. l . .1.
r ~ mvfigl ‘ 0 I. icvr . . .
. ‘rvuu .vks’flnngig 3”! 32.13 V ~ . .
.. . :9}. lo..tu.:h~.€.....z:n£3 1 uwt!...fl€§¥. It. mam“. . .. .
v v. v .t' 1‘! '33“ 9945*“. .098; &
v . V 1M. t H: c r fiftv'v M4000 \
92.1.. t 9 1'}. 023.05.”. 255$? vi! .
atflmnwflds 9.514. 2.9!. . .. . .. ..l a}
v. . {wick}. c v5 ’5” I ‘ I
"' ‘ .‘z'; . g! Q
Invcvvthrflgnbufi v!“ uh v No. I?" 4.50 i x.
v .Ic‘hufltvvfiotmmvo q “Run. ”0, .- v
t .. :Vgr c 1‘»... 252.01.1I :- n
c 0 (Iv Y!!! .‘ i$l>§¢u t )x p R >)‘
. «fiazbwwtbw .83“ i . . : . 5.. 8? 122,},
.11 t v... :‘ 51.). ,. i1?
. r u roflsq'uw £4, a: q . 51:73: u .
t I Q C. ‘ o. LP A

‘ \ N
9» )‘IPA..VU
\. \

I»:

Jl‘...

Z 55“
.Q~IroV.I“

tn.

5
z I \
.33: “an?
3%; {mass} mm

. . . .
- t .. .lilinywvl...
1r}. 5..., .p 7...; 3...
.i. Ii .01“ vihrtr.“ fiuwtofgt
Alnv|l ff. 5'. “ill"dl’r

. {his ‘ufliqvliriulilfivls

‘ t...
353;... :5?! $21,511.- 113%!!!)
4 ‘1‘ in} vi‘l ‘0 i\
r... . ...... '71..-. 33.). ,1.

J: 1.7;. . .

. . PAKIv\-. )1. ‘J. \.._A‘_..h(...,wu I

.1. ‘ yr §u\’2t:)»‘\yr....\lf;1.51.. v... :v .
. ($5:,1.I\22\\1.|\(.av.\ rl.:l.v‘|( {hikl’nlllx
u.l§}"€lhs.£\3i‘§‘ui\ I.. 5k
\L‘! A: \ r4 . ‘ A
[{u\x 11 O ,1 . .

. . . v I v. V ..
\ .. .P.‘O.r¢’v!}1‘l

1

a 544:.
I‘AIII
t

.. If... . 5...: t7 kir‘:
_ n i . In.|.!le..hnol .01.
9‘ . -« cw ‘t3‘fii c! ’
I? .3... :tmwgfihmud .
#1::gu1 .. -
. 6&8”.
.

«v
t
b

‘9: ’31.. y
.3.

v111¢9§

Inn-‘18»

11». t g
z
‘

 

 
  
     

  

LIBRARY ‘
Michigan State
University

Ml)lmfllfizlllfllljfllflllflmwIlflflfllflflfl)!

ér‘tk

“Tins is to certify that the
=~..—=—_‘-Ji_t,he;is entitled

EFFECT OF THE‘LTLEXIBALE" T“1[ 0N ”BAT-HEAD VELOCITY

presented by

GARY CHARLES BOYCE ‘

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters Physical Education

degree in

 

Major professor

[A % $15551..ng
, . . /
Date ”7044 [7 [779
y /

0-7639

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

L,

 

Mi/i

 

_____————/

HAY 0 8 2008

 

 

 

 

 

\
\
timid,

 

 

 

 

 

:::

MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution
:WWM

(9 COPYRIGHT
BY

Gaby Charies Boyce

1979

EFFECT OF THE ”FLEXIBAT” T.M. 0N BAT-HEAD VELOCITY

By

Gary Charies Boyce

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfiiiment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Heaith, Physical Education and Recreation

1979

ABSTRACT
EFFECT OF THE ”FLEXIBAT” T.M. 0N BAT-HEAD VELOCITY

By
Gary Charles Boyce

Twelve Michigan State University baseball players were ran-
domly selected from four stratified class groupings. The three players
from each strata were then randomly assigned to one of two groups. The
purpose of the study was to determine the effect of the “Flexibat” T.M.
on bat-head velocity. All subjects participated in a 24 session train-
ing program. The subjects were pretested with a Maroth Velocity bat to
establish their baseline bat velocity. The research hypothesis was that
the ”Flexibat" T.M. will develop the top hand movement pattern in the
baseball swing and increase bat-head velocity through the integration
of this movement pattern with the bottom hand action.

All subjects participated in a progressive batting drill that
utilized: 1) two different hitting positions, 2) four bat type hitting
devices, and 3) two different ball sizes. At the end of the 24 sessions,
the subjects were post tested for bat velocity. A t-test for signifi-
cant differences between two independent populations was used to analyze
both the pretest and the post test data. A significance level of .10

was established for rejection of the null hypothesis. Analysis of the

post test data indicated that the experimental group had increased their
bat velocityat a .05 level of significance. It was concluded that the
"Flexibat” T.M. did develop the top hand action and the integration of
the top and bottom hands in the bat swinging process led to a dramatic

increase in bat-head velocity.

 

To Pam

for your love and support
in the development and completion

of this research endeavor

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to extend sincere thanks to the following
people:

To Dr. John L. Haubenstricker for his advice and direction
throughout the preparation of this thesis and my graduate program.

To Daniel W. Litwhiler and Thomas W. Smith for their contri-
butions in the development of this research project.

To Mr. John Paulson, President of JoPaul, Inc., for the use
of the Maroth Velocity bat.

To the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation

for allowing me access to the facilities at Michigan State University.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER

I. THE PROBLEM . . .

Need for the Study .

Purpose of the Study .

Research Hypothesis . .

Subproblem ..... . . . . .

Research Plan . . . . ..... . . .
Rationale for the Research Plan . . . .
Assumptions Related to the Research Plan
Limitations of the Research Plan
Significance of the Study .

Definitions .....

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Preswing Batting Components .

The

The Effectiveness of Warm-up and
Training Programs . .

Stance and Positioning in the
Batter' 5 Box . .

Readiness Inside the Batting Box

Pitch Selection, and Effective
Swing Development ......

Relationship of Ball Velocity to
Visual Reaction Time and Movement Time

Summary of the Preswing Batting
Components .....

Baseball Swing Sequence .

Initiation of the Swing . .

Hip Rotation and Interaction of the Legs.

Shoulder Rotation and Barrel Cocking

Page

. viii

15

16
17

18
19
22
23
24

25
26

 

CHAPTER

Coordination of Front Arm and Front
Leg Extension ............
Hand Action, and the Power Hand . . . .
Balance, Body Control and Relaxation .
Summary of the Baseball Swing Sequence

III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . ..........

Subjects ...... . ..........
Training Environment ...........
The "Flexibat" T.M. Apparatus ......

Diagram of the "Flexibat" T.M. . . . . . Z

The Training Program ...........
Stage I, Level 1 and Level 2 .......
Stage II, Level 1 and Level 2 .......
Stage III, Level 1 and Level 2 . .....
Stage IV .................
Testing Procedure . . . ..........
Statistical Analysis . ..........

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............
Results ..................

Descriptive Statistics ........
Inferential Statistics ........

Discussion . ..... . .......

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . .........

Conclusion . . . . . . ..........
Recommendations . . . . ..........

APPENDIX
A. GROUP VELOCITIES IN MILES PER HOUR ......

B. RAN DATA FOR GOLF BALL CONTACTS DURING
THE TRAINING PROGRAM ............

C. INTERGROUP RANKINGS BY PERCENTAGE OF
GOLF BALL CONTACT ..............

REFERENCES ....... . ..... . ........

vi

000000

......

......

......

O O O I

68

69

71
73

‘I

 

 

TABLE
1.2

LIST OF TABLES

A summary of the four stage hitting drill . .

Overview of the batting drill . .

Means and standard deviations for bat velocity

of the experimental and control groups

T-test for significance between means of two
independent groups . . . . . . . . . .

Mean percent of contacts made with the plastic

golf balls

Range of contact scores within groups for each

third of the training program . .

Range of gain scores within groups for the
middle third, final third and total training.
program . .

Range of fluctuation in striking success from
the kneeling and standing positions during
segments of the training program . .

Control group and experimental group bat velocities .

Raw data for the experimental group scores of golf

ball contacts during the training program .

Raw data for the control group scores of golf ball

contacts during the training program

Ranking by percentage of contacts for both groups

from the one- knee batting position

Ranking by percentage of contacts for both groups

from the normal, upright batting position .

 

Page

43

51

53

54

55

56

57

68

69

7O

71

72

FIGURES
1-1

2-1
2-2
2—3

3-1A

3—2
4-1

4-2

 

LIST OF FIGURES

The batting average of the American and
National Leagues since the year 1900

The point of release
Sequential cocking of body parts
Component stages of the bat swinging process

to 3-16 Sequential stages in the development
of a "Flexibat” T.M. . . .

Maroth Velocity Bat .

Successful contacts with golf balls from
the kneeling stance .

Successful contacts with golf balls from
the standing stance .

viii

Page

21
27
35

39
48

58

59

Chapter I
THE PROBLEM

 

The general decline of batting averages at the Major League
level has caused concern among professionals and amateurs alike. There
have been countless discussions within fandom and within the heirarchy
of the major leagues regarding the depressed batting averages over the
past several decades. Figure 1-1 contains the composite American and
National Baseball League batting averages for the years since 1900. It
can be noted that the batting averages for the past decade have been
the lowest since the first decade of this century. In point of fact,
the American League batting averages reached an all-time low in 1968.

Numerous reasons have been proposed for this decline in
batting averages. Koppett (42) suggested eight reasons: 1) better
pitching, 2) hitting for distance/home runs, 3) bigger and better
gloves, 4) more attention to defense, 5) night baseball, 6) coast to
coast travel by air, 7) lighter and thinner bats, and 8) bigger and more
symmetrical parks. Of these, improved pitching, attention to defense,
hitting objectives and changes in bat models are the most directly
influenced by the decisions of coaches, and therefore merit further
consideration.

A major change in baseball has been the emergence of the relief

pitcher. Increased use of the relief pitcher has had a tremendous impact

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.oooH mucwm mmzmmmo Pacowumz ecu :mowcme< mew Loy mmmwcm>m muwmoaeoo .HTH «gamma
m m m m w m m m m
m on.
‘2,
s a
w: A 9:.
s /
. x
. A g .
.. E
E X? A f
. a x
a... . N7 xv...» s». .
a < c _ x «c a:
.
. a
.. e
., L E.
1
A.
_ en.
t“
8N.
P<IJ “=2: 2.3::
bid “:2: 23.52:
.5:
8m.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sm.

BATTING AVERAGE

on the game of baseball. Batters, in particular, have been affected
adversely by this change in defensive strategy. First, the starting
pitchers no longer have to pace themselves in order to pitch nine
innings. They can throw at optimum speed as long as possible knowing
that a specialist is available to replace them when needed. Thus
batters have fewer opportunities to swing at pitches to their liking.
Second, the relief pitcher is fresh and is usually equipped with a
special ”out” pitch that is difficult to hit. Third, the relief
pitcher called on for a given situation most likely will have been
selected on the basis of intensive charting and scouting reports. These
reports are used to match the strengths of the pitcher against the weak-
nesses of the hitter.

Improved defense also has resulted from the utilization of
computerized charting techniques. Charts are maintained indicating
where each player has hit each ball off each pitcher on a given major
league roster. This data is fed into a computer and the resultant out-
put is a game plan based on the scientific probability of predictable
events occurring when the variables of a game situation are manipulated.
Use of these techniques has enabled the defensive phase of the game to
gain a decided advantage over the offensive segment.

A third practice that has adversely affected batting averages
is the general change in batting objectives from those of securing base
hits to those of hitting home runs. This emphasis on home run produc-
tion can be traced to business and profit motives. Home runs cause
excitement, and this above all else will put people in the seats at the

various major league stadia. The average fan does not relate nearly as

well to the nuances of baseball as he does to the power segments of

the game. What the average fan wants is action, speed, and offensive
performance. This is not to deny that spectacular defensive plays can
create enjoyment and appreciation, but rather to point out that manage-
ment is interested in emphasizing those aspects of the game that pro-
vide the greatest financial return.

In his study to determine the total offensive output of major
league players, Akers (4) stated that Major League baseball is a busi-
ness devoted to entertaining in the world of sports. Akers cited the
categories of gross base average, slugging average, and on-base average
as the most important in determining the level of success individual
batters achieved when batting. Branch Rickey (56) maintained that a
player's value to the total team performance rested in his ability to
score runs, to advance bases, or to enable other runners to advance
bases or score runs. Rickey cited several factors that related to
offensive output. The first objective was to get on base in any method
possible. The second priority was to hit with power, or for extra bases.
This emphasis on power hitting has resulted in a change in the batting
pattern of the modern baseball player.

Related to the change in batting objectives is a basic differ-
ence between the bats used during the early decades of this century and
the present day models. Weiskopf (83) has shown that the thin handled
bat used by the professionals today allows a better whip action to be
generated than does the thicker handled and heavier model used during
the pre-1930 era. Koppett (42) has cited the whipping action as benefi-
cial in generating power for hitting home runs. Williams (89) also

stated that the light, thin handled bat is superior to a heavier model

for the same reason. In contrast, the thin handled bat provides less
surface area along its longitudinal axis for contacting the ball. Thus,
the ball is not hit solidly as often as is the case with the thicker
handled bat, resulting in fewer base hits and lower batting averages.

Although improvements in the defensive aspects of the game
undoubtedly have contributed to the lower batting averages, it is the
opinion of this investigator that another major contributing factor to
the decline of batting averages and batting performances has been the
lack of proper hitting instruction. Al Campanis, Director of Player
Personnel for the Los Angeles Dodgers, has stated that "baseball is
perhaps the most overcoached and yet undertaught game that is played
today” (5).

The basic batting objectives in baseball have changed to
power oriented goals. However, the presentation of, and exposure to
methods for improving power potential in the bat swinging process have
been mislaid in the transition. The key to power batting is a sound
swinging process based on physical mechanics which: 1) provide for
maximum tracking and informational processing of the incoming pitch,
2) utilize the muscles in opposition to each other thereby enhancing
power production, and 3) integrate the two previous sections to culmi-
nate in the attainment of high bat velocity. If both business and
personal finances dictate general power hitting objectives, then a
concurrent process to develop bat velocity must be instituted to exped-

ite the achievement of these goals.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

 

The general decline in batting averages demonstrates the need
for research to improve batting performance. Although the literature
contains many relevant articles and studies concerning the component
parts of successful batting, it does not include many references ger-
mane to the development of bat velocity. The focus of this study was
to test a training device designed by the investigator to develop the
top hand action in the baseball swing. The study was designed to test
whether the integration of both hands during the swing would develop
greater bat velocity.

A need for this type of device was first perceived while the
investigator was still playing professional baseball. He began search-
ing for a method that would improve his top hand action while swinging
a bat. Finding no such device on the market, he began to think about
the development of one. Two immediate qualities were necessary: 1)
the device would have to force the top hand to perform during the base-
ball swing, and 2) the mechanism would have to be durable enough to with-
stand the stress of constant usage.

Henry Ford once said ”genius is 99 percent perspiration and 1
percent inspiration”. After two years of effort with only marginal
success, the investigator understood the validity of his statement.
Eventually, a workable model was designed. During the following two
years, a series of modifications and ”shake-down” trials were made.
During this time period, a pilot study was conducted with the varsity
baseball team at Lake Michigan Catholic High School in St. Joseph,

Michigan. Radical, observable modifications took place in the bat

 

swing of the players. After using the device in a training program,
both the top hand and the front hand were operating in coordination
when the batters swung the bat. The device had enabled the players to
develop better bat velocity. Consequently, a patent search was initiated.
The search came up “clean“ and a patent application was drawn up and
filed.

The decline in overall composite league batting averages since
1900 led this investigator to speculate about the significance of a
training device that could assist players who swing bats for enjoyment
as well as those who swing bats for a living. Such a device possibly
could also contribute to the development of batting skill in younger

children and youth.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

 

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect
of training with the “Flexibat“ T M on bat-head velocity in a baseball

swing.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 

The research hypothesis is that training with the ”Flexibat” T.M.
will develop the top hand movement pattern in the baseball swing. This
development will promote the integration of the top hand and bottom hand
action while swinging a bat, thereby significantly increasing bat-head

velocity.

SUBPROBLEM

 

Hand-eye coordination has been demonstrated to be an integral
component of the overall batting process (8). There was a desire to
improve the hand-eye coordination of the subjects participating in the
research program. Thus a special training program was developed for
both the experimental and control groups involving modifications in stance,
in the implements for striking and in the size of the balls used. The
contact the subjects made when hitting plastic golf balls from a one-
knee position and from the normal, standing stance was charted for future

graphic display.

RESEARCH PLAN

 

The subjects were 12 Michigan State University baseball players,
ranging in age from 18 to 21 years, with a mean age of 19.5 years. The
subjects were randomly selected from stratified class standings. After
random selection, the subjects were systematically assigned to a group.
Finally, the two groups were randomly designated as either control or
experimental. The independent variable in use during the training program
was the "Flexibat“ T.M. training device. The dependent variable was the
effect that the training device had on bat-head velocity. It was theorized
that an increase in velocity would be due to the integration of the top
and bottom hands in the swinging process.

The collection of pretest and post test data was achieved
through the use of the Maroth Velocity bat. This device measures bat

velocity in miles per hour and has been found to be reliable for this

 

 

purpose (43, 74). The subjects were tested prior to the start of the
programs and again after completing 24 training sessions. The pretest
data was analyzed to establish whether there was a significant dif-
ference in bat velocity between the two groups. Analysis of the post
test data was contingent upon the pretest results. Thus, the post
test data could be analyzed by t-test, co-variance or gain score
analysis. The level of significance established for rejection of the

null hypothesis was .10.

RATIONALE FOR THE RESEARCH PLAN

 

The decision was made to utilize a four stage hitting drill
to test the training device. A summary of the four stages and their
respective objectives are presented in Table 1.2. The drill was used
for several reasons. First, the investigator was familiar with portions
of the drill from his own collegiate and professional pre-season training.
Secondly, the utilization of a light weight broomstick during the first
stage would allow a fast motoneuron firing sequence to be established
while swinging. This implement would also force head stabilization and
a high level of hand-eye coordination in order to consistently strike
the plastic golf balls.

A third reason was that a medium sized, lathe-turned dowel
would provide an orderly progression from the broomstick to a regula-
tion bat in both size and weight overloading. This calibrated weight
progression in the dowel would allow the hitter to retain the rapid
firing sequence and also develop the recruitment of additional muscle

fibers through the use of a specific overload mechanism. The third

 

Table 1.2.

10

A summary of the four stage hitting drill.

 

 

Stages

Objectives

 

II.

III.

IV.

Broomstick Stage

Dowel Stage/Dowel
”Flexibat“

”Flexibat“/Regulation
Bat Stage

Final Stage

a)

b)

establish a rapid firing
sequence of motoneurons

develop head stabilization
and increase hand-eye
coordination

allow the continuance of
the rapid firing sequence

recruit additional muscle
fibers through overloading

establish powerful sequen-
tial movement pattern of
the top hand

continue to recruit addi—
tional muscle fibers by
employing overload

provide for kinesthetic

and proprioceptive sensory
feedback of the top hand
integration into the swing-
ing pattern

 

11

stage was designed to the “Flexibat” or an equally weighted regulation
bat. The objectives for this stage were to establish a powerful sequen-
tial movement pattern of the top hand; to continue to recruit additional
muscle fibers through the use of a specific overload mechanism; and to
increase the overall bat velocity through the integration of the top
and bottom hand in the swinging process. The final stage of the train-
ing program involved swinging a regulation bat. This allowed the hitter
to receive kinesthetic and proprioceptive sensory feedback while using
the newly developed movement pattern.

The scope of the groups involved in this research program was
initially limited to a single experimental group of four subjects and a
single control group of four subjects. A second training program was
subsequently added and consisted of two experimental subjects and two
control subjects. This restriction in size of the groups was not due to
design but rather to the limited access of the facilities allowed the

investigator.

ASSUMPTIONS RELATED TO THE RESEARCH PLAN

 

The following assumptions which relate to the research program
are offered:

1. The direction of flight of a ball that has been struck depends
on the angle of deflection created by the striking device.

2. The development of a movement pattern with the capacity to
change the striking angle of the bat would aid consistency in
hitting the ball at an optimum angle.

3. Power hitting is a function of mass and velocity. Assuming a
constant mass, the force applied to the ball by the bat will
increase proportionally to the increase in bat velocity.

12

When all other variables remain constant, the bat with the
highest bat-head velocity will give the highest power
potential.

Utilization of good hip and shoulder rotation, coupled with
prestride looping of the bat and a quick swing upon striding,
will produce the most consistent power swing.

It is easier to speed up accurate movements than to correct
inaccurate movements.

The rate of improvement relates directly to the intensity of
the training program.

The overload principle must be utilized in order to develop
optimum output from a training program.

The Maroth Velocity Bat provides a valid and reliable method
of testing for bat velocity.

LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH PLAN

 

The following limitations were noted in the development of the

training program:

1.

The scope of the study was limited due to restricted access
to facilities.

Sample size was a limitation of this program.
The inability to effectively generalize the results to a larger

population due to the limited sample size and age range in-
cluded in the sampling was a limitation of the research plan.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 

”When all other things remain constant, the bat with the highest

velocity will give the highest power potential.“ (85) The significance

of a training device that could simultaneously integrate the top and

bottom hand in the swinging process, develop a movement pattern designed

to allow the batter to change the effective striking angle of the bat,

and also increase the bat-head velocity is infinite.

13

The immediate implications are addressed to the world of physi-

cal education and sports. Professionals and amateurs alike who swing

bats or similar implements could benefit from the marketing of a training

device such as the “Flexibat” T.M.' It is therefore conceivable that the

resultant impact on the physical education profession and on the general

world of sports could be significant.

reader:

1.

DEFINITIONS

 

The following list of definitions is provided to assist the

Front leg cocking action. The slow, and controlled inward
rotation of the lead knee prior to the initiation of the for-
ward stride. This helps develop rotary hip action and facili-
tates both transfer of weight to the back leg, and front
shoulder rotation away from the pitcher. This action shall
here-after be referred to as ”cocking”.

 

Hand action. The combined action developed by both the hands
when they apply force to the bat to initiate movement.

 

Bat-head velocity. The highest speed attained by the bat
during the swing, expressed in miles per hour.

 

Speed overload. Increasing the rate of muscle contraction in
a power activity.

 

Power. The maximum effective force which a muscle or group
of muscles are able to exert against a fixed or movable
object at a maximum rate of contraction.

Power factorApotential. The number of total bases, divided
by total hits. This figure represents hitting power and is
actually the probability of total bases compared to total
hits. It serves to delineate the force with which a proper-
ly timed, squarely hit baseball is propelled into the field
by the hitter (16).

 

Hands position. The position where, after the shoulders

have rotated, the hands are at the back of the lettering of
the uniform. The top arm and elbow are extended away from

the body, prestretching the musculature and thereby increasing
the power potential of subsequent contractions.

 

Chapter II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

 

The general decline of batting averages in professional base-
ball has been attributed to changes in the defensive aspects of the game.
However, this decline has also been attributed, in part, to a change in
offensive philosophy. The basic objective of most professional baseball
players today is to hit for power (i.e., home runs) as opposed to the
objective of obtaining a base hit.

If the offensive phase of baseball is to improve, players must
become more adept at hitting with power. This review of literature will
focus on two major areas: 1) those variables that may increase the
statistical probability of success in power hitting, and 2) an examina-
tion of the nature of the batting swing. Other areas such as motivation,
information processing capacities, feedback systems and physical growth

factors, while important, will not be included in this review.

Preswing Batting Components

 

There are numerous components related to the preparatory phase
of batting that must be symbolically coded in the mind of the hitter
before the mature movement pattern of the swing phase can be effectively

developed. Among these preswing components are: 1) warmup and training

14

15

program effectiveness, 2) stance and positioning in the batter's box,

3) readiness in the batter's box, 4) effective swing development and pitch
selection, and 5) ball velocity and its relationship to visual reaction
time and movement time.

The Effectiveness of Warm-up
and Training Programs

 

 

The period of warm-up prior to engaging in an activity is
generally designed to allow the athlete to prepare for and approach peak
operating capacity. Its purpose is to permit the development of a state
of physiological as well as psychological readiness (53).

A number of studies have been conducted to determine the
validity of warm-up periods, and the resultant data provide some interest-
ing information. The available data germane to the effectiveness of warm-
up sessions generally do not confirm their value. Warm-up periods do not
necessarily promote effective performance, nor are injuries necessarily
minimized through their use.

In order to maximize the effectiveness of a warm-up period,
the warm-up activity must relate directly to the task that will be per-
formed (62, 77). Singer (62) cites the probability that precision skills,
those skills requiring both timing and coordination for successful execu-
tion, will most likely benefit from specific, task-related warm-up. He
also maintains that the psychological effects of warm-up potentially
outweigh their "real” value. Positive belief in the value of an exercise
may well contribute to an increased output. In a summary of research

findings, Singer suggests that warm-up practice prior to competition may

16

have value in the following ways:

1. by activating (elevating), or reducing (diminishing) the
level of arousal necessary for task performance

2. by reducing the performance decrement that occurs over time

3. by increasing the "set” of the performer, which reinstates
appropriate task adjustments and the readiness to perform

4. by promoting any combination of the above.

The effect of warm-up on the velocity of the baseball swing
was investigated by Brown (13). He determined that there is a direct
relationship between the intensity of the warm-up and the speed of the
baseball swing.

The research findings of several studies have provided con-
flicting information regarding the relative effects of various training
programs on the velocity generated in a baseball swing (27, 81).

Flaherty (27) found that relatively short duration programs do little

to improve bat velocity. Weems (81) concluded that strength training
methods such as weight lifting, isometric drills, overload bat techniques,
and regulation bat swinging drills will not increase the velocity of a
baseball swing. Similar results were obtained in investigations by

Hooks (32), Kuklenski (43) and Swangard (74). In contrast, Deese (20)

and Wertich (87) found that improved bat velocity resulted from the train-
ing programs that they employed.

Stance, and Positioning in the
Batter's Box

 

 

The location of the batter in the batter's box and the parti-

cular stance used for hitting is generally left to the discretion of the

17

individual hitter. However, there are considerations relative to stance
and position that can affect performance that need to be examined.

There is conflicting opinion concerning the relative advantages
of various types of stances, particularly the open and closed stance (1,
19, 44, 84). A partial listing of arguments for the utilization of the
open or closed batting stance include: 1) head positioning for proper
alignment of the dominant eye, 2) optimum tracking time, 3) body posi-
tioning to allow swinging the bat through an optimum plane with the
greatest freedom of movement, and 4) compensation for mechanical faults.

There is also some controversy over the optimum position the
batter should assume in the batter's box. Bunn (14) maintains that there
is a necessity for the hitter to stand close enough to the plate to
reach the outside corner effectively. However, this investigator believes
that the hitter must take a position based on his self—acknowledged strong
and weak hitting zones. He must locate the position that will enable him

to fully extend his arms when swinging the bat.

Readiness Inside the Batting Box

 

There is one general principle of hitting that Lau (11), Moses
(50) and Williams (89) all agree is essential to superior batting per-
formance. The batter must be ready to swing his bat when he enters the
batting box. Once the hitter enters the box, he does not have the time
to begin orienting himself; all preparation must be accomplished prior

to assuming his stance.

18

Pitch Selection, and Effective
Swing Development

 

 

The variables that influence a hitter's swing change from
pitch to pitch. It is of great importance for the hitter to constantly
work to improve his overall swing mechanics. By increasing the number
of effective swing planes in his strike zone, the hitter can decrease
the potential advantage a pitcher has when facing him.

Perhaps one of the most rudimentary parts of hitting is the
knowledge of the strike zone. Williams (89) suggests that the hitter
should work out his own percentage scheme for swinging at balls in his
strike zone. Another very essential attribute of a good hitter is being
able to discipline himself to wait for his pitch and avoid swinging at
the pitcher's pitch (23, 89). Ellis (23) states that by tapering his
strike zone to his preferred strike zone, the hitter can increase his
chances of hitting the ball effectively. Ellis, after analyzing taped
interviews with major league batters, presented three reasons for the
hitter to taper his swing zone:

1. The ball is in the zone he likes best.
2. The batter's swing is geared to that particular zone.
3 The batter is anticipating a ball thrown into that zone.

This investigator agrees that the hitter should develop and
refine his batting stroke to the point where he has a favorite hitting
zone. However, he also maintains that hitters need to develop effective
swings for all areas in their strike zone. Situations occur where the
hitter does not have the option of conceding pitches to the pitcher. A
swing must be developed to effectively fight off those pitches that enter

a hitter's weak zones. These swings for the weaker areas need to approach

19

a level of competency that will enable the batter to consistently develop
efficient power potential in his movement pattern.

The decrease in overall batting averages in the major leagues
suggests that among the variables that affect batting performance is the
frequency with which the pitchers are able to spot the ball within the
weak areas of the batter's strike zone. Sufficient need has been demon-
strated to require refinement of zone swinging as well as the develop-
ment of effective swings for the entire strike zone.

Relationship of Ball Velocity

to Visual Reaction Time and
Movement Time

 

 

 

Eye dominance and head position have been considered essential
components for tracking an object in flight. Numerous studies have inves-
tigated the effect of eye dominance on batting performance (1, 7, 24, 33,
55). Adams (1) examined the batting performance of unilaterals and cross-
lateral hitters to test the theory that cross-lateral hitters were better
than unilateral hitters. He reported that unilateral hitters performed
as well as the cross-lateral batters. He also reported superior batting
performance for those hitters using the open stance. He believed that the
latter findings gave credence to the old adage “two eyes are better than

one . The existence of a correlation between head stabilization and
optimum tracking ability has been supported by hitting instructors and
researchers alike (8, 33, 50, 88, 89). Ted Williams (89) advocated
visually locating the point of release of the ball and concentrating on

the elimination of distracting variables such as excessive motion of the

pitcher. He further coded the point of release by suggesting the hitter

20

think of it as a fifteen—inch square over the pitcher's shoulder (see
Figure 2-1).

Other investigators have researched the effect of ball velocity
on reaction time and movement time (33, 40, 63, 76, 90). Electromyo-
graphy has been utilized to establish the visual movements of batters (40).
The eye movements of batters were found to track ball movement, especially
during the last few feet before the ball reached the plate. This study
established that visual tracking did not continue until contact was made
with the ball. Hubbard and Seng (33) found that the start of the batter's
step was linked to the release of the baseball. In addition, the finish
of the stride and the length of the stride were directly related to the
ball velocity. The start of the swing and the forward movement of the
bat were found to start about .04 second after completion of the stride (33).

There is agreement among several investigators that a prime
attribute of a successful hitter is the ability to complete his swing,
from movement time until contact is made, in a very short period of time
(12, 20, 33, 88). Breen (12) reported the time required by outstanding
major league players for the swing phase of batting. These were: 1) Stan
Musial, .19 second, 2) Willie Mays and Mickey Mantle, .21 second, 3)

Henry Aaron and Ernie Banks, .22 second, and 4) Ted Williams, .23 second.
Hay (31) has illustrated and interpreted Breen's findings to show that the
faster a player's swing time, the longer the tracking and ultimate decision
time, and thus, the higher the level of performance that he can produce.

Reaction time and movement time are variables that affect

batting performance. The faster a batter's reaction and movement time,

the longer he can track a pitch before deciding whether to swing (88).

21

 

 

Figure 2—1. The Point of Release.

22

Mean reaction time has been established at .21 second, and mean movement
time was listed at .27 second (65). Using this and related information

as a guide, if the baseball travels at 80 miles per hour, a player with

a bat movement time computed to contact at .21 second would be required

to start his forward bat movement when the ball was 24 feet from the plate.
If we accept .27 or .28 second as representative of the average time for
bat movement to take place, then the batter must begin his swinging
process when the ball is still 33 feet away from the plate (20, 65). An
interpretation of this information indicates that the batter has just
under a half second to track the ball, make the decision to swing, ini-
tiate bat movement and make contact. This investigator interprets this
information as general support for starting the cocking process just

prior to the release of the ball by the pitcher. This interpretation

also is supported by the suggestion by Slater-Hammell that the hitter

make his reaction time to a ball in flight a starting time reaction (65).
The slgw_and controlled front leg cocking action will allow for variations
in the pitching deliveries of different pitchers and different velocities

of thrown balls.

Summary of the Preswing Batting
Components

 

Research studies relating to the improvement of bat velocity
through weight training programs, and several other lead-up components to
swinging a bat were perused. A summary of the findings and resultant
implications follow:

1) The effects of weight training are specific to the muscles
overloaded, and to the angle at which they were trained.

 

23
2) The rate of bat movement increase is directly related to the
intensity level of the warm-up utilized.

3) The batter must find a position in the batter's box where he
can effectively, fully, extend his arms during the swing.

4) The hitter must attend to personal idiosyncracies, symbolic
coding, and visual cues prior to entering the batter's box.

5) The eyes are used to track ball movement, especially in the
last few feet in the approach of the ball to the plate.

6) The batter must make his reaction time to a ball in flight a
starting time reaction.

7) The start of the striding process is related to the release of
the ball by the pitcher.

8) The finish of the stride, and the length of the stride are
directly related to the velocity of the thrown ball.

9) Bat movement begins about .04 of a second after completion of
the forward stride.

10) The ability to complete the swing process in the shortest

length of time is considered an essential attribute of success-
ful hitters.

The Baseball Swing Sequence

 

The synchronization of the component parts of the batting swing
mechanics contribute to consistent batting performance. The following
section isolates the component parts of the swing sequence and provides
relevant data for improving the batting phase of baseball. The areas
considered essential to the development of a mature swinging pattern are:
1) initiation of the swing, 2) hip rotation and leg interaction, 3)
shoulder rotation away from the pitcher and bat barrel cocking toward
the pitcher, 4) coordination of front arm and front leg extension, 5)
hand action and development of the power hand, and 6) balance, body

control and relaxation.

 

24

Initiation of the Swigg

 

In commenting about the start of the baseball swing, Johnny
Sain (57) stated that "everything starts when the pitcher points his
butt at the batter“. All subsequent actions are then reactionary and
of an adjusting nature. Wally Moses maintained that the most important
aspect of hitting was ”to get your striding process started” (50, 83).

These statements refer to the preparatory phase of hitting
involving the transfer of body weight to the back leg prior to striding.
This transfer begins with a slgw, controlled front leg inward rotation.
This inward rotation action shall hereafter be referred to as “front
leg cocking action”, or just ”cocking”. Ted Williams (89) refers to
this action as a pendulum action. He symbolically codes the action as a
mechanical metronome, with its movement and countermovement. The slgw,
controlled, front leg cocking action allows the hitter maximum time to
track the ball, to decide whether or not to swing. and in what plane to
swing the bat and when to initiate the swing. This controlled cocking
action also allows the hitter to adjust to the velocity of the baseball
by either cocking through a greater range of motion, or by immediately
getting the front foot down on a high velocity pitch.

The stance of the batter should be slightly wider than shoulder
width in the initial phase. The extra width allows for greater stabi-
lity during the cocking and transfer of weight segment of the swing
sequence. Bethel (11) reports that Charley Lau, hitting instructor for
the Kansas City Royals, considers balance prior to the swing, during the

swing, and after contact to be a vital component of hitting.

25

HipgRotation and Interaction of
the Legs

 

The front leg cocking action permits the powerful rotary hip
action to be developed. As the leg cocks, the hips begin a rotary action
away from the pitcher. This action places the hips in optimal position
to contribute to the force production phase of the swing. The hips com—
plete their rotary action away from the pitcher as the transfer of weight
is accomplished. The legs then contribute to further development of
power by working in opposition to each other. When transfer of weight
to the back foot is accomplished, the batter drives off this base by
moving his front foot and shoulder into the ball. This forces the batter
to step into the ball, and it also stabilizes his head and eyes on the
ball. As the front foot touches down ending the stride, there is an
immediate and violent reverse driving action applied to the body. New-
ton's law of interaction is functioning through the legs to develop the
powerful hip ”pop" that is the basis of power in the baseball swing (14,
16, 50, 55, 89). Williams symbolically codes this hip action by instruct-
ing hitters to lead out with their belly buttons (89). This investigator
believes that if the hitters are additionally instructed to coordinate
throwing the back hip out front with the belly button lead, it will facili—
tate a more complete pivot of the rear foot, thereby allowing greater
power development in the hip ”pop”.

The importance of proper weight distribution in the striding
process needs to be established to provide an over-view 0f the sequential
process. The stride is completed with the weight distributed on the ball

of the front foot. This distribution is stressed for several reasons:

26

1) it allows for maximum balance, 2) the additional balance allows extra
moments to track the ball prior to violently pushing back with the front
leg and initiating the swing, and 3) from the bent-knee stride ending
position, where the weight is distributed on the ball of the foot, the
batter has the best chance to block forward movement of the body and still
utilize some rotary hip action as he pushes back to start his swing on a
mis-timed pitch (11, 14, 50, 81, 89).

A summary of the front leg cocking action shows that it is in—
strumental in: 1) initiating the transfer of weight in the swing process,
2) developing maximum rotary hip action and ”pop“ through the pendulum hip
cock and resultant power generation through the interaction of the legs,
and 3) allowing the hitter to develop a process whereby he can consistently
keep his body weight behind a braced front leg, and get his hands out in

front of the body to swing the bat.

Shoulder Rotation and Barrel
Cocking

 

The sequential cocking action of the various body parts involved
in the baseball swing have been researched. Reports have indicated both
the order of the sequence and its potential to increase power (16, 81, 89).

Conard (16) states that skilled hitters systematically cock the
pelvis, forearms and hands during the swing sequence (16). Coordinated
with the slow, controlled cocking of the front leg is an equally con—
trolled cocking of the front shoulder, lead forearm and the hands (see
Figure 2—2). These actions get the bat into position to swing. This
cocking action can also be symbolically coded as a coiling spring action,

or as a coiling cobra, waiting to attack with lightning quickness.

Figure 2-2.

 

 

27

A»

 

Sequential Cocking of Body Parts.

 

28

Bethel (11) with Charley Lau, has stressed that when the front foot
touches down, ending the stride, the hands must be positioned at the
letters near the back shoulder. This position shall hereafter be
referred to as the "hands“ position.

The 1973 major league All-Star game was filmed so that a
camera was trained simultaneously on both the pitcher and the batter.

The films showed that as the pitcher reached the point of release, the
batter had to react to get the bat into position to hit. Through this
method of filming, it was established that every batter who batted in
this midsummer spectacle assumed a “hands" position prior to swinging

the bat. While the batter is sequentially cocking his body parts in
order to achieve this ”hands” position, the arms are extending away from
the body. The effect of this additional stretching of the muscles serves
to add power potential to the swing.

When the ”hands" position is reached, the hands also begin to
cock the barrel of the bat toward the pitcher. The motion of the barrel
of the bat toward the pitcher by hand cocking shall be referred to here—
after as “barrel cocking”. This aspect of the cocking sequence of body
parts also adds another power dimension to the baseball swing. Barrel
cocking helps overcome the principle of inertia since the bat is already
in motion before the ball is released. Barrel cocking also increases the
arc of the bat. Studies have indicated that skilled performers move
their bats through a greater distance before making contact with the ball
than do either semi-skilled or non-skilled hitters (16, 75, 78, 82). The

conciseness of the stroke will not be lengthened by the arc of the bat.

 

 

29

One important aspect to consider when using the barrel cocking
technique is the establishment of proper synchronization of the swing
components. In short, the hitter wants to develop a swing sequence through
the proper range of motion, ang_at the proper angle of motion. Weems (82)
refers to the bat returning to its original "hands” position and then
continuing through the normal range of arc it would usually prescribe.

He cites the late Roberto Clemente as an example of a player who achieved
success with this technique. Clemente's style utilized a calculated and
deliberate cocking speed. This presumably allowed greater maintenance

of control through the swing sequence.

Coordination of Front Arm and

Front Leg Extension

 

In order to develop a superior batting stroke, the lead forearm
of the hitter must straighten immediately at the onset of the swing (9,
16, 50, 87, 89). Various studies have established that the triceps
brachaii muscles are instrumental in the development of the powerful
forearm extension (31, 40). Mike Marshall (45) developed for Michigan
State University head baseball coach Danny Litwhiler an overload weight
training exercise that promotes the explosive extension of the lead arm
or forearm in the swinging process.

Other studies have established the existence of a relationship
between the extension of the front leg and the almost simultaneous force-
ful extension of the lead forearm at the onset of the swing (2, 33, 65,
74). These findings tend to confirm the theory of hitting against a

solid, braced front leg.

30

Hand Action, and the Power Hand

 

The action of the hands and the resultant influence that the
power hand has on the trajectory of the bat are critical components of
the baseball swing. Swimley (75) has stated that the onset of hand action
must be delayed until the arms are fully extended and well into the hitting
zone. Moses (50, 83) postulates that ground balls are a result of the
lead hand and arm not fully extending. This lack of full extension
causes the top hand to prematurely interact in the swing process. The
result is an overspin trajectory imparted by the bat on the ball causing
a ground ball.

To assure maximum transfer of force from the bat to the ball,
the batter should limit the amount of recoil at the point of contact (14,
89). The bat should be gripped in a relaxed manner, with the middle joint
of the fingers of both hands in alignment (15). Carroll (15) found that
this method allowed greater range of wrist joint movement during the
swing process. Litwhiler (18) has found that the grip can be made with
the middle knuckles of the top hand aligned anywhere from the middle knuckles
to the base knuckles of the bottom hand. The most used position was mid-
way between the knuckles of the bottom hand. The hands stay loose and
relaxed only retaining enough tension to hold the bat in the preparatory
stages of the swing process. Race (54) summarizes the grip section by
citing preparedness, alertness, free movement, relaxation and comfort as
essential aspects of this stage of hitting. In order to initiate bat
movement, the hands, wrists and fingers contract and apply force to the
bat. At the moment of contact with the ball, the bat is held firmly both

to absorb shock and to avoid recoil. In order to assure maximum transfer

31

of force from the bat to the ball, the back foot must remain in solid
contact with the ground until the ball is hit. The rear foot will
definitely pivot, facilitating hip ”pop", but it should remain in contact
with the ground (15).

The debate over which hand is the power hand in the baseball
swing has never been resolved. Equivocal beliefs are commonplace among
the leading hitting instructors and researchers (11, 50, 89). Moses (50,
83) states that the bottom or front hand is the most important, while
Lau (11) in concurring, in certain cases, suggests allowing the hitter
to release the top hand after contact is made with the ball.

This investigator agrees that the front arm extension is essen-
tial to hit line drives, however, he tends to concur with the overall top
hand theory espoused by Ted Williams. Williams (89) states that, in
order to achieve maximum power and efficiency in the swing, the stronger
hand should be closest to the point of contact. He emphasizes his
point by citing the fact that seven out of nine of the most outstanding
left-hand hitters in the history of the game were naturally left—handed.
This investigator believes that the top hand serves a two-fold purpose:
1) it serves to drive the head of the bat out in front of the body, and
2) the power potential that this hand can develop serves to allow the
batter to change the bat—head angle prior to contact with the ball. A
key question that research needs to answer is, "Can this action be
developed further?" One method advocated for teaching young players
the technique of getting the head of the bat out in front of the plate
is to stress ”throwing“ the end of the bat out in front of the body and

at the ball (59).

 

 

32

Balance, Body Control and
Relaxation

 

 

Equilibrium is probably the most important of all the physi-
cal principles involved in sports techniques (14). Research findings
indicate that the position from which a player may move the quickest in
any direction is with his feet placed shoulder width apart. The weight
is equally distributed on each foot, and the weight of each foot should
be distributed between the ball of the foot and the heel (18, 64). The
expression, "keep on your toes” then, is symbolic of the center of
gravity as opposed to a literal translation. The center of gravity of
the batter's stance is the point where effective weight of the body is
centered. This position is a prime factor in determination of the sound-
ness of the stance. The selection of shoulder width alignment is based
on two characteristics of stability and one general principle of equili-
brium: 1) stability is directly proportional to the area of the base on
which the body rests, and 2) for equilibrium to exist, the center of
gravity must fall within its base (14). These statements combine to
form a general principle that for greatest stability, you increase the
area of the base and lower the center of gravity as much as is consistent
with the activity involved. When the hitter begins his front leg cocking,
he will decrease his base of stability. However, this can be compensated
for by slightly increasing the area of the base in the stance segment.
Given a starting base slightly wider than shoulder width, when the hitter
cocks his front leg, he will decrease the base, but, the area of the base
will now fall within the acceptable guidelines for quickest movement.

Supplementary to the base concept, the front shoulder and hip rotation

33

both can function to lower the center of gravity as the batter coils his
body in preparation to "exploding“ on the ball.

The field of relaxation and specifically the area of differential
relaxation hold several interesting concepts for the hitter. The most
common reference to relaxing while hitting occurs when the hitter is in-
structed to flex his knees to unlock the knees and relieve lower leg
tension. Other concepts involve keeping the hands relaxed prior to start-
ing the bat movement, or resting the bat on the shoulder to eliminate
upper arm tension and to conserve energy (11, 14, 50, 89). The idea of
avoiding the bound-up muscle syndrome, promotes the concept that the best
swing is made with the least unwanted physical or mental exertion (45).

Jacobson (34) has shown that athletes as a group tend to be
more successful in relaxing specific muscle groups to a fuller and more
sustained state than ordinary subjects. Why do athletes exhibit superior
abilities to relax when compared to the average subject? Jacobson states
that the most plausible reply would seem to relate to the daily exercises
promoting relaxation. He also cites the concept that habitual exercise
tends to avert prolonged reflection, in effect, decreasing muscular con-
traction potentials that obstruct the achievement of a state of relaxation
(35). The recognition and ability to reduce unwanted skeletal muscle
tension is of importance to the athlete. Steinhaus and Norris (70) have
shown that ordinary teachers and other intelligent persons can be taught
to teach neuromuscular relaxation with satisfactory results. The acquisi-
tion of this skill would allow the athlete to exercise greater control
over his body movements and concentration during competition.

The powers of concentration and the effective use of the mind

also seem to improve with the use of progressive relaxation. The

34

relaxation course designed by Dr. Steinhaus is based on the following
assumptions which relate to physical activity: 1) man can learn to
increase his sensitivity or awareness to the point where he will
identify these tensions consciously, and 2) upon becoming aware of the
muscular tension sensation, a person can learn to increase or decrease
the initiating muscular activity in any or all muscles, at will. The
implications of these statements are that athletes could minimize the
muscular tension that prevents superior or successful motor performance.
At the same time, the athlete could increase activity of those muscles
directly related to the skill being performed, thereby enhancing perfor-

mance (70).

Summary of the Baseball Swing
Seguence

 

In summary, the following sequential segments are necessary
to become proficient at swinging a bat:

1. Sequentially cock the front leg, pelvis, lead forearm and
then the hands in a slow and controlled manner. Incorporate
balance and body control prior to, during, and after contact
is made with the ball.

2. Utilize a dramatic and powerful rotary hip action and inter-
action of the legs to develop powerful hip ”pop“.

3. Coordinate immediate powerful extension of both the front
leg and front forearm at the onset of the swing. Through this
coordination, develop the ability to hit with a braced front
leg, and let the front arm extension interact with the front
leg extension to develop a more forceful arm extension (see
Figure 2-3).

4. Stabilize the head to allow optimum tracking time and develop
better hand-eye coordination.

5. When the upper torso has rotated and the “hands” position is
achieved, cock the barrel of the bat toward the pitcher. This
action will increase the arc of the bat and add power potential
to the swing.

(

 

35

 

._an mew cow; pompcoo mewm use .cempumq ucme>oE m:?3m ecu mcwese
.wmmca acexoou esp cw mocm_wn anon mCECTmp:wme mepcn one momeHmCOEwu mocozcwm wpm_aeou one

.mm_ pcocc uwvcwpxm x__:e .Umumgn a “WCEmme mcwwpw; coupes ecu mopecumcoewu
oWFw mmwpm mwce .pmn mew mo :cmppma pcmEm>oe esp mcwczu cowpom cam; now vwamc mcwao_m>wa .c
.mcEzm ecu co pwmco ms“ um Etc pcoce esp mewecmpxm x__:c m=aoa= aw: mcwpmcwcmm .vcmzcoc
aw; xomn mcp mewsoczp x_m:owccp_:eem mmm_ pcocw mcp new: “gore; mgp xomn mCEcmza z_pcw_ow> .u
.cowpmuoc xczep new .:cowpvmoa mccmc: we“ owe? “an esp m:v__:a .n
.Lwe_:ocm pcocw new maT; .mmcx Acctw esp co mewxuoo Fwwucwscmm .m

Ally .mmwuoca mewmcw3m cam esp mo momepm ucmcoueou .vum .m-m mczmwd
.7 in... it
ass/J \§ 1 x

 

nlllllllllll. 422‘ .
I ‘ .‘ITD
Tc “1.3
b... \

.4 tow

36

Develop a strong hand action after the arms are well into
the hitting zone.

Develop the top hand movement pattern to improve bat-head
velocity and allow the hitter to change the bat angle prior
to making contact with the ball.

Develop the ability to differentially relax and achieve
control over muscular tension, thereby enhancing mental
and motor patterns of the body.

 

Chapter III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES

 

The objective of this research endeavor was to ascertain if
use of the “Flexibat” T.M. would result in greater bat-head velocity.
It was theorized that use of this training device would facilitate top
and bottom hand integration thereby enabling a batter to swing a base-

ball bat with greater velocity.

SUBJECTS

The subjects were twelve Michigan State University baseball
players. They ranged from 18 to 21 years of age, with the mean age
established at 19.5 years. The players were randomly selected from
stratified class groupings (3 freshmen, 3 sophomores, 3 juniors, and 3
seniors) and systematically assigned to one of two groups. Finally, the

two groups were randomly designated as either control or experimental.

TRAINING ENVIRONMENT

 

The research training program took place in a well lighted
paddleball court in Jenison Fieldhouse, located on the main campus of
Michigan State University. The court had dimensions of 31'8" by 19'1".
The location of the court in the basement of Jenison Fieldhouse also

provided excellent control over noise and other disruptive variables.

37

 

38

The court environment also was very conducive to providing
augmented feedback to the subjects. Modeling, behavior modification,
visual imagery and symbolic coding were used with both groups to enhance
learning. The dimensions of the court were also conducive to working in
pairs, and that method therefore was adopted for both groups during the

training program.

THE ”FLEXIBAT” T.M. APPARATUS

The Principal objective of the ”Flexibat” T.M. is to provide
a new coaching tool in baseball which is adaptable to individual batting
styles and to enable the batter to achieve proper bat acceleration prior
to impact with the ball. It is a training device that is designed to
coordinate the function of the two hands and, in conjunction with the
shoulders, wrists and arms, to provide a dynamic and dramatic upgrading
of the velocity of the swing. Another objective is to provide a prac-
tice bat which, when swung, immediately provides tactile feedback regard-
ing the degree of hand, wrist, arm and shoulder coordination present.
The ”Flexibat“ T.M. essentially has three parts: 1) a head part, 2) a
grip portion, and 3) an articulating joint which attaches the head portion
to the grip portion (see Figure 3—1). The joint may be flexed by differ-
ential thrust applied at the grip portion and at the head portion. The
grip portion of the bat accommodates the full grip of the lower hand of
a hitter. In a left handed hitter the lower hand is the right hand. In
a right handed hitter the lower hand is the left hand. The upper hand

of the hitter grips the head portion of the bat at the lowermost end.

 

39

 

 

 

 

Figure 3-1A

 

 

T
\
T

Figure 3-18

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

W%Z— _ 4A

Figure 3-1C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_—_____—-————-—'
fig 1/ // Ill/z ll/l/////“

#—
..¢.\/.\'z\/\/.\I\';,
//// //// ’////

___-

Figure 3-10

Figure 3-1A to 3—16. Sequential stages in the development of a "Flexibat”
T.M.

 

 

4O

      
  
 
       

("V

r
5

=1

       

    
 

‘
\

(//////////.>
v,

  
  

Figure 3-1F

 

Figure 3—1G

 

41
A bumper is situated on both sides of the articulating joint so that the
fingers of the batter will not be pinched during the process of swinging.
The articulating joint is a resilient element consisting of a coil
spring with its ends secured to the handle portion and to the head por-

tion of the bat with both epoxy and transverse pins.

 

DIAGRAM OF THE "FLEXIBAT" T.M_

A sideview of the sequential stages for producing the "Flexi-
bat” T.M. is presented in Figures 3-1A to 3—1G. The seven stages of the
figure are explained as follows:

1A A side view of a normal bat

1B A side view of a bat transversely cut to form a handle portion
and a head portion

1C A side view of a bat with the handle and head portions par-
tially cut away to reveal the axial openings in the adjacent
ends of the respective head and handle portions

10 The cut away portions with a spring inserted in the axial
openings of both the head and handle ends

1E A partially cut away portion of the ”Flexibat” T.M. enlarged
to show the spring potted and embedded in a silicone filler
and matrix, plus illustrating the protective bumpers surround—
ing the cut portions

1F The potted spring with screw fasteners providing transverse
anchorage for the spring into the matrix

18 A top view of a batter gripping the ”Flexibat“ T M The
solid lines show the start of the swing and the broken line
depicts the follow through and the flexure at the spring
joint between the hands. The top hand drives the head
portion out in front of the posting lower hand. This motion
imparts desired hand coordination and integration required
for maximum acceleration of the bat at the zone of impact.

42

THE TRAINING PROGRAM

 

The training program was scheduled for 24 sessions, spaced
over a nine week period. Sessions generally were conducted three times
per week.

The training program consisted of a lead-up batting drill that
was conducted in a series of progressive stages. There were three bi-
level stages and one single level stage in the batting drill. The table
3.1 shows an overview of the batting drill which was repeated during each

of the 24 training sessions.

STAGE 1, LEVEL 1 AND LEVEL 2

 

In level one of the batting drill, the batter was situated on
one knee, in an otherwise normal batting stance. The hitter's front leg
was used to push against the floor as the swing took place. The hitter
used a broomstick for a bat and swung at 25 plastic golf balls thrown
by a ”feeder". The broomstick was 34 inches long and had a hole drilled
in the handle with a thong attached which was placed around the wrist
of the batter for safety purposes. The ”feeder“ was located 15—20 feet
in front of the hitter; he was also situated on one knee and additionally
was positioned behind a protective screen. The “feeder” delivered the
golf balls in a rapid sequential pattern, using a "dart throw” release
and moderate ball velocity. The “dart throw” release allowed the batter
to focus on a consistent point of release throughout the training program.

Controlling the point of release utilized by the "feeder” allowed the

43

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3.1 Overview of the batting drill
Experimental Group Control Group
Stage I Level 1 Stance - one knee Stance — one knee
Level 2 Stance — standing Stance - standing
Equipment: Equipment:
34“ broomstick 34” broomstick
25 plastic golf 25 plastic golf
balls balls
Stage II Level 1 Stance - one knee Stance - one knee
Level 2 Stance - standing Stance - standing
Equipment: Equipment:
modified “Flexi- weighted dowel
bat“ dowel 25 tennis balls
25 tennis balls
Stage III Level 1 Stance - one knee Stance - one knee
Level 2 Stance - standing Stance — standing
Equipment: Equipment:
”Flexibat“T M. Weighted bat
25 tennis balls 25 tennis balls
Stage IV Level 1 Stance — standing Stance - standing

Equipment:
regulation bat
25 tennis balls

Equipment:
regulation bat
25 tennis balls

 

 

44

hitter to develop both his concentration and isolation capacities. The
rapid sequence forced a speed overload on the hitter by not allowing
time to fully return the bat to the "hands” position before another ball
was released. The hitters were instructed to strive for maximum contact
with the golf balls.

After the first batter completed his turn swinging from one
knee, he proceeded to the second level of Stage I. At this level, the
hitter assumed the normal upright stance. The ”feeder” still pitched
from behind the protective screen, and he continued to utilize a rapid
sequence of delivery with medium ball velocity when throwing.

During level one and level two of the initial stage, the inves-
tigator recorded the number of contacts each batter made with the golf
balls. This raw data was charted and recorded for future graphic display
as a measure of the progress made in hand—eye coordination during the
program.

Instruction during the initial stage was directed at develop-
ment of rapid hand action, the utilization of shoulder rotation to reach
the ”hands” position, and pushing back with the front leg to allow inter-
action between the front arm extension and the front leg extension. When
in the upright position, the hitters incorporated slgw_and controlled
front leg cocking action and hip/pelvic rotation away from the pitcher

in the initiating stage of the stride.

STAGE II, LEVEL 1 AND LEVEL 2

 

During Stage II of the batting drill, the stance on one knee

(level 1) and the normal batting stance (level 2) were used again.

 

45

During this stage of the drill the batter was situated on one knee with
the front leg extended toward the pitcher. The control group used a
larger weighted dowel to hit 25 thrown tennis balls. The experimental
group used a dowel that had been modified into a "Flexibat“ T.M. and was
equally weighted to that of the control dowel. The experimental group
also swung at 25 thrown tennis balls.

All other conditions of Stage I were repeated. Ball velocity
and rate of sequential delivery were standardized as much as possible
throughout the stages of the training program. After the first batter
had finished level 1, he continued on to level 2. The subjects exchanged
places after the first batter had completed both levels of the second
stage of the drill.

The techniques that were stressed in the one knee position were:
1) development of rapid hand action, 2) utilizing shoulder rotation to
reach the ”hands” position, and 3) pushing back with the front leg to
allow interaction between the front arm and the front leg extension.

When the hitters were in the upright, standing position, incor—
poration of a slgw, controlled front leg cocking action and pelvic/hip
cocking away from the pitcher were synchronized with prior techniques to

develop the mature striking pattern.

STAGE III, LEVEL 1 AND LEVEL 2

 

Stage III was the final bi—level stage of the leadup batting
drill. In this stage, the control group used a regulation bat and the

experimental group used a regular "Flexibat” T.M. . The "Flexibat" T.M.

46

had a weight overload mechanism built into the bat which was established
at 52 ounces. The control bat was altered so that its weight was equal
to that of the “Flexibat“ T.M.

The first batter was again situated on one knee and instructed
to use the hands and front arm extension in opposition to the front leg
extension to develop more power in the swing. The ”feeder” still threw
at medium speed and maintained a fairly rapid sequence pattern of delivery.
This sequence was structured to allow the hitter to return the bat to the
”hands position” before another ball was released. After the first batter
had hit from both the one knee position and upright position, the subjects
switched places and repeated the entire sequence of events.

Incorporation of proper batting mechanics during the upright
position of the second level were stressed throughout the training program.
When the batters were situated on one knee, front arm extension, shoulder
rotation, rapid hand action and front leg extension were equally stressed

throughout the program.

STAGE IV

The final stage of the batting drill was performed with a normal
weighted and regulation length bat. This stage was developed to allow the
hitter, from an upright stance, to receive kinesthetic and proprioceptive
sensory feedback from the newly developed movement pattern. The rate of
delivery in this stage was somewhat slower, providing the hitter with
sufficient time to prepare himself mentally and physically for the next
delivery. The intention was to allow time for visualization and synchroni-

zation of the component parts of the swing, and through this synchronization,

 

47

maximize the feedback received by the hitter while executing the baseball

swing.

TESTING PROCEDURES

The testing procedure for obtaining the pretest and the post
test data involved the use of the Maroth Velocity bat (see figure 3-2).
This device measures bat velocity in miles per hour. Prior research
projects by Kuklenski (43) and Swangard (74) have established the validity
and the reliability of the Velocity bat.

The subjects were instructed on how to use the Velocity bat
prior to the pretest session. Each subject was allowed one practice
swing. The actual test required the subjects, in groups of four, to
swing the bat in sequential order until each subject had registered five
scores. The sequential rotation procedure was used to eliminate any
possible fatigue effects. Both the pretest and the post test were con—
ducted in the same manner and took place in the same location as the

training program.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

 

The data from the pretest was used to establish the pretraining
bat velocity for each subject. The mean bat velocity of each subject was
computed and the results were analyzed with a t-test for significant
differences between the two groups.

The post test data will be gathered and analyzed contingent upon
the pretest results. The level of significance established for the rejec-

tion of the null hypothesis was .10.

Head section of a regulation bat

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

70

so I

 

I

Figure 3-2.

 

Gauge in miles per hour

The reset button

 

 

l

The maroth velocity bat.

 

49

The raw data from levels one and two of the initial stage will
be graphically displayed. Should apparent differences result, a Repeated

Measures ANOVA will be utilized to analyze the data from the two groups.

 

 

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 

This study was designed to determine: 1) the effect of train—
ing with the ”Flexibat“ T.M. on developing and integrating top hand
action with bottom hand action in the baseball swing, and 2) the effect
this resultant integration had on bat-head velocity.

This chapter will begin with a presentation of descriptive
statistics pertaining to the performance of the experimental and control
groups on bat velocity. This will be followed by results relating to
the hypothesis under investigation and by graphic representation of the
pattern of responses for each group when striking from the two stances
included in the training program. The chapter concludes with a brief

discussion of the results.

Results

Twelve Michigan State University baseball players ranging in
age from 18 to 21 years were involved in the study. The subjects were
randomly selected from stratified class standings and then systemati-
cally divided into two groups. Each subject was given two practice
swings with the Maroth Velocity bat to become familiar with the proce-
dure used to establish baseline bat velocity. Following the warm-up and

the practice swings, the players took five swings with the velocity bat

50

 

51

to determine their initial bat velocity. The players then participated
in a twentyvfour session training program conducted over a nine-week
period. At the conclusion of the training program, the subjects were
retested with the Maroth Velocity bat to establish their final bat
velocity. These data were then analyzed using a t—test for significance

between two independent groups.

Descriptive Statistics

The means and standard deviations for the pre— and post-test
bat velocity scores are presented in Table 4.1. The results indicate
that the pretest means of the two groups are nearly identical. The post-
test scores indicate that the mean bat velocity of the experimental
group is substantially higher than that of the control group. The results
also show that mean bat velocity of the experimental group increased 11.9
miles per hour after participation on the training program compared to
3.5 miles per hour for the control group.

Table 4.1 Means and standard deviations for bat velocity of the experi—
mental and control groups. (Figures in miles per hour.)

 

 

Group Pre—Test Post—Test Gain Scores
x 8.0. x 3.0. x 5.0.
Experimental 89.7 8.1 101.6 8.8 11.9 6.1

Control 89.0 5.2 92.4 10.2 3.5 6.5

 

52

Inferential Statistics

 

The data were analyzed by a t-test for significance between
the means of two independent groups. The pretest data were subjected
to analysis to determine if the mean bat velocities of the two groups
were significantly different. The results of this preliminary analysis
showed that the difference in the starting mean bat velocities of the
two groups was not statistically significant at the .10 level.

The first hypothesis was that use of the "Flexibat” T.M.
would develop the top hand movement pattern in the baseball swing. This
top hand movement pattern was theorized to drive the bat head forward in
the movement pattern of the bat, and any subsequent development of this
movement pattern would create a dramatic and significant upgrading of
bat velocity as the integration of the top hand and bottom hand action
occurred. This hypothesis was tested through use of a t-test for signi-
ficance between two independent groups. The means were established from
the scores of five sequential swings by each subject participating in
the study (see Appendix A). An alpha level of .10 was selected to deter—
mine statistical significance.

Analysis of the bat velocity data revealed that there was a
statistically significant difference between the experimental subjects
and the control group subjects, t=2.362 (see Table 4.2). The original
alpha level selected to determine statistical significance was .10.

The analysis revealed that the t value actually computed to slightly

better than the .05 level of significance.

 

53

Table 4.2 T—test for significance between means of two independent

 

 

 

groups.
Bat Velocity
Group Post-test Gain Scores
x 5.0. x 5.0. t P
Control 92.4 10.2 3.5 6.5

Experimental 101.6 8.8 11.9 6.1 2.362 .05

 

 

 

54

A second problem undertaken in the study was to determine if
hand-eye coordination would be improved through the use of a hitting
drill using modified striking implements and altered ball sizes (in
this case a broomstick and plastic golf balls). It was assumed that
an increase in the number of contacts made with the golf balls as the
training program progressed would represent an improvement in hand-eye
coordination. Table 4.3 depicts the progress of both the control and
the experimental groups during the initial, middle and final thirds of
the training program. The data from Table 4.3 indicate that both the
control and experimental groups progressively improved their hand—eye
coordination throughout the training program. However, these data also
show that gains between each phase of the program and over the entire

program generally favor the experimental group.

Table 4.3 Mean percent of contacts made with the plastic golf balls.

 

Training Program

 

Group Stance Initial Middle Final Total
Third Third Gain Third Gain Gain

 

Control 1-Knee 71 78 7 83 5 12
Experimental 1—Knee 70 79 9 85 6 15
Control Upright 72 78 6 83 5 11

Experimental Upright 70 81 11 85 4 15

 

 

 

55

The range of contact scores for both the control and the
experimental groups drawn from the raw data in Appendix B are presented
in Table 4.4. This table illustrates the disparity in intragroup scores
and intergroup scores during various phases of the training program.

The data indicate that both groups made substantial progress in contact—
ing a greater percentage of golf balls during the program. It also
shows that the range of performance for both groups was greatly reduced
during the final third of the training program.

Table 4.4 Range of contact scores within groups for each third of the
training program (expressed in percent values).

 

 

Group Stance Initial Middle Final

Third Third Third
Control Kneeling 61-76 75-84 78-89
Experimental Kneeling 60-83 68-84 78—90
Control Standing 60-73 77-83 78-86

Experimental Standing 41-83 77-84 77—90

 

 

 

56

Table 4.5 illustrates the range of gain scores within groups
for the middle third, final third and total training program. While
no clear pattern of response is evident from the data presented, certain
observations can be made from this information. First, the range of
initial gain scores in striking the golf balls was diverse. Second,
some individuals decreased in their ability to contact the golf balls
during the middle third of the training program as denoted by the nega-
tive values. Third, at least one performer in the experimental group
failed to improve during the training program. However, other indivi-
duals made gains up to 43 percent.

Table 4.5 Range of gain scores within groups for the middle third, final
third and total training program (expressed in percent values).

 

 

Group Stance Middle Final Total
Third Third Gain
Scores
Control Kneeling 3 to 21 —4 to 10 5 to 18
Standing - 4 to 17 1 to 17 9 to 18
Experimental Kneeling —15 to 20 1 to 12 -5 to 24
Standing - 6 to 38 0 to 10 —6 to 43

 

The results of the contact made with the thrown golf balls during
individual sessions (in sets of 25 thrown golf balls) are graphically
illustrated in Figures 4—1 and 4—2. These figures show a general upward
trend in striking performance and suggest that learning was still occurring
during the final sessions of the training program. Figure 4—1 indicates

that there was an upward trend in successful contacts from the kneeling

 

57

position as the training program progressed. However, the scores reflect
a slower pattern of development for hand action and trunk rotation than
what occurred with the upright stance (Figure 4-2). During the initial
third of the training program (sessions 4-10) for the upright stance,
there was great fluctuation in performance as techniques were presented
and contingently reinforced. During the middle third of the program
(sessions 11—17), the experimental group exhibited an upward trend in
performance while members of the control group continued to fluctuate in
their ability to contact the golf balls. However, during the final third
of the program there was still considerable fluctuation in the group
scores - they were ranging between the eightieth and eighty-eighth per-
cent success marks. Thus, while fluctuation of scores continued through-
out the program, the range within which the fluctuations occurred progres—
sively diminished and the percent of successful contacts increased. Table
4.6 depicts the range of fluctuation for the initial, middle and final
segments of the training program. The data reveals that the groups pro—
gressed from a percent level of success in the mid—sixties during the first
third of the program to a level representing from eighty to ninety percent
success at the conclusion of the training program.

Table 4.6 The range of fluctuation in striking success from the kneeling

and standing positions during segments of the training program
(expressed in percent values).

 

 

Group Stance Initial Middle Final
Third Third Third
Combined Kneeling 64-76 68-88 80-90

Combined Standing 60-79 72-88 80-88

 

58

 

.Ammtoom m>_umpmc ecu mus—Oman
co mecmu cw vwmmwcquv mucmpm mcwpmmcx esp soc» mFFwn cpom cuwz mpompcoo szmmwuusm H-¢ wcamwa

xwm2=z zc_mmmw

em mm - HN cw m~ w“ Nd ¢~ mfi efi m_ NM ~_ a" a m N w m e
—l u _

— Jr ‘ J _ _ _ _ _

_
_ _ _ . _ _ _ _ J

I
Q
F-d

 

ill. .525 5:25.:
in T... .525 3528 .3

 

 

 

 

om
cw

GOLF BALLS CONTACTED

 

59

.Amocoom m>vumch use mu3F0mnm

mo magma cm ummmmcnxmv museum mcwvcmpm esp Eocm mprma EFOO saw: muomucoo _:wmmmuu:m mic mesmEE

3w. mN mw _~ cw m_ m“ Kg

_ 4T _ _ —

 

oriirirro m=cxu quzws_=mmxm
macaw dczpzou

Ollllb

 

 

 

v_

d

m_

_

mumzzz zc_mmmm

~_
_

~_

:—
1T

q

_

 

1.31
d
.3

 

@m
ow
«a
ma
N~
mN
cw
em
mm
Na
om
ce~

GOLF BALLS CONTACTED

 

60

In summary, the first hypothesis was that training with the
"Flexibat” T.M. would develop the top hand movement pattern in the
baseball swing. The subsequent integration of this newly developed
movement pattern with the bottom hand was theorized to cause a statis-
tically significant increase in bat velocity. This hypothesis was
supported by the results obtained from the velocity data.

The second hypothesis was that modification of striking
implements and ball sizes would lead to an increase in hand-eye coordi—
nation. The data presented in Table 4.6 support this hypothesis by
illustrating the increased consistency in performance as well as the
increased level of performance during the training program for both
the kneeling and standing positions. Similar support for the hypothe-
sis was presented in Figure 4-1 and 4—2 where progress in hand—eye
coordination for successfully striking golf balls was plotted on a
session by session basis. The rankings by percentages presented in
Appendix C also support the hypothesis regarding an improvement in

hand-eye coordination.

 

61

Discussion

The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of
training with the ”Flexibat" T.M. on the development of the top hand
movement pattern in the baseball swing. A dramatic upgrading of bat
velocity was theorized to occur when the top hand pattern was inte- T
grated with the bottom hand action of the swinging process.

The results of this study support the contention that the
”Flexibat” T.M. will develop the top hand movement pattern in the
baseball swing. The results also support the theory that the subse-
quent integration of this newly developed top hand action with the
bottom hand action will result in a dramatic, statistically signifi-
cant improvement in bat velocity.

A second concern of this study was to determine if the modifi—
cation of both the striking implement and the ball size would lead to
an increase in hand-eye coordination. The results of this portion of the
study indicate that the subjects did improve their overall hand—eye
coordination during the training program. However, the rate of improve—
ment was not identical. The performance level of the control group was
higher in the kneeling stage for the first half of the training program,
whereas the experimental group had the higher performance level for the
entire second half of the training program. Neither group showed a
higher level of performance using the upright stance during the initial
one-third of the training program, however the experimental group had

the higher level of performance during the middle third of the training

62

program. By the end of the final third of the training program the
performance levels of the experimental and control groups were very
similar. There were problem areas, however, within the modified
striking portion of the training program with both control group and
experimental group subjects. One experimental subject demonstrated
a higher initial contact percentage than he did in either the middle
segment or the final third of the program. In addition, two control
group subjects decreased their bat velocity during the training program.
The experimental subject who decreased in performance through—
out the program initially had a stabilized ”hands position“ in his
stance. However, this ”hands position” was held tightly against his
body which restricted the top arm extension during bat swinging process.
As development of trunk rotation and the subsequent hand movement into
a more fully extended position occurred, the subject temporarily de—
creased his bat control and subsequently exhibited a variety of arcs
with his bat during the swinging process. This variability in the range
of motion throughout which his bat moved continued as he incorporated
the additional motor units necessary to accomplish the task at hand,
and the ability to eliminate those motor units that were obstructing
his swing movement pattern. This subject also experienced a decrease
in contact accuracy and began to lose confidence in himself. However
as reinforcement, application of bio—mechanics, symbolic coding of the
various stages of hitting and practice took place the performance level
of the subject began to improve. The subject was approaching his initial

level of performance as the program concluded its final sessions.

63

One of the control subjects who decreased in final bat velocity
had a problem with anxiety level and muscular tension during the swinging
process. Excessive force applied by the hands while gripping the bat
caused the arm and upper torso muscles to exhibit a high state of tension.
When a swing was initiated by the subject the entire upper torso and arms
rotated as one unit.

The second control subject who decreased his final bat velocity
had difficulty developing the rapid hand action during the kneeling phase
of the training program. This subject developed the front leg cocking
process early in the training program. However, he was never able to
demonstrate a slgw_and controlled front leg cocking action. The problems
this subject had stemmed from: 1) having too fast a front leg cocking
process, 2) landing flat footed thereby restricting the amount of braking
action and reverse push he could develop, and 3) collapsing the top arm
against the side of his body immediately preceding bat movement, thus
virtually eliminating effective use of the driving action of the top hand
and causing the front arm to pull the bat through the swinging process.
The ineffective use of the top hand causes this motion to be labeled as
“sweeping”. These mechanical faults combined to cause the subject to
reduce the overall velocity generated during his swing.

The general increase in the experimental group's contact per-
centage indicates that this group developed the rapid hand action at a
faster pace than did the control group. The ability to utilize the top
hand action to drive the bat-head forward, and to change the striking

angle of the bat-head so it more closely approximated 180 degrees at the

 

64

point of contact with thrown balls were capacities concurrently developed
through the use of the ”Flexibat" T.M.: The value of the “Flexibat” T.M.
appears to be in the domain of developing the ability to: 1) increase
the top hand action during the bat swinging process, 2) maximize force
production during this process by allowing the hitter to extend the
striking lever to an angle very closely approaching the 180 degree mark
at the point of impact, and 3) to increase actual bat velocity through
the integration of the top hand action with the bottom hand action during
the bat swinging process. The capacity to alter the striking angle of
the bat is interpreted as being of equal importance to increasing the
actual bat velocity when considering the potential of the “Flexibat” T.M.

training device.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

SW

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine
the effect of training with the "Flexibat” T.M. on developing the top-
hand action in the baseball swing, and then to determine what effect
the subsequent integration of the top hand pattern with the bottom hand
pattern would have on bat-head velocity. Two groups of Michigan State
University baseball players ranging in age from 18 to 21 years partici-
pated in the study. Each group of six subjects was pretested with a
Maroth Velocity bat to determine their baseline bat velocity. The
subjects then participated in a twenty-four session training program
that was spaced out over a nine week period. The training program con-
sisted of a lead-up batting drill that was conducted in a series of
progressive stages. There were three bi-level stages and one single
level stage in the drill. Following completion of the training program,
the subjects were post-tested with the Maroth Velocity bat to obtain
their final bat velocity.

Data from the post test group scores were analyzed with a t—test
for significance of mean scores. Analysis of the data indicated that the

bat velocities from the experimental group using the ”Flexibat" T.M. were

65

66

significantly higher than those obtained from the control group. Graphs
were constructed depicting the grand mean of each group for scores in
striking plastic golf balls from both the one-knee and the normal up-
right batting stance. Analysis of the scores and the resultant graphs
showed that both groups dramatically improved their hand-eye coordination.
In the one-knee phase, the control group held the early performance advan-
tage in the training program. By the midway point, however, the experi—
mental group equaled the performance level of the control group. During
the final third of the training program they either equaled or surpassed
the efforts of the control group. For the normal upright stance, the
accuracy of the experimental group in striking golf balls exceeded that
of the control group for the first two-thirds of the training program.
During the final third of the training program, the performances of the
control group and the experimental group were similar. Thus, while the
performance of one group exceeded that of the other during the early
phases of the training program, the other group eventually caught and
periodically surpassed the first group during the later sessions of the

training program.

Conclusions

 

The following conclusions are drawn from the data within the
limitations of the study:

1. The ”Flexibat" T.M. does develop the top hand movement pattern
involved in swinging a bat.

2. The subsequent integration of the newly developed top hand
action with the already developed bottom hand action leads to

67

a dramatic, significant increase in bat-head velocity. The
performance of the experimental group using the "Flexibat" T.M.
was superior to the group not using the training device.

3. The hand—eye coordination of both groups increased dramati-
cally with the use of a lead-up batting drill that used both
modified hitting implements and adjusted ball sizes.

Recommendations

The following suggestions are offered for future research on
the problems investigated in this study:

1. Replication of this study should be undertaken in order to
validate the findings.

2. Studies should be undertaken to determine the optimal length
and number of training sessions necessary for the develop-
ment of bat-head velocity when using the ”Flexibat" T.M.-

3. The subjects in the present study were chosen from a small
available sample with a restricted age range. It is recom-
mended that a larger number of subjects at various chrono—
logical ages be studied to determine the effects of training
with the "Flexibat” T.M.-

4. Future studies should determine if just swinging the "Flexi-
bat“ _ . with the Power Fan attachment would result in a
marked increase in bat velocity.

5. Since all the subjects in this study were male, an attempt
should be made to include women in a study to determine the
applicability of the training device to women athletes.

6. A study should be undertaken to determine if weight training
could additionally enhance the force production phase of
swinging a bat. Specifically, a training program that
developed: 1) the triceps of the front arm, 2) front leg
extension, 3) rear leg extension, and 4) top hand action,
should be examined.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
GROUP VELOCITIES IN MILES PER HOUR

68

Table A.1 Control and experimental group bat velocities.

 

Pre— Post Gain
Group Test Trial Test Score
Mean 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mean

Experimental

 

Subject 1. 84 96 93 96 102 92 95.8 11.8
. 83.6 85 87 89 89 90 88.2 4.6
3 94.6 114 113 113 110 114 112.8 18.2
4 98.4 107 109 111 104 106 107.4 9.0
5 97.6 110 106 102 105 104 105.4 7.8
6 80.0 96 101 99 102 103 100.2 20.2
Total group 11.9
Control
Subject 1. 88.8 86 86 89 88 86 87 —1.8
2. 83 2 84 87 85 85 84 85 1.8
3. 84 2 86 85 86 86 85 85.6 1.4
4. 90 6 85 90 88 88 85 87.2 -3.4
5. 89 4 94 100 101 99 105 99.8 10.4
6. 97 6 110 111 109 110 110 110 12.4

Total group 3.5

 

APPENDIX B
RAW DATA FOR GOLF BALL CONTACTS
DURING THE TRAINING PROGRAM

69

 

 

 

 

OH H O + HH NN HN HN HN NN HN HN NN HN HN0.0NOH ONO OHOH NH OH NH OH OH NH cam: OOOOO

NH u M + OH ON ON HN NN NN MN ON NN NN ON ON HN MN OH NH OH OH HN OH NH OH .O

N n H + H ON OH ON NN NN HN HN ON MN MN NN OH ON NH OH MN HN ON NN NN OH .O

NH u OH+ N NN ON ON ON MN MN MN ON OH ON NN OH HN NH ON HN ON OH OH NN ON .O

HM n O + ON HN ON NN NN NN NN MN NN ON NH HN ON HN ON OH OH OH OH OH OH MH .M

MO n O + OM NN ON NN OH HN NN ON OH NN OH OH ON OH MN NH O OH OH OH NH NH .N

O- n O + O- NN OH OH OH HN OH HN ON OH ON ON OH OH OH OH ON NN OH HN MN HN .H
EOLOOLO Hmuop new OLHOH ON MN NN HN ON OH OH NH OH OH OH MH NH HH OH O O N O O O

HOOHO .OOHOH wHOOHE :oHHHmoO OOOHLOO .onOO HoucmEchaxm conmwm Humnnzm
wcp cmmzamn meoom :HmO

OH H O + O O.NNO.HNO.HNONO.HNON HN0.0NOH NN ON OH OH OH NHOH0.0H0.0HOH NH0.0H :mmz OOOLO

ON u NH+ NH MN MN NN NN NN MN NN HN OH ON NH NH HN OH OH ON OH NN OH NH NH .O

OH H O + O MN MN ON OH HN ON HN OH ON ON MN ON OH OH OH OH HN ON MN HN OH .O

MH n M + OH ON ON MN NN HN ON NN NN ON NN NN OH OH NH ON ON NH OH OH ON HN .O

MN u OH+ MH NN ON ON NN NN OH NH OH ON ON NH OH OH OH OH NH OH OH OH NH NH .M

HN u H + ON HN HN ON OH ON OH MN MN OH OH OH HN HN HN OH NH NH OH HH OH MH .N

O- u OH+ OH- NN OH ON OH MN NH HN ON OH NN ON ON OH ON ON ON NN HN OH HN NN .H
Ecemoem.HmHop new OLHOH ON MN NN HN ON OH OH NH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O N O O O

NOCHO .OLHLH OHOOHE
mg» cwmszO mmgoum :HwO

:oHHHmOO wwcx-ch

.OOOOO HOHOOEHLOOXO

:onmmO Homhnsm

 

.EOOOoLO OchHmLp OOH OCHLOO mpuepcou HHmO OHOO we mmgoum OOOOO kucmemeaxm to»

mpmv 3mm H.O OHOOH

70

 

 

 

 

HH n O + O HN HN ON NN ONO.HNON ON0.0NOH ON OH ON OH OH OH OH OH OH NH OH :OOz OOOLO
MH n NH + O- NN ON OH NN OH NN HN OH OH OH NH OH OH OH OH NH ON NH NH ON OH .O
NH n N + OH NN HN ON NN ON MN NN OH ON ON NN ON OH OH ON ON OH NH OH NH OH .O
O u M + O MN ON OH HN NH ON ON ON OH NH OH HN OH OH NH OH NH NN OH NH OH .O
OH H H + NH OH OH OH MN ON OH OH OH MN OH ON OH ON OH NH OH NH OH NH MH HH .M
OH H M + HH HN ON MN MN HN NN HN ON HN HN ON ON ON ON NN NH NH OH HN NH OH .N
OH H N + HH HN MN HN OH NN MN ON NN NN ON NN NH MN ON ON OH ON ON OH OH MH .H
EOLmoLQ HOHOH Ucm OLHOH ON MN NN HN ON OH OH NH OH OH OH MH NH HH OH O O N O O O
HOOHO .OLHOH OHOUHE :oHHHmoa HOOHOO: .OOOOO HOOHOOO conmOm HOOOOOO
OOH OOOBHOO mOLoom OHOO
NH n O + N HN HNO.HNON HN ON0.0NHN ON OH OH OH ON ON OH OH NH NH NH OH NH COO: OOOLO
O n N + M ON HN ON OH OH OH ON OH NH OH OH OH HN HN NN ON ON OH OH OH OH .O
OH H N + O NN NN MN NN NN OH NN NN HN ON HN HN ON NN OH HN NH OH OH ON NN .O
N n O + M OH OH HN HN NN OH OH ON OH OH ON OH ON OH OH NH NH ON OH ON OH .O
NH n O- + HN HN OH HN OH ON ON OH MN NN OH OH HN HN ON OH OH OH NH HH OH OH .O
HH n N + O ON ON NN HN HN NN NN OH ON HN OH NH ON NN HN NH NH OH OH ON NH .N
OH H OH + O NN HN NN MN NN MN MN NN ON ON ON OH ON OH ON OH NH NH OH NH OH .H
EOLOOLO HOHOH Ocm OOHOH ON MN NN HN ON OH OH NH OH OH OH MH NH HH OH O O N O O O
HOOHO .OOHOH OHOOHE coHHHmoO Omcx-OOO .OOOOO HOLHOOO :onmOm HOOOOOO

mzu :mwzpwn meOUm :wmw

 

.EOOOOOO OOHOHOOH OOH OOHOOO mHOOHOoo HHOO OHOO Oo mOOoum

OOOOO HoOHcou OOH

LOO aHaO 3mm N.m OHOOH

APPENDIX C
INTERGROUP RANKINGS BY PERCENTAGE OF GOLF BALL CONTACT

71

TabTe C.1 Ranking by percentage of gon ba11 contacts for
both groups from the one-knee position.

 

 

InitiaT MiddTe FinaT
Group Third Third Third
Combined 1. ESl-83 2. ES4-84 1. ES6—9O
2. E55—79 2. E55—84 2. E55-89
3. CSS-76 2. C55-84 3. 651-89
4.5 ES4-74 4. 653-82 4. ES4—87
4.5 652-74 5. E52-8O 5. 655—86
6. CS4-72 6. 681-79 6. 682-85
7.5 CSl-71 7.5 ES6—78 7. ES3-83
7.5 CS6-71 7.5 CS2-78 8. ESZ—81
9. ES6—66 9. CSS-75 9. CS4-79
10. CS3—61 10. CS6-74 10.5 ESl-78
11.5 E52-60 11. ES3-73 10.5 CS3-78
11.5 ES3-6O 12. ESl-68 12. CS6-76

 

72

TabTe C.2 Ranking by percentage of gon baTT contacts for
both groups from the upright position.

 

InitiaT MiddTe Fina]
Group Third Third Third

 

Combined 1.5 ESl-83 1.5 ESS-84 1. ES4—90
1.5 ESS-83 1.5 ES6—84 2.5 ES3-87
3. ES4-76 4. CSl—83 2.5 ES6-87
4. CS4-73 4. CSZ—83 4.5 C52—86
5.5 CSl-72 4. ES4-83 4.5 CSS-86
5.5 CSZ-72 6. ES3—81 6.5 E55-85
7. ES6—70 8. ESE-79 6.5 CSl-85
8.5 CSS-69 8. CS4—79 8. ESZ—84
8.5 CS6—69 8. CSS—79 9.5 CS6—82
10. CS3—60 10.5 CS3—77 9.5 CS4-82
11. ES3—56 10.5 ESl—77 11. CS3—78
12. E82—41 12. CS6—65 12. ESl—77

 

REFERENCES

10.

11.
12.

13.

REFERENCES CITED

 

Adams, Gary L., Effect of eye dominance on baseball batting.
Research Quarterly, 36: 3-9, 1965.

 

Adams, Gene M., The relationship of leg strength to baseball bat
velocity. Unpublished Master's Thesis, UCLA, 1965.

Adams, Jack A., Response feedback and learning. Psychology

 

Bulletin, 70: 486-504, 1968.

Akers, William F., A study to determine the total offensive
performance of the major league player. Doctoral Dissertation,
Springfield College, Springfield, Mass., 1963.

Alston, Walter; Don Weiskopf, The Complete Baseball Book. Boston,
Mass., Allyn and Bacon, 475, 1972.

 

Bagg, Ewart J., Effect of mental and physical practice on base-
ball batting. Unpublished Master's Thesis, UCLA, 1966.

Bannister, H.; J. Blackburn, An eye factor affecting proficiency
at ball games. British Journal 9f_Psychology, 21: 382, 1931.

 

 

Bates, Frank H., Relationship of hand and eye coordination to
accuracy in baseball hitting. Unpublished Master's Thesis,
University of Iowa, 1948.

Bartow, Jerome J., The strength of the wrist joint flexors and
extensors as they relate to the velocity of the bat. Unpublished
Master's Thesis, Washington State University, 1959.

Bethel, Dell, A total concept of the hitting action. Scholastic
Coach, 37: 11, 1968.

 

, Charley Lau on Hitting, Coach, 47: 9, April, 1978.

 

Breen, James L., What makes a good hitter. Journal 9f_Health
Physical Education and Recreation, 38: 36-39, April, 1967.

 

Brown, Paul T., Effects of three intensity levels of warm-up on
the reaction time and speed of movement in the baseball swing.
Doctoral Dissertation, University of Indiana, 1971.

_._a..-..

__—_

 

 

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

74

Bunn, John N. ,Scientific Principles of Coaching. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, Prentice- Hall, Inc. , 1955

Carroll, Richard D., The relationship of prehension to bat swing
velocity. Journal gf_American Associatiqn_gf_Health, Physical

Education and Recreation, Vol. 1, 1959.

 

Conard, Ruth, A cinematographical analysis of the major sequential
movement patterns of skilled, semi-skilled, and non-skilled baseball
batters. Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, 1965.

Cook, Earnshaw, Percentage Baseball. Boston, Mass., M.1.T. Press,
1964.

Coombs, Jack; Danny Litwhiler, Baseball. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 4th Edition, 1967.

Creger, Larry, A study of movement time from two stances in hitting
a baseball. Master's Thesis, Colorado State College, 1960.

Deese, Paul M., The effect of weight training on batting movement
time. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Illinois, 1962.

Dulchinos, D. G., A study to determine the relationship of wrist
strength to the velocity of swinging a baseball bat. Unpublished
Master's Thesis, University of Illinois, 1962.

Eccles, John C., The physiology of imagination. Scientific American,
199: 3, 135—145, September, 1958.

Ellis, Robert, Hit your pitch, not the pitchers'. Coach, 46: 7,
February, 1977.

Falkenstine, J. M., A study on the relationship between ocular domi-
nance and performance in certain selected motor activities. Doctoral
Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959.

Fitts, Paul M., Perceptual motor learning. In Arthur w. Melton (ed)
Categories of human learning. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1964.

; Michael Posner, Human Performance. Belmont, Cali-

 

fornia, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1967.

Flaherty, B. C., The effect of weight training on selected baseball
skills. Master's Thesis, San Diego State College, 1962.

Fleishman, Edwin A., A comparative study of aptitude patterns in
skilled and unskilled psychomotor performances. Journal 9j_Applied
Psychology) 41: 263—272, 1957.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

75

Fulton, Ruth E., Speed and accuracy in learning a balistic move—
ment. Research Quarterly, 13: 30-36, 1942.

Hartsell, L. D., Contrasting approaches to the analysis of skilled
sports movements. Journal e: General Psychology, 20: 263-293,
1939.

 

Hay, James G., The Biomechanics eh Sports Techniques. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 211-212, 1973.

 

Hooks, G. E., Prediction of baseball ability through an analysis
of measures of strength and structure. Research Quarterly, 30:
38, March, 1959.

Hubbard, Alfred W.; C. N. Seng, Visual movements of batters.
Research Quarterly, 25: 42—57, 1954.

Jacobson Edmund, The course of relaxation in muscles of athletes.
American Journal ef_Psych0logy, 48: 98—108, January, 1936.

 

, Electromyography of mental activities. American
Journal 9: Psychology, 44: 677-694, 1932.

 

Johnson, Thomas F., Locating the critical hitting zone in the bat.
Athletic Journal, 37: 38, April, 1957.

Kachline, Clifford; Chris Roewe, The Official Baseball Guide.
St. Louis, Missouri, C. C. Spinks and Sons, 1965.

Kay H., Information theory on the understanding of skills. Occupa-
tional Psychology, 31: 218-224, 1957.

Keele, Steven W., Movement control in skilled motor performance.
Psychological Bulletin, 70: 387—403, 1968.

 

Kitzman, E. W., Baseball: electromyographical study of the batting
swing. Research Quarterly, 35: 116, May, 1964.

Knapp, Barbara, Skill jh_Sport: Ehe Attainment ef_Proficiency,
London, England, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1963.

 

 

Koppett, Leonard, A_Thinking Man's Guide te_Baseball. New York,
E. P. Delton and Co., 1967.

Kuklenski, Wm. George, A comparative study of the exercise programs
on the development of bat swinging velocity, throwing distance and
running speed of college freshman baseball players. Master's
Thesis, University of Washington, 1969.

Lande, Leon, What causes hitting errors. Athletic Journal, 58:
68—86, 1958.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.
59.

60.

61.

76

Litwhiler, Daniel, Overload: for the quick bat. Athletic Journal,
January, 38-42, 1967.

 

MacFarlane, Paul; Chris Roewe; Larry Wiggle, The Official Baseball
Guide. St. Louis, Missouri, The Sporting News, 1970.

 

Maltz, Maxwell, Psychoqybernetics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall Inc., 1960.

 

Marcin, Joe; Chris Roewe; Larry Wiggle; Larry Vichrey, The Official
Baseball Guide. St. Louis, Missouri, The Sporting News, 1973.

 

 

; ; ; , The Official
Baseball Guide. St. Louis, Missouri, The Sporting News, 1977.

 

 

 

 

Moses, Wally, Personal communications with, during the 1973 baseball
season. Rocky Mt., North Carolina, 1973.

Neft, David; L. Allen; R. Markel; J. C. Tattersall; J. A. Deutsch,
The Sports Encyclopedia: Baseball. Grossett and Dunlap, 1973.

 

Oxendine, Joseph B., Emotional arousal and motor performance. Quest
Monograph XIII. Psychology of Sport, January, 1970.

 

Posner, Michael 1., Components of skilled performance. Science, 152:
1712-1718, 1966.

Race, 0. E., A cinematographic and mechanical analysis of the exter-
nal movements involved in hitting a baseball effectively. Research

Quarterly, 32: 394, 1961.

Reiff, Guy G., What research tells the coach about baseball. Ameri—
can Association gf_Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Washing-
ton, D. C., 1-10, 1971.

 

 

Rickey, Branch, Goodbye to some old baseball ideas. Life, 37: 78-86,
August 2, 1954.

Sain, John, Lecture notes from Medalist baseball clinic. Hyatt
Regency, Chicago, Illinois, 1976.

Scott, M. G., Analysis ef_Human Motion. New York: Crofts, 1945.

 

Siebert, Dick, Lecture notes from Medalist baseball clinic. Chicago,
Illinois, 1976.

Sievers, Roy, 0n the art of hitting. Sports Illustrated. 19: 43-44,
1958.

 

Simegoff, James,Integrating baseball's new formula. Athletic
Journal, 35: 40, April, 1955.

 

 

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

 

77

Singer, Robert N., Motor Learning and Human Performance: .AhDAgpli-
cation te Physical Education Skills. 2nd Edition, Mac-Millan Pub-
lishing Company, 1975.

 

 

, Coaching, Athletics, and Psychology. McGraw-

 

 

Hill Book Company, 1972.

Siwoff, Seymour, The Book gf_Baseball Records. Seymour Siwoff
Editor and Publisher, New York, 1977.

 

Slater-Hammell,A. T.; R. L. Stumpner, Batting reaction time. Re;
search Quarterly, 21: 351-356, 1950.

 

 

 

, A neglected batting factor. Scholastic Coach,
20: 14, April, 1951. -

, Initial body position and total reaction time.

 

Research Quarterly, 24: 91, 1953.

Solley, W. H., The effects of verbal instructions of speed and
accuracy upon the learning of a motor skill. Research Quarterly,
23: 231-240, 1952.

Spink, C. C. Johnson; Paul Richart; Clifford Kachline, Official
Baseball Guide. St. Louis, Missouri, The Sporting News, 1968.

 

Steinhaus, Arthur H.; Jeanne E. Norris, Teaching Neuromuscular
Relaxation. Cooperative Research project no. GE 1529, George

 

 

Williams College, 1964.

Stimpson, W. G., The art of golf. Cited by Mrs. Stewart Hanley in
the "sense and feel of golf”. Journal ef_Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, 8: 366, 1937.

 

 

Stout, G. F., Manual ef_Psychology. London, University Corres-
pondence College, 1899.

 

Suinn, Richard M., Body thinking: psychology for Olympic champs.
Psychology Today, July, 1976.

 

Swangard, Trevor M., Effect of isometric and isotonic weight training
programs on development of bat swing, throwing and running in college
baseball players. Master's Thesis, University of Oregon, 1965.

Swimley, Phillip S., A cinematographical analysis of two selected
baseball swings. Master's Thesis, Sacramento State College, 1964.

Thorpe, W. H., Learning and Instinct ih_Animals. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1956.

 

Van Huss, W. 0.; J. Friedrich; R. Mayberry; R. Neimeyer; H. Olson,
Physical Activity in Modern Living, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,

 

 

Prentice-Hall Inc.:_2nd Edition, 1969.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

78

Vaughn, Ross E., The relationship of certain variables to success
in batting. Master's Thesis, Washington State University, 1969.

Wathens, David L., Motion pictures as an instructional aid in
correcting baseball hitting faults.

228-233, 1963.

Research Quarter

ly, 34:

 

Watson, Louise, A study in the relationship between the ability to

relax and athletic ability among college women.
tion, Universi

ty of Oregon, 1952.

Doctoral Disserta-

Weems, Fred, An investigation of the comparative effects of various
training programs on the velocity of a baseball bat.
Thesis, University of Southern Mississippi, 1971.

, The batting hitch:

 

February, 1976.

Weiskopf, Don, Batting with Wally Moses.

ary, 38-42, 1969.

help or hindrance.

Master's

Coach, 46: 7,

Athletic Journal, Febru-

 

, Batting styles of the world champions.

 

Journal, 40:

Wells, Katheri
pany, 1940.

8'13 9 1960.

Athletic

ne, Kinesiology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Com-

 

Werling, W. E., The relationship of forearm muscle strength to the

bat swing velocity.

Master's Thesis, University of Maryland, 1962.

Wertich, Harold G., Jr., The velocity of the baseball batting swing
as affected by the addition of a select resistance exercise to a

traditional pre-swing weight training program.

Thesis, South Dakota State University, 1967.

Whiting, H. T. A., Acquiring Ball Skill.

Febiger, 1975.

 

Philadelphi

Unpublished Master's

a, Lea and

Williams, Ted; John Underwood, The Science ej_Hitting. New York,

Pocket Books,

 

1972.

Winograd, Samuel, The relationship of timing and vision to baseball

performance.

Research Quarterly, 13:

 

481-493, 1942.

    

”Il11111111111111IES

3