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WIT: W’ ‘I u- . .I I' ""W This is to certify that the thesis entitled A CONSTRUCTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE PERFORMANCE BASED OBJECTIVES IN GLOBAL EDUCATION, K-IZ presented by JEFFREY JOHN CASE has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Secondary Ed. 8 degree in . Curriculum '1 Major professor Date yJ/VUL F5) ‘919 0-7 639 LIBRARY Michigan State University OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ pER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. “#« “3.3 © Copyright by JEFFREY JOHN CASE 1979 A CONSTRUCTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE PERFORMANCE BASED OBJECTIVES IN GLOBAL EDUCATION, K-12 BY Jeffrey John Case A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1979 ABSTRACT A CONSTRUCTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE PERFORMANCE BASED OBJECTIVES IN GLOBAL EDUCATION, K-12 BY Jeffrey John Case Purpose The phrase "a shrinking world" is a common saying that describes the decreasing distances between societies throughout the world. The world is not physically shrink- ing though; the land mass and volume of water and air are still fairly close to the actual physical shape of the world hundreds of thousands of years in the past. What has "shrunk" in the world is the distance between social groups. Because there are more of us today and because of our sophisticated and complex tools, the distance between homo sapiens has been greatly diminished. Children in schools today bridge the distance between social groups within the world by studying about peoples and their prob- lems in "distant" lands, by talking with visitors from "distant" lands, and by actually travelling to "distant" lands. This study was an examination of these global linkages to determine themes for global education, and secondly to construct performance objectives. A subsid- iary purpose was to construct evaluation measures. Jeffrey John Case Methodology The primary research question was to identify themes for global education. From the review of literature the five themes identified are Interdependence, Systems Theory, Worldmindedness, Finite Resources, and A New Economic Order. The themes were presented to teachers from four areas in Michigan. The participants were asked to rate each theme according to a five point scale. A percentage was used to indicate the degree of agreement the partici- pants had with each theme. In addition mean rankings were given. The second research question was to construct per- formance objectives. The curriculum for a K-12 school was divided into two general areas, elementary and second- ary. One of the methodological features was the use of matrices in organizing the curriculum. The identified themes for global education were placed on the left side of each matrix, and representative subject areas in the elementary and secondary curriculum were placed at the top of the matrix. A second methodological feature was the use of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Each of the six levels in the cognitive domain and each of the five levels in the affective domain were used. A related research question was to construct assess- ment items. Journals in representative subject areas were reviewed and excerpts from articles were identified Jeffrey John Case as being illustrative of global education. These short selections were used in the construction of assessment items in order to give contextual clues and in a broad manner represent instructional activity. Also, the cor- responding assessment items in Bloom's Taxonomy were used. Conclusions The following briefly relates some major conclusions and recommendations: 1. The five themes--interdependence, systems theory, worldmindedness, finite resources, a new economic order--while not all inclusive of global educa- tion themes were necessary for this study. 2. The use of representative subject areas indicates that global education is at least multidisci- plinary and perhaps can include most disciplines. 3. The matrix is helpful in systematically arranging a curriculum. 4. Performance objectives can be constructed by fusing themes with representative subject areas. 5. Assessment items can be constructed for the per- formance objectives by using Bloom's Taxonomy. Recommendations l. A history of international education should be probed. 2. Researchers should study the area of definition of global education. 3. Related courses, instructional activities, and learning experiences should be developed. 4. Discussion of results of studies about global education should be started at professional meetings. Jeffrey John Case 5. Groups who have varying opinions about the place of global education in the curriculum should meet to attempt to reach consensus. 6. A clearing house for global education research and activities ought to be established. 7. A needs assessment ought to be conducted. Dedication This work is dedicated in memory of my mother, who would have been proud to have read it and pleased to have discussed it. ii Acknowledgements The author is deeply grateful for the guidance, encouragement, and friendship of Dr. John W. Hanson, major advisor and Committee Chairman. To Dr. Stanley P. Wronski, dissertation director, for his assistance, his patience, and his criticism. To committee members Dr. Cole Brembeck, for his initial encouragement and wisdom; Dr. Henry W. Kennedy, for his continual support and warmth; and Dr. John H. Useem for his leadership and direction. iii Chapter TABLE OF CONTENTS I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O I O 0 Purpose of the study . . . . . . . . . . Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . Need for the study . . . . . . . . . . . Significance of the problem . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definitions of terms . . . . . . . . . . Organization of the study . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theories and Paradigms for Global Themes An Overview of International Education . Current Thought and Activities in Global Education . . . . . . . . . . . III. METHODOLOGY Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Global Education Themes . . . . . . . . Performance Objectives . . . . . . . . . Bloom's Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment Items . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY APPENDICES Introduction . . . Overview . . . . Conclusions . . . Recommendations. . A . COVER LETTER 0 O C O O O O O C O I O O C C O B . QUESTIONNAIRE I C C C O O O C O O O C O O O C. TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page 24 25 4O 51 66 66 67 7O 71 73 74 83 85 93 109 111 113 121 125 126 128 131 Page D. TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES IN THE COGNITIVE DOMIN O O O O I O O O O O C O O O l 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 CHAPTER I Introduction The phrase "a shrinking world" is a common saying that describes the decreasing distances between societies throughout the world. The world is not physically shrink- ing though; the land mass and volume of water and air are still fairly close to the actual physical shape of the world hundreds of thousands of years in the past. What has "shrunk" in the world is the distance between social groups. Because there are more of us today and because of our sophisticated and complex tools, the distance be- tween homo sapiens has been greatly diminished. Children in schools today bridge the distance between social groups within the world by studying about peoples and their prob- lems in "distant" lands, by talking with visitors fron "distant" lands, and by actually travelling to "distant" lands. This study is an examination of these global linkages, and specifically to identifying themes from these linkages, and to construct performance objectives based on global themes, and finally to construct evaluation measures based on performance objectives. Every society provides education for its members, and the functions of education, while numerous and varied, can 1 be considered as the general preparation of people for lives they will lead. John Dewey comments on the changing nature of the curriculum by saying, "The scheme of a curriculum must take account of the adaptation of studies to the needs of the existing community life; it must select with the intention of improving the life we live in common so that the future shall be better than the past," and also on the concern for social groups, "a curriculum which acknowledges the social responsibilities of educa— tion must present situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together, and where observation and information are calculated to develop social insight and interest ". (Dewey, 1964: 371-372) Given this wide scope for education, if society is becoming more globalized then the content of education will become more global as society evolves. The world-wide communications satellite network, the world-wide business community, the world-wide agricultural market, the world-wide monetary market, the world-wide ex- change of scholars, artists, athletes, and students are all pieces of evidence as to how societies in the world have changed. Since society is in a continual state of flux, educational content and process will also be in a continual state of flux. Jerome Bruner speaks about this educational change, "I shall take it as self evident that each generation mmst define afresh the nature, direction, and aims of educa- tion to assure such freedom and rationality as can be attained for a future generation. For there are changes both in circumstances and in knowledge that impose con- traints on and give opportunities to the teacher in each succeeding generation". (Bruner, 1966: 22) The world is "shrinking" and the distance between social groups is lessening, and it is education for the future generation which will be most difficult. It is not as hard to think of education for our children as it is for our grandchildren, yet just as we have been assisted and shaped in our growth, so too will we lay the foundation for future generations and their growth. Education then has a responsibility for recognizing evolving social linkages and to prepare students to recognize social problems inherent in them. This is a difficult challenge and in the past education has had a spotty record. In a recent autobiography, historian Bruce Catton chastizes education and the academy he attended for its lack of pre- paration of students for global linkages. Catton writes of his boyhood education in Benzonia, northwestern Michigan: A new era was beginning, and if the academy had not prepared us to understand it the same can be said of every other school on earth. No one was pre- pared anywhere, and the deeper we get in this era the more baffling it becomes. All that seems clear is that the mind of man now is obligated to adjust itself (without loss of time, and under penalty of death) to the greatest revolution in human history; a revolution, not in the relations of class with class and society with society, but in the nature of man's idea of the universe and of his place in it. We have won a fight that we ought to have lost; which is to say that we pretty largely control the world we live in, and its levers are in our hands even though we have no idea what to do with them. We can go anywhere and do anything and because the fabulous machine we have created can neither be reversed, put in neutral or turned aside, we have to go and do the utmost limit, which is as likely or not to be our own destruction. Not since he came down out of the trees and lost his tail has man been compelled to make such an adjustment in his ways of thinking. The Renaissance was a false dawn in comparison. He is headed now, infallibly, for the infinite. . .in either direction. (Catton, 1972 :250-251) This passage sharply focuses on the responsibility of education to society, and of the tremendously intricate nature of our present world, and on the world-wide difficulties and complexities in our contemporary world scene. The complexities in our present global situation are inherent in a world which is no longer composed of separate entities as in the past, but is presently in fact a woven mosaic composed of all humanity. The complex issue of national and international loyalties is not resolved by noting or saying that nationalism is self centered and is dangerous, or by recognizing the historical trend of social groups in the direction of a unified world. Instead, when internationalism is proposed, is there a negation of love for one's own country, or an ignorance of the patriotism for the native homeland? If a person is nationalistic and patriotic and shows enthusiasm, a natural enthusiam, for the society and culture of his upbringing, how are dimin- ishing world resources to be traded, allocated or distri- buted? If education is to prepare students for the future, the question must be asked, what will the future in a global society be? Will the bountiful harvest of our present high technological society be available in reasonable terms for all of humanity, or will it even continue at its present growth? What attitudes ought to be set for students, in preparation of a future global society, towards the individual, members of the family, members of the community, members of the nation? A final question should be asked, what sets of knowledge should students have, in preparation for living in a global society, towards themselves, their family, their neighbors, their country ? (Rugg, 1962: 505) The answer to these questions and others will not be found easily or simplistically, yet it is critical that some attempts be made to find means and ends which are harmonious. Dewey puts forth the challenge of curriculum and society: The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content to existing social life. The continuity of social life means that many of these meanings are contributed to present activity by past collective experience. As social life grows more complex, these factors increase in number and importance. There is need of special selection, formulation, and organization in order that they may be adequately transmitted to the new generation . (Dewey, 1964 =372) . This study is an attempt to construct sets of knowledge of a global society, drawing from the collective social life of past generations for the preparation of a future genera- tion. Purpose of the Study The broad purpose of this study is to determine appropriate themes in the social studies at the secondary level and appropriate themes in subject areas at the elementary level for a K-lZ global education program. Further purposes of this study were (a) to construct performance objectives at the secondary and elementary levels for a global education program, and (b) to con- struct evaluation instruments for the performance objectives. Statement of Research Questions The following research questions were used to accomplish the purposes of the study. 1. What are appropriate themes (such as interdependency) for a global education program? 2. What are appropriate performance objectives (such as an analysis of the impact of energy prices within the local community) for these global education themes? 3. What are appropriate evaluation measures for these performance objectives? Need for the Study A perusal of related research shows that little has been done in the area of global education and that there is a need for research to develop concepts and materials. In order for global education to be infused into traditional subject matter or studied as a separate area, curriculum designs need to be constructed. Related literature points to this need for research in global education. Scholars outside the field of educationv call for an increasing emphasis on the study of global linkages. A report entitled Reconstituting the Human Community addresses the issues of global linkages. The scholars involved began their investigation of reconsti- tuting societies in the world by attempting to improve educational and cultural exchanges. They were not only interested in judging current assumptions for exchanges, but were mainly concerned about the construction of different approaches, of creative new concepts and per- spectives for building fresh educational and cultural exchanges. In order to accomplish this, aspects of con- temporary culture were re-evaluated as to their implications for cultural relations. Four aspects were reviewed: the first was the interdependency of people throughout the world, the second was the changing view of man caused by new develop- ments in science, religion, the arts and philosophy, the third aspect was rapid technological change and the resulting cultural problems, the fourth was the urban problem, the population problem, the ecological problem and others. These problematic concerns coupled with a desire for a fresh evaluation and new ideas help to bolster the need for studies in global education . (Reconstituting the Human Community, 1972 :9) The argument for studying the impact of seemingly local or national issues - poverty, population, food, energy - on a global level of interdependence is also expressed by Lall. He points to the energy crisis and the resulting economic problems of world—wide inflation, a decline in output, a world-wide decline in employment, and major difficulties in balance-of-payments internationally as evidence of the interdependence and globalness of nations. The successful resolution of these difficulties will not be solved unilaterally, but instead on a global basis with international cooperation. Issues such as mass poverty, population, food, energy, military expenditures and the world monetary system confound the problem of solving the energy crisis in isolation. Instead, Lall argues for global solutions. (Lall, 1975: 36-37) Ward and Dubos call for global education studies, and in particular the study of the impact of primary issues on all economies. Their passage also points to the study of the whole world in place of area studies: Nor do problems and difficulties vary completely from region to region. Air pollution can be as great a problem in Seoul as in Chicago. Unmanageable wastes can pile up in Bangkok as well as in Manchester. More- over, existing areas of very high industrial concentra- tion, pollution, and difficulty may simply be demon- strating in chilling fashion the ultimate fate of all the world's peoples as they enter more fully into the industrial order. There would seem therefore to be a strong argument for treating the planetary economy as a continuum and studying the impact of pollution, of urbanization, of resource uses and shortages on all economies, irrespective of their condition - pretechno- logical, newly industrial, or moving on to degrees of urban and industrial concentration which presage wholly new complexities of pressure and congestion.. (Ward and Dubos, 1972 : 46-47) . Scholars within the field of education also see a need for global education and emphasize the study of global linkages. In some respects the need for global studies is not a new phenomenon in education. More than 30 years ago Alexander Meiklejohn stressed a need for students in America to be aware of the international com- munity. He warns the democracies of the world not to fall into localisms and provincialisms. He says that it is insufficient to have students learn their proper life role in their local community, and that it is insufficient to learn national loyalties. He says that schools must serve the purpose of inculcating reasonableness in a world-state. (Meiklejohn, 1962 :117) Harold Shane, writing more recently, calls attention for a curriculum change concerned with interdependence. He says there is a reluctance for curriculum change, specifically, "a cliff-hanging complex, a tendency to avoid curriculum change until absolutely necessary. For an example of this wait-and-see attitude he says that almost no schools are directly meeting the need of a curricula change dealing with the increasing interdependency of the earth's peoples on a resource poor planet". (Shane, 1975: 106) In the same book Harold Lasswell speaks of interdependence and what it means for global inhabitants. There is virtually no doubt, he says, of one future projection: an increasing interdependency in acquiring values. This will happen because of more travel, more trade, and more investment among the world's population. Lasswell further says that even if these linkages are limited, the essence of lO interdependency will intensify because humanity's techno- logical tools will make it necessary to take interdependence inugaccount in making policy . (Laswell, 1975 :2) Increasing interdependence leads to the question of citizenship, but since teaching is an activity of the government as Pedro Orata says, the question is which government - city, state, nation, or world - should have charge of citizenship? Each of these levels has its own cultural pattern and each level can lay claim to its portion of citizenship education. Also, students would need to be prepared to live at all levels excluding none. Yet Orata argues that "education belongs to the world-state" because the world-state does not exclude the other levels of government in criticism and debate. If everyone were taught that he is an individual of the world first, then all other experiences would be derived from the first . (Orata, 1962 :116) The need for global education is not limited to public schools alone. Maurice Harari writes that there is sufficient reason for globalizing higher education. He argues that a transnational framework for research, develop- ment, and training will at least help to promote international understanding. But in other ways a knowledge of different cultures and of the interdependence of mankind should help greatly in noting world problems and in marshalling global support for solutions of crucial global issues. Additionally: Harari recognizes that an understanding of the background of 11 another culture helps in understanding one's own culture. Finally, there is a moral dimension in global education which finds repugnant the starvation and sickness of those in relative misfortune. Harari chastizes education for ignoring the major problems of humanity and for not providing solutions to these problems.(Harari, 1972: 9)_ The need for global education studies in schools is also expressed by Lee Anderson. He says that in the past the school has been an agent of the community, but that the nature of the community has changed, or will change, to include more transnational interactions. He argues, there- fore, that schools must view themselves as agents of a global society . (Anderson, 1968 :85-86) In Michigan, the need for global education has been expressed by John Porter, Superintendent of Public Instruction. He calls for a change in curriculum because, as he says: Since our awareness of the need for global education is relatively recent, the curriculum has not had time to take this into account. . .Our youth are constantly confronted by world problems and difficulties through television and newspaper reporting. Yet, we have generally failed to provide any framework or support for students to help them come to terms with the reality of what they now see and hear- (Porter, 1975 =9—10) Finally, the school as an institution is charged with the task of citizenship training. Citizenship, in the future, will be more global in nature. The school, then, is an ex- cellent institution for the development of global education. King gives the following rationale for the inclusion of 12 global studies in the curriculum: It is evident that social forces in contemporary living are propelling the individual into a world culture. It is the task of the educational enter- prise more so than any other institution in American culture to develop this world perspective with the children of today, so they will be able to function in the global community of tomorrow. (King, 1971 X1) Significance of the Problem Global education is a response to a changing world structure, a change that Robert Heilbroner calls "convul- sive." Multi-national corporations, finite resources, p0p- ulation explosion - how are they to be viewed in order to be solved? How are they to be studied in order to be known? Global education is a response to these questions; it is a response that views the world holistically and dependent upon its diverse parts for continuity. The rationale for international understanding in the field of education has changed in the past three decades since World War II. The rationale during the 1940's was based on a nationalistic and pragmatic approach, whereby national security and power would be enhanced if the citizen knew about world events, problems, and politics. In the 1950's and 1960's the rationale for international under— standing was based on providing for world peace and human understanding, whereby citizens would recognize their cultural biases and become empathetic, tolerant, and open-minded of different values. In the 1970's and in- deed the last quarter of the 20th century, the rationale for 13 international understanding will have to bederived from an approach of viewing problems on a world order and sens- ing a loyalty to the human race as a whole while recog- nizing its unique parts,(McKeown, 1973) This global view can be described as worldmindedness. Worldmindedness is defined by Sampson and Smith to be a "value orientation or frame of reference. . .We identify as highly worldminded the individual who favors a world view of the problems of humanity, whose primary reference group is mankind rather than American, English, Chinese, etcn" (Sampson and Smith, 1957 :99) Global education can be considered as inculcating the attitude of worldmindedness; it can be considered as the teaching of the world and its workings; it can be consider— ed as developing the behavior of a world citizen. Global education also addresses the significant ques- tion of whether there are, or aren't, enough resources available in the world to meet the demands and needs of humanity. Ward and Dubos speak to this complex question by mentioning the difficulty in calculating costs which reflect scarcity or abundance in both market economies and planned economies. The process of computing present reserves, materials, rising consumer consumption, rising population, and energy resources begs the question if indeed any rational projections can be made of these aspects. The difficulty in answering this question is due to the interdependence of these factors; the variables, unfortu- 14 nately, affect each other making forecasting very risky . (Ward and Dubos, 1972 :115) The significance of this interdependence is also noted by scientist Barry Commoner. He says that while modern technology has been successful in providing cer- tain parts of humanity with an abundant supply of food, huge industrial plants, high-speed transportation, and powerful military weapons, these also interconnect to threaten humanity's survival. The monumental material base of society, built by technology, threatens the sur- vival of humanity unless serious economic, social, and political.problems are resolved. He says the paradox of technological advance is due to the success of industry in "plundering" natural resources. The debt incurred in destroying and depleting natural resources is even greater today because the resources involved are not just lumber and minerals but the basic necessities of life - air, water, and soil. (Commoner, 1966 :126-127) "World eater" is the term given by famous anthropolo- gist Loren Eisely to apply to this type of consumption. He ably describes the significance of the present global situation: We live in an epoch of localized affluence, asserts Thomas Lovering, and expert on mineral resources. A few shifts and subterfuges may, with increasing effort and expense, prolong this affluence, but no feat of scientific leger demain can prevent the eventual exhaus- tion of the world's mineral resources at a time 15 not very distant. It is thus apparent that to apply to Western industrial man the term 'world eater' is to do so neither in derision nor contempt. We are facing, instead, a simple reality to which, up until recently, the only response has been flight - the flight outward from what appears unsolvable and which threatens, in the end, to leave an impoverished human remnant clinging to an equally impoverished globe. (Eisley, 1970: 64-65) Commoner again aptly describes the present global situation as a time in which there is both tremendous technical power and almost desparate human need. The evidence of technical power is in the megatonnage of nuclear bombs and the megawattage of power plants. The evidence of human need is in the enormous numbers of people and their deteriorating habitat. Unfortunately the gap between technical power and human need continues to grow and the global situation worsens. (Commoner, 1971: 294) The population explosion is also a major concern of Georg Borgstrom. He says the post-war surge in human numbers is a phenonmenon which is without doubt the most ominous aspect of humanity. In this century the world population will double twice, an act which is unprecedented in the history of humanity, yet few peOple realize the impact of this dimension and the true nature of this event. (Borgstrom, 1973 =15) Robert Heilbroner paints a very pessimistic view of the present global predicament. Nature, he says, will intervene to force changes: 16 Therefore, the outlook is for what we may call 'convulsive change' - change forced upon us by external events rather than by conscious choice, by catastrophe rather than by calculation. As with Malthus's much derided but all too prescient forecasts, nature will provide the checks, if foresight and morality do not. One such check could be the outbreak of wars arising from the explosive tensions of the coming period, which might reduce the growth rates of the surviving nation-states and thereby defer the changes of industrial asphyxiation for a period. Alternative- ly, nature may rescue us from ourselves by what John Platt has called a "storm of crisis problems.‘ As we breach now this, now that edge of environ- mental tolerance, local disasters - large-scale fatal urban temperature inversions, massive crop failures, resource shortages - may also slow down economic growth and give a necessary impetus to the piecemeal construction of an ecologically and socially viable social system.. (Heilbroner, 1974: 132-133) There is a passage in the book Mankind at the Turning .3212} which describes how problems are at a global level and illustrates the interdependence of nations. In Eastern Europe during the winter of 1971-72 there were very low temperatures and high winds which demolished one-third of the Russian winter wheat crop. The government bureaucracy had a crisis on its bands which required dependency as a solution. The United States government and the Soviet Union made an agreement for a grain purchase of 750 million dollars, a figure which underestimated the actual cost. The grain purchase affected the market in North America by decreasing supply and raising prices. More importantly, during the same year the crops on the Indian subcontinent were heavily damaged by a late monsoon. Unfortunately, the world's surplus of wheat had been sold, and there was no wheat on the world market for Asia, or for China which faced a drought or for Africa which also had drought and 17 famine. In years previous, surplus wheat could have been shipped to Africa, but none could be found to meet the needs, Hundreds of thousands of Africans faced starvation because of misfortunate events at a global level. (Mesarovic and Pestel, 1974 :19) The authors of Reconstitutinggthe Human Community, who don't subscribe to all of the conclusions of the Club of Rome report, nonetheless recognize the problems presented in the report from which there is no escape. Pollution, population pressures, and the raw materials crisis threaten the destruction of man's life-support system. The authors also recognize that the present world system is likely to be changed, and consider it most likely that the change will be violent. The gap between the rich and poor countries will increase. There is still a political incapacity to come to grips with these problems, and what- ever restructuring would require a fundamental restructuring of the present world system. (Reconstituting the Human Community, 1972: 10) This restructuring of political systems is also emphasized by Ward and Dubos who call for more than local or national decision making: It is no use one nation checking its energy use to keep the ice caps in place if no other govern- ment joins in. It is no use the developed nations suggesting lower energy use just at the moment when the developing nations see increased use as their only exit from the trap of poverty. The global interdependence of man's airs and climates is such that local decisions are simply inadequate. Even the sum of all local separate decisions. wisely made, may not be sufficient safeguard and 18 it would take a bold optimist to assume such general wisdom. Man's global interdependence begins to require, in these fields, a new capacity for global decision-making and global care. It requires coor- dinating powers for monitoring and research. It means new conventions to draw up ground rules to control emissions from aircraft and to assess supersonic experiments. It requires a new commit- ment to global responsibilities. (Ward and Dubos, 1972: 195) The significance of this study is that it relates the pressing problems of humanity to the educational system. The problems are not minor and cannot be solved by local units acting independently. There are global issues which affect the qualtiy of life for every person. These problems will not diminish in their complexity but instead, they will intensify in the years to come. Limitations This study will have certain limitations because of the complexity of the issues. Although this research will identify themes for global education, the themes identified should not be considered as inclusive. Other researchers may select themes other than the ones identified in this study for use in global education. Another limitation is that the performance objectives will be, by necessity, broad in scope. Some specificity will be lost due to the scope of the performance objectives. Other researchers may want to work further in this area in an attempt to refine performance objectives in global educa- tion. A third limitation is in the appropriateness of the performance objectives for the grade levels involved. In order to gain specificity, two matrices will be used to 19 coordinate the performance objectives according to grade level. The matrices are for the elementary grades and secondary grades, yet even with this breakdown there is a wide range of grade levels. The elementary grades cover a range of seven grade levels, K-6, and the secondary grades cover a range of six grade levels, 7-12. Within these ranges there is room for more specificity according to grades or age groups of a two to three year span. Further research can help to clarify this area. A fourth limitation is that this study will not con- struct performance objectives for all subject areas, but instead a diagonal is used to limit the number of perform- ance objectives covered. This is due to the scope of the problems involved. Further research could help to con- struct performance objectives for all subject areas. Definition of Terms Certain terms are defined in order to clarify the con- cepts represented by the terms as they are used in this study. International Education -- This term refers to the broad area of education of countries and cultures outside of a particular country; also the study of educational, social, political, and economic forces in international relations, and the study of international affairs for human understanding. 20 Global Education -- This term refers to the continual development of knowledge and involvement and awareness in viewing the people in the world as interdependent, in under- standing that many of the world's resources are in a condi- tion of scarcity and that the locus of power in the inter- national economic order will shift and change. Global education calls for the study of problems as part of larger world systems, and finally, global education will allow for * the development of a sense of world community. Performance Objectives -- This term refers to an educa- tional objective using in most instances an action verb such as recall, translate, analyze, etc., to describe an instruc- tional objective. A sub-class of instructional objectives which describes the actions of the learner that demonstrate the intended outcome. Organization of the Study Chapter I contains the introduction to the problem, the statement of the questions to be researched in the dissertation and the purpose of the study. The limitations _of the study are presented. Chapter II is the review of pertinent literature and research. * O 0 Of the various definitions of global education in the literature, this definition is close to that of the Michigan Department of Education. 21 Chapter III is the design of the study. It is a delineation of the matrices and themes for global education and the specific procedures used in this study for the de- velopment of performance objectives and evaluation examples. Chapter IV contains the performance objectives developed and evaluation examples. Chapter V concludes the study. In it the summary, conclusions, and recommendations for further study are made. 22 Footnotes DEWEY, John On Education: Selected Writings, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964) pp. 371-372 BRUNER, Jerome S. Toward a Theory of Instruction. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966) p. 22 CATTON, Bruce Waiting for the Morning Train: An American Boyhood (New York: Double Day, 1972) pp. 250-251 RUGG, Harold "Reconstructionism and a World Outlook," in School and Society, eds. Carl H. Gross, Stanley P. Wronski, John W. Hanson (Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1962) p. 505 DEWEY, John, op. cit., p. 372 Reconstituting the Human Community, A report of Coloquium III, held at Bellagio, Italy, (Sponsored by the Hazen Foundation, July, 1972) p. 9 LALL, Sham "The Energy Crisis: Symbol and Catalyst of a New Order," in International Development Review, Volume XVIII, Number 2, 1975/2, pp. 36-37 WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene Only One Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a Small Planet. (New York: W. W. North and Company, 1972) pp. 46-47 MEIKLEJOHN, Alexander "Education for World Citizenship," in School and Society, op. cit., p. 117 SHANE, Harold G. "Social Decisions and Educational Policy," in The Future of Education: Perspectives on Tomorrow's Schooling, ed. Louis Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975) p. 106 LASSWELL, Harold D. "The Future of Government and Politics in the United States," in The Future of Education, op. cit., p. 2 ORATA, Pedro "Fundamental Education as a World Wide Necessity," in School and Society, op. cit., p. 116 HARARI, Maurice Global Dimensions in 0.8. Education: The University (Syracuse University: International Studies Association, 1972) p. 9 23 ANDERSON, Lee F. "Education and Social Science in the Con- text of an Emerging Global Society," in International Dimensions in the Social Studies, eds. James M. Becker and Howard D. Mehlifiger, The Thirty-Eight Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies. (Washington: National Education Association) pp. 85-86. PORTER, John W. "Global Education," prepared address for the Michigan Foreign Language Association, 1975, pp. 9-10. KING, Edith W. The World: Context For Teaching in the Elementary School (Dubuque: W. M. C. Brown, 1971) p. XI. McKEOWN, Robin "Toward International Understanding in the American Secondary Schools." A report to the Hawaii Conference of the Joint Committee on United States- Japan Educational and Cultural Cooperation, Eric Resource Document (EDO71979). SAMPSON, Donald L. and SMITH, Howard P. "A Scale to Measure Worldminded Attitudes." The Journal of Social Psychology, XLV, 1957, p. 99. WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene, op. cit., p. 115. COMMONER, Barry Science and Survival, (New York: The Scribner's Sons, 1970) pp. 64-65. EISLEY, Loren The Invisible Pyramid. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970) PP. 64-65. COMMONER, Barry The Closing Circle: Nature, Man, and Technology. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971) p. 294. BORGSTROM, Georg The Food and Pegple Dilemma. (Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1973) p. 15. HEILBRONER, Robert An Inquiry into the Human Prospect. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974) p. 132-133. MASAROVIC, Mihajlo and PESTEL, Edward Mankind at the Turning Point: The Second Report to the Club Rome. (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974) p. 19. Reconstituting the Human Community, op. cit., p. 10. WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene, op. cit., p. 195. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this study is to identify themes for global education programs, K-12, and secondly to construct appropriate performance objectives and assessment items. This was accomplished by reviewing the literature and determining what themes have been identified by experts in education and in other fields. Given these three purposes, the review of litera- ture has been divided in three general sections: (1) theories and paradigms concerning global themes; (2) a brief overview of international education; (3) current activities in global education. 24 25 Theories and Paradigms for Global Themes There are a variety of theoretical and empirical viewpoints from which global education can claim a know- ledge base. The themes in this section are interdependence, global systems, worldmindedness, finite resources, and a new economic order. Interdependence Barbara Ward and Rene Dubos show how, in one sense, the inhabitants of this world are interdependent on one another via the use of oceans, lakes, rivers, and estuarine waters. Mankind, however, uses these waterways not so much for their aesthetic qualities but as a sewer for human wastes and a dumping ground for industrial pollution. They say that because there is a heavy concentration of people living near waterways, the waterways become a logical place for refuse. Futhermore, industry adds its share of metals, inorganic materials, and radioactive wastes. In both of these inci- dents the consequences of localized acts do not remain in the local area, but are parts of the world. (Ward and Dubos, 1972: 198-199) Another sense of this interdependence is discussed by R. Buckminster Fuller, who shows how, in a short time span, we are interdependent via industry. He asserts: With steel shipmaking came a whole new world of alloy steels with unique capabilities. This brought about further scientific exploration of the earth for rare alloys. It also brought about total world inter- 26 dependence. For instance, as is visible today the steelmaking constituent manganese, found plentifully in Ghana, is useless to Ghanaians, who have neither coal nor iron with which to make steel. Ghanaian manganese must be transported overseas to make the steel, which will be exported back to Ghana and many other countries as tools, machinery, and structural components. Industry is inherently of world magni- tude, and only works as a world system. The newly emerging nations around earth will soon have to learn that their political independence depends upon the degree to which they comprehend and voluntarily participate in the interdependence of world indus- trialization. (Fuller, 1969: 274-275) Ward and Dubos again reinforce the sense of interde- pendency via the impact by humanity on ecological structures. They say because of humanity's recent, enormous accelerations in population, in consumption of energy and raw materials, in urbanization, and in the resulting pollution, technological man has set a pattern which might make a permanent change for the worse on the natural ecological systems upon which bio- logical survival is derived. The impact on ecology is readily apparent. Volatile chemicals which contaminate a river catch fire with the result of rivers burning their bridges. The Baltic and Mediterranean seas are polluted with wastes which certain bacteria and algae feed on, causing a loss of oxygen in the water; the final result is that fish cannot live in such waters. The atmosphere is contaminated with dust and particles from the burning of fossil fuels, raising the possibility of changing the earth's temperature in unforseeable ways. The oceans were long thought of as a vast portion of the earth that due to their shear immensity could never be 27 altered. The seas were never changing. But poisons, insecticides, fertilizers, injected into the oceans have demonstrated that the oceans are not changeless giants, but instead fragile friends who are being mistreated. The other parts of our ecological system - the foliage, the hydrosphere, the geosphere - also demonstrate the concept of interdependency, of humanity with nature. (Ward and Dubos, 1972: 11) But humanity is also interdependent with one another. Actions taken by groups of people may very well have more than a local impact. Herman Kahn and B. Bruce-Briggs, who are scholars studying possible future events, identified eleven turning points which would result in a revolutionary change in the international system. Each of these turning points displays the interdependecy of humanity. One was nuclear warfare which certainly is not a local event, an- other was nuclear proliferation which at the least would impact regional areas of the world, a third was a basic change in the strategic balance of the super powers which at the least would create a ripple effect throughout the world. Two other turning points were either a collapse in Western or Communist morale, another was a revival of an intense Cold War which would bring into conflict the super powers and their allies on a world wide basis. A pivotal point could also be the reversal of alliances, or the introduction of a dynamic new ideology. Certainly a 28 worldwide catastrophic food shortage, or a worldwide de- pression would be turning points. Finally, a major re- volution in one of the super powers would change the prognosis. All of these possible turning points exemplify the interdependence of humanity, and many decisions and actions have consequences beyond the local impact. (Kahn and Bruce-Briggs, 1972: 149) Finally, Ward and Dubos show how again in ecological systems, no nations or localisms are recognized. They report: There is, in short, no escape from the underlying unity and interconnection of man's ocean world. Seas and oceans, like the airs above, mingle with each other, pass on each other's burdens, cleanse or poison each other, move in steady currents and unpredictable tempests to weave a seamless watery web. Their rains fall on the just and unjust. Their tides sweep every human shore. Sovereign governments may proclaim their sovereign national control over their own territories. But the airs bring in the acid rain. The oceans roll in the toxic substances. Pollution moves from continent to continent. And what is territorial water off Peru today becomes territorial water off Polynesia a few weeks hence. It is, above all, at the edge of the sea that the pretensions of sovereignty close and the fact of a shared biosphere begins, more strongly with each passing decade, to assert its inescapable reality. (Ward and Dubos, 1972: 202-203) These phrases demonstrate an interdependence of humanity. Systems Theory The concept of systems theory can readily be seen as a framework for global education. Barry Commoner uses systems theory to show how nature is interconnected. By using this theory his conclusion is that humanity has 29 reached a turning point in the habitation of this planet. The environment is a complicated, finely tuned, balanced system, and because the environment is an integrated whole it collects the impact of the individual consequences of pollution. In the history of the environment the biosphere has never been inflicted with such an array of diverse pollution. Commoner believes that the cumulative effects of this pollution could be fatal to the complicated systems in the biosphere. He warns that the continued pollution of the biosphere will not only be fatal to it but to humanity as well. (Commoner, 1966: 122) Fuller talks about general systems theory and warns that in searching out variables, the larger ones are fre- quently neglected. He explains: One of the modern tools of high intellectual advant- age is the development of what is called general systems theory. Employing it we begin to think of the largest and most comprehensive systems, and try to do so scientifically. We start by inventorying all the important, known variables that are opera- tive in the problem. But if we don't really know how big 'big' is, we may not start big enough, and are thus likely to leave unknown, but critical, variables outside the system which will continue to plague us. Interaction of the unknown variables inside and outside the arbitrarily chosen limits of the system are probably going to generate mis- leading or outrightly wrong answers. If we are to be effective, we are going to have to think in both the biggest and most minutely - incisive ways per- mitted by intellect and the information thus far won through experience. (Fuller, 1969: 60) 3O Commoner also uses general systems theory in viewing the complexity of issues created by the environmental crisis. When the connections between the different parts of the problem are mapped, it is then possible to perceive new methods of solving the whole problem. He gives as an example of systems theory the problems of developing countries and their need for productive activities and the problems of industrialized countries and their need for productive ecological activites. When the connections be- tween these two seemingly different problems are recognized at a global systems level, ways of solving both become appar- ent. A shift of resources could help to balance global systems. (Commoner, 1971: 298-299) Fuller again talks of systems and networks and inter- connectedness. This quote shows how the world operates as a system: Take away the energy distributing networks and the industrial machinery from America, Russia, and all the world's industrialized countries and within six months over two billion swiftly and painfully de- teriorating people will starve to death. Take away the politicians, all the ideologies and their professional protagonists from those same countries and leave them their present energy net- works, industrial machinery, routine production and distribution personnel and no more humans will starve nor be afflicted in health than at present. (Fuller, 1969: 270) 'Worldmindedness The concept of worldmindedness is a relatively recent 31 phenomenon in the history of world events. Ward and Dubos speak of worldmindedness as a counter to "tunnel vision." They say that because of the population ex- plosion, inflation, increasing technology and human aspira- tions, there is but a short time span to make environmental decisions, yet people in the developed world see the world with tunnel vision. The people in the developed world constitute one-third of the human race yet have difficulty thinking of the other two-thirds of humanity. (Ward and Dubos, 1972: 144-145) Fuller also speaks of worldmindedness and how humanity has changed its perspective of the world. He says that humans have been on the earth for at least two million years and have been living on the planet Earth without knowing that the land was part of a planet in space. Humanity is now emerging from this ignorance and is beginning to be- come broadly aware of the biosphere. Humanity is quickly coming to understand that they should consciously operate this planet in space with cooperation, competence, and integrity. (Fuller, 1973: 100-101) Kenneth Boulding, an economist, also talks of world- mindedness and how the image of man and the image of the environment have changed. He says that humanity is in the middle of a transitional process. Primitive man and early 32 civilizations thought of themselves as living on a flat plane, but a plane from which there was always someplace beyond, always some new frontier. When life became difficult because of a breakdown in the environment or the social structure, there was always somewhere else to move too. Humanity has for a very long time made decisions within the framework of an available frontier. However, historically over time, humanity has been developing the idea of a spheri- cal earth and of limited sphere of human activity. It was only with the voyages of discovery when evidence of the earth was a sphere was established, and it was not until World War II that the global nature of the earth and the ending of the frontier mentality became part of the common mind. (Boulding, 1968: 275) Thoughouttfistory, says Fuller, 99.9 percent of humanity lived on only 10 percent of the total earth surface, living in those places where life could be supported. The land which was most conducive for living was not in one geographical location, but was instead a number of relatively small pieces spread widely over the surface of the earth. Humanity, isolated in small groups, was almost entirely oblivious of the existence of a social collective. The isolated pockets of humanity were, throughout the world, ignorant of the array of various environments and patterns of living. Fuller 33 goes on to say that the first "world men" were those who, through trial and error, built fishing vessels and then sailing vessels, first for excursions within the shoreline, then for distance sailing around the world. (Fuller, 1969: 15-16) Finite Resources The notion of diminishing resources is a critical element in global education. The impact of fewer resources can create political turmoil, economic despair, and social chaos. Borgstrom writes of an incident in Bolivia in which students demolished the Chilean Embassy. The cause of this violence was not political; it was instead a diminishing supply of water. A river, which originated in Chile but flowed through Bolivia, was the target of a hydroelectric project. The result of the project was a scarcity of water. (Borgstrom, 1969: 206) The manner by which economic problems are analyzed is changing due to the world resources crisis. Prior to the energy crisis, economists held to the idea that demand was the key to economic growth. It was assumed that the supply side of economic equations was large enough, but that de- mand was never sufficient for economic growth. Because of the energy crisis, a scarcity of supply has taken the place of scarcity of demand as a barrier to economic growth. The situation has shifted, (Helburn, 1976: 53) 34 The questions of real cost, which are seldom addressed by governments or businesses, are what it will cost to carry on life when we deplete oil reserves and coal reserves, and if there is no fresh water and fresh air. Fuller sees fossil fuel and atomic fuel as a savings account which was developed through the ages. We now have to invest in other forms of energy instead of drawing on a diminishing "savings account".(Fuller, 1969: 278) In our industrial society there has been an illusion of unlimited power, and this illusion has answered the problems of economic production. Schumacher, an economist, shows that capital assets are really a part of nature. He gives an analogy to explain this comparison. "A business- man would not consider a firm to have solved its problems of production . . . if he saw that it was rapidly consuming its capital. How, then, could we overlook this vital fact when it comes to that very big firm, the economy of Space- ship Earth. . .". (Schumacher, 1973: 14) A material surplus has been the hallmark of the years since World War II. In these 25 years the major economic issue has been the availability of the consumer markets by the producers. But events in the last few years demonstrate the emergence of a more critical issue, that is, the avail- ability of resource markets. The access to resources such as minerals, grains, lumber, fish, soybeans and energy will be the central issue. The change in the commodity markets from the purchasers who traditionally were in control to 35 the producers who will be in control, will have a profound effect. (Helburn, 1976: 84) Fuller also talks of scarce resources and how we must take account of this in planning future developments. He says: In organizing our grand strategy we must first discover where we are now; that is, what our present navigational position in the universal scheme of evolution is. To begin our position fixing aboard our Spaceship Earth we must first acknowledge that the abundance of immediately consumable, obviously desirable or utterly essential resources have been sufficient until now to allow us to carry on despite our ignor- ance. Being eventually exhaustible and spoil- able, they have been adequate only up to this critical moment. This cushion-for-error of humanity's survival and growth up to now was apparently provided just as a bird inside of the egg is provided with liquid nutriment to develop it to a certain point, (Fuller, 1969: 57-58) Schumacher again says that the shifts in the years since World War II, both quantitatively and qualitatively, have created an entirely new predicament -- a predicament caused not by failures but instead from successes. This predica- ment has developed so suddenly that humanity has failed to take note of an important capital asset, the margin of error that nature has provided. (Schumacher, 1973: 18-19) A New Economic Order The idea of a new world order is one which is based on the dynamic of change. If the present relationships will lead to disaster, then it becomes incumbent for new relationships 36 to develop. Borgstrom says that "a radically new way of thinking is demanded." This type of thinking, he explains, will result in a change of the present system based on more equitable economic relationships. As an example he offers a nutritional council spanning the entire world, and adds that it would make a far more positive step toward peace in the world than any hopeless disagreements over disarmament. The poor of the world, in their destitute condition, are losing patience. A more rational contribu- tion to the world, rather than a military expenditures race, would be to channel resources and efforts towards improving the condition of humanity. (Borgstrom, 1969: 247) The evidence of huge amounts of wealth in the world, and a growing feeling that the "establishment, the govern- ment, the system" is accountable for social injustice, could cause social justice cries to become elevated into a world consciousness. The intense feelings over issues, both those at home and abroad, could increase and develop into a situation where the lone person or small group feels compelled toward using terroristic devices. There is the distinct possibility of a major gap forming between those who are satisfied with the way things are, and those who are not satisfied and feel things ought to be different. (Kahn and Briggs, 1972: 142) Monetary imbalances, increasing unemployment, and rising inflation in the industrialized nations and infla- tion and poverty in the Third World nations have led to 37 an interest in a new international economic order. This economic upheaval has made economists and others question the basic premises of the world economic system which has not closed the gap between the wealthy and the impoverished. One contention is that the free market system is not really free, but is structured in favor of the developed nations. Therefore, one reason for a structural change would be to provide equity in economic relationships. A second reason for a new world order is that there exists major, common problems for all of humanity. The impairment of the earth's life support systems has resulted in urban decay, popula- tion growth, pollution, scarce natural resources, and rising military expenditures. This mixture of problems which affect the world at large is seen as only solvable by the development of new international structures. (Rio Report, 1976: 1-2) Borgstrom talks of the wealth in the developed countries which he feels is at the expense of the underdeveloped countries. He says: This exuberant abundance has led most Americans to believe in the long standing Western notion, shared by Western Europe, that the world con- stitutes an over flowing cornicopia. In particu- lar the tropics have been regarded as a rich fountain from which comes a seemingly endless stream of 'goodies' such as bananas, coffee, cacao, sugar, tropical fruits, oilseeds, and oil seed cakes. Yet the image is fading fast, heralding completely new patterns in both world economy and world trade. The countries of the hungry world desperately need the lands rendering these riches in order to feed themselves. So far we have exhibited little awareness of what is 38 happening, yet the unmistakable signs are there - - all the elements of a new world order. (Borgstrom, 1973: 63) Fuller also talks about the wealth of humanity, not all of humanity, but that 40 per cent found in developed countries. He says: I have seen humanity transformed from a con— dition of less than 1 per cent to 40 per cent of the now doubled world population which is enjoying economic success and living standards superior to any pre-twentieth-century monarch's. Simultaneously the life span of that successful 40 per cent has been doubled. Though large, that 40 per cent is, as yet, a minority of all humanity. We have now just entered into the Earth's most critical moment, that of imminent technically feasible economic success for all humanity. This, however, is frustrated by the large and prosperous minority's fearful procrastination at the entrance into the unknown, epochal changes, obvious- ly essential to realization of comprehensive human success and total planetary freedoms and enjoyment. (Fuller, 1973: 75) The economic units in the global economy are more in- terdependent than ever before in history. It is difficult to predict whether in the last quarter of this century there will be a reasonable theory and a proper method for planning economic growth. In the developed countries many experts say that the solution to the poverty in the world must wait until there is a world population stabilization. The notion is that when planners can accurately estimate the total number of people who must be provided for, then a 39 planned program using the earth's resources can begin. On the other hand many experts in the less developed coun- tries argue against population control as a solution for poverty. Instead they argue for a redistribution of the world's wealth. (Helburn, 1976: 179) The idea of a new economic order was developed in considerable part by Saul Mendlovitz and his associates in their World Order Models Project. The project initially centered around the development of models for the prevention and elimination of war. But the scholars involved felt that two other related problems - economic well being and social justice - must also be included in any model for world peace. Mendlovitz cites two reasons for including these problems. The first is that empirically, the problems of poverty and social injustice are interconnected with the prevention of war. The second reason is that individuals in the Third World felt that economic well being and social justice should receive priority over the prevention of war as social problems to be solved. (Menlovitz, 1975: X) Boulding also talks of how interest in the order of things in a community has changed to an interest in the order of things in the world arena. He says we are at a middle level of a world order in which the industrialized countries generally agree to some sort of responsibility for the development of the poorer countries. Boulding's idea of a changing world economic order would be that "a world grants system organized on a world interest would 40 be likely to involve a much larger volume of grants than now obtains from the rich countries to the poor." (Boulding, 1966: 508) An Overview of International Education: International education as part of a curriculum for public schools is a relative newcomer in education when compared with the trivium or quadrivium. Indeed, the impetus for international education has been felt by curriculum.phmmers mainly since 1946, the ending of World War II. There are a number of reasons for this. Even though World War I brought the United States into a large military engagement on the European continent, and minor skirmishes elsewhere, the concept of isolation dominated national thought with little regard for anything that was internationalist including the League of Nations. This inward looking security was shattered by the coming of World War II, and the citizens of the United States as well as citizens of other nations found themselves engaged in mortal combat, fighting alongside persons who spoke a different language, who were of a different race, who practiced different customs, and fighting against persons who had the same cultural mix of language, skin color, and custom. Not only were the participants on both sides of varying international characteristics, but also the battlefields and naval wars were located around the world. It was difficult to find a neutral country, and even when 41 one existed it was still affected by the war. A techno- logical innovation, the atomic bomb, added a.psychologica1 feature to post World War II, for by its use more than one country would be affected, and today, if two nations in dispute resort to nuclear weapons, the rest of the world knows that death and destruction will fall upon them as well. Another reason for the initiation of international education, and most important because it is institutional in its nature, is the establishment of the United Nations. The establishment of the United Nations charter gave, for the first time, the opportunity for teachers to take an active part in promoting peace in the world. The UNESCO phrase, "since war begins in therMhds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed," was taken as a mandate for educators to promote peace through education. Finally, World War II was a great equalizer of peOple and nations. The enormous scope of the war transcended national boundaries and created an international desire for peace. International education was one vehicle for attaining peace. This type of education promotes mutual understanding. The rationale was that since we are ignorant of customs and viewpoints of other people, this ignorance causes suspicion and mistrust which would lead to war. In order to overcome this ignorance and develop mutual respect, a positive approach was instituted whereby students would 42 gain a genuine appreciation of different peoples, their history, their culture, their philosophies, and their contributions to the world. Scanlon says that international education will greatly expand in the near future, and that international activities are developing at a rapid rate. He criticizes, however, the assumptions for international education at that time as being idealistic, sentimental, and politically un- realistic. Instead, he calls for creative research in the social sciences which would give intelligent and politically feasible programs. (Scanlon, 1960: 31-32) Kenworthy says that while educators who are engaged in international education may be criticized as visionaries and idealists, the effort for international education in- volves people who are realistic. Since the world is in- terdependent, the view toward isolationism is unrealistic. The survival of the world calls for the ability to live in a world community. This ability must be developed in child- ren for prejudices are learned at an early age, and the ability to live in a world community must be developed in a variety of subject fields. Kenworthy goes further to say that students should learn the extent of worldwide cooper- ation, as in efforts to eradicate smallpox throughout the world, and students should learn that war is not always the end result of conflict, but that peace is attainable. Students must also see different points of view in the world 43 and understand them, they must be challenged by the differ- ent views of the world and be helpful citizens for improve- ment. (Kenworthy, 1956: X, 14, 147) Kenworthy gives a general outline for international education which consists of ten major points. He says students should learn that this planet is the home for all living lives, that there are similarities and differences between cultures, that there are many different ways of living, that the world is beautiful, that the world is interdependent, that there are divisions in the world, that people in other parts of the world need a better standard of living, that American students need to be effective demo- cratic citizens, that respect for various religions and value beliefs is needed, that developing cooperation is required. Kenworthy advises teachers to not depend solely on current events as a method of teaching international education be- cause it lacks the depth for making a solid judgment and also because the student may lack the necessary background. (Kenworthy, 1956: 10-14) Kenworthy talks of methods for including international education in the secondary curriculum. He says that while the needs and interests of the students should be taken into account in developing a program, the program needs to use an interdisciplinary approach. He goes further to say that teachers in international education should help their stu- dents to develop a system of values which would include the 44 notion of the worth of all individuals in making the world a better place to live. One activity is to read biographies of individuals who have taken action based upon a philosophy of the worth of individuals. Also students should learn about world organizations. (Kenworthy, 1952: 100) Adams and Garraty also reflect the theme of interde- pendence. Their studies of scholars abroad show how educa- tion was becoming internationalized at the post-secondary level. They say: It is natural that American students should make a conspicuous contribution to these educational migrations, for we have always been a nation of travelers. But nowadays we are surely the most peripatetic members of the whole human race. American businessmen fly to every part of the globe. Great ocean liners disgorge ever-larger cargoes of American tourists in Europe, South America and even in Africa. Members of our armed forces are stationed in dozens of remote camps and in busy metropolitan centers the world over. And our students, over twelve thousand of them each year, can be found on every continent and in nearly every major country in the world. (Garraty and Adams, 1959: l) Butts advocates that teachers in school systems, teacher training colleges, and in various organizations and institu- tions should be more versed in international affairs. He says that international affairs should be improved for teachers of history, social studies, world literature and foreign languages. He criticizes an education which in- adequately prepares students for foreign affairs. He says: 45 All students and staff members of schools of education need to know much more than they now do about the essential character- istics of the ways of life of other peoples of the world. They need to know more about the basic elements of foreign policy of our own government and of other governments. They need to know more about the agencies of international cooperation and control that now exist and might exist in the fields of economic, political, scientific and cul- tural affairs. They need to develop a greater sense of individual responsibility and concern for understanding the critical issues of international relations. (Butts, 1963: 6-7) The Glen Falls experiment in curriculum development is an example of integrating international affairs with the established disciplines. One result of the project was the construction of teaching units which included instruction in value systems and ways of life of people in other lands, the causes of war and the means for peace, international organizations and the United States in a world setting. Other avenues for instruction focused on comparative art and business and literature and music, mathematics as a way of communicating throughout the world, and physical education from other countries. The rationale for all of this, as expressed by Long and King, was that, "American citizens must become sensitive to other cultures, conscious of the complexities of intercultural relations, humane in their 0UthOk-" (Long and King, 1964: 2-5) Harold Taylor outlines, in broad terms, a curriculum for international education. The curriculum would include an exploration of the world's geography to learn of peoples 46 in the world, an exploration through science to learn the physical characteristics and basis of nature, an explora- tion through language to learn the arts, and of philosophy to learn of the nature of humanity, in short to learn to understand the nature and character of contemporary life and to offer useful actions. He adds: In order to be truly educated, each must have a full sense of the nature of modern man and of the world he lives in, and I do not see how that sense can be achieved by the kind of edu- cation now being provided by most of the schools, colleges, universities, and educational systems of the world. They have fallen behind the reality of world society and are presenting conceptions of man and his world comparable to the pre-Copernican system of ideas in the post- Copernican period. (Taylor, 1969: 3) In an earlier book Taylor criticizes as too narrow those international education efforts that only focus on bilateral studies or exchange studies. Instead he advocates world education, using the world as a unit of analysis and viewing problems as common to all or many social systems. The objective of learning about the world system is to gain insight into the shared heritage of humanity, and to find ways to promote peace and coopera- tion. (Taylor, 1967: 7) The world system is also mentioned by Anderson. He says that the concept of a world system involves two asser- tions concerning world affairs. The first assertion is that there is a growing world system, a global social system 47 which is an object of educational studies and research. The second assertion is that the growth of this system is the cutting edge of a deep innovation for the condition of humanity. This profound change, while still little under- stood, will expand humanity's conscious image. (Anderson, 1968: 78) International non-governmental organizations and busi- ness organizations should be a topic of more study accord- ing to Alger. Social organization outside of governmental institutions and agencies should be under more scrutiny because of linkages provided for a viable government. He adds, "In the absence of such a political process, in which non-governmental groups are crucial, even the most perfect governmental institutions may not be able to perform a vital role in society." (Alger, 1968: 76) The term international, used to describe activities between nations, is subject to cultural lag, according to Becker and Mehlinger. The authors argue that enormous and important changes are taking place, changes in the essence of relations among individuals and nations in the world. The use of the word international to describe exchanges throughout the world is outmoded because the reality the word describes has changed vastly. The authors argue for either a new word to describe the transactions between nations and cultures, or a change in the meaning of the word international to accomodate a changing reality. The 48 authors furthermore claim that if there is a conceptual lag in the definition of the word international then there may well be implications for changing the way in which social studies are taught. It is important therefore that social studies teachers adopt alternative perspectives to narrow the gap. (Becker and Mehlinger, 1968: 2-11) Mehlinger writes of avoiding stereotypes and models for any culture, and cites the emergence of two perspec- tives of contemporary life, one is traditional and the other is global. He says: Perhaps one of the most important contribu- tions American history teachers can make to helping students understand the nature of the contemporary world is by avoiding the temp- tation to overstress the uniformity in con- temporary American culture. The fact is that there is not one American life style today, if there ever was. Some Americans today live truly an international existence. (Mehlinger, 1968: 683) Along with this new international existence there is a changing perspective of using the nation-state as a dom- inant unit of analysis in international relations. Kelman says that while the nation-state as a unit of analysis is justified under many assumptions, what happens if the assump- tions do not hold and conditions change? The conceptualiza- tion using the nation-state as a unit of analysis in certain circumstances, would be faulty. (Kelman, 1968: 665) To counter this Scanlon and Shields point to renewed attention placed in revising textbooks and of enlarging 49 the curriculum of provide studies of African and Asian cul- tures as well. They say that an encouraging development is the effort to globalize the liberal arts program at the university. (Scanlon and Shields, 1968: XVI) Hess and Torney point to the school as a powerful socializing agent in the area of citizenship training and political behavior. They point particularly to the elemen- tary school as a place where much of the basic socialization of political orientations occur in the years before high school. (Hess and Torney, 1967: 114) Morris and King have developed four cornerstones for bringing a global perspective into the elementary class- room. They are as follows: 1) To develop both a capacity for empathetic recognition of commonalities in human beings as they respond to basic needs, and a sense of involvement in the sensitivity to the reality of the human condition with reference to those needs. 2) To develop an awareness of the natural ethno- centric bias in the way people perceive each other. 3) To develop the capacity to cope emotionally and intellectually with change, complexity, and ambiguity as they appear on the international scene. 4) To develop the capacity to experience multiple loyalties and identifications. (Morris and King, 1968: 676-679) Kelman talks of national symbols and subsystem roles for socializing young children into the nation-state. He 50 talks also of a process he calls "entanglement." This is where a child's loyalty to the nation-state is done through primary groups such as the family and the church. The state draws on these groups to provide an emotional attachment for the child in order to create a sentimental commitment to the political system. (Kelman, 1968: 664) Instead of focusing on institutions, Alger argues for a focus more on problems for international education. He says that the present trend to teach how institutions oper- ate, such as cunmrfity government, national government, and the United Nations, should be replaced by a curriculum organized around problems. These problems may reflect the institution's inability to provide solutions, and it may also show problems where no institution exists. By using the problem solving approach students may recognize solu— tions which go beyond present institutional capacity. (Alger, 1968: 660) Harper talks of two distinct cultures in existence to- day: the traditionally locally based culture, and the new world wide interconnected system. This new system uses resources from the entire earth and is becoming a different culture. (Harper, 1968: 656) Anderson asserts that efforts to develop variety and productivity in national resources will depend on the ex- tent to which the present generation learns the essentials of global problems. Crosscultural experiences will help to 51 organize the national effort to solve global problems. (Anderson, 1969: 67-68) Becker says that schools do not really respond well to change, especially changes which may involve political issues. He says that the response of schools is a diffi- cult organizational enterprise because the school is such a complex organization. Changes in curriculum are made in small increments and are disjointed. (Becker, 1969: 10) Anderson has developed four dimensions for international understanding. They are as follows: 1) The curriculum should develop students' world- mindedness. 2) The curriculum should develop the capacity of the students to consume discriminately and process critically information about their world environment. 3) The curriculum should develop the capacity of students intellectually and emotionally to cope with continuous change and marked diversity in their world environment. 4) The curriculum should develop the capacity of students to accept and constructively cope with 'The realities of the human condition'. (Anderson, 1968: 641) Current Thought and Activities in Global Education Mohr and East write of how there has been an increase in international linkages between the United States and other countries since the end of World War II. These linkages include the arms race, multi-national corporations, technological and scientific exchange, ecology, and scarce resources. However, 52 the authors point to the lack of attention given international studies in the curriculum. One project they mention is the Center for Teaching International Relations at the University of Denver. The Center organized a survey study to determine materials and topics used in international studies. (Mohr and East, 1971: 3) The world culture and worldmindedness are concepts King thinks ought to be stressed in schools. In particular the elementary level is an appropriate place to begin. She says: Theory and research have clearly indicated the impact of early socialization, the strength of values and attitudes internalized in the first ten years of life . . . Beyond developing within the child's general ability to perceive the world as a multi-nation whole, we must also develop what might be called "world- mindedness," or a sense of global responsibility. Children now need to become sensitive to the needs of others. They must understand the human conditions not only intellectually, but emotionally as well. Children can be made to understand and appreciate the cultural diversities and the likenesses of the world of people that surround them. (King, 1971: XI) King also offers a method for the teaching of worldminded- ness. She states that young children can, study other cultures on the condition that they are able to span their own social processes within their own society to that of other societies. By perceiving the differences between groups of people as a variation of a common behavior required for a basic need, children will enlarge their ideas of social structure and complex cultural configurations. (King, 1971: 34) Becker says that the use of current events, the study of other nations, or international relations courses, or world 53 problems units, or area studies are favorable activities for cross-cultural awareness. He focuses on the area studies approach and says that while it is an improvement over tradi- tional chronological approaches, it is only partly successful in giving insights into the way by which cultural heritages grow and develop. He adds that the area approach does not provide a context to consider certain facts such as increased human mobility, communication, and change. Other disadvan- tages to the area studies approach are that it gives the impressions of the "world as separate patches" and that it decreases the opportunity for the student to see the world as increasingly interdependent. Two advantages to area studies are that is goes beyond foreign policy statements and that non-Western cultures are also studied equally with Western cultures. (Becker, 1972: 7-8) Becker offers a set of criteria so that teachers can make decisions as to which topics or issues fall within the boundaries of global education. These criteria include the interest and importance of the topic to both the student and the modern world; the opportunity for the student to examine his/her own personal values; the opportunity for the student to develop concepts; the opportunity to develop attitudes; encouraging information processes or informa- tion management skills which include the ability level and maturity of the student; relating the global topic to other topics in the curriculum. (Becker, 1972: 10) 54 Becker also gives four cornerstones for any inter- national or global education program. The four are: l) The need to break down sharp distinctions between the study of American society and the study of other societies. 2) The need to integrate the collection of traditionally separate disciplines and concerns associated with international relations at the high school as well as the college and univer- sity level. 3) The need to highlight the wholeness and inter- dependence of the modern world, while at the same time recognizing its great diversity and acknowledging the individual's attachment to separate groups and cultures. 4) The need to integrate a concern with the earth as a planet and mankind as a species of life with a study of the international system as such. (Becker, 1972: 2) The authors at the Management Institute for National Development identified nine objectives for studies in global education. These objectives include clarifying values about global interdependence showing the inequity of resource distribution, sensing the explicit links between the student's community and the world, appreciating the complexities of development cooperation. The objectives also call for an appreciation of the roles of transnational elites, the role of science, the nature of the transnational economic system, the nature of informal global institutions, and understanding traditional cultures in the nation-state. (Management Institute for National Development, 1973: 9-15) 55 Wood argues that the idea of interdependence should be included in all courses, and argues that knowledge of this theme is needed at both the affective and cognitive levels in order to develop a global consciousness. She adds that behavioral objectives, appropriate for a given course, are neakfl.bo reflect the concept of interdependence. (Wood, 1974: 665) Hanvey explains that the world as a system is not well understood because the interactions have not yet been charted or analyzed. But corporations and policy planners are be- ginning to study world system dynamics. The cause and effect relationship, applicable in so many practical situations, is beginning to be used at a global level. Hanvey warns that some knowledge of systems theory is too technical, but certain concepts and principles can be used in the classroom. He further adds that not only should system interactions be learned but that also cultural expectations within systems. Hanvey holds that this type of learning must be done through formal education for two reasons. The first is that the knowledge involved in systems theory is technical, and the second is that common beliefs may be challenged and justifi- cation and clarification would be required. (Hanvey, 1975: 13-14) Hanvey talks of the benefits of systems theory analysis when viewing linkages. He says: 56 The emergent global cognition contrasts sharply with the pre-global. Long term consequences begin to be considered. Linkages between events are seen in the more complex light of systems theory. Social goals and values are made explicit and vulnerable to challenge. And nations begin to note that their interests and activities are not separable from the interests and activities of others. Further, systematic attention is given to problems that transcend the national, regional, or coalitional. (Hanvey, 1975: 25) Remy and others have identified six facung which lead to a growing sense of interdependence and unity throughout the world. The first is that there is an increasing volume of trade usually instituted by multinational corporations. The second factor is that there has been an increase of transnational organizations as exemplified by scientific and educational associations. The third factor is that domestic politics are increasingly crossing over to foreign affairs. The fourth factor is the globalizing of social problems. Problems such as ecology and finite resources most likely will not be solved solely in the domestic arena. The fifth factor is the increasing similarity throughout the world in humanity's culture and social institutions which is due to a mass society. The sixth factor is the emergence of alliances and economic unions which provide avenues for further bringing together parts of the world. There are regional groupings forming which override national decision making. (Remy et. al., 1975: 51-52) 57 Remy and others have identified three different frame- works for the study of international relations and global political activity. The most common framework is to con- sider the world made up of nation-states and to study their interactions. The second framework is to consider the world as the first stage bringing people into linkages of world-wide interdependency. The third framework includes an idea of norms of moral unity as "the underlying structure of our international political life." (Remy et. al., 1975: 45) At a Wingspread conference in 1976 the participants developed a typology which included four different types of student abilities. The student abilities are: l) Perspective . . . It implies a general orientation or a set of basic assumptions. A certain background of knowledge is required for the full development of a global perspective. For example, one cannot be aware of the impact of the global distribution of sources of raw materials upon one's life with- out some basic knowledge of geography. 2) Motivation . . . This emphasizes the active approach to learning about global issues and parti- cipation in activity related to them. Too many listings of educational objectives pay insufficient attention to the energizing and directing functions of motivation. Knowledge, perspective, and attitude without the motivation to put them into practice are of little value. 3) Skills of analysis and judgment . . . This di- mension includes skills of synthesis in the analysis of political communication and the ability to analyze the global implications of policy de- cisions. Skills in processing information from a 58 wide variety of sources is one of the most important aspects of an individual's competence in dealing with global issues. A certain back- ground of knowledge is also required since analysis must take place within the framework of existing knowledge. 4) Attitudes . . . In some respect it bears a close relationship to motivation. However, value dilemmas may be raised when one attempts to dis- tinguish between 'good'and 'bad' attitudes. (Wingspread Workshop, 1976: 9-10) The Michigan Department of Education has developed a series of guidelines for global education. These guide- lines include a sequential study of world geography, a foreign language, basic concepts in the social sciences. The guidelines also advocate a study of social, political, economic systems, international labor and business networks, causes and effects of pollution, uses and abuses of energy, the global implications of natural disasters, artistic expressions of other cultural groups, scientific studies from a global perspective, and an awareness of human rights. The guidelines also add a study of different religions, world hunger, world health problems, international conflicts, different cultural activities, exchange programs, contact with other countries, and participation in community programs with a global orientation. (Guidelines for Global Education, p. 3) Anderson and others argue that the development of competencies for the learner is a difficult but not an impossi- 59 ble task. They say that competencies are based on "certain capacities, and that these capacities are in turn made up of cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and social traits which can be taught. These traits can be taught and also reinforced in a K-12 curriculum involving many subjects." (Anderson et. al., 1978: 19) Kinghorn and others have developed four themes for global education. The first is the value of diversity, an educational goal promoted by identifying alternative beliefs and understanding that there are different life- styles in existence. The second theme is to view the world as an interdependent system. This is accomplished by the perception of finite resources and identifying international linkages which already exist in the community. The third theme is to develop an effective working relationship with others. This specifically means the ability to engage in transnational communications. The fourth theme is an understanding of world conditions, and an understanding of emerging trends. (Kinghorn et. al., 1978: 10-11) Finally, the Michigan Department of Education gives this definition of global education and focuses on inter- dependency, systems, and the world community. They write: Global education is the lifelong growth in under- standing, through study and participation, of the world community and the interdependency of its people and systems -- social, cultural, racial, economic, linguistic, technological, and ecological. Global education requires an understanding of the values and priorities of the many cultures of the world as well as the acquisition of basic concepts 60 and principles related to the world community. Global Education leads to implementation and application of the global perspective in striving for just and peaceful solutions to world problems. (Guidelines for Global Education, p. 3) 61 Footnotes WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene op. cit., pp. 198-199. FULLER, R. Buckminster Utopia or Oblivion. (New York: The Overlook Press, 1969) pp. 274-275. WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene op. cit., p.11. KAHN, Herman and BRIGGS, B. Bruce,Things To Come: Thinking About the 70's and 80's. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972) WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene, 0p. cit., pp. 202-203. COMMONER, Barry Science and Survival, op. cit., p.122. FULLER, R. Buckminster Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969) p.60. COMMONER, Barry The Closing Circle, op. cit., pp. 298-299. FULLER, R. Buckminster Utopia or Oblivion, op. cit., p.276. WARD, Barbara and DUBOS, Rene, op. cit., pp. 144-145. FULLER, R. Buckminster Earth, Inc.. (New York: Doubleday, 1973) Pp. 100-101. BOULDING, Kenneth E. Beyond Economics: Essa s on Society, Religion, and Ethics. (Ann Arbor: The University Of Michigan Press, 1968) p.275. FULLER, R. Buckminster Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth. op. cit., pp. 15-16. BORGSTROM, Georg Too Many: An Ecological Overview of Earth's Limitations. (New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1969) p.106. HELBURN, Suzanne W., SPERLING, John G., EVANS, Robert G.,and LOTT, Elizabeth J. Economics in Society: Third World Economics. (Addison-Wesley, 1976) p.53. FULLER, R. Buckminster Utopia or Oblivion, 0p. cit., p.278. SCHUMACHER, E.F. Small Is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. (New York: Harper and Row, 1973) p. 14. 62 HELBURN, Suzanne W., et.al. Economics in Society. 0p.cit., p. 84. FULLER, R. Buckminster Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth. op. cit., pp. 57-58. SCHUMACHER, E.F. Small Is Beautiful: Economics as if Pegple Mattered. op. cit.) pp. 18-19. BORGSTROM, Georg Too Many, op. cit., p. 247. KAHN, Herman and BRIGGS, B. Bruce Things TgiCome: Thinking About the 70's and 80's. (New York: The Macmillan Company 1972) p. 142. "Rio Report Proposes Structural Changes In Global System By Year 2000: A More Equitable International Social and Economic Order" Survey of International Development, Vol. XIII, No. 6, November-December, 1976, pp. 1-2. BORGSTROM, Georg The Food and PeOple Dilemma, op. cit., p.63. FULLER, R. Buckminster Earth Inc., op. cit., p.75. HELBURN, Suzanne W., et.al. Economics in Society, op.cit.,p.l79. MENDLOVITZ, Saul H. On Creation of a Just World Order: Preferred Worlds for the 1990‘s. (New York: The Free Press, 1975) p.x. BOULDING, Kenneth E. "The Concept of World Interest" in Disarmament and Economic Development. Eds., Richard A. Falk and Saul H. MendloVitz (New York: World Law Fund, 1966) p. 508. SCANLON, David G. International Education: A Documentary History (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1960) pp. 31-32. KENWORTHY, Leonard S. Introducing Children to the World. (New York: Harper andiBrothers, I956) pp. X, 14, 147. KENWORTHY, Leonard S. op. cit., pp. 10-14. KENWORTHY, Leonard S. World Horizons For Teachers. (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952) p.100. GARRATY, John A. and ADAMS, Walter From Main Street to the Left Bank: Students and Scholars Abroad. TEast Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1959) p.1. 63 BUTTS, R. Freeman American Education in International Development. iNew York: Harper and Row, 1963) pp.6-7. LONG, Harold M. and KING, Robert N. Improving the Teaching of World Affairs: The Glen Falls Story. (Washington, D.C.: The National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin Number 35, 1964) PP. 2-5. TAYLOR, Harold The World as Teacher. (New York: Doubleday and Company, 1969) p.3. TAYLOR, Harold "The International Principle," in Conference on World Education. Ed. Harold Taylor (Washington, D.C.: The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1967) p.7. ANDERSON, Lee F. "Education and Social Science in the Context of an Emerging Global Society" in International Dimensions in the Social Studies. op. cit., p.78. ALGER, Chadwick F. "International Organizations and World Order: Social Science as a Source of New Perspectives" in International Dimensions in the Social Studies. op. cit., p.76. BECKER, James M. and MEHLINGER, Howard D "Conceptual Lag and the Study of International Affairs" in International Dimensions in the Social Studies. op.cit., pp. 2-11. MEHLINGER, Howard D. "Enlarging the International Component of the High School Social Studies Curriculum," in Social Education. Vol. XXXII, November, 1968, p.683. KELMAN, Herbert C. "Education for the Concept of a Global Society," in Social Education, 0p. cit., p.665. SCANLON, David G. and SHIELDS, James J. Problems and Prospects in International Education. (Columbia University: Teachers College Press, 1968) p.XVI. HESS, Robert D. and TORNEY, Judith V. The Development of Political Attitudes in Children. TChicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967) p.114. MORRIS, Donald N. and KING, Edith W. "Bringing Spaceship Earth Into Elementary School Classrooms," in Social Education. op. cit., pp. 676-679. KELMAN, Herbert C. "Education for the Concept of a Global Society," in Social Education, op. cit., p.664. 64 ALGER, Chadwick F. "Some Problems in Improving International Education," in Social Education, op. cit., p.660. HARPER, Robert A. "A Basic Framework for Social Science: Two Fundamental Human-Earth Equations and Their Juxtaposition," in Social Education, 0p.cit., p.656. ANDERSON, C. Arnold "Challenges and Pitfalls in International Education," in The United States and International Education, Ed. Harold G. Shane (Chicago: The National Society For The Study of Education, 1969) PP. 67-68. BECKER, James M. "An Examination of Objectives, Needs and Priorities in International Education in U.S. Secondary and Elementary Schools," (ERIC Resource Document, ED031612, 1969) p.10. ANDERSON, Lee F. "An Examination of the Structure and Objectives of International Education," in Social Education, op.cit, p.641. MOHR, Jeremy J and EAST, Maurice A. "International Studies Education in Secondary Social Studies Classes: A Report on a Survey of Colorado Secondary Schools," ERIC Resource Center (ED080394, 1971) p.3. KING, Edith W. The World, op.cit., p.Xl. KING, Edith W., ibid.,p.34. BECKER, James "Teaching International Relations," ERIC Resource Document, ED066364, 1972) pp.7-8. BECKER, James, ibid.,p.10. BECKER, James, ibid., p.2. Global Development Studies. (New York: Management Institute for National Development, 1973) pp. 9-15. WOOD, Jayne Millar "Adding a Global Outlook to Our Secondary Curriculum: Classroom Teaching Strategies," in Social Education, 0p. cit., 1974, p.665. HANVEY, Robert G. An Attainable Global Perspective. (New York: Center for Global Perspectives, 1975T’p.13-14. HANVEY, Robert G., op. cit., p.25. REMY, Richard C., NATHAN, James A., BECKER, James M. and TORNEY, Judith V. International Learning and International Education in a Global Age. (Washington, D.C.: The National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 47, 1975) pp. 51-52. 65 IREMY, Richard C., NATHAN, James A., BECKER, James M., and TORNEY Judith V. International Learning, op. cit., p.45. "Toward The Achievement of Global Literacy In American Schools," Report on the Wingspread Workshop on Problems of Definition and Assessment of Global Education. (Racine, Wisconsin, 1976) PP.9-10. Guidelines for Global Education. (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education)pn 7. ANDERSON, Lee, ANDERSON, Charlotte, MAXEY, Phylis, BRADLEY, Susan, and KUCZMARSKY, Susan "Citizen Competence in an Age of Global Interdependence," in Education for Global Consciousness: Social Studies for Responsible Citizenship. Eds., Grace Kachaturoff and Guy Blackburn (Michigan: Michigan Council for the Social Studies, 1978) p.19. KINGORN, Jon Rye et. al., School Improvement Through Global Education: A Guide to the Four Essential Themes. (A Project of Commission on Schools, North Central Association and the Charles F. Kettering Foundation: 1978) pp. 10-11. Guidelines for Global Education. op. cit., p.3 Chapter III Methodology InEEoduction The purpose of this study is to identify themes for global education, and secondarily to construct performance objectives based on these global education themes. A re- lated but peripheral purpose finally is to construct assessment items for the performance objectives. Therefore, the study is designed to be developmental in its approach in order to answer the research questions posed in Chaptef I. Procedure Step One The first research question is to identify themes for a global education program. In order to accomplish this a thorough review of the literature was made to identify significant topics in global studies. From the review five themes were identified. The five themes are as follows: 1. Interdependence 2. Systems Theory 3. Worldmindedness 4. Finite Resources 5. A New Economic Order These five themes were presented via a pilot study to twenty teachers in the Menominee school district. These teachers were chosen because they are one of four selected school districts participating with the Michigan Department of 66 67 Education in implementing an innovative program in global education. A questionnaire was used in the pilot study and the participants were asked to rate the five global education themes identified on a five point scale. Each of the five identified themes included a description. The results of the pilot study demonstrated that the themes included the salient features of global education, and the study also demonstrated that the themes were sufficiently defined. In order to gain validity the five global education themes were presented to 138 teachers from four areas in Michigan. These areas include Lansing, Benton Harbor, Saginaw, and Battle Creek. These teachers are candidates in a graduate program entitled Master of Arts in Classroom Teaching. These teachers were chosen as the sample group because of their experience in the classroom. As in the pilot study, the participants were asked to rate each global education theme according to a five point scale. When the data were collected the responses were tabulated and a percentage was used to indicate the degree of agreement the participants had with each theme. Step Two The second research question was to construct performance objectives for global education. The performance objectives are based on global education themes. The performance objectives 68 do not include the conditions of learning nor the criteria of learning. In order to construct these performance objectives the curriculum for a K-12 school was divided into two general areas, elementary and secondary. This was done because some objectives may be appropriate at the secondary level but not at the elementary level. In addition, the curriculum at the secondary level was divided into typical subjects -- economics, geography, government, history, sociology, and world problems. And the curriculum at the elementary level was divided into typical subjects -- art, language arts, math, reading, science and social science. One of the features in step two is the use of a matrix in the construction of performance objectives for both the elementary and secondary areas. The identified themes for global education were placed on the left side of each matrix, and the subject areas commonly found in the elementary and secondary curri- culum were placed at the top of the matrix. The matrices were used because they aid in systematically constructing performance objectives for global education. In addition, in order to gain a measure of objectivity the subject areas were positioned alphabetically across the top of the matrices. This type of organization allows for the systematic con- struction of a curriculum by using coordinates or cells. When a global education theme intersects with a subject in the 69 curriculum, the area where they intersect is called a cell or a coordinate. In the instance when the global education theme interdependence intersects with a subject in the curri- culum such as language arts, or history or economics at the secondary level, a performance objective can be systematically constructed by fusing or ommfinhmga theme with a subject in the curriculum. Within Chapter four figures 1 and 2 graphically depict this type of curriculum organization. In addition, for the purposes of this study, to construct exemplarary global education performance objectives, only the diagonals of the matrices were used. Theoretically, performance objectives could be constructed for any cell or coordinate, either horizontally or vertically, in either matrix. A second feature in step two is the use of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in constructing the per- formance objectives. The taxonomy consists of two general domains, cognitive learning and affective learning. In the domain of cognitive learning there are six levels -- recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Each of these levels was used in the development of performance objectives. In the domain of affective learning there are five levels -- receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization by a value or value complex. Again, each level was used in the development of performance objectives. The levels of Bloom's Taxonomy used in this study can be 70 graphically seen in Figures 1 and 2. For each coordinate or cell along the diagonal of each matrix one level of both the cognitive and affective domains was used in this study. Theoretically, all six levels inthe cognitive domain and all five levels in the affective domain could be used in constructing performance objectives for any coordinate or cell. Step Three The third research question was to construct assessment items for performance objectives in global education. In order to accomplish this journals in subject areas were reviewed. The journals reviewed correspond with the subject area under investigation, that is to say that journals in history, geo- graphy, business, etc., were reviewed. Excerpts from journal articles were identified as being illustrativeci global educa- tion. These short selections were used in the construction of assessment items in order to give contextual clues. The construction of assessment items presupposes that some instruction has taken place in the classroom. After the instruction has taken place the teacher would want to determine the extent of learning which has occurred. The use of assess- ment items provides concrete, verified evidence for making this determination. The evidence gained from using assessment items can tell the teacher how much the student has learned. For the purposes of this study the excerpts are to give contextual meaning, and in a broad manner represent instructional 71 activity. In some of the assessment items excerpts are not provided. In these situations some instructional activity is presupposed. Also, when excerpts are provided they may be criticized on two accounts. First, the concepts in the selections may be too advanced for secondary students, and also the terminology used may be incomprehensible. However, it may be argued that the purpose of instructional activity is to explain terminology and interpret concepts. A final note, the corresponding assessment items in Bloom's Taxonomy were used as examples from which global education assessment items were constructed. They provided a model for obtaining evidence for the extent of learning in the classroom. Summary This type of curriculum development study has three dimensions. The first dimension is the division of a K-12 curriculum into secondary and elementary areas. This means that global education performance objectives and assessment items were constructed to reflect the level of cognitive and affective learning at these two levels. The second dimension is the fusion of global education themes with traditional subjects. This means that performance objectives for global education are multidisciplinary, that they can be constructed in a wide range of disciplines. The third dimension is the use of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. This means that the type of structure or schematic or design in Bloom's Taxonomy was used as a model from which global education 72 objectives and assessment items were constructed. As has been mentioned in step two a matrix was used to systematically construct performance objectives, and speci- fically in this study the diagonal along the matrix. This was done to limit the number of objectives constructed in this study. It is theoretically possible to construct in each cell of the matrix six cognitive performance objectives and five affective performance objectives from Bloom's Taxonomy. Furthermore there are thirty cells at the secondary level and thirty cells at the elementary level. The sixty cells in both matrices could theoretically generate 660 performance objectives. The enormity of this task is beyond the scope of this study. Also, the use of performance objectives may in some instances be misleading. There are certain words which describe an educational outcome which may be found at more than one level in the Taxonomy. This overlap may at times cause confusion. The performance objectives in this study are meant to communicate a certain educational activity. The words translate, analyze, recall and others found in the performance objectives are used to communicate a cer- tain instructional outcome. Although a concerted effort was made to express all instructional objectives in per- formance terms it is not always possible to write concise statements that clearly describe the educational activities of the learner. CHAPTER IV Analysis Of Information Introduction This study is designed to provide information, based on research and development, on global education. The information in this study identifies themes for global education, and then using the themes as a cornerstone, constructs performance objectives and assessment items. This study was executed in three steps. The first step was to identify themes for global education by care- fully reviewing the literature, give these themes a definition, and then submit the themes to a group of teachers in order to gain validation. The second step was to construct performance objectives by fusing themes for global education with typical subject areas in a K-12 curriculum; this step involved the use of Bloom's Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives. The third step was to construct assessment items for each performance objective; again, Bloom's Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives was used as a model. This chapter reports the information obtained in each of the three steps. Tabulations for the global education questionnaire are presented in Table I. Table II reports the results of step two, the construction of performance 73 74 objectives. Table III reports the results of step three, the construction of assessment items. In addition, the use of Bloom's Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives is discussed. The remainder of this chapter discusses the results of the questionnaire, the presentation of performance objectives, and assessment items, and the use of Bloom's Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives. Analysis Global Education Themes Introduction. From the results of the questionnaire (Table I), it is apparent that teachers from the sample used in this study, agree that the themes they were asked to rate illustrate the salient features for global educa- tion objectives. In reading Table I it should be noted that the participants rated each theme on a five point scale. The main purpose of the questionnaire was to establish themes for global education from which a curriculum could be constructed. The results warrant attention along two lines: first, the percentage of agreement according to the five possible responses for each theme, and secondly, the mean rating for each theme. The mean rating provides a convenient rating for the identification of the most important themes, and the percentage tabulation for the five 75 g f\// possible responses gives a better indication of the degree of consensus among the participants about the importance of each theme. The remainder of this section briefly discusses each possible response for the five global education themes. As reported in Table I, the theme interdependence was rated the highest of all five themes. The mean for inter- dependence was 4.78. This response from the participants indicates that interdependence is a major concern for global education. Also, when the scale is collapsed be- tween responses 4 and 5, a total of 98% of the participants at least somewhat agree that interdependence is a salient feature of global education. The theme systems theory was rated the fourth highest of the five themes. The mean for systems theory was 4.18. This response from the participants, while not as strong as for other themes, indicates that systems theory is an integral feature for global education. The low rating, however, may be due to the participants lack of knowledge about systems theory, Even though the mean is the fourth lowest of all themes, when the scale is collapsed between responses 4 and 5, a total of 83% of the participants at least somewhat agree that system theory is a salient feature of global education. The theme worldmindedness was rated the second highest 76 of the five themes. The mean for worldmindedness was 4.69. This response from the participants indicates that worldmindedness is a key component for global education. Again, when the scale is collapsed between responses 4 and 5, a total of 95% of the participants at least satewhat agree that worldmdndedness is a salient feature of global education. The theme finite resources was rated the third highest of the five themes. The mean for finite resources was 4.54. This response from the participants indicates that finite resources, is a major ingredient for global education. Again, when the scale is collapsed between responses 4 and 5 , a total of 90% of the participants at least sanewhat agree that finite resources is a salient feature of global education Finally, the theme a new economic order was rated the fifth highest of the five themes. The mean for a new economic order was 3.79. This response from the partici- pants, while not as strong as the other four themes, indicates that a new economic order ought to be considered in the development of global education. This low rating, however, may be due also to a lack of knowledge about the international economic order. Even though the mean is the lowest of the five themes, again when the scale is collapsed between responses 4 and 5, a total of 68% of the participants at least somewhat agree that a new economic order is a salient feature of global education. Other data reported in the questionnaire are as follows. 77 In the participant group there were more females than males. The percentages of females is 67% while for males it is 33%. The participants were an experienced group of teachers. The largest group were those who had taught eight years or more, the next were those with two to four years of experience, the third was five to eight years, and the last was zero to one years. The corresponding percentages are 55%, 22%, 19%, and 4%. A slight majority of teachers were at the elementary level, many were at the secondary level, and a few were in the category entitled other which would include support personnel such as special education. The corresponding percentages are 53%, 41%, and 6%. There was a fairly even breakdown of geographical locations of the participants from urban, surburban, and rural settings. The corresponding percentages are 36%, 32%, and 32%. Only a small fraction of the participants have either traveled or worked overseas. The corresponding percentages are 23% and 10%. Two questions were added which give some interesting data. Of the participant group 80% reported that global education is an important or very important perspective for students to acquire. The second question reports that 23% of the parti- cipants ranked global education as equal or more important than basic skills, 27% rated global education as equivalent to career education, etc., 49% ranked global education as a strong feature of the social studies, and only 1% reported that little emphasis should be given to global education. 78 TABLE 1 Themes For Judgments About Global Education Questionnaire, Step One Interdepgndence - peoples of the world ought to know fhat they are—dependent on each other through the use of natural resources, through industry and commerce, and through ecological structures. Systems Theory - people can seek solutions to complex problems by viewing the immediate problem as connected with and part of a larger network or system which has interrelated parts. WOrldmindedness - people ought to be aware that they are a part ofia global society and they ought to have know- ledge of some significant aspects of that society. Finite Resources - the world's resources are exhaustible, limited, and in a condition of scarcity. A New Economic Order - the economic structure, throughout time world, will shift and due to the dynamics of change rune patterns will form such as the wealthy countries of the Middle East. Mean D SD N SA A RapinL 1. Interdependggce 0% as 0% 17% 81% it": 4.78 2- §ystems Theorx % 6%_ 10% 41% 42% i = 4.18 3. Worldmindedness r 1% 0% 4% 21% 74% x = 4.69 4. Finite Resources 9, 2% 7% 23 67% if = 4.54 5. A New Economic Order % 7% 23% 45% 23% 5(- = 3.79 N = 138 79 Years of teaching experience 4% 0-1 22% 2-4 19% 5-8 55% 8 or more Grade level and subjects: Elementary 55% Secondary 41% Other 6% Type of school: 36% Urban 32% Suburban 32% Rural Would you indicate any overseas experience: Travel 23% Work 10% How important do you feel it is for students at your school to acquire a global education perspective? Not Somewhat Important 1% Important 14% Neutral 5% Important 51% Very Important 29% How much emphasis should global education have within the total curriculum? 6% As important as basic skills. 17% Ranks second to basic skills. 27% Equivalent to career education, health education, etc. 49% A strong feature of the social studies. 1% Little emphasis should be given. 80 Step Two Introduction. The second stage for this study was based on the first stage and contains the five global education themes. The themes were arranged on the left hand side of a matrix and typical subject areas were placed at the top of the matrix (See figures 1 and 2). In addition, the subject areas were divided into the secondary and elementary levels. The matrix provides coordinates or cells. This type of organization aids in systematically developing a curri- culum. Whenever a theme, on the left side of the matrix, intersects with a subject area, on the tOp of the matrix, a performance objective or objectives could be constructed. Figures 1 and 2 display the coordinates or cells. It is theoretically possible, by using a matrix, to develop performance objectives for all of the cells or coordinates in the matrix. In the instance of inter- dependence it would be possible to fuse this theme with economics, geography, government, history, sociology, and world problems at the secondary level, and also to combine interdependence with art, language arts, math, reading, science, and social studies at the elementary level. For the purpose of providing examples of performance objectives, only the diagonal of the matrix was used in this study. 81 season w>fluommw¢88 cfimfioa m>wuflcmOUa mm>Huowmno mocmEH0mHmd unaccommmnuoo wry mo mmHQmem MOM HH manna 0mm cowumN lumuomums a mwmoamcam “mono oweocoom 3oz fl . ouflcmmupg mMthmsLl unoccmccwacauoz fl cowumomwmmd meweGOQmm 5..” msmsmuafiowu. whomsa.m8wum>m « mmcmH3ocxa cowpmoam>m mcw>wmomm«¢ monopsomocumucH meHnoum mmoHoHoom muoumflm ucmEsHm>ow acmmumomo mowaocoom pHHOZ— A AI 866.33 a, magmas Hanoao mm>HBUm~hmO muzgommmm UZHBUDMBm IZOD 2H ammD nfi>mn >m¢nzoumm HEB Ed mZHdzon W>H90mhh< QZ¢ M>HBHZUOU .mmzmmfi AdmOAU .mauommmwuwcmOU* mw>fiuomnno mosmEHOMHmQ mcflpcommwuuoo on» mo mmHmmem How HH magma mom .Hmuomnan—i nacho ogosoom 3oz d mammmucmm « .mNflcmmHoL: monsoommm cues:— manhamcala mcwoam> - mumspmenwfipanoz coaumomwmm< memesommmm48 whoops nfimummm cowmcmnmumfioui_ coaumsam>m msfl>wmommj commencemeumucH « mmpmfisocvr mocoflom mocwflom mcwpmmm cum: nuu< and AImuooESma Hmwoom mmmsmcmg mesmna awhon mm>HBUMUmO moz<2m0hmmm UZHBUDMBmZOU ZH QmmD Am>mq MmHfiumhh¢ QZ¢ m>HBHZUOO .mmzmmfi Qwhich the learner directs his attention, *Taken from Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 133 at least at a semiconscious level, toward the preferred stimuli. 2.0 RESPONDING At this level we are concerned with responses which go beyond merely attending to the phenomenon. The student is sufficiently motivated that he is not just 1.2 Willing to attend, but perhaps it is correct to say that he is actively attending. As a first stage in a "learning by doing" process the student is committing himself in some small measure to the phenomena involved. This is a very low level of commitment, and we would not say at this level that this was "a value of his" or that he had "such and such an attitude." These terms belong to the next higher level that we describe. But we could say that he is doing something with or about the phenomena beside merely per- ceiving it, as would be true at the next level below this of 1.3 Controlled or selected attention. This is the category that many teachers will find best describes their "interest" objectives. Most commonly we use the term to indicate the desire that a child become sufficiently involved in or committed to a subject, phenomenon, or activity that he will seek it out and gain satisfaction from working with it or engaging in it. 3.0 VALUING This is the only category headed by a term which is in common use in the expression of objectives by teachers. 134 Further, it is employed in its usual sense: that a thing, phenomenon, or behavior has worth. This abstract concept of worth is in part a result of the individual's own valuing or assessment, but it is much more a social product that has been slowly internalized or accepted and has come to be used by the student as his own criterion of worth. Behavior categorized at this level is sufficiently consistent and stable to have taken on the characteristics of a belief or an attitude. The learner displays this be- havior with sufficient consistency in appropriate situations that he comes to be perceived as holding a value. At this level we are not concerned with the relationships among values but rather with the internalization of a set of specified, ideal, values. Viewed from another standpoint, the objectives classified here are the prime stuff from which the conscience of the individual is developed into active control of behavior. This category will be found appropriate for many ob- jectives that use the term "attitude" (as well as, of course, "value"). An important element of behavior characterized by Valuing is that it is motivated, not by the desire to com- ply or obey, but by the individual's commitment to the underlying value guiding the behavior. 4.0 ORGANIZATION As the learner successively internalizes values, he encounters situations for which more than one value is 135 relevant. Thus necessity arises for (a) the organizaion of the values into a system, (b) the determination of the interrelationships among them, and (c) the establishment of the dominant and pervasive ones. Such a system is built gradually, subject to change as new values are in- corporated. This category is intended as the proper classi— fication for objectives which describe the beginnings of the building of a value system. It is subdivided into two levels, since a prerequisite to interrelating is the con- ceptualization of the value in a form which permits organi- zation. Conceptualization forms the first subdivision in the organization process, Organization of a value system the second. While the order of the two subcategories seems appro- priate enough with reference to one another, it is not so certain that 4.1 Conceptualization of a value is properly placed as the next level about 3.3 Commitment. Conceptuali- zation undoubtedly begins at an earlier level for some objectives. Like 2.3 Satisfaction in response, it is doubtful that a single completely satisfactory location for this category can be found. Positioning it before 4.2 Organization of a value system appropriately indicates a prerequisite of such a system. It also calls attention to a component of affective growth that occurs at least by this point on the continuum but may begin earlier. 136 5.0 CHARACTERIZATION BY A VALUE OR VALUE COMPLEX At this level of internalization the values already have a place in the individual's value hierarchy, are or- ganized into some kind of internally consistent system, have controlled the behavior of the indivdual for a suffi— cient time that he has adapted to behaving this way; and an evocation of the behavior no longer arouses emotion or affect except when the individual is threatened or challenged. The individual acts consistently in accordance with the values he has internalized at this level, and our concern is to indicate two things: (a) the generalization of this control to so much of the individual's behavior that he is described and characterized as a person by these pervasive controlling tendencies, and (b) the in- tegration of these beliefs, ideas, and attitudes into a total philosophy or world view. These two aspects con- stitute the subcategories. APPENDIX D TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES IN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN 137 138 APPENDIX D A Condensed Version of the Cognitive Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives* 1.00 KNOWLEDGE Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and pro- cesses, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting. For measurement purposes, the recall situation involves little more than bringing to mind the appropriate material. Although some alteration of the material may be required, this is a relatively minor part of the task. The knowledge objectives emphasize most the psychological processes of remembering. The process of relating is also involved in that a knowledge test situation requires the organization and reorganization of a problem such that it will furnish the appropriate signals and cues for the information and knowledge the individual posses. To use an analogy, if one thinks of the mind as a file, the problem in a knowledge test situation is that of finding in the problem or task the appropriate signals, cues, and clues which will most effectively bring out whatever knowledge is filed or stored. 2.0 COMPREHENSION This represents the lowest level of understanding. It refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and *Taken from Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 139 can make use of the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implication. 3 . 00 APPLICATION The use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations. The abstractions may be in the form of general ideas, rules of procedures, or generalized methods. The abstractions may also be technical principles, ideas, and theories which must be remembered and applied. 4.00 ANALYSIS The breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between the ideas ex- pressed are made explicit. 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