the feminine group reported a greater tendency to express sadness and to express it more frequently than the masculine group. However, for anger there were no significant differences between the groups on these two dimensions. These results indicate that the masculine group is less likely to engage in behavior that is viewed as stereo- typically feminine than the feminine group is to engage in masculine behavior. Two related factors may account for this finding. First, the pressure to conform to the masculine gender role is greater than the pressure to conform to the feminine gender role (see Donelson, 1977; Hartley, 1959). Thus, the taboo against the masculine group's crying is probably greater than the taboo against expressing anger for the feminine group. The differences in the severity of the taboos lead to differences in the suppression of role- inconsistent behavior. Research indicates that although both masculine and feminine types avoid role-inconsistent behavior, the avoidance is stronger for behavior incompatible with the masculine sex role (Nadelman, 1974). That the feminine group also avoids role-inconsistent behavior is evident by the way many persons in this group 34 group express their anger. A large percentage, 22%, reported that they cry when they are angry, and another 20% express their anger quietly. For the masculine group only 2.2% cry as a reSponse to anger while 32.6% express it quietly. On the other hand, the feminine group is less likely than the masculine group to yell or scream when angry. Thirty-eight percent of the feminine group and 50% of the masculine group report this response. The perception of anger as a masculine trait may be partially accounted for by this difference in the ways the masculine and feminine groups express it. The emotion of anger is more likely to be attributed to a person who is yelling than to one who is crying. Orientation For this dimension which evaluates how comfortable a person feels with emotional expression there were no significant differences between the masculine and feminine groups. However, the means were in directions supportive of the hypotheses: the scores of the masculine group were higher than those of the feminine group for anger and the scores of the feminine group were higher for sadness. As with the dimensions of expressiveness and responsiveness, the difference was greater for sadness. As mentioned in the previous chapter, participants answered the questions in this scale only if they, or their friends, had expressed the emotion in interpersonal 35 situations. For the anger questionnaire 66% of the feminine group and 79% of the masculine group responded to the questions; for the sadness questionnaire, 25% of the feminine group and 12% of the masculine group responded. These data indicate that the masculine group was more likely than the feminine group to have been in a situation in which anger was expressed while the feminine group was more likely to have been in a situation in which sadness was expressed. These differences suggest that the masculine group feels more comfortable with the expression of anger than the feminine group and that the feminine group feels more com- fortable with the expression of sadness. Evaluation The prediction that masculine males would evaluate themselves and same sex others more positively when ex- pressing anger than would feminine females was partially supported. The masculine group did evaluate themselves more positively. However, the more positive evaluation of same sex others by the masculine group failed to reach statistical significance. The difference between masculine and feminine groups was less for the same sex scale than for the self scale because the masculine group evaluated themeselves much more positively than they did same sex others; for the feminine group, the evaluations of them- selves and same sex others were nearly identical. This finding may indicate a bias of persons in the masculine 36 group to evaluate themselves more positively in general. A person's classification as masculine was based partly on their endorsement of "very self-confident" and "feels very superior," two items on the PAQ masculinity index. Thus, the individuals in the masculinity group may be likely to evaluate themselves more positively than they evaluate others. The bias in favor of selecting persons who feel superior for the masculinity group may account for the un- expected finding that this group evaluated themselves more positively when expressing sadness than did the feminine group. This result is contrary to the hypothesis that the feminine group would report higher evaluations of them- selves. A second speculation regarding this result involves a bias related to the one mentioned. Two items on the positive end of the scales for this dependent measure, "independent" and "confident," were the same as items on the PAQ masculinity index. At least two other items, "assertive" and "strong" may have been characteristics that persons in the masculine group, but not in the feminine group, associated with themselves. Therefore, the evalu- ations of oneself when expressing emotion may have been confounded with more global positive or negative evaluations. For the evaluation of other sex persons, ratings of the feminine group were higher than those of the masculine group for anger. This finding supports the hypothesis that feminine females would evaluate the expression of anger 37 in other sex persons more positively than would masculine males. For sadness, the difference between the ratings was small but the direction was counter to prediction: the feminine group evaluated the expression of sadness more positively than did the masculine group. Again, this find- ing may be a function of the scale items. The lower evalu- ation by the masculine group may reflect a general tendency to see the positive items as uncharacteristic of the other sex. Androgyny The hypothesis that the scores of the androgynous group would fall between the scores of the masculine and feminine groups was not supported by the analysis of the data. Although the combined scores for anger and sadness of the androgynous group did fall between those of the masculine and feminine groups on four of the six dependent measures, the difference among the groups was not great enough to be significant. With the breakdown of the com— bined scores into anger and sadness components a different pattern for the mean scores emerged: the androgynous group tended to report scores similar to those of the feminine group for sadness and similar to those of the masculine group for anger. The finding of different response patterns for anger and sadness indicates a probable oversimplification of the 38 original hypothesis. .The prediction that the scores of the androgynous group would fall betweeen the scores of the masculine and feminine groups was based upon the notion that masculine anger responses and feminine sadness responses represented extremes of emotionality. Therefore, the andro- gynous group was expected not to report these extremes; The actual findings that the androgynous group tended to be like the feminine group for sadness and like the masculine group for anger suggest an alternate possibility. Rather than being extreme, the responses of the feminine group to sadness and the masculine group to anger more probably represent behavior approPriate to the situation. In this interpretation, the differing response patterns evidenced by the individuals in the androgynous group would reflect their ability to engage in both masculine and feminine behavior. Because the self-concepts of androgynous persons include aspects of both the masculine and feminine sex roles, they are able to be more flexible in their behavior. Research (e.g., Bem, 1975; Bem & Lenney, 1976; Bem, Martyna, & Watson, 1976) has supported Bem's contention (1974) that psychological androgyny enables greater situationally effective behavior. The present research provides corrobor— ation for Bem's theory. The results of the item asking which sex a person prefers to express emotion in front of also yielded differ- ences among the groups. Masculine, feminine, and androgyn- ous groups each reported a preference to express anger in 39 front of the same sex. However, for expressing sadness the masculine group indicated a preference for the other sex, the feminine group for the same sex, and the androgynous group was almost equally divided between same and other sex choices. The preference of the masculine group for express- ing sadness to the other sex suggests an unwillingness to expose feelings of vulnerability to same sex persons. These preferences of differentially sex-typed individuals are reminiscent of findings from research on self-disclosure: Although both sexes usually prefer to reveal themselves to same sex friends (Jourard, 1964), males prefer to reveal more personal kinds of information to females (Komorovsky, 1976). Findings from the androgynous group are intriguingly different, however. These individuals exhibit less concern than the other two groups about the sex of the person they reveal themselves to. For anger, they reported a greater percentage of "no difference" choices than the masculine or feminine groups; for sadness the "no difference" category was chosen by the greatest percentage and "same sex" and "other sex" were chosen by nearly equal percentages. These findings suggest that for androgynous individ- uals, the sex and sex role of a person are not a strong determinant of behavior vis a vis that person. Theorists have recently proposed that low sex role salience is related to sex role transcendence (Hefner, Rebecca, & Oleshansky, 1975; Gernets & Pleck, 1979). Sex role transcendence refers to a stage in which individuals have moved beyond androgyny 40 (in which masculinity and femininity are blended) to the belief that sex role is irrelevant. Such individuals no longer link psychological characteristics such as emotional expressiveness with males and females based on sex. The responses of many persons classified as androgynous in the present study may be a reflection of the low sex role salience associated with sex role transcendence. The results of the study point to the need for refine- ment of the current sex role categories: The emotional behavior of sex role transcendent persons would be expected to differ from that of androgynous persons. Further, and related to the current research on emotionality, sex role needs to be distinguished from sex. The findings indicate that, on some dimensions of emotionality, differences are not a function of sex per se but of sex role orientation. APPENDICES APPENDIX A PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX A PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES QUESTIONNAIRE The items below ask about what kind of person you think you are. Each item consists of a pair of characteristics, with the numbers 1-5 in between. For example: Not at all artistic 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very artistic Each pair describes contradictory characteristics--that is, you cannot be both at the same time, such as very artistic and not at all artistic. The numbers form a scale between the two extremes. You are to choose a number which describes where yep fall on the scale. For ex- ample, if you think you have no artistic ability you would choose 1. If you think you are pretty good, you would choose 4. If you are only medium, you would choose 3, and so forth. Mark the number on your answer sheet that corresponds to your choice. 1. Not at all aggressive 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very aggressive 2. Not at all independent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very independent 3. Not at all emotional l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very emotional 4. Very submissive 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very dominant 5. Not at all excitable Very excitable in in a major crisis 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 a major crisis 6. Very passive 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very active 7. Not at all able to Able to devote devote self completely self completely to others 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 to others 8. Very rough 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Very gentle 9. Not at all helpful Very helpful to to others 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 others 41 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Not at all competitive 1 Very home oriented Not at all kind Indifferent to others' approval Feelings not easily hurt Not at all aware of feelings of others Can make decisions easily Gives up very easily Never cries Not at all self- confident Feels very inferior Not at all understand- ing of others Very cold in relations with others Very little need for security Goes to pieces under pressure 1 1 42 Very competitive Very worldly Very kind Highly needful of others' approval Feelings easily hurt Very aware of feelings of others Has difficulty making decisions Never gives up easily Cries very easily Very self- confident Feels very superior Very understanding of others Very warm in relations with others Very strong need for security Stands up well under pressure APPENDIX B EMOTIONS SELF-REPORT SURVEY APPENDIX B EMOTIONS SELF-REPORT SURVEY Part I The following questions ask about sadness and crying. Read each question carefully because several are the same except for a word or phrase. Although you may feel that your response would depend on the situation, please choose the response that most nearly describes you and your reactions generally. MARK ONLY ONE ANSWER FOR EACH QUESTION. A few items will be answered in the space provided on the questionnaire. PLEASE ANSWER EVERY QUESTION THAT APPLIES TO YOU. V/ 1. Sex: 1. female 2. male 2. When you are sad: 1. it tends to be apparent to most people 2. it tends to be apparent only to people who know me 3. most pe0p1e don't realize it V/3' When you feel sad do you cry? 1. always 2. frequently 3. occasionally 4. rarely 5. never 4. How strongly do you usually feel sadness? 1. very mild 2. somewhat mild 3. moderately 4. somewhat intense 5. very intense 5. Do you ever feel like crying but aren't able to? . always can cry when you feel like it frequently can cry when you feel like it occasionally can cry when you feel like it rarely can cry when you feel like it . never can cry when you feel like it UlubUNI-J O 43 /7. A. 10. 11. 44 Within the past six months how often have you felt sad? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. once a day or more a few times a week a few times a month a few times in six months once or not at all in six months Within the past six months how often have you cried? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5 once a day or more a few times a week a few times a month a few times in six months once or not at all in six months Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried (for any reason) in front of a friend of the same sex? 1. U'luwa If 10 or more 5-9 2-4 1 0 you have cried in front of a friend of the same sex how com- fortable did you feel the last time this happened? UlubWNH very comfortable somewhat comfortable neutral somewhat uncomfortable very uncomfortable Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried (for any reason) in front of someone you've been romantically involved with? 1. 10 or more 2. 5-9 3. 2-4 4. 1 5. 0 If you have cried in front of someone you've been romantically involved with how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? 1. very comfortable 2. somewhat comfortable 3. neutral 4. somewhat uncomfortable 5. very uncomfortable 13. A4. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 45 Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried (for any reason) in front of a friend of the other sex? 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 10 or more 5-9 2-4 1 0 If you have cried in front of a friend of the other sex how com- fortable did you feel the last time this happened? 1. U1wa Do of l. 2. 3. How sex 1. 2. 3. 4. If very comfortable somewhat comfortable neutral somewhat uncomfortable very uncomfortable you usually feel more comfortable crying in front of someone the same sex or other sex? same sex other sex the same for both sexes do you generally like to be treated by a friend of the same when you cry? like to be left alone like to be talked with only like to be physically comforted only like to be talked with and physically comforted you like to be talked with when you cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer the same sex friend to: 1. 2. 3. How try to persuade you to change your feelings sympathize with you be humorous do you generally like to be treated by someone you're romanti- cally involved with when you cry? 1. 2. 3. 4 like to be left alone like to be talked with only like to be physically comforted only like to be talked with and physically comforted If you like to be talked with when you cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer the person you're romantically involved with to: l. 2. 3. How try to persuade you to change your feelings sympathize with you be humorous do you generally like to be treated by a friend of the other sex when you cry? 1. 2. 3. 4 like to be left alone like to be talked with only like to be physically comforted only like to be talked with and physically comforted 46 20. If you like to be talked with when you cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer the other sex friend to: 1. try to persuade you to change your feelings 2. sympathize with you 3. be humorous The following questions ask about your reactions when other people cry in front of you: ‘/21. Within the past two years approximately how many times has a friend of the same sex cried (for any reason) in front of you? 1. 10 or more . -9 . -4 U1wa Ol—‘NU‘I 22. If a friend of the same sex has cried in front of you how com- fortable did you feel the last time this happened? 1. very comfortable 2. somewhat comfortable 3. neutral 4. somewhat uncomfortable 5. very uncomfortable 23. Within the past two years approximately how many times has some- one you've been romantically involved with cried (for any reason) in front of you? 1. 10 or more . -9 . -4 U'IbWN Ol-‘NU'I 24. If someone you've been romantically involved with has cried in front of you how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? 1. very comfortable 2. somewhat comfortable 3. neutral 4. somewhat uncomfortable 5. very uncomfortable ‘/25. Within the past two years approximately how many times has a friend of the other sex cried (for any reason) in front of you? 1. 10 or more 2. -9 3. -4 4. 5 Ol-‘NUI “\ 26. M27. =v/28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 47 If a friend of the other sex has cried in front of you how com- fortable did you feel the last time this happened? 1. very comfortable 2. somewhat comfortable 3. neutral 4 5 . somewhat uncomfortable . very uncomfortable Do you usually feel more comfortable when someone of the same sex or other sex cries in front of you? 1. same sex 2. other sex 3. the same for both sexes How do you generally treat same sex friends when they cry? 1. by leaving them alone 2. by talking with them only 3. by physically comforting them only 4. by talking with them and physically comforting them If you talk with your same sex friends when they cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer to: 1. try to persuade them to change their feelings 2. sympathize with them 3. be humorous How do you generally treat someone you're romantically involved with when they cry? 1. by leaving them alone 2. by talking with them only 3. by physically comforting them only 4. by talking with them and physically comforting them If you talk with someone you're romantically involved with when they cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer to: 1. try to persuade them to change their feelings 2. sympathize with them 3. be humorous How do you generally treat other sex friends when they cry? by leaving them alone 2. by talking with them only 3. by physically comforting them only 4. by talking with them and physically comforting them I-' If you talk with your other sex friends when they cry (answer 2 or 4 above) do you prefer to: 1. try to persuade them to change their feelings 2. sympathize with them 3. be humorous \3/4. is. (3’6. 37. 38. “/39. 48 The following questions ask about your expression of sadness: How easy is it for you to cry? 1. very easy 2. somewhat easy 3. somewhat difficult 4. very difficult Do you express sadness verbally (crying, talking, yelling) when you are sad? 1. always 2. frequently 3. occasionally 4. rarely 5. never If you express sadness verbally what is your usual way of doing this? 1. crying 2. quietly by explaining what is wrong 3. loudly by yelling or screaming 4. other Do you express sadness physically (throwing, hitting, breaking) when you are sad? 1. always 2. frequently 3. occasionally 4. rarely 5. never If you express sadness physically what is your usual way of doing this? 1. throwing something 2. hitting someone 3. breaking something 4. other Do you sometimes wish that you were able to express sadness in a way other than your usual way? 1. yes 2. no you feel about yourself when you 35y. 49 Part II You are to use the following pairs of adjectives to describe how Fill in the number on your answer sheet that corresponds to how you feel about yourself when you cry. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Example: weak ashamed independent competent hopeful confident out of control mature upset social not frustrated considerate unassertive ineffective tense clear-headed defensive intelligent weak 1 01th!“ . 2 . . 3 . . 4 very weak somewhat weak neither weak nor strong somewhat strong very strong strong strong proud dependent incompetent hopeless not confident in control immature calm unsocial frustrated inconsiderate assertive effective relieved confused open unintelligent 19. 20. 50 responsible l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . angry at myself 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . In this section mark the number on your sponds to how you think same sexSpersons are 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. weak 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . ashamed l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . independent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . competent l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . hopeful l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . confident 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . out of control 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . mature l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . upset l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . social 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . not frustrated l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . considerate l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . unassertive l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . ineffective 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . tense l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . clear-headed 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . defensive 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . intelligent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . responsible l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . How do you feel about I am angry at that person 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . same sex persons when irresponsible accepting of myself answer sheet that corre- when they cry. . 5 strong . 5 proud . 5 dependent . 5 incompetent . 5 hopeless . 5 not confident . 5 in control .15 immature . 5 calm . 5 unsocial . 5 frustrated . 5 inconsiderate . 5 assertive . 5 effective . 5 relieved . 5 confused . 5 Open . 5 unintelligent . 5 irresponsible they cry? I am accepting . 5 of that person 51 In this section mark the number on your answer sheet that corre- sponds to how you think other sex persons are when they cry. 1. weak 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 strong 2. ashamed l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 proud 3. independent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 dependent 4. competent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 incompetent 5. hopeful l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 hopeless 6. confident l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 not confident 7. out of control 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 in control 8. mature l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 immature 9. upset l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 calm 10. social 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 unsocial 11. not frustrated l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 frustrated 12. considerate l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 inconsiderate 13. unassertive l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 assertive 14. ineffective 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 effective 15. tense l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 relieved l6. clear-headed l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 confused 17. defensive l . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 Open 18. intelligent 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 unintelligent 19. responsible 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 irresponsible How do you feel about other sex persons when they cry? 20. I am angry at I am accepting of that person 1 . . 2 . . 3 . . 4 . . 5 that person APPENDIX C MASCULINITY AND FEMININITY INDICES OF THE PAQ APPENDIX C MASCULINITY AND FEMININITY INDICES OF THE PAQ Femininity Index 1. Not at all emotional . . . . . . Very emotional 2. Not at all able to Able to devote self devote self completely . . . . . . completely to to others others 3. Very rough . . . . . . Very gentle 4. Not at all helpful . . . . . . Very helpful to to others others 5. Not at all kind . . . . . . Very kind 6. Not at all aware of . . . . . . Very aware of feel- feelings of others ings of others 7. Not at all under- . . . . . . Very understanding standing of others of others 8. Very cold in relations . . . . . . Very warm in rela- with others tions with others Masculinity Index 1. Not at all independent . . . . . . Very independent 2. Very passive . . . . . . Very active 3. Not at all competitive . . . . . . Very competitive 4. Has difficulty making . . . . . . Can make decisions decisions very easily 5. Gives up very easily . . . . . . Never gives up easily 52 Not at all self- confident Feels very inferior Goes to pieces under pressure 53 Very self-confident Feels very superior Stands up well under pressure APPENDIX D SCALES DERIVED FROM FACTOR ANALYSIS \/ APPENDIX D SCALES DERIVED FROM FACTOR ANALYSIS Factor I: Orientation l. 2. 6. ‘/F 1. If you have cried in front of a friend of the same sex how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? If you have cried in front of someone you've been romantically involved with how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? If you have cried in front of a friend of the other sex how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? If a friend of the same sex has cried in front of you how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? If someone you've been romantically involved with has cried in front of you how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? If a friend of the other sex has cried in front of you how comfortable did you feel the last time this happened? actor II: Expressiveness When you are sad: a. it tends to be apparent to most peOple b. it tends to be apparent only to people who know me c. most people don't realize it When you feel sad do you cry? Do you ever feel like crying but aren't able to? How easy is it for you to cry? Do you express sadness verbally (crying, talking, yelling) when you are sad? 54 55 ”’Factor III: Responsiveness Within the past six months how often have you felt sad? Within the past six months how often have you cried? Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried in front of a friend of the same sex? Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried in front of someone you've been romanti- cally involved with? Within the past two years approximately how many times have you cried in front of a friend of the other sex? LI ST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Allen, J. G., & Hamsher, J. H. The development and valida- tion of a test of emotional styles. Journal of Con- sulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 3;, 663-668. Bem, S. L. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 3;, 155-162. Bem, S. L. Sex-role adaptability: One consequence of psy- chological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, SS, 634-643. VBem, S. L., & Lenney, E. Sex-typing and the avoidance of cross-sex behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, SS, 48-54. Bem, S. L., Martyna, W., & Watson, C. Sex-typing and andro- gyny: Further explorations of the expressive domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, S3, 1016-1023. Bloch, J. H. Studies in the phenomenoloqy of emotions. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, S3, 358-363. VB:Overman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P. S. Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, {S(2), 59-78. Buss, A. H., & Brock, T. C. Repression and guilt in rela- tion to aggression. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, SS, 345-350. Dahlstrom, W., & Welsh, G. S. An MMPI Handbook. Minneapo- lis: University of Minnesota Press, 1960. / /fDonelson, E. Development of sex-typed behavior and self- concept. In E. Donelson & J. E. Gullahorn (Eds.), Women: Apsychological_perspective. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977. 56 57 Garnets, L., & Pleck, J. H. Sex role identity, androgyny, and sex role transcendence: A sex role strain analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1979, S (3), 270-283. Gentry, W. D. Sex differences in the effects of frustration and attack on emotion and vascular processes. Psychological Reports, 1970, S}, 383-390. Gough, H. CPI manual. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1957. Guilford, J. P., & Zimmerman, W. S. Fourteen dimensions of temperament. Psychological Monographs, 1956, ZS (10, Whole No. 417). Harford, T. C., Willis, C. H., & Deabler, H. R. Personality correlates of masculinity-femininity. Psychological Reports, 1967, SS(3), 881-884. Hartley, R. E. Sex-role pressures and the socialization of the male child. Psychological Reports, 1959, S, 457-468. Hefner, R., Rebecca, M., & Oleshansky, B. Development of sex-role transcendence. Human DevelOpment, 1975, SS, 143-156. . \//;Ourard, S. M. The transparent self. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1964. Kagan, J. Acquisition and significance of sex typing and sex role identity. In M. L. Hoffman & L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 2). New York: Russell Sage, 1964. Komarovsky, M. Dilemmas of masculininity: A study of college //, youth. New York: W. W. Norton, 1976. Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University Press, 1974. Manosevitz, M., & Lanyon, R. I. Fear survey schedule: A normative study. ngchological Reports, 1965, S1, 699-703. Mussen, P. H. Long-term consequents of masculinity of interest in adolescence. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1962, SS, 435-440. 58 Nadelman, L. Sex identity in American children: Memory, knowledge, and preference tests. Developmental Psychology, 1974, SS, 413-417. Rosenblatt, P. C., & Cunningham, M. R. Sex differences in cross cultural perspective. In B. Lloyd & J. Archer, Exploring sex differences. New York: Academic Press, 1976. Ryckman, R. M., Stone, W. F., & Elam, R. R. Emotional arousal as a function of perceived locus of control and task requirements. Journal of Social Psychology, 1971, SS, 185-191. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. The personal attributes questionnaire: A measure of sex-role stereotypes and masculinity-femininity. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1974, 3, Whole No. 617. 'Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. Masculinity and feminin- 1 y. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978. ”Terman, L. M., & Miles, C. C. Sex and personality. New York: McGraw Hill, 1936. ”Williams, J. E., & Bennett, S. M. The definition of sex stereotyping via the adjective check list. Sex Roles, 1975, S(4), 327-338. Zuckerman, M., Lubin, 3., Vogel, L., & Valerius, E. Measure- ment of experimentally induced affects. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1964, SS, 418-425. HICHIGRN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES (I)IINWNHIIWIWWW‘MINI/"II”IIIHWI 31293100626914