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THE PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED KUWAIT DECISION MAKERS
AND CITIZENS TOWARD CAREER EDUCATION AND A

SUGGESTED MODEL FOR IMPLEMENTING CHANGE

BY

Sa'ad Jasim Y. Al-hashel

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1979

© 1979

SA'AD JASIM Y. AL-HASHEL

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ABSTRACT

THE PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED KUWAIT DECISION MAKERS
AND CITIZENS TOWARD CAREER EDUCATION AND A
SUGGESTED MODEL FOR IMPLEMENTING CHANGE
By

Sa'ad Jasim Y. Al-hashel

Rationale

The rapid changes in Kuwait society, brought
about by the development of the petroleum industry, have
improved the life style in Kuwait. However, attendant
to these improvements have come significant problems.

There exists a critical lack of Kuwaiti trained
professionals and technicians to work with the efficient
production of oil, a fundamental, nonrenewable resource.
Therefore, Kuwait has had to depend on professionally
and technically trained workers from other countries.

A national attitude exists toward technical edu-
cation; many people believe that anything less than
college education is designed for poor people.4

A compounding problem existing in Kuwait is that
many students leave formal education without marketable
skills or career goals. Some students who graduate from

high school go to the military or police college as

 

 

         

Sa'ad Jasim Y. Al-hashel

alternative solutions to becoming prepared or getting
jobs commensurate with their interests and abilities and

for which there exists a tremendous need.

The Purpose of This Study

 

The purpose of this study was to determine the
degree to which career education or some of its compo-
nents were perceived as being worthy of incorporation
into the curriculum of Kuwait public schools by members
of the Kuwait Ministry of Education, selected secondary
school principals, selected industrial directors, and

Michigan State University Kuwaiti graduate students.

Methodology

 

Forty items selected for inclusion were broadly
representative of two areas. Nineteen items were related
to the academic studies, and twenty-one related to career
education.

The statistical and descriptive data reported in
this study were gathered by a "Q"-sort technique adminis-
tered to four groups. This technique sorted and priori-
tized the forty items based upon the responses of the
thirty-nine participants in the study.

Data were analyzed through the use of a factor
analytic technique. An SPSS computer program was employed
to compute mean, standard deviation, and the t—test.

Means and standard deviations were generated for each item

Sa'ad Jasim Y. Al-hashel

by group and by total respondents. Means were also gen-
erated in a descending array for each of the items based
upon the responses made by all the participants to gain
insight into which of the items was perceived as being
significantly higher in priority as compared to the other

items.

Findings

1. Career education was perceived as a high pri-
ority area for Kuwaiti students by participants in the
study.

2. Each of the four groups of respondents rated
career education at a higher priority level than academic
studies.

3.. The data indicated that principals, directors
from industries, and graduate students displayed a "highest
priority" for incorporating career education concept with-
in the Kuwait educational system. These data appeared in
the mean scores for these three groups.

4. The concept of career education was perceived
as being important by respondents in this study. There-
fore, career education is suitable for consideration as a
vehicle through which change might be brought about in the

schools of Kuwait.

Recommendations

 

1. This study indicated a high level of acceptance

among the respondents. If career education is to become a

Sa'ad Jasim Y. Al-hashel

part of the educational system of Kuwait, the involvement
of parents, elementary school personnel, secondary school
educators, and faculty from the University of Kuwait must
be developed.

2. This study has indicated a lack of technical
workers in Kuwait. There is a strong possibility that
these workers received economic consideration below a
level which allows them to live with adequate economic
independence. This topic should be the focus for addi-
tional research.

3. Career education should be considered by other
developing countries who face educational problems similar

to those encountered in Kuwait.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to express his sincere
appreciation to his major professor, Dr. Richard E.
Gardner, for his untiring guidance and suggestions
during the writing of this dissertation.

Grateful acknowledgment is due Dr. Howard W.
Hickey for his assistance and counseling.

Thanks and appreciation are also expressed to
Dr. Ben A. Bohnhorst for his valuable suggestions.

Gratitude is extended to Dr. Glen 0. Cooper for
the time he spent serving as a member of the guidance
committee.

The author is also indebted to Dr. F. R. Ignato—
vich for his generous assistance in statistical aspects
of the problem.

The author also wishes to extend his appreciation
to the decision makers in the Kuwait Ministry of Edu-
cation, and the industrial directors, for their assistance.

Many thanks are expressed to all who contributed
to this study.

Finally, the author is deeply indebted to his

family for their encouragement and patience.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .
Rationale. . . . . . . . .
Problem Statement . . . .

II.

The Purpose of This Study . . .
Research Questions. . . . . .
Definition of Terms . .
Delimitations of the Study . .

Organization of the Study . . :

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . .
Part 1

Career Education Movement . . .

Career Education: Defined and Described

Career Education Rationale . .
Components of Career Education .

Development of Career Education in

Michigan . . . . . . .
Components of Career Education in
Michigan . . . . . . . .

Career Preparation . . . . .
Career Development . . .

Part 2

Public Education in Kuwait . . .

Brief History. . . . .
The Educational Change. . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .

iii

vi

Vii

LONKOCDGDCDUJ

Hra

14
15
24
31
39
41

41
43

48

48
50

55

Chapter

III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . 58

Item Selection . . . . . . . . . . 6O
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . 61

Data Collection Procedures . . . . . . 62
Dependent Variable . . . . . . . . 64
Analysis of Technique . . . . . . . . 64

IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . 67
Mean Rank . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Comparison Among the Groups . . . . . . 68

Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 75
Factor One . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Factor Two . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Factor Three . . . . . . . . . . 77

Factor Four. . . . . . . . . . . 77

Item Classifications . . . . . . . . 78

Item Description and Descending Array

of Z-Scores for Type 1 . . . . . . 79
Item Descriptions and Descending Array

of Z—Scores for Type 2 . . . . . . 85
Item Descriptions and Descending Array

of Z—Scores for Type 3 . . . . . 85
Item Descriptions and Descending Array

of Z—Scores for Type 4 . . . . . . 97
Consensus Items and Average Z-Scores . . 97

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 105

Summary of the Data. . . . . . . . . 106

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 109

VI. STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Advocacy. . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . 114

Advisory Committee . . . . . . . . 114
Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . 117
Community Relations . . . . . . . . 119

iv

 

Chapter

Evaluation

Basic Requirement.

Suggested Model

Career Awareness at the Elementary

Stage . .

Career Explorat

Stage
Placement .

APPENDICES

APPENDIX

A. MICHIGAN PUBLIC ACT 97

B. TYPES OF EXAMPLES AND ACTIVITIES FOR
CAREER PREPARATION AND DEVELOPMENT.

C. LETTERS THAT ACCOMPANIED THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

D. THE QUESTIONNAIRE

E. THE MASTER DATA MATRIX

F. CLASSIFIED PARTICIPANTS ON THE BASIS OF
THEIR FACTOR LOADINGS

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ion at the Middle Stage.
Career Preparation at the Secondary

o

o

120
121

124
124
126

127
128

130

139
141

153

154

156

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE OF PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL
WORKERS--CENSUS 1975 . . . . . . . .

1975/1976 - TABLE OF RESULTS OF GOVERNMENT
MIDDLE SCHOOLS EXAM . . . . . . .

TABLE OF RESULTS OF GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOLS
EXAM . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF NUMBER OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS,
STUDENTS, AND TEACHERS (1945/46-
1975/76) . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE OF RESPONDENTS. . . . . .
TABLE OF MEAN RANK OF ITEMS . . . . . .
TABLE OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF
THE SUBJECTS CONCERNING THEIR ATTITUDES
TOWARD ACADEMIC STUDIES ITEMS AND
CAREER EDUCATION ITEMS . . . . .
TABLE OF t-TESTS . . . . . . . . . .
TABLE OF DERIVED GROUP STRUCTURE. . . . .
TABLE OF ITEM DESCRIPTIONS FOR TYPE 1 . . .
TABLE OF ITEM DESCRIPTIONS FOR TYPE 2 .
TABLE OF ITEM DESCRIPTIONS FOR TYPE 3
TABLE OF ITEM DESCRIPTIONS FOR TYPE 4 . . .
TABLE OF CONSENSUS ITEMS . . . . . . .
DATA MATRIX. . . . . . . . . . . .
GROUP OF PEOPLE DETERMINED BY FACTOR
ANALYSIS . . . . . . . .

vi

52
62

69

74

76

78

80

86

92

98

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
2.1 An Integrated Approach . . .
6.1 An Interactive Network . . .

6.2 Career Education Model

42

115

125

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Kuwait society believes that expenditure on edu—
cation is an investment that can bring large dividends,
due to the conviction that the more one spends on edu—
cation, the more one yields positive results for the bene-
fit of individuals and groups.

The Kuwait public school system, operated by the
state, has shouldered almost all the burden of providing
the young generation with education-—academic, physical,
spiritual, and emotional. From the beginning, this system
was based on the realization of the role that could be
played by education in developing a generation of
enlightened, progressive youth as well as the realization
of the fact that good education would inculcate the spirit
of good citizenship toward the state. To reach this goal,
the Ministry of Education has expanded educational oppor—
tunities and has opened more new schools every year in
various areas of the country to provide increased oppor-

. . l
tunity and to face the annual population growth.

 

1Information Paper, Education in Kuwait (New York:
Arab Information Center, 757 Third Ave., 1966).

 

1

This philosophy is reflected in the constitution
of the State of Kuwait which mentioned upon resolution
of the constituent Assembly that:

Article 10: The state cares for the young and pro-
tects them from exploitation and from moral,
physical and spiritual neglect.

Article 13: Education is a fundamental requisite
for the progress of society, assured and promoted
by the state.2

A reading of history makes it evident that the
educational process in Kuwait has been subject to change.
This change did not occur in a day but through a process
of thorough scrutiny.

Today there is increasing sentiment for another
reconstruction period in education. In the past, public
education has done a commendable job. Some students have
become well educated as a result of attending school and
learning the content offered by the educational system.
The student had reason to learn how to read, how to
write, and how to communicate.

Because of recent rapid advances in the technology
and extreme changes in Kuwait society, more than reading
and computation are now required. Times have changed and
so have the needs of youth. The major task facing Kuwait

is to improve education to keep pace with current and

future need.

 

2The Constitution of the State of Kuwait (Kuwait
Government Printing Press, undated), p. 7.

 

Toffler (1970) stated:

The curriculum of tomorrow must thus include not
only an extremely wide range of data—oriented
courses, but a strong emphasis on future-relevant
behavioral skills. It must combine variety of
factual content with universal training in what
might be termed "Life Know—how."

Rationale

The rapid changes in Kuwait society, brought about
by the development of the petroleum industry, have improved
the life style in Kuwait. However, attendant to these
improvements have come significant problems.

There exists a critical lack of Kuwaiti—trained
professionals and technicians to work with the efficient
production of oil, a fundamental, nonrenewable resource.
Therefore, Kuwait has had to depend on professionally

and technically trained workers from other countries (see

Table 1.1).

TABLE 1.1

TABLE OF PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL WORKERS--
CENSUS 1975

 

 

Sex Kuwaiti Non-Kuwaiti
Male 5,677 22,002
Female 4,062 10,095

Total 9,739 32,097

 

SOURCE: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Planning,
Annual Statistical Abstract, Edition XLV, Kuwait,
1977.

 

 

3Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random
House, Inc., 1970), P. 418.

Since almost all of the Kuwaiti revenues depend

on oil, which is limited in quantity and has a short life

span,

and because Kuwait has no other natural resources,

it becomes of the utmost importance for Kuwait to take

the following measures:

A. To safeguard the oil resources and to use these
resources in a way that guarantees long-range
benefits to the country.

B. To invest the oil revenues in the best ways

possible in order to guarantee an ever-growing
income for the country to be able to maintain

and increase its rate of development.4

A national attitude exists toward technical edu—

cation in that many people believe that anything less
than college education is designed for poor people. A
similar belief apparently exists in the United States.

Hoyt et al. suggested that: A harmful societal
attitude must now be eliminated; that is, the false
notion of four year college education as the only
respectable preparation and the best route to suc-
cessful employment. Public education has been a
major contributor to this misleading philosophy
and has a major responsibility to remedy it. But
at the same time, college education will continue
as a major path, both for career preparation and
for intellectual and aesthetic satisfaction, pro—
bably for slowly rising proportions of the total

 

4Report on the "Five Years Plan" of Technical and

Vocational Education (Technical & Vocational Education
Department, Ministry of Education, November 28, 1974),
pp. 3-4.

 

population. It must be available to all who want
and profit from it, and it must be as meaningful
as it is possible to make it.

A compounding problem existing in Kuwait is that
many students leave formal education without marketable
skills or career goals. Some students who graduate from
high school go to the military or police college as
alternative solutions to becoming prepared or getting
jobs commensurate with their interests and abilities, and
for which there exists a tremendous need.

The other facet of the problem is that the Kuwaiti j if
curriculum is college oriented, competitive, so even aca-
demically talented students find it difficult to achieve :9
all the demands. Students in the middle schools have to .»
pass examinations to be upgraded. Students in high
schools have to pass national leaving examinations in
order to receive the General Certificate of Secondary
School (see Tables 1.2 and 1.3).

Since the society demands of its citizens more
knowledge, reasoning ability, and skilled workers than
ever before, so the ultimate goals of the educational
system must examine more components. Students must be
prepared to take their places as contributing adults in
the society, to earn a living, to be responsible citizens,

and to obtain satisfaction from their leisure.

 

5

Kenneth B. Hoyt et a1., Career Education: What
It Is and How To Do It (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Publishing Co., 1974), p. 225.

 

 

.Snma .Dfimusm .>Hx cofluflwm
.pomuuwn< HOUHumflumDm Hmscc< .mcflccmam mo >HDMHQHZ .ooflmmo HOOHumHumgm HOHucoo “MUmDOm

 

 

 

 

 

 

m.HN m.wH H.mm o.mH m.ma m.hH m.vN o.mH m.mm omODGOOHom
mamma momv ommm HhHm mafia mmom vam mmam hmmm mcflaflmm
m.m> H.mw o.mn o.vw b.wm H.Nw h.mn v.Hm N.Hh ommwcwouom
mmomv HoHHN Hmmvm momma wmmb vam mmmmm mmmma omema mcflmmmm
va Nmm mmH om v ma Hmm mvm mna #50 Agown
mmwmm vmvmm HHNmm mmmmfl vmmw vomHH thmm ONHNH NOPHN OOSMUGODH¢
wommm wowmm 006mm wmmma mmmw ONmHH mwmmm wmvhfi omeN wwuwumflmwm
Hmuoe oaofiom mam: HouOB mamaom mam: HEDGE oawfiwh THEE
Hmuoa HDHOBSMICOZ ADHOBDM EODH

 

E<xm mqoomvm HQQQHE Bzmzzmm>ow m0 mBqumm mo mqmdfi I whma\mhma

N.H mamdfi

.hhma .DHM3DM t>Hx COADHUM
.uomuumDE HEOMDMMDEDm Hmscc< .maflccmam mo Enumflcflz .OOMMGO Hmuflumfiumum Hmuuawo ”momDOm

 

 

 

 

 

«.mH m.mH m.om m.va m.ma m.mH m.om N.ma m.mm ommwcoouwm
mmmm mmmm «mom mmma mmn hoaa wamm Hmma bmma mcflaflmm
m.Hm N.vm m.mh ¢.mm m.nw m.mw H.m> m.Hw H.m> ommgcmouwm
HHNGN anNH vthH bmmoa hamm oamm wwmma oaan vnam mcflmmmm
HMH vv pm we OH vm hm vm mm #50 mono
vammm mmnva wmmva mmnma mnom bahma momma Hmmw HHHw oocmccouum
mmhmm oamva mamva mmmNH mwom Hmhma mmwmfi mmnm vam pouwumflmom
Hmuoe OHmEom THO: HEDGE wamfiom OHM: Hmuoe mamfiom mam:
HEDGE HDHO35MICOZ HDHOBSM EmuH

 

dem WQOOEUm mUHm BZMZZKH>OO m0 mBQDmmm ho mgmflfi

m.H mqm<B

Hence, the Ministry of Education has been attempt-
ing to promote equal status for vocational and liberal

arts education.

Problem Statement

 

Many graduates of Kuwait public high schools leave
the system without marketable skills and with limited
knowledge of career options which are available to them.
This is viewed as detrimental to them and to Kuwait

society.

The Purpose of This Study

 

The purpose of this study was to determine the
degree to which career education or some of its components
were perceived as being worthy of incorporation into the
curriculum of Kuwait public schools by members of the
Kuwait Ministry of Education, selected secondary school
principals, selected industrial directors, and Michigan

State University Kuwaiti graduate students.

Research Questions

 

1. To what degree is career education a Viable
approach to improving Kuwait public education
as perceived by decision—makers in the Ministry
of Education, public secondary school principals,
industrial directors in Kuwait, and Michigan

State University Kuwaiti graduate students?

2. What are the processes whereby innovation can be
introduced into the public elementary and secon—

dary schools of Kuwait?

Definition of Terms

 

Terms used in this study are defined as follows:

Academic Studies.-—Represent the formal education

existing in Kuwait.

Curriculum.-—The experiences which are offered to

students under the direction of the school.6

Change.—-Any significant alteration which is

intended to benefit the people involved.7

Change Agent.--A person who facilitates planned

change or planned innovation.8

Resources.—-Persons or things which can be used
to improve an innovation or an innovative process.
Resources may be available both inside and outside the

client system.9

 

6Samuel Corl, "Definitions of Curriculum" (unpub-

lished material, Department of Curriculum, Michigan State
University, Summer 1974).

7

Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to
Innovation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—
Hall, 1973), P. 4.

 

 

81bid., p. 5. 9Ibid.

10

Vocation.--The work in which a person is regularly
employed usually for pay. It also refers to the member—
ship of a particular occupational group: the persons

engaged in a field of business, profession, or trade.10

Vocational Education.--Training for a specific

 

occupation in agriculture, trade, or industry through a
combination of theoretical teaching and practical exper-
ience provided by many high schools in their commercial
and technical divisions, and by special institutions of
collegiate standing (as a college of agriculture, a
school of engineering, or a technical institute).ll

Career.-—Is the totality of work one does in his

or her life time.12

Life Roles.—-It refers to the individual's roles
in all aspects of life, as a family member, citizenship
role, avocational or leisure interests, and occupational

role.

 

10
Philip Babcock Gove et a1., Webster's Third New
International Dictionary (Springfield, Mass.: G. & C.
Merriam Company, Publishers, 1971).

 

 

11
Ibid.

12
Kenneth B. Hoyt et a1., Career Education in the
Middle/Junior High School (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Publishing Co., 1973), P. 38.

 

 

11

Career Education.—-A structure whose desired out—
comes necessitate cooperation among all elements of edu-
cation as well as among the school, industry, and com-

. l3
munity.

Career Education Components.—-Career education

 

consists of five components and these are: Self-awareness
and assessment, Career awareness and exploration, Career
decision making, Career preparation, and Career planning

and placement.

Self—awareness and Assessment.——Self—awareness

 

refers to assisting individuals to understand themselves

and others.14

Career Awareness.-—Career awareness refers to the
gaining of knowledge relative to the interdependence of
family, citizen, leisure, and occupational roles; home,
school, work, and community settings; and the various
events such as job entry, marriage, and retirement, which

. . . . . 15
may occur during the life stages of 1nd1v1duals.

 

l3Sidney P. Marland, Career Education (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974), p. 91.

l4Unpublished material, Career Education Depart—
ment (Michigan State University, East Lansing), p. 2.

15Ibid.

 

12

Career Exploration.--Refers to activities which

 

allow the individual to test reality through "hands on"

experiences predominantly in the total community.

Career Decision Making.--Decision making refers

 

to the skill of applying one's knowledge to a rational

. 1
process of career ch01ce.

Career Preparation.—-Career preparation consists

 

of the acquisition of those knowledges and skills gained
through formal and informal experiences in existing school
programs such as the academic programs, vocational pro—
grams, and the technical programs. Career preparation is
intended to provide the basic skills and employment skills
necessary for individuals to effectively fulfill their

life roles.l7

Career Planning and Placement.--Refers to the

 

skills necessary to develop and implement systematic

programs to reach career goals.

Delimitations of the Study

 

The research will be limited to the concept of
career education and its implications for Kuwait.

The study is not generalizable beyond Kuwait.

 

l6Ibid. l7Ibid.

18Ibid.

13

The study is concerned with career education
application in elementary and secondary schools.

This study is affected by the participants'
understanding of each of the items regarding career edu-
cation and academic studies.

This study may be affected by the participants'
understanding of the programmatic implications inherent in
each of the items relating to career education and aca-

demic studies.

Organization of the Study
Chapter II will include a review of the literature
relative to career education and public education in
Kuwait. Chapter III will present the methodologies and
procedures employed in the investigation. Chapter IV
includes the findings of this research. Chapter V con-
tains the summary, conclusions, and recommendations while

Chapter VI presents some strategies.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter is divided into two sections. The
first section includes a description of research on

career education. The second section gives an overview

of public education in Kuwait.

Part 1

Career Education Movement

 

Career education became of real concern to Ameri—
can educational institutions in the early seventies; how-
ever, there is evidence that concern began to develop
prior to World War II when the United States began a rapid
transition from an economy based on agriculture to one
based on industry and technology. As the nation became
more technology—oriented, the demands for qualified people
to fill newly created technical positions increased.
Although there is still merit in advanced training, the
demand for the traditional professional college education

has given way to the demand for technical and service—type

14

 

 

15

skills. This turn of events has caught educational insti-
tutions in a lag in training and directing of young people
toward adult careers.

Not only are educational institutions faced with
change in skill training, but they must also provide
personal and career guidance experiences that will enable
a young person to select the proper career, COpe with job
pressures, and understand different life styles.'

Career Education: Defined and
Described

 

 

Career education has several definitions and these
definitions present the consensus among scholars. Marland
defined it as:

A concept that says three things. First, that
career education will be part of the curriculum
for all students, not just some. Second, that

it will continue throughout a youngster's stay in
school, from the first grade through senior high
and beyond, if he so selects. And third, that
every student leaving school will possess the
skills necessary to give him a start in making a
livelihood for himself and his family even if he
leaves before completing high school.

Hoyt et al. described it as: "Career education

is the total effort of public education and the community

 

lJean Lewis et a1., Implementation Guide to Career
Education (Oregon: Vale School District 15, June 1976),
p. 13.

 

 

2Kenneth B. Hoyt et a1., Career Education: What
It Is and How To Do It (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Publishing Co., 1974), p. 13.

 

 

16

to help all individuals become familiar with the values of

a work—oriented society, to integrate these values into
theiripersonal value systems, and to implement these
values into their lives in such a way that work becomes
possible, meaningful, and satisfying to each individual."

Dr. Shofstall, Arizona State Superintendent of
Public Instruction, defined it as:

Combining the academic world with the world of work.
It must be available at all levels of education.
Career education is not an add-on; it is a blending
of the vocational, the general, and the college
preparatory education . . . synonymous with "all
education" career education must become the term.
When we say education, we must mean "career edu—
cation."

Dr. Selland, Assistant State Director of Vocational

Education, North Dakota State Department of Education,
states:

Career education is an integral part of education.
It is a concept that includes as its main thrust
the preparation of all students for a successful
life of work by increasing their options for occu—
pational choice and attainment of job skills, and
by enhancing learning achievement in all subject
matter areas. . . . a total effort of the home,
school, and community to help all individuals
become familiar with the values of a work-oriented
society, to integrate these values in their lives,
in a way that work becomes useful, meaningful, and
satisfying.5

 

3Ibid., p. 15.

4Sidney P. Marland, Career Education (New York:
McGraw—Hill Book Co., 1974), p. 92.

51bid., p. 94.

 

17

American Vocational Association (from "Task
Force Report on Education," AVA Journal, January 1972)
states:

Career education is needed by and intended for all
people. It is a lifelong process which extends
from early childhood through adulthood, based upon
the premise that all honest work and purposeful
study is respectable, provides the means by which
the educational system can focus on career develop—
ment, provides a unifying core for the total edu-
cational enterprise with intensive occupational
preparation as a significant aspect, it will be
necessary to utilize the common and unique con—
tributions of all educators, and the resources of
home, school and community.

Goldhammer and Taylor (in Career Education:

Perspective and Promise, 1972) state:

 

Career education is designed to capacitate indi—
viduals for their several life roles: economic,
community home, avocational, religious, and
aesthetic. Designed for all students, career
education should be viewed as lifelong and per-
vasive, career education is a systematic attempt
to increase the career options available to indi—
viduals and to facilitate more rational and valid
career planning and preparation. Through a wide
range of school and community—based resources,
young people's career horizons should be broadened.
Their self-awareness should be enhanced.

In a similar fashion, the state of Michigan has defined
career education as: "The delivery of skills and knowl-
edge to all students which will provide them with the
ability to explore, understand, and perform in their life

roles while learning, working, and living."8

 

6Ibid., pp. 95-96. 7Ibid., p. 96.

8Unpublished material, Career Education Department
(Michigan State University, East Lansing).

18

Is career education a new name for vocational
education? Is it synonymous with vocational education?
The differences between career education and
vocational education cannot be discussed without alluding
to their similarities. In fact, the similarities may be
the basic cause of the confusion about career education
and vocational education and the way in which they relate
to each other. For instance, both vocational education
and career education are about work. Also, individuals
often use the terms "career" and "vocation" interchange-
ably, hence their view that career education is synonymous
with vocational education. Similar teaching—learning (
strategies are used in both which causes some confusion, !
and that both work in collaboration with the business ‘
community is an additional reason for confusion.
Career education and vocational education operate
within different boundaries. By design, career education
is broad in its coverage of occupations to achieve the
goal of providing sufficient information and experiences
for career decision making. Vocational education is
somewhat more narrow in that its goal is to provide
skills, training, knowledge, and social interaction com—
petencies to prepare individuals for entry into paid

employment in a specific job or job cluster.9

 

9Irene Clements, Career Education and Vocational
Education: A Comparison (Washington, D.C.: National
Education Association, 1977), p. 5.

 

 

 

 

 

19

Broadly stated, career education seeks to remove
the assumed distinction between the academic and the
vocational learning program, blending them to serve all
learners at all levels of instruction in their quest for
productive careers and rewarding lives. Career education
proposes to inform persons K—adult about the great variety
of career options. Vocational education is a very impor-
tant segment of career education. Individuals served by
vocational education are those interested in preparing for
a selected job. If career education has, in fact, func-
tioned effectively, the vocational student should have
chosen the job or job cluster based on information about
himself or herself and about the job for which he/she is
training.10 3

Generally speaking, we can see that the greatest
difference stems from the way that each concept approaches
instruction. Career education encompasses educational
experiences for all individuals beginning in early child-
hood and extending throughout an individual's productive
life, whereas vocational education is limited to these
individuals preparing for paid employment in adolescence
and continuing through adulthood.

Career education includes an awareness of the
world of work, lesiure, citizen and family roles, and

responsibilities. In—depth exploration of occupations

 

10Ibid., p. 6.

 

20

and career preparation, including vocational, technical,
and professional education and training, and placement
for all students, are considered critical components.
Vocational education, a segment of career education, is
designed to fit individuals for gainful employment as
semi-skilled or skilled workers or technicians in occu-
pations that are not generally considered professional
or to require a baccalaureate or higher degree.

Career education and vocational education employ
many of the same teaching-learning strategies, but these
strategies are used to achieve different purposes.

Vocational education may continue throughout
life, but it is initially completed at the high school
level, or in a post high school technical institution.

Career education, on the other hand, links learn—
ing activities with jobs and life roles along the entire
range of skills from the semi-skilled to the professional
and, in addition, emphasizes decision-making skills to
improve individual choices concerning work and education
or training.

Career education represents a composite of what
might be described as education for productivity and edu-
cation for choosing (career development). This combination
of emphasis has been reflected in a paper on career edu-
cation adopted by the National Association of State

Directors of Vocational Education. Among the essential

21

characteristics of career education to which they give
their support were the following selected examples:

1. Career education is not synonymous with vocational
education, but vocational education is a major
part of career education.

2. Career education involves extensive orientation
and exploration of occupational opportunities.

3. Career education is a continuum that begins at
kindergarten and extends throughout education.

4. Career education includes specific preparation
for occupation.

5. Career education assures realistic occupational
choices.

6. Career education permits each student to realisti-
cally assess personal attributes as a part of
setting life goals.

Career education is preparation for all meaningful
and productive activity at work (as employer or employee),
in private business, or in the public sector, or in the
family. Beginning with that conviction, the fundamental
concept of career education is such that all types of edu-

cational experiences, curriculum, instruction, and coun—

 

seling should involve preparation for economic indepen- g

dence, personal fulfillment, and an appreciation for the p

 

dignity of people. It seeks to give meaning to all edu—
cation by relating its content to the life roles, present
and future. However, career education is a concept not

just for youth but must also include adults who need to

 

llPosition paper on career education (Adopted at
Las Vegas, Nevada, National Association of State Directors
of Vocational Education, September 17, 1971).

 

22

become aware of options, to upgrade their skills, update
their knowledge, and, if necessary or desirable, retrain
for a new job.12

Career education holds that the schools must have
as one of their goals contributing to the development of
youth into the kind of adults who can find the greatest
satisfaction and make the most useful contributions in
their lives. This realization helps prevent mistaking
means for ends, and it helps keep the college role in
perspective by declaring it to be only one of the
respectable and effective alternatives available in
preparing for life and life's work. I

Career education is vitally concerned with helping 1
individuals implement their own personal work values. To

do this demands that in addition to wanting work, indi—

viduals must also acquire the skills necessary to work,
and having done this, must then find work that is both
meaningful and satisfying to them. Thus, jobs, in a
generic sense, are not career education's goals. Rather,
the capacity to work at productive activity that holds
personal meaning and satisfaction for the individual is
one of the ultimate goals of career education.
Career education increases the relevance of
school by focusing on the learner's perceptions
of work and of himself or herself as a worker.

Career education is not to be limited to the class—
room. It relates to all learning environments and

 

12Hoyt, Career Education, p. 20.

23

learning experiences from early childhood throughout
the productive life of an individual. In early
childhood it provides an awareness of the nature of
the world of work as well as the importance of work
itself in the society.13
In the December 1976 Bulletin (NASSP), Wray indi-
cated that career education is a course of continued
progress; it would go a long way toward helping students
meet the challenges of the future.14
Career education is education for human growth,
according to some authorities. Central in this type of 1
education is the healthy development of the person. The
curriculum of the school must specify means of fostering
human growth as well as methods and materials for convey—
ing knowledge of content.

Career education in its fullest sense must go

hand in hand with humanistic education. The current

 

thrusts for value education, moral education, and edu-
cation for responsibility are all facets of this same
issue.

An important component of career education is an
on—going career awareness program for all students. This
program should be planned so that the student becomes

aware of career options and is able to understand the

 

l3Ibid., p. 21.

14Jerome A. Wray, "Vocational Education of What
Value?," NASSP (Bulletin, National Association of Secon—
dary School Principals, December l976):6l-62.

24

relationship between what he is doing in the classroom
and its application in the world outside the classroom.
Another component of career education is to have
all students participating in off-campus exploratory
experience programs as a part of their secondary school
education. Rather than setting up elaborate and expensive
on-campus vocational programs for the few, the school
could serve as a broker to arrange off-campus exploratory )
programs for all students.
One difficulty in the implementation of this
third component is the possible lack of awareness on the
part of the business/professional community of its respon—

sibility for career education and the inability of edu—

 

cation to assess the larger community due to organizational f

restraints as well as communication problems. }

Career Education Rationale

 

Career education is for all students regardless
of age or year in school and continues_into adulthood,
whereas vocational education, as currently in practice,
has its major thrust in the high school and beyond.

Career education benefits all students because
it seeks to enable all individuals to make personal,
informed career choices as they proceed through life.
It has been recognized recently that the choice of an
occupation is a prime determiner of the life style of

an individual. With this realization, individuals are

25

choosing desired life styles and then choosing occupations
to fit their life styles. To do so, they must learn to
identify their own strengths, weaknesses, interests, and
aversions. These must then be related to the requirements
of the world of work, including educational preparation
for specific jobs. The decision—making process is vital
to a fully useful life. Career decisions may be required
several times during a lifetime and may include decisions
about promotions and changes in assignments as well as in
the selection of an occupation, whether it be semi—skilled,
skilled, or professional. Vocational education, as it

now exists, is for those individuals who plan to enter
employment at or before high school graduation or to pur-
sue training at less than a baccalaureate degree level.
Although vocational education is designed for skill
development with the result of employment, it serves as

an exploratory experience for some learners. Learners

may decide on a professional career in the areas for which
they have vocational training.

Proponents of career education believe that
vocational education should be expanded to include‘
all secondary school students. It is proposed that
no student should leave high school without a
saleable skill, that is, without the chance to ,
benefit from multiple opportunities for actual work
experience integrated with the school study program.
Throughout the secondary school three objectives
for vocational education should be emphasized:

(1) education for each student that is saleable in
terms of the labor market needs; (2) education that

l

 

ll

26

increases student options; and (3) education that
contributes to a better understanding of non—
vocational learning.15

As for the education system, most criticisms have
been leveled at the "school for schooling sake" tenden—
cies and the worship of the college degree as the only
really respectable entrance way into the occupational
world. It is to be expected that to the educator, edu-
cation might become an end in itself. MHowever, society
looks to education as a means to some larger and more
important end. It is not enough for the elementary
school teacher t6 concentrate upon preparing the youth ;
fer the junior high school and so on up the educational
ladder. Society expects preparation for something out—
side the school for successful living, including making
a living. Success in the job market is not the only
objective of education, but it is the one many parents
and legislators recognize most readily.

A recent information that addresses American
attitudes toward this subject comes from a January 1974
preliminary report of a survey conducted by the National
Institute for Education (NIE). An abbreviated summary
by NIE staff stated:

A nationwide survey conducted by the National
Opinion Research Center reveals that public

Views on the objectives of secondary education
indicate that most segments of the population

 

15Clements, Career Education, p. 9.

27

rank the possession of job skills far ahead of

most other objectives. Job skills ranked twice

as important as respect for authority or aca—

demic skills, more than three times as important

as keeping students out of trouble, or providing

a setting for making friends, and more than four

times as important as awareness of cultural

identity.16

Advocacy of career education is also closely con—

nected to a rising concern for the meaning of work in the
lives of people. Unrest and dissatisfaction have been
evident in recent years though it is still unclear whether
the incidence is greater than in the past. Much of the
debate as to what is happening to work values and worker
attitudes starts with a confusion of terms. Hoyt et al.
expressed that:

Work values lack the sense of "oughtness" of the

work ethic. Career education says: Each indi—

vidual should be led to develop his own work values

after becoming fully aware of the alternatives and

the implications, rather than have them dictated.l7

Adults frequently downgrade blue—collar vocations

in favor of white collar vocations. Children are often
discouraged from developing interests in occupations that
call for manual and technical skills, which are deemed to

be less worthy and less socially acceptable than other

skills.

 

l6Marland, Career Education, p. 15.

l7Hoyt et a1., Career Education in the Middle/
Junior High School (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Pub—
lishing Co., 1973), p. 22.

 

 

 

28

To overcome these attitudes, an interview program
was developed as a part of the Career Education Project I
in the Robbinsdale (Minn.) School District.

The career education project in Robbinsdale
(Minn.) was designed to encourage teachers through work-
shops and other in-service experiences to follow their
instincts and to help all students. The project aimed to 1
further the concept that all workers are worthy if their
work was chosen on the basis of real interest and ability.

School districts arranged for teachers to visit 3%
industrial plants, taking the usual public relations tours,

listening to management talk about production rates and

 

technological advances. This was followed with a very
close two-to—one or one-to—one conversation with workers
at all levels--a career interview.

The results of the project revealed that the
teachers changed their negative attitudes and began to
hold the blue-collar vocations in high regard. For
example,

A fourth grade teacher exploded with excitement

as she described her interview: "I talked to a
welder. I always thought that was a dirty,

boring job. Now, after finding out how that man \
feels about his work, how he solves problems, and \

the skills he has to have, I can see that what he
does is really an art!"18 \

 

18Don Johansen, "Tell Me What To Do," NASSP
(Bulletin, National Association of Secondary School
Principals, December l976):63.

 

29

Since evidence is strong that attitudes are
formed most efficiently early in life, a work ethic must
at leastbe introducedin early childhood and in elemen-
tary-eduCation programs; w mnflw_ W

In the November 1976 Elementary School Journal,

 

Georgiady declared that:

It is imperative that elementary school teachers be
prepared, through retraining, to help their pupils
add to their knowledge of vocations and adopt a

more constructive attitude toward work. The train-
ing should include the examination and the evaluation
of the attitudes that teachers themselves hold toward
various vocations. Teachers' attitudes inevitably
influence teachers' behavior in the classroom.

Subtly or overtly, teachers exert considerable
influence on their pupils' attitudes. If teachers
hold certain vocations in low regard, the attitudes
are likely to influence pupils. Even teachers who
are aware of the problem are often unable to change
their behavior because they lack the knowledge about
curriculum development and the direction necessary

to provide appropriate learning activities in early
career education. Most schools lack the curriculum
strategies and the materials to help teachers COpe
with this serious problem.19

Therefore, the basic directional change needed at
the present time is the insertion of successful preparation
for work as a major objective of education at every level
and in every kind of setting.

Hoyt et al. suggested that three needed directions

for change, however, would seem to be obvious. First, we

‘Hw—

“... .W. i. ..

must eliminate the absolute necessity for college degrees

and college credits as a requirement for progress as an

 

19N. P. Georgiady, "Blue-Collar Career? Why Not?"

The Elementary School Journal (November l976):l7.

 

30

educator. Alternative routes to the acquisition of com—
petgnce must be recognized, utilized, and rewarded.

Second, control of public education must be returned to

the real majority of our citizens. A more positive way

of expressing citizens' views must be found. Third, \m/
conscious and conscientious efforts must be aimed Ht“
helping educators rid themselves of the attitudes that a
college degree represents an ultimately desirable goal

for all.

They suggest also that business, service, labor,
and industrial personnel could spend part of their time
instructing in the schools. It would make possible an
exchange system between school administrators and those
from business and industry that would hold positive
potential for helping all concerned. The possibilities
of devising these and a host of other means of bridging
the gap between education and work are very great indeed.20

Preparing young people for future employment is an
important part of career education, but it is only a part.

During a lifetime, all people have important life roles
to fulfill as citizens, consumers, family members, par—

ticipants in religions, recreational, hobby, and aesthe-

tic activities, as well as in the world of work careers.

 

20Hoyt et a1., Career Education, pp. 61-78.

 

 

31

For the individual to be successful as an adult in all
these roles requires a successful experience as a child
and learner.

'Students are expected to acquire a number of
skills during the growing-up years and the schools are
expected to provide many of the experiences that assure
acquisition of these skills: the basics of reading,
writing, arithmetic, preparation for functioning in
adult society, dealing with change, ability to think
creatively and critically, development of self-confidence,
and gaining of skills so they can get and hold a job. A
primary goal of career education is to provide a unity of
purpose to the school's role in achieving these skills.

Career education has four phases that are basic,

and placement has a role to play in all of these phases.

Components of Career Education

 

Career awareness.—-Career awareness receives
major emphasis in elementary school; however, it is
recognized that differing degrees of career awareness
will continue through a lifetime. The elementary years
are not the time for even tentative decisions about
careers. Elementary school students should become aware
of the world of work and the wide range of occupations
within it. They should understand how they relate to

the world of work and the role of work in their own

 

32

lives.21 The elementary grades should include activities
that allow students to develop positive attitudes toward
work and toward self. Acquiring positive attitudes toward
the world of work is a developmental process which begins
with self—awareness and gradually moves toward helping
students formulate career thoughts so that they will
develop an image of themselves as effective workers in a
career-oriented society. Career education does not seek
to impose any particular set of work values on any indi-
vidual; however, career education presupposes that one
cannot develOp personal work values without becoming
familiar with those held by others and without developing
an understanding of the basic effects of work values upon
the individual and society.
Career awareness should include teaching-learning
strategies that will help students to:
1. Become aware of the multitude of careers
available.
2. Become aware of themselves in relation to the
occupational career role.
3. Build foundations for wholesome attitudes
toward society and the role of work in society.
4. Become aware of how the basic skills of
learning and social development relate to
the worker and his/her career.

5. Make tentative choices of career clusters to
explore in greater depth in the mid-school years.

 

21Clements, Career Education and Vocational Edu-
cation, p. 10.

 

22David Jesser, Career Education: A Priority of
the Chief State School Officers (Salt Lake City, Utah:
Olympus Publishing Co., 1976), p. 97.

 

 

 

33

Career exploration.--The career exploration com-
ponent of career education has been interpreted as appro-
priate for students in middle schools and beyond. This
component of career education allows students to explore
in-depth occupational families of their own choice.
Exploration will include activities such as "hands-on"
experiences; field trips; contact with resource people
from business, industry, labor, and the professions; and
work observation experiences.

The career exploration component should include
activities that will help individuals to:

1. Explore occupational areas of particular
interest and to assess their interests,
abilities and aversions.

2. Become familiar with the wide range of careers
within each occupational cluster.

3. DevelOp an awareness of relevant factors to
be considered in choosing a career.

4. Gain experience in meaningful decision—making.

5. Develop preliminary career plans and arrive
at a tentative career choice.23
It must be emphasized that plans and career

choices are tentative and may be refined and redefined

by the individual several times.

Career orientation.-—The orientation component

 

comes at high school. At this stage the student gains
further insight into tentative career choices through
world of work experiences. These may be arranged for

formally or informally and they may involve spending

 

23Ibid., p. 99.

34

some time in volunteer activities or paid employment.
For example. students interested in business and office
occupations may work as volunteer office help in the
school system. Paid summer employment is another avenue

of career orientation.

Career preparation.—-Career preparation (which

 

includes vocational education) should allow students to:

l. Acquire occupational skills and knowledge for
entry into an occupation and/or advanced edu—
cation and training.

2. Relate a number of high school experiences to
generalized career goals.

3. Demonstrate acceptable job habits.

4. Participate in on-the-job training.

5. Select appropriate post—secondary educational
and/or training institutions.

“2,“ -.__...A.LL

The career preparation component will find some
students preparing for careers that require at least a
baccalaureate degree for entry; others will be preparing
for careers that require post high school education, but
less than a baccalaureate degree for entry. And still
others will be preparing for careers that they can enter

directly upon leaving high school.

Placement.~-The placement function, although
slightly different in application, is a vital component
of both career education and vocational education. Place—
ment and guidance services are somewhat broader in scope

for career education than for vocational education.

 

24Ibid., pp. 100—01.

 

35

Placement, in the broadest sense, is a lifelong
process that involves helping the individual get into
the appropriate course, program, school, or job at the
appropriate time. The concept of career development is
the foundation of placement. Career development refers
to the total constellation of circumstances, events, and
experiences as individuals make decisions about themselves
as prospective workers and then as actual members of the
work force. Hoyt has explained the basic nature of
career development as follows:

1. Career development is a lifelong process that
begins early in the preschool years and con-
tinues for most individuals through retirement.

2. Personal choices are taking place on a con-
tinuing basis throughout the life of the indi-
vidual.

3. Occupational choices are expressed in many
forms and with many degrees of firmness and
insight at various times in the life of the
individual.

4. Choices are made on the basis of what the indi-
vidual would enjoy doing; on the basis of what
appears possible for him to do, given his per-
sonal and societal limitations and strength; and
on the basis of what is important for the indi—
vidual.

5. The prime goal of career development lies in
its process, not in its end result. The
important thing is not what the individual
chooses but simply that he chooses.

6. The wisdom of career choice lies in the extent
to which it is based on reasoned choice, not in
the degree to which it seems reasonable to
others.2

If career education is functioning properly, stu-

dents will be assisted to plan educational programs

 

25Hoyt, Career Education, pp. 144—46.

 

36

consistent with their career interests, capabilities, and
aspirations. It is important that students at the middle
and high school level receive assistance at the time when
they have more choice in the subjects they will take.
Placement should also operate to locate existing students,
at whatever level they leave formal education, in a job,
in post-secondary or technical training, in an apprentice-
ship program, or in a four-year college or university.
Well-planned career education should culminate in 100 per-
cent placement.

Vocational education should also culminate in the
placement of all trained school leavers or graduates. A
major portion of this placement should occur in the job
or job cluster for which the student has trained or in
post-secondary training for additional skill development.
There will be that group of vocational students who plan
to enter a four-year college or university for teacher
training in vocational fields. The placement function
should assist with the selection of an institution that
will best meet the needs of the student.26

Obviously, there are rewards for everybody under
the career education approach. And these rewards are not
theoretical. The school systems that are already con-

verting to the approach can tell us in specific terms

 

26Clements, Career Education and Vocational Edu-
cation, p. 14.

 

 

 

37

what the payoffs have been already and what they realisti-
cally expect in the future.

Significant benefits for students are at the
heart of the career education concept, as they should be,
according to the American Association of School Adminis-
trators. A listing of the major ones should include:

1. Education becomes relevant for all students, not
just the college-bound.

2. The increased educational options make it more
nearly possible for every student to enter a
learning situation meeting his or her indi-
vidual needs and aspirations. '

3. The opportunity for every student to succeed
at something is greatly expanded.

4. Every young person has the opportunity to
acquire a marketable skill before leaving
school.

5. Students who do not plan to enter college can
enroll in educational programs meeting their
needs without being branded "second-class."27
Payoffs are removal of the second-class stigma

now attached to all programs except college preparation.
When career education becomes the central focus of the
entire educational system, and it is understood that all
of the many options for entering one's chosen career
field are equally respectable, there will be a tremendous
decrease in the amount of psychological damage now being
done to students whose career specialty happens to be one

he or she can and should enter through some other door

than a baccalaureate degree.

 

27What Are the Paypffs?, A Guide for School Admin-

istrators (American Association of School Administrators),
p. 15.

 

 

 

 

38

Much evidence points to this view which comes
from a career education project for elementary through
post-secondary students which was conducted at North
Dakota. The results and accomplishments of this exemplary
project in career education can be summarized as follows:

1. An increased student awareness of occupational
options.

2. Career development activities and experiences
integrated within the curriculum.

3. Improved communication between home, school
and community.

4. Increased student placement.

5. An increase in the development of basic skills.

6. An educational program that involves community
resources and resource people.

7. Significant gains in providing students with

work experience and "hands-on" activities.

Career education, then, attempts to help students
understand the work ethics imposed by society; develops
their work values based on their own personal interests
in full awareness of society's demands; helps them become
aware of the world of work and its values; explores the
alternative occupations and careers available; and chooses,
prepares for, and ultimately begins and pursues a career
including the possibility of occupational change and the
hope for productive use of leisure during that career.

From career education, a stronger commitment to

productive activity might emerge. There might be greater

consistency between goals and action among youth. The

 

28Robert L. Lamp, A Developmental Program, Pre-
school-Adult in Career Education for North Dakota, Bis-
marck (ERIC, Final Report, July 1976).

 

39

later consequences of earlier choices might become more
apparent. Attitudes and abilities of youth might be more
attractive to employers, while youth might become more
skilled at manipulating the labor market. Greater career
satisfaction and fewer families in the poverty ranks
might be a result. Among developing work values might

be a greater commitment to service. Wiser career choices
might lead to greater satisfaction with life styles.

Development of Career Education
in Michigan

 

 

As in many other states, the early stages of
career education in Michigan focused upon local school
district efforts to develop and implement career education
projects. Some of these projects were a result of direct
federal funding; for example, the Pontiac School District's
participation in the NIE School—Based Model for Career
Education. Other pilot projects received Michigan Depart-
ment of Education funding, such as the Lenawee Inter—
mediate School District "Placement Project" and the Cal-
houn Intermediate School District "Career Oriented Cur-
riculum Project." Still others were the result of local
initiative and local funding; for example, Saginaw's
Career Education Program.

By 1973, there were several career education pro-
grams in Michigan. Some programs interpreted career and

job as being the same while others used a much broader

40

definition of career. Some programs appeared to be suc-
cesSful because of unique local conditions while others
seemed to have possibilities for use throughout the state.
However, there were no comprehensive K-Adult or even K-12
career education programs in operation. No career-
oriented programs involved all students at all levels in
various subject areas. A successful method or model for
"pulling all of the pieces together" was not in existence
nor was a common definition for the term "career education"
being used.

In 1973, under a U.S.O.E. grant, the Michigan
Department of Education (MDE) began to coordinate local
district efforts into a comprehensive model for career
education. Special research and development funds were
set aside for the achievement of two major goals: to
develop an operational model for career education and to
develop a plan for the disseminating of the model.
Identifying the components of a career education program
was a priority item as was the refining of methods to
assist local school districts in successfully implement-
ing career education programs. MDE staff also began
developing appropriate career education materials,
designing career education personnel training programs,
and developing a guide to aid local school districts in

their efforts to develop a career education program.

41

Local and state efforts in career education con-
tinued and in 1974, the Michigan Legislature passed the
Career Education Act. In May 1974, the act was signed
into law and became known as Public Act 97 (P.A. 97).
(See Appendix A.) This act established career education
as a priority item and represented a major thrust toward
mobilizing public and private resources to improve the
educational system within the state. The act was an
attempt to provide the impetus for the development of a
comprehensive K-lZ program of career education in the
state.

Later the act was amended to include community
college districts as well as local school districts and

career education began to develop as a K-adult program.

Components of Career Education in Michigan
Career education in Michigan can be viewed as
being composed of two broad categories: Career Preparation

and Career Development.29 (See Figure 2.1.)

 

Career Preparation

 

Career preparation represents those content areas
and experiences which are currently known as the aca-
demic and vocational/technical educational areas. It

consists of the acquisition of those skills and

 

29Michigan Department of Education, A Reference
Guide, Career Development Goals and Performance Indi-
cators, 2d ed. (Michigan Department of Education, 1974).

42

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43

knowledges gained through formal and informal experiences
in existing school programs.

The content areas should be taught so that stu-
dents understand its application and contribution to
their personal career goals and objectives in all life
role areas. Career preparation is intended to provide the
basic skills and employment skills necessary for indi-
viduals to effectively perform their life roles. (Types

of examples and activities are shown in Appendix B—l.)

Career Development

 

Self—awareness and assessment.--Self-awareness and

 

assessment is a life—long process of discovering one's
own traits, developing a personal profile, and understand-
ing that these traits and profile are constantly changing.
The focus is upon the individual understanding and accept-
ing not only him/herself but also understanding and
accepting others. The development of interpersonal skills
is important within this focus.

This component includes the following goals:

— the ability to acquire information about personal
characteristics of self and others

- the ability to understand and accept uniqueness
of self and past and future change

— the ability to recognize the interactive
relationship of individual and group goals

- the ability to understand the relationship of
self to values

- the ability to understand the importance of self-
goals based on self-knowledge3O

 

30Career Education Department, Michigan State
University, Career Education in Michigan: Introduction

 

44

By participating in activities related to self-
awareness, individuals can come to know their personal
characteristics--abilities, interests, aptitudes, aspir-
ations, and values--better. Using this knowledge, indi-
viduals are better able to make realistic, meaningful
choices in terms of present and future options in each
of the life roles. Self-direction becomes possible as
individuals accept responsibility for their own behavior
and planning for self-improvement can occur. By develop-
ing each of the above abilities, an individual is able
to use self-knowledge in making viable career decisions
and career plans. (Types of examples and activities are

shown in Appendix B-2.)

Career awareness and exploration.--Career aware-

 

ness and exploration means continually learning about the
many career options available and using this information
to examine in depth those options of particular interest.
It focuses upon the interrelatedness and interdependence
of family, citizen, avocational, and occupational life
roles; home, school work, and community settings; and the
various events such as job entry, marriage, and retirement
which may occur during the life stages of an individual.

Emphasis is placed upon acquiring knowledge and

 

to Module II (unpublished materials; East Lansing,
Michigan, undated), p. 19.

 

45

understanding of the structure of the education, work,
family, citizen, and leisure goals:
This component has the following goals:
- the ability to understand the variety and com-
plexity of careers
- the opportunity to identify and explore alterna-
tive leisure, occupational, civic, and family
roles settings
— the ability to identify the characteristics of
the preparation needed for various careers
- the ability to identify educational alternatives
- the ability to understand the relationship of
one's career to one's life style31
In the career awareness and exploration component,
the individual begins to view the dimensions of the worlds
of education, work, family, citizen, and leisure from

two perspectives--sociological and economic.

The sociological dimension includes such things
as societal limitations on the individual's choice of
occupation and the purposes of education, work, leisure,
family development, and citizen involvement.

The economic component refers to such consider-
ations of occupational choice as amount of pay, number of
hours, fringe benefits, and the cost of various leisure,
family and citizen involvement, and the internal factors
which affect this satisfaction.

As a result of learning about the interaction of

these component parts of the world of education, work,

 

311bid., p. 23.

46

family, Citizen, and leisure, individuals learn of the
reciprocal influences of specific activities and can
analyze life style preferences.

This process helps an individual to be able to
make career choices in each life role which are compatible
.with his/her own life style. (Types of examples and

activities are shown in Appendix B-3.)

Career decision making.—-Career decision making

 

means evaluating and tentatively selecting options by
matching career awareness and exploration experiences
with the knowledge gained through self-awareness and
assessment. The content and activities of this component
are designed to help individuals understand that decision
making is an important task in all aspects of everyday
life.

The major goals of this component are:

- the ability to identify the elements of decision
making

- the ability to formulate and evaluate goals

- the ability to identify, gather, and apply
information

- the ability to identify and select alternatives,
and to use them in making decisions

- the ability to understand the impact of change,
space, and time upon one's decisions and career
planning

- the ability to understand how one can influence
his/her future by making decisions and acting
upon them32

 

32Ibid., p. 27.

47

Through understanding and utilizing the decision-
making component, individuals can begin to accept responsi-
bility for making their own choices, for managing their
own resources, and for directing the future course of
their lives. By learning about and practicing the process
of decision making and understanding the potential impact
of change upon one's decisions, the individual can come
to foresee or predict alternatives which they may choose
and to plan to meet the requirements of their life-career
goals.

The process of career decision making will help
an individual direct his/her own career in all areas
through realistic planning. (Types of examples and

activities are shown in Appendix B-4.)

Career planning and placement.--Career planning

 

and placement is developing and implementing systematic
programs_to reach career goals. Certain skills and
abilities are necessary for individuals to plan and
then carry out those plans so that they can reach their
desired goals, which may be either short-term or long-
term in nature.
This component may be divided into the following
goals:
- the ability to acquire prerequisite skills and
knowledge to implement career decisions

- the ability to relate one's interest and apti-
tude information to careers

48

- the basic work habits and attitudes necessary
for entering occupations of one's interest

- the ability to acquire skills necessary to gain
performance in one's chosen career

- the ability to assess progress toward goals

- the ability to make necessary, appropriate
adjustments to maintain progress. 3

By acquiring the above abilities, the individual
becomes prepared for placement consistent with his/her
career plans. The individual, in this component, demon-
strates commitment to life--career plans and goals, both
short- and long-term, by taking action.34 (Types of

examples and activities are shown in Appendix B-5.)
Part 2

Public Education in Kuwait

 

Brief History

 

The fact that Kuwait formed the hinterland to a
strategic harbor linking all territories on the Arabian
Gulf led, in the last two centuries, to the formation of
a seafaring and trade majority among its pOpulation.

They built their boats with their own hands and roamed
all along the coasts of India, East Africa, and sometimes
even further. They got in touch with the outer world,
saw different cultures and customs, and acquired new

skills. They mastered navigation and became commercially

 

33Ibid., p. 31.

34Unpublished material, Career Education Depart-
ment (East Lansing: Michigan State University).

49

successful because of their skill in navigation and
honesty in business, a characteristic acknowledged by
almost all European historians who wrote about the
Arabian Gulf.

Many Kuwaitis worked as pearl fishers in the
Arabian Gulf. This contributed to their well—being and
prosperity. Moreover, the location of Kuwait between
Iraq and the interior of the Arabian peninsula made it
an excellent desert market and crossroads for the neigh-
boring Arab countries. All these factors combined,
coupled with the desolate sandy soil and the scarcity of
water supplies, ultimately led the Kuwaitis to be active
seafarers voyaging to desolate lands for commercial pur—
poses. They soon discovered that in order to cope with
their commercial dealings and pearl-fishing undertakings,
they needed some knowledge of arithmetic, bookkeeping,
and foreign as well as local correspondence techniques.
This eventually led to the realization of the importance
of educating their children. The results were that as
early as 1912, a group of Kuwaiti merchants made a joint
effort to set up the first regular school in Kuwait.
There was no specific curriculum for this first school
as it was primarily meant to train clerks or bookkeepers.

"However, this school did not continue for long. It was

50

closed in 1931 because of the decline of pearl markets
resulting from world economic crisis."35
Before 1912, the country had the type of teaching
which was at that time common to most of the
Arabian Gulf. Children visited the home of their
teachers who converted one room into a classroom.
The curriculum did not extend beyond reading,
writing and studying the Quran and a little arith-
metic. For this education parents paid the teacher
money. The children left between the ages of eight
and ten and celebrated the occasion by marching
through the towns.36
Later in 1936 the economy of Kuwait flourished
once again because of the new worldwide markets opened for
the pearl industry, and Kuwait merchants renewed their
efforts to organize public education. They agreed with
the government on levying an education tax to be spent
on education facilities. A teaching mission from Pales—
tine was invited to develop and assist work in the schools.
Teachers from other Arab countries (Egypt) were gradually

recruited.

The Educational Change

 

Education in the modern sense actually started
after the discovery of oil (in the late thirties) and its
full exploitation which has changed the face of the

country.

 

35Information Paper, Education in Kuwait (New
York: Arab Information Center, 757 Third Ave., 1966).

 

36Ministry of Guidance and Information of Kuwait,
Kuwait Today (Nairobi, Kenya: Quality Publishing Co.).

 

 

 

51

Another important development in the field of

education was achieved in Kuwait in the late sixties.

The policy of education took then its distinct shape in

cohesion with the nature of Kuwait, its national aims,

its local circumstances and the demands of its economic

and social development; and the need became apparent to

improve the existing conditions of the educational system

as well as revising plans and programs so as to direct

education toward the following aims and ends:

1.

Agreement with the modern educational trends,
the scientific and technological development

and reforming the syllabuses so as to include
all that is new in science and art taking into
consideration the basic facts of the local
environment, its sources of wealth and the

best methods of their investment.

Giving due care to the preparation and train-
ing of teachers, encouraging young Kuwaitis to
take up teaching as a profession, raising their
standard of graduation, continuing their train-
ing in compliance with the modern trends in and
methods of education with a view to realizing
self-satisfaction where the teaching profession
is concerned and where this proves to be possible.
Diversifying educational programs and institutes
at the secondary and tertiary levels in order to
prepare Kuwaiti youth to perform the duties
required by society in the various spheres of
human activity.

Orientating students and encouraging them to
follow scientific and technological studies pro-
viding schools for this purpose with workshops,
laboratories and scientific equipment thus
enabling students to take an active part in
practice and application.

Giving due care to technical and vocational
education and its various fields and spheres

in order to prepare a skilled, well—trained
middle labor force.

Realizing integrity and cohesion between the
various educational plans and programs and

the state comprehensive development plan.

 

 

52

7. Expansion in all the educational stages starting
with kindergarten up to the secondary stage with
its various institutes, and providing school
buildings, utilities and teachers for all those
willing to learn whether children, youth or
grown-ups of both sexes.37

The following table illustrates the considerable
increase in the numbers of schools, students, and teachers

between 1945/46 and 1975/76.

TABLE 2.1

TABLE OF NUMBER OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS, STUDENTS, AND
TEACHERS (1945/46-1975/76)

 

 

Scholastic Number of
Year Schools Students Teachers
1945/46 17 3,635 142
1960/61 134 45,157 2,255
1970/71 230 138,747 9,085
1975/76 326 201,907 15,472

 

SOURCE: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Planning,
Annual Statistical Abstract, 1976.

 

The total expenditure on public education in
*
Kuwait in 1975/76 was around K.D.87 million, which

comes to about 9.4 percent of the total government

.i‘- - 3‘ ~ 7 ’7
. . I

- x :I I. X r'.‘ .___ J. 1‘ r . . .. _ , ,. )
expenditures. -E) (4' h I! w) “W " ;. - 7.; ,, .

The educational system includes the following

stages and various institutes:

 

37Curriculum Department, Ministry of Education,
Paper on the Educational Development (Kuwait, undated).

 

*K.D.1 = $3.50.

53

1. Kindergarten: A 2-year course
2. Primary stage: A 4-year course
3. Middle stage: A 4-year course
4. Secondary stage:
A. General secondary education: A 4—year course.
In the third year, students either go to the
arts section or to the science section, and
they continue till the fourth year.
B. Technical School: A 4—year course
C. Commercial Secondary School: A 4-year course
D. Religious School (Institute)
5. There are also some institutes:
A. Teacher Training Institute
B. Technical and Vocational Institute
C. Commercial Institute
D. Health Institute
E. Special Education Institute

6. University of Kuwait

Teacher training.-—In the previous seven years,

 

the teachers' training institutes (males and females)
supplied graduates as part of the intake for both the
kindergarten and the primary stages; teacher's training
colleges provided graduates to teach certain subjects
in the Intermediate Stage whereas university graduates
were appointed for the Secondary Stage. The Ministry

of Education has, however, recently decided to upgrade

 

 

 

54

the teaching efficiency at the early and the intermediate
education levels. Therefore, the Kuwaiti teacher of the
elementary stage shall be a graduate of an educational
institute two years after the secondary stage, while the
teacher of the Intermediate Stage should be a holder of a
university degree. The teachers of the Secondary Stage
should be chosen from among university graduates with
ample experience and ability.

The old system imposed itself as the country was
in dire need of seeing a number of its compatriots taking
part in teaching the young and thus were forced to start
teacher training after completion of the Intermediate
Stage in order to secure sufficiency in numbers because
of the scarcity of secondary education graduates at that
time (early in the fifties). This was a temporary situ—
ation that changed by the application of the present sys-
tem as from the academic year 1972/73 wherein the two
teachers' training institutes (males and females) were
inaugurated and the elimination of the Old Teacher's
Training Institutes and Colleges.

There is also now a new aspect of educational
development which is the recognition of the Ministry of
Education that the Kuwait society is no more than a
small community in which the original inhabitants repre-
sent less than one-half of the population and less than
one-quarter of the labor force. A sense of insecurity

and unsafeness is widespread among the working power

55

imported from other countries and this alarms the dangers
of the massive lackness of human resources needed for

the execution of the social and economic development plan
which makes it necessary for education to adopt two ways
strategy:

1. That education must be functional. This means
that educational process must aim at providing
the individual with actual behavioristic and
social skills that will make him able to occupy
a position in the state's working power structure
and particularly in the educational and practice
aspects.

2. The educational plan must secure equal opportuni-
ties to all individuals with different potentiali-
ties and abilities which makes it necessary to
adopt the educational guidance method so as to
insure the best investment of the potentialities
and abilities of all citizens and insure the
equilibrium and adhesion among the various
aspects of education, academic, technical and
vocational-—according to the recommendations
adopted by the international educational organi-
zations.3

Summary

The review of literature has provided an overview
of career education including definitions, rationale,
programs, and components. At least two distinct but
related approaches were apparent in the literature.

The first approach emphasized "work" as funda-
mental to program development. The second emphasis,
broader in definition, indicated that "life roles" and

their application to the individual and society should

 

38Paper on the "Five Years Plan" of Technical &
Vocational Education (Kuwait: Technical and Vocational
Department, Ministry of Education, November 1974).

 

 

56

provide the focus for program development. For the
purpose of this research, an attempt was made to focus
primarily on work, decision making, and career options;
but this research will not exclude the life roles orien-
tation.

The review of literature also examined the
societal and educational changes in Kuwait which were

considered crucial in the development of this research.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to determine the
degree to which career education or some of its compo-
nents were perceived as being worthy of incorporation
into the curriculum of the public schools of Kuwait. The
respondents in this study were decision-makers in the
Kuwait Ministry of Education, secondary school principals,
industrial directors, and Kuwaiti students pursuing
graduate level programs.

Two questions guided the research effort in this

study:

1. To what degree is career education perceived as
an acceptable approach to improving Kuwait

public education?

2. What are some strategies whereby innovation can

be introduced into the public schools of Kuwait?

57

 

 

1, 1.1!- u...» ill...

58

Instrumentation

 

After consultation with selected researchers
within the College of Education, Michigan State University,
the "Q" sort methodology was selected as being appropriate
for this study.

"Q" Technique and Its Methodology

Factoring persons instead of items is not a new
idea. Names such as Spearman, Thomson, and Burt have
been associated with correlation of persons as var-
iables since the very early 1900's. However, in 1935,
both Godfrey Thomson and William Stephenson published
papers explicitly recognizing the potential of factor-
ing correlations among persons. Thomson was quite
pessimistic about the future of this new methodology,
but Stephenson was quite optimistic. Stephenson has
been the main proponent and conceptual developer of
the Q—methodological approach. Stephenson's major
comprehensive statement on Q-methodology was published
in 1953 under the title of: The Study of Behavior:
Q-Technique and Its Methodology.

- Carl Rogers used Q-methodology quite extensively
in his client-centered psychotherapy starting in the
late forties. Jack Block (1961) calls Stephenson
"the ingenious innovator, vigorous proponent and
almost solitary expositor of the Q-method." Mal
MacLean, a respected communication researcher, con-
siders Stephenson as "one of the most creative
scholars in the whole field of human behavior."
Stephenson's Q-methodology has been used in various
forms by a sizeable number of behavioral science
researchers of considerably varied backgrounds.

The "Q"-sort:

Stephenson maintains that "Q"-technique provides
a systematic way to handle a person's retrospections,
his reflections about himself and others, his intro-
jections and projections, and much else of an apparent
subjective nature. The main vehicle for achieving
this is the "Q“-sort. A "universe" of stimuli (for
example, statements, pictures, words, musical selec-
tion, photographs, magazine articles, etc.) is defined
which is deemed relevant to the problem being investi-
gated. "Q" seems to be particularly suited to the
study of decision behavior where the focus is on rep-
resenting personal choices and preferences of all
varieties.

In the "Q"-sort, the individual is asked to
examine the sample of stimuli in detail. The "Q"-
sort could consist of a number of self-referent

 

 

 

 

 

59

Opinion statements concerning a subject. Each
statement would be placed on a separate card. The
person would be asked to read the statement on each
card to get some idea of the kinds of positions
represented by the statements on the cards. Next,
he would be asked to make a rough sort of the state—
ments into a given pile.

In "Q," the person is instructed to permit the
statements or stimuli to interact with each other.

He is supposed to evaluate the statements with
reference to one another.

In "Q," the focus is on how a given item of a
given person deviates from the mean of all other
items for that person.

Major steps in a typical "Q"-study are:

1. Respondents are asked to sort a deck of cards
which have items printed on them into a spe-
cific number of ranked piles. The sorting is
done on the basis of some criterion, e.g.,
belief-disbelief, agree-disagree, etc.

2. A matrix of intercorrelations is formed by
correlating every person's sort of items with
every other person's sort of items.

3. This matrix of intercorrelations is submitted
to factor analysis so that persons are vari-
ables and items are observations. A principle
axis solution is obtained. This is submitted
to a varimax rotation which produces ortho—
gonal factors. On this basis, a factor repre—
sents a grouping of persons around a common
pattern of sorting the items. Hence, a factor
represents a type of person.

4. Each pattern of sorting the items associated
with each factor or type of person is esti—
mated. This is done by weighting each item
response of each of the persons most highly
associated with a given factor by the degree
to which they are loaded on that factor. The
higher a person's loading on the factor, the
greater is the weight. These weighted
responses are summed across each item separ—
ately. This produces an item array of
weighted responses for each factor in the
rotated factor analysis solution selected.
The arrays of weighted responses are then
converted to Z-scores.

60

5. The arrays of item Z-scores are ordered from
most accepted to most rejected for each factor.
This provides a hierarchy of item acceptance
for each factor or type of person.1
The Q methodology centers on sorting and priorit-
izing items based upon their importance as perceived by
the respondent. This technique also provides for the
correlations among the responses of different individuals
to the Q sort. As Kerlinger stated: "Q-technique is

mainly a way of rank—ordering objects (items) and then

assigning numerals for statistical purposes."2

Item Selection

 

Forty items selected for inclusion were broadly
representative of two areas. Nineteen items were related
to the academic studies offered in Kuwait schools, and
twenty-one related to a career education focus were
selected from needs assessment instruments being utilized
in the United States. The career education items were
reviewed by a panel of authorities to assure that each
statement was representative of career education efforts.

(See Appendix D.)

 

lAlbert D. Talbott, "Q-Technique and Its Method-
ology: A Brief Introduction and Consideration" (unpub-
lished papers, School of Journalism, University of Iowa,
Iowa City, Iowa, 1971).

2F. N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral
Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1964).

 

61

Components of career education were represented
in the items. These components were career awareness
and career preparation, exploration, decision-making,
career planning, and placement.

The researcher translated the forty statements
into Arabic. Each statement was typed on a separate
5 x 7" card. A pilot test was conducted with a group of
Kuwait citizens to present the purpose of the investi-
gation, to test the clarity of the items, and to make
appropriate modifications where necessary. Several
changes were made in the wording of some items based

upon the responses gained in the pilot study.

Respondents

 

In "Q"-methodology the selection of the partici-
pants is not usually done randomly but rather they are
selected to represent different points of view.

Talbott said that the researcher who uses " "-
methodology should select quite small and explicitly and
purposively sample which represents the population with
which the study is concerned.3

In this study, four groups of Kuwait citizens
were selected to participate in this research (see
Table 3.1). Group A was composed of twelve Michigan

State University Kuwaiti graduate students. Group B

 

3Talbott, Q-Technique.

 

 

62

was composed of nine selected decision-makers from the
Ministry of Education and included the assistant under-
secretary of the technical-vocational department, the
assistant undersecretary of the curriculum department,
and the assistant undersecretary of the administrative
department. This group also included the directors and
assistant directors of the previously mentioned depart-
ments. Group C consisted of nine-selected principals of
secondary schools. Group D included nine directors of

selected industries.

TABLE 3.1

TABLE OF RESPONDENTS

 

 

Group Position Total

A Graduate students 12

B . . Assistant undersecretaries 3

Ministry of { . 3
Education Directors .

Assistant directors 3

C Principals 9

D Directors of industries 9

39

 

Data Collection Procedures

 

The researcher returned to Kuwait to gather data
in support of the research.

A meeting was conducted with each of the partici-
pants in the study. Printed material was provided describ-
ing the purpose of the investigation and the procedures

to be followed (see Appendix C).

 

63

The cards were thoroughly mixed for each indi-
vidual. The respondent was asked to place each item
into one of five groups on a continuum ranging from
highest priority to lowest priority. A maximum of ten
cards was allowed in any pile. The piles were assigned
a numerical value with lowest priority items assigned "1"
and highest priority items being assigned "5."

Visually the final sort might be presented as

 

follows:

Highest Priority Lowest Priority
Pile Number: . 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Cards 10 9 10 7 4

Upon completion of the sorting, the respondents
were encouraged to examine each group and were allowed
to change their priority ranking. Completion time for
the task averaged twenty-five minutes per respondent.
However, in some cases the cards were left with the par—
ticipants on their convenience. The participant was
requested to place each group of items in an envelope
marked with the corresponding numeral. The investigator
then recorded the responses on a master data matrix (see
Appendix E). The gathering of all data encompassed one
month.

The final step in data collection was to transfer

the responses on the master data matrix to IBM cards.

 

 

64

For computer analysis, Dr. Frederik Ignatovich provided
valuable assistance in determining the most effective
methods of assessing the most appropriate computer pro—

gram.

Dependent Variable

 

The participants were thirty-nine Kuwaiti citizens
who responded to forty items, twenty-one related to career
education components and nineteen items which were repre-
sentative of academic studies considerations.

The dependent variable was the priority judg—

mentally assigned to each of the items by the respondents.

Analysis Technique

 

The central problem of this study was to determine
if career education or some of its components were per-
ceived as being worthy of incorporation into the curricu-
lum of the public schools of Kuwait.

A "Q"-analysis computer program developed by
Tubergen of the Mass Communications Research Bureau of
the School of Journalism, University of Iowa, was
employed.

The "Q" analysis technique sorted and prioritized
the forty items based upon the responses of the thirty-
nine participants in the study.

Data were analyzed through the use of a factor

analytic technique which involved the ordering of the

65

respondents according to the forty items included in the
study. A thirty-nine-respondent intercorrelation matrix
based upon data furnished on forty items was generated.
This form of analysis provided a measure of commonality
among respondents and indicated the extent to which the
participants were alike or resembled one another with
regard to the importance of each of the forty items under
consideration.

An SPSS computer program was employed to compute
mean (i), standard deviation(SD), and the tetest. Means
and standard deviations were generated for each item by
group and by total respondents. Means were also gen-
erated in a descending array for each of the items based
upon the responses made by all the participants to gain
insight into which of the items was perceived as being
significantly higher in priority as compared to the other
items.

Precisely, the results of the study will be pre-

sented in Chapter IV as follows:

1. Report mean for each item based upon total

response.

2. Report mean and standard deviation for career
education items and academic studies items by

group.

 

66

3. Report t—test results on career education items

and academic studies items by group.

4. Computation of the factor analysis with varimax

rotation of the peOple.

5. Classify people into groups on the basis of

their factor loadings. (See Appendix F.)

6. Identify the items which characterize the people

in each group: Z > + l and Z < - 1.

These data were considered important as the study
was designed to determine strategies for incorporating

career education into the country's educational system.

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS

The research findings of the study are reported
in this chapter. The investigator's primary concern was
to determine the degree to which career education or
some of its components were perceived as being worthy of
incorporation into the curriculum of the Kuwait Public
Schools by members of the Ministry of Education, secondary
.school principals, selected directors of industries, and
Kuwaiti graduate students. The second concern was to
develop strategies for incorporating career education
programs into elementary and secondary schools of Kuwait.

The results of the first concern are presented in
this chapter. In Chapter VI, some strategies for incor-
porating career education will be identified.

The statistical and descriptive data reported in
this chapter were gathered by a Q-sort technique adminis-

tered to four groups:

(1) Kuwaiti graduate students at Michigan State

University (G-A)

67

68

(2) Administrators in the Ministry of Education
(G—B)
(3) Secondary School Principals (G-C)

(4) Directors of selected industries (G-D)

Forty items concerning career education approaches
and academic studies approaches were designed and sub-
mitted to thirty-nine subjects.

Each subject was asked to place the forty items
into five piles (categories), according to their per-
ceived importance. Subjects were asked not to sort more
than ten items into any pile. These piles were
assigned values from five through one. The highest pri-
ority (first pile) was assigned a value of five. The
second pile was assigned a value of four. The third pile
was assigned a value of three. The fourth pile was
assigned a value of two. The last pile was assigned a

value of one.

Mean Rank

 

Means were generated for each of the items based
upon the responses made by all the participants. Table 4.1

presents the items by mean rank.

Comparison Among the Groups

 

A table of means and standard deviations by groups
and by total respondents for all career education items

and all academic studies items is presented (see Table 4.2).

69

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71

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72

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74

TABLE 4.2

TABLE OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE SUBJECTS
CONCERNING THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARD ACADEMIC STUDIES

ITEMS AND CAREER EDUCATION ITEMS

 

 

 

 

Standard
Respondent Variable Mean Deviation
Group (X)
(SD)
Graduate AS 2.941 1.019
student (G—A) CE 3.476 1.038
Administrators AS 2.807 1.104
in the CE 3.375 1.042
Ministry of
Education (G-B)
Principals AS 2.941 1.090
(G-C) CE 3.603 1.170
Directors of AS 2.982 1.149
Industries CE 3.519 1.135
(G-D)
Overall
ngzgll Standard
(i) Deviation
(SD)
AS 2.935 1.155

CE 3.495 1.131

 

75

All groups indicated a more positive attitude toward the
career education items with the principals indicating

the most positive response.

The E—test table revealed that there was no sta-
tistically significant difference between the groups in
their attitude toward career education items (see

Table 4.3).

Factor Analysis

 

The data were subjected to factor analysis pro—
cedures. The input-date matrix was submitted to be
transposed so that people, not items, would be factored.
The data were normalized. Four principal factors were
extracted.

The extracted factors (people) were classified
into groups on the basis of their factor loadings. Each
group was distinguished by their homogeneous responses
(see Appendix F).

Humphrey's test, which measures the significance
of each group, indicated that those individuals appearing
in factors one and two tended to be more homogeneous in
their responses than those participants appearing in

factors three and four.

Factor One

 

Factor one included respondents from each of the

four groups but was composed mostly of administrators in

76

TABLE 4.3

TABLE OF t-TESTS

 

 

Respondent Group Variables .Level Of
Significance
*
A and B AS* .498
II II II CE . 416
A and C AS .715
i! II II CE . 815
A and D AS .336
II II I! CE . 869
B and C AS .752
II II II CE . 560
B and D AS .802
II II II CE . 4 80
C and D AS .558
II II II CE . 93o

 

*
AS = Academic Studies; CE = Career Education

 

 

77

the Ministry of Education and principals. This factor
illustrated the consistency of attitudes between the
administrators and principals.

Precisely two graduate students, seven adminis-
trators, six principals, and one director of an industry
loaded in factor one. Factor one had a total of sixteen

participants.

Factor Two

 

Factor two was composed of two graduate students,
one administrator from the Ministry of Education, two
principals, and one director of an industry. This factor

had a total of six participants.

Factor Three

 

Factor three included four graduate students, one
administrator, one principal, and four directors of

industries. This factor had a total of ten participants.

Factor Four

 

Factor four was composed only of four graduate
students and three directors of industries. This factor
had a total of seven participants. Factors four and
three indicated the similarities in the attitude between

directors and graduate students (see Table 4.4).

 

 

78

TABLE 4.4

TABLE OF DERIVED GROUP STRUCTURE

 

 

Adminis- . . .
Factor Students trators Princ1pals Directors Total
1 2 7 6 l 16
2 2 l 2 l
3 4 l l 4 10
4 4 - — 3 7
39

 

Item Classifications

 

Items for each of the four factors were deter—
mined by weighting the person most highly associated
with a given factor to the degree with which he was
related to that factor. The higher a person's loading
on the factor, the greater was the weight. These weights
were applied to each item response and the weighted item
scores were then summed across all persons on the factor.
This produced an array of weighted item scores for each
of the factors or types. The arrays of weighted item
scores were then converted to Z-scores. The item with
the highest Z-score is deemed most important by the par-
ticular group of respondents regarding their attitudes
toward the academic studies approach and the career edu—

cation approach.

79

Item Description and Descending
Array of Z-Scores for Type 1

 

 

Table 4.5 presents the attitude of the derived
group toward the academic studies items and career edu-
cation items. Those items are presented in a descending
array of Z-scores. The items which were placed in the
"highest priority" category had Z-scores value of 1.0 or
above, and items which were placed in the "lowest pri-
ority" category had Z—scores value of -1.0 or below.

Table 4.5 also shows that the subjects placed
item 18, "Students need to be aware of the fundamental
principles of religion," very high. This item is con-
sidered in the study as an academic studies object. How—
ever, we should indicate that this item could also be an
important objective in the concept of career education
as interpreted by life roles advocates. This item has a
Z-score value of 2.376.

This group placed six items in the "highest
priority" category; three were academic studies items
and three were career education items.

Table 4.5 indicates that twenty-five items were
considered "high" or "highest priority" by the partici-
pants. Sixteen out of twenty-five items were career edu-
cation items which, in essence, indicated the support of
the respondents for the concept of career education. Of

the last six items which the participants placed in the

80

 

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81

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83

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84

 

 

 

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85

"lowest priority," five were academic studies items and

one was career education item.

These responses demonstrated that the participants
who fell under factor one believed that all schools should
pay attention to the occupational training.

Item Descriptions and Descending
Array of Z-Scores for Type 2

This type was also presented in a descending
array (see Table 4.6). Items which were in the "highest
priority" category had a Z-score value of l or above,
and items in the lowest priority category had a Z-score
value of -l or below. This type (people) ranked item 20,
"Students need to be prepared for a job," in the highest
priority. It had a Z-score value of 2.003. Type 2
ranked six items in the highest priority category and
all were career education items. This type placed six
items in the "lowest priority" category and all were
academic studies items.

This type placed seventeen items in the "high"
and "highest priority" categories, fourteen of which
were career education items.

Table 4.6 demonstrates the support of Type 2 for
the concept of career education.

Item Descriptions and Descending
Array of Z-Scores for Type 3
This type and Type 4 were composed mostly of

graduate students and directors of industries. The

 

 

 

86

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COHHOCOOHO HOHHO OHCOHHO>O OO>HHOCHOHHO
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AOOOCHHCOOV v.4 mamme

 

 

89

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91

directors of industries were important to the investi-
gator because career education movement cannot be imple-
mented without the assistance and support of industries
which will provide a realistic learning environment.

Table 4.7 presents the responses of Type 3
regarding career education items and academic studies
items. Items which were in the "highest priority" cate-
gory had a Z-score value of 1.0 or above, and items in
the "lowest priority" category had a Z—score value of
-l.0 or below.

This type placed nineteen items in the "high" and
"highest priority" categories, thirteen of which were
career education items.

Participants of Type 3 placed eight items in the
"highest priority" category; six of these items were
career education items.

This type ranked item 20 (Students need to be
prepared for a job) in the highest priority as did Type 2.

Type 3 placed five items in the "lowest priority"
category. All these items were academic studies items
(see Table 4.7).

Because Type 3 was most composed of directors of
industries, their responses were more indicative of real
industrial needs. Type 3 indicated a strong support to

the concept of career education.

   

92

 

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.Amuv mHOom HOCOHHOO
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.Amuv mWHOOCOO
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.Amov CHO3 How mHCOUCHm OCHHOQOHQ
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.Amov OOHHHHHOO
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mmm.H OCO HOOHOm OH EOOOOHH O>OC OH OOOC mHCOUCHm mN
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h.v Mdmdfi

 

93

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95

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96

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97

Item Descriptions and Descending
Array of Z-Scores for Type 4

 

Table 4.8 presents the attitudes of Type 4 toward
career education items and academic studies items. Items
that were placed in the "highest priority" category had
a Z-score value of 1.0 or above, and items in the "lowest
priority" category had a Z-score value of -1.0 or below.

This type placed twenty items in the "high" and
"highest priority" categories, twelve of which were
career education items.

Participants of Type 4 placed five items in the
"highest priority" category. Four out of five items were
career education items. They ranked item 21 (Students
need to be aware of educational alternatives available
after graduation) in the "highest priority." This type
placed five items in the "lowest priority" category; three
out of five items were academic studies items. Type 4
favored career education concept as did the other types
(see Table 4.8).

Consensus Items and
Average Z-Scores

 

 

Though each of the four types varied in their
responses, they all agreed on five items (see Table 4.9).
Participants believed that schools and other agencies
should help students and prepare them for the existent

and future jobs.

98

 

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mOO. HHOCH OOOHQxO OH 30C BOCC OH OOOC OHCOOCHm O

 

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.imoc mHO>OH OOOHO HHO Hm EOOH OH

 

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99

 

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100

 

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101

 

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102

 

 

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103

 

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0.0 MHm¢B

104

The findings seem to suggest the following:

The concept of career education was perceived
as being important by respondents in this study.
Therefore, career education is suitable for con-
sideration as a vehicle through which change

might be brought about in the schools of Kuwait.

Despite most of the responses being favorable,
some were moderate and a few respondents showed
rejection to the concept. This seems to indicate
the possibility of misunderstanding career edu—
cation approaches. Therefore, some effort is

required in the explanation of career education.

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER'V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary purpose of this study was to determine
whether career education or some of its components were
perceived to be of importance for students in Kuwait
schools. Participants in the study included Kuwait grad-
uate students, secondary school principals, directors
from industries, and decision-makers from the Kuwait
Ministry of Education.

The major dimensions of the study were the iden-
tification of items relative to career education compo—
nents and of academic studies. The academic studies
reflected contemporary goals or programs in Kuwait edu-
cation.

Additionally, participants in the study were
asked to respond to each item in the Q sort technique.
Means, standard deviations, t—test, and mean rank were
determined and a factor analysis of the priorities by

respondents was accomplished.

105

 

 

 

 

l.

, relative to the stated purposes of the research:
1

106

Summary of the Data

Data analysis revealed the following information

Career education was perceived as a high pri—
ority area for Kuwaiti students by participants

in the study.

Each of the four groups of respondents rated
career education at a higher priority level than

academic studies.

The four career education components (awareness,
preparation, planning and placement, and decision-
making) were among the top ten priorities as

determined by the respondents.
Most respondents were alike in their responses.

"Q" sort operation on the items was an effective
method for determining clusters of participants

who responded in like fashion to the items.

Conclusions

Factor analysis of the data indicated that par—

ticipants in Factor One (Type 1) placed twenty—five items

in the "high" and "highest priority" categories. Six—

teen out of twenty—five items were career education

items, which indicated their support for the concept of

career education. However, among the last fifteen items

which the participants placed in the "low" and "lowest"

—;

 

 

 

107

priority categories, ten were academic studies items and
five were career education items. These indicate the
level of support for the concept of career education.

The participants who clustered Factor Two (Type 2)
placed six items in the "highest priority" category; all
were career education items. These participants placed
six items in the “lowest priority" category; all were
academic studies items.

The participants of this type placed seventeen
items in the "high" and "highest priority" categories,
thirteen of which were career education items. These
responses present the endorsement for the concepts of
career education.

Factor Three (Type 3) placed eight items in the
"highest priority" category; six of these items were
career education items. The participants of this group

ranked item 20 (Students need to be prepared for a job)

‘in the "highest priority" category as did participants

in Type 2.

This type placed five items in the "lowest pri-
ority" category; all these items were academic studies
items. These responses also indicate support for the
career education movement.

Factor Four (Type 4) placed five items in the
"highest priority" category. Four out of five items

were career education items. This type placed five

 

 

 

 

 

i
1
l

 

 

 

108

items in the "lowest priority" category; three out of
five were academic studies items. These responses indi—
cate the positive attitude toward the concepts of career
education.

The computation of means and standard deviations
showed that the four groups held positive attitude
toward the concepts of career education; however, princi-
pals held a slightly more positive attitude than did the
other groups.

The computations also of the t—test showed that
there was no statistically significant difference in
attitude between groups toward the idea of career edu—
cation. The study indicated similar variability within
each group to both the academic studies items and career
education items.

In brief summary, the study indicated two aspects.
First, the administrators in the Ministry of Education
indicated a willingness to support the concepts of
career education. And the second aspect indicated by
the data was that the principals, directors from indus—
tries, and graduate students displayed a "highest pri—
ority" for incorporating career education concept into
the Kuwait educational system. These data appeared in

the mean scores for these three groups.

 

,— '4. .

109

Recommendations

This study indicated a high level of acceptance
among the respondents. If career education is
to become a part of the educational system of
Kuwait, the involvement of parents, elementary
school personnel, secondary school educators,
and faculty from the University of Kuwait must
be developed. These populations were not involved
in this study. Therefore, additional research
should be made with a large group of parents,
teachers, and students in order to determine
their attitude toward the concept of career

education.

The results of this study indicated positive
support for the concept of career education from
selected Kuwait citizens. It is not reasonable
to assume that the respondents understand the
possible program implications of these concepts.
Therefore, an awareness program must be estab-
lished to provide Kuwait decision makers with
adequate knowledge of career education and pro—
grammatic options which could be developed or

made available to the schools.

This study has indicated a lack of technical
workers in Kuwait, and there is a strong possi-

bility that these workers received economic

 

 

 

 

110

consideration below a level which allows them to
live with adequate economic independence. This
topic should also be the focus for additional

research.

Career education should be considered by other
developing countries who face educational problems

similar to those encountered in Kuwait.

This study has developed a strategy for bringing
about change. This strategy was complementary
to, but secondary to, the main purpose of this
research. Change strategies for the educational
system of Kuwait are worthy of more in-depth
research. This research should include decision—
making patterns, communication networks, and
motivational events which might have a relation-

ship to the change process.

 

 

 

CHAPTER VI

STRATEGIES

In this chapter, the researcher will illustrate
some strategies which may help in incorporating career
education concepts within the educational system in the
country of Kuwait.

This study has drawn heavily from programs,
concepts, and experiences from the United States and
reflects the concern which American educators have for
improving the quality of education and life in their
country.

This study has also presented the cultural values,
social conditions, economic considerations, and educa-
tional setting in Kuwait. Obviously, there are some
rather significant differences in each of these areas
between the two countries. It is apparent that the
change strategies employed in America could not be uni—
versally transported to Kuwait in attempting to incor-
porate career education as a part of the total educational
experiences for all Kuwaiti students. However, Kuwait

education can profit from some of the experiences as

111

 

 

 

112

changes are considered. This chapter presents a series
of strategies which reflect on the experiences of
American educators in bringing about change but super—
impose these considerations over the uniquenesses of the
Kuwait setting.

The strategies developed are not considered
unique to the incorporation of career education into the
Kuwait educational system. Rather, these strategies
should be considered relevant to other concepts which
might emerge as being important for educational adoption
in the near future.1

These strategies and programs are based on the
following resources: Lewis et a1., "Implementation Guide

to Career Education"; Hoyt et a1., Career Education:

 

What It Is and How To Do It; Marland, Career Education;

 

 

Clements, Career Education and Vocational Education: A

 

Comparison; Zaltman et a1., Dynamic Educational Change;

 

and Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in

 

Education.

 

Strategies

 

Advocacy

The Ministry of Education has primary responsi-

bility for determining the curriculum areas for the

 

lEverett M. Rogers and F. Floyd Shoemaker, Com-
munication of Innovations: A Cross-Cultural Approach,
2d ed. (New York: Collier MacMillan Pub., 1971).

 

 

 

 

113

schools of Kuwait. They are genuinely concerned over
the quality of the program provided students but if
career education is to become a part of the curriculum,
an advocate and an advocacy group must be in place
within the Ministry of Education. This study has
created a first level awareness with selected members

of the Ministry and an advocacy group could possibly be
developed from some of the respondents. However,
leadership for extending the career education awareness
level of the group must be provided within the Ministry
of Education. A person with a thorough understanding of
Kuwait education and career development could become the
advocate required for this function.

There are four strategies which legitimately
follow. These are:

First, the concept of career education should be
modified, adapted, and presented in a way that is consis-
tent with the values and goals of Kuwait society.2

Second, the Ministry will have to play a key role
in promoting the concept of career education within the
country.

Third, before the concept could be introduced to
the community, support from the decision-makers and the

community must be secured.

 

2Gerald Zaltman et a1., Dynamic Educational Change
(New York: Macmillan Pub. Company, Inc., 1977).

 

 

 

 

 

114

Fourth, the Ministry of Education will need to
establish career education as a priority area within the

system.

Assessment

 

A needs assessment must be considered as an
important step in order to more precisely determine the
needs of the students, teachers, and the community.
When the needs and problems are identified, then the
program's objectives should be developed which reflect

these needs.

Advisory Committee

 

Hoyt in Career Education: What It Is and How To

 

Qp_£p suggested that an interactive network should be
organized, which ties local schools and interest groups
together.3

Career education programs need to reflect the
occupational world and community needs. Advisory com-
mittees are relied upon to assist in planning and keeping
programs current to the requirements of the world of work.

Planning should begin for recruiting interested
parties to participate on a career education advisory
committee (see Figure 6.1). The committee should under—

stand the definition and the need of the career education

 

3Kenneth B. Hoyt et a1., Career Education: What
It Is and How To Do It (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Publishing Co., 1974), p. 190.

 

 

115

 

 

Client

N

Career

A

Developggifi7

 

 

 

 

School
Role

 

 

 

 

Business /
Role

 

 

Fig.

6.1.

 

 

Family
Role

 

 

 

Industry's
Role

 

An Interactive Network

 

 

 

W

‘4?-

116

concept. It should also call for the sharing of infor-
mation, materials, ideas, and technology in career edu-
cation between schools and the whole community.

The Ministry of Education in Kuwait should con-
centrate on organizing and fostering local activities
to take advantage of local talent and resources. A
public information program should be designed to promote
the concept, stimulate interest, and call for active
participation by all parties in the community on the
part of school and nonschool groups. The success of

any school program is enhanced when it is supported by

the community. To support a program, the community
must be well informed and involved with the planning
and development of the program.

There are a number of ways which can be used to

inform the community, such as:

l. Parent-teacher conference

2. Local newspapers

3. Local radio and television stations
4. Mosques

5. Teacher's Association

6. Student-to-parent word of mouth

When the committee is formed, certain important roles

should be considered:

1. The committee should be well informed about what

is to be done.

117

2. Establish with them a set of guidelines to be

followed throughout the project.

3. It should be made clear that the committee will
function in an advisory capacity to the Ministry

of Education, not as final decision-makers.

After recruiting the community, there are other

things which should be performed. These are:

Curriculum

 

The curriculum should reflect relationships

between subjects taught and possible career goals

selected by students. Resources, methodology and
teacher's efforts need to be combined in a setting
flexible enough to accommodate students with varied
interests, abilities, and attitudes.

Before the resources can be used, they must be
identified. A proper identification will record the
availability of each resource and describe in some
detail precisely how the particular facility, individual,
or material might be used to provide an appropriate edu-
cational experience.

Professional educators and persons with training
in the field of education should be involved in the
resource identification process because they will be
able to appraise potential for learning experiences and

can evaluate the resources.

118

Career education programs should have a written

philosophy.

Community resources should be utilized in career

education instruction.
Students should be exposed to self in relation

to the world of work.

Students should be exposed to work in relation

to the community.

Students should be exposed to broad families

of occupations.

Real or simulated experiences should represent

a cross-section of the world of work.

Students should be able to observe workers and

work situations.

Teachers should be involved in planning career

education programs.

In-service training should be provided for

administrators, counselors, and teachers.

Community business and industry should be used
for awareness and exploratory career education

programs.

Schools should have an effective career guidance

program.

119

-— Schools should have adequate facilities, equip-
ment, and resources available and sufficient to

carry out the career education program.4

-- The Ministry of Education should increase inter-
personal contacts and structure some incentives

for teachers.5

Community Relations

 

A large part of successful change is exchange;
each of the public and private resources have needs and
problems, and each of these resources also have knowledge
which can be useful to the community.

Therefore, the involvement of individuals and
organizations within the community maximizes the effec-
tiveness of the career education program. One vital
part Of career education is bringing adults and students
together through visits to school or visits outside the
school setting. This brings teachers, parents, and
students together in a cooperation effort on behavior
of the student.

The Kuwait Ministry of Social Affairs and Work,

and the Social Service Center, can represent another form

 

4Jean Lewis et a1., Implementation Guide to
Career Education (Oregon: Vale School District 15,
June 1976), P. 25.

 

 

5Ernest R. House, The Politics of Educational
Innovation (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan, 1974).

 

 

120

of expertise that can form a partnership with the Min-
istry of Education in order to design informational
packages and programs based on available and emerging
areas of employment in the country.

The design of career education programs will
also require expertise which should have to come from

the present school staff.

Evaluation

 

The purpose of this step is to permit adminis-
trators and participants to assess and measure program
progress and to determine what modifications or adjust-

ments might be required for better achievements.

Placement on the job and both satisfaction on
the part of the new employee and of the employee to his
employer represent measurable criteria.

Hoyt stated some common techniques for evaluating
education and training programs and those are:

1. Direct solicitation of the reactions of the
participants including students and community.

2. Individual and group tests to actually measure
progress and achievements and attitudes in any
phase of the program.

3. Performance tests or observation of a student
actually demonstrating his ability in the use
of skill.

4. Comparison of results of new techniques and
procedures with results over older or tra-
ditional methods.

5. Observation of the career education process to
determine problems and find remedies.

 

6Hoyt, Career Education: What It Is and How
to Do It, p. 210.

 

121

Basic Requirement

 

Responsibility.--Career education is the respon-

 

sibility of everyone. It cannot, and should not, be

assigned to one specific area, person, or subject.

Student-centered concept.--The concept requires
that the philosophy of the staff, especially classroom
teachers, be student centered and that philosophy be put

into effect daily.

Role of administrative staff.--The administrative

staff must provide the leadership necessary to develop

and implement career education programs just as they
must do with any change or innovation. They should have

a positive attitude and a willingness to change.

Staff committee.--The proper selection of com-

 

mittee members can produce the needed energy and cooper-
ation to make things happen.

The following are ideas that should be of value
when selecting a committee of staff members to help
develop a program in career education:

1. Select career-oriented teachers.

2. Select persons with a cooperative attitude.

3. Select persons who are willing to become career
education oriented.

4. Committee members must have leadership ability.

5. It is important that these people have a realis-
tic understanding of the employer-employee
relationship. 7

6. Select people who are student-centered.

 

7Lewis, Implementation Guide, p. 43.

 

122

Workshops and in-services.--Workshops provide
Opportunities for sharing ideas, materials, and partici-
pating with others.

In-service should be held in order to provide

training and technical assistance to selected teachers.

Guidance and counseling.--Is important phase of
career education programs. Therefore, in-service should
be conducted for the counselors from each school who in

turn provide students with assistance individually.

Visitation.--Showing community members a suc-

 

cessful career exploration program in action is an
important early step toward developing community support.
Since it is not possible to transport an entire community
long distance to see career education programs in action,
the next best thing is to send representatives—adminis-
trators, advisory committees to other countries where
they implement the concept into their education system.
When these representatives understand the concept, they

will support the program and help in its development.

Hosting visitors.--Inviting experts from other

 

countries is an important step which should be considered

in developing career education programs.

Community resource guide.--A community resource

 

guide is a systematic arrangement of information

123

regarding all occupations and avocations available for
study in a given community. Developing a community
resource file includes gathering information, organizing
that information into a usable form, and storing it in a
readily attainable place for easy retrieval.

Gathering the information is a very difficult and
time-consuming process. A survey of the community must
be taken to identify places where students can visit for
career exploration and to establish a pool of resource
people who are willing to come to the school to share

information about themselves and their careers.

Career education guides.--They should be produced
and these guides include sources of free occupational
information, audio visual materials, field trips, sites,

and guest speakers listings for the school.

Library.--It should be established on the uni-
versity campus and supplemented with locally produced
materials and have these materials available to school
personnel.

The library should have books, pamphlets, posters,
games, slides, audio cassettes, and films. All these‘
materials should be printed in an audio visual library

handbook and distributed to schools.

124

Suggested Model

 

This chapter also presents a suggested career
education model which has been developed based upon the
research conducted through the study and giving consider-
ation to the unique quality of life in Kuwait.

However, the last proposed strategies should be
considered the basis for the following model. This model
will articulate the curriculum design at the elementary,
middle, and high schools. Guidance and counseling
should be emphasized in each phase of the model (see
Figure 6.2).

Career Awareness at the
Elementary Stpge

 

 

In the elementary schools, instructional programs
should stress developing career awareness by relating
basic skill curriculum to a framework of career infor-
mation; such as, what people do for a living and how
they live. Parents, doctors, pilots, carpenters, and
others become subjects for reading lessons, writing exer—
cises, and history lessons. This program provides the
students with opportunities to:

1. Develop foundations for wholesome attitudes
toward work and society.

2. Develop attitudes of respect and appreciation
toward workers in all fields.

3. Develop an awareness of the many careers
available.

4. Develop an awareness of self in relation to
occupational roles.

 

ELEMENTARY

MIDDLE

125

 

 

 

 

 

B
2
HIGH E SCHOOL
I)
3*
|-'-l
D4
CAREER
PREPARATION

SCHOOL

 

 

 

 

CAREER EXPLORATION

SCHOOL

 

 

 

 

 

CAREER AWARENESS

 

 

GUIDANCE and COUNSELING

 

Fig. 6.2.

Career Education Model

 

 

H3,

.0.“ m4“: JHVH .. . . .

 

126

5. Make tentative choices of career areas to
explore in greater depth during mid-school
years.

Career Exploration at the
Middle Stage

 

Students at middle school will begin more con-
centrated career exploration of the knowledge, skills,
technical requirements, working conditions, social
environments, and responsibilities of each career field

that interests them. Emphasis should be also placed on

understanding one's interests, aptitudes, and abilities
as a basis for tentative career choices.

"Hands—On" activities should include those activi-
ties which simulate the work situation. The student
should have the Opportunity to use the tools of the trade
as well as to learn some of the vocabulary. It is through
such activities that individuals begin to clarify their
occupational choices. They either identify with an
occupation because it meets their expectations or reject
it because their concept of the occupation has proven
unrealistic.

A nonthreatening atmosphere is essential to the
success of exploratory activities. (The objective is to
motivate students to "try on" a variety of occupations.

It is desirable for students to explore unfamiliar

 

8Sidney P. Marland, Career Education (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974), p. 162.

 

127

clusters of occupations as well as those about which
they have some knowledge. Participation is much better
if grades are not emphasized and the classroom is free
from threats. It is important to the students' future
that they decide that they do not like some occupations
as it is for them to discover those they do like. A
complete exploratory program provides opportunities for
the student to:

1. Continue to explore concepts and skills in
preparation for career choices.

2. Become familiar with occupational classifi—
cations and clusters.

3. Explore key occupational areas in relationship
to personal interests and abilities.

4. Explore, select and enroll in middle school
courses that are relevant to career interests
and aptitudes.

5. Arrive at tentative career choices and develOp
apprOpriate occupational plans.

Career Preparation at the
Secondary Stage

 

 

In high school, students should have the oppor-
tunity to acquire knowledge and skills for entry-level
employment or other post-secondary alternatives, includ-
ing college. The career preparation should be based on
the occupational cluster concept. A career cluster is
a group of occupations that include identical or similar
knowledge and skill requirements. Curriculum guides
should be develOped that present the knowledge and

skills common to the key occupations within a cluster.

 

91bid., pp. 162-63.

 

 

128

For example, the Construction Cluster Curriculum Guide
should present the knowledge and skills that are common
requirements for painting, roofing, electricity, and
architectural drafting.

The occupational cluster curriculum allows the
student to gain basic skills and knowledge related to
broad occupational areas rather than to a single job.
This broad experience is more apprOpriate to the chang-
ing occupational demands and advancing technology in the

country.

The career cluster curriculum allows students in
high school to:

l. Acquire occupational skills and knowledge for
entry-level employment and/or advanced occu-
pational training.

2. Relate high school experiences to general
career goals, including post-secondary education.

3. Participate in cooperative work experience.10

Placement

 

In the placement phase, the following steps
should be considered:

1. Keep a folder on each student that contains
information on special aptitudes, capabilities,
job application work experience, evaluations
of various kinds, test scores, and other usable
information.

2. Operate in locating employers who will cooperate
with the school by providing work observation
and work experiences for students.

3. Keep follow-up data on students for a five-year
plan.

 

loIbid., p. 164.

 

 

129

4. Provide students with career information.

5. Make use of test results and personal infor-
mation about the students to assist in the
decision-making process.

6. Work with student problems on the job. It is
the student with problems in keeping a job who
needs special attention and counseling. 1

llIrene Clements and the National Educational

Association, Career Education and Vocational Education:
A Comparison (Washington, D.C.: 1977), pp. 14-15.

 

APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

MICHIGAN PUBLIC ACT 97

 

APPENDIX A

MICHIGAN PUBLIC ACT 97

State of Michigan
77th Legislature
Regular Session of 1974

Introduced by Reps. Dively, Nelson, McCollough, Smart, Geerlinga,
Kildea, Bennett, Bellman, Vaughn, Smith, Bryan, Mowat, F. Robert
Edwards, Engler, Kehres, Crim, Montgomery, Elliott, Smit, and Moweli.
Reps. McNeely, Keith, and Stackable named as sponsors.

AN ACT to promote the planning and development of career education
programs; to create a state career education advisory commission and
local career education planning district councils and to prescribe
their powers and duties; and to prescribe the powers and duties of
certain state departments and agencies.

The People of the State of Michigan enact:

Sec. 1. This act shall be known and may be cited as the "career
education act."

Sec. 2. As used in this act:

(a) "Career education" means programs for K-12 students designed
to create career awareness, orientation, exploration, planning,
preparation, and placement, to maximize career options available,
and to provide comprehensive career development. In addition,
"career education" shall provide for the full development of students
to gain maximum self-development and fulfillment from career prepar-
ation and choice, and to maximize the capabilities of students to
explore, analyze, prepare for, gain entry to, and succeed in career
choices.

(b) "Career education planning district" means a group of local
educational agencies, including local school districts and inter-
mediate school districts, in geographic proximity to each other and
organized to increase cooperation and articulation between local
educational agencies as they plan to implement a career education
program.

(c) "Local educational agency" means local school districts and
intermediate school districts and their boards.

130

131

Sec. 3. The career education advisory commission, hereafter
called the commission, is created in the department of education.
The commission consists of 20 members of which not more than l/2
shall represent the education profession. The members shall be
appointed, 10 members shall be appointed for 1 year and 10 for 2
years. The state superintendent of public instruction or his desig-
nated agent shall be a nonvoting, ex officio member and shall serve
as chairman. The commission membership shall include representa-
tives of labor, business or industry, a noneducational state govern-
mental agency, local and intermediate school board members and adminis-
trators, a community college district, a 4-year college or university,
a neighborhood education authority, the state advisory council for
vocational education, parents, teachers, counselors, and students.

Sec. 4. (l) The commission shall evaluate current state,
regional, and local efforts toward career education and shall submit
to the state board of education its findings.

(2) The commission shall recommend to the board guidelines and
performance Objectives for a comprehensive career education program.

Sec. 5. (l) The state board of education shall recommend state-
wide guidelines and goals for a comprehensive career education program
not later than 9 months after the effective date of this act.

(2) The board in consultation with the commission and teacher
training institutions shall develop a plan for professional personnel
development to assure successful implementation of career education
in all local educational agencies. The professional personnel
development plan shall provide for the systematic development of all
professional personnel at both the per-service and in-service levels
and the criteria for assessing the performance of these professional
personnel.

Sec. 6. (l) The state shall be divided by the state board of
education into career education planning districts. A planning dis-
trict shall be structured to increase communication, cooperation, and
planning among its member educational agencies and to coordinate and
promote career education programs in the district. The number and
boundaries of career education planning districts shall initially be
as established on January 1, 1974, and be reviewed annually by the
state board of education based upon criteria to include the following:

(a) Existing intermediate school districts.

(b) Geographical proximity of local educational agencies to one
another.

(c) Student enrollment.

(d) Compatibility with service area boundaries of local edu-
cational agencies.

 

 

132

(2) A planning district shall be served by a career education
planning district council whose membership shall be recommended by
local educational agencies within the district and selected on or
before January 1, 1975, by the intermediate boards of education in
which they are constituent. Membership shall not exceed 20, of which
not more than 1/2 shall represent the education profession, and shall
include representatives of local and intermediate board members and
administrators, the arts, business or industry, a local organization
or manpower agency, parents, teachers, counselors, and students. All
other local educational agencies shall be represented as nonvoting,
ex officio members on the council serving their area of the state.

A career education planning district council shall develop annually,
beginning September 1, 1975, a comprehensive, cohesive, and well-
coordinated career education plan, utilizing the guidelines recom-
mended by the state board of education.

Sec. 7. Beginning with the 1975-76 school year each local edu-
cational agency shall have a comprehensive career education plan and
shall establish performance objectives. Each local educational
agency shall annually thereafter evaluate and make recommendations
for its comprehensive career education program utilizing guidelines
and goals recommended by the state board of education, the planning
district's plan, and the local educational agency's performance
objectives and plan.

Sec. 8. The department of education, in cooperation with other
agencies, shall periodically compile and make available to career
education planning districts and local educational agencies infor-
mation pertaining to current and future job opportunities.

Sec. 9. The department of education shall provide to the
legislature and the governor by February 1, 1975, an estimate of the
cost of implementing a comprehensive career education plan for the
state.

This act is ordered to take immediate effect.

 

APPENDIX B

TYPES OF EXAMPLES AND ACTIVITIES
FOR CAREER PREPARATION

AND DEVELOPMENT

APPENDIX B

TYPES OF EXAMPLES AND ACTIVITIES
FOR CAREER PREPARATION
AND DEVELOPMENT

Appendix B-l

Career Preparation Examples and Activities

 

EXAMPLES OF EXISTING SCHOOL PROGRAMS:

 

Elementary:
Language Arts: learning to read, spell, write
Arithmetic: learning to add, subtract, divide

Junior High:

 

Science: learning about ecology and
environmental protection

Social Studies: learning about global inter-

dependence and its effect upon
the individual

Senior High:

 

Vocational classes: learning skills necessary for
job entry upon graduation

Physical education: learning individual and team
sports appropriate as recrea-
tional activities throughout
one's lifetime

133

 

134

Appendix B-l (Continued)

Activities for Classroom Use

 

Elementary:

 

Language Arts:

Arithmetic:

Junior High:

 

General Math:

English:

Senior High:

 

Vocational Classes:

Biology:

The students will first visit the
apprOpriate places and then will
accurately complete an application
form for: a public library card,
a bicycle license, and a YMCA/
YWCA membership.

Using his/her allowance as a base,
the students will compute the
length of time necessary to save
for a desired object—-a game,
clothing, toy, etc. Students
should first visit stores to
determine the price of the
desired object.

After visiting sporting goods or
hobby stores or talking with
adults pursuing a like hobby, the
student will calculate the cost
of necessary materials, equipment,
supplies, etc. for pursuing a
hobby of his/her choice.

The student will correctly write
and send letters of inquiry to
apprOpriate sources for infor-
mation regarding a hobby of his/
her choice.

The students will correctly com—
plete job applications and submit
them to employers of their choice
for consideration as potential
employees.

The students will determine the
potential effects of substance
abuse upon his/her body and the
physical activities in which he/
she now engages.

 

 

135

Appendix B—2

Self-Awareness and Assessment: Examples and Activities

I. ACTIVITIES FOR CLASSROOM USE:

Elementary:

 

Language Arts: Children can complete, either
verbally or written, and discuss,
if desired, a series of open—
ended questions related to self-
concept. Some examples are:

Today I feel

 

I get angry when

 

People think I

 

I'm afraid

 

Junior High:

 

Art: Students can use various art
mediums to portray how they feel
when they are lonely, happy,
angry, sad, etc.

Senior High:

 

Government: Students can compare individual
rights versus group rights and
through role playing, dramatize
recent events of "double standards
behavior" in government and the
resulting infringement of indi-
vidual or group rights.

136

Appendix B-3
Career Awareness and Exploration Examples and Activities
I. ACTIVITIES FOR CLASSROOM USE

Elementary:

 

Social Studies: Children can discuss and roleplay
the occupations of familiar com-
munity helpers. They might, then,
interview several community
helpers asking such questions as:

- What skills do you need?

- What kinds of people do you
work with?

- Where did you learn your job?

- What hobbies do you have?

Junior High:

 

Health education: Students can visit a hospital and
acquire information about the
various occupations available within
the departments of a hospital.

For example:
medical services
laboratories
dietary control
admissions office
housekeeping and laundry services

Senior High:

 

Biology: Students can, through surveys and
interviews, determine all of the
occupations within their community
which are related to biology and
then determine the amount and type
of education or training necessary
for each.

For example:
greenhouse owner
veterinarian
sewage treatment plant Operator
biologist
farmer

137

Appendix B-4
Career Decision-Making Examples and Activities
ACTIVITIES FOR CLASSROOM USE:

Elementary:

 

Arithmetic: Children can be given a list of
priced items appropriate for the
age group and a sum of money.

They must prioritize items in the
order they would choose to buy and
determine the change they would
receive. They can then discuss
why they prioritized as they did.

Junior High:

 

English: Students can select one short-term
goal in each of the life role
areas and describe in writing what
steps he/she can take in school
to help achieve each goal.

Senior High:

 

Family Living: After identifying three employ-
ment Options which each student
is considering pursuing (based
upon interests, abilities, etc.)
students can visit job sites in
the three employment areas. After
interviewing employees, they can
return to class and discuss how
each option might affect or
influence his/her family role and
potential life style. (The dis-
cussion will focus upon the infor-
mation gained through the job site
observation and interview.)

138

Appendix B-S

Career Planning and Placement Examples and Activities

ACTIVITIES FOR CLASSROOM USE

Elementary:

 

Art/Music/Physical
Education:

Junior High:

 

General Business:

Senior High:

 

Vocational Classes:

After identifying a new leisure
time activity which he/she would
like to learn, the student can
list the steps necessary to
reach the identified goal. Then
he/she can begin to follow the
steps listed in the plan and
evaluate his/her progress.

Students can identify personal
characteristics which would be of
value to a potential employer and
assess whether or not he/she
possesses these characteristics.

If not, the student can develop
and implement a plan of action to
acquire the needed characteristics.

Students can identify and then
compare and contrast places where
they could receive further edu-
cation and training in the occu-
pation of their choice.

APPENDIX C

LETTERS THAT ACCOMPANIED THE

QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX C

LETTERS THAT ACCOMPANIED THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Michigan State University
College of Education
Curriculum Department

Dear Sir:

The investigator believes strongly in serving his
country and working with others for its development.
Therefore, he has thoroughly investigated approaches
which deal with the technology and its influence on the
futuristic occupations. This research will result in
obtaining the Ph.D. degree, and it is entitled: "The
Perceptions of Selected Kuwait Decision Makers and Citi-
zens toward Career Education and a Suggested Model for
Implementing Change."

Career education concept deals with creating a com-
prehensive environment which links the academic studies
with the vocational studies. This concept calls for
preparing students for jobs at all grade levels. Experts
support this idea by saying that most futuristic occu-
pations need technicians more than any other majors. They
also agree that most students do not have the interest in
obtaining a university diploma; some students leave school
even before completing high school; and few continue
their studies beyond high school. Therefore, they call
for incorporating this concept within the educational
system.

The purpose of this study is to determine the degree
to which career education or some of its components are
perceived as being worthy of incorporation into the cur-
riculum of Kuwait's public schools by members of the
Kuwait Ministry of Education, public secondary school
principals, industrial directors in Kuwait, and Kuwait
graduate students.

Thank you,

Sa'ad Jasim Al-hashel
Researcher

139

Dear Sir:

140

Please do the following:

1.

2.

Read the items carefully.

Place the items based upon their importance on
the five piles. However, each group of items
has a marked envelope as follows:

Highest Lowest
Priority Priority
1 2 3 4 5

Don't place more than ten cards on the pile.

Upon completion, you can exchange cards with
the others.

Put each category in its envelope.

Don't hesitate to ask about anything unclear
in the opinionnaire.

Thank you,

Sa'ad Jasim Al-hashel
Researcher

 

APPENDIX D

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

 

APPENDIX D

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Academic Studies Items (AS):

 

Highest
Priority

1 2

Students need to understand the
principles and functions of
chemistry.

Students need to understand
history's role in shaping the
present and the future.

Students need to understand
the principles and functions
of economics.

Students need to know how to
interpret maps and graphs.

Students need to know funda-
mentals of plant and animal
growth.

Students need to know how to
speak clearly and logically
to express their ideas.

Students need to know how to
express their ideas and feelings
clearly in writing.

Students need to understand how
mental, social, and emotional
needs are related.

Students need to know how to

work together with others as
a group.

141

4

Lowest
Priority

5

142

Academic Studies Items (AS):

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Highest
Priority

1 2

Students need to develop behavior
indicative of self-discipline.

Students need to understand and
respect other people so that
they may become effective in
human relations.

Students need to learn accepted
health practices and the physical
effects related to the use of
tobacco.

Students need to be involved in
learning experiences related to
social and moral values (AS).

Students need to have experiences
in the fine arts.

Students need to be involved in
learning experiences related to
the physiological development
of the body.

Students need to learn in an
environment that is less com-
petitive and more cooperative.

Students need to develop their
health and physical fitness.

Students need to be aware of the
fundamental principles of
religion.

Students need to understand the
principles and functions of
mathematics.

4

Lowest
Priority

5

143

Career Education Items (CE):

 

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Highest
Priority

1 2

Students need to be prepared
for a job.

Students need to be aware of
educational alternatives
available after graduation.

Students need to be aware of
present and future job avail-
ability.

Schools should utilize the
occupational orientation within
their classroom teaching.

Schools should utilize the
occupational orientation within
their classroom teaching.

Students need to have counseling
available to them at all grade
levels.

Students need to have freedom to
select and attend classes that
meet their interests and
abilities.

Students should be provided with
the necessary skills so that they
know how to look for and get a job.

There is a need for combined
education and work.

Students need to understand their
abilities and interests.

All students need to have available
to them job-related vocation
classes.

Students need "Hands-On" experiences
in schools.

4

Lowest
Priority

5

 

144

Career Education Items (CE):

 

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

Highest
Priority

1 2

Students need to be assisted in
setting realistic life goals.

Students need to know how to
develop a flexible career plan.

Schools should work closely with
the students and parents in
career planning.

Community resources should be
utilized in preparing students
for work.

Students need to obtain part-
time or summer employment.

Schools should involve agencies,

institutions, and the whole com-

munity in stating the educational
goals.

Students need to recognize their
goals and responsibilities as
citizens.

Students need to know the practical
aspects and responsibilities as
citizens.

Students need to be exposed to a
variety of avocational activities.

4

Lowest
Priority

5

 

ARABIC TRANSLATION FOR THE QUESTIONNAIRE

 

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APPENDIX B

THE MASTER DATA MATRIX

 

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APPENDIX B
THE MASTER DATA MATRIX
TABLE E-l
DATA MATRIX
Subjects 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3C 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

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APPENDIX F

CLASSIFIED PARTICIPANTS ON THE BASIS OF

THEIR FACTOR LOADINGS

 

 

APPENDIX F
CLASSIFIED PARTICIPANTS ON THE BASIS OF
THEIR FACTOR LOADINGS
TABLE F-l

GROUP OF PEOPLE DETERMINED BY FACTOR ANALYSIS
(not a priori group)

 

 

SeQ Variable ID Factor Loading
Factor 1
1 27 P .542
2 21 A .420
3 19 A .407
4 13 A .434
5 26 P .453
6 30 P .527
7 23 P .595
8 28 P .583
9 16 A .390
10 28 P .478
11 14 A .569
12 15 A .598
13 17 A .534
14 4 S .459
15 10 S .424
16 33 D .679
Factor 2
17 20 A .651
18 24 P .199
19 22 P .236
20 36 D .653
21 3 S .497
22 12 S .580
EEEEQ£_§
*
23 6 S* .307
24) 39 D .339
25 1 S .528

154

 

155

TABLE F-l (Continued)

 

SeQ Variable ID Factor Loading

 

Factor 3 (Con't)

 

26 18 A .443
27 2 S .362
28 32 D .258
29 37 D .292
30 11 8* .841
31 25 P .614
32 35 D .508
Factor 4
33 31 D .307
34 7 S .616
35 5 S .504
36 34 D .368
37 8 S .357
38 9 S .522
39 38 D .538

 

*
A = Administrator in the Ministry of Education;
P = Principal; D = Directors of industries; S = Students.

 

SELECTED BIBL IOGRAPHY

 

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and Journals

 

Bailey, Larry L., and Stadt, Ronald. Career Education:
New Approaches to Human Development. Bloomington,
Ill.: McKnight and McKnight Co., 1973.

 

 

Baldridge, J. Victor, and Deal, Terrence E. Managing
Change in Educational Organizations. Berkeley,
Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1975.

 

Bennis, Warren G. et al. The Planning of Change. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1975.

 

Berg, Ivar. Education and Jobs: The Great Training
Robbery. New York: Praeger, 1970.

 

Bradfield, Luther E. Teaching in Modern Elementary
Schools. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merfill
Books, Inc., 1964.

 

Bushell, David S., and Rappaport, Donald. Planned Change
in Education. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovano-
vich, Inc., 1971.

 

 

Chapman, Elwood N. Career Search. Science Research
Associates, Inc., 1976.

 

Chenault, Joann. Career Education and Human Services.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education
Monographs on Career Education, undated.

 

Clements, Irene. Career Education and Vocational Edu—
cation: A Comparison. ERIC. Washington, D.C.:
National Education Association, 1977.

 

 

Crites, John 0. Vocational Psychology. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.

 

Davis, Dwight, and Borgan, Joe. Planning, Implementing
and Evaluation Career Preparation Programs.
Bloomington, I11.: McKnight Pub. Co., 1974.

 

 

156

 

157

Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York:
McMillan Pub. Co., Inc., 1944.

D011, Ronald C. Curriculum Improvement: Decision-Making
and Process. Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon,
Inc., 1978.

 

Eisner, Elliot W., and Vallance, Elizabeth. Conflicting
Conception of Curriculum. Berkeley, Ca1if.:
McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1974.

 

 

Evans, Robert N. Foundations of Vocational Education.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merill Pub. Co., 1971.

Feldman, Marvin. Making Education Relevant. New York:
The Ford Foundation, 1966.

Georgiady, N. P. "Blue-Collar Careers? Why Not?"
The Elementary School Journal (November 1976).

Goldhammer, Keith. A Careers Curriculum. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co., 1972.

 

Goldhammer, Keith, and Taylor, Robert E. Career Education:
Perspective and Promise. Columbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill Pub. Co., 1972.

 

Goodlad, John I. The Dynamics of Educational Change:
Toward Responsive Schools. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, 1975.

 

Gregg, McGraw Hill. Careers in Focus. New York: McGraw
Hill Co., 1976.

 

Gribbons, Warren D., and Lohnes, P. Emerging Careers.
New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1968.

Gwynn, J. Minor. Curriculum Principles and Social Trends.
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960.

Hack et a1. Educational Futurism 1985. Berkeley, Calif.:
McCutchan Publishing Company, 1971.

Bass, Glen. Curriculum Planning, A New Approach. New
York: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1977.

Havelock, Ronald G. The Change Agent's Guide to Innova-
tion in Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Edu-
cational Technology Pub., 1973.

 

 

 

 

158

Herr, Edwin L. Review and Synthesis of Foundation for
Career Education. Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1972.

 

 

 

Herr, Edwin L., and Cramer, Stanley H. Vocational
‘ Guidance and Career Development in the Schools:
Toward a System Approach. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1972.

 

 

Hoyt, Kenneth. Career Education: Contributions to an
Evolving Concept. Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Pub. Co., 1976.

 

 

Hoyt, Kenneth B. et al. Career Education in Elementary
Schools. Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Pub.
Co.,

 

Hoyt, Kenneth B., and Hebeler, Jean R. Career Education
for Gifted and Talented Students. Satl Lake
City, Utah: Olympus Pub. Co., 1974.

 

 

Hoyt, Kenneth B. et a1. Career Education in the Middle/
Junior High Schools. Salt Lake City, Utah:
Olympus Pub. Co., 1973.

 

 

Hoyt, Kenneth B. et a1. Career Education: What It Is
and How to Do It. Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus
Pub. Co., 1974.

 

 

Jones, Daisy M. Curriculum Targets in the Elementary
School. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 1977.

 

Keller, Louise J. Career Education Inservice Training
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