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AND INDICATORS OF QUALITY OF LIFE l presented by Leticia Olivas Torres has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.A. degree in Family Studies fiW Major professor [hue July 25, 1979 0-7 639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER IIEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. AGE AT THE BIRTH OF THE FIRST CHILD AND INDICATORS OF QUALITY OF LIFE By Leticia Olivas Torres A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fuifillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family and Chde Sciences 1979 ABSTRACT AGE AT THE BIRTH OF THE FIRST CHILD AND INDICATORS OF QUALITY OF LIFE By Leticia Olivas Torres The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in indi~ cators of quality of life in a sample of Oakland County, Michigan, husbands and wives grouped into life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child. Primary emphasis was placed upon family life and aspects of family life; The study was part of a research project funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station (Project Numbers 3lSl and 1249). Data were collected by questionnaires. Respondents were primarily white, middle-class. Hypotheses were analyzed by one-way multivariate analysis of variance and matched pair tytests. Wives in the early life-cycle stage were significantly more sat- isfied with life as a whole than their husbands. No other statistically significant differences were found; however, percentages of positive responses increased as life-cycle stage increased. Early childbearers had lower incomes, occupational and educational levels; also, couples in the early childbearing stage had the highest mean number of children. To my husband, Frank, whose cherished love, support and understanding have helped bring me to this point in my life and To Mother and Dad. who throughout the years have given of themselves so completely and unselfishly ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express appreciation to the members of my committee for their help in making this study a rewarding and enlightening experience. Many thanks to Dr. Margaret Bubolz, major professor, who provided thoughtful, patient guidance and assistance throughout the study, and who made possible the use of the Oakland County Quality of Life research data. Thanks, also, to Dr. Jane Oyer for her helpful ideas, suggestions, and warm support. - Appreciation is extended to the many peOple met during the course of this study who have helped make it a rewarding experience. A special thank-you is extended to Jan Vredevoogd whose knowledge of computer science was of great assistance. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. Purpose. . Conceptual Model. Analytical Model. Dependent Variables . Independent Variable. Demographic Variables Research Questions Hypotheses. '11. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . Quality of Life . . Family Life, Life- Cycle, and Trends Chapter Summary . . III. METHODOLOGY . Research Design . The Delighted-Terrible Scale . Sample Selection. . Operational Definitions . Description of Major Sample . Description of Study Sample . Assumptions . Analysis of Data. Statistical Methods IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION . Description of Sample Independent and Dependent Variables . . . . Life-cycle Stage Groups Based Upon Age of Respondent at the Birth of the First Child . . . Satisfaction with Life as a Whole Satisfaction with Family Life. iv Page “3—0.; \uo-b h (JD—1 52 52 53 53 Chapter Satisfaction with Family Life Considering Only Children, Spouse. and Marriage . Men and Women in the Life-cycle Stage Groups . . . . . . . Life-cycle Stage Groups by Demographic Variables. . Tests of Hypotheses l and 2 Husband-Wife Pairs in the Life-cycle Stage Groups . . . . . . . . . . . Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups by Demographic Variables Test of Hypothesis 3. . . Summary of Findings. v. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS. Conclusions Limitations Implications REFERENCES CITED. APPENDICES- Appendix A. QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS UTILIZED IN THE STUDY, ITEM SOURCES, AND DESCRIPTION OF COLLUSION SCORES FOR SECTIONS 1 AND 6 OF QUESTIONNAIRE . B. SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS FOR MULTIVARIATE TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE AND T-TESTS Page 56 6O 61 71 86 87 95 102 109 109 110 112 114 117 124 Table tooowosm-poom ....r O —l A 12. 13. 14. 15.1. 15.2. 16. LIST OF TABLES Questionnaire Items and Measure Used in the Investigation of Research Questions Age of Respondents Race of Respondents. Religion of Respondents Years of Education of Respondents . Occupational Prestige Scores of Respondents. 1977 Per Capita Income for Sample Families Number of Children Born Per Family. Number of Respondents in Male and Female Groups . . . . . . . . Satisfaction with Life as a Whole for Sample Respondents . Satisfaction with Family Life for Sample Respondents. . Satisfaction with Children for Sample Respondents. . . . . Satisfaction with Spouse for Sample Respondents. . . Satisfaction with Marriage for Sample Respondents. . . . . . Race of Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . Percentage of Black and White Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . . Religion of Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . vi Page 32 45 45 45 47 47 48 48 62 54 55 57 58 59 62 62 63 Table 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.1. 28.2. 29. 30. 31. Years of Education of Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. Occupational Prestige Scores of Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. l977 Per Capita Income of Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. Number of Children Born to Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. Means and Standard Deviations of Satisfaction Scores for Male Respondents . Means and Standard Deviations of Satisfaction Scores for Female Respondents. . . Satisfaction with Life as a Whole for Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . . . . . . . Satisfaction with Family Life for Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . . . . . Satisfaction with Children for Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . . . . . Satisfaction with Spouse for Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. Satisfaction with Marriage for Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . . . . . . . Race of Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups . . . . . . Percentage of Black and White Respondents in Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . '. . . . . . . Religion of Husband-Wife Pairs in Life- cycle Stage Groups . Years of Education of Husband—Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups. . Occupational Prestige Scores of Husband- Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups vii Page 65 66 68 70 72 74 77 79 81 83 85 88 88 89 91 92 Table 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. l977 Per Capita Income for Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups Children Born to Husband-Wife Pairs in Life- cycle Stage Groups. . Results of teTest for Husband-Wife Pairs for Life as a Whole . . . . Satisfaction with Life as a Whole for Husband- Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups Satisfaction with Family Life for Husband- Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups Satisfaction with Children for Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups . Satisfaction with Spouse for Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups Satisfaction with Marriage for Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups viii Page 93 94 95 98 99 101 103 104 LIST OF FIGURES General two-dimensional conceptual model with examples of domains and criteria developed by Andrews and Withey. . . . . Male and female life-cycle stage groups and proposed group comparisons and descriptions. . . . The Delighted-Terrible Scale with seven on-scale categories and three off-scale categories . . . . Types of occupations held by respondents in the Oakland County study . . 1977 family income of respondents in the Oakland County study. . . Satisfaction mean scores for male life- cycle stage groups Satisfaction mean scores for female life- cycle stage groups Satisfaction mean scores for husband-wife pairs in three life-cycle stage groups. ix Page 10 31 42 43 73 75 97 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION With the increased tempo of societal life, the advancement of technological progress, and the improvement of living conditions manifested in the relatively higher national standard of living, America, as well as other nations, is expressing its need for a period of "inner reflection." This move towards a national "consciousness- raising" experience has resulted in the growing popularity of the concept of quality of life. Quality of life has been related to all levels of life-- national, local, personal, psycho-social, political, and economic levels to mention a few. While concern about quality of life has been widespread, and writings on the subject have been prolific in recent years, actual empirical research has encountered greater difficulties and limitations. These aspects will be more fully discussed in a later section. Exact or operational definitions of quality of life have varied across disciplines in accordance with theoretical and research models. And there is of yet no one common definition. However, the concept of quality of life does represent a sense of "well-being" as measured by perceptual and/or objective indicators. 2 [Several quality of life studies (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Bubolz, Eicher & Evers, 1978, in press; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976) have consistently substantiated the finding that the majority of Americans are quite satisfied with their lives.) These studies have also established the importance of specific areas of experience or domains in American life. The family and family life is one of these domains, and, again, most Americans seem to be highly satisfied with their family lives. It is unfortunate, therefore, that the family in America has been a sorely neglected institution in governmental issues, social policy-making, and even in academic circles. Only in recent years has the family begun to emerge as a powerfully important human institution which must be considered at all levels of societal functioning (Carnegie Council on‘Children, l977;'-Zillmerman,1976'). As previously stated, recent studies have concluded that family life is an important determinant of life satisfaction for a majority of people. Such conclusions fly in the face of popularly held beliefs that the family is a nonviable, disintegrating social unit. According to a recent publication by The Carnegie Council on Children (1977), a more accurate portrayal of the family is one of strength, viability, and adaptive structural change. It Acontends, however, that the structural changes within the family do nOt make the family self-sufficient, but under- score the importance of societal support for the family. 3 Implicit in this stand is a need for greater research pursuits, knowledge, and understanding of all aspects of family life and their impacts on individuals as well as society. Purpose This study will be concerned with measuring overall life satisfaction, satisfaction with family life, and satisfaction with selected aspects of family life such as children, Spouse, and marriage, and examining differences in these measurements across three different life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of the parents at the birth of the first child. These groups are the early, modal, and later stage groups. Differences in the measurements will be compared within the female subsample, and within the male subsample. Differences between male and female life-cycle stage groups will be compared cOnsidering only the measurement of overall life satisfaction. The different male and female life-cycle stage groups will be described in terms of race, religion, educational attainment, per capita income, occupational prestige, and total number of children born. Research questions and hypotheses will be developed and utilized in examining the relevant aspects of this study. It is hoped that this study will provide an examination of possible differences in the above mentioned variables in relation to initial parenthood experiences during different stages of the life cycle. Results could be related to current social conditions, trends, and issues and be used as a basis for future research and hypothesis testing. 4 For example, a subsample of the respondents who married and experienced parenthood relatively early in their lives will be examined across several demographic characteristics as well as across five measures of satisfaction with their quality of life. DO these characteristics and findings substantiate what has been proposed in the literature about early preg- nancies and marriage, and does early pregnancy and marriage make a difference in the perceived quality of life? The results of this study will be helpful in answering these and other questions. Specific Objectives of the study are: Objective l: To investigate reported satisfaction with life as a whole among a sample of Oakland County, Michigan, respondents. Objective 2: To investigate reported satisfaction with ‘ family life among a sample of Oakland County respondents. Objective 3: To investigate reported satisfaction with selected aspects of family life such as children, Spouse, and marriage among a sample of Oakland County respondents. Objective 4: To compare and investigate how the above measures of satisfaction vary within male and female subsamples, among a sample of Oakland County respondents according to life-cycle stage groups based upon age of the parents at the birth of the first child. 5 Objective 5: To compare and investigate, among a sample Of Oakland County respondents, how measures of reported satisfaction with life as a whole vary between male and female life-cycle stage groups based upon age of the parents at the birth of the first child. Objective 6: To describe, among a sample of Oakland County respondents, the male and female life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of parents at. the birth of the first child, in terms of the following demographic variables: race, religion, educational attainment, per capita income, occupational prestige, and total number of children born. Conceptual Model Andrews and Withey (1976) contend that in evaluating how they feel about their lives people make evaluations on three different levels of specificity. When evaluating how satisfied with life as a whole, people are.making a broad, all-enveloping evaluation which covers all important aspects of their lives. Andrews and Withey call this an evaluation at the global level. However, evaluations may be made at more specific levels. These are general evaluations of what Andrews and Withey call life concerns which are "...simply, aspects of life about which people have feelings" (p. ll). There are two types of life concerns--domains and criteria. Domains are general areas of life or experience such as family life and work. Criteria are values, 6 standards, and goals which are used to evaluate satisfaction with different life domains. Examples of criteria are free- dom and independence, beauty, and fun. While criteria aid in evaluating life domains, they may also form the basis of a general evaluation without reference to any specific domain: For example, a person may make an evaluation about how he or she feels about the beauty, fun; or freedom and independence in his or her life. Evaluations of perceived satisfaction using domains or criteria are a second type of evaluation. A third type of evaluation, and the most specific, is one using domains by criteria. In this case, a specific domain is evaluated in terms of specific criteria. An example would be how an individual feels about his family life with respect to fun. This study will be largely based upon the domain and criteria cOnceptual model developed by Andrews and Withey. This model is a two-dimensional matrix model which shows the evaluation of perceived satisfaction on different levels of specificity ranging from the general domains and criteria to the more specific domains by criteria. Andrews and Withey also hypothesize that their theoret- ical model illustrates proposed relationships between the evaluations of life concerns and the evaluation of life as a whole. They contend that the evaluation of life as a whole may be a combination or function of satisfaction across domains or across criteria. They caution, however, that the function may not simply be an additive one as the model may imply. 7 It must be noted that Andrews and Withey usually refer to the affective evaluation of well-being instead of the term satisfaction which denotes a more cognitive dimension to the measurement of quality of life. However, one of their measures of well-being, the Terrible-Delighted Scale contains both cognitive and affective dimensions in the use of terms such as "mostly dissatisfied", "satisfied", "pleased", and "unhappy“. In this study, the term satisfaction will be used in place of the more limited "affective evaluation". In this broader sense, the term satisfaction will incorporate both affective and cognitive elements of respondentsl evaluations. Figure 1 illustrates Andrews' and Withey's general concept- ual model for measuring perceived quality of life. Analytical Model ' Though Andrews' and Withey's conceptual model allows for consideration and evaluation of several domains, this study will deal only with the domain of family life. Eval- uations will be determined in three areas: (1) feelings about life as a whole, (2) feelings about family life in .general, and (3) feelings about family life considering specific criteria. The presence or absence of differences between stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child will be examined on measure- ments of satisfaction with family life and overall quality of life. In this study, specific aspects of family life such as children, spouse, and marriage will serve as criteria for the CriXeria a? U) U" (D m U a) Q) u : US 3 '00) :0 m'U:> (D'U (OM-r- 'DQJ cum +9 :0) >5 >50 >5 CUS- QJl'U-Hfd +3 D.“- 0!- :S— OJ OJ .244 £644 '4— : 'U‘O quJ-H GU 3 CC. (Olmm U) u. Hm rHouse/apartment Eij' - - - - - - é - - - L - I - 4L E l Job ' l m I E - W o Nelghborhood , D l I L. t E J- _ _ _ _ _ _ 9 _ _ _ _ - _ _ ’ E E1j= Affective evaluative response to a particular domain with respect to a particular criterion E1 = General affective evaluative response to a domain ' (across criteria) E j: General affective evaluative response to a criterion ' (across domains) E =_ General affective evaluative response to life-as-a- whole-—i.e., perceived quality of life SOURCE: Frank M. Andrews and Stephen B. Withey, Social Indicators of Well-Being (New York: Plenum Press, T976), p. 13. Figure l. General two-dimensional conceptual model with examples of domains and criteria developed by Andrews and Withey. 9 family life domain. Criteria have been previously defined as values, standards, or goals by which domain satisfaction may be evaluated. Rokeach (l973, p. 5) defines a value as, "...an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence." He states that values evolve from a combination and working together of psychological and sociological forces. Thus, an individual's values are a result of personal needs as well as sociological demands (p. 20). For the purpose of this study, it will be assumed that children, spouses, and marriage are of personal and social value for the sample of respondents. Since children, spouses, and marriage may also be used in the evaluation of the family life domain, they may be seen as a type of value, thus falling under the label of criteria. Measures of satisfaction with overall quality of life, family life in general, and family life with respect to children, spouse, and marriage will be compared among three groups of life-cycle stage for both men and women. The groups will be based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child. The male and female stage groups will be compared for satisfaction with life as a whole. All groups will then be described in terms of race, religion, educa- tional attainment, per capita income, occupational prestige, and total number of children born. Figure 2 represents these groups and proposed comparisons and descriptions. 10 apes: c mo oc.a to» mc.aa m».:-c:oam:= :wozuon com.caaeoull II II =wge~.gu so» meow—smasouum mu—au.cu> 6.;aacchoo ”co.ua.cumooum pacocow c. ou.a »—.Eam so» «cam.cuasouu~ up—zu «as.» us» we gucfic we oa< cog: women maaocm macaw o—uauloc.a .mcovuaPLUmwc new mcomwcoasou aaocm ummoaocn use masocm macaw wpuaolmc_— wpmsmc can mpg: ouu.ccu: so» mcompcuasouum ou—a so» mcomvcaachNP w—ogz a ma omaoam .N «Lama; Lou meowvsaasouue econ H . Leona Laue; . . econ cwcv_.;u . . . . . . cocv_.:u O LG E: . . . . . . . . 0 L0 E: u a z . . . . “MHWur.ll I: ll ll Ll II. . . . . c a z quo:_N, wsouc_ uu.auu Lou nu—ncu can oopumocu . . pave: pave; . . oa—umoca pup—quGn—SUUO . . . . . . .flCO—aflnfiuuo aeoe:.cau< . . . . .II I, II I: II ll_nl ll. . . . . r aco5:.aua< puzo.uao:vmt .14 .ozo.uco:cu ea_a._az H . l. ».L.u »_Lau . H ea.a..a¢ oucz H H H . . H H N we»: . . . . .III. .1 I 1.1 r1 III II.-. . . . . :11. o m c m N p :oeo: cu: — N m c m e m».— o_og: c 0—0;: a m».— moc.ccwz «macaw :mcvp.;u Appsou mu 05.; ma ub.a a—.Enu cwcvp.gu omaoam www.cce: .llcrrl #11 FT .Jfi «lg rlzlL 93 IL o.g~u.cu c—oeoo :.csoa o'cou—Lu ll Dependent Variables Five measures of satisfaction are the dependent variables in this study. These measures of satisfaction are also the perceptual indicators for the study. Overall life satisfaction is the global measure Of perceived quality Of life, or how satisfied an individual is with his or her life as a whole. Family life is a major area of experience or domain for most peOple, and is, consequently, an important determinant of overall life satisfaction. Satisfaction with family life in general is a second dependent variable. Children, spouses, and marriage are each important aspects of family life. Satisfaction with children, spouse, and marriage are each dependent variables. Independent Variable The independent variable for this study is the life- cycle stage of Oakland County respondents according to age at the birth of the first child. ' Demographic Variables Variables of group description will be religion, race, occupational prestige, educational attainment, per capita income, and number of children born. These demographic variables also serve as the objective indicators for the study. Research Questions The following research questions will form the basis for data analysis and description. Research Question 1: Research Question 2: Research Question 3: Research Question 4: 12 Do male respondents in an Oakland County sample who are grouped into early, modal, and later life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child differ in satisfaction with the following areas of life: life as a whole, family life in general, and selected aspects of family life such as children, spouse, and marriage? DO female respondents in an Oakland County sample who are grouped into early, modal, and later life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child differ in satisfaction with the following areas of life: life as a whole, family life in general, and selected aspects of family life such as children, spouse, and marriage? Do husband-wife pairs in an Oakland County sample who are grouped into early, modal, and later life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child differ in satisfaction with life as a whole? How do the men and women respondents in an Oakland County sample who are grouped into early, modal, and later life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth T3 of the first child differ on the following characteristics: race, religion, educational attainment, per capita income, occupational prestige, and number of children born. Hypotheses The following hypotheses which are based upon the research questions are the null hypotheses for the study. H]: There is no significant difference between the three male-life-cycle stage groups based upon the age Of respondents at the birth of the first child on the following dependent variables: satisfaction with life as a whole, satisfaction with family life in general, and satisfaction with family life considering children, spouse, and marriage. There is no significant difference between the three female life—cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child on the following dependent variables: satisfaction with life as a whole, satisfaction with family life in general, and satisfaction with family life life considering children, spouse, and marriage. There is no significant difference between husband- wife pairs in the three life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child on a measure of satisfaction with life as a whole. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature will be divided into two major parts. The first section will deal with a general overview of quality of life literature. The second section will deal with a review of literature centering around and relating to _ the pertinent aspects of life-cycle, family life, and devel- oping social trends. Quality of Life The growing popularity of the quality of life concept is an outgrthh of an extensive so called "social indicators movement." In general, social indicators are statistics or measurements which are used in describing social condi- tions and trends, and in analyzing relevant factors in these conditions and trends. Social indicators have been used as a method of social reporting and accounting as far back as 1928 when President Herbert Hoover commissioned a committee project which four years later resulted in the two-volume work, Recent Social Trends in the United States as cited in Toward a Social Re- pgrt (U.S. Dept. of HEW, 1970). However, with increasing dependence upon the rapidly developing economic statistics of the following decades, measurements of national well-being l4 l5 became heavily based upon economic measures such as the Gross National Product. As the nation progressed in aspects of econ- omics and technology, growing social unrest and dissatisfaction with the status quo among American citizens made evident a need for reexamining the prevailing social conditions and trends from a different perspective. Parke and Seidman (l978, p. l) state that "Doubts about the easy equation of economic growth and social progress led, in the 19605, to a renewed interest in social measurement and to the birth of the 'social indicatbrs movement.'" As the "social indicators movement" has developed, a grow— ing emphasis has been placed upon societal change and the need to develop appropriate as well as timely relevant indiactors' which will be sensitive to the changing nature of society (Butler, 1977; U.S. Dept. of HEW, 1970). Social indicators may be conceptualized as occupying dif- ferent positions on a continuum whose polar sides are termed objective indicators and subjective or perceptual indicators (Bubolz & Sontag, 1977). Perceptual indicators are those measurements which depend upon personal or subjective evalua- tion. Objective indicators are measurements which do not depend upon personal or subjective evaluations. Thus, an indicator may be objective, perceptual, "more" objective than perceptual, or "more" perceptual than objective. In quality of life research, quality of life indicators are used as indices of measurement. Therefore, quality of life indicators comprise a special category of social indic- ators. Bunge (1975, p. 74) clarifies relevant parameters l6 and relationships in his definition of quality of life indicators. He contends that a social indicator is a quality of life indicator if it aids in determining specific aspects of the quality of life in a community or region. These aspects are the cultural, social, psychical, and physical aspects of well-being. Definitions of objective and percep- tual indicators apply to quality of life indicators as well. It has been previously stated that there is Of yet no one widely accepted definition of quality of life. Yet, it becomes increasingly apparent that "something more" is needed to tap the deeper life experiences and meanings. This is essential in preparing any social portrait, in analyzing social Change and trends, and in utilizing quality of life research findings in social policy formation and implementation. AS one researcher aptly stated, “Although the purpose of investigation QOL is clear enough, under- standing of what exactly is being investigated is not" (McCall, 1975, p. 230). This situation has been complicated by problems in measurement which follow those of definition. The very nature of the quality of life concept assumes difficulty in measurement. Quality of life cannot be measured directly. At best only representative measures can be used. Questions arise as to the validity of such measurement, or even of the attempts of such measurement, since it has been argued that quality of life and the perception of it may have as many variations as there are people. 17 There is also the question of Objective and perceptual indicators. Literature and research which espouse the use of objective indicators (Liu, 1970; McCall, 1975; Sewell, 1976) may fall under the criticism that objective indicators do not present an accurate picture of the intangible elements of quality of life. However, there is also some skepticicm as to the validity of measuring and comparing subjectively evaluated data. Butler (1977) states that the popularity of Objective indicators is based on their greater availability. and the relative ease with which measures of reliability and , validity can be determined. Bubolz and Sontag (1977, p. 3) contend that, "No measurement procedure is any better than the rules and the standards on which it is based." Thus, a subjective sense is attributed to objective indicators as well. In a paper presented at the annual meeting of The American Statistical Association, Angus Campbell (1977) acknowledged the need for objective and economic indicators, but Strongly emphasized the importance of measurement of subjective experiences of life even though present knowledge permits only "poor measurement of the right thing." In light of accomplished findings in this area, this espousal of the importance and usage of both types of indicators would seem to be a prudent one. This would allow consider- ation of actual states or conditions as well as how these states are perceived. Quality of life has been studied through various approaches or theoretical models (Andrews & Withey, 1976; 18 Bubolz, Eicher & Evers, 1978, in press; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Foa & Foa, 1973; Gerson, 1976). Campbell, Converse and Rodgers, and Andrews and Withey are two groups of social scientists at the University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research who have made major contribu- tions to the field of quality of life research. Their studies are primarily based upon the use of perceptual indicators as indices of what people believe their life quality to be. Respondents in these surveys were asked to report how they felt about life as a whole and how they felt about different areas of life such as family life, housing, and work. In selecting these areas of life or domains, Campbell et al. (1976) reported selecting those few areas of experience that would be common domains for the majority of the popul- ation. Both studies found that global satisfaction seems to be a combination of feelings evaluated across domains with some domains carrying more "weight" or importance than others. The closer the domain is to the personal life space of the respondent, the more important or valuable the domain becomes. Bubolz et al. (1978, p. 29) state that "...people's perception of their quality of life is a function of how well satisfied they are with what they consider important." As previously stated, a consistent finding of these and other research studies (Flanagan, 1978; Sontag, Bubolz & Slocum, 1978) has been the high degree of perceived life satisfaction. Although the majority of Americans are sat- isfied with their lives, analysis along different variables 19 such as age, sex, income, level of education, and race has shown some groups of respondents to be less satisfied than others. Bubolz et al. (1978) reported research findings of an extension to a longitudinal study in Ontonagon County, Michigan. The group was rural and the median age of the sample was 61 years; life satisfaction was quite high. Satisfaction with four variables--(l) accomplishing something, (2) family life, (3) work, and (4) financial security-- was found to account for 53% of the variance in the perceived quality of life. The authors conclude that their study supports Andrews' and Withey's (1976) finding that 50-60% of the variance in perceived life quality can be accounted for by 12 domains. In a preliminary report of results of their study in Oakland CoUnty, Michigan, Sontag et al. (1978) again reveal that the majority of respondents (237 husband-wife pairs and seven female-headed single parent families) were mostly satisfied with their lives. Family life, self, family income. and housing were the domains which, for females, most influ- enced the perception of quality of life. For males, the domains were self, family life, family income, and spare time activities. Family Life, Life-Cycle, and Trends Another strongly conclusive finding of quality of life studies is that family life is an important determinant of life satisfaction. If this is a valid finding, then it would be expected that the majority of Americans are highly 20 satisfied with their family lives. Research has substantiated this, and has also established that family life is one of the most highly valued domains of life. Several factors such as marital status, and number and age of children affect the evaluation of family life. In their study using a domain satisfaction theoretical model, Campbell, Converse and Rodgers (1976) revealed that family life was found to "...have a somewhat broader or more nearly global character than many of the subsequent items,". (p. 75). They reported that this would account for the fact‘ that family life was the second most important determinant ' of global or overall life satisfaction. With the use of their 7-point satisfaction scale, family life was found to rank second only to marriage in domain satisfaction. Seventy-two percent of women respondents reported they were mostly or Completely satisfied, while 74% of male respondents reported they were mostly or completely satisfied with their family lives. Campbell et al. (1976) state than an individual's rela- tionships with his spouse and children are the major deter- minants of family life satisfaction. Variations within these generally satisfied respondents did center around these relationships. Married couples with large families or young children are less satisfied with different aspects of family life and marriage than other parents. Younger parents seem to be especially affected. Campbell et a1. (1976, p. 18) state that, "The strains of marriage and parenthood are sharper among young parents than older ones." 21 Regarding life-cycle, Campbell et al. (1976) find an almost linear relationship between life and domain satisfac- tion, and age. They noted that respondents' satisfaction increased as age increased. Using the 7-point Delighted-Terrible Scale which includes more affective elements along with the cognitive satisfaction elements, Andrews and Withey (1976) found that response items with the highest means (5.7 or above) were related to family life. In addition, they note very little variation between groups of married respondents with children of increasing age. However, the lower satisfaction scores were those of unmarried individuals with children, while higher satisfaction was reported for married couples with no children at home. Regarding life-cycle, Andrews and Withey conclude that their results do not support the findings of Campbell et al. InStead they report that satisfaction varies little between different age groups. In relation to age, satisfaction is somewhat stable through time. Bubolz et al. (1978) found in the Ontonogon County study that family life ranked highest in both satisfaction and importance. Married respondents with children still at home were the most satisfied. Those respondents living alone registered less satisfaction. Sontag et al. (1978) stated that the majority of respondents rated family life and children of high import- ance and reported very positive feelings about their family lives and children. 22 This finding is supported by results attained when the respondents were asked, "If you had it to do over again, would you have children?" Over 90% of both men and women said they would. In addition, 75% of the respondents reported they felt "very strongly“ about their decision (p. 9). The value of children is also reported in a study by Flanagan (1978)., He states that between 83% and 93% of all age groups in his sample rated "having and raising childrenl as important or very important in assessing their quality of life. In a publication by the Population Reference Bureau. Espenshade (1977) reviewed current research and findings from the Value of Children project. The Value of Children project is an effort in cross-cultural research regarding perceived costs, benefits, and satisfactions of children. Espenshade states that the economic advantages of children decrease, and the costs of children increase as countries advance in social and economic development. The disadvantages of children may also be measured against the limitations children place on parents in terms of leisure time, careers, and amount of par- ticipation in the labor market. As part of the pilot study for the project, Caucasian parents were asked open-ended questions about the advantages and disadvantages of having children. In general, the most prominent responses in terms of the advantages of children were: (1) happiness, love, and companionship, (2) personal development of the parents, and (3) childbearing satisfac-- tions (p. 20). 23 In terms of the disadvantages of having children, the prevalent responses centered upon the costs involved with children and the restrictions on activities and lack of freedom. In presenting preliminary results of the National Survey of Children, Zill (1978) states that nine out of ten mothers in the survey said they would have children if they had it to do over again, and that most of them felt "very strongly" about this response. He also states that the greater the mother's educational attainment and the greater- the family income, the greater the possibility of a positive response to the question of having children. The majority of mothers felt that "...having children had made their lives better or made them better people" (p. 19). Popular as well as scientific literature has addressed itself to the issue of life quality, children, and the effects of children on marriage and family life (55351, 1977; Maynard, 1978). Again, children are recognized as a source of great satisfaction to parents. Some parents find that children add a new dimension and depth to the marriage rela- tionship. Children may also strengthen feelings of closeness, belongingness, and love, and may instill in the parents a sense of pride and satisfaction in having raised a child. The problems associated with parenthood include a loss of personal freedom, cost and responsibility, emotional and physical fatigue (especially for mothers at home), and less .time available for activities with one's spouse. The birth of the first child seems to be an especially difficult time 24 calling for significant change, adaptation, and acceptance which often becomes a source of discontent and dissatis- faction for parents. According to research, young parenthood is an especial- ly trying experience. Particular attention is drawn to teenage pregnancies and marriage (Furstenberg, 1976; Trussell, 1976; Zelnick & Kantner, 1978). It is reported that high mortality rates and a greater probability of birth defects or mental retardation are associated with giving birth before the age of 18 (Nye, 1976). Teenage marriage and pregnancy often interrupt the attainment of an education, thus limiting job opportunities and financial security. Poverty conditions promote dependency on relatives as well as on social assist- ance programs such as welfare and ADC (Aid to Dependent Children) programs. Other problems associated with teenage marriage and pregnancy are increased childbirth, and child abuse and neglect. Regarding the problem of divorce, Nye reveals the following data: A national sample shows that the divorce rate is lowest for married women who gave birth to their first child after age 22. The divorce rate increases by a third for women whose first child was born when they were 20 or 21. The rate is twice as high for women who become mothers at 18 or 19, two and one-half times as high for women who gave birth at 16 or 17, and three times as high for girls who gave birth at 15 or under. (p. 6) These data indicate greater marriage and family stability for women who were 22 years old or older at the birth of the first child. In addition, Nye states than an infant's chance of survival is greatest if born to a mother 25 who is 25 to 30 years old. When considering the factors of divorce and infant mortality, childbirth during relatively later years is apparently preferable to teenage childbirth. The problems and satisfaction attributed to parenthood in general, and parenthood during varying life-cycle stages impact the present and future conditions and experiences of individuals. It has been established that the family continues to be one of the most important and forceful of human institu-' tions, and that it contributes significantly to the quality of life of a majority of Americans. This relationship continues to exist in spite of rapid changes within the traditional family structure. Along with the growing number of women joining the labor force or pursuing higher education, a trend towards smaller families has been accompanied by a trend towards postponing childbirth. Waite and Stolzenberg (1976) stated that plans for future labor force participation influence womens' fertility expectations. The introduction of oral contraceptives, and the improvement of birth control methods have contributed to these trends. Two Australian studies noted a growing tendency in the marriage cohorts of the 1960's to delay or postpone the birth of the first child. Young (1977) stated that k of the women married in the 1960's gave "a wish to be free from children for a while longer" as the primary reason for postponement of childbirth. She notes that a growing number of successive age cohorts have cited economic reasons as 26 primary ones in the decision to postpone childbirth. Ruzicka (1976) states the following interpretation of his survey data: ...the data may be plausibly interpreted as a proof of a strong tendency toward postponement rather than avoidance of childbearing, particularly among women marrying at the most common ages of marriage. This tendency seems to have gained considerable momentum relatively recently and in terms of its extent, greatly exceeds any other such trends observed in the recent past. (p. 536) Trends in Australia seem to parallel those in the United States. Elaborating upon a number of future expectations, A.A. Campbell (1978) cites the work of Larry L. Bumpas. He contends that Bumpas‘ hypothesis predicts continuing low fertility rates due to improved birth control methods, and, consequently, greater control in decision-making regarding childbearing. Variation would then occur predom- inantly in the age distributions, and not in increasing or decreasing birth rates. Campbell states that over the past few years, the median age of childbearing has been 25. What these recent trends will lead to and how family life and quality of life will be affected, is at this time largely a matter of conjecture. Young (1978) aptly points out that, "As the delay of the first birth is a relatively new phenomenon, there is not yet any strong evidence of its full effect throughout the entire childbearing period..." (p. 409). 27 Chapter Summary Quality of life is a popular and pervasive concept in American society. However,there is of yet no one widely accepted definition of quality of life, although a popular definition refers to quality of life as the state of ill- or well-being. The search for relevant and appropriate indicators of this state of well-being has resulted in a decreasing‘ dependence upon objective or economic factors such as the Gross National Product, and a balancing increase in the use. of perceptual or subjective indicators of well-being. Several studies have found that Americans are mostly satisfied with their lives as a whole. Satisfaction with family life has also been found to be highly correlated with satisfaction with life as a whole. For a majority of Americans, family life includes children. It has also been found that children are a major source'4 of satisfaction for many Americans. According to results i of the Value of Children project (Espenshade, 1977, p. 20), the advantages of having children include: (1) happiness, love, and companionship, (2) personal development of the parents, and (3) childbearing satisfactions. However, there are also disadvantages related to having children. These include cost and restrictions on activities and lack of freedom. Yet the advantages seem to outweigh the disadvantages. In one study, Zill (1978) reports that nine out of ten mothers said they would have children if they had it to do over again. Most of them felt "very strongly" about this response. 28 The birth of the first child has been noted to have a major impact on family life. Young parents seem to be particularly affected by the responsibilities of raising a child. Teenage marriages and pregnancies have been assoc- iated with high divorce rates, low income, and fewer oppor- tunities in terms of education and careers. With the improvement of methods of birth control, more American women seem to be delaying the birth of the first child. The implications or ramifications of this developing trend are not yet clear. This trend may or may not affect the quality of life of American families. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This study is based upon research conducted by a team of family ecologists at Michigan State University. Dr. Margaret Bubolz, Professor, Department of Family and Child Sciences, and Dr. Ann C. Slocum, Assistant Professor, Department of Human Environment and Design are co-directors of the project. The research was primarily funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station under Project Numbers 3151 and 1249. Additional funding was obtained from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. This inter- disciplinary effort was directed toward evaluating the reported levels of perceived satisfaction with quality of life in a sample of Oakland County, Michigan respondents. Several preliminary findings of the project were presented in the previous chapter covering the review of literature. This chapter will provide a brief and general descrip- tion of the major aspects of the Oakland County quality of life research project as well as a more detailed description of the methodology utilized in this study. Research Design A questionnaire was developed for use in the project's survey research design. The questionnaire consisted mainly of perceptual indicators since the primary focus of the 29 30 project was the evaluation of perceived satisfaction with quality of life as reported by the respondents. Question- naire items which were developed and used in other quality of life research projects were used with the consent of the authors. Other items were developed by the research team. The complete questionnaires were self-administered by the respondents. A pilot-study using the questionnaires was conducted in October, 1977. The pilot-study areas were one rural and two suburban areas in Ingham County, Michigan and one suburban area in Oakland County, Michigan. Streets were randomly selected from these areas. Twenty husband and wife pairs who had been contacted by individual graduate students and which met the criteria of (1) being married, (2) living together, and (3) having at least one child at home between the ages of five through eighteen, consented to complete the questionnaires. Respondents were not told that they would be completing questionnaires as part of a pilot-study. Parents were asked to complete one questionnaire each, and were asked not to consult each other as they completed their questionnaires. Each family was given two questionnaires, each questionnaire being placed in a separate marked folder. Husband and wife questionnaires were identical except for a househOld compo- sition section which was included only in the wife's question- naire. £ighteen of the initial twenty families completed questionnaires, and each of these eighteen families received 31 a ten dollar check for their participation. As questionnaires were collected, an interviewer asked respondents for a brief evaluation of the questionnaires. As a result of the pilot- study, the questionnaire was modified to the present form used in the Dakland County, Michigan research project. This study did not use the data for all questionnaire items. Table 1 provides a summary listing of the primary items used in this study. All items used and their sources may be found in Appendix A. i The Delighted-Terrible Scale The Delighted-Terrible Scale (D-T Scale) was developed by Andrews and Withey (1976, p. 20) with the intention of designing "...a measuring device that would yield more valid and discriminating information about people's evaluations of different aspects of life than had been produced by previously used scales." The scale consists of seven on-scale categories and three off-scale categories as shown in Figure 3. I feel: r"l F'1_ W 1.4.. Ls. . Terrible Unhappy Mostly Mixed Mostly Pleased Delighted dissatisfied (about satisfied equally satisfied and dissatisfied) [Z] Neutral--neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Never thought about it Does not apply to me Figure 3. The Delighted-Terrible Scale with seven on-scale categories and three off-scale categories. 32' Table 1. Questionnaire Items and Measures Used in the Investigation of Research Questions Questionnaire Questionnaire Research Items Item Numbers Questions General evaluation of life as a whole* 1.1, 9.2 l, 2, 3 General evaluation of family life * 1.3, 9.1 l, 2, 3 Specific evaluations of the family with respect to spouse, children, and 6.1a, 6.1b, marriage 6.19 l, 2, 3 Attitudes toward having children 6.4b, 6.4c not applicable Demographic characteristics: Religion 13.3 4 Race 13.4 4 Occupational prestige 13.96 4 Educational attainment 13.7a 4 Per capita income 13.11a 4 Number of children born 5-48 4 *Average scores derived from listed questionnaire items 33 Seven on-scale categories were considered by the authors to be the maximum number of categories which would allow meaningful discriminations by respondents. The off-scale categories were included as a means of allowing respondents to select responses of "Neutral (neither satisfied nor dis- satisfied)", "I never thought about it", and “Does not apply to me" when these responses were more appropriate than the seven on-scale categories. In another major quality of life study, Campbell et al. (1976) used a scale with seven on-scale responses ranging from "Completely satisfied“ to "Completely dissatisfied". Their results were substantially skewed toward the satisfied end of the scale. In an attempt to obtain less skewed results, Andrews and Withey (1976) included more affective terms such as "Pleased" and "Unhappy" along with the more cognitive Satisfaction terms. The D-T Scale obtained less skewed results and was found to produce results with median validity coefficients of around .8. This scale was one of the measures used in the project questionnaire. The present study will use pertinent data obtained with the D-T Scale. Sample Selection A market research firm was employed to draw a random sample of Oakland County families who had at least one school- age child at home. “The sample was to be drawn from three Oakland County areas: rural, suburban, and urban areas. In addition to drawing the sample, the research firm was to 34 explain the study to the respondents, obtain consents of both husband and wife, and distribute and collect the question- naires. A two—stage systematic random sampling with clustering with probability-proportionate-to-household count was used. The sample was comprised of 237 husband- wife pairs and seven female headed single-parent families. Data were collected during the four-month period of November 15, 1977 through March 10, 1978, including Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Years. Only a subsample of the project sample was used for this study since not all respondents met the sampling criteria. These were that (1) families consist of husband- wife pairs in their first marriage, and that (2) couples must have first experienced parenthood during this marriage. The selection process began with the creation of the variable, age of the respondents at the birth of the first child. This variable was created by subtracting the age of the oldest child from the age of the respondent. A freq- uency run on this variable was computed for those respondents who (1) listed their present marriage as their first marriage, and (2) listed an oldest child born to them who was living at home or away from home. This sample was checked against a frequency run on the number of years married before the birth of the first child. The variable, number of years married before the birth of the first child, was created in two steps. First, the number of years married was computed by subtracting the reported year of marriage from 1978. The age of the oldest 35 child was then subtracted from the number of years married. This check disclosed a number of data discrepancies. The questionnaire pairs containing the discrepant information were identified. Each of these questionnaires was indivi- dually inspected in order to reassess the status of the respondents with respect to the specified criteria. The questionnaire pairs were examined for inconsistencies in several items: (1) did husband and wife both report the present marriage as their first, (2) did husband and wife report the same year of marriage, and (3) did husband and wife report the same number of children born to this marriage? All of these respondents had declared their present marriage as their first. If the husband-wife pair reported the same year of marriage but a different number of children born to the marriage, the family was excluded from the sample. If the husband-wife pair reported the same number of children but reported slightly different years of marriage (one year, for example), the family was retained in the sample. When one spouse did not give a year of marriage but was consistent with his or her spouse on other items, the family was retained. If, however, both spouses answered all other items but failed to report a year of marriage, the family was excluded from the sample. Questionnaires previously coded for possible or prob- able collaboration between husband-wife pairs were also identified and individually examined. These respondents were then reassessed. Collusion scores for only those 36 sections pertinent to this study were obtained. Collusion scores were established by researchers of the quality of life research project. These scores were based on the percentage of response differences between husbands and wives for different sections of the questionnaire, and the presence or absence of other evidence of collaboration such as simi- larities in word phrasings and/or handwriting. The collu- sion codes for the pertinent sections in this study are located in Appendix A. It was discovered that a number of families with scores of suspected collusion had previously been eliminated from the sample because of failure to meet the previous criteria. The remaining questionnaires were reassessed on the basis of collusion scores and other evidence of collaboration by this researcher. Those questionnaire pairs in which collaboration between hquand and wife seemed to be most probable were excluded from the sample. These procedures yielded a final sample size of 154 husband-wife pairs. Qgerational Definitions Perceptual indicators: Measurements which depend upon subjective evaluation. Perceptual indicators for this study are (l) satisfaction with life as a whole, (2) satisfaction with family life in general, and (3) satisfaction with family life considering children, spouse, and marriage. Objective indicators: Measurements which do not depend upon subjective evaluation. Objective indicators for this study are the demographic variables of race, religion, educational attainment, occupational prestige, per capita 37 income, and total number of children born. Family: A husband—wife pair in their first marriage with no children prior to this marriage but who have had a child or children born to this marriage. Satisfaction: An evaluation or measurement of the perceived quality of life incorporating both cognitive and affective elements as measured by the Delighted-Terrible Scale. Satisfaction with life as a whole: A measurement of the degree of perceived satisfaction with life in general. The- question, "How do you feel about your life as a whole?" was asked twice, once at the beginning of the questionnaire, and once towards the end of the questionnaire. Pearson-product correlation coefficients between the two ratings for the major sample was .578 for the husbands and .674 for the wives. The average score of these two responses was taken as the measurement of satisfaction with life as a whole. Andrews and Withey (1976) believed this average to yield a better measurement than either question taken alone. Satisfaction with family life: A measurement of the degree of perceived satisfaction with family life in general. The question, "How do you feel about your own family life-~your husband or wife, your marriage, and, your children, if any?" was asked twice, once at the beginning of the questionnaire and once towards the end of the questionnaire. Pearson- product correlation coefficients between the two ratings for the major sample was .695 for the husbands and .805 for the wives. The average score of these two responses was taken as the measurement of satisfaction with family life 38 in general. The rationale for this procedure was the same as that for satisfaction with life as a whole. Satisfaction with family life considering only children, spouses, and marriage: A measurement of the degree of perceived satisfaction with family life with respect to children, spouses, and marriage. The following questions were asked: "How would you feel about your own family life if you consid- ered only: i a) Your husband or wife? 6) Your children? c) Your marriage? Responses to each question yielded measurements of satis- faction with family considering each one of these important aspects of family life. Life-cycle stage groups: These groups were based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child. There are three groups for male respondents and three groups for female respondents. The groups are as follows: Men Early stage group ------------ Ages 17-21 Modal stage group ------------ Ages 22-26 Later stage group ------------ Ages 27 and older New Early stage group ------------ Ages 15-19 Modal stage group ------------ Ages 20-24 Later stage group ------------ Ages 25 and older The stage groups for men and women were based upon 39 tabulations presented in a study by Paul C. Glick (1977) of the Population Division, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Male and female respondents in the quality of life project sample averaged approximately 40 and 38 years of age respectively. For this study, then, the 1940's will be taken to be the closest decade of birth for all respondents. Glick tabu- lates the 1960's as the approximate period of first marriage for women born in the 1940's, and reports the median age at first marriage for women to be 20.5 years. Glick reports ' that the median age at first marriage for men born in the 1940's is 22.9 years. For this cohort of women, the median age at the birth of the first child is 21.8 years. No median age at the birth of the first child was given for men. In order to classify respondents into age groups according to the age of respondents at the birth of the first child, 22 years was taken as the midpoint for women. The modal group for women consisted of the midpoint, two years before the midpoint and two years after the midpoint. The early and later groups consist of years falling before and after the modal group respectively. The difference between the median ages of men and women at first marriage is two years, men having married at an older age. In forming the age groups for men, two years were added to the median age at the birth of the first child for women, yielding a midpoint of 24 years. Again, the midpoint, two years before and two years after the midpoint were taken to be the modal group for men. The early and later groups consist of years falling before and after the modal group respectively. 40 3193‘ Race of the respondent as reported on the question- naire by the respondent. Religion: Religious denomination of the respondent as reported on the questionnaire by the respondent. Educational attainment: The number of years of education of the respondent. When a category or range of education was indicated by the respondent, the midpoint was used as the number of years of education. A Master's Degree was consid- ered to be equal to two years beyond a Bachelor's Degree. O A Doctorate or other professional degree was considered on the average to be equal to three years of education be- yond a Master's Degree. Post Bachelor's or Post Master's degree work was considered on the average to add a year beyond the appropriate degree level. If a respondent re- ported less than eight years of education, he or she was considered to have completed six years of education on the average. Occupational prestige: This is the prestige score for the main occupation of the respondent. Scores were recoded to a smaller number of categories according to major census divisions. The prestige scores assigned to occupations were taken from a rating system developed at NORC in 1963-1965 in a project on occupation prestige directed by Robert W. Hodge, Paul S. Siegel, and Peter H. Rossi. The prestige scores were generated by asking respondents to estimate the social standing of a number of occupations. The respondents were asked to position the occupations on a nine-step ladder (Siegel, 1971, p. 35) according to the respondent's 41 estimation of the social standing of the particular occupa- tions. The higher the score, the higher the associated prestige. Number of children born: The total number of children born to the respondent. Description of Major Sample Age. Ages for men ranged from 24 to 63 with a median a age of 40.2 years. Ages for women ranged from 22 to 59 with a median age of 37.5 years. i 5122- Blacks represented 18% of the sample. Whites represented 81% of the sample. Household composition. Out of 244 families, only seven were female-headed single parent families. The remaining 237 were husband-wife pairs. The number of children living at home ranged from 1-9 children with a mean of 2.8 children per househOld. Forty-nine percent had one or two children at home, 51% had three or more children at home. Thirty-six percent had children at home who were 5 years of age or young- er. In 53% of the families who had children at home, the oldest child was fourteen or older. Twenty-two percent of the families listed children who were not living at home, and 7% of the sample listed other relatives as living in the same household. Employment status,_occu_pationsi and income. Ninety-two percent of the men and 40% of the women were employed outside the home. Figure 3 illustrates the categories of listed occu- pations. Incomes were generally in the middle range. Thirty- nine percent had incomes between $20,000 and $30,000. Figure 4 42 Professional 10% & Technical 19% Workers ' — Women Managers & Administrat- .1512” V .1 Men ors, except ° Farm Sales 4% Workers . 6% Clerical 0% Workers 4% Craftsmen & F1855 than 1% Foremen 23% Machine & 6% "”5”" _16% Operators Laborers. less than 1% Except Farm 11% Service Work-- 7% ers, except Private I” Household Private House- Z% hold Workers 0% Not Employed for Pay e.g., homemakers ,‘ - 5% retired, dis- abled , l , 100% TOTAL 100% 58% SOURCE: M. Suzanne Sontag, Margaret M. Bubolz, and Ann C. Slocum, Perceived Quality of Life of Oakland County Families: AiPrelimiharngEport (unpublished paper, 1978). Figure 4. Types of occupations held by respondents in the Oakland County study. 43 illustrates the distribution of total family income in 1977. under $10,000- $20,000- $30,000- $50,000 $10,000 $19,000 $29,000 $49,000 and over SOURCE: M. Suzanne Sontag, Margaret M. Bubolz, and Ann C. Slocum, Perceived Quality of Life of Oakland County Families: A Preliminary Report (unpublished paper, 1978). Figure 5. 1977 family income of respondents in the Oakland County study. Education. Fifty percent of the men had some college education. More than 33% of the women had some college edu- cation. Over 50% of the men and women had been or were at- tending educational programs beyond their reported level of highest formal education. Description of Study Sample The study sample is comprised of 154 husband-wife pairs. Thus, data were obtained for 154 men and 154 women. Age. Men ranged in age from 25 to 63 years with a median age of 38.2 years. Women ranged in age from 25 to 59 years with a median age of 36 years as shown in Table 2. Race and religion. The great majority of both men and women reported their race as White (89% for both). The only other racial group reported was Black (11% for both men 44 and women). The largest religious group for both men and women was the Protestant denomination (50.7% and 53.9%). This category consisted Of a number of different Protestant groups. Fewer respondents reported being Catholic--29% of the men and 31.8% of the women. Two male respondents did not answer this question. Educational attainment. Table 5 shows the frequency Of levels of educational attainment for the sample respondents. Twenty-seven percent (26.6%) of the male respondents com- pleted high school. The same percentage of male respondents completed 14 years of education. The average number years of education completed was 13.8 years. Forty-eight percent (48.4%) of the female respondents completed high school. A substantially smaller number (17.6%) completed 14 years of education. One reSpondent did not answer the question. The average number years of completed education for female respondents was 13.0 years. Occupational prestige. Table 6 shows the computed occu- pational prestige scores for the sample respondents. The largest group of husbands (28.5%) obtained occupational prestige scores ranging from 50-59. The next largest group (27.8%) obtained scores ranging from 40-49. One respondent did not answer and two cases were not applicable. The largest group of wives (54.5%) fell into the "Not Applicable” category. These occupational prestige scores apply only to those respondents who listed a main occupation as the pri- mary source of income. These scores would then not apply to women who reported no such occupation. This would include 45 Table 2. Age of Respondents Men Women Age N % N % 30 and younger 20 13.0 33 21.4 31-35 33 21.4 39 25.4 36-40 42 27.3 40 25.9 41-45 29 18.8 20 13.0 46-50 15 9.8 14 9.1 Over 50 15 9.8 8 5.2 154 100.0 154 100.0 Median 38.2 36.0 Range 25-63 25-59 Table 3. Race of Respondents Men Women Race N % N % White 137 89.0 137 89.0 Black 17 11.0 __;!L 11.0 Total 154 100.0 154 100.0 Table 4. Religion of Respondents W Men Women Religion N %* N % Protestant 77 50.7 83 53.9 Catholic 44 29.0 49 31.8 Jewish 5 3.3 5 3.3 None 17 11.2 5 3.3 Other 9 5.9 12 7.6 Missing data 2 —--- -- -- Total 154 100.0 154 100.0 *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include missing data 46 housewives and would account for the large number of wives in this category. Excluding the "Not Applicable" category, the largest number of female respondents (27.5%) obtained scores ranging from 30-39. One female respondent did not answer the question. In comparing the male and female groups with the largest number of respondents, it can be seen that male scores for this group are at least 10 points higher than those for the corresponding female group. Per capita income. Table 7 shows ranges for per capita income for sample families in 1977. The largest group of families (42.5%) had a 1977 per capita income of between $4,000 and $5,999. The next largest group (17.6%) ranged from $2,000 to $3,999. The median per capita income was approximately $5,500.‘ Number of children born. The average number of children born to eaCh family was 3.2 children. The greatest number of families (42.9%) had one or two children as shown in Table 8. A slightly smaller number of families (40.9%) had three or four children. Assumptions 1. The survey research design was an appropriate method of data collection. 2. Respondents can accurately assess and report their feelings about quality of life in terms of satisfaction. 3. Satisfaction is an appropriate indicator of quality of life. 4. Selected items from the Oakland County study question- naire are valid perceptual quality of life indicators. 47 Table 5. Years of Education of Respondents Men Women N % N %* 6 3 1.9 l .7 3 1.9 3 2.0 10 17 11.0 17 11.1 12 41 26.6 74 48.4 14 41 26.6 27 17.6 16 19 12.3 14 9.2 17 13 8.4 10 6.5 18 12 7.8 5 3.3 19 l .6 1.3 22 4 2.6 -- --- Missing data :_ Z: __1__ :_-_-_ Total 154 100.0 154 100.0 *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include missing data Table 6. Occupational Prestige Scores of Respondents Men Women Prestige Scores N % %* N % %* 10-19 3 1.8 2.0 2 1.3 2.9 20-29 15 9.7 9.9 15 9.5 21.7 30-39 22 14.1 14.6 19 12.2 27.5 40-49 42 27.0 27.8 13 8.2 18.8 50-59 43 27.7 28.5 6 3.8 8.7 60-69 17 10.9 11.3 12 7.7 17.4 70-79 9 5.7 6 0 2 1.2 2.9 Missing data 1 .6 --- 1 .6 --- Not applicable 2 1.3 --- _84__ 54.5 --- Total 154 100.0 100.0 154 100.0 100.0 *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include data recorded as missing or not applicable 48 Table 7. 1977 Per Capita Income for Sample Families No. of % of Families Families* Under $2,000. 5 3.3 $2,000-$3,999 27 17.6 $4,000-$5,999 65 42.5 $6,000-$7,999 21 13.7 $8,000-59,999 16 10.5 $10,000-$11,999 8 5 2 312,000-513,999 4 2.6 Over $14,000 7 4.5 Missing data __;L_ --- Total 154 100.00 Median $5,500. *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include missing data Table 8. Number of Children Born Per Family Number of Number of % of Children Born Families Families 1-2 66 42.9 3-4 63 40.9 5-6 16 10.4 7-8 6 3.9 9-10 1 .6 More than 10 __2__. _l;§__ Total 154 100.0 Mean 3.2 children per family 49 5. The first child in a marriage greatly impacts family life. 6. The age of respondents at the birth of the first child influences perceptions of satisfaction with overall quality of life, family life in general, and family life with respect to children, spouses, and marriage. Analysis of Data Statistical Methods In order to select the most powerful yet appropriate test for data analysis, it was necessary to decide whether parametric or non-parametric tests would be applied. In their initial observations and data analysis, Andrews and Withey (1976) noted that the five least-positive categories of the Delighted-Terrible Scale seemed to be divided by "approximately equal" one-unit intervals (p. 226). Based on this finding, Andrews and Withey used their scale as an interval measure instead of an ordinal measure. Since the data in this study were obtained through the use of the same measurement device--the D-T Scale--the scale was used as an interval scale in this study as well. This enabled the use of parametric tests which require data based at least on an interval scale. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was determined to be an appropriate method to test for signifi- cant differences in variance between three life-cycle stage group means. This analysis was done for husbands and wives separately since combining them or testing for differences between them would violate the assumption of independence 50 required for analysis of variance. Multivariate analysis of variance is used when more than one response or measurement for each respondent is to be considered (SPSS-6OO Supplement, 1978, p. 6-38). The single independent variable, life-cycle stage based upon the age of respondent at the birth of the first child, calls for the use of the one-way or single factor analysis. The MANOVA computer subprogram prints out four different statistics which provide the researcher with computed prob-i abilities for rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis. The statistic chosen for this study was the Wilks Lambda statistic. This computed statistic was compared to the chosen level of significance in order to determine whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. In order to test for differences between male and female life-cycle stage groups, a paired t-test for dependent samples was used. This test allows for testing between dependent means. HOwever, the use of this test was limited to only one dependent variable for two reasons: (1) t-tests are more appropriate when testing for differences between two means, and (2) numerous applications of the t-test alter the alpha level or level of significance. In this case, dif- ferences between husband-wife pairs in each life-cycle stage group were tested for significant differences in only one dependent variable--satisfaction with life as a whole. The level of significance utilized for the multivariate analysis of variance was .05. The .05 level was also used for the paired t-tests for dependent samples. 51 Analyses were run at the Michigan State University Computer Center. Statistical programs utilized were taken from the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS- Version 7.0). CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Results of the data analysis and discussion are in- cluded in this chapter. Description of Sample Independent and Dependent Variables Life-cycle Stage Grogps Based Upon Age of’Respondent At the Birth of the First Child Table 9 shows the number of respondents falling within each of the male and female age groups. Table 9. Number of Respondents in Male and Female Groups Men Women Stage Age N % Age N % Early 17-21 30 19.5 15-19 24 15.6 Modal 22-26 83 53.9 20-24 89 57.8 Later 27-46 ‘41 26.6 25-39 41_ 26.6 Total 154 100.0 154 100.0 There is a two year difference between male and female stage groups, the men being older than the women. Sixteen percent (15.6%) of the women fall into the early group, while a greater number of men (19.5%) comprise the early group. A greater number of women (57.8%) are found in the modal group 52 53 as compared to 53.9% of the men. Men and women are equally represented (26.6%) in the later stage groups. Satisfaction with Life As a Whole Table 10 provides the frequencies of scores for satis- faction with life as a whole for male and female respondents. Both men and women seem to feel more positively than negatively about their lives as a whole.* Approximately 81% of the male respondents reported feeling at least mostly satisfied, and 19.3% reported being mixed in feelings, mostly dissatisfied, or unhappy. Andrews and Withey (1976) report that the "mixed" category indicates feelings not much better than tolerable. This category then seems to represent some meas- ure of discontent or dissatisfaction. Only One male respon- dent reported feeling only slightly better than unhappy. ‘ Approximately 82% of the women stated they felt at least mostly satisfied, while 17.6% said they had mixed feelings or were mostly dissatisfied. One respondent reported on an off-scale category--"Neutral-neither satisfied nor dis- satisfied". No female respondents felt terrible or unhappy with their lives as a whole. Satisfaction with Family LiTe The majority of men (90.1%) and (85%) reported scores of mostly satisfied and above. The largest group of men (37%) reported they were pleased with family life in general 3FIn all tables in reporting satisfaction scores for life as a whole and for family life, scores which fall between two scale scores are considered as falling in the lower category, e.g., a score of 4.5 will be considered as indicating "mixed”, a score of 4.0. 54 Table 10. Satisfaction with Life as a Whole for Sample Respondents Men Women Level of Satisfaction N % N %T Terrible =1 -- -- -- -- =1 5 -- -- -- -- Unhappy =2 -- -- -- -- = 5 l 6 -- -- Mostly Dissatisfied =3 l .6 -- -- =3 5 3 1.9 3 l 9 Mixed (equally satis- =4 14 h 9.1 12 7.8 fied and dissatisfied) ' =4 5 11 7.1 12 7 8 "’EEREENEAEE'EOBEBEAL """""" i§'§""" """ i5?” Naétiy'tiiléiiéé'm"";3""§§"£ZT§ """" 35"???" =5 5 43 27.9 31 20 3 Pleased =6 33 21.4 40 26.1 =6.5 4 2 6 11 7.2 Delighted =7 6 3.9 6 3.9 "'BEREENiAiE'EfiiiOiAI """""" 56?; """""" 853"" 6%?32233'2';;2333;;""'"""'Z'.'"33""""'1""II """ TOTAL 154 100.0 154 100.0 MEAN 5.3 5.4 *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include off-scale responses 55 Table 11. Satisfaction With Family Life for Sample Respondents Men Women Level of Satisfaction N % N %* Terrible =1 -- -- -- -- =1 5 l 6 -- -- Unhappy =2 l .6 -- -- =2 5 -- -- 1 7 Mostly Dissatisfied =3 -- -- -- -- =3 5 3 1.9 2 l 3 Mixed (equally Satis- =4 2 1.3 11 7.2 fied and dissatisfied) " =4 5 8 5.2 9 5 9 "'BEREEMEE'EOEBME """"""" 5'8 """""" is"? """ 11333235517; """" Lé'mii'TéTé """" 55"iiTi """ =5 5 19 12 3 19' 12.4 Pleased =6 57 37.0 54 35.3 =6 5 21 13 6 17 ll 1 Delighted 4 '=7 23 14.9 18 ll 8 "'EEEEENEAEE'EOEiBiAE """""" 56'? """""" 5%‘6 """ a;;:;;;i;';;;;;;;; """""" 33'": """"" {m'II """ TOTAL 154 100.0 154 100.0 MEAN 5.8 5.7 *Adjusted relative frequency--does not include olescale responses 56 while 35.3% of the women responded similarly. However, while approximately 9.6% of the men had mixed or more negative feelings, a greater number of women (15.1%) expressed discontent with their family lives. One female respondent used an off-scale response indicating she was neither satis- fied nor dissatisfied. Table 11 shows the frequency of scores for satisfaction with family life in general for men and women. Satisfaction with Family Life Considering Only Children, Spouse, And Marriage Tables 12, 13, and 14 contain the frequencies of scores for satisfaction with family life considering only children, spouse, and marriage. The majority of men and women were at least mostly satisfied with their children. Of the men, 40.5% said they were pleased with their children while slight- ly fewer (37.9%) said they were delighted with their child- ren. The largest group of women (36.4%) said they were delighted with their children. Thirty-five percent said they were pleased with their children. The women registered a few more discontented scores (10.3%) than the men (7.2%). Concerning feelings of satisfaction with spouse, 37.7% of the men reported they were pleased, and 35.7% reported they were delighted with their wives. Of the women, 39% reported being pleased while 31.2% reported being delighted with their husbands. Again, more women (14.9%) reported at least some feelings of discontent than men (10.9%). Approximately 92% of the men reported feeling at least 57 Table 12. Satisfaction with Children for Sample Respondents Men Women Level of Satisfaction N %* N % Terrible =1 -- -- -- -- Unhappy =2 -- -- l .6 Mostly Dissatisfied =3 l .7 2 1.3 Mixed (equally satis- =4 10 6.5 13 8.4 fied and dissatisfied) PERCENTAGE SUBTOTAL 7 2 10 3 Mostly Satisfied =5 22 14.4 28 18.2 Pleased =6 62 40.5 54 35.1 Delighted =7 58 37.9 _56 36.4 PERCENTAGE SUBTOTAL 92 8 89 7 Off-scale response 1 ' -- -- -- TOTAL 154 100.0 154 100.0 MEAN 6.1 5.9 *Adjusted relative frequency-~does not include off-scaTe responses 58 Table 13. Satisfaction with Spouse for Sample Respondents Men Women Level of Satisfaction N % N % Terrible =1 1 ,5 -- -- Unhappy =2 l .6 2 1 3 Mostly Dissatisfied =3 6 3.9 5 3.2 Mixed (equally satis- =4 9 5.8 16 10 4 fied and dissatisfied) PERCENTAGE SUBTOTAL lO 9 14 9 Mostly Satisfied =5 24 15.6 23 14.9 Pleased =6 58 37.7 60 39.0 Delighted =7 55 35.7 .48 31.2 PERCENTAGE SUBTOTAL 89 O 85 l Off-scale response -- -- -- -- TOTAL 154 100.0 154 100.0 MEAN 5.9 5.8 59 Table 14. Satisfaction with Marriage for Sample Respondents Men Women Level of Satisfaction N % N % Terrible =1 2 1.3 1 .6 Unhappy =2 2 1.3 -- -- Mostly Dissatisfied =3 5 3.2 6 3.9 Mixed (equally satis- =4 3 1.9 12 7.8 fied and dissatisfied) "'EEREENiiéE'éfiéiBiii """"""" §'§""""'"ié'3 """ {1353232173}; """" .23""£37743"""‘Ei"i§'3 """ Pleased =6 50 32.5 58 37.7 Delighted =7 69 44.8 53 34.4 "'EEEEENiiEE'éfiéiéiii """""" 5.3.? """""" 55'; """ OFFIEEQIQ';;;BSRE;""""""II""II """ _""II """ TOTAL 154 lOO.O 154 100.0 MEAN 6.0 5.9 6O mostly satisfied with their marriages. The largest group (44.8%) felt delighted about their marriages. About 88% of the women reported feeling at least mostly satisfied with their marriages, and 37.7% said they were pleased. More women (12.3%) reported at least some feelings of discontent than men (7.7%). The majority of scores were positive, and overall, both male and female respondents were satisfied with their lives as a whole, their family lives in general, and with their Children, spouses, and marriages. These findings are in accord with what has previously been reported in quality of life studies. However, there were scores reporting degrees of dissatisfaction. A slightly fewer number of women re- ported these feelings than men in evaluating their satis- faction with life as a whole. However, the reverse is true for feelings about family life in general, and feelings about children, spouse, and marriage. In these cases, fewer men than women had feelings of at least some dissatis- faction. Men and Women in the Life-cycle Stage Grogps This section includes the description of the different male and female life-cycle stage groups in terms of the following demographic variables: race, religion, occupation- al prestige scores, educational attainment, per capita income, and total number of children born. The sample is comprised of 154 men and 154 women. Also located in this section are the tests of null hypotheses 1 and 2. The hypotheses were based upon the study research questions 61 (see p. 11), and were tested using the method of analysis previously specified (see p. 49). The results of these tests will be presented and discussed. Scores for satis- faction with life as a whole, for family life in general, and family life considering only children, wife, and spouse will also be presented. Life-cycle Stage Groups by Demographic VariaEles Race and Religion. Tables 15.1, 15.2, and 16 describe. all age groups in terms of race and religion. The majority of male and female respondents are white. Blacks were the only other race represented in the sample. The largest percentage of Blacks (35.2%) is in the early stage group with equal percentages (32.4%) of black respondents falling in the modal and later stage groups. The largest percentage of white respondents (58.8%) is found in the modal stage group with fewer (25.9%) in the later group, and fewer still (15.3%) in the early stage group. Andrews and Withey (1976) and Campbell et a1. (1976) have reported that race plays a part in affecting the perceived quality of life. They state that Blacks are less satisfied with their quality of life than whites. Most respondents listed themselves as Protestants. The largest percentage of males and females in each stage group is Protestant with the exception of 46.3% of the later stage women who listed themselves as Catholic. In general, Catholics comprised the second largest religious category. 62 o.oop em o.oop cum 44m_uw—ag eeumzflc< r 0.9.: p? o.oo_. :~ o.oo.. mm o.oc— mm 9.2: vN $.02. om ._<_.Oh --..,..-.... 1.....- .... .. .- ..H..:..- -.H..- -- N 1H1... 3w..-- - .. -- 3...: 3.3.3: 65 e 96 N _Né e N6 m NA: e 56 N LEZO 3 ll 1.. MK m «4.. m ©.m— : MAW N 04: m 0:32 5 «N P mé N mé e m.N N ..l i.- m.m — :mmzwg. m.©¢ a— m._.m mp OKN eN P.Nm 0N O.mN 0 NJ: m 9:0.360 méc m— N.~m —N Wow em mac mm 3.0m Np mime o— accummuog; 11.1Nlll--l-l---rll N z N z r R z N 1 z N W..- :0.»me To: :25: .82 :25: cm: :23: cm: 11.1....- - ~55: .3302 9.-.. >453 l-l-.l-;,--,-.----!-. -.ll ea ease._a= mazocu macaw mpozo-oup4 :F mucotccammz upmsmu ace ope: .w— w_nah 64 Education. As shown in Table 17, respondents in the modal and late groups displayed a greater range and higher average levels of educational attainment than the early group. In the early group, 30% of the men completed high school. Forty-three percent of the men had one or two years of college education. Sixty-one percent of the early group women completed a high school education; none of the early group women went beyond a high school education. In the modal group, 63.8% of the men and 43.8% of the women went beyond a high school education. Two male respondents completed 22 years of school, and one female respondent completed 19 years of school. In the later stage group. 58.5% of the men and 46.3% of the women advanced beyond a high school education. Two men completed 22 years of edu- cation; one woman completed 19 years of education. The mean years of education for men in the three life-cycle stage groups were 12.4, 14.3, and 13.9. The respective years for women were 11.0, 13.2, and 13.6. Concerning the variable of education, Campbell et al. (1976) contend that individuals with only one or two years of college education are less satisfied than those with more or less education, while Andrews and Withey (1976) state that in relation to other life concerns, the correlation between education and perceived overall quality Of life is a weak one. Occupation. Table 18 presents the occupational prestige scores by life-cycle stages. In general, respondents in the modal and later stages had higher prestige scores than did 65 menu o:_mmFs weapon? No: moon-->u:o=omgwm>_umpmg adamancflm 90%..2: c.8123 edema? 98428 05%. :NN o.oSN.N.wN fifl ...Hl .H 1.1.11 .H. 1...... H. 1....l ..H .H.1 .N.. 1.1.1.. H £8 83:: -- -- a.e N -- -- N.N N -- -- -- -- NN e.N N -- -- _.N _ N._ N -- -- -- -- a_ N.N N N.N N N.N N N.o_ a -- -- -- -- NN N.N_ N N.NN m a.m m N.a N -- -- -- -- N_ m.N m N.eN o N.N_ __ N.oN a -- -- N.N_ e N_ N.NN m m.NN N N.eN NN o.mN eN -- -- o.cm a a, N.N_ NN e.eN ON e.ae Ne m.eN NN a.oo NP o.om a N_ N.N_ m N.a e o.m m N.N N 4.0m N o.oN a o_ -- -- e.N N _.N N N.F _ N.N N m.m N N e.N N a.e N -- -- -- -- -- -- N.m N a N z N z N z N z ..N z N z Ems—03 :02 £9.53 cm: twp—53 cw: NNN .np mpnwh 665 o_cau.paam co: co 9:.mm.s we ececoooc can: eta—oz. ac: moo: ages:coc. o>_aa_e. coamaq=wacamc vmamznco 8.N . 8.. m N.8 888.8..-888.N.. 8.N. 8 8.N m ... . 8.8 8 8.8 N N.N . 888....-888.8.. 68 8.8. 8 8.N m N.N. .. N.8. .. N.8 . N.8 N 888.88-888.8a 8.8. 8 8.N N 8.8. 8. N.8. m. 8.8 N 8.8. 8 888...-888.8. 8.88 8. N.Nm 8. 8.88 .8 8.88 N8 N..8 8. 8.88 m. 888.88-888.8a 8.8. 8 8.8N 8 8.8. 8. N.8. N. ..8N N 8.8N 8 888.8a-888.N. 8.N N 8.N N ... . N.. . N.8 . N.8 . 888.N. L.8888 .N z .N z N z N z N z N z :msoz cm: :mEo: cm: :mEo: cm: 88.8. .888: .4888 manage macaw m.o»o-maaa z. macmccoammz macsmu ccc mac: No mason. caaacu Nma NNaa .aa m—aca 69 presents the per capita income by life-cycle stages. In general, respondents in each sample stage group fall within most of the specified income brackets. However, there are some differences in the distribution of respondents. In the early group, 43.4% of the men and 41.7% of the women record- ed a 1977 per capita income of between $4,000-$5,999. Thirty- three percent of the men and 25% of the women recorded incomes of over $5,999. In the modal group, 44.5% of the men and 46% of the women listed incomes of between $4,000- $5,999. Thirty-nine percent of the men and 36.9% of the women listed incomes of over $5,999. For the later stage group, 37.5% of the men and 35% of the women recorded per capita incomes of between $4,000-$5,999. Thirty-five per- cent of the men and 42.5% of the women recorded incomes of over $5,999. The later stage group had the greatest per-l centages of respondents reporting per capita incomes of over $14,000--5% for the men and 7.5% for the women. Children. As seen in Table 20, differences between the mean number of children born to respondents were not great. However, the greatest mean number of children born (3.4) was recorded for the women in the early stage group and the men in the later stage group. The lowest mean number of children born was recorded by both men and women in the modal stage group. All sample respondents were ‘asked, "If you had to do it over again would you have children?" They were then asked how strongly they felt about their responses. In the early group, 73% of the men said they would have children again, and said they felt very 70 strongly about it. Of the women in the early group, 58.3% said yes and felt very strongly about it. In the modal stage group, 68.7% of the men said yes and felt very strongly about it; 81.8% of the women said yes and felt very strongly about it. In the later stage group, 80.5% of the men said yes and felt very strongly about it; 73.2% of the women said yes and felt very strongly about it. For the men, the largest per- centage of "yes--very strongly" responses was found in the Table 20. Number of Children Born to Male and Female Respondents in Life-cycle Stage Groups MEN WOMEN L 1' fe-cycl e N 74 Mean* N 7. Mean* Stage Group. - Early 96 19.6 3.2 81 16.5 3.4 Modal 255 5l.9 3.0 280 57.0 3.1 Later 140 28.5 3.4 130 26.5 3.2 TOTAL 491 100.0 49l 100 O TMean number of'children born to respondents in life-cycle stage groups later stage group, followed by the early group. For the women, the largest percentage of "yes--very strongly" responses was found in the modal group, with the smallest percentage in the early stage group. It is interesting to note that while men in the later stage group and women in the early stage had the greatest mean number of children born to them, the later stage male group reported the highest percentage of "yes--very strongly” responses among the male 71 groups, but the female group recording the lowest percentage of "yes-~very strongly” responses was the early stage group. Regarding children, Campbell et a1. (1976) and Andrews and Withey (1976) have stated that the number of children in a family may affect levels of perceived satisfaction. In general, the more children in a family the greater the like- lihood of lower levels of life satisfaction for the parents. Tests of Hypotheses l and 2 Hypothesis 1 (null): There is no significant difference between three male life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respond- ents at the birth of the first child on the following dependent variables: satisfaction with life as a whole, satisfaction with family life in gen- eral, and satisfaction with family life considering children, spouse, and marriage. Table 21 presents the means, standard deviations, and group sizes for the three stage groups for all five dependent variables. The Wilks Lambda multivariate test of signifi- cance yielded an [-significance probability of .94. There- fore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. There is no significant difference between the three, male life-cycle stage groups on all five dependent variables. More complete results for the multivariate analyses are located in Appendix 8. Mean scores for satisfaction on all five dependent 72 variables do not vary substantially from one group to another. All groups are at least mostly satisfied on all dependent variables. Mean scores for satisfaction consider- ing only children were relatively higher across all stage groups than the remaining dependent variables, with the early stage group having the highest mean score. Mean scores Table 21. Means and Standard Deviations of Satisfaction Scores for Male Respondents EARLY MODAL LATER Mean 5.0. Mean 5.0. Mean S.D. Life as a Whole 5.2 .71 5.3 , .80 5.3 .87 Family Life 5.8 .73 5.8 .98 5.9 .93 Children 6.3 .75 6.0 .94 l 6.0 .97 Spouse 6.1 .94 5.9 1.3 5.9 1.0 'Marriage 6.1 1.1 6.0 1.3 6.0 1.1 N=29 . N=83 N=41 for satisfaction with life as a whole were relatively lower than the other dependent variables across all stage groups, with the early stage group having the lowest mean score. Family life scores generally ranked below those of children. spouse, and marriage. Andrews and Withey (1976) recorded similar results when respondents in their study reported high levels of satisfaction for children, spouse, and mar- riage, but recorded lower levels of satisfaction when rating family life in general even though these family life ratings were still mostly satisfied. They hypothesize that 73 it may be the combination of these three aspects of family life that brings about feelings of stress or pressure. Figure 6 shows the mean scores for all the male groups. 6.3 T \\ Children ‘\ 6. r \ . \ 6.1 $ Marriage‘(:;\ \‘ x‘rn\‘\ 6. .... 4’ x\(\ _ .— — — ...- 5 - .————— ______.—"’ Fami1y 1ife 0101mm wammwootoo ’ l l '- —= Life as a / WhOIE m ....J a I =¥= 4 1 Early Modal Later 01 0 Note: 7.0=Delighted 6.0=P1eased 5.0=Most1y Satisfied Figure 6. Satisfaction mean scores for male life-cycle stage groups. Hypothesis 2 (null): There is no significant difference between three female life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respond- ents at the birth of the first child on the following dependent variables: satisfaction with life as a whole, satisfaction with family life in 74 general, and satisfaction with family life considering children, spouse, and marriage. Table 22 presents the means, standard deviations, and group sizes for the three stage groups for all five dependent variables. The Wilks Lambda multivariate test of significance yielded an fi-significance of .68. Therefore, the null hypo- thesis was not rejected. There is no significant difference between the three female life-cycle stage groups on all five dependent variables. More complete results for the multi- variate analysis are located in Appendix B. Table 22. Means and Standard Deviations of Satisfaction Scores for Female Respondents EARLY MODAL LATER Mean 5.0. Mean 5.0. Mean S.D. Life as a Whole 5.4 .95__—_574___—T72——__5i3 .82_——_— Family Life ' 5.4 1.0 5.7 .83 5.7 .91 Children 5.8 .92 5.9 1.1 6.0 1.1 Spouse 5.5 1.3 5.8 1.1 5.9 1 3 Marriage 5.5 1.3 6.0 1.0 6.0 1.3 N324 N888 N841 Mean scores for satisfaction on all five dependent variables do not vary substantially from one group to another. All groups are at least mostly satisfied on all dependent variables. Mean scores for satisfaction with family considering only children were relatively higher than the 75 other dependent variables across all stage groups, with the later stage group having the highest mean score. Mean scores for satisfaction with life as a whole were relatively lower across all stage groups with the later group having the lowest mean score. Satisfaction with children, spouse, and marriage are again rated more highly than satisfaction with family life in general. Andrews' and Withey's explan- ation would apply in this case as well. Apparently both men and women experience this phenomenon. Figure 7 shows the mean scores for all the female groups. 3 _ 2 .. '| .1. Marriage 'l +/F* ’f-:?::*’.Children '1‘ . ’1’, X/‘Spouse J.- /’ /’# -\. _. +/ --- ———-Family life / + / _ 4 /// A. “ .. Z . TT‘TT“\~““~ Life as a whole N w h U1 05 \l CD ‘0 O J —J I j 1 1 Early Modal Later mmmmmmmmmmmmmm 0 Note: 7.0=Delighted 6.0=Pleased 5.0=Mostly Satisfied Figure 7. Satisfaction mean scores for female life-cycle stage groups. 76 Male and female responses for satisfaction with life as a whole, satisfaction with family life in general, and satis- faction with children, spouse, and marriage are presented in Tables 23-27. Table 23 shows male and female respondent scores for satisfaction with life as a whole. For the female respond- ents, 79% of the women in the early stage group reported feeling mostly satisfied or better. Nearly 30% reported feeling pleased with their lives as a whole, and 8.3% re- ported being delighted. Twenty-one percent felt mixed or worse. In the modal stage group, 86.3% felt mostly satis- fied or better. Here the percentage of women who were delighted dropped to 1.1%. Approximately 39% of the women in the modal group felt pleased with their lives as a whole, while 13.6% had mixed or worse feelings. Seventy-six per- cent of the women in the later stage group reported feeling at least mostly satisfied. Seven percent of the women said they were delighted with their lives as a whole. The larg- est number (43.9%) reported feeling mostly satisfied, while 24.4% felt mixed or worse about their lives as a whole. For the male respondents, 80% of the men in the early stage group said they felt mostly satisfied or better. The largest number (56.7%) said they were mostly satisfied with their lives as a whole, and 3.3% reported being delighted. Twenty percent felt mixed or worse. In the modal stage group, 80.7% reported feeling mostly satisfied or better Over half (53%) registered scores of mostly satisfied. The percentage of those responding delighted in this group rose 77 Nmmzcammc mpcum-N~o mmzpmea ac: 8mom--8o:m:emcb m>racpmc wmw88mmKw 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 N.8 :88: 8.88. .8 8.88. .8 8.88. 88 8.88. 88 8.88. mm 8.88. 88 .<.8. -- -- -- -- -- a -- -- -- -- -- -- mmcoammc m—cuw-88o 8.8N 8.88 8.88 N.88 ..8. 8.88 88.8.888 888.28888. lllllllllllllllll lillllilLllllllllllllllillllllll.lllilllillllllllllllialrilllllililllllllllllllllll 8.. 8 8.8 N ... . 8.8 8 8.8 N 8.8 . N. 88.88..88 8.8 N 8.N 8 8.8 8 N.. . 8.N. .8 -- -- 8.8. 8.8. 8 8.8. 8 8..8 8N 8.8N 8. N.8. 8 8.8N 8 8. 88888.. 8.8. 8 8.8N .. 8.8N .N 8..8 8N 8.8 N 8.8N 8 8.8. 8.8N 8. 8.NN 8 N.NN 8N N..N 8. 8.88 8 N.88 .. 8. 88....888 8.888: lie-Ill IIIIIIIIIIIII Illlli llllll llllll IIIIIIIIIII r lllllllllllllllllllllll an llllllllllllllllllllllllll 8.88 8.8. N 8.8. N.8. 8.8N 8.8. . 88.8.888 888.288888 ll IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIDI I'illlnl llllllllllll Illa-[III IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII w. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I lllllllll 8.8. 8 8.8 N 8.8 8 8.8 8 8.8 N 8.8. 8 8.8. .88..8..88 .8.8 888 co..8.888 8.8 8 N.N. 8 8.8 8 8.8 8 8.8 N 8.8 . 8. N..8888 .8888. cox.: -- -- -- -- 8.N N 8.N N N.8 . 8.8 . 8.8. -- -- 8.N . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 8. co..8..aaa.8 8.888: -- -- -- -- -- -- N.. . -- -- -- -- 8.N. -- a- -- -- -- -- . -- -- -- -- -- -- N. 8888888 -- l- -- . -- l- -- -- l- a- l- -- -l m. u ow -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .. 8.8.8.8. N z N z .N z N z N . z N z 88..oa.a..a8 .8 .osoc :0563 :e: :chz :0: case: :0: ----- ---lldm.<. .888: .1... .8888 Li: 8888.8 macaw m.o»o-maaa =8 macmmcoammm mpcsma mcc mac: .8» macs: c mc m... 8a.: :oaaocamaacm .mm maaca 78 slightly to 3.6%; 19.2% reported feeling mixed or worse. In the later stage group, nearly 50% of the men (48.8%) reported feeling mostly satisfied, while 19.5% reported a measure of discontent. Again the percentage of men who reported being delighted rose to 4.9% for this group. For the men, the percentage of delighted responses increased as life-cycle stage increased. The pattern differed for women. The larg- est percentage of delighted respondents was found in the early group. The percentage decreased substantially in the. modal group and rose substantially in the later stage group. Table 24 presents the satisfaction with family life scores for male and female respondents. Of the women in the. early stage group, 75% registered scores of mostly satisfied or better. Of these, 33.3% were pleased with their family lives; 12.5% were delighted. Twenty-five percent reported at least sOme feelings of discontent. In the modal group, nearly 90% reported they felt mostly satisfied or better. The percentage of women who were delighted in this group dropped to 9.1%. Ten percent felt mixed or worse about their family lives. In the later stage group, nearly 20% had mixed feelings or worse about their family lives. Over 36% reported being pleased, and 17.1%, the highest percentage for all three groups, reported being delighted. Of the men in the early group, 93.3% registered scores of mostly satisfied or better. Of these, 60% were pleased with their family lives, and 6.7% were delighted. Only 6.6% reported at least some feelings of discontent. In the modal stage group, 89.1% of the men reported they felt mostly sat- isfied or better with the percentage of delighted responses 79 88888888. 88888-888 888—88. 88: 8888--8u:m8cmhb 88.8888. mmw8aau..8—a. w8888~888 8838: :8: 8868: ca: 88:82 go: 88.88 8888: .8888 8888.8 888.8 o.u»u-m..8 8. 88888888888 8.858. 888 8.8: .8. 8888.880 88.: 88.888.8888m .mm 8.888 82 group registered scores of most1y satisfied or better; 41.5% were de1ighted with their chi1dren whi1e '7.2% said they fe1t mixed or dissatisfied. The percentage of de1ighted responses for the women in- creased as the 1ife-cyc1e stage increased. For the men, the ear1y and 1ate stage groups had simi1ar1y high percentage of de1ighted responses with a high but re1ative1y Iower percent- age recorded for the moda1 group. With regard to satisfaction with spouse, 54.2% of the ear1y group women fe1t p1eased and most1y satisfied; 20.8% fe1t de1ighted. The remainder of the group (25%) fe1t mixed and most1y dissatisfied. In the moda1 group, 43% were pleased, 29% were de1ighted, and 13.5% were mixed and most1y dissatisfied. Eighty-seven percent of the mOdaI group fe1t most1y satisfied or better. The remainder (13.5%) reported some degree of discontent with their spouses. In the 1ater stage group, 12.2% were mixed or dissatisfied whi1e 41.5% were de1ighted. Over a11} the percentage of women who ex- pressed some degree of dissatisfaction_with their spouses dec1ined as 1ife-cyc1e stage increased. Of the ear1y group men, 53.3% fe1t p1eased or most1y satisfied with their spouses; 36.7% were de1ighted. Ten percent fe1t mixed. In the moda1 group, 15.7% were most1y satisfied, 34.9% were p1eased, and 37.3% were de1ighted. Ten percent were mixed and most1y dissatisfied, whi1e 2.4% fe1t unhappy or terrib1e. In the 1ater stage group, 90.2% fe1t most1y satisfied or better with 31.7% of these men reporting that they fe1t de1ighted with their spouses. Ten 83 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 ..8 888: 8.88. .8 8.88. .8 8.88. 88 8.88. 88 8.88..wm. .mmmmm.mm 88.8. -- ....1 N....il I...Hl I..H11 1.1.. 1.1.111 up“.-. -- -- -- -- 0888888.. 8.38-8.3 ....... mumm--------quw---.----mumm---------mumm-- ----8MWM- --- ---mum8 . 88.8.888 888.888888 ..... 8.8:--8.--:M..m:m-8--8888--m----mm:m-.--83- w: 28 : 7 - 8.22:8 N..8 8. 8.88 8. N.N8 88 8.88 8N 8.N8 8 8.88 8. . 88888.8 ..... .....n--.--:-8...m:8:.--...x--m----mm--m-.--mm.--.-::...u....--..”--.---.w..-----.w.mm_..m-3w8 ....... N...m_.:::-:N......-:.--:Mm---:::mm-:.----mm::-----Rfi--.-----:Eegmkmfiwm. .88_.8.888 -8.8 888 88..8.888 8.N 8 8.N 8 ..8. 8 8.8 8 N.8. 8 8.8. 8 8. N..8888 88888. 888.: -- -- 8.N . 8.8 8 8.8 8 8.8 N -- -- 8. 88.88.8888.8 8.8888 8.8 N -- -- -- -- N.. . -- -- -- -- N. 888.88.. -- -- -- -- -- -- N.. . -- -- -- -- .. ..8.88w. N 8 N 8 N 8 N 8 N 8 N z 88.88.88.888 .8 .8888 8858: cm: 8858: :8: cute: co: .1. 88.88 8888: .8888 -MHH 8888.8 888.8 8.888-8888 8. 88888888888 8.858. 888 8.8: .8. 888888 88.: 88.888.88.88 .8N 8.888 84 percent (9.7%) fe1t mixed and most1y dissatisfied with their spouses. Virtuaiiy the same percentage of men in every Tife- cycie stage group expressed some degree of dissatisfaction with their spouses. In comparing maies and femaies, the percentage of female de1ighted responses increased as the iife-cycie stage in- creased, whi1e the percentage for men increased siightiy from the ear1y to moda1 group, but decreased in the 1ater stage group. Regarding marriage, Tabie 27 shows that the majority of men and women in aii stage groups were satisfied with their marriages. Seventy-five percent of the ear1y group women, 90% of the mode] group women, and 90.2% of the later stage group women reported feeiing at 1east most1y satisfied with their marriages. The percentages of de1ighted scores for the ear1y, moda1, and 1ater groups were 25%, 32.6%, and 43.9% respectiveiy. The majority of men in aii stage groups were also sat- isfied with their marriages. Ninety-six percent of the ear1y group, 91.6% of the moda1 group, and 90.2% of the Tater group reported feeiing at 1east most1y satisfied with their marriages. The percentages of de1ighted responses for the ear1y, moda1, and 1ater groups were 43.3%, 45.8%, and 43.9% respectiveiy. Again, the pattern of increased de1ighted responses across iife-cycie stage groups appiies to the fema1e sampie. Aiso, a pattern of increasing then decreasing de1ighted responses across stage groups was found in the maie sampie. 85 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 ..8 8888 8.88. .8 8.88. .8 8 88. 88 8 88. 88 8.88. 8N 8.88. 88 88.8. -- n- u- u- I- u- u- -- a- s- a- .. 88888888 8.888-889 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII.IllililiicIIIIIUIlllcit: niinnlnliniiuuclitllilluo N.88 N.88 8.88 8..8 8.88 8.88 8 88.8.888 888.888888 ..... 88mm- 8m 8.88 8. 8.N8 8N 8.88 88 8.8N 8 8.88 8. Nu 88888..88 ...8 8. ...8 8. N.N8 88 8.N8 .N N.8N N 8.88 8. . 88888.8 8.8. 8 8.8. 8 8.8. 8. 8.8. .. 8.8N 8 8.8N 8 8. 88.88.888 8.8888 i uuuuuuuu HulsliuIIIIIHIIitfiIIIIIHtIIIIIIIIIIHIIIII IIIIIHuIIIIIIIIIuIH lllll 1 nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn wuou: N 8 8 8 . 8. 8 8 8 8N 8 8 88.8.888 888.888888 llllllllllllllllllllllllll ralllllllilllclallnlllllfilIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIInlu .88.88.888 . . . -8.8 888 88.88.888 8 8 N 8 8 N N 8 8 N.. . ..8. 8 -- -- 8, 8..8888 88888. 888.8 8.N . 8.8 N 8.8 8 8.8 8 8.8 N -- -- 8. 88.88.8888.8 8.8888 -- u- i- -- -- -- ~._ — I- u- m.» 8 Nu 888888: 8.N . -- -- -- -- 8.N N -- -- -- -- .8 8.8.88m8 a z a z a z u z u . z a z 88.88888_888 8° _8>88 88:8: :8: 88:83 :8: 88583 :8: ..- 88.88 88888 .8888 888888 88888 8888818888 8. 88888888888 8.8588 888 888: 888 8888888: 88.: 888888888888 .Nm 88888 86 In spite of noticable trends and response patterns in the previously examined data, it has been established that no significant statistical differences existed between the male life-cycle stage groups and between the female life-cycle stage groups. One possible reason for the lack of signifi- cant differences between the groups is that the majority of respondents felt mostly satisfied or better about their lives as a whole, their family lives in general, and their family lives with respect to children, spouse, and marriage. Husband-Wife Pairs in the Life:cycle Stage Groups This section includes the description of the different husband-wife pair life-cycle stage groups in terms of the following demographic variables: race, religion, occupa- tional prestige scores, educational attainment, per capita income, and total number of children born. Only couples who belonged to the same life-cycle stage groups were considered. Because there were numerous instances in which husbands and wives did not belong to the same life-cycle stage group, the sample size does not equal the initial sample size. Also located in this section is the test of null hypothesis 3. The hypothesis was based upon the study research questions (see p. ll), and was tested using the method of analysis previously specified (see p. 49). The results of the tests will be presented and discussed. Respondents' sat- isfaction scores for life as a whole, family life in general, and children, spouse, and marriage will then be presented. 87 Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups by Demographic Variables Race and Religion. Tables 28.l, 28.2, and 29 describe the stage groups in terms of race and religion of respondents. The greatest percentage of husbands and wives in all three groups were white. However, the percentages of the total black subsample who were in the early and later stage groups were relatively larger than were the percentages of the total white subsample in those groups. The largest religious - category for all groups was Protestant, except for wives in the later stage group where Catholics comprised 50% of the wives in this group. Education and occupational prestige. Tables 30 and 3l show the levels of educational attainment and occupational prestige scores for respondents. In the early group 35.3% of the husbands completed high school, and 23.5% completed two years of college work. Fifty-six percent of the wives completed high school, and none had any college education. The percentages of husbands and wives in the modal group completing high school were 29% and 51.6% respectively. Sixty-four percent of the husbands and 45.1% of the wives went beyond a high school education. In the later stage group, 26.9% of the husbands completed high school; 30.8% of the wives completed high school. Sixty-five percent of the husbands advanced beyond high school as well as 53.7% of the wives. In general, husbands and wives in the early stage group completed fewer years of education than respond- ents in the next two groups, with the mean years of school 88 Table 28.1. Race of Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups EARLY MODAL LATER Husbands Wives Husbands Wives Husbands Wives Race N % N % N % N % N % N % White 13 76.5 13 76.5 59 95.2 59 95.2 21 80.8 21 80.6 Black 4 23.5 4 23.5 3 4.8 3 4.8 5 19.2 5 19.2 TOTAL 17 100.0 17 100.0 62 100.0 62 100.0 26 100.0 26 100:0 _— Table 28.2. Percentage of Black and White Respondents in Husband-Wife Pairs in Life-cycle Stage Groups White Black Life-cycle Stage Group N % N % Early 26 14.0 8 33.0 Modal 118 63.4 6 25.0 Later 42 22.6 10 42.0 TOTAL 186 100.0 3? 100.0 89 wwwm,m=mmmms muapucw we: mmoM11xocoacmgm m>rwapmg cmumznwme c.oop om o.oop cm o.oo— No c.oo_ we c.oc— mp o.oo_ Np 4P3 mucmnmzz mm>w3 mucoamzz mm>_z magmamaz zmh<4 44mu=m=cwc$ m>mumbmc wwumammwu mw>w3 mccmnmaz mm>vz mucmnmaz mm>P2 mccmnmzz mmh<4 4o1mmwd cw mcwma mNp31ucmnmzz mo compmusum mo mcmw> .om mFam» 92 w—amowpnan go: so uc—mm.e no wowsoumg ease mambo: ac: mmow11xugwacogb w>—wmbog mowmammnh o.eo. e.oo. oN c.co. o.oo. 8L o.co. o.oa. 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N.m . 8.19. 4N N z ...“ # z «V1 N z a.“ N 2 4R 91 z *N N z mwgoum mm.wmawn mo>.3 mecanmzz mm>.3 macmnmaz mo>.: mucuamaz N..<. .<=oz . ...(u masocu mmmum mauAU 1m... :. mgpma wwwz1u=wamaz No mmcoum mmPwagq panoNumazouo ..m m—amN 93 anew mcwmmws manpoc. no: mmcw11>uzwacwgw,m>rumpmc umumsnw_uarwc ew.w:he_: Nucaama: Nu>N3 mugoam== NuNN3 Nucaamaz 1 111 11- mfl_-11 NNN<. -mw. .«e@: 1 11:11mmqu 11 mazogw macaw opo»01wN.A :. NN.NN mNNz1ucmnmaz so. mpogz a mm mm.. su.z :oNNuNNm.Nmm .mm m—amh 99 Nonconmug opnum1th owapucr No: Nooe11xucoaaoub u>Nunrmg1wwwNamm.3 Nccunmsz Nm>N3 mccmamaz mos—3 Necuamaz N.Nd411 .NNoz N.N«u waaogw mmmum mNoNo1mNNA :. NLNNN owwz1ucmnmaz Now 6%.. NNNENN zNNz :oNNumNNNNNm .om mpamp 100 satisfied with their family lives. For men the greatest percentage of less than positive responses was registered by the early stage group. In this group 11.8% of the husbands had mixed feelings or worse. However, for the wives the greatest percentage reporting some measure of dissatisfaction was in the later stage group. An equal percentage of hus- bands and wives in the early stage group (11.8%) said they were delighted with their family lives. In the modal group, 14.5% of the husbands and 6.6% of the wives reported being delighted. In the later stage group, both husbands and wives recorded the highest percentage (19.2%) of delighted responses. It was found that delighted scores increased for the husbands as life-cycle stage increased but for women those scores declined in the modal stage and went up again in the later stage. A Frequencies for satisfaction with children, spouse, and marriage are listed in Tables 37, 38, and 39. [Approximately 85% of all husbands and wives fe1t mostly satisfied or better about their children. Percentages of husbands and wives who felt delighted were 41.2% and 23.5% respectively in the early group, 40.3% and 37.1% in the modal group, and 38.5% and 42.3% in the later stage group. The percentages of de1ighted responses for husbands decrease slightly as life-cycle stage increases, while delighted responses for women increase sub- stantially as life-cycle stage increases. This is particularr 1y interesting to note since women are still the primary care- takers of the children in a family. The dramatic increase in delighted responses from the early to the later stage 101 c.e c.o —.@ ~.o a.m v.0 zNz chonuaz No>N3 Necnamaz Nw>N3 meccaN== 11- NNNNN NNN 3:: 3:53.... .33: muses-1...: N..-.3: wvccnwa: NNNNN NNNNN .NN91m$Ng :. N.Nma mmwz1ucmamzz New mmNNNLNz cur: maaogw mumum coNNuNNNNNNm .mm mpnmh l05 across stage groups. However, the data for this sample revealed several interesting patterns and findings. A majority of black respondents were found to belong to the early stage group in- dicating that in this sample more blacks tended to marry and have children at an early age. Generally, most of the male and female respondents were Protestant. Regarding education, a much higher percentage of the early stage respondents had less than a high school education than the modal and later groups. The early group also ranks generally lower in occupational prestige scores, and has a greater percentage of respondents reporting a per capita income of less than $5,999 than the two other life—cycle stage groups. The later stage group had the greatest percentage of respondents reporting per capita incomes of over $14,000. The men in the later stage group and the women in the early stage group had the greatest mean number of children born to them. When asked if they would have children if they had it to do over again, the men in the later group reported the highest percentage of "yes-~very strongly" respon- ses among the male groups. The women in the early group recorded the lowest percentage of "yes--very strongly" respon- ses among the female stage groups. Regarding satisfaction with life as a whole, mean scores for both men and women were relatively lower than mean scores for the other four dependent variables. This is especially true for the male groups. This is seen in Figures 6 and 7. For the women, mean scores for satisfaction with family life, children, spouse, and marriage rose as life-cycle stage in- creased from the early stage to the modal stage, and either l06 rose again or leveled-off as the life-cycle stage increased from the modal stage to the later stage. Mean scores for sat- isfaction with children and spouse increased at each successive life-cycle stage. For the men, mean scores for satisfaction with family life, children, spouse, and marriage fell as life- cycle stage increased from the early stage to the modal stage, and either leveled-off or rose slightly as the life-cycle stage increased from the modal stage to the later stage. While scores for satisfaciton with children, spouse, and marriage were all high, scores for family life in general were lower. According to Andrews and Withey (l976), the com- bination of children, spouse, and marriage probably results in less satisfaction because of the responsibilities, pressures, and stress that are often part of family life. Mean scores for satisfaction with life as a whole also tended to be relatively lower than the mean scores for the other dependent variables, although still in the mostly sat- isfied or better categories. A reason for this may be that when evaluating their lives as a whole, people evaluate how they feel about various life concerns that are important to them. While this study focused only upon the domain of fam- ily life it is most probably not the only life concern to be evaluated by a respondent when asked how he or she feels about his or her life as a whole. In general, men tended to rate satisfaction with child- ren more highly than women even though children were rated highly by both. This may be because women are usually the prime caretakers for the children in the family and must 107 give more of their time and independence. ' In testing for differences between husband-wife pairs in each of the stage, husbands in the early group were found to be significantly less satisfied than their wives with life as a whole. This can be more clearly seen in Figure 8. This finding does not support the findings of Andrews and Withey (l976) who have stated that differences in overall perceived quality of life between men and women are not significant. In general, these husband-wife pairs had a lower level of educational attainment, lower per capita incomes, lower occu- pational prestige scores, and a slightly higher mean number of children born than the husband-wife pairs in the modal and later groups. Husbands and wives were asked if they'd have children if they had it to do over again. The percentage of husbands and wives in the early group who said yes and felt very strongly about it was lower than the percentages of the same responses in the modal and later groups. Even though tests for significant differences were not run for the remaining four dependent variables, the date again revealed interesting patterns and findings. Regarding satisfaction with family life, children, spouse, and marriage, the majority of husbands and wives recorded responses of mostly satisfied or better. However, husbands and wives in the later stage group recorded the highest percentage of de- lighted responses for satisfaction with family life. This finding suggests again that husbands and wives in the later stage group were better prepared to handle the responsibil- ities involved in family life. It has been previously men- l08 tioned that this group had higher levels of income and edu- cational attainment than did the early stage group. Regard- ing satisfaction with children, the percentage of delighted responses decreases slightly as life-cycle stage increases for men, while delighted responses for women increase sub- stantially as life-cycle stage increases. Regarding satis- faction with spouse, the percentage of delighted responses for wives increased as life-cycle stage increased. In examining the responses for satisfaction with marriage, it was found that the percentage of delighted responses for the wives increased substantially as life-cycle stage increased though this was not true for the husbands. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Conclusions The major purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in the perception of quality of life in a sample- of respondents grouped into life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child. Life-cycle stage groups were also described in terms of the following variables: race, religion, educational attainment, occupational prestige, per capita income, and total number of children born to respondents. The rationale for the study included comparing the data against recent literature, as well as searching for some indication of how developing trends iin childbearing patterns could affect the quality of life. An additional objective of the study was the examination of the life-cycle groups in terms of demographic description. Early marriage and childbearing has for some time been assoc- iated with low income, a lower level of educational attain- ment, fewer career opportunities, an increase in childbearing and high rates of divorce. These elements in combination could most probably affect one's life and the experience of the quality of life. The demographic variables for the samples, especially the husband-wife pairs in the early stage group, were supportive of the literature findings. 109 ll0 Most respondents were found to be highly satisfied on all dependent variables. No significant difference was found between female life-cycle stage groups, and between male life-cycle stage groups. However, the data revealed numerous patterns of response which showed increased num- bers of delighted responses as life-cycle stage increased. A significant difference was found to exist between husband-wife pairs in the early stage group on a measure of satisfaction with life as a whole. Throughout the analyses, the early life-cycle stage group was found to have achieved or attained relatively less than the other two groups. This suggests that significant differences might best be found between husband-wife pairs grouped into life-cycle stage groups rather than between groups of males or females. It would also seem that objective indicators alone are not sufficient quality of life indicators. For example, while early stage group respondents generally had less edu- cation and smaller per capita incomes than the modal and later stage groups, the majority of early group respondents still reported feeling mostly satisfied or better with their lives as a whole, their family lives in general, and their children, spouses, and marriages. This again suggests that both the subjective experience of life and the objective aspects of life must be considered in quality of life research. Limitations Several tests between husband-wife pairs were not pos- sible because the t-test for dependent samples, though a lll powerful test, is not appropriate when numerous tests are required. Multivariate analysis of variance does not allow for the testing of dependent samples. Therefore, testing husband-wife pairs was restricted to one dependent variable-- satisfaction with life as a whole. Another limitation of the study is that satisfaction scores tended to fall towards the satisfied end of the D-T Scale. There is no way of determining whether these measure- ments portray the respondents' real feelings of satisfaction with life as a whole, with family life in general, and with family life considering children, spouse, and marriage. It must be assumed that respondents were recording their true feelings and not feelings which they felt would be more acceptable to researchers. or perhaps, to themselves. In using children, spouse, and marriage as criteria for the domain of family life, Andrews' and Withey‘s definition of criteria may not be fully complied with. These aspects of family life can be and are used to evaluate feelings about family life although they may not strictly be called values, aspirations, or goals. For this study, it was, therefore assumed that children, spouse, and marriage are types of criteria since they are of value to people. The objective indicators (demographic variables) in the study were used chiefly in a descriptive sense, and these data revealed several interesting response patterns. How- ever, it may have been useful to test for significant rela- tionships between these objective indicators and the measures of satisfaction or perceptual indicators. Tests for ll2 differences between the demographic variables across the stage groups may have also been of value. Future tests of relationship between the subjective and objective indicators of this study may prove fruitful, especially when examined against a background of the different life-cycle stage groups based upon the age of respondents at the birth of the first child. Implications Whereas previous studies have found that there are no significant differences between men and women in measures of life satisfaction, this study has indicated that there may be value in pursuing the matter more deeply, especially in terms of the husband-wife relationship, and how it affects or is affected by life concerns and life satisfaction. While no significant differences were found between the various male groups, and between the various female stage groups, a different experience is tapped when husband-wife pairs belonging to the same stage group are compared. This particularly applies to the early stage group. Tests for husband-wife pairs in this group were not run on measurements of family life in general or family life with respect to children, spouse, and marriage, but further tests on these variables may prove fruitful. The demographic variables for this group tended to substantiate a good deal of the liter- ature on early marriages and childbirths. Tests could also be run on the remaining four dependent variables for the modal and later stage groups. For example, Figure 8 indicates that, while not significant, husband-wife ll3 pairs in the later stage group differ more on satisfaction than couples in the modal group. This suggests that husband- wife pairs who married and first had children during the median years for first births are more in accord in terms of satisfaction with their lives as a whole than are the other groups. Such results could be related to educational programs for youth, and community services and programs for adults and parents as well. Results could also be useful to family planning agencies. In addition, questions are posed. Why specifically are the early stage husbands significantly less satisfied than their wives? And, what are the implications for a society which is undergoing and experiencing a trend in delayed childbirth? REFERENCES CITED CITED REFERENCES Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. Social indicators of well-being. New York: Plenum Press, T976. Bubolz, M., Eicher, J., Evers, S., & Sontag, M. A human ecological approach to the quality of life: Conceptual framework and results of a preliminary study. l978, in press, Social Indicators Research. Bubolz, M., & Sontag, S. Toward a working definition of quality of life. Unpublished paper, 1977. Bunge, M. What is a quality of life indicator? Social Indicators Research, l975, g, pp. 65-70. Butler, 5. L. A human ecological approach to QOL: 13 case studies. Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, [977. Campbell, A. Poor measurement of the right thing. A paper presented at The American Statistical Association, Chicago, Illinois, August, 1977. Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., & Rodgers, W. L. The quality of American life: Perceptions, evaluations, and satisfactions. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, l976. Campbell, A. A. Baby boom to birth dearth and beyond. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social ScTence, 197B, (435), pp. 40-60. The Carnegie Council on Children. All our children. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, l977. Espenshade, T. J. The value and cost of children. Population Bulletin, (32), I977. Flanagan, J. D. A research approach to improving our quality of life. American Psychologist, I978, (33), pp. l38-l47. Foa, U. & E. Measuring 00E: Can it help solve the ecologi- cal crisis? International Journal of Environmental Studies, l973, (5), pp. 21-26. ll4 115 Furstenberg, F. The social consequences of teenage parenthood. Family Planning Perspectives, l976, (8), pp. l84-l90. Gerson, E. M. 0n "quality of life". American Sociological Review, l976, (43l), pp. 793-805. Glick, P. 0. Updating the life cycle of the family. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1977, (39), pp. 5-l3. Liu, B. Quality of life indicators in U.S. metropolitan areas: A statistical analysis. New York: Praeger Publishers, l976. Maynard, J. How a first baby changes a marriage. Ladies Home Journal, May, l978, pp. l62-l64. McCal , 5. Quality of life. Social Indicators Research, l976 l (2), pp. 229-248. Nye, I. School age parenthood-~consequences for babies, mothers, fathers, grandparents, and others. Extension BulTetin 667, Cooperative Extension ServTce, Washington State University, July, l976.’ Parke R., & Seidman, D. Social indicators and social reporting. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social, l978, (435), pp. l-22. The pros and cons of parenthood. Ebony, July, 1977, pp. lll- ll6. Rokeach, M. -The nature of human values. New York: Free Press, l973. Ruzicka, L. T. Age at marriage and timing of the first birth. Population Studies, l976, (30), pp. 527-538. ScopeLHustler-Reference Mgnual, Computer Laboratory, Michigan State University, l978. Sewell, J. W. A physical quality of life index (PQLI). Inter- national Development Review, l976, (28). Sontag, M. S. Clothing as an indicator of perceived quality of life. Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, i977. Sontag, M., Bubolz, M., & Slocum, A. Perceived quality of life of Oakland County families: A preliminary report. Unpub- lished paper, 1978. Trussel, T. Economic consequences of teena e childbearing. Family Planning Perspectives, 1976, (8?, pp. 184-l90. I16 U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Toward a social report. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Mich- igan Press, l970. Waite, L., & Stolzenberg, R. M. Intended childbearing and labor force participation of young women: Insights from nonrecursive models. American Sociological Review, I976, (41), pp. 235-252. Young, C. M. Spacing of children and changing patterns of childbearing. Journal of Biosocial Science, 1977, (9), pp. 201-2l6. Young, C. M. Work sequences of women during the family life cycle. Journal of Marriage and the Family, l978, (40), pp. 40l-4ll. - Zelnik, M., & Kantner, J. First pregnancies to women aged l5- l9: l976-l97l. Family Planning Perspectives, l978, (10), pp. ll-20. Zill, N. National survey of children, summary of prelimipary results. N.Y. Foundation for Child Development, 1977. Zimmerman, S. The family and its relevance for social policy. Social Casework, I976, (57), pp. 547—554. APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS UTILIZED IN THE STUDY, ITEM SOURCES. AND DESCRIPTION OF COLLUSION SCORES FOR SECTIONS I AND 6 OF QUESTIONNAIRE H7 ”mum” .ch» 3mm .xgo> 3oz .mmmgn Eacopa .xu_.mmw1wNwH No mcomumwucwa macawcms< ”m:.om1_pm: No mgcuou_v:_ NNNUom m>_:o emngpmcou :ox N. m».— »_.Eeu czo Nae» uaoao .stu.: .m :mznoum ecu .z gang; .mzmgv:< _mou ac» upset to: ..m .N...ag NNNNN .~_oa=m Nocmocmz .cc ch.o=co_amm:c No No Nags. so» a—a.m:oamm. camsoa .co.mm_s Nana 1Noa :u.:.uom= ma: s-~ .xogu.3 can mxogv=< a. .cw.u..gu use» can mzu ca .Nu.u=oc. m. co.amo:c No acoamaaam maa.gu~s czox .05.: .m‘ N..N ac.:coucoo xmgu.: can mzwcvc< No No acaamaz sac» m_m=o_aag use a=.m= mNN— a..ENN :N.x copy 11 a»._ x—NENN 1uoum.amm No ocamaoe pogo—a a ma mNNNoz :30 Nacx uaoao _.m xzumx vac ~—oa:a Nocomgaz .5: ma amaumcu .905 no» ow to: am.~ .N—oaam Nucoagoz .5: tea moacom w:=o~=m .: Noc_o::o.umm:c ca mama. be «age. No. o—n.m:oamms gouge; .NNa_ .om coaeouamm ”co.mm.sgwa vm=.aNco Na mono .xmgumz .a :wgamum ace mzocv=< .: scacu No co.mm.eLoa oza =N.3 vow: .xoonmuou m~m. »_:w .me can mm .mm .mNm_ .o>.:u.< mo:w.um _NNUom .gocammoz _o_uom co» ouaa.umc_ ..mucou gogewmmz xm>c=m u :Na.zu_z.wmmmmn can .23 Lyssa-NS. 9.75m “mgogaugcp N.N.—9.: N we dMNUom No acmsogamomz vac acosmm_m>mo 6N._.N=oz Nzono ~.m .m :wgaoum .awzu.3 tea .: scacu .mzogv:< _mmu so» on so: N.. ougaom NENN 4mmiamwfl mmugzom tam Ntavm 05¢ cw vow: meHH wmeccowvmwzd .w1< wwnch ll8 .maoucom occm~am .: ch.~::o.umm:c cu Nana. so; a—n.mcoamog cameo; N .a .omoON .u.= .coNa:.:mm3 ..3.z .m=:m>< muammmaunmmez mos. .mgouau.cc_ —a.oom cc zugcomma No :o.uo:_cgoou Lou qucou .wpu::ou gucammmu aucmwom PNNUom .mxo>N=m m.ox 1amao: .m.: cob mEoNN vasommxoam u.mam .mcm .—__N mu_ogo.z ecu coma; ca> .< :caxoz .~_oa:m uogcagoz .No ”mg—accoNNNozc 3 so: No 39: scum—£283.. cons: .Nno_ .NcoanPw>ao-w—N;o Lek cowwam 1.53 .>.z .353; #35529... 343......3 .eatu..gu .8 ANNLNN .Neo.uoz ....N «N.8;o.z .Nponam «whomcoz ..o .a.uawx xzucx "oc.o:=o.umm:c ca say. 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No wage. to» opa.m:oamw. ccmgmm .xoonocou «No— ».35 ozu .6 Na .a .mNm. .coucou zugmmmma xm>N=m .w>.:o.< oucmNum _N.uom .zogmomoz _NNUom co» «N=NNNN:_ ”cam.:u.: .Nomcn can .NNN. Lmass-NR. N=.LNN .mLoNNu.N=_ .N.uom No acmamczmowz use Newamo_m>oa .xw3NN3 .m :mgaoum uca mzm.c=< .: xcmgm .auuzom occa~zm .z umc.m:=o.amm=c cu Nags. Lab m_a.m=camms comgma .< 5.8. .N. .a na>oau mm osom mugaom cz N uoNLNas so» ago: gaox Nos: c- mm» II." Nmaa.gcms an... gaox m.;u m— »quonm wmworn LNNNN 111. ceumcos<1ocucgc :c.:3 ccc csu m. a. .macn cxu ac capu uc acacEc _oaac cc cacam ac» NN .cENN ewes cg» cacam ac» cops: cc aca use m. :c_aoaauuc =_oa .aca .mncn czu c>cg ac» N_v Nam—poo chNoaaocc :.m§ omaccm cccu~am .2 can ~.caam cacx m. cog: Nca ac» ca «cc: accomcaz go ”cc_c==c.umcaa cu so». 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No Nana. cob c_a_m=ccmcc :cmcca .a_auc¢ »;amx ago unaccm ccaa~am .2 .Npcaam accamgaz .5: .»c acuceac cacao we oscm 80 .mcuacm ccaa~am .2 can N—caam accamccz ..o "cg—acccmamcaa ca Ema. No Nana. cc. c.a.m:cammc :cmcca ..m1aw .a .c>caa ma csam .mUcacm N»=os 2c: .mc» N— Nusagu acpacccga cg» :. acam._ ac: cam: cc: Amcaa_g 1cm: macN>cca sccu coca—.gc ac. 1aa.c=.v cmaccm sac» NcNaao ac» cu :Nca coca—Ngu Logac »:a macaw cg< .cccc cage cccs :cmgoa »ca aw._ pcz ca .maaoam _NNNLNE ago xcm .»aa 1guc_a «an. am can .cuaasagva c.cau ”3c: a_cgcmac; sac» :. a:.>._ mccmcca __a am.. mmacpa >0 van ooc.mmm NNN.NN1ooo.om. NNN.NN1NNN.NNN NNN.NN-ooo.aNN NNN.NN1aoo.mN» NNN.NN1coa.oN»1111 NNN.N.1oaa.m_. NNN.N.-oo.N.. NNN...-oaa.c.. NNN.N-oaa.N. NNN.N-aao.N. NNN.N-Noc.o. NNN.m1oNa.m. NNN.N1ooa.NN NNN.N-ooo.N»1111 coa.m. Laue: NNN.-1asoo=_ N..No. a..e~. .Nao. .ac» gu.3 c>.— cg: mamasce »_.Ecu ppm ace ac» »a 333?. 2.8.: »c=c._. ..cfic »co can .cma.cccs macN>cca a so.» Ngcaaam a._gu .coca..=u accccccco gu.: ch—Nscm ca a_< .chN—cz .chccaa. .mxccum .»ugcccca .mcmaz so.» mecca. ma. 1ca_c:. .mcxNN cucuca moccacm __a scab mecca. waa—ccw ammo—a NNNm_ cm mcxmu ochca mecca. »..saN .maca sac» on ...: macENNNc ac» ca can: Emu— teams..mu n~.m~ c~.m_ c~.m~ c_n.m~ .cz Ecu— acacvpccu .—1< cpamh 122 ccgacm o .xcm »a chacac» cu amaa.c 28.. »Naaac.a Nam. Na moan g.cau um.— «mac—m lll-lll. .5: c~.m_ N223. ama:.u:co ._1< mpnmh 123 Table A-2. Description of Collusion Scores for Sections 1 and 6 of Questionnaire Section l--Collusion 1 Presence or absence of collusion between husband and wife in Section 1 (1.1-1.26). Collusion not suspected: 0=4 or more response differences and other evidence of collusion Possible Collusion: l=4 or more response differences and other evidence of collusion 2=2-3 response differences and pg other evidence of collusion 3=2-3 response differences and other evidence of collusion Probable Collusion: 4=0-l response differences and Q3 other evidence of collusion ' 5=0-l response differences and other evidence of collusion Section 6—-Collusion 6 Presence or absence of collusion between,husband and wife in Section 6 (6.la-6.3i) Collusion not suspected: 0=3 or more response differences and pg other evidence of collusion Possible Collusion: l=3 or more response differences and other evidence of collusion 2=2 response differences and 39 other evidence of collusion 3=2 response differences and other evidence of collusion 124 Table A-2. Continued Probable Collusion: 4=0-l response differences and £9 other evidence of collusion 5=0-l response differences and other evidence of collusion APPENDIX B SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS FOR MULTIVARIATE TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE AND T-TESTS 125 .cmacam .amca_.;c . www.cgas can .mcccma :. mN.. »N.ENN .mNogz a mm mm._ zu.z chNumNmpaam No macammmza »aaum may :. acmam cacao. ooo.ma. ooooo.m amamo. mmmna. awmwo. maNNNNNz ommmm. ooo.Na. ooooo.~ mummm. .mnpo. moomm. amgapmcu amaum. ooo.me_ ooooo.~ .mnwm. mmpom. cmmmo. mmaoam comma. ooo.ma. ooooo.~ NomwN. mamam. Napop. mNNN ».NENN mmmwu. ooo.om. ooooo.~ Noomm. omome. Nammp. upon: a ma mNNa .N. 18 .am h.o :32 .am .8 :82 .am No .Eam dam 18 ....am 33...; cu: no .N o. N am .. m .1. 29:1”. $858»: 29...”. mwmmfica»: a .N Nam. .N. Na.: mama.-. NNN.LN>.== 1 1 1 19$... 1 1 1 1 Iowa-..NN... 111111 momma. 11111 3...... 1 1 1 1 1N-N1N1. 1 1. 1 1 1 NET-.... Nam. ooo.oo~ ooo.o. Noe. Nmo. maam—Nmpc: mam. ooo.am~ ooo.o. mow. Nmo. 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NNNNU.N.NN.N co mama. a»~.c~>...=z :. muccaccammm maacsa macaw c.c»u1mN.a mpoeoa so» mo:ac.».ca.m yo mama» mua.gm>.:a acm cNNNNN>NNNaz .N1m c.3ap 127 map. oNN. mNN. »u...aaaoca ..NP1N .mN .oo .0. acacmcm ac mmmcaca am.. NN..1 NN~.1 ma.m>1» .mo. .ao. mam. »u...naac.a ..NN1N mma. mNN. mNN. aoNNNNmLNcu aa.. a... oNN. Log.” acmaaaum mam. o.a. mma. :o.ua.>ma agmacmum mamw. mNNN.1 mwmm.1 cam: AccamNcNNNQV NQN. amp. mow. omN. o—N. 111oap.1 ccccm acmacmum amm. oaN. moo. .m.N New. New. :o.»m.>ma acmacmum N.N.m NNN.m wom.m oam.m mmm.m coo.m cam: .NN ..NN ..N ..N .N. a mm>.3 magmamaz mm>.3 macaama: mm>Nz maamama: mmhaz