rf—Il'«* II lull; |||2I||l911LlHII Ll l“ l Ill] l,” “ill” l II . unwz y THEE“: Midfisms M This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Role of Non—Formal Education In Alternate Rural Development Models; A Critical Analysis. presented by Garvin A, M. Karunaratne has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D . degree in Social-Philosophical Foundations of Education & Major pr or Date W 0—7639 «’3‘ OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. M8 THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION IN ALTERNATE RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS : A CRITICAL ANALYSIS. By Garvin A.M.Karunaratne. A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1979 ABSTRACT THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION IN ALTERNATE RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS : A CRITICAL ANALYSIS by Garvin A.M.Karunaratne Yeoman attempts have been made by Governments in the Third World as well as by international organizations aimed at bringing about rural develOpment at a colossal cost. Successes are very few, while failures loom large. The study looks into this problem in rural development from the point of view of non-formal education. It has been found necessary to look into the current definitions of rural development and to put forth a definition comprising the core elements that have to be invariably present in rural development. Similarly, a definition of non-formal education had to be identified, in relevance to the educational content that goes into the making of a rural development program. Non-formal education processes that have to be used in planning and implementing rural development have been identified. These processes, viz., community development, extension, conscienti- zation, discussion and deliberation, self-help, leadership deveIOpment, sequences of decision making, non-directive communication, functional literacy and participation are shown as fundamentally important in planning and implementing any program of rural development. Organized non—formal education courses can play an important and l x/ I ‘ .‘ ‘ Garvin A.M.Karunaratne and complementary role in bringing about rural development, but there has to be concentration on the processes if the development of the responsibility in pe0ple is sought in development. Rural develoPment models that are in vogue have been classified into integrated, semi-integrated and_unintegrated categories. The following countries/projects were selected for detailed study. Integrated China, the kibbutz and moshav in Israel, the ujamaa in Tanzania. Semi-integrated Comilla (Bangladesh), India, the Philippines. Unintegrated CADU (Ethiopia), Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Kenya. In each, the reasons as to why they were categorized into the particular administrative model have been detailed. The achievement in rural develoPment and finally the extent to which non-formal education processes have been used, has been critically evaluated. Flowing from this, the administrative strengths and weaknesses of each administrative model have been evaluated from the point of view of the developed nature of the administrative structure, viz., the extent of integration, the use of village level institutions, the horizontal communication prevalent as opposed to vertical communication and the extent Of decentralization. This has then been related to the extent non-formal education processes have been used in rural development in each model. It emerges from this study that the use Of non-formal education processes for rural development is a fundamental necessity, as development has to be marked with the advancement of the people. Garvin A.M.Karunaratne. Here, the peOple don the mantle of development, get activized on a spontaneous basis and get self-propelled into action. Instances where develOpment has been brought about without concentration on non-formal education processes have been found to necessitate a massive effort, with a tremendous flow of foreign investment and aid, which is unlikely to offer adaptability for the typical Third World country. It has also been shown that administrative structures have to be developed for the effective use of non-formal education processes. The findings are to the effect that non-formal education processes are more likely to be effectively used to achieve the goals of rural development if: the administrative structure is more integrated; a single village level institution is used; there is more horizontal communication as opposed to vertical communication and there is more decentralization. The findings also indicate that the use of non-formal education processes lead to the people becoming partners in development. It is hOped that the findings of this study will help those concerned with rural development in Third World countries to have a fresh look at the role of education in deveIOpment and consider changes in administrative structures to enable non-formal education processes to be used for achieving the goals of development. DEDICATION. TO my wife, Bimba, and our children, Arjuna, Hiran & Kanchi, for the love, encouragement & sacrifice. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Professor Kenneth L. Neff, chairman of the doctoral committee for the guidance and advice offered throughout my studies, for the painstaking care and encouragement shown and for the depth of critical thought on non-formal education and rural development that has enriched this Dissertation. To Professor Joseph Levine and.Professor Ben Bohnhorst, members of the doctoral committee for the most valuable suggestions on the subject at issue in the Dissertation and for guiding me through the maze Of studies. To Professor Garland.P.Wood, whose real and.practical understanding of the problems of rural development have helped this study immensely and Whose encouragement and guidance as a member of the doctoral committee was unfailing at all times. To Professor George H. Axinn, whose first hand knowledge Of the problems of the Asian peasant and whose analytical understanding of the issues in rural develOpment has enlightened the subject of the Dissertation. To Professor Cole S. Brembeck, whose deep understanding of non-formal education, especially in the context of the Third World has helped me throughout my pursuit for academic knowledge. To my wife, Bimba and my sons Arjuna and Hiran for the encouragement, for taking over the burden of proof-reading and compilation of the bibliography and to my youngest, Kanchi for the sheer encouragement. iii Chapter I. II III TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION. ...................... .. ...... ..... 1 THE PROBLEM ........ .......................... 5 TIE PUWOSE O I O O I ..... O I ........... 0 .......... 8 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS ....................... 11 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................... . 13 THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY .... ................. 20 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT .. 25 1. DEFINITION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT .. .......... 25 2. DEFINITION OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION ......... 36 3. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION PROCESSES . . ......... 42 . Community Development .. ................ 45 Extension .............................. 49 Conscientization .. ..................... 50 Discussion and.Deliberation .. .......... 52 Self-help ............................. 53 Leadership Development. ............... 54 Sequences of Decision making .. ......... 54 Non-directive communication .. .......... 55 Functional Literacy ...... .. ............ 56 Participation . ......................... 58 4. STRATEGIES. ................................ 65 RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS .................. ... 68 Criteria for classification ... ................ 69 1. Developed Administrative Structures ..... 69 2. Integration .... ....... ... ....... . ...... 71 3. Institutions ..... ...................... 75 4. Horizontal Communication ................ 76 5. Decentralization... ..................... 77 iv Chapter VI VII VIII INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS .. ........ CHINA ................... ..... .... ........ .... The Achievement .. ............. ........... The Use of Non-Formal Education ........ .... Summary of Evidence ...... ........... . ..... . THE KIBBUTZ & MOSHAV SETTLEMENTS IN ISRAEL ..... The Achievement ... ........... . ........ The Use of Non-Formal Education ............ Summary of Evidence .. ........... ..... ...... THE UJAMAA SETTLEMENTS IN TANZANIA ............. The Achievement .. ......................... The Use of Non—Formal Education .. ---------- Summary of Evidence .. ......... . ............ SEMI-INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS COMILLA (BANGLADESH) .. ................ ....... The Achievement . .......................... The Use of Non—Formal Education ------------ Summary of Evidence..... .................... INDIA ........ .. ................................ The AchieVement .. ................... . ..... The Use of Non-Formal Education -- ---------- Summary of Evidence .. ...................... THE PHILIPPINES .. ........... . ................. The Achievement ..................... . ...... The Use of Non-Formal Education ------------ Summary of Evidence. ....................... UNINTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS ----------- THE CHILALO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (CADU) The Achievement ........................... The Use of Non-Formal Education ------------ Summary of Evidence .................. . ..... SRI LANKA ........... . ................. ....... The Achievement . .................. . ..... The Use of Non—Formal Education ------------- Summary of Evidence ........................ 8O 80 84 93 94 97 100 101 105 110 117 118 119 123 131 137 138 143 150 155 155 159 167 Chapter TAIWAN . ..... .. The Achievement ..... .. ............ The Use of Non-Formal Education ,,,,,,,,,, , Summary of Evidence WA 00000.... ........ ...-0.0.. The Achievement . ..... ...... ............. The Use of NoneFormal Education , Summary of Evidence ..., 0...... ...... 0.... IX FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION ....... Integration in the administrative structure and the use of non-formal education,, Village level Institutions and the use of non-formal education ......,,,, Horizontal Communication and non-formal education .............. ............ Decentralization and the use of non-formal education 0.00.00.00.00... ........ 0‘00... The Use of non-formal education processes and success in rural development . ,,,,,,, BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. vi Page 213 216 219 223 228 231 241 243 246 252 256 260 263 272 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION One strategy being explored to accelerate rural development relates to the role that education should take in the total effort. One area in education which has been neglected, possibly an offshoot of the past policy favoring industrialization and urbanization is the education and learning occuring outside of the formal school. This area of instruction has been referred to recently as non-formal education. Several international assistance donors... are financing investigations of this form of education because of the belief that this type of education 'will make more direct and less costly contributions to rural development'. In ancient times, education in rural areas was imparted within the rural social system, where the children from their young days were trained by parents and elders to man the tasks that were expected of them for society to continue and prosper. With the spread of colonialism, formal academic schools were introduced into the Third World. The task of education was then generally accepted as being to equip children for life. This was done in schools. The acquisition of knowledge and skills in schools was relegated to the formative period of one's life and it was generally accepted that the students were trained to function as full grown men. At this stage, no direct connection was drawn between education and rural development. Instead, education was seen as something functional, something that enabled children to acquire competence and knowledge by which they fitted into society in adulthood. Education was propagated with this idea, but no essential 1. Rogelio V. Cuyno, 'NonéFormal Education for Rural Agricultural Development', in Case Studies in Non-Formal Education, ed. by Russell Kleis, Institute for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1974, pp. 26,27. link was brought about between education and development. It so happened that this type Of school centered education, in itself, did not bring about development. Education acquired in schools, failed in many instances, to make the graduands contribute to development. In the Third World, the vast majority of the people live in rural areas and rural develOpment has increasingly come into focus as a goal that is worthy of being achieved. When schooling of children was made compulsory, many have been amazed to find that schooling, instead of being contributive to rural development, has been found in many instances, to function counter to development interests. In today's educational system, what has happened is that an education based on theoretical studies which was suitable for a small segment of the school pOpulation, has come to be imparted to the majority. Consequently, a very large number of school leavers have been found to have acquired alien attitudes and ideas. Very few complete their education and pass the examinations. Even those who complete the education imparted, do not always contribute to development. This was the education that was doled out to the elite in western European countries about a century ago. Meaningful changes have been made in the curriculum in western countries to make this education suitable for an industrially develOped context. However, very few changes have been made in developing countries to make education contribute to the making of the rural areas. In the words of William K. Medlin, The design of formal schooling is such that learners are conditioned to becomegprimarily consumers of culture rather than producers. This leads to their becoming actual or potential liabilities on society as a whole; there is no evidence that formal schools in rural areas can generate production oriented programs, whose influence will alter agricultural productivity or promote healthy nutritional practices even when a vocational model is followed. 1 Malcolm Adiseshiah is of the Opinion that today, education has become dysfunctional. He relates to the role of education in India. Gandhi chartered the idea of making hand-work an integral part of our education, the medium of instruction for boys and girls upto the age of 14. Zakir Husain followed him and declared that educationally productive work as the principal means of education will run through our future educational system from the basic school to the University. .... We have nevertheless, successfully developed the world's most unproductive educational system-- boys and girls who drop out of school and college, who repeat their classes and who are nearly totally unemployable. 2 This is often due to the fact that what is taught in schools is divorced from the reality of life. Even in instances where the curriculum has been changed, it has been found that meaningful results have not always been achieved. Even the vocational and practical education has been imparted in a theoretic and academic manner, far remote from the reality of life. What happens as a result can be quoted in the words of Nyerere, who described the aims and purposes of education as 'to prepare young peOple to live in and serve the society and to transmit knowledge, skills and values and attitudes of the society. Whenever education fails in any of these fields, then the 1. William K. Medlin, Problems in Planning Rural Education for Agricultural and Nutritional Development, A Review of relevant findings for Communications ResearchJ Occasional Paper, University of Michigan, 1976jp.8. Emphasis added. 2. Malcolm Adiseshiah, 'Education and Productive Work in India', in Prospects, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1974, p. 143. society falters in its progress, or there is social unrest, as people find that their education has prepared them for a future which is not opem to them'. 1 Certain Third World governments were spending as much as 25% of their total national budgets on education. The problem was that school education tended to take children away from the rural environment; it was found to imbibe urban and white collar attitudes into the rural children. Even a sizeable number of those who completed schooling successfully did not seek work within or intend to develop their own rural areas. Instead, they looked away from their culture and preferred to be unemployed or underemployed in the urban areas. On the other hand, within the rural social system that existed in the rural areas, there was a system of informal education, which pervaded the lives of the people, involving their vocations and livelihood. George H.Axinn, identifies seven essential functions that persist simultaneously within any rural within any rural social system. These functions are: supplies, production, marketing, personal maintenance, health care, governance and learning.2 In this social system there was intense informal education to fit the children into the rural economy. This education system enabled the young to acquire the cultural attitudes as well as the economic skills that were required for them to function as full fledged members of society. This is the core Of non-formal education, that education which is of fundamental 1.Julius K. Nyerere, Education for Self-Reliance, Dar Es Salaam The Government Printer, 1967, p.2. 2.George H. Axinn, Non-Formal Education and Rural Develgpment, Institute for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1976, pp. 7-11. concern to the cause of rural development. This Dissertation is devoted to a full scale study of the utilization of non-formal education processes for the task of rural development. Here, rural develOpment specifically comprises the total development of the rural areas, including the vocations of the people and the development programs implemented by the governments and various agencies. Various governments have resorted to alter their administrative structures in order to achieve rural develOpment. The role that non- formal education processes have played in these alternative rural develOpment models is the subject of this study. THE PROBLEM. In the words of Philip Coombs, Roy Prosser and Manzoor Ahmed, It has become clear that national development up to now in most countries has been decidedly lopsided, as witnessed by the perpetuation and even the worsening of mass poverty in many rural areas, by the ominously widening economic and social disparities between urban and rural populations and by the worrisome gap between rural employment Opportunities and the burgeoning youth problem. 1 Despite yeoman attempts made at growth during the U.N. DevelOpment Decade and attempts made subsequently at growth with distribution by various governments and international agencies, rural development on a national basis is yet a mirage that has deluded developers. It has been estimated that about 800 millions live today within absolute poverty limits.2 There is widespread unemployment, with as much as 1. Philip H. Coombs, Manzoor Ahmed and Roy Prosser, New Paths to Learning, International Council for Education & Development,1973,p.1. 2. World Development Repertiil978, The World Bank, 1978, p.1. 15% or more of the total workforce unemployed in many countries. The 1974 World Food Conference estimated that approximately 500 million people are inadequately fed. 1 There is inequality of a severe order in many Third World countries. The poorest 10% of the world's population in 1962/63 accounted for less 2 than 2% of world consumption, whereas the tOp 10% enjoyed as much as 35%. Montek S. Ahluwalia says, about half of the underdeveloped countries fall in the high inequality range, with another third displaying moderate inequality. The average income share for the lowest 40% in all underdevelOped countries amounts to about 12.5%, but there is considerable variation around this average. Those of the underdeveloped countries classified in the low inequality category have income shares for the lowest 40% averaging 1&%, as is the case with the most egalitarian of the develOped countries. Against this however, half the underdeveloped countries show income shares of the lowest 40%, averaging only 9%. 3 It has been estimated that in 1969, in Third World countries in Asia, 36.1% of the total population and 30.5% of the population of the Third World countries in Africa obtain an income of less than $ 50 g.n.p. per capita. The fact remains that many attempts have been made to bring about rural develOpment and alleviate rural poverty, unemployment and malnutrition in these countries. International agencies like the 1. World Food Conference, Assessment of the World Food Situation, Present and Future, Item 8 Of the Provisional Agenda, United Nations, 1974, p.66. 2. Richard Jolly,'International Dimensions' in Redistribution with Growth, ed. by H.Chenery et. al., Oxford University Press, 1974, p. 159. 3. Montek S. Ahluwalia, 'Income Inequality: Some Dimensions of the Problem' in Redistribution with Growth, op. cit., p.7. 4. Ibid., p.12. World Bank and the United Nations have spent billions of dollars to bring about development. The current programs of the World Bank aimed at bringing about agricultural and rural development alone amounts to $ 1.75 billion and since 1946, the World Bank has spent a total of $ 16 billions.1 However, Robert McNamara himself states that 'current development programs are seriously inadequate because they are failing to achieve development's most fundamental goal: ending the human deprivation in hundreds of millions of individual lives throughout the developing world'. 2 The attempts at rural development have been many, as could be expected and are really of diverse types. Various rural development administration models have been deployed. These range from the highly integrated type followed in China to the highly departmentalized and unintegrated type followed in Sri Lanka and Kenya. Between these two polarized models a number of types can be identified. These vary from the semi integrated model followed in India to the less integrated model followed in the Philippines. In each case, different degrees of success have been achieved. Each rural development administration model was based on a different strategy. In a number of cases, administrative reforms formed an essential part of the strategy. The aims and targets were laid down and the methods of achieving them were 1. August Schumacher, 'World Bank Policies for Rural Development' in Report on Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor, ed. by Richard O. Niehoff, Institute for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1977, p. 31. 2. Robert McNamara, Address to the Board of Governors of the World Bank Group, Washington D.C., September 25, 1972. spelled out in each case, with due regard to the educational Processes or directive administrative strategies that were deployed. Yeoman attempts have been made employing thousands of workers, specialists etc., at a colossal cost. Yet development is far from being achieved. THE PURPOSE. The purpose of the study is to make an indepth exploration of the role of non—formal education in realizing the goals of rural development. This necessitates the identification of different types of rural development administration models that have been developed and an assessment of the achievements associated with them. It also requires the identification of a definition Of non—formal education placing focus on rural development and a study of non-formal education processes. Then, in each rural development administration model, the development strategy that was used in implementation has to be ascertained, with due place being given to the effect of horizontal communication networks, administrative and political reforms and other factors that were deployed and within this entire administrative framework, the role that was played by non—formal education has to be critically evaluated. This analysis can eventually lead to the development of a set of essential non-formal education processes that can be used to bring about effective rural develOpment and also to identify the core elements of a rural develOpment administration model which can enable the full utilization of non—formal education processes for the realization of rural development goals. Thus, the objectives of the study are: 1. to propose a definition of non—formal education in relation to rural development. 2. to identify non—formal education processes. 3. to specifically identify rural development administration models and assess the extent to which non—formal education processes have been used in each model. 4. to identify the major functional and Operational demands that must be served by administrative and program structures in order to make effective use of non-formal education for rural development. 5. to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the alternate rural development administration models for meeting these functional and operational demands. 6. to contribute to the present level knowledge of non-formal education and rural development administration. It is suggested that the repeated failure of many rural development programs flows from the non-utilization or inadequate utilization of non-formal education processes. Rural development models of administration have not been fully developed and their strengths and weaknesses have not been understood. Further, it is also suggested that non-formal education processes have hitherto been sparingly used or not used at all in many rural development models and that their effective use holds potential for bringing about success in rural development programs. 10 The basic premise of this study is that the utilization of non—formal education processes tends to bring about success in rural develOpment programs and significant non-formal education processes tend not to be used in rural development programs that have not achieved a high degree of success. In this study, the following research questions will be pursued. 1. Does integration in the administrative structure tend to enable the effective use of non—formal education processes for rural development? 2. Does an administrative structure with a single village level institution tend to enable the effective utilization of non-formal education processes for rural development? If so, does the simultaneous existence of a number of village level institutions tend to splinter the rural development stimulation effort and minimize the intensive use of non-formal education processes for rural develOpment? 3. Does an administrative structure that has intensive horizontal communication at the village level tend to enable the effective use of non-formal education processes for rural develOpment? If so, this implies that the lack of hOrizontal communication and the dominance of vertical communication in an administrative structure does not enable the effective use of non-formal education processes for rural develOpment. 4. Does a decentralized administrative structure enable a more effective use of non-formal education processes for rural development? 11 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS. Administration- the governmental organization which enforces law and order and plans and implements programs aimed at bringing about development. Administrative model- a particular system of administration that has been used to enforce law and order and bring about development. Administrative structure- the hierarchical organization in ministries and departments within the government, that functions to enforce law and order and bring about development. Centralization- the retention of power and authority at the higher levels of the administrative structure. Commitment- a continued endeavour to achieve a particular goal. Community Development-"the process by which the efforts Of the people themselves are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress": 1 Cooperative society- a village level institution, where people cooperate for a developmental purpose. Coordination- the bringing together the activities of various government organizations, stimulation systems or institutions through cooperation or governmental regulation. Decentralization- comprises the delegation of responsibility to lower levels of authority (deconcentration) and allowing people sufficient power to exercise responsibility in decision making (devolution). Develgpment- the advancement in the economic, social, cultural and political spheres, including economic growth, increases in income and advancement as far as the vast majority of the people are concerned. Effort— an attempt to achieve a goal. 1. U.N. Economic and Social Council, Official Records of the 24 th Session, Annexes, Agenda Item 4; 20 th Report of the Administrative Committee on Coordination to the Council, E/2931, Annex III, Page 14, 1956. 12 Formal Education- the structured, organized and institutionalized education system used in schools and Colleges of learning. Horizontal communication- the communication processes that exist between the various organizations, stimulation systems or institutions at the village level or at the local level. Institution- an organization established by the people or for the peOple for a developmental objective. Integration- the welding together or the complete mergence of governmental administrative organizations, stimulation systems and institutions. Non-Formal Education- the method of assessing the needs and interests of adults and out of school youth in developing countries and of communicating with them, motivating them to participate, helping them to acquire the necessary skills, to adopt behavioral patterns and related activities, which will increase their productivity and improve their living standards, and in the process lead to the develOpment of their initiatives, responsibility and self reliance. Rural DevelOpment- rural transformation involving the totality of rural life, including specifically the economic, social and cultural aspects. This brings about the elevation Of rural conditions and rural life, leading to increases in income for the rural people, increased employment, ensuring nutritional standards, housing, health and other basic facilities for the rural people and investing in the people a participatory awakening, causing the develOpment of their initiatives, leading to the flowering of human personality and self—reliance. Village level- the lowest level of administration in rural areas, closest to the village at which a village level officer functions. Vertical communication— communication that exists between the village level administration and the hierarchical organization to which it belongs. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE. There is a wealth of literature on non-formal education and rural development. This ranges from books by various authorities to case studies and articles published in journals, reports written by government departments and evaluative studies made by various international organizations. These are not directly focussed on the role of non-formal education in rural development, but they contain details about the utilization of non—formal education for rural development, though this has not been their main concern. There are a few books like New Paths to Learning and Education for Rural Development, which deal with non—formal education being used for rural development, but these books have been concentrated on a limited View of non-formal education, that focuses on organized and instructional types of courses imparted to an out—of—school clientele. They do not deal with linking the totality of non—formal education to rural development programs in their actual functioning. James R. Sheffield and Victor P. Diejomaoh, have in their pioneer study, Non—Formal Education in African Development (1972) made a complete assessment of non—formal education programs. The authors have included only the organized and instructional type of courses held on an out—Of—school basis. The educational courses and programs have been underlined in detail. Rolland G. Paulston has edited an Annotated Bibliography on Non-Formal Education (1972), 13 14 which details the literature. Here too only the organized and instru- ctional out—of—school education has been included and this study is not directly related to rural development. New Strategies for Educational Development (1973), edited by Cole Brembeck and Timothy Thompson contains a number of articles on non—formal education on a conceptual basis. Here non-formal education has been accepted to specifically include informal education, which is of importance to rural development. Brembeck has explained the rationale for non—formal education in detail in his article, 'The Strategic Uses of Formal and Non-Formal Education'. His contribution lies in connection with emphasizing the relationship between non— formal education and rural life in its natural setting. New Paths to Learning (1973) by Philip H. Coombs, Roy Prosser and Manzoor Ahmed, is a conceptual study of non-formal education. Here, a definition of non-formal education was developed to refer to 'any organized educational activity outside the established formal(school) system'.1 This work also distinguishes the areas of informal and incidental learning, in addition to this type of organized educational activity. In Attacking Rural Poverty(l974) by Philip H. Coombs and Manzoor Ahmed, a number of case studies have been presented. In 1975, a major work, Education for Rural Developmepp, was published, edited by Manzoor Ahmed and Philip H. Coombs, which studied non- formal education in Jamaica, Kenya, Mali, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Upper Volta, Afghanistan, Colombia, India, Korea, Philippines and Tanzania. 1. Philip H. Coombs,Roy Prosser and Manzoor Ahmed, New Paths to Learning,op. cit., p. 11. 15 These studies have tended to concentrate on the organized and instructional type of non-formal education courses aimed at imparting skills and knowledge to out—Of—school youth, though some details are provided of the cooperative and rural development programs, which have utilized non-formal education. Non—formal education has come in for detailed study in the Program of Studies of Non—Formal Education by the Institute of International Studies in Education at the Michigan State University. Marvin Grandstaff has in Alternatives in Education: A Summary View of Research and Analysis on the Cppcept of Non—Formal Education (1974) provided a comprehensive overview of the entire field of non-formal education on a conceptual basis. This work deals with the relationship of non-formal education, to all aspects of education, such as formal, academic and vocational. The importance of this study to rural development lies in the attention it focuses on the role of non-formal education in a rural setting. Practice in non-formal education points toward a number of characteristic applications. Some of the most important applications are to: situations in which education is a response to a demand originating in the context of the learners; comprehen- sive development schemes, especially those that are designed for rural settings; education addressed to the need and life situations of the poor, occupational education, situation of rapid change; situations in which viable structures for education already exist and situations in which educational services are needed in support of other activities. 1 The Case Studies in Non—Formal Education (1974) edited by Russell Kleis have dealt with non-formal education programs in health, literacy, 1. Marvin Grandstaff, Alternatives in Education: A Supmary View of Research and Analysis on the Conpept of Non—Formal Education, Institute of International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1974, p.81. 16 family planning and agriculture. Richard O. Niehoff and Bernard D.’ Wilder in Non—Formal Education in Ethiopia (1974), have provided an account Of all aspects of non—formal education and have compared it to formal education as an alternative. They have also dealt with the C.A.D.U. Program of rural development. George H.Axinn has written Non-Formal Education and Rural Development (1976), which relates non—formal education to rural development. Here, he has identified the rural social system and has dealt with it in detail, giving the importance of the educational component in rural life. In an investigation of learning and its contribution to a 'better’life for the rural poor, all the activity in the community may be considered as potential learning resources. 1 This work describes the detailed functioning of the rural social system and the rural development stimulation system—-'the organizations of the outside world, designed to stimulate change and to interact with the rural social system'.2 The importance of this work lies in the fact that it emphasizes that non-formal education components play a fundamental role in rural development. In Toward a Strategy of Interaction in Non—Formal Education (1976), Axinn has developed a conceptual study of non-formal education. He has related non-formal education to rural development, developed a number of hypotheses and has also dealt with non-formal education as a process. 1. George H.Axinn, Non-Formal Education and Rural Development, op. cit., p. 26 2. Ibid., p. 30. 17 Thomas J. La Belle has written Non-Formal Education and Social Change in Latin America (1976). Here, he has made a critical evalution of certain rural development programs, where non-formal education has been used. He has emphasized the question of participation of the people. He has repeatedly pointed out that there is no true participat— ion in cooperatives and such institutions. For example, of the cooperatives in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador, he says that 'they were most often mechanisms of adjustment for rural peasants to the existing social order, which in itself was in need of structural reforms." He quotes Fals Borda, " Regardless of Sponsorship or type,the cooperatives as a rule did not broaden the political or civic conscious- ness of their members, nor did they stimulate enough self-determination, autonomy and creativity among the peasantry as to lead to significant political, economic and social transformation".1 The Report on the Conference and Workshpp on Non-FopmeI Education and the Rural Poor(1977), edited by Richard O. Niehoff, documents a wide variety of non—formal education programs on a global basis. The main aim of the conference was to document efforts at using non—formal education methods for rural development. The use of non-formal education methods to increase agricultu-/ ral Productivity, foster rural development and improve the livingI standards of the rural poor is not new. ... These efforts will ‘e continue to extend the participation Of the rural poor in the l improvement of their living standards. But as successful methods / have been found to work, there is also room for more massive efforts of Governments and International Agencies, commensurate with the needs of the rural poor to build on these methods and experience. 1. Thomas J. La Belle, Non—Formal Education and Social Change . in Latin America, U.C.L.A., 1976, p. 148. 18 These efforts are needed to quicken the pace of development ’1 for the long neglected masses of the world's poor. The f statements which follow spell out some of the bold new policies( which are currently fostered by the Agency for International ' Development and the World Bank to achieve these programs. 1 Todate, this is the major work which has attempted to bring together writings pertaining to linking non—formal education to rural development. It highlights the use of non-formal education in development, in particular rural development programs. Special mention is due of the following articles appearing in this volume: (1) Syed A. Rahim's "Non—Formal Education Aspects of the Comilla (Bangladesh) Program", gives details of the non-formal education processes that have been used to involve and exercise the mental faculties of the people within the program. (2) Thomas J. La Belle's "Liberation, Development and Rural Non- Formal Education" is especially important for the emphasis it places on informal education in actual rural development. 6 This study pertains to the role of non-formal education in alternate rural development models. Thus the effectiveness of each rural development administrative model, especially regarding the characteristics of the systems that enable or thwart the attempt at using non—formal education for rural development comes into focus. From this point of view a few books come into importance. Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman’s Local Orgenization for Rural Developmepp: Analysis of Asian Experience (1974) provides an assessment of the functioning of local organizations in several countries for rural 1. Richard O.Niehoff, ed. Report on Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor, op. cit., pp. 29,30. 19 development. Uma Lele's The Design of Rural DevelOpment(1975) provides a wealth Of material about rural development programs in Africa. On the whole the review Of literature indicates that there is SCOpe and a need for a study of the role of non-formal education in alternate rural development models, involving a comparison of how non- formal education processes have been utilized for rural development. CHAPTER III THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY. 'The design is historical, descriptive and essentially analytical in nature. Russell Kleis has said, It is logical for a new research field like non—formal education to first undertake a decsriptive research. Descriptive research is a necessary step before one proceeds to a type of research that yields explanation and prediction. Through this intensive work, one can generate variables, which can be operationalized, their relationships assumed and finally verified through further investigation. 1 The aims and objectives laid down in this study can be achieved by a descriptive study that is comparative in nature. The study is also global in character as it has to involve a significant sample of the major attempts made at rural development in the Third World. It is hoped that such a comprehensive study will identify some general criteria to be used for ascertaining the role that can be played by non-formal education in development. It should further lead to the identification of administrative, institutional and other essential ingredients in each rural development model that are functional and conducive for the effective utilization of non—formal education. The study design involves an indepth analysis of the concept of non-formal education, particularly as it applies to rural develop- ment. Non—formal education processes are identified and described, with a conceptualization of the unique characteristics of each. Rural development is defined and alternative rural development models are 1. Russell Kleis, Case Studies in Non—Formal Education, op. cit., p.1. 20 21 identified based on a careful consideration of the following factors: 1. the developed nature of the administrative structure. 2. the extent of integration. 3. the degree to which institutions have been developed. 4. the degree of horizontal communication prevant in the administrative structure. 5. the degree of decentralization. The results and the achievements of the rural development programs are assessed in the country and the project studies that are dealt with according to the rural development model to which they belong. In assessing the success and achievement of the rural development models the following factors nave come in for scrutiny: 1. the amelioration of poverty, including the reduction of inequalities and ensuring nutritional standards. N the creation of employment opportunities and the extent of unemployment. 3. increases in the incomes of the people as a whole. 4. the extent to which the people were involved and participated in the rural development program on an active basis, leading to the development of their initiatives and responsibility. 5. increased production in agricultural or industrial pursuits. 6. social and cultural advancement. In the economic sphere, development is taken to be reflected in any of the following: a growth in annual per capita incomes, lower unemploy- ment rates, increased membership of cooperatives, higher repayment rates of cooperative loans, in agriculture-— increases in yields, the degree of adoption of technological innovations and improved techniques of cultivation, increases in the quantum of fertilizer used and low rates of rural indebtedness. In the social and cultural spheres, development is accepted to be reflected in any one or more of the 22 following: the active participation shown by the people in their own development, their active interest in working for their own benefit on programs of mutual cooperation, better housing facilities, higher literacy and functional literacy rates, decreased disparities in income distribution, less malnutrition, better health standards as reflected in lower infant mortality rates, increases in life expectancy rates, increased savings, decreases in the number of landless persons, low crime rates, evidence of increased social cohesion, easy access to education and any other factors pointing out the development of initiative, responsibility and self—reliance among the people. In a study of this type, it is difficult to find evidence regarding all the above criteria in each case. Thus the available facts have been comparatively assessed, with corroborative evidence, to enable the degree of success to be subjected to summative evaluation. It is also noted that to reflect success in rural development in the real sense, the economic development must be matched or at least accompanied by a social or cultural achievement, indicating specifically that an improvement has been made in the lives of a broad spectrum of the people. The extent to which non-formal education processes have been utilized has been assessed by a careful consideration of the development processes and strategies that have been planned and adopted to bring about rural development in each case and by identifying to the maximum possible extent the non-formal education processes that have been utilized. The following criteria has been used in this assessment. 23 1. that an effort has been made to utilize non—formal education processes. 2. that a commitment has been made to utilize non-formal education processes. 3. that non-formal education processes have been unsuccessfully utilized. 4. that non—formal education processes have been successfully utilized. In the above, an effort refers to an attempt while commitment refers to a continued endeavour. The success or failure of each country and or each project dealt with in each model, will be systematically related to the utilization of non—formal education processes for the purpose of rural development. In each case an attempt will be made to study the detailed factors involved and the unique characteristics that would seem to indicate the strengths and weaknesses or show really what went wrong with the program. Through this analytical method, the role that non-formal education processes played in each alternative model will be described, leading to an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of each of the rural development models. In this design, the countries and the projects studied are grouped according to three rural development models-- the integrated, the semi-integrated or the unintegrated. In the integrated category, China, the kibbutz and moshav settlements in Israel and the ujamaa settlements in Tanzania have come in for detailed study. In the semi-integrated category, are the Comilla(Bangladesh) Project, India and the Philippines. C.A.D.U. Project(Ethiopia), Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Kenya have been categorized as representing the unintegrated model. 24 The administrative criteria which necessitated the categorization of the particular rural development administration system to the particular rural development model will be dealt with in detail for each country or project. This will be followed by an assessment of the success or failure and finally by an evaluation of the role played by non—formal education processes for rural develop- ment. After all the country or project studies have been reviewed, a major evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of all three rural rural development models is attempted. The basic premise Of the study and the research questions are addressed, referring to the development of each country or project concerned, showing the strengths or weaknesses of each country or project, as far as the research question is concerned. Thus evidence from all the case studies in relevance to the research question at issue are summarized. Subsequently, evidence regarding the basic premise of the study. viz. that the utilization of non—formal education processes tend to bring about success in rural development programs and significant non—formal education processes tend not to be used in rural development programs that have not achieved a high degree of success, will be summarized and conclusions regarding the coincidence of the use of non-formal education and success in rural development will be drawn. CHAPTER IV NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT. Non-Formal Education consists of educational processes that are particularly relevant to bringing about rural development on an accelerated basis. Concepts of non—formal education came into focus only in this decade and are yet being developed. For the purpose of this study it is found necessary to assess the various concepts of non-formal education on a comparative basis, relate them to rural development and to identify a relevant definition. It is also essential to identify non—formal education processes, since it is necessary to ascertain the extent to which each non-formal education process has been utilized for rural development. A definition of rural development is also required, in view Of conflicting ideas expressed by various authorities. 1. DEFINITION OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT. In the words of the United Nations, Rural Development is a complex phenomena. It implies a quantitative concept that might be understood as economic growth and a qualitative concept rendered fairly accurately by the idea of well being. Economic growth is a phenomenon measurable in terms of increasing national income or per capita income, while the well being of the population indicates a higher standard of living-- a complex notion difficult to quantify, which encompasses such various factors as the level of satisfaction of the needs of the population, in terms of food and nutrition, housing, health, education, recreation, security, spiritual satisfaction etc. Rural Development in the light of the foregoing is the outcome of a series of quantitative and qualitative changes occuring among a given rural population and whose converging effects indicate, in time, a rise in the standard of living and favorable changes in the way of life of the people concerned. It does not mean isolated programs of community development, rural animation, mass education, agricultural extension or any other terms 25 26 applied to sectoral programs which are carried out in the rural area or within the rural community. It means, rather a comprehensive development of the rural area. 1 Rural development is essentially a broad concept and the U.N. definition has brought out a number of important factors. It has emphasized the essential relationship between the economic and social factors and at the same time it has pointed out that rural development is not to be confused with particular programs that are aimed at bringing about rural development in a limited sense. The latter point is of importance when considering the fact that in many areas, limited programs have been identified as rural development. The U.N. Report adds: Its (rural development's) complexity is testified to by the multiplicity of forms that rural development programs have taken in many parts of the world: mass action, mass education, popular action, rural reconstruction, communal action, community development, animation rurale, agricultural extension and the like. Rural development, frequently, is also confused with agricultural development or with the mechanization of the countryside. 2 It is very necessary that rural development is identified as the broad field of development of the people, including their economic, social and cultural well being. In order to achieve this end, mass education, community development or animation rurale can each be identified as a strategy for action. What happened was that the tremendous focus that was placed on certain concepts like community development, with even separate departments and ministries of community development being created confused the difference between community development and rural development. In actual fact many developers lost track Of the 1. Integpated Approach to Rural Development in Africa, Social Welfare Series in Africa, No. 8, July 1971, Economic Commission for Africa, U.N., 1971, p.1. 2. Ibid., p. 51. 27 fundamental educational content in community development. Within the broader definition of rural development, there are different shades of Opinion as to what a rural development program consists of and how it can be achieved. Philip H. Coombs, Roy Prosser and Manzoor Ahmed prescribe a wide approach to achieve rural development. Broadly conceived, rural development means rural transformation, change not only of the methods of production and of economic institutions, but of social and political infrastructures as well as transformation of human relationships and opportunities. Seen in this framework, the paramount goals of rural development, along with increased production and income,include the equitable distribution of income, increased employment, land reform, better health, nutrition and housing for all rural dwellers, expanded educational Opportunities for all, the strengthening of local means of community self government and cooperation, the eradication of poverty and the promotion of social justice. 1 It is evident that Coombs and Ahmed have included various aspects of importance, such as land reform and the distribution of income, which imply a revolutionary rural transformation. On the other hand there are definitions of rural development that do not envisage a rural transformation. A.T.Mosher gives such a limited definition: It is the objective of rural development to increase satisfaction, economic and non—economic of rural living. 2 In order to decide between these two polarized definitions of rural development, it would appear to be necessary to find what is meant by development. The Unesco definition of development is, 1. Philip H. Coombs et. al. New Paths to Learning, op. cit., pp. 22,23. 2. A.T.Mosher, "Prospects of Integrated Rural Development", Paper read at a Symposium held in Rome, June 21-28, 1971. 28 The concept of development should include economic and social factors as well as the moral and cultural values on which depend the full development of the human personality and the dignity of man in society. 1 Development essentially includes all aspects, as expressed by the United Nations: Development is growth plus change; change in turn is social and cultural as well as economic and quantitative as well as qualitative. 2 The Development Decade was based on bringing about growth. Its objective was to: accelerate progress towards self sustaining growth of the economy of the individual nations and their social advancement, so as to attain in each underdeveloped country a substantial increase in the rate of growth, with each country setting its own target, taking as the objective a minimum rate of growth or aggregate national income of 5% at the end of the decade. 3 It would be observed that the emphasis was really on the economic aspect. In the sixties, the U.N. considered a country underdeveloped if the per capita income was less than $ 300 annually.4 Development refers to advancement, but evidently this has to be read into the context of the people. Herein come the social and cultural aspects. It was found on an assessment of the growth in the Development Decade that many countries had achieved the target of 5% growth, but this did not mean that any difference had been brought about in the livelihood of the majority of the people. The growth was caused by the investment made by the rich and the increased incomes too went to them and not to the people at large. Ahluwalia shows how 1 Quoted by Malcolm S. Adiseshiah, "Development as People: The Total Approach", in Kurukshetra, 11—16-1970. p.2. - 2.The U.N.Development Decade, U.N.,N.Y., 1962,p.3. 3.Ibid., p.7. 4.Annual Per Ca ita National Income 1956—58, Statistics Office, U.N., N.Y., 1960. 29 in most Third World countries, the poorest group of people, i.e. the bottom 40% of the people enjoyed only 12.0% of the total income. In Mexico, this group enjoyed only 10.5% of the total income (1969). The corresponding statistics for India was only 13.0%(1964).1 James E.Kocher adopts the following definition: Development will mean the process of 1) a general improvement in levels of living, together with 2) decreasing inequality of income distribution and 3) the capacity to sustain continuous improvements over time. The components of socio economic well being are the substance of development. Inevitably there must be a certain arbitrariness in choosing the components to be included and their relative importance. A minimal though not inclusive set would consist of a) income, b) employment, c) education, d)health and nutrition and e) consumption, including food, housing and such services as water supply, electricity, transportation, entertainment, police, fire, protection etc. 2 Relating the above ideas about development to rural development, it is evident that if rural development is to imply development in the true sense, it should relate to the development not only of the economic sector, but to the totality, including the social and cultural aspects. In the words of Dumett and Brainard, The failures of government planning during the so called 'first development decade' have prompted second thoughts by economists, social scientists and public administrators on the applicability of earlier theories and assumptions. Closely related to these revisions was the shift in focus in rural development studies in the early 1970s from a narrow economic approach, to a multi—disciplinary approach involving several of the social sciences. As the inadequacies of the single discipline approach of the previous decade became more apparent, it also became clear that in future planning, far greater attention would have to be given to social and political variables. 3 1. M.S.Ahluwalia, "Income Inequality: Some Dimensions of the Problem", op. cit., pp. 8,9. 2. James E. Kocher, Rural Development, Incqme Distribution and Fertility Decline, The Population Council, 1973, p.4 3. Raymond E. Dumett and Lawrence Brainard, Problems of Rural Development, Case Studies and Multidisciplinapy Perspective, E.J.Brill, 1975, pp. 2,3. 30 Development should have a broad effect on the masses and from this point of view Mosher's definition is hardly adequate. On the other hand, the definition given by Coombs et. al. takes rural development into the revolutionary category, when they say that'the paramount goals of rural development include the equitable distribution of income, increased employment, land reform..'1 Rural development essentially means rural transformation, but the details as to whether land reform and equitable distribution of income have to be included and as to what degree of equity or reform is necessary would depend on the extent of exploitation prevalent in the context. In the case of Comilla(Bangladesh), it has been found that rural development on an accelerated basis could be brought about without either land reform or equitable distribution of income. There is a tendency to believe that in the rural areas in the Third World, exploitation is rampant, and that the rural areas teem with a class struggle, where the poor are downtrodden and exploited and the rich aggrandize themselves. The following comment by Helge Kjekshus about the situation in Tanzania is revealing: The discovery of antagonistic class contradictions in the Tanzanian countryside is a later development spearheaded by a number of western researchers who, applying the Maoist formulae ’ of dividing the peasantry into rich. middle and poor peasants—— have advocated the principle of the cultural revolution in the implementation of ujamaa strategy. This would involve the release of class violence, with the poorer strata engaged on the side of the collectivist features of the villagization plan. 2 In the Third World, the peace and amity that had prevailed at the village level has ceased due to the introduction of party politics, 1. Philip H. Coombs et al., New Paths to Learning, op. cit., p. 11. 2. Helge Kjekshus, The Villagigation Panacea: A Review of Tanzania's Ujamaa Policy, 1977, p.9. 31 which in reality has meant that the people divide themselves into factions. L.G.Hewage says of the situation in Sri Lanka: Peaceful villages, united and contented traditionally, but torn asunder within the last two decades into lazy, aggressive, corrupt, warring groups due to party politics and its after effects..... 1 In any country there are differences between the rich and the poor. There are inequalities. Earlier, the feudal families and the .landlords held power. As their power waned, middlemen, managers of cooperatives and traders came to the forefront. The scene of power in the rural village is eternally changing. This is a dynamic process and it is accepted that even in socialist countries like China, where landlords had to bow out of power, commune leaders and members of the Communist Party have come to the forefront. Rural development programs have to be implemented in the context of the live rural power structure in the village. It is important to note that though there is inequality in the rural areas in the Third World, traditional institutions like the extended family still hold sway and self—help is a principle in which the rural people believe. Rural development has to evoke the participation of the people within this real setting in life. In this context, assuming that the rural areas are full of exploitation and therefore planning to include land reform and equitable distribution of income in all cases appears imprudent. It is important to note that development programs which have tried to implement land reform and income distribution without the backing of a revolution like in China and Cuba, have generally failed. 1. L.G.Hewage in Metta, Step 7,28, p.110, Colombo. 32 Andrew Pearse says of the situation in Bolivia: The Bolivian land reform was a great victory over an unjust and antiquated system of subjection and it freed the service tenants of the estates from the servile duty of delivering the best of his labor to the landlord. But it did not increase the land cultivated by the peasant or the yield from the land. 1 Philip M. Raup has pointed out that in the case of Bolivia, even with a revolution by the people, " it was 10 years before agricultural output returned to the pre 1953 levels, and then only with the help of production of the new land opened for settlement".2 In Sri Lanka, under the village expansion scheme productive land has been purchased and distributed, but the productivity of these lands amounting to as much as 663,869 acres, has dropped markedly, which made the Short-Term Implementation Program of 1962 refer to this scheme as one where the investment "is largely of a social service nature".3 In India, where land reform has been implemented on a non—revolutionary basis, the experience has been that the landlords have evicted the tenants. Thus the tenants have even lost what they had. A case study in two villages, Chanalou and Santa Majra in the Punjab, shows how the number of tenant cultivators declined from 9.7% to 2.4%. On the other hand, the number of owner cultivators increased from 35.8% to 40.1%. It is also important to note that the number of agricultural laborers for the corresponding period increased from 9.3% of the total families in 1950 to 29.4% in 1966. Landlords were found renting out their land for one year periods with the purpose of avoiding the tenant becoming 1. Andrew Pearse, "Subsistence Farming is not dead", in Ceres, F.A.O., July 1969, p.40. 2. Philip M. Raup, "Land Reform and Agricultural Output" in Development Digest, Vol. 8, No. 2, April 1970, p. 11. 3. Short Term Implementation Program, Government of Sri Lanka, 1962, Pg. 119. 33 entitled to his rights. It was also found that as much as 75.8% of the total land was tenanted on an annual basis. 1 In Andhra, in the period 1951 to 1958, over two thirds of the protected tenants were evicted.2 In Hyderabad, according to a survey by A.M.Khusro, of the 600,000 legally protected tenants, by 1955 only 45% remained. Only 2.5% had been evicted legally. As much as 22.14% had been thrown out illegally and 17.83% had surrendered their rights voluntarily as happens under duress and threats.3 Hyla Myint says that "these reforms have induced the hitherto absentee landlords to become active 1;, cultivators of their lands". What really happened can be substantiated in the words of S.K.Dey: Each State introduced a ceiling contingent on the dependence of the powers that were of the landlords in the State. Before even such ceilings were enacted, ample time was allowed to pass, so that phoney transfers of landholdings could take place between relatives and friends, totally nullifying in effect whatever ceilings ultimately were resolved to be imposed. It will be seen from the above that had there been no land reforms whatsoever, nor any talk of it, at least the old state of artificial equilibrium between tenants and landlord would have remained and there would have been a regular flow of investment from the landlords into the lands and to the tenants. With land reforms introduced as a slogan, but not taken seriously to be enforced, the land and the tiller stand between the devil and the deep sea. 5 This evidence suggests that land reform and such distributive policies can hardly be enforced without the backing of a revolution, or similar conducive factors. 1. J.S.Uppala, "Attitudes of Farming Families Towards Land Reform', in Journal of Developing Areas, Vol.4, Oct.69—July 70,p.62. 2."Seventeenth Round of the National Sample Survey” in Kurukshetra, October 1, 1972, p. 19. 3. Kusum Nair, Blossoms in the Dust, Gerald Duckworth, 1961,p.60 4. Hyla Myint, The Economics of the Developing Countries, Hutchinson University Library, 1973, p. 135. 5. S.K.Dey, Power to the People, Orient Longmans, 1969,p.135. 34 Galbraith has said, Unfortunately some of our current discussion on land reform in the underdeveloped countries proceeds as though this reform were something that a government proclaims on any fine morning—- that it gives land to the tenants as it might give pensions to old soldiers or it might reform the administration of justice. In fact a land reform is a revolutionary step; it passes power, property and status from one group in the community to another. The inclusion of land reform without the backing of a revolution in a rural development program is likely to cause the failure of the program. What is necessary in a rural development program, implemented in a non-revolutionary setting, is instead, an attempt to seek the cooperation and the participation of the total population. Thus land reform may not be an essential ingredient for rural development. As to whether land reform has to be included as a strategy, depends on the characteristics of the clientele and the conditions that preclude development. It also depends on the political backing that such a program can secure. If there is total exploitation by landlords and if the land tenure system precludes development, then land reforms seem necessary. Similarly, if the disparity in income levels is wide and this precludes any attempt on the part of the poor to earn a reasonable wage, then equitable distribution of income may be considered necessary. These are strategies that may or may not be included to achieve success in a rural develOpment program. It appears therefore necessary to differentiate between strategies that are employed to bring about rural development and the essential core of factors that go into the building of a rural development program. This core of factors has to be accomodated in any 1. J.K.Galbraith, "Conditions for Economic Change in the Underdeveloped Countries", in Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 33, 1951. pp- 695. 696. 35 rural development program. From this point of view, the following definition of rural development is adopted for the purposes of this study: Rural development could be defined as rural transformation, involving the totality of rural life, including specifically the economic, social and cultural aspects. This also includes the elevation of rural conditions and rural life, leading to increases in income for the rural people, increased employment, ensuring nutritional standards, housing, health and other basic facilities for the rural peOple, particularly including the rural poor. This involves educating the people and investing in the people a participatory awakening, causing the development of their initiatives, leading to the flowering of human personality and self reliance. Here, it will be observed that emphasis has been placed on the full development of the human personality, as evident in the Unesco definition of development.1 The involvement of the people has been emphasized. This includes the people coming together, working cooperatively and corroboratively, becoming motivated to function actively for the cause of their own development. The development of this definition, in this basic manner does not preclude the utilization of any particular strategy to bring about rural development. The guideline followed was to include only the essential characteristics that go into the making of a rural development program. 1. "The concept of development should include economic and social factors as well as the moral and cultural values on which depend the full development of the human personality and the dignity of man in society". Quoted by Malcolm S. Adiseshiah, in "Development as People: The Total Approach" in Kurukshetra, 11—16—1970, p.2. 36 2. DEFINITION OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION. Non-formal education has been defined with different emphases. To certain authorities, all out-of—school education appears within the category of non-formal education. Richard Niehoff has emphasized the informal education aspects within non-formal education, while Russell Kleis, Philip H. Coombs, Manzoor Ahmed and Roy Prosser tend to emphasize the systematized and deliberately delivered instructional type of non-formal education. In view of the fact that the role of non-formal education processes in rural development come in for study, it is necessary to identify a definition that would be relevant. Russell Kleis says, Non-formal education is any intentional and systematic educational enterprise (usually outside of traditional schooling) in which content, media, time units, admission criteria, staff facilities and other system components are selected and or adapted for particular students in order to maximize attainment of the learning mission and minimize maintenance constraints of the system. 1 Here, non-formal education is referred to as any "intentional and systematic educational enterprise". Kleis refers to out-of—school organized and systematized educational activities. Manzoor Ahmed says, To avoid possible confusion, it should be asserted that non— formal education as it is generally understood refers to all purposeful and systematic learning activities, with specified target groups and specified learning objectives, but organized outside the familiar institution based, age specific, chronologically and sequentially graded diploma oriented formal system, which is mostly within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. Non-formal education also excludes accidental, incidental and unplanned learning which may be described as informal education and which, though a very large component of human learning is not susceptible to a process of planning and management. 2 1. Russell Kleis, Case Studies in Non—Formal Education, 0p. cit., p. 8. 2. Manzoor Ahmed, "The School of Social Life" in Ceres,F.A.O., July-August 1977, p. 49. 37 The distinction that Ahmed has sharply drawn between non— formal education and informal education appears of great importance as far as rural development is concerned. Here, he states that informal education comprises unplanned learning. Philip H. Coombs, Manzoor Ahmed and Roy Prosser say in New Paths to Learning, For the purposes of this study, we define non-formal education as any organized educational activity outside the established formal system—- whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. 1 It is observed that this definition would include all the organized instructional type of courses held on an out-of-school basis as well as the organized educational activities of change agents used in extension work or in community development programs. However, the activities of extension agents and rural development stimulators would not always be organized. There are informal education activities held in informal groups such as cooperatives, rural development societies etc., which can be categorized under the heading of informal education, which does not come within the instructional type of systematized and organized course. George H. Axinn refers to intent in deriving a distinction between formal, non-formal and informal education. He says, The most practical base we have been able to develop for categorizing thus far is that of the intent of the learners and teachers. For any particular educational activity, if the learners are involved because they intend to learn something and if the teachers are involved because they intend to help the learners learn something, then we would call it formal or non— formal education. Formal education would refer to the education gained in the structural school setting of any particular 1. Philip H. Coombs et. al., New Paths to Learning, op.cit., p. 11. 38 country. Non-formal education would be the education gained in any organized setting which took place apart from the specified school program. If either the teachers or the learners are participating for some other reason other than the intention of teaching or learning, we call it informal education. If neither the teachers nor the learners are involved by intent, then we call it the batic (incidental). 1 As far as rural development is concerned, the informal learning activities within non—formal education are of prime importance. This refers to the education that people acquire informally, intentionally or unintentionally throughout life, when they participate in their normal activities in their homes or attending to their own vocations. Philip H.Coombs, Ahmed and Prosser have laid down the following definition of informal education: The truly lifelong process, whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment-- from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.... For the most part, this process is relatively unorganized and unsystematic. 2 Education in a rural social system happens informally. "Whole clusters of related activities are learned at a time, without the knowledge that they are being learned at all or that there are patterns or rules governing them. Entire systems of behavior, made up of hundreds of thousands of details are passed from generation to generation and nobody can give the rules for what is happening".3 It is the augmentation of this system of informal education that is of importance in the cause of rural development. Philip H. Coombs et. al. have said that, "people learn primarily from day to 1. George H. Axinn, Toward a Stratggy of Interaction in Non- Formal Education, Institute for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1976, pp.8,9. 2. Philip H. Coombs et. al., New Paths to Learning, 0p. cit., pp. 10,11. 3. Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language, Fawcett Publications Inc.. 1959. p-70. 39 day experiences and from the multitude of educative forces in their environment, from family and neighbours, work and play, religious activities, the market place, newspapers, books, broadcasts and other media". 1 In a rural setting, religious activities, the market place, newspapers, books, broadcasts can all be organized, though not on a systematic basis, to have a definite effect on the people. It is possible to bring information to the people in such a way that it would convert them to a particular point of view or make them think subjectively on particular lines and arrive at a decision. In either case, the situation can be carefully structured. There is no instruction involved. The informal learning processes are left to take place on a spontaneous basis. Philip H. Coombs has said that broadcasts, newspapers, market day exhibits, wall newspapers can be utilized to strengthen informal learning opportunities as.a "multi media approach to saturating the informal learning environment of rural areas with the stuff of learning".2 Non—formal education processes can be used to support and strengthen informal learning in the rural sector. It is important to note that Philip H. Coombs et. al., after a full scale survey of non-formal education programs in Africa, have concluded that, "most of the non-formal education programs we surveyed accomodate at most a few hundred people in a limited geographic area. Thus, whatever the value to participants, these programs even in their aggregate, scarcely scratch the surface of the essential educational "'3 needs of millions of rural young people 1. Philip H. Coombs with Manzoor Ahmed, Attacking Rural Poverty, The John Hopkins University Press, 1974, p. 232. 2. Philip H. Coombs, "Should one develop Non-Formal Education" in Prospects, Vol.3, No.2, Autumn 1973, Unesco., pp. 303,304. 3. Philip H. Coombs et. al., New Paths to Learning, op. cit., pp- 55.56. 40 This refers to the instructional type of non—formal education programs. They have added that it is only in the club type of program like 4H, that there is a wide clientele. Non—formal education in a club or association type of activity develOps an informal learning character. ‘ This is the non-formal education that takes place in extension work as \ well as in community development. Here, non-formal education can be used to emphasize informal learning in the rural context. This comprises informal learning that people experience when they participate in learning situations within the process of develOpment. This is a primary form of learning. Here people go through learning situations in the work that they attend to in connection with their agricultural or other vocations, working in cooperatives or associations, cooperatively, engaging in deliberation, discussion and making decisions. These decisions would involve compromise and consensus in the day to day functions in a rural setting, comprising numerous learning situations, which offer the participants a live and absorbing experience. These constitute purely informal education settings that go into making the most important learning experiences that enable the members of a society to get used to the art of thinking, deliberating on a particular problem and arriving at a pragmatic decision. Cole S. Brembeck has given the fundamental simple process of non-formal education that involves a young learner in a rural setting. This boy (a shepherd) grew up in his vocation and was probably never aware that he was learning it. When he was small, his father or older brothers took him along as they tended the flock. To protect him from the sun, they put him down in the shade of the bush. From there he watched and listened. As he grew older, he ran after the sheep, assisting his father in rounding up the strays.... Here, then is a learning situation where the young learn what they need to know, first by observing their elders 41 carry on significant tasks in which they are skilled. Then by taking part, first in simpler tasks and later in more complex ones, they are finally prepared to train others. The training cycle is complete. Informal and incidental learning are essential components of a rural social system. Thomas J. La Belle has also emphasized the importance of informal education in the field of development education in the rural setting. As discrete entities.... we have viewed non-formal education as including only the instructional aspects associated with micro social change efforts, rather than including the informal learning which occurs from simple participation in the efforts. As an example, the student of non—formal education interested in producer cooperatives or community development projects is constrained by the definition of non—formal education to look only at the technical assistance process, the role of the change agent or the instructional products used in fostering the success of the project. What we may be failing to include are the informal learnings which take place as individuals come together in the cooperative or the community development process. These are the informal education experiences associated with learning from each other and from the process rather than from deliberate non-formal education instruction. 2 Richard O. Niehoff has also adopted a similar broader view of non— formal education. Non-formal education is defined for our purposes as the method of assessing the needs and interests of adults and out—of—school youth in developing countries and of communicating with them, motivating them to participate, helping them to acquire necessary skills, to adopt behavioral patterns and related activities, which will increase their productivity and improve their living standards. 3 Here too informal education for development finds a definite place within non—formal education. It is informal education that comprises 1. Cole 8. Brembeck, "The Strategic Uses of Formal and Non- Formal Education", in New Strategi§§_for Educational Development, ed. by Brembeck and Thompson, op. cit., p. 24. ’ 2. Thomas J.La Belle, "Liberation, DevelOpment and Rural Non- Formal Education”, in Rgport on Conference and Workshopgon Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor, ed. by Richard O.Niehoff, op,cit.,p.212. 3. Richard O.Niehoff,"Some Key Operational Generalizations and Issues in the Use of Non-Formal Education" in Report on Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor,0p. cit., p.8. 42 most of the activities listed in the definition. It is necessary for the purposes of this study that a definition of non-formal education relevant to rural development is identified and adopted. The definition of non—formal education adopted at the Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor appears most appropriate, as it emphasizes those aspects of non—formal education that are most essential for rural development. However, a small addition, culled out of the fundamental concept of community development appears necessary. The addition that has been made has been underlined. Non-formal education is defined as the method of assessing the needs and interests of adults and out-of—school youth in developing countries and of communicating with them, motivating them to participate, helping them to acquire the necessary skills, to adopt behavioral patterns and related activities which will increase their productivity and improve their living standards, and in the process lead to the development of their initiative, responsibility and self reliance. This definition of non-formal education includes within its fold the organized and structured instructional type of course as well as the informal aspects of education. The latter is of prime concern for rural development. It paves the way for heightened informal learning in the rural setting and comprises the core of non-formal education as far as rural development is concerned. 3. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION PROCESSES. Non-formal education comprises of a number of processes that function simultaneously and complementarily to cause learning. The impact of learning depends on the type of process used and the intensity. 1+3 Edgar Faure has said that "every educational act is a part of a process directed towards an end". 1 This process would consist of various learning situations that take place almost continuously, when participants meet in groups and discuss their problems and develop- mental matters in an essentially informal manner. A process refers to " a mixture of events and relationships which is constantly in motion, constantly changing, constantly interacting and continuous".2 Frederick H. Harbison also stresses the process in non—formal education when he says that,"in the broadest sense, non-formal education and training encompasses the entire range of learning processes and experiences outside the regular graded school system".3 For a process to function, there should be repeated learning experiences that absorb the interests of the participants in a continuous manner as they function. Such learning opportunities can be found in the activities of cooperative societies, rural develop- ment societies and other such village level institutions, where people meet to discuss, deliberate, arrive at decisions etc., as would be necessary when they have to function in a participatory manner in a development program. These processes can draw the people in a spontaneous manner, hold their imagination and attention and in this process the new comers learn from the elders, the art of discussing a problem, deliberating, deciding and finally the art of cooperating 1. Edgar Faure, Learning to Be, Unesco., 1972, p. 145. 2. George H. Axinn, Toward a Strategy of Interaction in Non- Formal Education, op. cit., p. 7. 3. Frederick H. Harbison, Education Sector Planning for Development of Nation—wide Learning Systems, American Council on Education, 1973, p. 24. Lu, mutually in implementation. As Philip H. Coombs et. al. say, "the process of development itself, as shown by some of our case studies, can be a powerful teacher of young people, a teacher not only of useful skills, but also constructive human attitudes." 1 Any program of work has to be implemented, either in an authoritative manner, by directing the people to attend to tasks or by obtaining the people's active participation. In the latter task of actual participation, the people are repeatedly proceeding through learning experiences. This process is of great importance for the cause of bringing about rural development. The following non—formal education processes are specially relevant for rural developmenti Community Development Extension Conscientization Discussion and Deliberation Self-help Leadership development Sequences of decision making Non—directive communication Functional Literacy Participation 1. Philip H. Coombs et. al., New Paths to Learning, op. cit., p. 92. 45 Community Development The United Nations definition of community development is: The term community development has come into international usage to connote the process by which the efforts of the people themselves, are united with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national progress. This complex of processes is then made up of two essential elements—- the participation of the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of living, with as much reliance as possible on their own initiative and the provision of technical and other services in ways which encourage initiative, self-help and make them more effective. 1 It is important to note that community development refers to the total process of development, involving the people, building up their initiatives and making them responsible within the programs. The U.N. Report, Social Progress through Community Development, says, Community Development can be tentatively defined as a process designed to create conditions of economic and social progress for the whole community with its active participation and the fullest possible reliance upon the community's initiative. 2 These definitions suggest that the active participation of the people and their education within participation is an essential ingredient. The emphasis is on the process. Murray Ross says that the people are involved in the "process that by which the community identifies its needs and objectives, develops the will to work at the needs or objectives, finds the resources to deal with these needs or objectives, takes action to get them done and in doing so develop cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the communitg." 1. U N. , Economic and Social Council, Official Records of the 24 th Session, op. cit. , p. 14 2. U.N., Social Progress through Community Development, U.N. Bureau of Social Affairs, 1955, Para 11, p.6. 3. Murray Ross, Community Organization, Theory and Practice, Harper and Row, 1967,p 40. 46 The fundamental idea behind this educational process is that as the people participate, they acquire knowledge and develop their initiative and become activized, dynamic and responsible. Ross has also provided details of what happens when the people are involved in the process: As the process evolves and progresses the people in the community will come to understand, accept and work with one another, that in the process of identifying and dealing with a common problem, sub groups and their leaders will become disposed to cooperate with other sub groups in common endeavours and will develop skill in overcoming the inevitable conflicts which emerge in such collective tasks. 1 Here, it is important that the people should play a positive role in the needs assessment, in the plan formulation, in finding resources and in contributing their mite for the program, managing the program with full responsibility and working cooperatively and collaboratively with others. This entire continuum of action is one educational process, leading to the development of the initiative and the responsibility in the people. Richard O. Niehoff has detailed the process that takes place: Thus the process of determining the starting point of a non- formal education process leading to development may be expressed as the interaction between those closest to their own needs and problems and anyone outside of the inner group who is trained in eliciting information from villagers, organizing it in useful form, formulating programs on the basis of the information obtained and at stimulating villagers and village groups to make changes which combine their wisdom and insight and that of develOpment workers. This process may take varying amounts of time and utilize various techniques, from holding 'camps' for villagers to discuss needs, the use of 'consciousness raising' techniques and games, agronomic surveys or more elaborate base line studies. 2 1. Murray Ross, Community Organization, Theory and Practice, op. cit., p. 4 . 2. Richard O. Niehoff, ed., Sgport on the Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor, op. cit., pp.10,11. 47 This entire process is within community development. It is important to note in this connection that the effects of community development is discounted today by many authorities due to the failure of community development programs. Edgar Owens and Robert Shaw state that, "by the mid 19605... traditional community development was on the wane, because no country using it was making rapid progress.."1 Community Development as has been indicated above is essentially an educational process, but in implementation, it was identified as a physical program. In many countries it would be found that community develOpment became a rural development program of welfare or rural infrastructure works. It was with the idea of giving prominence to community development that governments created separate ministries of community development, but with the identification of particular programs with such ministries, and the quantification of such programs in evaluation, very little attention was attached to the process. In the celebrated Indian Community Development Program, the people were not active participants. To start with the program did not include agriculture, the mainstay of the rural economy. Even if it did, it would not have made much of a difference, as even within the limited area which came under it, the people were never actively involved. The Rural Works Program became in the words of the Balawan- tray Mehta Report, " an officially controlled bricks and mortar program of public works, devoid of almost any popular dynamic”.2 1. Edgar Owens and Robert Shaw, Development Reconsidered, Lexington Books, 1971, p. 21. 2. Hugh Tinker, "Authority and Community in Village India" in Journal of African Administration, Vol. 12, No. 4, Oct. 1960,p.201. 48 The Rural Works Program actually dwindled to a forced labor campaign which did not involve the people in any educational process that would enhance their abilities. Further, in the accelerated expansion that took place, the bureaucracy lost sight of the essentially educational value of community development. It was thought of as another government program, carried out on a directive basis.1 Mukherjee says that, "not enough thought was devoted to the processes of community development and to relating the program activities to the community development objectives".2 In the Philippines and other countries too, the educational component was similarly lost sight of and this contributed to the failure of community development.3 Thus the failure of community development programs only serves to indicate the importance of identifying community development as an educational process, which should have immersed the participants in the develOpment process of education. Community development is a non-formal education process which builds up the initiatives of the people as they attend to their own development, participating in programs of mutual concern, cooperating with others, leading to enhance their own abilities and responsibility. 1. Garvin Karunaratne, "The Failure of the Community Develop- ment Program in India", in Communipnyevelopment Journal, Vol.11,No.2. 2. B. Mukherjee, Community Development in India, Longmans, 1961,p. 33. 3. Please see country/ project studies in chapters 7 & 8. 49 Extension. Arthur Dunham says, Extension is a continuous educational process in which both the learner and teacher contribute and receive. Extension brings scientific information to the village people and it also takes the problems of the village to the scientific institutes for solution. Extension is the develOpment of individuals in their day to day living, development of their leaders, their society and their world as a whole. 1 Extension is an educational process of introducing scientific information to the peOple and to help them to adopt the innovations. It includes convincing the people. As a process extension concentrates on the communication aspects. It is interesting to note that in emphasizing the task for conscientization, Paulo Freire says, In order to discuss any kind of technical question with peasants, they must see this question as a 'distinct perception'. If it is not this, it must become this. Whether it is a 'distinct perception' or not, the peasants still must in both cases apprehend the interplay of relations between the 'distinct perception' and other dimensions of reality. The effort required is not one of extension, but of conscientization. If it is successfully carried out, it allows individuals to assume critically the position they have in relation to the rest of the world. The critical taking up of this position brings them to assume the true role incumbent on them as men. This is the role of being subjects in the transformation of the world which humanizes them. 2 Paulo Freire has said that what is required in convincing peasants is conscientization and not extension. Importance has to be attached to conScientization in convincing peasants. However, extension refers to the process of dissemination of knowledge and convincing the peasants to adOpt innovations. It is a communication process which belongs to non—formal education, but it falls far short of the process 1. Arthur Dunham, "Some Principles of Community Development" in International Review of Community Development, No. 11, 1963, p. 145. 2. Paulo Freire, "Knowledge is a Critical Appraisal of the World", in Ceres, Vol.4, No.3, May-June 1971, p.51. 50 of community development as it does not provide for the people to work cooperatively and collaboratively, leading positively to the development of their initiatives and making them responsible. Conscientization. Conscientization, so ably propounded by Paulo Freire, refers to intensive thinking, which leads to a heightened awareness of a problem, a mental exploration for a solution, eventually leading to action and liberation. To Freire, conscientization involves self- reflection and critical thought. This leads to intense education. Freire emphasizes liberation. Authentic liberation-— the process of humanization is not another deposit to be made in men. Liberation is a praxis: the action and reflection of men upon their world in order to transform it. 1 Praxis refers to the linking between theory and practice. This is important in that the realm of practice belongs to the field of community development. Conscientization leads to realization, severe and intense and leads to action. According to Freire, conscientization is essential for any type of development, be it agriculture or industry. We are convinced that any attempt as mass education, whether associated or not with professional training, whether in the agricultural sphere or in the urban and industrial field, must possess a basic aim; to make it possible for men, through the problematizing of the unity man world, or of man in his relations with the world and with other men to penetrate deeply into their consciousness, their perception of the reality in which they exist? Freire is of the opinion that the banking concept of education does not 1. Paulo Freire, The Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Sheed & Ward, 1972, p. 67. 2. Paulo Freire, "Knowledge is a Critical Appraisal of the World", op. cit., p. 50. 51 lead to real development and he looks to conscientization as being the path to liberation. The banking concept of education refers to the system of depositing ideas into learners without involving their faculties of critical thought. Applying Freire's concept of conscietization to non-formal education, it would be found that education that is doled out in the organized and structured instructional type of course,whare the people are taken out of their real life setting and made to acquire skills conforms to the banking type of education. On the other hand, in real life situations in the process of rural development, conscientization, exercising the critical thinking faculties of the people who participate in development programs, is of fundamental concern. Critical understanding, leading to conscientization is an important factor in real education. Nyerere too, is of the opinion that critical understanding is of extreme importance. Freire states of Nyerere's stand point regarding critical thinking and understanding, For Nyerere, preparation for life consists of a critical understanding of the life actually lived; only thus is it possible to create new ways of living. His thought which is both pedagogical and political is nourished by what is real, concrete and based on experience, the transformation of which is the central educational activity. 1 It is evident that critical understanding of a heightened order is conscientization. Such understanding comes due to a keen awareness and true realization. It leads to an awakening of the dormant critical faculties in man, leads to conviction and thereby brings about a change in attitudes. Thus conscientization is an important non—formal education process. / 1. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy in Process: The Letters to Guniea Bissau, Seabury Press, 1978, p. 123. 52 Discussion and Deliberation. The art of discussion and deliberation is a process that can lead to developing the initiatives of the individual. The importance lies in the fact that,"most human beings learn better in a social context as members of a group, rather than as isolated persons and the interplay of minds that take place in discussion often spark off new ideas, new trains of thought and understanding... discussion periods help him in the development of the greater degree of social coherence likely to help assimilation".1 Discussion can pave the way for analytical thinking and therein lies its importance. When people address themselves to problems, deliberate and grope for solutions, an educational awareness is brought about. Informal discussions could ensue within the family group or among close associates or even within a rural institution. Human beings learn better in a social context as members of a group rather than as isolated persons. As discussions proceed, new ideas and new trends of thought are suggested by participants, discussed among the group, involving thinking and this leads to an awakening, which is the core of conscientization. Discussion enables individuals to correct their views without feeling humilated and also tends to bring about social coherence. Discussion can be used in group settings, both in the formal as well as non—formal education. The groupings in the case of formal education are structured within the classroom or the institution. A practical program, though it involves activity is also a structured situation. However, in the case of 1. C.D.Legge, "Discussion Methods" in Teaching Techniques in Adult Education, ed. by Michael D. Stevens & Gordon W.Roderick, David & Charles: Newton Abbott, 1971, p. 77. 53 non—formal education, the groups can consist of family groups and institutional groups, related to cooperatives and such other institutions, which are in the setting of real life and therefore have an absorbing and an intensive effect on the individual. Self—help. Self-help refers to people contributing their mite for the sake of society. It literally means helping themselves. It invests a sense of participation to the people as they have a stake in their own development. It also motivates the people to get involved in the management as their own capital is involved. Here, local contributions could be found from the people in the form of donations of materials, cash or labor, to match a portion of the grant given by the State. Sometimes there may be no grant. As much as the contribution of the people is important, what is of greater value is the interest and commitment that the people develop in the program of work. Management leads them to become responsible. Self—help consists of two elements, the contribution of the people and the contribution of the State. There are instances where, due to administrative inefficiency, the organization of the self—help program gets clogged with corruption. On the other hand, there are instances where self—help has been successfully used. What is important in this connection is the involvement of the people. Otherwise the program would be entirely imported from outside. Any development program which is not based on self—help and does not contain any element of contribution is likely to bear results only on a short term basis. Once the resources that have been poured in stop, the entire development program comes to a halt. 54 From this point of view, it is apparent that self—help is a key process that can be used for rural development. It is educational in that it leads the participants to develop a commitment, finally leading to their being involved in management and thereby developing their abilities and responsibility. Leadership Development. Leadership development within a community as the people participate in a development program is a non—formal education process. When the people get involved in the management of any program, certain people stand out as leaders. In any group, certain people are early.adopters and innovators. Enlisting their support enables the easy spread of innovations and paves the way for accelera— ted rural development. The entirety of non-formal education, with its group processes is perhaps, an ideal arena where leadership can be nurtured and developed to enable the emergence of able leaders. Sequences of Decision Making. Ensuring that decision making is done in a sequential manner is another process that can be used to good purpose in a rural development program. Here, the discussion takes place in stages. The information inputs will be provided to the people in a manner that will offer them ample time to get involved in discussion with fellow dwellers. This process uses the horizontal pattern of interaction and communication. This horizontal communication pattern takes place in any community and by sequencing the decision making, peOple have more time to think and deliberate in their own circles. 55 In extension work today, it is quite common for an officer to address the people and force them to arrive at a decision. Instead of forcing such a decision, it would be better to allow the people time to decide. It is true that this process takes more time. But, when the people are given time they can find out details. The first meeting should stimulate the people to seek details and information. This makes informal groups discuss the question at issue, going into the ' pros and cons of each case and in this process the people become more aware of the options and the potential repercussions of following each course of action. Each discussion is a learning experience. Intense activity on this basis leads to conscientization and enables the community development process to function more intensively. Non-directive communication. Non—directive methods of communication are processes that can be effectively used in implementing rural development programs. Here, the fundamental concept is to communicate one‘s idea in an essentially non-directive manner. The agents do not use any authority or give direction as happens in the case of a normal program. Instead, the agent offers ideas and information and this stimulates the people to think and arrive at their own decisions. This process aids the proper functioning of the community development process. No compulsion or coercion is used. The information provided would include what is available in innovative technology, will explain the benefits of the adoption and may include details of the situation of underdevelopment and what can be achieved and what the achievement means in terms of economic gains. It could also include information from other communities that had successfully adopted the innovation 56 and the results achieved. These processes are aimed at making the peOple think about their present situation, deliberate and gradually come to take action on their own. It is for the worker to get the peOple to look critically at any idea he is suggesting; both in order to get them to assess the full extent of all its potential advantages for them; and equally on the other hand to identify any disadvantages they think might also be involved. Then if they do foresee any disadvantages, to promote realistic discussion in the light of all of the available facts in order to get the people think out whether and if so just how any such disadvantages can be avoided or reduced. The worker's purpose is throughout to help people to come to an informed and therefore realistic decision. Thus he does not want them to accept an idea, however well intentioned, unless and until they are sure it has a favorable balance of advantage for them. 1 This process almost totally belongs to non-formal education though it can be used to stimulate students in formal institutions of learning. Functional Literapy. Functional Literacy is a non-formal education process which can be considered fairly prerequisite for growth. A literate was defined in terms of a person who can with understanding read and write. But the failure of literacy to bring about development, led to the emergence of the concept of functional literacy, where literacy was completely correlated to development. Here, the literacy, in terms of the acquisition of the art of reading and writing was functional to rural life. The term functional literacy when it was first used, perhaps 20 years ago, generally meant literacy at a sufficient advanced level, to be used for practical purposes, such as reading newspapers, extension literature, instructions etc., 1. T.R.Batten, "The Major Issues and Future Direction of Community Development" in Community DevelOpment Journal, Vol.9, No. 2, April 1974, p.100. 57 It now tends to imply not simply a level of literacy that is useful, but literacy that is actually used to acquire useful knowledge and skills. 1 Functional literacy is not only the acquisition of useful knowledge and skills, but "brings to the people the definite ability and skill of participating actively and effectively in their own development".2 Herein lies the importance of functional literacy. It not only imparts the skills, as was done earlier in literacy, but also guides the people in the use and application of the newly acquired skills. The latter is a process akin to apprenticeship. In functional literacy programs, the skills are imparted in this process of attending to the tasks themselves. Here, experiential learning comes to the forefront. Functional literacy programs have been implemented on a pilot basis in many countries. It is observed that in this connection, peasants, though they may not know how to read or write, can under- stand complicated facts regarding their vocations and can arrive at correct decisions with ease. They can act very responsibly. In fact, Richard O.Niehoff has said in The Report on the Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor, that "literacy may be thought of as more of a 'convenience' or 'need' of development workers to get their message across than of the needs of villagers".3 Thus non-formal education processes include functional literacy as a fundamental method which may be used to accelerate rural develOp— ment. 1. The Evaluation of Functional Literacy Projects, Unesco Workshop, London, August 1969, Unesco., 1969, p.20. 2. Garvin Karunaratne, "Developing a Functional Literacy Program', in Literacy Work, Winter 1976—77. P.46. 3. Richard O. Niehoff, Ed. Sgport on Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poorl op. cit., p.19. 58 Participation. Participation, active and intense, is a key process to bring about rural development. As has been stated earlier, the true and active participation of the people can develop the latent and innate initiatives of the people and make them responsible. In the words of Thomas Balogh, the execution of any plan can be effective only with the participation, indeed enthusiasm, not merely of the policy makers in the government executive organs, but also of those broad masses which it effects personally. 1 The characteristics of participation appear important. It is generally a group phenomenon, when a group is involved, but it could also be participation only by an individual. In the case Bf rural development programs, it is participation in the group sense that comes into focus. Here, there could be primary groups of individuals or secondary groups of individuals and participation will take place within these groups as the people become involved of their own accord. The more active the participation, the more experience the participants will likely gain in the process. There can be degrees of participation. It could be pure quantitative participation. At one end we have simple participation, where the people are paternalistically guided in their develOpment. There can be structural participation, where by regulation and the imposition of rules, it is laid down that a percentage of the people have to be present. Compliance does not always mean active partici- pation. Next, we would have the voices of the people being considered 1. Thomas Balogh, The Economics of Poverpy, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1966, p. 176. 59 either directly or through feedback. A further stage would be the idea of the people sharing the benefits of development, followed by the stage where the people are invested with the authority to control the management process at elections only. Finally we have local autonomy and decentralized institutions, allowing the peOple to participate actively, arriving at their own decisions and also having the power to implement them, leading to the development of their initiatives, responsibility and self-reliance. Between these different types, any suitable pattern could be strategically decided on, depending on the political systems in vogue and the extent to which the bureaucracy is willing to cede authority. It is observed that in many instances, participatory institutions like cooperatives, farmers' associations etc., all involve the participation of the people only in electing the office bearers. This is structural participation that could be ensured by regulation. This passive orientation is unfortunately the manner in which participation has been hitherto conceived of in development programs. Active participation, instead, refers to involving the peOple in a dynamic and absorbing manner, so that the peOple not only get fully immersed in the thinking process that ensues, but also get thoroughly involved in the major action process of community development. This is the intense experience that makes them convinced; successive intensive participation contributes greatly to enhanced learning experiences in which other processes like conscientization too play a major role. The culmination is a cumulative effect that brings about a change in attitude. 60 Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman state, We did not find a strong association between participation as measured and agricultural productivity, though in some cases such as Israel and Yugoslavia, participation has contributed substantially to their productive gains. We conclude that participation may make a positive contribution to raising productivity and we found no evidence of its impact being negative, but as analysed in this study, it does not appear to be a necessary or a sufficient condition for agricultural improvement. 1 However, it is observed that there seems to be a direct relationship between participation and development, in the lasting and enduring sense in a few programs. This will be elaborated later in the analysis of the use of non—formal education in rural development models, in this study.2 In the case of the other programs, the problem appears to be that the type of participation evoked was not participation in the true and enduring sense. In most cases, instead, the participation used was what the U.N.Report Pppular Participation in Development calls an 'action technique'. Participation is considered a voluntary contribution by the people to one or another of the public programs supposed to contribute to national development, but the people are not expected to take part in shaping the program or criticizing its contents. The organization of the agrarian reform settlements and cooperatives, the building of houses and community infra- structure through self—help etc., are seen as separate public initiatives in which popular participation is an action technique rather than a basic objective implying structural changes in the society. 3 Here, participation is not true and active. Instead, partici— pation is evoked to get a task attended to in the most economical 1. Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman, Local Organization for Rural Development: An Analysis of Asian Experience, Cornell University, 1974, p. xvii. 2. Please see chapters 6,7 and 8. 3 U.N., 'Topular Participation in Development", in Community Developpant Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2, April 1973, p. 87. 61 manner. This is similar to the banking concept of education, where education is viewed as depositing some ideas for a purpose. On the contrary, in true participation, the attempt is to get the participant thoroughly absorbed in the process, to get him to use his powers of critical thought, arrive at decisions and implement them in a cooperative manner, working mutually with others. Participation is a process that enables the community development process to function in an absorbing and intensive manner. Thus it is important that the type of participation in each program is looked into. The U.N. Document, Popular Participation in Developpapp, says, Intensive popular mobilization for a cause so general and abstract as development can come about only under crisis conditions and can hardly be very long sustained. For the most part, peOple interest themselves and participate actively in relation to more concrete goals and symbols. ....their participation requires a symbolic frame of reference meaningful to them, which may take various forms (the advancement of the nation, of the 'people', of their social class or their community) certain concrete tasks through which they can relate themselves to wider processes as a perception of cinvincing reasons why present efforts and sacrifices should lead to future gains. Universal active participation may be a worthy ideal to strive towards, but it is an ideal that has not been fully realized by any known society. In relation to many aspects of the development process and for a good deal of time, passive participation in the sense of accomplishment of normal occupational and social roles, reception of certain benefits from public social action and conditional acceptance of the main lines of public policy may be all that is needed. 1 A crisis may bring about the mobilization of the people, but this participation, brought about through crisis conditions is unlikely to bring about permanent or lasting results. It is likely to be a short term phenomenon and once the crisis is over, the participation of the people will cease. What is important to note in this connection is that 1. Ibid., pp. 80,81. 62 essential ingredients for the creation of a participatory framework have not been followed except in rare instances. Suitable administra- tive models have not been provided. Most public grassroots level institutions have involved the people only structurally, in electing committees to manage their affairs. The people are no longer involved in the management, as once the committee or council is elected, all the affairs have been managed by the elected few. This is far from active participation and it is likely that herein lies the problem of development today. Even though the institutions have been successfully worked and have proved viable, generally they have not involved the people and this perhaps explains why people's attitudes have had little occasion to change, why there are yet subsistence farmers on the brink of starvation and why development is yet a hazy mirage on the far horizon. In the words of Garland P.Wood, "farmers respond positively to a project, to the extent of their involvement in its formulation and implementation".1 In the words of Edgar Faure, Any system according educational services to a passive population and any reform which fails to arouse active personal participation among the mass of learners can achieve at best only marginal results. 2 The concept of participation has not been understood by many authorities. Participation is not only involvement, but active and intense involvement. In development, participation is of great importance. In the words of Douglas Enseminger, 1. Garland P. Wood, Studying Agricultural Institutions: A Modular Approach, Michigan State University, 1974, p.35. 2. Edgar Faure, Learning to Be, op. cit.,p.222. 63 One, if not the most profound of the lessons to be learned from the past 25 years of rural/community develOpment experience is that the people expected to benefit from development, must themselves be involved in development. No amount of money spent on rural development, nor all the might of government can do for people, what people can do for themselves. 1 Active participation, especially in the context of the Third World countries is related to consensus. In the implementation of rural development programs of any type in a village, it would be observed that all the people have to cooperate, because in almost every field of development, mutual action is necessary. In irrigation, every farmer who has land in the tract, will benefit by the supply of water. The water does not flow directly from the channel to each field. The channel takes water to the tract and thereafter the water is fed from field to field. Thus every farmer has to cooperate. In agricultural production, farmers have to cultivate together and cultivation depends on the rain; cattle have to be kept tethered during the period of cultivation; in case of an irrigation scheme, all the farmers must decide on a common date for water issues, for fencing and clearing of channels etc., as natural forces necessitate that all farmers have to act at the same time. Consensus is essential even for a developed urban or industrial context. But here, consensus is couched in the form of obedience to rules and regulations, with all transgressors being prosecuted by the police. In the context of the rural village, where it is not possible to have rules and regulations enforced regarding every detailed item, a system of consensus had been developed in 1. Douglas Enseminger, Rural Development, What is it; its contribution to Nation Building, Paper delivered at the East West Center, Conference on Integrated Communication for Rural DevelOpment, December 1974, p.19. 64 ancient times, which yet persists in certain areas. It means that whenever a decision is reached, it has to be made by consensus. This implies that the dissenters have to agree. It is not a question of their subjugation, but their being convinced of the rationality of the decision. In a certain sense, this appears highly democratic, as in the case of dissent, the discussions continue till everyone agree on a particular course of action. In the case of the narrow definition of democracy, what happens is that a vote of hands is taken and a decision is reached by the majority. The dissenters then do not cooperate in the program. Thus consensus leads to unity and amity. Akhter Hamid Khan's comment when asked whether in Comilla, he followed the one man-one vote Scandinavian principle, is revealing: Yes, according to the law. But what really happens in these village groups is that there is never any voting. .... How the farmers arrive at a decision is a complicated process. They don't do it by voting and I think some sociologist will have to examine how they arrive at their decisions at the consensus. 1 Consensus is a further step in participation. It is the alternative to a one man—one vote type of decision making which leads to enemity and friction. In a study of rural development in Andhra, G. Ram Reddy says, It is generally believed that electoral contests disturb the village harmony and creates tensions in the small communities. In some villages there was a genuine desire to avoid a contest for fear of group conflicts. 2 Consensus is an advanced form of decision making which is essential for participation in development programs. 1. Akhter Hamid Khan, "Rural Development Program at Comilla", in Rural DevelOpment in East Pakistan, Speeches by Akhter Hamid Khan, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1964, p. 54. 2. G. Ram Reddy, Panchayati Raj and Rural Develgpment in Andhra Pradesh, Cornell University, 1974, p. 150. 65 Thus participation is a non-formal education process of inestimable value for the cause of rural development. 4. STRATEGIES. A strategy is a blue print of methods to be utilized in the planning and implementation of a policy. Once the policy is decided and the goals to be achieved are known, then a strategy has to be decided upon, based on which a plan of action can be drawn up. Thus, the role that strategies can play in the planning or the implementation of a program is crucial. It can make or mar the program. There could be administrative strategies. Administration is the organization that enforces law and order in the country and also attends to the development of the economy in the area of its command. The administrative strategies depend on the aim and the policy followed by the government. In the case of a colonial government or a colonial type of government, the main idea would be to maintain law and order and the strategies adopted would be suitable for such a context. In this case, the administration tends to be top-down, a coercive type and maintaining vertical communication on a directive basis would be a key strategy that is deployed. This strategy may bring about efficiency and enables quick action. Here, what is necessary to get any job of work done is effective communication and strength in implementation. A key strategy in this case would be to use directive powers to get things done. On the other hand, in the case of a democratic country, which wants to develop the resources of the nation, the strategies that have to be deployed would be different and diametrically Opposed to the 66 strategies detailed earlier. Here, an essential criteria for the selection of strategies would be the ability of such strategies to bring about the development of the resources of the country, including the people who have to be transformed to~be an asset. In this connection, there are various administrative strategies that can be used. It depends on the role to be played by the people. Questions such as ' is the development to be brought about with the participation of the people?’ come to the forefront. Is it a pure question of deploying a massive bureaucracy to inform the people of what has to be done and to tell the people to act in a particular way, offering rewards to coax them. It follows that people who disagree and disobey would have to be dealt with in courts of law. Another strategy would be to allow the people to participate. Here, it will be observed, that people being socially oriented human beings need some institutions at village level to enable group processes to function, and to enable the people to work together on tasks of development. For this, a strategy would be to relax vertical communication within different organizations and to emphasize horizontal communication. Yet another strategy would be to make people partners in development. Here, it will be necessary, not only to overtly involve the people, but also to develop the initiatives and the responsibility in the people. The village level institutions should enable the people to gain experiential education in management, which would lead to the development of their dormant abilities. For this, the people have to make their own decisions and requires that administrative structures be decentralized. PeOple will then be in a position to be invested with decision making power. 67 It is in the latter context that the non—formal education processes that have been identified in this study come into focus. In order to achieve goals of rural development, especially in the context where the goals of rural development include the well being of the people and their advancement, it would be necessary for the strategy to detail the type of non-formal education processes that have to be used in planning and implementing the program of work. If the abilities of the people are to be developed,leading to the acquisition of responsibility, then the strategy will have to include significant non—formal education processes such as discussion, conscientization, participation and community development, all of which have to be deployed in learning situations as the people function in the develop- ment process, on an informal basis. In this case too, the non-formal education processes should be used carefully, more intensive processes like conscientization being introduced later, when necessary. The overall strategy could include all these details. Here, people are looked upon as a human resource. Their transformation from being a burdensome mass of apathetic subsistence farmers to be an asset, an activized mass of farmers, depends on the deployment of non—formal education processes. This in turn, is dependent upon the use of suitable administrative strategies. These details have been quoted in order to explain the importance of the strategy that is deployed in a development program. It is important to note that in the implementation of a rural development program, a great deal of thought has to be devoted to the selection of particular administrative strategies in order to enable the successful use of non-formal education processes. MM RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS. Administrative models of different types have been utilized to plan and implement rural development programs by various governments. The situation and circumstances of each country differ, not to mention the wide disparity in administrative structures they have inherited. A recent study by the World Bank lists the following organizational prerequisites for a successful rural development program: 1. A national plan or program of action for rural development, together with supporting national and regional policies and adequate center-local financing arrangements. 2. A strong organization at the national level to coordinate vertically organized central government sectoral departments. 3. Greater decentralization with effective machinery at the regional and local level to coordinate the sectoral activities of national departments operating in the region and regional and local departments. 4. Participation by the rural poor in the planning and implementation processes through local government, project advisory committees, cooperatives and other forms of group organizations. 1 The administrative characteristics of a rural development model influence, can enable or preclude the utilization of non—formal education. When one considers the viability of the administrative structures, the degree of integration or coordination present, the extent of horizontal or vertical communication, the decentralization that has been carried out and the degree to which institutions have been developed within the administrative systems used to plan and 1. I.B.R.D., Rural Developmenti Sector Policy Paper, The World Bank, 1975, pp. 33,34. 68 69 and implement rural development programs, it is possible to classify rural development administrative systems into three models, the integrated, the semi—integrated and the unintegrated. A number of countries and programs that fall into each rural development model have been selected for special study, especially regarding the extent to which non—formal education processes have been used. Reasons have been quoted for their categorization and the success achieved has been documented, leading to assess the effective— ness of the non-formal education component. Leading from the above facts, the essential strengths and weaknesses of each rural development model has been deduced as they relate to the maximum utilization of non-formal education processes. Criteria for Classification. The following criteria have been used to categorize the rural development models: 1. developed administrative structures, 2. extent of integration, 3. extent to which institutions have been developed, 4. degree of horizontal communication, 5. degree of decentralization. Each criteria will be briefly dealt with. 1. Developed Administrative Structures. In any program of rural development, the administrative structure should be fully developed to give a full place for the people to freely participate, actively and intensely, so as to enable the total develOpment of the resources of the country. In the case of 70 the Third World, what happened was that either the countries belonged to despotic monarchs that believed in paternalistic rule or they belonged to colonial empires. In the case of the former, the monarchs had developed an administrative system which was meant to keep the peOple contented; it was developed at the center and at the provincial level and allowed self government for the rural areas. The typical colonial administration had imposed an alien administrative structure, designed to suppress the people and maintain law and order. Arthur Livingstone says that the colonial administrative systems have to be altered. For most developing countries, the attainment of independence from colonial rule and the subsequent establishment of formal development plans, have made imperative a fresh look at their public administrative systems. Administrative structures that served the purpose of imperial hedgemonies must be reappraised in the light of national independence. Administrative tasks for the fulfilment of national plans will often be different and certainly more specialized than hitherto. 1 When administrative structures are developed, the integration of different functions within an administration is possible. It is then that the development of viable institutions can take place, that would be conducive for the functioning of group processes, as would in turn enable the effective use of non-formal education processes when the people participate in the development process. In the words of the U.N. Group of Experts on Community Development, Some of the newly independent countries have found it necessary to reorient entire administrations, to endenger more sympathetic and creative attitudes towards the capacity of the people to contribute. Former preoccupation with law and order was expanded to the develOpment of national and local institutions; 1. Arthur Livingstone, Social Policy in DevelOping Countries, Routeledge, 1969, p.91. 71 through its emphasis on education and organization, community development can both mobilize and channel newly awakened and dynamic attitudes and values necessary for development at all levels. 1 The administrative structure of a country is of great importance in the planning and implementation of a rural development program. If the administrative structure has not been fully altered and has merely been expanded by the addition of departments and ministries, there may be duplication of functions, leading to a wastage of effort and the rural development stimulating system will be splintered, having a number of competing institutions and officers at the village level, vying for power and prestige, thereby precluding the fail participation of the people. Thus the effect that non-formal education processes will have in bringing about rural develOpment is likely to directly depend on the type of administrative structure through which it has to work. 2. Integration. Integration in the administrative structure tends to enable the effective use of non—formal education processes for rural development. Integration, here refers to the degree of fusion of rural development stimulation systems. The agencies working at the base, the village level in the case of a rural area would be welded together in the integrated structure. On the other hand there is the non-integrated administrative structure, where the different functions are handled by different agencies and institutions, without any coordination. Akhter Hamid Khan comments on the problems of coordination in East Pakistan, which is typical of the situation in many develOping countries. 1. Report of the Ad-hoc Group of Experts on Community Development, U.N., 1963, p. 17. 72 The first big defect was that there was an utter lack of coordination among the Departments. There were Thana (divisional) officers of agriculture, plant protection, animal husbandry, fisheries and so on, but they never sat at the same place. They did not meet even once a year. There was no coordination at all. The Thana agricultural officer would be talking with the sub-divisional officer or the district officer or the deputy director and so would the plant protection officer. There was no coordination at the Thana level. Each of these departments was trying very hard to get its own village level worker. That seemed to be to them, the most important thing. For example, the plant protection people said, 'If you want us to be effective, give us village level workers in every village'. And the fisheries people were saying, 'If you want the farmers to breed fish and feed them in a proper manner, give us village level workers'. But they never discussed their problems among themselves. 1 This would be the situation in the case of the unintegrated administra- tive structure. That integration is necessary for the success of a rural development program is evident in the words of the Working Group of Experts of the ECAFE, Generally in most countries the responsibility for the performance of the normal and development functions of government was entrusted to a number of Ministries and Departments. A major organizational problem which arose from that condition was the lack of coordination in program areas where two or more agencies were involved, or where certain common functions had to be performed. The need for coordination was emphasized to prevent duplication of effort and wastage of resources and to maximize results. 2 The lack of integration in a program of rural development tends to confuse the people as all the agencies handling different aspects have the same clientele. Peter du Sautoy illustrates this. 1. Akhter Hamid Khan, "The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, Comilla, East Pakistan", in Rural Developpant in East Pakistan, Speeches of Akhter Hamid Khan, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1964, p. 39. 2. ECAFE, "Asian Administrative Problems by a Working Group of Experts of ECAFE", in Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 10, 1966, p. 55. 73 A community does not divide its way of life into neat bureaucratic compartments to deal with each specialized organization which is trying to help it. It tends to be confused by the uncoordinated descent upon it of a multiplicity of different specialists, however benevolent their intentions. 1 In both quotations the word coordination has been used. Coordination refers to bringing together the different administrative organs, so that the implementation can be organized systematically, where the role that each agency will play could be laid down. This can generally be brought about by having committees consisting of the officers of the different organizations, but in many cases it has been found difficult to get these officers to function together. As illustrated above, the fact that an administrative structure has a number of different agencies to work with the same clientele, leads only to a waste of effort and the clients cannot understand as to why they should be attending separate meetings for each aspect. This can also lead to fragmentation of the unity in the village setting. Rene Dumont says of the situation in Africa, The Departments themselves-- Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry and Agricultural Engineering, will have to coordinate action on the local level, in order to stop pulling the peasant in different directions. The most natural way to coordinate functions is to fuse all these technical departments into one organization of rural development. 2 Fusing of functions is integration. In this connection it is important to note that the tendency in present day administrative develOpment is to increase the number of ministries and departments. This type of expansion at the center 1. Peter du Sautoy, Organization of a Community Development Progpam, Oxford University Press, 1962, p.3. 2. Rene Dumont, False Start in Africa, Praeger, 1966, p.204. 7L: may be suitable for countries that have very little public work to attend to, like in the western capitalist countries, where the role of the government is to foster various private and voluntary organizations to attend to the develOpment of the country. On the other hand in the Third World, the governments have to attend to a host of functions as the entire range of development depends on government activity. In this context, the more ministries there are, the greater the tendency for there to be vertical branches right down to the village level and for these organizations to compete for power. Coordination is insufficient as it leaves room for the different organizations to yet move separate. Linkages are insufficient. "Linkages are clusters of channels which connect one major component with another major component". 1 Coordination or linkages in themselves do not enable coordinated action as the different agencies yet control their units at the lower levels and their cooperation depends upon their disposition. What is necessary appears to be integration, where the different functions of administration have been forged together. Thus the extent to which integration is present in an adminis— trative structure is an important criterion that has an impact on the effects that non—formal education processes can have in bringing about rural development. 1. George H. Axinn, New Strategies for Rural Development, Rural Life Associates, 1978, p. 170. 75 3. Institutions. An administration with a single village level institution tends to enable the effective utilization of non-formal education processes for rural development. Conversely, this implies that the simultaneous existence of a number of village level institutions tends to splinter the rural develOpment stimulation effort and thereby precludes the intensive use of non-formal education processes in rural development. The role that institutions can play in developing the capacity of the people has been stressed by Edgar Faure, The future of education lies in devising educational institutions which combine industrial or technological efficiency, centered on the acquisition of knowledge with the vitality of creative groups whose action will enable human relations to evolve. Institutions enable a viable forum for educational processes to take place. These institutions include COOperatives, agricultural associations, development societies and such organizations belonging to the people. In fact the development of institutions is so crucial a matter that in the Third World, governments have had to take a positive hand in establishing suitable institutions. Akhter Hamid Khan regards institution building as essential for rural development. Rural development primarily consists in building strong institutions and securing responsibility and resources for these for these institutions. The nature of these institutions can be administrative, educational or economic. They have to be right at the village level; the village has to be bound together in institutions. There has to be a system of tiers, one above the other and one supporting the other, each encouraging and stimulating the other. 2 1. Edgar Faure, Learning to Be, op. cit., p. 144. 2. Akhter'Hamid Khan, "The Comilla Approach and some problems encountered", in Community and Agricultural DevelOpment in Pakistan- Speeches of Akhter Hamid Khan, Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1969, p. 24. 76 Grassroots level institutions with responsibility enable the people to function in management capacities. This leads to the development of their initiatives. Herein lie the important role that institutions play in non-formal education processes. These processes function in a group setting and rural institutions afford an admirable arena, where the people can discuss, debate and arrive at decisions. Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman refer to local organizations as a precondition for rural development.1 Thus village level institutions play a fundamental role in educating the people in responsibility. The ability of the administr- ative structure to develOp viable institutions is an important criterion for the classification of rural development administrations. 4. Horizontal Communication. Horizontal communication refers to the communication that is present between the different sectors of development in a local setting. An administrative structure which has intensive horizontal communication at the village level, tends to enable the effective use of non-formal education for rural development. Conversely this implies that the lack of horizontal communication and the alternative persistence of vertical communication in an administrative structure does not tend to enable the effective use of non-formal education processes for rural develOpment. Unless there is horizontal communication, it tends to happen that there will be no effective linkages between different sectors. When institutions belong to different ministries or departments, it 1. Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman, Local Organization for Rural Development:Analysis of Asian Experience, 0p. cit.,p. xi. 77 has been generally found that there is a marked degree of vertical communication. The local institutions and the local officers are controlled by their hierarchical organizations to such an extent that they are unable to have any links with the rest. Due to the inter- connection that exists between all aspects of life in a village setting, people tend to function actively in a situation where all aspects of development are handled together on a mutual basis. When there is marked vertical communication, it follows that even if there is an institution, the peOple have to function only in that activity. Life to a villager is an integral whole and it is possible for peOple to involve themselves fully and intensively in group education, only when they can actively participate in a number of important areas that impinge on their real life. Thus significant non—formal education processes like discussion, conscientization, community development tend to take place intensely when there is a high level of horizontal communication within a community and in the administrative structure. 5. Decentralization. Decentralization refers to deconcentration, i.e., the delegation of responsibility to lower levels as well as to devolution, which refers to allowing the'peOple institutions and sufficient power to exercise responsibility in decision making. It has been generally found that the more decentralized the administrative structure, the more effective is the use of non—formal education for rural development. The degree of decentralization within an administrative structure is one of the criteria used for the classification of rural development models. 78 Edgar Owens and Robert Shaw state, The State can be conserved only if the people believe they belong to it, that because of their own personal interest, they have a stake in their survival. If the State is to create a sense of belonging among the great mass of people, then it must decentralize the decision making process, not just in politics, but in an array of human endeavour. 1 Unfortunately Third World governments have been mostly viewing decentralization as a loss of power and control. Instead, decentralizing can lead to make the people partners in development, where the development programs will be worked by the people, with an inflow of resources from the community to supplement what the government can make available. Norman T.Uphoff and Milton J. Esman state, Another aspect of institutionalization is its effectiveness. While farmers do not expect miracles from local organizations, they will not continue to participate unless they see that the organizations command enough resources to make a difference in their lives. 2 Decentralization has therefore to bestow on the people sufficient power within develOpment programs, so that the people can get involved in making decisions which can make a difference in their lives. It is necessary that power has to be extracted from officials and given to institutions, where the people will exercise that power and become responsible in the process. Thus decentralization is an important criterion that has been used to classify rural development administration models. 1. Edgar Owens and Robert Shaw, Develppment Reconsidered, op. cit., p.18. 2. Norman T. Uphoff and Milton J. Esman, Local Organization for Rural Development: An Analysis of Asian Experience, op. cit., p. 98. 79 Based on the above criteria, rural develOpment administrative structures used in countries and projects can be classified into three groups- integrated, semi-integrated and unintegrated. These administrative models with their unique characteristics can be summarized in the following modular presentation: Characteristics of Administrative Models. Principles & Characteristics Village level institution. Village level Agents for extension. Integration. Horizontal & Vertical Decentralization. Integrated Semi-integrated A single Few village level village institutions. iggfitution. One agentitr Few agents for extension.for extension. Integration Coordination of of functions. functions. High degree Horizontal & of horizontal vertical communication.communication equalises. High degree Incomplete of decentralization. decentralizae tion. Unintegrated Many village level institutions. Many agents for extension. Coordination of functions attempted; never successful. High degree of vertical communication. High degree of centralization. CHAPTER VI INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS. The integrated rural develOpment model, with its unique characteristics, such as the implementation of programs by a single village level institution, very low level of duplication of functions among agencies, a high degree of decentralization, integration of functions and a marked extent of horizontal communication, can be seen in China, the Kibbutz and Moshav in Israel and the Ujamaa settlements in Tanzania. CHINA. China till 1958, followed the semi-integrated model of rural develOpment. Instead of totally integrating all functions in rural administration, China tried out cooperatives as a strategy for rural develOpment. By 1957, the vast majority of China's rural pOpulation were organized into 650,000 c00peratives. In order to accelerate the process of development, China turned to establishing communes, an institution that incorporated all functions of development. Six to seven cooperatives were merged to form a commune, each having 30,000 persons on the average. E. Stuart Kirby quotes Liu Shao Chi, 'Everyone knows that PeOple's Communes are no longer merely organizers of production among the people. The communes have mobilized to the utmost the crude socially necessary mass labor power of 650 million people on an enlarged scale and in a highly disciplined form, which gives extreme mobility for shifting it from one task to another at will from farm work to road making or railway works, or river works or industry or anything else.’ It is at the same time an extensive scheme of military mobilization as has been abundantly stressed in the internal prOpaganda on the lines that 'every commune member is indeed 8O 81 a people's militia man'. It puts civilian life into barracks, transforming what was left of the old family and clan basis of society into a pattern of communal living which approaches to a Chinese version of the Orwellian 1984. 1 There is complete integration of all functions in the commune. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on August 29, 1958 makes this amply clear. The establishment of people's Communes with all round management of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, side occupations and fishery, where industry(the worker), agriculture (the peasants), exchange(the trader), culture and education , (the student) and military affairs(militiamen), merge into one is the fundamental policy to guide the peasants to accelerate socialist construction, complete the building of socialism 2 ahead of time and carry out the gradual transition to communism. The mergence of agriculture and industry is very important. It is well known that agriculture requires labor at particular times when agricultural work is at a peak. At other times there is under- employment. The integration of functions, like livestock, industry and rural works enable ample recognition to be given to surplus labor, which can be transformed to be an asset. David F. Roth says, Structural change was accompanied by functional change. The develOpment of rural industries to enable Communes to become self supporting was also commenced. This policy envisioned the maximization of several values, efficient labor utilization, industrialization and the emergence of a communist society. Thus off season labor could be used for infrastructure development, dams, irrigation systems and rural industrialization. 3 1. E. Stuart Kirby, "The Enigma of the Chinese Communes" in Contemporapy China, 1958- 59, Hongkong University Press, 1960, p. 157. 2. Chao Kuo Chun, "The Organization and the Function of the PeOple's Communes" in Contemporary China, 1960, Hongkong 'University Press, p. 133. 3. David F. Roth, "Towards a Multi-Dimensional Approach to Rural Policy Optimalization: The Case of Rural Change Strategies in Asia" in The Philippine Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 15, 1971, p. 192. 82 Here, the unutilized manpower had been transformed to be an asset. This was possible because the commune handled all aspects of develOpment. The high degree of integration enabled the Chinese to take a total view of development, and this is made clear by Benedict Stavis, The Chinese leadership never believed that agriculture would be transformed simply by doing scientific research and making new seeds and fertilizer available. ... a comprehensive program was undertaken touching on many sectors of society. Political and administrative restructuring were needed, industry had to be reoriented, scientific resources had to be mobilized, extension services had to be provided, commercial networks and banking practices had to be changed, education had to be redirected and local leadership had to be provided. 1 All these different functions could be attended to due to integration within the commune. The entire administration had been altered to bring this about. Each commune covering 30,000 persons was too large and was divided into 5 to 15 brigades and each brigade was divided into a number of teams. There was no division into separate functions. The commune assumed full responsibility for all the functions. In the Chinese model of rural development, it is also important to note that integration was so complete that it included the Communist Party cadres and the liberation army. Agriculture, industry and the working of all functions came under the supervision of the Communist Party. M.Rejai says, ... the governmental and military bureaucracies come under minute Party Control. The Party is in itself, an elitist and pyramidical organization dictating policy in every office, factory, school, farm and trade union throughout the country. 2 1. Benedict Stavis, Making Green Revolution- The Politics of Agricultural Development in China, Cornell University, 1974, p. vi. 2. M.Rejai, Re Mao Tse-tung on Revolution and War, Doubleday & Co., Anchor Books ed., 1971, p. 20. 83 Revolutionary Committees were formed in every organization and these were held responsible for the work. The people, the Communist Party members and the liberation army were effectively brought together. Alexander Eckstein says, ... the commune assumed a multiplicity of functions. It became the unit of local government, the local militia unit and the local political party unit. At the same time it took charge of all local economic planning functions. ..... The highest governing organ of a commune was supposed to be a congress of all its members. This congress was composed of representatives of production teams and brigades as well as delegates of various functional and social groups, such as youth and women. The congress elected an administrative committee that included the director and deputy director of the commune. However, in practice, these directors and their deputies were selected by higher level organs with the congress in effect, ratifying this choice. This administrative committee can be regarded as the tOp management organ of the commune. Since the Cultural Revolution, this function has been performed by the Revolutionary Committees of the communes, with a chairman or one or more vice-chairmen performing the key management roles. Under the Revolutionary Committee there are a number of departments taking charge of different aspects of commune activities. 1 The communes were elected by the people. All the functions at the commune level were handled by the commune members. Functions on an area basis were handed over to the brigade level and finally to the team level. Each level handled all aspects. The brigade Operated a militia company, primary schools, medical stations, industries and agriculture among other functions. The members made their own decisions at the commune, the brigade and the team levels. Thus there was decentralization through the people's institutions. As all the functions were handled in an integrated manner at the commune, the brigade and the team levels, there was horizontal coordination. The communes were developed administrative units that 1. Alexander Eckstein, China's Economic Revolution, Cambridge University Press, 1977, pp. 80,81. 84 handled all aspects of development. Thus, on the whole the evidence indicates that in all fields, integration, institutional development, decentralization and horizontal communication, the administrative structure of the commune that was adOpted in China was develOped. The Achievement. The development of Communist China took place in two stages, upto 1957 and after 1958. Till 1957 the Chinese tried out cooperatives. In 1958, the communes were established with its integrated administra- tive organization and collectivization policies. During the period when the Chinese attempted development through COOperatives, they established 650,000 cooperatives. In the words of Mao Tse tung, More than 80% of the existing 650,000 agricultural producers' cooperatives have increased their output. ... Since more than 80% of all the c00peratives have increased their output(by anything from 10 to 30%) since over 10% have shown neither an increase nor a decrease in their first year, but may show an increase in their second year after having had a check up, and since the less than 10% registering a fall in output may also show an increase in their second year or at least the position where output is neither increasing nor decreasing after the check up, it can be said that on the whole our progress in cooperation is healthy and that generally we can ensure increased production and avoid falling yields. 1 During this period, i.e., 1951 to 1957, grain production is estimated to have grown at about 3.7% per annum.2 In order to accelerate development on socialist lines, the Chinese adopted communes. The results are remarkable. By the end of the sixties, the Chinese achieved self sufficiency in food grains such as rice. In wheat, however, they have a shortfall. They import 1. Mao Tse tung on the Question of Agricultural COOperation, Foreign Language Press, Pekin, 1966, pp. 23,24. 2. Benedict Stavis, "Agricultural Research and Extension Services in China", in World Development, Vol. 6, p. 633. 85 wheat but export rice. Norman Macrae says, " the best estimates now put China's rice production at an erratic average of 2%-to 3% tons per hectare- twice what it was before 1949. This compares with around 1.7 tons per hectare in the Philippines and 6 tons in Japan".1 In the case of all cereals, the yield had increased from 1857 kg/ha in 1969/71 to 2061 kg/ha in 1977.2 The yield of 2061 kg/ha is a substantial increase when compared to the yield in countries like India (1286 kg/ha) and the Philippines (1436 kg/ha).3 In the case of pipa_in 1948/52 the yield of rice was only 2170 kg/ha.4 By 1961 the yield of rice was 3223 kg/ha and this increased to 3546 kg/ha in 1977.5 This is a remarkable achievement compared to countries like India, the Philippines and Sri Lanka where the yields in 1977 were 1837 kg/ha, 1959 kg/ha and 2269 kg/ha respectively. 6 The increase in the total production was significant. In 1969/71, the total cereal production per year was 208.3 million tons. By 1977, it was at 242.4 million tons.7 This amounts to an increase of 16-17% in 7 years. During this period the population increased from 787 millions in 1971,8 to 835 millions in 1976- an increase of about 8 %. 9 Thus the growth in food production during this period was 1. Norman Macrae, "Two Billion PeOple" in The Economist, 7-5-77. p. 16. 1977 FAO Production Year Book, FAO, 1978, p.92. Ibid., p. 92. FAQ Production Year Book 195S, FAO, 1958, p. 48. 1977 FAO Production Year Book, 0p. cit., p. 96. Ibid., PP- 96.97- Ibid., p. 92. U.N. Statistical Year Book 1972, Table 19. . l978 World Bank Atlas, The World Bank, 1978, p. 8. \OCD\)O\U\-F-‘\JON 86 larger than the growth of the population. The compound annual growth rate in grain production has been 7.5% for 1949-52, 2.3% for 1952-57, 0.3% for 1957—63, 6% for 1963—67 and 1.4% for 1967-73. 1 Thus the evidence is to the effect that the increase in food production is significant. In the field of irrigation, the achievement is remarkable. In 1949 only 16.3% of the acreage was irrigated. 2 In 1971, as much as 31% of the total cultivated area was irrigated. 3 In this connection, it is important to note that in the meantime the acreage under cultivation had also increased. Thus the increase in the irrigated area is remarkable. Benedict Stavis says that by 1960/69, 10% of the cultivated area had modernized agpiculture in terms of mechanical irrigation, new seed technology, chemical fertilizer and use of tractors. 4 The use of fertilizer is also significant, 38 kilograms of nutrients being used per hectare of cultivated land in 1972.5 The Chinese have also developed small and medium scale industpy. They are self sufficient in all consumer and machinery goods. Rural incomes have doubled from Y 70 to Y 150 per capita from the early 1950s to the late 19605.6 There is equality built into 1. Benedict Stavis, Making Green Revolution- The Politics of Agriculppral Development in China, op. cit., p. 12. 2. Leslie T.C.Kuo, "Mainland China Technical Transformation" in Agrarian Policies and Problems in Communist and Non-Communist Countries, ed. by W.A.Douglas Jackson, University of Washington Press,Seattle, p. 66 3. Norman T. Uphoff et. al., Local Organization for Rural Development: Analysis of Asian Experience, op. cit., p. 9. 4. B. Stavis, Makinngreen Ravolution— The Politics of Agricultural Development in China, op. cit., p.1. 5. Ibid., p. 42. 6. Ibid., p. 54. 87 the system, through the collective nature of the communes and the fact that the State takes care of all welfare aspects. Jan S. Prybyla indicates the achievement in Chinese rural development: It is plausible to assume that in the past 10 years, the agricultural output in China has grown at an average annual rate of over 2%, probably nearer 3%. This has been achieved through increases in crop yields and the more widespread adoption of the practice of double cropping or triple cropping. Both have been made possible by large supplies of chemical fertilizer and electric power. .. A large volume of production capital and irrigation drainage ditches, canals, ponds, reservoirs, embankments, retaining walls and so on have been accumulated in the last decade, lessening agriculture's vulnerability to changes in weather. In recent years(1972 excepted), output of grain, mainly rice and wheat has been in excess of 250 million tons a year and stocks appear ample. ... The overall impression is one of solid achievement. 1 China‘s g.n.p. per capita is $ 370 and the reported real gpowth rate for the period 1960-76 was 5.2%, with 4.3% for the period 1970—76 .2 The literacy rate is at 57%, with life expectancy at 53.4 years. 3 In terms of unemployment too, China's record is remarkable. Except for the years 1960 and 1963, when a crisis was faced, China did not face open unemployment. Uphoff and Esman have stated that in the case of China, "economic organization creates universal employment".4 It is also important to note that China implemented a fppg rationing scheme that ensured a minimum supply of food to all. 1. Jan S. Prybyla, "The Chinese Economic Model" in Current Histogy, Sept. 1975, p. 81. 2. World Bank Atlas 1978, op. cit., p.6 3. Norman T. Uphoff et al., Local Opgapization for Rural DevelOpment: Analysis of Asian Experiapga, op. cit., p. 43. 4. Ibid., p. 54. 88 Land Reform was a success. This happened with the revolution where there was mass expropriation of property and the land was distributed among the people. This land finally came into the ownership of the communes. This evidence indicates that China's success was significant. Its success cannot be attributed to any one cause. The integrated nature of the functions in administration could be said to have helped. This integration enabled the surplus labor to be used for the construction of rural infrastructure works and even for industries, all of which was handled by the commune. The commune even took care of the welfare services. This helped the adoption of innovations, as if there was a risk of crop failure, the commune in its social functions ensured that the basic necessities of the member were taken care of. Thus it could be said that the integrated nature of the administration of the commune and the developed nature of the administrative structure was highly contributive to the success in rural development. The Use of Non-Formal Education. Education has been repeatedly emphasized in the Chinese rural development program. The dominant feature throughout these decades of the Chinese Revolution has been Mao Tse tung's emphasis on the importance of ideological work, of political education, incessant, practical and thorough. The necessity of constantly shifting and assessing the political maturity of the cadres and of imparting Marxist knowledge to the masses of the people, elevating their level of understanding and making them participate, in other words, of constant repeated, incessant education which cannot be imposed by arbitrary dictates, but must in large parts be self education, self practice, by people made aware-self reliant. This can only be realized by incessant debate and study at all levels and by putting into practice what is debated. 1 1. Han Suyin, Asia Toda , Two Outlooks, McGill Queen's University Press, 1969, p. 49. 89 In addition to numerous short training courses held for the youth and adults on the organized and instructional basis of non- formal education, a complete educational process, directed towards the utilization of local governance for rural develOpment, mobilizing the total participation of the peOple in ways that would develop their initiatives and responsibility was adopted. This is akin to the community develOpment process, with a great deal of emphasis being placed on ideological education processes that comprise conscientization and participation. TO gain knowledge, peOple must be awakened from their half slumber, encouraged to mobilize themselves and to take conscious action to elevate and liberate themselves. When they actively participate in decision making, when they take on interest in State affairs, when they dare to do new things, when they become good at presenting facts and reasoning out things, then 'the socialist initiative latent in the masses (will) burst out with 4 volcanic force and a rapid change will take place in production:.t In the planning and implementation of programs the peOple made their own decisions. There was a great deal of horizontal communication among the people and between the team leaders and the peOple. Every once in a while the masses do not want to do something that the leaders(team leaders and other leaders above) think should be done. In that situation, we leaders wait, delay and try to convince the masses. For example, the brigade leadership thinks we have to expand the capacity of water wells so that we have enough water to irrigate more land. At first the masses Opposed this project, so we delay it. The masses thought it would be better to increase water storage capacity so that we could more efficiently use the existing water supplies. So we did that. We enlarged the storage area. We could increase irrigation somewhat, but not enough. The masses were convinced with these facts and now the great majority of commune members think that an additional well is necessary. We will sink it this fall. All decisions are adOpted through this process; first, active leadership, then patient waiting. There is broad democracy and reasonable centralism. 2 1. Quoted by John W. Gurley in "Capitalist Maoist Economic DevelOpment", in Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, April/July 1970, Vol.2, No. 3, p.40. Quoted from the Peking Review,2-24—67.p.22. 2. B.Stavis, Making Green Revolution—The Politics of Agricul- tural Development in China, Op. cit., p. 137. 90 It is evident that the decision making was sequential, to give time for the people to think. The Chinese strategy was based on critical thinking and develOping the thinking power of the masses through participatory processes under the guidance Of peers and village leaders. Han Suyin says, Not physical liquidation; not order imposed from above; not commands from official party members whose position of command would be the seed of moral destruction and political transformation into an authoritarian bureaucracy, but the mass line, self education, self reliance, thinking things out based on correct principles and their testing by action; mass movements on an ideological front, the ample use of criticism, self—criticism, and remoulding by dedicated party members, but not of physical extermination; a clear and solid knowledge of what is the aim, the goal, the methods, what socialism is all about; and the widest propagation of these lessons, with the greatest initiative left to the masses to each individual, to remould his thinking, to integrate himself, to do the work of abolishing his own selfishness and errors and to re-educate himself in the practice of revolution by his actions. 1 Non-formal education has evidently been used to the maximum. The emphasis has been on thinking, conscientization and to enable these processes to take place the commune enables the full exercise of the person's responsibility in decision making on a group basis. In Mao Tse tung's words, "in building up the country... we... unlike modern revisionists who onesidedly stress the material factor- mechanization and modernization.., pay chief attention to the revolutionizing of man's thinking and through this command,guide and 2 promote the work of mechanization and modernization". Enabling and encouraging the people to think was the cornerstone on which rural development was built up in China. The essence of the Chinese process 1. Han Suyin, Asia Today, Two Outlooks, op. cit., p. 49. 2. Peking Review, No. 11, 1966, pp. 19,20. 91 was experiential learning. Here, the education came in an informal manner through intense participation and interaction with fellow commune members, with party cadres and intense peer education. In the words of Mao Tse tung, If you want to know a certain thing or a certain class of things directly, you must personally participate in the practical struggle to change reality, to change that thing or class of things, for only thus can you come into contact with them as phenomena; only through personal participation in the practical struggle to change reality can you uncover the essence of that thing or class of things and comprehend them... There can be no knowledge apart from practice. 1 Experiential knowledge comes through intense and active participation, which is a significant non-formal education process. The people were invested with full participatory power to make them decide on their own and get motivated in the process. It is only then that people come to be aware of their ability. While selflessness is necessary to imbue man with energy and the willingness to work hard, Maoists believe that this is not sufficient; man must also have the ability as well. And such ability comes from active participation, from seeing and doing. To gain knowledge, people must be awakened from their half slumber, encouraged to mobilize themselves and to take conscious action to elevate and liberate themselves. 2 The Chinese strategy of participation in an experiential manner was a process of intense education and definite procedures were adOpted in the administration of the commune to ensure that this education process was followed. The following account by Gargi Dutt indicates the details: 1. Mac Tse tung, On Practice, Selected Works, Vol. 1, p. 299. 2. John W. Gurley, "Maoist Economic Development: The New Man in China", in The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment, ed. by Charles K. Wilber, Random House, 1973, p. 311. 92 The implementation of democratic centralism in the communes was said to consist first of all in the'prOper convocation' of the members' general meetings and the members' representative meetings. The authorities at the lower echelons were advised that it was necessary to convene a number of regular representative meetings and members' meetings each year. The leading role of the Party was to be maintained and even reaffirmed and the party committees in the communes, the brigades and teams were asked to establish a 'firm nucleus of leadership' and the party committee secretary to act as 'the leader' to direct work in the villages. But the purpose in calling these representative meetings was to get the Opinion of the peasants'aired and to secure their assistance in facing the agricultural crisis... Through these meetings a large number of peasants were sought to be involved in the making and implementation of decisions with regard to problems of production and distribution in the communes. This involvement, beside giving the peasantry a sense of participation was believed to be an effective way of overcoming peasant resistance and ensuring his interest in the plans and programs of the communes. 1 Here, it is evident that proeedures had been detailed to ensure that the participation of the people was evoked for the cause of development. Active participation, leading to the practice of consensus was also followed. This was the cumulative effect of the use of non- formal education processes. Moreover, the masses could also influence the policy by their decisions about specification or implementation. Because the masses could participate in the policy process through discussions formal voting would be unnecessary. A process of this sort could be described as the politics of consensus. We commonly use the word consensus in two different senses. It can refer to a situation in which, relatively clear agreement exists or emerges readily. In such cases the decision process is unproblematical. But we also speak of consensus as something which has to be sought or 'hammered out'. In this case consensus is a principle of decision making, rather than a description of group agreement. 2 The use of consensus brings about mass mobilization, where all the dissenters are convinced through intense education. "Consensus is an importanp_principle of collective decision making in the Chinese - 1. Gargi Dutt, Rural Communes of China, Asia Publishing House, 1967. p- 135. 2. Marc Blecher, "Consensual Politics in Rural Chinese Communities, The Mass Line in Theory and.Practice' in Modern China Vol. 5, No. 1, Jan. 1979, pp. 109, 110. 93 production teams". 1 Thus the evidence indicates that significant non-formal education processes like community development, conscientization, discussion and participation have been effectively used in implementing rural develOpment programs in China. The effect of this intensive use of non—formal education processes was to bring about active participat~ ion, causing the village level institution, the team, the brigade and the commune to develop a high level of identity with the people. Summary of Evidence. It is evident from the above details that non-formal education processes have been used intensively to bring about rural development in China. The Chinese method was to enable the people to participate in development and within this they emphasized critical thinking, i.e., conscientization in an experiential setting, as they attended to the tasks. Thus the process of informal education used by the Chinese, which directly led to the development of the initiatives and the responsibility in the peOple was closely akin to the non—formal education process of community develOpment. The people were encouraged to come to their own decisions after close discussion and education was closely incorporated into the programs through peers and party cadres, who participated side by side with the masses. What is also important to note in this connection is that the use of non—formal education processes could take place due to the fact that there was a complete decentralization of functions at the commune 1. Ibid., p. 118. 94 level and below to the brigade and team levels. The commune as an institution was admirably suited to be a viable organization. It was sufficiently large in terms of people, acreage under cultivation, etc., to enable efficient functioning with experienced and able cadres. It was also in charge of agricultural research and all activities, so that it could draft and implement plans for the maximum utilization of all resources, taking into account off seasons and lean periods of work. Its power flowed from its political base and its size endowed it with an economic strength.which made it a viable institution. This was also due to the fact that the commune as a local institution had sufficient power to make a difference in the lives of the peOple. Thus the develOped nature of the administrative structure in China, the sheer integration of all functions that has been brought about in the commune and the broad participatory framework deployed in administrative organization enabled the use of non-formal education processes which in turn brought about true and enduring rural development. THE KIBBUTZ & MOSHAV SETTLEMENTS IN ISRAEL. The kibbutz and moshav settlements in Israel can be categorized into the integrated rural develOpment model. Being a country where new settlements were the order of the day, it was easy to bring about the integration of functions. The kibbutz and the moshav were attending to self government as well as the functions of development in their own areas. The government supported these institutions and all government work was handled by the kibbutz and the moshav in their domain. This brought about complete integration. 95 The major functions of local authorities may be categorized as local services, local enterprises, state services and administration. Local services are those managed wholly by local government, such as sanitation, construction and maintenance of public buildings, parks and roads and in the case of rural areas- agricultural services. Local enterprises are those operated entirely by local government, such as water works, housing departments and markets. State services are those services financed partly by grants of the national government and administered for the latter, such as education, health, religious affairs and social welfare. Administration includes activities of the local legislative council, chief executive officers and town clerks and include tax administration, licensing and other administrative functions. 1 It is clear that the various aspects of work have been integrated. This has been possible due to the structure, where the State did not develOp different organizations for particular functions and hold powers of vertical communication to maintain central control. The moshav is described as follows: A moshav is primarily a multi-purpose cooperative society with limited liability, established to promote farming as the sole occupation and source of living of its members. ... Besides being an agricultural cooperative and upholding a specific way of life, a moshav constitutes a unit of local government with municipal duties. The authority over this and the cooperative is alike vested in the general assembly of the adult members which decides upon matters of principle and lays down the general policy. 2 In the moshav every aspect of work was integrated, agriculture, industry, marketing, education, military affairs etc. Agriculture and other functions are done in a non-collective, but democratic manner. The difference between the kibbutz and the moshav lies in 1. Oscar Kraines, Government and.Politics in Israel, Houghton Miflin Co., 1961, p. 220. 2. Dov Weintraub, "Rural cooperation, local government and social structure: A comparative study of village organization in different types of community in Israel", in Two Blades of Grass, ed. by Peter Worsley, Manchester University Press, 1971, p.84. 96 the fact that the moshav allows the members to enjoy family life. Maurice KOnopnick says of the moshav, It is designed to combine the benefits of egalitarianism, collectivism and mutual aid with those of family life on the individual farm. Purchase and sale of farm produce are effected collectively, but the scope is left for the individual initiative in work matters and the education of children. 1 On the other hand, the kibbutz goes further in attending to the various aspects of development. Here, all the requirements of life are included like in the Chinese commune. A characteristic of kibbutz society is the sense of identification with it, which the individual member feels. The kibbutz furnishes him not merely with his material wants, but with a social framework and looks after his moral and spiritual welfare. Thus it may be claimed that the kibbutz supplies its members with more than does any other society of our age. 2 Thus integration is an essential element in the kibbutz as well as in the moshav settlements. The State accepts the kibbutz and the moshav as having supreme authority in their own areas of command and allows them to implement national plans, for which grants are given by the national ministries. This tends to bring about integration at the local level. All the functions are handled by elected members and this leads to effective decentralization. Horizontal coordination is also present as all functions are handled together. The evidence indicates therefore that the administrative structures are developed. 1. Maurice Konopnick, "The Public and Cooperative Sectors in Israel" in Annals of Public and Cooperative Economy, Vol.42, 1971, pp.48,71. 2. Naftali Golomb, "Kibbutz Administration" in Public Administration in Israel and Abroad, 1963, Jerusalem, 1964, p.54. 97 The Achievement. In the 25 years since Israel achieved independence, phenomenal progress was made. The average annual increase in total gpn.p. was 10% and in g.n.p. per capita- 5.5%. 1 Israel's emports grew from $ 30 millions in 1949 to almost $ 600 millions in 1962, and to $2,100 million in 1972. 2 In the field of agriculture, the record is highly commendable. Israel's average yield for cereal production is 1,873 kg/ha, which 3 is higher than most developing countries. The progress in production in agriculture is reflected in the increase in per capita food production between 1962/64 and 1970/72 from 159 to 205, on the basis of 1952/56 = 100. 4 The total cereal production has increased from 200,000 metric tons in 1969/71 to 278,000 metric tons in 1977.5 In terms of employment, Israel has perhaps achieved the best recorded in the non-socialist world. Rural as well as urban unemployment is very low. In 1960, the percent unemployed was as low as 5. In 1970 this was at 4%. 6 This very low level could be due to the fact that Israel has to maintain a large army. Equality is another area where Israel has achieved a great deal. In this the kibbutz is unique, due to its collective nature which ensures the distribution of income. In Israel, the percent 1. Moshe Sanbar, "Israel's Development Formula" in Economic Growth in DevelOping Countries-Material and.Human Resources, Praeger, 1975, p. 11. 2. Ibid., p. 11. 3. Norman T. Uphoff et. al., Local Organization for Rural Development: An Analysis of Asian Experience, op. cit., p.33. 4. Ibid., p. 35. 5. 1977 FAO Production Year Book, Op. cit., p. 92. 6. World Tables 1976, The World Bank, 1976,p. 516. 98 of national income received by the lowest 10% was at 7% in 1960 and had improved to 8% by 1970. Comparatively the percentage of national income received by the top 5% was as low as 13% both in 1960 as well as in 1970. 1 Many details are not available about the productivity of the kibbutz and the moshav. In the field of industrial develgpment, it is accepted that between 1969 and 1973 , in the kibbutz, industrial sales have increased three fold, exports two fold and investment almost three fold.2 The moshav and the kibbutz cultivated almost 62% of the agricultural land in 1967.3 Thus it could be said that the moshav and the kibbutz have heavily contributed to agricultural develOpment in Israel. It is observed that separate statistics regarding the use of innovations, use of credit, etc. are not available. However, the details quoted of the overall performance is indicative of the achievement. In 1964, a total of 90,000 peOple lived in kibbutzfL In the early seventies, the population was approximately 100,000, living in 234 settlements. The number amounted to 3.5% of the total pOpulation. The progress that has been made is indicative of the commitment of the people. 1. Ibid., p. 515 2. Yehudan Paz, "The Kibbutz after 25 years", in Kidma, Israel Journal of Development, Vol.2, No.1, 1974, p.34. 3. Howard Pack, Structural Change and Economic Polipy in Israel, Yale University Press, 1971, p.114. 4. Naftali Golomb, "Kibbutz Administration", op. cit.,p.53. 5. Yehudan Paz, "The Kibbutz after 25 years" op. cit.,p.32. 99 The Use of NonAFormal Education. The far reaching democracy in the kibbutz organization and especially the extraordinary decentralization of management tasks, the principle of rotation in management, the free and democratic decision about the use Of the common income for the different purposes, all these are not only aims in themselves. They serve at the same time to ensure the maximum active participation of the members and in this way to strengthen his bonds with the kibbutz. Responsibility is a sure method of identification. 1 Frequent general meetings with the active involvement and the participation of the people was a characteristic of the kibbutz. This is an important feature and it is one of the main areas where the kibbutz rural development model stands out from other models followed in Third World countries. Democracy in the kibbutz is true democracy. The frequent general meetings are occasions for animated discussion. They constitute a Parliament in which each member by simple virtue of membership has equal right to state his view and caste his vote. Duties are democratically assigned and in most cases, the principle of rotation is firmly observed, ensuring a maximum share of members in all kibbutz activities. 2 Discussion and deliberation is the keynote that has been followed to bring about the cooperation of the people in all develOpment activities. This led to active participation. The frequency of the meetings of the general body of members led to this. At times the meetings were very frequent, even once a week.3 The development activities were also implemented through the membership participating in sub-committees. It is said that at any one time 1. Joseph E. Shatel, "On the Validity of Kibbutz Experiences" in Annals of Public and Cooperative Economy, 1968, p. 167. 2. Naftali Golomb, "Kibbutz Administration", op.cit., P.54. 3. Ibid., p. 55. 100 1. "between one-third to one-fourth of all kibbutz members are on them . The sub-committees are designed in such a way that half of the members of each sub-committee have to be elected every year. This enables continuous activity in reviewing the work of the sub- committee as would happen whenever elections are held. Each sub- committee is in charge of a particular aspect of work. In each kibbutz, on the average, there are about 15 to 20 sub-committees, of which about 8 are concerned with economic aspects and the rest are concerned with the social aspects. This structure of sub-committees enable the members to be closely involved in the working of the different functions. In its working, the kibbutz Offers the maximum participation to the members. Thus the significant non-formal education processes that have been used to the maximum in the kibbutz in Israel are conscientization, discussion, deliberation and participation, every process leading to the develOpment of the initiatives of the people. Summapy of Evidence. The kibbutz and the moshav are forms of integrated rural develOpment administration, which have had a positive record of success. Their total integration characteristics, stemmimg from the fact that they were new settlements, enabled them to take a total view of development without any of the constraints that normal administrative systems have. An administrative system inherits a structure, which it has to amend or totally alter and in each case problems have to be faced when changes are made. In the case of the 1. Naftali Golomb, "Kibbutz Administration", op. cit., p.55. 101 new settlements in Israel, the administration was totally new and a participatory structure was built up which enabled the involvement of the people. The achievement of Israel, in most fields is highly creditable, and the achievement in the kibbutz contributed a great deal to national success. The process adopted for the involvement of the peOple in the tasks of develOpment indicate beyond doubt that significant non-formal education processes have been used to enable the total mobilization of the people for rural develOpment. The strength of the kibbutz as a viable organization is summarized as follows: The economic success of the kibbutz is closely related to its adaptability and power of innovation. Because it is a planned economy and can retrain and reemploy workers with orelatively little dislocation, it can respond flexibly to changes in economic emphasis. ... The generally high level of education in the kibbutz and its ability to mobilize resources, make it ideal for the develOpment of science based industry for example. On both levels, then, the kibbutz continues to lead in pioneering development. 1 THE UJAMAA SETTLEMENTS IN TANZANIA. The ujamaa settlement pattern and its administrative system arose in order to bring about integration of functions in rural development. Ujamaa vijinini is an overall development strategy and not merely one of several rural develOpment projects. ... In these regions the various agencies at regional and district level now have the opportunity to formulate fully integrated plans for the transformation of agricultural production towards ujamaa forms. 2 1. Yehudan Paz, "The Kibbutz after 25 years", op. cit.,p.35. 2. P.R.Lawrence, P.L.Raikes, R.G.Saylor and D.Warner, "Regional Planning in Tanzania: Some Institutional Problems",in African Journal of Rural Development, Vol.7, Nos. 1&2, p.22. 102 The earlier system of administration was the colonial pattern, where the maintenance of law and order was the prime concern. Various ministries and departments were added to the administrative structure that was inherited and this led to a situation where there is "lack of cooperation and coordination between the different Ministries".1 In fact the effect of the lack of integration and coordination was such that though in the sixties, a Rural Development Fund was established, much headway could not be made. Paul Collins says, A major factor inhibiting the institutionalization of the Rural Development Fund, is that with the present machinery, it has remained peripheral to the local institutional structures. Many of those involved in allocating and administering the Rural Development Fund have no direct interest in its productive employment either because they do not bear the costs themselves or because they are not in a position to enjoy the returns. 2 He specifically alludes to the lack of integration, when he says, "in sum, the nature of local institutions imposed a fragmented pattern on Rural Development Fund decision making". 3 Uma Lele has given the situation of integration in the administration in the country as a whole and specifies the changes made. She says that in 1971, .. there was little horizontal integration, i.e., programs for villagers were prepared, priorities worked out, budgets allocated and personnel deployed by the several Ministries in Dar es Salaam. The field staff were responsible to their parent agencies and rarely acted as members of a unified development 1. Ibid., p. 42. 2. Paul Collins, "The Working of Tanzania's Rural Development Fund: A Problem in Decentralization", in East African Journal of Rural Development, Vol.5, Nos. 1 & 2, p. 154. 3. Ibid., p. 156. 103 team. Second, the vertical set up was weighted in favor of the central bureaucracies with too little lower echelon input. Decisions took an inordinately long time... Consequently farmer initiative and OOOperation were often strangled. ... In 1972, the Government responded to these concerns by decentralizing the administration of its rural development program. The result of this action was a) to reduce the authority of sectoral Ministries, b) to grant TANU wider power to implement its policies and c) to give the Prime Minister's office an important role in coordinating the overall ujamaa strategy. 1 It is in this background of an uncoordinated administrative structure that the ujamaa settlements were introduced. Nyerere says of the ujamaa, A group of families will live together in a village and will work together on a common farm for their common benefit. Their houses will be the ones they build for themselves out of their own resources; their farm will be owned jointly and its produce will be their joint property. The activities of the village and the type of production they undertake as well as the distribution of crops and other goods they produce will be determined by the village members themselves. In other words, we shall have an up-to-date and larger version of the traditional African family. 2 Thus the entirety of development in the area is handed over to the ujamaa organization. "The Government's role is to help people to make a success of their work and their decisions".3 There was thus effective decentralization of functions. The ministries and departments had to entrust their work in the area to the ujamaa; this ensured the integration of functions. The development of the ujamaa as an institution for integrated rural development enabled action in all functions to 1. Uma Lele, The Design of Rural Development, John Hopkins University Press, 1975, p. 152. 2. J.K.Nyerere, "Socialism and Rural Development" in L.Cliffe et. al.,Rural COOparation in Tanzania, Tanzania Publishing House, 1975: Pol-5. 3. Ibid., p. 25. 104 be centered within it. The ujamaa was the single institution in the entire area. It was registered as an agricultural association as well as a cooperative. Powers were decentralized to this institution. Further, the ujamaa was also given a political base. Throughout our discussion, politicization has appeared to be an important aspect of the solution to many problems of the development front and it is also clear that the political party must be the major vehicle of that politicization. ... There is a parallel need for a further institutional creativity, with respect in particular to consolidating and clarifying‘Tanu's role as an agency with responsibilities for education, planning and implementation, as a force for socialism and as a framework for political participation, and as a core around which a more effective front must be structured. There is a firm basis for such an evolution within the develop- ment front as it is presently constituted. But in the last analysis, the political task remains the most crucial dimension of the local development effort. 1 As in China, the political party had a supervisory control and direction over development. It is also important to note that the party had a base among the masses. TANU is a mass party with a majority of poor peasant and worker members and a socialist majority on its central leadership. 2 The TANU membership extended to a million people.3 When considering a total workforce of 4.9 millions, this is a sizeable number. The ujamaa settlements had an administrative structure which was integrated, in that they handled every function, it was decentralized 1. L.Cliffe and J.S.Saul, "The District Development Front in Tanzania" in Socialism in Tanzania: An Interdisciplinary Reader, ed. by L.Cliffe and J.S.Saul, quoted in J.S.Saul,"The Reorganization of Victoria Federation of Cooperative Unions" in Rural Cooperation in Tanzania, ed. by L.Cliffe and J.S.Saul, Tanzania Publishing House, 1975, pp. 214,215. 2. R.H.Green, "Redistribution with Growth and or Transition to Socialist DevelOpment. Some Jottings on Tanzania 1961-74" in I.D.S. Bulletin, 1975, Vol.7, No.2, p.26. 3. Gerritz Huizer, "The Ujamaa Village Program in Tanzania, New Forms of Rural Development" in Studies in Comparative Inter- national Development, Vol.8, No.2, Summer 1973, p. 186. 105 and equipped with a political base, which also bestowed it with power in its decision making. The Achievement. Begining in the Arusha Declaration of 1967, Ujamaa villages came to be established from 1968 onwards. By 1972, a total of 850,000 people were in ujamaa settlements.1 By 1974, there were 3 million 'people, amounting to over 30% of the population. They were settled in 7,500 villages.2 R.H.Green says about the achievement. On the governmental, communal,parastatal (Ujamaa village, market cooperative, district development corporation) and Party Governing Bodies (Ten Cell, Ward, District, Constituency) fronts, serious efforts are being made to eliminate capitalist and authoritarian bureaucratic office holders not committed to a transition to socialism, based on creative local effort. Results are mixed from area to area and cannot be viewed as totally successful anywhere, but there are tangible results, which suggest that the approach is capable of yielding significant gains. 3 The commitment of the people to the concept of the Ujamaa is evident in the rapid eXpansion of the settlements. Till 1973, it was a totally voluntary movement and in that earlier year, 1972 as much as 850,000 people had already settled on the ujamaa basis. "On November 7, 1973, President Nyerere said that living together in villages was an order and had to be implemented in the next 3 years. This was a TANU decision." 4 Thereafter there was a great deal of compulsion by party cadres and local influentials to get local people to join the ujamaa settlements. HelgeKjekshus says 1. Uma Lele, The Design of Rural Developmemp, op. cit.,p.17. 2, R.H.Green, "Toward Ujamaa and Khjitegama" in Income Distribution and Absolute Poverty, Educational Aspects of the Tanzanian Transition to Socialismy Govt. of Tanzania, 1974, p.5 3. Ibid., p.8, Annex A. 4. L.A.Msambichaka and Robert B.M.Mabele, Agricultural Credit in the DevelOpment of Ujamaa Villages in Tanzania, Economic Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam, 1974, p.29. 106 that coercion had been used to force the people.1 In some areas where ujamaa settlements were created out of existing villages, there were instances of inequalities in land holdings. This was specially so in the ujamaa settlements in the WesternUsambharas.2 This situation is only to be expected in a program that did not have a revolutionary orientation. However, the ujamaa settlements, with its communal activity has been an attempt at egalitarianism. The entire country was moving towards egalitarianism; The ratio of top public sector pre-tax salaries to minimum wages was reduced from 80 to 1 at independence in 1961 to about 15 to 1 in mid 1974 and the effective purchasing power ratio from about 50 to 1 to under 10 to 1. 3 Thus on the whole it could be said that the evidence suggests that certain progress had been recorded towards egalitarianism. In Tanzania, though in 1961, the Agricultural Credit Agency was formed, the scheme was structured with heavy restrictions. The minimum loan that could be granted was i 5. The per capita income of the farmers was very low, as low as‘f 1.5 in 1967 in the Singida District. 4 Thus no small farmers could obtain loans. In a subsistence economy, there is very little cash flow and this explains the very low income level that had been recorded in this instance. Subsequently loans were granted under a reorganized system 1. Helge Kjekshus, The Villagization Panacea: A Review of Tanzania's Ujamaa Policy, Economic Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam, 1977, p.14. 2. John Sender, Preliminary Notes on the Political Economy of Rural Develgpment based on a case study in the Western Usambharas, Economic Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam, 1974, p.4. 3. R.H.Green, "Redistribution with Growth..." op. cit., p.22. 4. L.A. Msambichaka and Robert B.M. Mabele, Agricultural Credit in the Development....., op. cit., p. 8. 107 to ujamaa villages. In 1971/72, 29 ujamaa villages were given loans and in 1972/73, 54 ujamaa villages were give loans.1 It is observed that only ujamaa villages classified in stage 3 were given loans. No evidence is available about repayment of loans or overdues. The ujamaa settlements