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MAL-II IIII iIIII.r-.|'..I.||'.' -mInI‘uIILI-atn III III“ III w LLILLlLIL“LLLLLLlLHlL LIHLLII This is to certify that the thesis entitled LEARNING FROM SUPPLEMENT MATERIALS: THE EFFECTS OF OVERVIEW, INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURED NOTES presented by Edward Ambrose Francis has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Q. 2 Major professor Date November 9, 1979 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to rmove this checkout from your record. LEARNING FROM SUPPLEMENT MATERIALS: THE EFFECTS OF OVERVIEW, INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURED NOTES By Edward Ambrose Francis A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Curriculum and Instruction 1979 ABSTRACT LEARNING FROM SUPPLEMENT MATERIALS: THE EFFECT OF OVERVIEH, INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURED NOTES By Edward Ambrose Francis The research question that provided the focus of this study was: Will using supplementary materials with an instructional film result in improvement in student learning and attitude. The separate effects of adding Overview, Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (review) were investigated. Both cognitive and attitudinal measures were used. There were three distinct components of the experience: The viewing of the audio-visual production, the exposure to supplementary materials, and completion of the evaluative measures. In order to investigate the research question, three hypotheses were developed: Hypothesis one (1): There will be a treatment effect on the immediate posttest. Hypothesis two (2): There will be a treatment effect on the delayed posttest. Hypothesis three (3): There will be a treatment effect on a student attitude scale. The dependent variables Of the study were (1) learning, the amount Of cognitive information recall indicated on the posttest, both immediate and delayed, and (2) attitude, the learner's attitude toward the supplementary materials measured by an attitudinal survey. All three dependent variables were analyzed using one-way ANOVA's at the alpha equals .10 level. The main conclusions of the study were: (1) The treatments had an effect on learning as tested using anIANOVA one-way analysis of variance Of learning. Students who were provided supplementary materials learned more than those students whO were not provided supplementary materials. (2) The treatments did not have an effect on student attitude as tested using an ANOVA one-way analysis of variance. Tukey Post’Hoc tests revealed that all treatment groups did better on the immediate posttest than the control group. ‘The same test revealed that the Two-Aid treatment, i.e., Instructional Objectives plus Structured ’ Notes, did better than the control group on the delayed posttest. The main recomendations are: (1) When using audio-visual productions in the classroom, supplementary materials should be provided so as to enhance learning. (2) If both short and longitudinal cognitive recall is important, using Instructional Objectives plus Structured Notes should be emphasized. (3) The producers of educational audio-visual productions should produce supplementary materials, i. e., Overview, Instructional Objectives, and Structured Notes which could enhance the educative value of the production. ACKNOHLEDBEHENTS There is only one name under heaven by which all men must be saved: the name of Jesus. And there is only one name on a dissertation: the name Of the researcher. It is only through God and the woman that the WORD (Jesus) became flesh and gives new birth to men. And, it is only through the combined input of many individuals that a dissertation is profitable for knowledge and understanding. Then: Frist, I am especially indebted to Dr. Ted N. Ward, who headed the doctoral committee. His unfailing encouragement and tactful guidance were invaluable. Second, I am equally grateful tO Dr. Norman T. Bell, who directed the research for the dissertation. His instructional expertise, construc- tive criticign and innovative approach to supplements to learning were cogently insightful. Third, much appreciation is extended to Drs. George F. Sargent and Raywin Huang for their statistical insight and care for detail which is so essential to meaningful research. ' Fourth, I wish to thank the the other members Of the committee, Drs. Perrin E. Parkhurst and T. Harry McKinney, for their time, advice, and willingness to give asssitance. Although not members of the committee, Mrs. Virginia Niseman, Mr. Robert Martin, Drs. Don Nickerson and Walter Johnson, Dr. and Mrs. John Powell must be graciously acknowledged for providing unfailing encouragement during preparations for doctoral candidacy. Special appreciation is extended to Mrs. Nancy Lewis, colleague, and Mr. Elmer Weaver, Principal, whose assistance during on site research made this study possible. Throughout this tinw: of spiritual, academic and social growth period of my life, my wife, Maude, through countless hours of typing and other ways too innumerable to assess, has never failed me. Our children, Joy, John, Jana, and Joel continually demonstrated their love through patience and understanding during the many hours of study and the omission of otherwise normal activities. Advisors, committee members, friends, colleagues, family...all these and many more form an integral and significant part of what has become this dissertation, and the culmination of this doctoral program. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Overview ............................................... 1 Background of Problem... ............................... 1 PrOposed Solution ..................... . ........... .....3 Purpose of this Research ............................... 3 Research Question and Hypotheses ................... ....4 Research Question .................. . .............. 4 Research Hypotheses ............................... 4 Definition of Important Terms .......................... 5 Sumary ................................................ 7 Overview of Other Chapters in Study .................... 8 11. REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE Overview ............................................... 9 Evaluative Comparisons of Instruction ............. 9 Summary .......................................... 14 Instructional Objectives ......................... 15 Advance Organizers ............................... 18 Summary .......................................... 21 Structured Notes ................................. 21 Summary ............................................... 22 III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Design.... ............................................ 25 Design Over Time ................................. 26 Experimental Treatments .......... . ............... 27 Learners ......................................... 28 Measures .............................. . .......... 29 Validity Concerns ..................................... 30 Internal Validity ................................ 30 External Validity ............................... .31 Design Over Variables ................................. 32 Variables Matrices .................. . ............ 33 Statistical Model of Analysis .................... 34 Research Hypotheses ................................... 35 Procedures ........................................ ....35 Constructing the Supplementary Materials ......... 36 Determining Learning and Attitude ................ 37 Summary ............................................... 37 iv IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Dependent Variable: Learning .......................... 39 Hypothesis 1 ..... . ........................... ....39 Hypothesis 2 ................................ .....41 Student Learning Findings ............................. 42 Dependent Variable - Attitude ......................... 43 Hypothesis 3 .................................. ..43 Summary of Student Learning Findings. ........ .45 Interpretation of Findings ........................... 46 Interpretation Of Student Learning Findings ...... 46 Interpretation Of Student Attitude Findings ...... 47 Summary .................. . ............................ 48 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary ............................................... 49 Objectives and Procedures ....................... 51 Conclusions.... .......... ...... ........... ............52 Recomendations ....................................... 52 Rationale for Recommendations .................... 53 Reconmendation For Selection And Use Of Supplementary Materials .......... 53 Recommendation For Future Research ............... 54 REFERENCES APPENDICES \l LIST OF TABLES Table 1 ANOVA for Learning: Immediate Posttest ...................... 4O 2 ANOVA for Learning: Delayed Posttest ........................ 42 3 ANOVA for Attitude: Attitude ................................ 44 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Design Over Time ............................................ 26 3.2 Sequenced Supplementary Materials ............................ 28 3.3 Variable Matrix .............................................. 33 4.1 Variable Matrix of Means For: Learning H1 ............................................. 40 4.2 Variable Matrix of Means For: Learning H2 ............................................ 41 4.3 Variable Matrix Of Means For: Attitude ................................................ 44 I STATEMENT OF PROBLEM OVERVIEH The first tOpic to be presented in Chapter I is a general BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM which stated simply is to explore the effects of using supplementary learning materials with an audio-visual instructional pre- sentation. Next is the PROPOSED SOLUTION to the problem, that of using supplementary materials tO enhance the learning through use of the audio- visual instructional presentation. The third topic Of Chapter I is the PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH, which is to determine the impact of supplementary materials on learning. This is followed by the RESEARCH QUESTION and HYPOTHESES and DEFINITIONS OF IMPOR- TANT TERMS sections. Chapter I concludes with a SUMMARY and an OVERVIEW OF OTHER CHAPTERS IN STUDY. BACKGROUND OF PROBLEM Wittich (1964) conducted a study involving some 264 grade school pupils. He attempted to find which of three classroom methods in using films was most effective in teaching factual information and social under- standing. The following three methods Of utilization were employed: One method was to show the film without much preparation or anticipation, and immediately after the showing administer a fifty item test. By means of a second technique pupils were informed about the general content of the film, studied words and phrases necessary to an understanding of the comnentary, read questions which anticipated the major fields of informa- tion, saw the film, and finally took the test. With the third method, the class was conducted in the same manner as method two but in addition the pupils discussed a set of questions based on the film, saw the film a second time and immediately took the same test again. It was found that the pupils who were instructed by means of method two learned 50 percent more than those instructed by method one and that classes using method three were 100 percent superior to classes using method One. Not only did pupils acquire more factual knowledge but they were substantially more capable of making social judgements. It was noted also that the more difficult the film, the greater the gains Of method two and three. Wittich showed that by anticipating the film content, by building a readiness for the film, by directing Observation, and by inten- sive utilization, it was actually possible to increase the learning gains from a film by as much as 100 percent. Wittich indicates that the proper use of film in the classroom has been an issue since the 1940's. Yet, while there has been rapid increase in the use of educational films since the 1940's, little emphasis has been 'placed upon the use of supplementary materials related to film use. It appears that the questions of how peOple learn from meaningful supple- mentary materials and Of how such learning can be enhanced have, for the most part, been ignored. Carroll (1968) Observed that learning theorists expect to find explanations regarding acquisition of information from supplementary materials. His research concluded that improved cognitive and attitudinal results will be enhanced by adding mathemagenic exercises, i.e., activities which require the student's physical as well as mental involvement, to the showing of films in the classroom. PROPOSED SOLUTION Thus there appears to be a need for learners to have access to supple- mentary materials in conjunction with extant materials. The general goal of this research was to determine the effects of using supplementary materials in addition to audio-visual productions. It was hypothesized that the use of supplementary materials for the enhancement of cognitive recall can be accomplished by using supplementary materials in conjunction with audio-visual productions. The cues supplied to the learner using supplementary materials may be of any degree of complexity, and may be altered for subsequent use with audio-visual productions. It is further hypothesized that by supplying supplementary materials which involve mathemagenic participation by students, both the cognitive recall and the attitude of the students will improve. PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH The research investigated the cognitive and attitudinal effects of adding Overview, Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (review) to an audio-visual production. The two dependant variables of concern were (a) cognitive recall and (b) attitude. ‘The following research question and hypotheses were used to provide an Operational statement of this purpose. Thus, the primary' purpose of the study is to introduce and test the impact of supplementary materials in conjunction with viewing an educational film. RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES RESEARCH QUESTION The primary' question of interest is: Will using supplementary learning materials with movies result in improvement in student learning and in improvement in student attitude toward the educative experience. The research question suggests, among many possible hypotheses, hypotheses concerning both student cognitive performance and student attitude toward the learning experience. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES In order to investigate the research question of this study, the following three hypotheses have been deveTOped: I. Student Learning Hypotheses Dependent Variable: Learning H1: There will be a treatment effect on the immediate posttest, i.e., the adding of supplementary materials will cause some treatment groups to retain Inore cognitive information than other treatment groups. 'HZ: There will be a treatment effect on the delayed posttest (approximately four weeks after the first test); i.e., some treatment groups will retain more cognitive infor- mation than other treatment groups after a time period of 30 days. 11. Student Attitude Hypothesis Dependent Variable: Attitude H3: There will be a treatment effect in student attitude for various levels of supplementary Inaterials, i.e., students receiving more supplementary materials will indicatermore appreciation than those students receiving less supple- mentary materials. DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS To heighten and delimit the study and to give added impetus to the research question and hypotheses, the following terms were defined. 1. Learning - Cognitive information retained between the treat- ments and cognitive posttests. 2. Learners - Subjects in the study. The learners were ninth grade high school students. 3. Supplementary Materials - Printed and visual aids made avail- able tO students in the experiment: a) Overview- To answer the question: "What's this film all about?" b) Instructional Objectives - To answer the question: "What am I to learn from this film?" c) Structured Notes (guided review) - TO answer the ques- tion: "What should I focus on as I review the film?" Note: The supplementary materials follow a question-statement format. The materials were typed and then processed for over- head projector use. Aid - An instructional message, either questions or state- ments, calling for a particular response, i.e., Overview, . Instructional Objectives, and Structured Notes. Treatment - The experimental variable. There are three treat- ment groups and one control group: The three treatment groups are as follows: a) Three Aids - Receives three aids: Overview, Instruc- tional Objectives, and Structured Notes as well as cognitive test and attitude scale. b) Two Aids - Receives twO aids: Overview and Instruc- tional Objectives as well as cognitive test and atti- tude scale. c) One Aid - Receives one aid: Structured Notes as well as cognitive test and attitude scale. Testing Occurrence - Two occasions when learners in the study complete the cognitive tests. Cognitive Test - An instrument to evaluate information recall. Effects — The cognitive and affective results of syste- matically inducing the aids: Overview, Instructional Objec- tives, and Structured Notes into the experiment. 9. 'Comnon Practice - Refers to teaching practices usually used when a film is shown in the classroom, i.e., teacher threads the projector, verbally introduces the film, turns the projector on, turns the projector off, and rewinds the film. Learners are often asked to write notes on the film while the film is in progress. , 10. Attitude - The degree to which the student favors or disfavors the supplementary materials used in the three experimental groups. 11. Attitude Survey - An instrument to measure like and dislike of supplementary materials (An adaptation of an attitude survey used by Sargent; Sargent, unpublished dissertation, MSU, 1975). 12. Extant Materials - Available audio-visual productions intended for classroom use, i. e., an educational film. SUMMARY The focus of Chapter I was on the use Of supplementary materials, i.e., Overview, Instructional Objectives, (guided review) to enhance cognitive recall of audio-visual productions. Three hypotheses ‘were presented relating to the cognitive and attitudinal effects of supple- mentary'materials. Further, hypothesis three submits that student attitude ’toward the educative experience will improve as more supplemantary materials are used with an audio-visual production. The definition Of terms is very important because the use of the terms “supplementary" and "aid" vary somewhat from ordinary usage. OVERVIEH OF OTHER CHAPTERS IN STUDY Chapter II, Review Of Pertinent Literature, focuses on the eval- uative comparisons of instruction, Instructional Objectives, Advance Organizers, and Structured Notes (guided review). Chapter 11 presents a series of studies which emphasize the role Of supplementary materials as related to audio-visual productions, cognitive recall, and student atti- tude toward supplementary materials. II REVIEH OF PERTINENT LITERATURE OVERVIEH The literature related to the thrust of this study was reviewed from these perspectives: (1) Evaluative Comparisons of Instruction, (2) Instructional Objectives, (3) Advance Organizers, and (4) Structured Notes. EVALUATIVE COMPARISONS 0F INSTRUCTION From the early 1920's to 1950's, research in instructional media was almost exclusively directed to evaluate comparisons Of instructional film with conventional methods of teaching. The collective findings of similar types of investigations show trends which serve as valuable guide- lines for further inquiry. The most comprehensive review of early research in this area is the work of Hoban and Van Ormer (1950) which examined nearly two hundred experimental and survey studies conducted between 1918 and 1950. The comparative.aspects of these studies furnished the basis upon which the entire audio-visual movement was justified. A review of findings 'confirmed the overall effectiveness of film and other forms of mediated instruction (Moldstad, 1974). With the challenge that "conventional 10 methods" of teaching with highly trained instructors were no more and often less efficient than information transmission dependent upon audio-visual presentations, the military services took the lead in instructional media research during and for several years after World War II. The series of studies by Hoveland, Lumsdaine and Sheffield (1949), the reports of the Army Air Force Aviation Psychology Program by J. J. Gibson (1947), the Instructional Film Research Program conducted by C. R. Carpenter from 1947-1955 under the direction of the Navy's Special Devices Center (Carpenter, 1953; Carpenter and Greenhill, 1956) and A. A. Lumsdaine's research program for the Air Force Research and Development Corrmand from 1950 through 1957 (Lumsdaine, 1961) reflect a systematic, programmatic effort to deal with psychological, production and utilization variables at a new level of precision. The most recent evaluative research cycle began in the early 1960“s as interest in programmed instruction gained impetus. Although most of the effectiveness studies compared the programmed materials with face-to-face instruction by a teacher, gradually the interactive effects of learner, task, and program variables affecting student achievement were also explored. In an extensive review of the literature published between 1966 and 1971, and in citing other significant reviews, Campeau (1974) found that studies comparing programmed with conventional instruction have yielded mixed results with few significant differences reported across a wide range of subject matter and age groups. (Schramm, 1964; Campeau, '1957; Briggs, 1968, 1970) 11 In general, comparative evaluations of programmed instruction and conventional instruction confirm previous findings of no significant dif- ference in effectiveness of presentation modes when each is treated as a whole. Although these results are regarded as negative by some educators, there is a partial value in knowing that alternative methods of presen- tation are available for use with little or no apparent gross differences in learning achievement. As a further refinement in research comparing visual materials for instruction, Dwyer (1973) designed a study to determine the degree of effectiveness by which illustrative material presented by different chan- nels facilitated student achievement on all five criterial measures. A related effectiveness study by Leroy Ortigiesen (1954) compared filmstrips, sound films and printed materials in: (1) teaching infor- mation about and (2) changing attitudes towards soil conservation. It was found that filmstrips were significantly more effective in achieving cog- nitive objectives than sound motion pictures, and both were more than printed materials. Film strips and sound films were as effective in changing attitudes as were printed materials. In general, data on students' attitudes toward mode of instruc- tion are inconsistent and show little or no relationship between attitude and measured learning. Preference of specified modes of instruction appears to vary not only with individuals but also with respect to content, instructors involved, and physical environments available. Ortigiesen (1954). In an extensive review of theory, research and practice in in- structional media, Saettler (1968) concludes that there is a basic need for a scientific approach in delineating principles from which a framework of 12 instructional technology theory can be synthesized. A historical distinc- tion is drawn between the audio-visual movement whose primary concern was use of specific media and "... impirical data based on the total teaching- learning process (p. 193)." Although Saettler clearly makes the point, educational literature in general does not. Within the context of theory construction, Snellecker (1974) dis- cusses four general develOpmental stages in current research interests which contribute to the integration required: I. Delineation of educational Objectives in measureable terms, speci- fications of methods and self-corrective evaluations of instruc- tional experiences as encouraged by the Operant theory and tech- niques of programmed instruction 2. Development of interaction analysis systems for classification and objective reporting of teacher-student behaviors 3. Broadening instructional principles from a "hardware" technology orientation to a systematic evaluation of combined human and non- human resources in effective instruction 4. Scientific means for testing principles of curriculum construction and instructional design Both theorists and researchers currently' emphasize the need to examine all variables in the instructional system if a fund of scientific information is to be develOped. A study of this complex interaction of stimulus, task, learner and situation variables has been attempted in a number of investigations 'during the past few years. Campeau (1974) cites several multivariate 13 designs Such as the work of Siegel and Siegel (1966) with television university instruction; Snow and Solomon (196B), Cromback and Snow (1969), Tollmadge and Shearer (1969), and Snow (1970) with methods for detecting individual differences to assign learners to treatment conditions; Briggs, et. al. (1966), Gagne (1968), and Briggs (1970) with procedures for analyzing components of the experimental task; and Solomon and Snow (1968) and Briggs (1970) with methods of specifying media variables. In discussing efforts such as the above, Allen (1971) states that "...the significance of the present research is that careful investigation ' (sic) of the design element in mediated instruction are being made and that these searches are being conducted within a theoretical framework, thus laying a foundation for a theory of instructional media" (p. 12). One of the most interesting studies done by RothkOpf concerned the value of note taking during film viewing (Ash and Carlton, 1953). Four groups were given the following treatments: Group A saw the film and took a posttest. Group B saw the film, took notes while viewing the film, then took the posttest. Group C saw the film, took notes while viewing, reviewed their notes for ten minutes, then took the posttest. Group D was a control group which saw the film and took the posttest only. Test data for the sample of 216 subjects indicated that: "The highest test scores were made by the group that watched the films without taking notes“ (p. 124). 14 SUMMARY Early instructional media research was typified by evaluative com- parisons in an attempt to prove their effectiveness in the teaching-learning process. Although results of studies dealing with information transmission through specified media as compared with the current teaching practice did verify that knowledge had been gained by the learner,'Schranm (1973) concludes: There is almost a complete lack of studies intended to ascertain under what conditions and for what purposes . one medium may be superior to another. And a high prOportion of all the experiments that do address themselves to the problem are deficient in some way, either in design or in realism. We can, therefore, look only for a trend, rather than a conclusion, in the existing literature.(p. 62) These considerations lead to media research which turned from com- parions Of alternative methods of achieving objectives to a study of the characteristics within each method of instruction. An extensive effort was made to establish principles for selecting and utilizing specific modes for achievement of specific educational objectives. Most experimental designs in the early evaluative comparison studies had not separated for analysis the factors which contribute to the improvement of learning. With the refinement of multi-variate analysis in research methodology; a more accurate interpretation of findings regarding the unique attributes of instructional media were studied under controlled experimental conditions. Other theories suggest that addition of cues to approach realism may be unnecessary (Instructional Film Research Program, 1954) or distrac- ting (Miller, 1957) by eliciting competitive responses Opposed to the 15 task, i.e., if the task is to recall the color of several differently coated dogs, the inclusion of the sounds the dogs make when barking, growling, etc., may be a deterrent rather than a help in recalling the color of the various dogs. Bruner, Goodnow and Austin (1956) proposed that attributes Of an object or situation need not be in realistic detail for the learner to categorize appropriately. Travers (1964) points out that inputs of information are coded and much information available to the senses never enters the perceptual system. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES In a recent attempt to compare student attainment of instructional objectives using visuals of varying degrees of reality, Francis Dwyer (1973) presented equivalent content to learners in the formats of televi- sion, slides and illustrated programmed instruction to complement equiva- lent oral or verbal instruction. The degree of effectiveness of five visual sequences of varying reality (from line drawings to photographs of a real object) was studied within each of the three modes of presentation. Results showed no significant difference in effectiveness of the three methods of presenting the content as measured by general student achieve- ment. Analysis of separate critical tests showed that the degree of reality in the illustrations in the three methods positively affected student achievement in drawing, identification, terminology and comprehen- sion. The number of relevant and irrelevant cues and the pacing of the ' instructional program were suggested as factors contributing to the varied 16 results. ’It appears that the mode of presentation, together with the degree of reality in visuals, interacts and influences achievement of specific instructional objectives. These results confirm and extend earlier studies in which selected production variables were controlled to approach reality more closely as compared with alternate production tech- niques. In 1951, Neu investigated cues as attention-gaining rather than attention-directing devices. A different combination of relevant and irrelevant, visual and sound cues were used in each of four modified measuring instruments. Tests showed that the control version without special devices was significantly superior as an instrument for learning. The version with irrelevant sound effects was most distracting and least effective, although subjects tended to remember irrelevant cues most clearly. The advocates of mediated instruction take the position that the use of audio-visual materials brings the learner into close contact with reality by presenting stimulus patterns in much the same way as they are presented by the environment. It would seem, however, that the concept of bringing the student into close touch with reality is an assurance that he will be more proficient in dealing with reality as a result of having had this prior experience. The emphasis of the current study was to show_that the effectiveness of mediated instruction per se can be enhanced by using instructional objectives in conjunction with the mediated instruction. Gestalt psychologists accept practice and repetition for estab- 'lishing desires responses but do not consider them necessary conditions of learning. Practice can help the learner to maturate the structure of the procedure or concept being taught and also to individuate its functional 17 parts so that they are seen in their prOper role in the structure. In these cases, the amount of practice is less important than the kind of practice. (Luchins, 1961) Methods of providing practice such as the insertion of questions in written instructional material appear to increase the amount of learning from the test. (Frase, 1970; RothkOpf and Bibicos, 1967) Dyer and Kulhany (1974), in an experiment with undergraduate students Using a programmed text, manipulated both sequence and distri- buted practice effects by varying the location and order of the experi- mental frames throughout a body of nonrelated placebo text. The results across the four treatment groups showed little effect on amount of recall whether practice was massed or distributed, but cognitive performance was significantly suppressed by the disordering procedure. The investigators reasoned that attending behavior is a pivotal factor. Subjects did not maintain high levels of attention when both disorder and distribution were manipulated. As Tobias (1972) points out, sequence effects are most power- ful when subjects have little preknowledge and find the content dif- ficult. The conclusion to the study suggested that sequence should be an important consideration in instructional design if presentation famil- iarity is low and the material is non-redundant. While sequencing of supplementary materials was not a major concern of the current study, the study does investigate the vital role supplementary materials have in cognitive achievement when used with an audio-visual production. 18 ADVANCE ORGANIZERS Studies by Hoveland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield (1949) support the theory that relevant introductory procedures have motivational as well as the practice effects of repeating material in a different symbolic form. In one study, military trainees learning map reading with filmed instruc- tion were randomly divided into two treatments: (1) discussion of the film content prior to film showing and (2) review Of content after film showing through testing followed by discussion of correct answers. Both ‘ treatments resulted in small but reliable increases in informational learning with both high and low intelligence groups. Stein (1953) found that a pretest on the instructional content of the film increased learning even without knowledge of test results. The viewers were in effect told what they were to learn, thus providing an organizational framework for subsequent learning. Ausubel (1963) prOposed the theory that to the degree that an indi- vidual's knowledge in a particular field is organized, stable and clear, new material will be more easily learned and retained. Use of advance organizers for develOping adequate cognitive structures for specific learning tasks has been shown to result in: (1) improved concept acquis- ition (Ausubel and Firzgerald, 1962), (2) fewer errors during learning and testing (Merrill and Stolurow, 1966), and (3) greater transferability of concepts (Groteleuschen and Sjogren, 1968). The critics of cognitive structure theory, however, point out that ' many studies which show increased learning using introductory procedures, 19 also provide increased time for learning without accounting for the use of that variable. In addition, Gagne (1965) and his followers hold that overview should not be generally recommended since conditions of learning require lower levels of knowledge before the learner can move upward to the more complex. In an extensive review of the literature, Barnes (1972) concludes that the controversy between educative methods (i.e., use Of advance organizers) and inductive methods (i.e., discovery approach) remains unresolved, especially regarding the important issue of transfer. Conflicting theories based on experimental evidence demonstrate the dif- ficulty in identifying and controlling for the influence of many complex variables in an instructional program. The majority of studies which compare learning effect of variables within a stimulus medium have shown wider variations in amount of learning measured than have comparisons between modes of instruction. In either case, recognition of specific learning effects is dependent upon the iden- tification and control of all variables in such a way that the measured performance is not an average efficiency over many unknown functions. Since this study examines the variables within alnode of instruction, it is logical to expect results which discriminate between similar varibles. The complexity of interactive elements in instructional systems has made accurate assessment of learning an overwhelming task both in the teaching situation and in attempts to measure transfer of information. A further complication has been the tendency of researchers to design more efficient controls by using laboratory settings for collection of data. Results of investigations carried on in an artificial situation have often 20 been in conflict with similar work in natural settings. This discrepancy raises the question of the value of data from experimental variations controlled to the degree usually associated with laboratory studies, since these usually cannot be generalized to the natural learning environment. Ellison (1973) points out that assessment of instructional objec- tives for maximum validity must be made through the use of tests designed to fit the method of teaching and performance expectation as well as content. 'In courses in which visual skills are important objectives, media presentations might be expected to be a superior form of instruction, yet research shows few examples of visual evaluation techniques used to deter- mine effectiveness. Postman and Schwartz (1964) found that method of practice influenced learning to learn. The data for the effectiveness of supplementary materials was collected in a natural student setting. Thus, all other variables being controlled and accounted for, the results should be readily applicable to the classroom environment. Theories regarding the transfer of learning are based on reliable evidence that transfer does occur. Concepts and principles show higher positive transfer than factual information and facilitate attainment of successive concepts of the same class (Wittrock, 1963; Klausmeir, Harris and Wiersma, 1964). General learning transfers more readily to new situ- ations than specific information but the individual must perceive the new situation as being similar to that in which the initial learning occurred. It appears that the more similar the instructional situation is to the conditions of later application, the higher the probabiltiy of transfer '(Cruckshank, 1974). 21 SUMMARY The “pay off" from the above reviewed research findings lies in the promise of an alternative to more expensive and time consuming instruc- tional design. RothkOpf (1970) states: "The concept of mathemagenic activities tends to shift emphasis from investment of resources in devel- Opment of instructional materials, to the investment in the instructional environment. Instructional materials are accepted within limits as given. Emphasis in instruction is on promoting those activities in the student that will allow him to achieve instructional goals with available mater- ials“ (FL 334). ‘This statement is precisely the rationale behind the present study... the identification and examination of practical stra- tegies to improve cognitive recall and appreciation by engaging the learners in activities which leads to fulfilling instructional goals. STRUCTURED NOTES There are several rationales for expressing objectives in edu- cation. Duchostel and Merrill (1973) suggest that objectives serve three major functions: First, Objectives provide direction for teaching and curriculum develOpment. Second, they provide guidance in evaluation. And third, they facilitate learning. The present review is concerned with the third of these catagories, that is, objectives used for the express purpose of assisting the learner, i.e., through the use of Structured Notes (guided 'review). 22 In'a study by Koplan and RothkOpf (1972), a complex 3X2X3X2 fact- orial design to examine three prose passages, two levels of objectives (general and specific), three levels of density (20%, 40%, 60%), and two kinds of learning (intentional and incidental). Intentional learning was defined in terms of questions relevant to objectives, while incidental learning was defined in terms of learning not specified by objectives. Density was defined as the ratio of relevant sentences to the total number of sentences, where a relevant sentence was a sentence directly relevant to an objective. Results showed that: (1) Intentional learning was greater than incidental. (2) Specific objectives resulted in higher performance than general objectives for intentional items. Specificity of direction had little or no effect on incidental learning. (3) Increases in density were accompanied by decreases in the proportion of intentional items that were correctly recalled. There were no measurable effects of density on incidental learning (p. 2). Most interesting to Kaplan and RothkOpf was the implication that: "Carefully specified instructional objectives will not interfere with the serendipitous discovery of information not directly relevant to instruction." This finding is reassuring because serendipity in education should be a concern among educational technologists. When considering the hypothesis that students would Show a more positive attitude towards instructional objectives stated as behavioral objectives, Walbesser and Eisenberg found two studies supporting the hypo- thesis. SUMMARY This chapter has summarized research and literature related to the present study. 23 Techniques of film use were examined and much variation was found in the use of film for educative purposes. In particular four specific areas were examined. These were (1) Evaluative Comparisons of Instruc- tion, (2) Instructional Objectives, (3) Advance Organizers, and (3) Struc- tured Notes (guided review). The research of the early 1950's on evaluative comparisons of instruction confirmed the overall effectiveness of film and other forms Of mediated instruction. However, Campeau (1974) found that studies com- paring programmed with conventional instruction have yielded mixed results with few significant differences reported across a wide range of subject matter and age groups. The research on instructional Objectives seems to emphasize two points: (1) The effectiveness of materials to simulate and suggest the thinking process which should or could occur within the student's mind, and (2) the use of audio-visual materials brings the learner into close contact with reality by presenting stimulus patterns in much the same way as they are presented by the environment. The research on advance organizers indicates that to the degree that an individual's knowledge in a particular field is organized, stable and clear, new material will be more easily learned and retained. The research also indicated that note taking by the students while viewing an audio-visual production is cognitively counter-productive. ‘The structured notes (guided review) of the current study were presented after the viewing of the audio-visual production. Finally, research on structured notes (guided review) was reviewed. This research revealed that density and specificity of direction 24 of patterns of instruction had little effect on serendipitous discovery. And, two studies supported the hypothesis that students would show a more positive attitude toward instructional objectives stated as behavioral Objectives. All the above areas of emphasis consistently revealed the need for research in the area of supplementary material use as related to audio- visual productions. The review of literature related to the intent of this study has consistently shown that the learning process is far more complicated than the research designs that have attempted to examine it. Until the recent refinement of statistical tools, it was impossible to deal with the amount of data generated by separation of factors which were contributing to the measured effects. Further, as these factors interact, the total impact is greater than typical investigations have been able to interpret. To approach the complexity of any facet of instructional research requires an awareness of past contributions to the field and of trends in current investigations. Only though interlocking experiments of manageable scope can sound principles be formulated to provide a basis for instruc- tional practice. The present study extends some of the concerns brought out in the literature review. Specifically, what is the effect of providing various amounts of supplementary materials on learning from film used in the class room? And, will providing various amounts of supplementary materials in conjunction with learning from an audio-visual production, in this case a -film, affect the attitude of the students? III RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Chapter III presents a detailed description of the various phases of the design and research procedures used in this study. This section presents the experimental design, describing the develOpment of both the treatment materials and the ewaluative instruments. The second section describes the procedures that were followed to implement the design. DESIGN There are two design-related topics to be discussed. First, the Design Over Time section illustrates the overview of the procedures, and builds the foundation for the discussion on the validity of the research, i.e., Validity Concerns. Second, the Design Over Variables section details the interrelation of the variables used in the study and their analysis. And this provides the foundation for the Research Hypotheses section. 26 DESIGN OVER TIME This study takes the form of a posttest and delayed posttest, Control design, similar to Campbell and Stanley's (1963, p. 8) design number 6, with the addition of the materials dimension. Figure 3.1 shows the relationship between the three treatments (X1_3), Control group (X4), occasions of testing (0), and materials (M). 3 Aids M1 X1 01 O2 0 2 Aids M2 1 Aids M3 Control M4 ------ Time------ Figure 3.1----Design Over Time Legend: M: Supplementary materials used by the treatment groups 3 l 1 Three supplementary materials used 3 I 2 Two supplementary materials used 3 l 3 One supplementary material used 3 I 4 No supplementary materials used 27 O: Occasions of testing 01 - First occasion of administering cognitive test 02 - Second occasion of administering the cognitive test occurred thirty days after the first test 03 - The administering of the attitude survey immediately after the second occasion of the cognitive test A posttest only design was chosen over a pretest-posttest design for two reasons. First, Campbell and Stanley indicate that a posttest only ' design generally has higher external validity than a similar pretest- posttest design because the pretest can be reactive and sensitize the subjects. Second, the computation of gains, made possible by the inclusion of pretest, were not relevant to test the hypotheses of interest in this study. In considering the DESIGN OVER TIME, the following components of Figure 3.1 will be explained: EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS (the X's), LEARNERS within the treatments, and MEASURES (the 0's). EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS There were two distinct components to the experience: the viewing of an educational film, and the exposure to supplementary materials. I The treatments varied according to the supplementary'materials sup- plied. The treatment containing three supplementary materials, i.e., . Overview, Instructional Objectives, and Structured Notes (guided review) was sequenced so that Overview and Instructional Objectives were first 28 exposed to the subjects, then the film presented, and finally the Struc- tured Notes provided. The treatment containing two supplementary mater- ials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes, was sequenced the same except for the omission of the Overview. The treatment containing one supplementary material, i.e., Structrued Notes, was sequenced so that the film was presented, and then the Structured Notes provided. The Control group were presented with the film only. Figure 3.2 below illus- trates the sequencing of supplementary materials. TREATMENTS SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS AIDS OVERVIEW INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES STRUCTURED NOTES 3 Aids X X X 2 Aids X X 1 Aid X Figure 3.2 Sequenced Supplementary Materials LEARNERS The learners in the study were drawn from a ninth grade population of 495 students at a high school in the mid-west. The age range of the learners is thirteen to fifteen years of age. The average I.Q. and standard deviation are near the expected values. . At the beginning of the semester, the school system randomly assigned students into groups of classes. The study used these intact 29 groups which were formed by assigning alternate numbers (odd-even) to each student and then placing odd-numbered students in one group and even- numbered students in another group. This process continued until all students were assigned groups. Since the school uses no system of tracking, the actual section a student was placed into was random within the constraints of his schedule. Thus, it is believed that the various groups were relatively equivalent for purposes of this study. MEASURES. The two methods used to measure the learner's cognitive recall and attitude were a twenty question cognitive test and a seven statement atti- tude survey. The cognitive test was composed Of twenty multiple-choice questions. The learner, using a latent image marker format, was given the test and asked to indicate which answers were correct. The learners had four choices for each question with only one choice being correct. The learners were not permitted to ask questions pertaining to the definition of vocabulary during testing; however, directions for completing the test were repeated when necessary. The cognitive test is contained in Appendix A. The attitude survey was a measure of the learner's perceptions Of the adequacy and desirability of the supplementary materials provided. It contained items such as: 1. The materials were not useful ...... 1 2 3 4 5 2. I should have had more materials...1 2 3 4 5 30 The complete scale is contained in Appendix B. The attitude survey variable was the sum of all seven items, after the negatively stated items had been reversed. A Hoyt's reliability coefficient value of 0.67 was computed for this survey using the MSU version of the JENNRICH ANOVA program. VALIDITY CONCERNS This section discusses possible concerns for first, the inter- nal validity of the experiment, and second, the external validity. Inter- nal validity ask the question: Was the experimental treatment the real cause for the observed change? (Campbell and Stanley, 1963) When internal validity is violated, the values of the measurements (0's) for the various groups, i.e., treatments, are unexpectedly in error. External validity asks the question: To what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables can this effect be generalized? Violations of external validity, therefore, reduce the generalizability of the findings. INTERNAL VALIDITY The design over time is a form of the posttest-only control group design. This is a design which Campbell and Stanley show to have excellent internal validity. It, as used in this experiment, sufficiently controlled for the concerns of history, maturation, statistical 31 regression, selection, experimental mortality and their interactions. No unusual circumstances arose to warrant further discussion of the above concerns. Because there were two occurrences of the cognitive test, it might be suspected that the immediate posttest would effect the second posttest. Since the learners were aware of a second (first test repeated) posttest, the first test may have influenced the scores on the second test, but this was not a problem because this study does not compare the two tests. Further, the learners had equal opportunity to alter their perform- ance on the second posttest. Therefore, this concern was greatly reduced. The method for measuring learning is stable over time since it is an objective measure. The cognitive measure was subjected to an item analysis. The test was a twenty (20) question multiple-choice test. The item analysis indicated the cognitive measure had a mean item difficulty of twenty six (26) and an item discrimination of forty two (42) with a standard error of measurement of 1.742. The cOgnitive test was also subjected to the Kuder Richardson #20 reliability estimate. This estimate yeilded a reliability of .756. When the brevity and ease of difficulty of the test are consid- ered, the analysis reveals the test to be an excellent one. It should be noted that the absolute scores on these cognitive and attitudevmeasures are not important. EXTERNAL VALIDITY The threats to 'the external validity, or generalizability' are controlled for in this study as explained by Campbell and Stanley. 32 The One concern which could threaten external validity is the reactive setting of the experiment. Circumstances allowed this experiment to be done so that the subjects were unaware that they were participating in a study; Even though the subjects were tested in a setting comprised of a number of students, the students completed the cognitive test and atti- tude survey independently of other students. The assumption of individual independence was supported due to the nature of the cognitive test and attitude survey as well as the belief that the students did not interact outside of the experiment. Consequently, the subjects were not cued to any unusual procedures, nor were they informed that they were being unusually measured. It seems most likely that all subjects believed they were just undergoing ordinary classroom procedures. Therefore, there is no reason to expect the Hawthorne effect to help one experimental group do better than the other groups. In conclusion, the design of this study has been shown to be ade- quate with respect to violations of internal validity, thus, the data may be considered free from serious contamination. DESIGN OVER VARIABLES Whereas the design over time gave the overall picture of the proced- ures of the design, design over variables gives the inter-relationships of the variables used in the study and leads to the research hypotheses and together they lead to Chapter IV, the Analysis of Results. 33 VARIABLE MATRICES The dependent variables fall into two groups, cognitive measures and attitude measures as shown below in figure 3.3 and figure 3.4. TREATMENT DEPENDENT VARIABLES 3 Aids 2 Aids I 1 Aid L Control N = 44 N = 45 L N = 44] N = 44 Figure 3.3 Variable Matrix For Learning TREATMENT 3 Aids I 2 Aids I l Aid H1 01 Immediate Posttest H2 02 Delayed Posttest_ DEPENDENT VARIABLE N = 44 L N = 45 I N = 44 Figure 3.4 Variable Matrix For Attitude H3 03 Attitude Measure Because there is no theoretical or empirical basis to expect an interaction between the independent variables treatment and occurrence of testing, the design chosen for the cognitive dependent variable was two . separate one-way ANOVA'S rather than a single one—way ANOVA with repeated measures. The variable matrix used for Learning is a single dimensional 34 one having four (4) cells, one for each treatment, as illustrated in figure 3.3. The varible matrix used for attitude is a single dimensional one having three cells, one for each treatment receiving supplementary mater- ials. The attitudinal dependent variable is the total score from the attitude survey. The same subjects were used in the attitude variable matrix as were used in the cognitive variable matrices with the exception Of the control group which was not included in the variable matrix for attitude. STATISTICAL MODEL OF ANALYSIS All hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Variance (i.e., ANOVA) at the a. =.10 level as recommended by Borg and Gall (1971) for exploratory studies. The usual ANOVA assumptions of (1) independence between groups, (2) equality of variance between cells, and (3) normal distribution of scores, were well met. Although the students were taken through the experiment on a group basis, the classroom environment and method of presenting the study support the concept that students reacted to the supplementary materials, the audio-visual production and evaluative measures in a relatively inde- pendent manner. That is, nothing unusual occurred which would corrupt what would be considered normal behavior on the part of the teachers and students, i.e., fire drills, someone shouting out an answer, or external classroom interruptions. It is also important to note that the one-way ANOVA for analysis of variance is robust to violations of normality. 35 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES The testable hypotheses are given below. They are divided into Learner Recall and Student Attitude hypotheses to be analyzed by the variable matrices given in the Design Over Variable section. 1. Student Learning Hypotheses Dependent Variable: Learning H1: There will be a treatment effect on the immediate posttest. H2: There will be a treatment effect on the delayed posttest. 11. Student Attitude Hypothesis H3: There will be a treatment effect in student attitude for various levels of supplementary materials, i.e., student re- ceiving more supplementary Inaterials will indicate more appreciation than those students receiving less supplementary materials. PROCEDURES The procedures of the study are the actions that have been taken to implement the design. An important procedure involved the learners of the study. The learners used in the study were eight sets of ninth graders. These sets of learners were randomly placed into groups. Each group was 36 composed of two sets of students. Each group was ultimately composed of 44 to 46 students. Most of the procedures of the experiment have already been outlined in the Design Over time section of this chapter. The continuance of the procedures section gives additional detail on constructing the supplementary materials, and determining learning, a dependent variable of the study. CONSTRUCTING THE SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS As described in the Design Over Time section, the experimental treatment consisted of three catagories: First, exposure to supplementary materials; second, viewing an extant material; and third, completing the evaluative measures. The extant material, i.e., audio-visual production, was in existence before the time of the study. The audio-visual production was used as it came from the producer because that is the way an audio- visual production is normally used in the classroom. However, the supple- mentary materials and evaluative measures were modified for the study. Content for the supplementary materials was drawn from teacher manuals and textbooks used in the classroom, i.e., the text Outlooks Through Liter- aturngy Scott, Foresman and.Company. The Overview, Instructional Objec- tives and Structured Notes were likewise adapted from the same resource materials, sources of which are contained in Appendix F. The final version of the Overview, Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) were reproduced for overhead projection which provided for a consistent presentation of all the supplementary materials, cOpies of which are contained in Appendices C, D, and E. 37 DETERMINING LEARNING AND ATTITUDE Learning, as used in the study, refers to how much information was recalled after exposure to the audio-visual production and supplementary materials. The discussion here is primarily to explain how the cognition and attitudinal data of the subjects were secured. To obtain the mean score for cognition and attitude, the subjects were first exposed to a twenty (20) question multiple-choice test immed- iately following their exposure to supplementary materials and an audio- visual production. The cognitive test was a modified version of the conmercially produced test which accompanies all the textbooks with the title Outlooks Through Literature by Scott, Foresman and Company. Approx- imately thirty (30) days later the same cognitive test was administered to all the subjects. The attitude survey was administered following the second administration of the cognitive test. SUMMARY A posttest and delayed posttest, control design was selected to study the effects of the presence of supplementarylnaterials when used with an audio-visual production. The use of a pretest was avoided so as not to sensitize the subjects to the experiment. The experimental treatments were designed to show the comparisons of cognitive tests' results between the groups. The attitudes of the three experimental groups were analyzed 38 for differences amongst the groups. Internal and external validity concerns were discussed. The study was conducted using a sample of ninth grade students from a high school in the mid-west. There were three treatment groups and one control group with 44-46 students in each group. Data were collected, coded, and computer analyzed using a one-way ANOVA. IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS This chapter is divided into two major parts. The first part reports the findings of the study, and the second part discusses the findings. There are findings in two major areas: The student learning findings are reported first, followed by the findings concerning student attitude. The student learning findings, derived from the dependent variable learning, and the student attitude findings, derived from the dependent variable attitude, are each discussed in turn. In each case, the hypothesis is restated, and the summary data and associated ANOVA tables are given. DEPENDENT VARIABLE - LEARNING HYPOTHESIS 1. H1: There will be a treatment effect on the immediate posttest. The group means for learning on the immediate posttest are illustrated in Figure 4.1. The results of the one-way ANOVA are shown in Table 4.1. 40 TREATMENTS DEPENDENT VARIABLE: LEARNING 3 Aids I 2 Aids I 1 Aid I Control H1 01 IMMEDIATE POSTTEST 15.023 I 15.909 I 14.283 I 11.773 Figure 4.1 VARIABLE MATRIX OF MEANS FOR: LEARNING TABLE I: ANOVA FOR LEARNING: H101 IMMEDIATE POSTTEST SOURCE OF MS F IMMEDIATE POSTTEST Between Groups 3 139.152 15.192 * Within Groups 174 9.159 * Significant at a =.10 In this analysis of variance test, the means differed as hypothe- sized, and the F ratio of 15.192 (df 3, 174) was significant at the a =.10 level, thus supporting this hypothesis. A Tukey-post hoc analysis revealed that for pairs of means to be different they must differ by 2.14 41 or more. .Therefore, it may be concluded that all experimental groups learned more than the Control group (15.023, 15.909, 14.282 >11.777). The Three-Aid, Two-Aid, and One-Aid groups' differiential in learning was indistinguishable; however, all the groups differientials for learning were distinguishable from the Control group. HYPOTHESES 2. H2: There will be a treatment effect on the delayed posttest. The mean difference in learning between the four groups tested on the delayed posttest is illustrated in Figure 4.2. The results of the one-way ANOVA are shown in Table 2. TREATMENTS DEPENDENT VARIABLE: LEARNING 3 Aids I 2 Aids I 1 AidI Control H2 02 DELAYED POSTTEST 13.273 I 15.795 I 13.630I 11.653 Figure 4.2 VARIABLE MATRIX 0F MEANS FOR: LEARNING 42 TABLE 2: ANOVA FOR LEARNING: H 202 DELAYED POSTTEST SOURCE OF MS F DELAYED POSTTEST: Between Groups 3 127.523 7.768 * Within Groups 174 16.416 * Significant at a =.10 The F ratio of 7.768 (df 3, 174) was significant at the a =.10 level. Thus, the data supported the hypothesis. In this analysis of variance test, the means differed as hypothesized. A Tukey post—hoc analysis revealed that for pairs of means to be different they must differ by 2.86, or more. Therefore, it may be concluded that the Two-Aid group retained more information than the Con- trol (No-Aid) group; (15.795>11.653). However, the Two-Aid group's differential of learning was not distinguishable from the Three-Aid and One-Aid groups, using the Tukey method. STUDENT LEARNING FINDINGS There was one learning dependent variable: learning. The treatments 'had an effect as tested by an ANOVA one-way analysis of variance. Both 43 hypotheses (H1) and (Hz) were significant at the o =.10 level. The Tukey post-hoc test showed that all the experimental groups did better than the Control group on the immediate posttest. However, only the Two-Aid group did better than the Control group on the delayed posttest. DEPENDENT VARIABLE - ATTITUDE HYPOTHESIS 3. H3: There will be a treatment effect in student attitude for various levels of supplementary materials, i.e., students receiving more supplementary materials will indicate more appreciation than those students receiving less supplementary materials. The participant's attitude was computed by totaling the scores, after reversing the scoring on the negatively stated items of the attitude survey (e.g. 5 became 1), to get an overall measure of attitude. Thetmean differences in attitude required between the three groups were tested as illustrated in Figure 4.3. ‘The results of the one-way'ANOVA are shown in Table 3. 44 TREATMENTS DEPENDENT VARIABLE: ATTITUDE 3 Aids I 2 Aids I 1 Aid H3 03 DELAYED POSTTEST 2.295 I 2.207 I 2.31 Figure 4.3 VARIABLE MATRIX 0F MEANS FOR: ATTITUDE TABLE 3: ANOVA FOR ATTITUDE: H3 03 ATTITUDE SCALE SOURCES OF MS F TREATMENTS: Between Groups 2 .143 .519 Within Groups 128 .276 Not Significant at a =.10 In this treatment effect test, the means differed in the hypo- thesized direction, but the ratio of .519 (df 2, 143) was not significant at the a =.10 level, which does not support this hypothesis. Since the groups are not meaningfully different, the hypothesis does not warrant further discussion. 45 The student attitude findings stem from a single dependent variable measured by a student attitude survey. The purpose of the survey was to measure the subjects' reactions to the supplementary materials received during their learning experience. Perhaps the attitude survey would yeild significance if it were administered inmediately after the first cognitive posttest rather than after the delayed cognitive post- test. 'The survey was administered after the delayed posttest because presenting it sooner could have sensitized the students to the study. Since the results were not significantly different, the data do not support the research hypothesis. SUMMARY OF STUDENT LEARNING FINDINGS The following is a summary of student learning findings resulting from this study: Students learn more when supplementary materials are used in con- junction with the audio-visual productions than when only extant materials are used. 0n the immediate posttest, students exposed to Supplementary materials recall significantly more information than those students not exposed to supplementary materials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes. On the delayed posttest, the students exposed to two supplementary materials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review), retained significantly more information than those groups exposed to Three—Aids, One-Aid, and Control group (No-Aids). The 46 use of Overview does not seem to improve cognitive recall, in fact, it appears to be counter productive when used with Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review). INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS The preceding portions of this chapter have presented a summary of the statistical findings of the experiment. The remaining part of the chapter interprets the meaning of those findings. The interpretation section is organized in the same order as the earlier findings section. Student learning interpretations come first. INTERPRETATION OF STUDENT LEARNING FINDINGS The following are interpretations of the findings related to student learning: 1. Students learn more when supplementary materials are used in conjunction with the extant materials than when only the extant materials are used. 2. 0n the delayed posttest, the students exposed to two (2) supple- mentary materials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes, retained significantly more information than the Control 47 group (NO-Aids). This would seem a logical outcome since the Two- Aid supplementary materials pattern of presentation is the format followed by most speakers and preparers of information in general, i.e., tell them what you are going to do (Instructional Objec- tives), do what you said you would do (the audio-visual produc- tion); and then tell them what you have done (Structured Notes). 3. The Overview appears to be unnecessary, and probably counter productive when Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) are used. INTERPRETATION OF STUDENT ATTITUDE FINDINGS Student attitude does not change significantly toward various forms of supplementary materials. Perhaps this is due in part to (1) the low reliability of the attitude survey, and (2) the inability of the students to have absolute differences in attitude, when they themselves were not comparing the supplementary materials. The lateness of the administration of the attitude survey probably effected the results the varied levels Of supplementary materials had on student attitude. 48 SUMMARY Chapter four has set forth the results of the data pertaining to this study. Hypotheses were restated with accompanying data presented. The chapter concludes with interpretations Of findings and a summary of those interpretations. Hypothesis one and two were significant as hypo— thesized. Hypothesis three was not significant. The two relevant inter- pretations were: 1) Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) significantly effect cognitive recall, and 2) student attitude is not significantly effected by the varied use of supplementary materials. V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter is divided into three major divisions: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMEDATIONS. The SUMMARY section reviews the Objec- tives And Procedures of the study. The CONCLUSIONS of the study are drawn directly from the findings of the study. The RECOMMENDATIONS section applies the implications of the conclusions to a Rationale For Recommen- dations, the Selection And Use Of Supplementary Materials and develops several Recommendations For Future Research. SUMMARY The study described in this research was designed to analyze the separate effects of adding supplementary materials when learning from an audio-visual production. The two dependent variables of concern were (a) cognitive learning, as measured by a cognitive test and (b) attitude, as measured by an attitude survey. A Four groups of ninth graders at a high school in the mid-west were selected as the target population for the research. Student's were 50 randomly assigned to one Of three treatment groups, and a control group. The control group received only an audio-visual presentation (film). The treatment containing one supplementary material, i.e., Structured Notes (guided review), was sequenced so that the film was presented, and Struc- tured Notes (guided review) provided. The treatment containing two supplementary materials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review), was sequenced the same as treatment one except for the addition of Instructional Objectives. The treatment containing three supplementary materials, i.e., Overview, Instructional Objectives, and Structured Notes (guided review), was sequenced so that Overview and Instructional Objectives were presented to the subjects, the film presented, and finally the Structured Notes (guided review). After each presentation sequence, a: cognitive test was administered. Thirty days after the first cognitive test, the same cognitive test, and an attitudinal survey were administered. Three hypotheses were generated and examined. These hypotheses tested (a) the mean difference in learning amongst the four groups used in the study, and (b) the mean difference in attitude amongst the three treatment groups of the four groups used in the study. A posttest-only design was chosen over a pretest-posttest design because the posttest-only design generally has higher external validity than a similar pretest design. Also, the pretest can be reactive and sensitize the subjects. An analysis of variance was run using learning and attitude as dependent variables. All hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Variance (i.e., ANOVA) at the a = .10 level. 51 OBJECTIVES AND PROCEDURES The objective of this study was to compare the relative effectiveness of supplementary materials as supplied to students who were exposed to extant materials. The goal was to subject learners to various combinations of sequenced supplementary materials while holding the extant materials constant. The primary research question was: Will using supplementary learning materials with extant materials result in improvement in student learning and attitude. An audio-visual production was chosen as the extant material primarily because of the increasing use of movies in education which has resulted in questions as to how to “best" utilize the extant materials in the classroom environment. All four groups: Three-Aid, Two-Aid, One-Aid, and Control (No-Aids) watched a movie. After viewing the film, the students completed an inunediate and a delayed cognitive test and all but the control group completed an attitude survey. The Three-Aid group received Overview, Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes. The Two-Aid group received Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes. The One-Aid group received Structured Notes. The Control (No-Aid) group received no supplementary materials. The supplementary materials never changed in format or content while the measures used remained the same for all learners at all times. 52 CONCLUSIONS The following are the findings of the study: Conclusion 1. The treatments had an effect as tested by an ANOVA one-way analysis of variance. This indicates students learn more when supplementary materials are used in conjunction with an audio-visual production than when only the audio-visual productions are used. Conclusion 2. The Three-Aid group, Two-Aid group, and One-Aid group did better than the Control (No-Aid) group on the immediate posttest. Conclusion 3. On the delayed posttest, the students exposed to two supplementarylnaterials, i.e., Instructional Objectives and Struc- tured Notes, retained significantly more information than the Control (No-Aids). Conclusion 4. Student attitudes were not varied enough to be measurably significant. RECOMMENDATIONS The following RECOMMENDATIONS section discusses the application of supplementary materials as suggested by the above conclusions. For ease of reading and clarity of understanding, the section is presented in three .parts: Rationale for Recommendations, Recommendation for Selection and Use of Supplementary Materials, and Recommendations for Future Research. 53 RATIONALE FOR RECOMMENDATIONS Before any recommendations are made, it should be recalled that the primary objective of this study was to determine if supplementary mater- ials made a significant difference in cognitive recall and student atti- tude toward learning. Conclusions 2, 3, and 4 provide us with insight into the above question. These conclusions suggest that (A) when selecting supplementary materials, care should be exercised as to number and type of supplementary materials used, (8) selection and use of supplementary materials be wisely considered when longitudinal recall is desired, and (C) student attitude toward supplementary materials is not affected by more or less use of supplementary materials. Further, the data prompting conclusions 1 and 2 lead to the recommendation that some form of supplementary'material be used in conjunction with extant materials; in this case, Instructional Objec- tives and Structured Notes (guided review) significantly increased cognitive recall. RECOMMENDATION FOR SELECTION AND USE OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 1. Because supplementary materials, i.e., Instructional Object- ives and Structured Notes (guided review) had a significant effect on learner recall as indicated by this study, supple- mentary materials should be used in conjunction with an audio- visual production. 54 'As indicated in one above, Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) had a significant effect on learner recall; therefore, not only does it seem important that supplementary materials of some composition be used when instructing with an audio-visual production, but that instruc- tional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) in par- ticular be provided the learners. Since the study was concerned with both immediate and delayed cognitive recall, and since the study results revealed that the use of the supplementary materials Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) had a significant effect on learner recall, the logical recomendation is that Instruc- tional Objectives and Structured Notes (guided review) be supplied for learners whose objective is to retain cognitive knowledge over an extended period of time. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The following recommendations are given in the form of implications and appear as logical extensions of this research: 1. Further research on the effect of supplementary materials when used in conjunction with extant materials should be done to support or contradict recommendation 4, which indicates Instructional Objectives and Structured Notes make a signif- icant difference in both short and long-range cognitive 55 recall, while an additional Overview makes no positive contri- bution to learning. Since educators, especially K-12 educators, are those who often use film as a media of instruction, it is recommended that they conduct research similar to this study. This would seem to provide direct and immediate input for classroom practices as related tO audio-visual productions. Because the producers of audio-visual productions presumably. understand the goals and objectives of their productions, it seems logical that producers of audio-visual productions supply apprOpriate supplementary materials. Further research is needed to determine how to prepare a student to indicate an attitude so the attitude expressed is meaningful; especially as the attitude relates to supplementary materials used with audio-visual productions. REFERENCES Allen, William H. "Research in New Educational Media: Summary and Problems." Audio-Visual Communication Review, VII (Spring, 1959), 83-96 Ash, P., & Carlton, B. The Value of note taking during film learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1953, 23, 121-125.learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology;—1953, 23, 121-125. Ausubel, D. P., and Fitzgerald, D. Organizer, general background, and antecedent learning variables in sequential verbal learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1963.53, 243-249. Barnes, H. An investigation Of the effects of differential instruational materials on concept acquistion and ‘transfer (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972). 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Cronback, L. J., and Snow, R. R. Individual differences in Learning Ability as a Function of Instructional Variables: Final Report. Stanford, California: Stanford University SchOOl of Education, 1969. Cruickshank, Donald R. "The Protocal Materials Movement: On Exemplar of Efforts tot Wed ‘Theory' and Practice in Teacher Education." Journal of Teacher Education 25 (1974): 300-311. Durchastel, P. C., & Merrill, P. F. The effects of behavioral objectives on learning: A review of empirical studies. Review of Educational Research, 1973, 4§_(1), 53-68. Dwyer, Francis M., Jr. “Effect of Method in Presenting Visualized Instruction." AV Communication Review 21 (1973): 437-451. Dyer, James W., and Kulhavy, Raymond. "Sequence Effects and Reading Time in Programmed Learning." Journal of Educational Psychology 66 (1974): 57-61. Ellison, John W. "Visual Tests: An Alternative." Educational Technology 13 (1973): 50-52. Frase, L. T. 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Moldstad, John A. "Selective Review of Research Studies Showing Media Effectiveness: A Primer for Media Diorectors." fl Communication Review 22 (1974): 387-407. Neu, O. NL "The Effects of Attention-Gaining Devices on Film-Mediated Learning." Journal of Educational Psychology 42 (1951): 479- 490. Ortigiesen, Leroy. "The Relative Effectiveness of Selected Filmstrip and Sound Motion Pictures in TEaching Soil Conservation in Ninth Grade Social Studies Classes." Ph.D. dissertation, Univesity of Nebraska, 1954. Postman, Leo, and Schwartz, Marian. "Studies of Learning to Learn. I: Transfer as a Function of Method of Practice and Class of Verbal Materials." Journal of Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior 3 Involvement under Difficult Conditions of Feedback.“ Journal of Educational Psychology. Vol. 55, 1964. RothkOpf, E. Z. The concept of maathemagenic activities. Review of Educatonal Research, 1970, 40, 325-336. 59 RothkOpf, E. Z., & Billington, M. J. Indirect review and priming through questions. 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APPENDICES APPENDIX A COGNITIVE TEST A TALE OF TWO CITIES Multiple Choice: Directions: Please indicate your answers by darkening the apprOpriate space on the answer sheet. 1. The plot of A Tale of Two Cities contains three strands: The Manettes, The Evremondes, and the revolutionaries. At what point do these strands become most critically entangled? A. Book the First C. Book the Third 8. Book the Second 0. Both Book the Second and Third 2. Dickens uses many contrasts. Two of the most striking are: A. The luxuary of the aristocrats and the squalor of the peasants B. Madame Defarge and the personalities of Darnay and Carton C. The differing views of Carton and his elderly Uncle_ D. The goodness of Lucie and the evil in Dr. Manette 3. The French Revolution demonstrates that: A. Only the truly guilty are harmed B. Revolutions nearly always produce peace loving nations C. Most revolutions are bloodless 0. One extreme can produce another 4. Dicken's use of humor is shown in: A. The scene inwhich the word "BLOOD" is written on the wall 8. The relationship between the unassuming Mr. Lorry and the powerful Miss Pross C. The mob scenes of both England and France 0. Both A and B 10. 11. Madame Defarge symbolizes: A. A contrast to her husband, Mr. Defarge B. The innocense of womankind during revolution C. The cold and hateful intelligence that forged the revolution 0. The emotions of a fickle and blood thirsty mob Dickens sympathizes with: A. The revolutionists B. The revolutionists but does not approve of their methods C. The aristocrats 0. Both 8 and C. Madame Defarge is related to: A. The Manettes C. The Jacques B. The Evremondes D. Thr Darnays 0n the way to the guillotine, Sidney Carton befriends: A. An Old man C. A little boy 8. A little seamstress D. A relative of Evremondes Charles Darnay is accused of being: A. Traitor C. A thief B. An Evremonde D. A deserter The two cities discribed in the movie were: A. New York and Chicago C. Vienna and Strasbourg 8. Paris and London 0. Rome and Berlin The first target of the mob in Saint Antionie is A. The Bastille C. Tellson's B. Foulan D. The slum district 12. When the noblemen escape to England from France, they go directly to: A. Tellsons C. The country 8. The king 0. The U. S. A 13. Charles Darnay decides to go to Paris to help: A. Gabelle C. Mr. Jerry B. Defarge 0. Jerry Cruncher 14. The pass words, “Recalled to Life" refers to“: A. Lucie Manette's bank account 8. Dr. Manettes death by fire ('5 A plot to murder someone 0. Dr. Manette's escape from prison and eventual passage to England 15. Lucie Manette is: A. Mr. Lorry's niece C. Dr. Manette's daughter 8. Dr. Manette' granddaughter D. Sidney Carton's sister 16. During Charles Darnay's first trial, he is being tried for: A. Treason C. Forgery 8. Murder 0. Grand Larceny 17. There is a significant resemblance between Charles Darnay and: A. Mr. Lorry C. Sidney Carton 8. Dr. Manette 0. Mr. Defarge 18. The peasant child is killed by: A. The Marquis C. Defarge B. The King 0. The Jacques 19. 20. Charles Darnay is really: A. B. The Marquis's Evremonde is murdered by: A. B. Lucie Manette's distant cousin Jacques An Evremonde Gabelle The Marquis' nephew A secret member of the Both 8 and C A jealous nobleman An individual peasent Gaspard who is one of the' "Jacques" APPENDIX B ATTITUDE SCALE ATTITUDE SCALE These statements refer to the content and sequence of materials in the TALE OF TWO CITIES packet. With five (5) indicating your stron- gest feelings, please rank each of the follow- ing statements one (1) through five (5). Please assign a number to each category. 1. The materials were not useful 2. The materials I received were sufficient 3. Using the materials made the teaching task more difficult than it needed to be. 4. The materials I received were very good. 5. I would like to see these kinds of materials used with other movies. . 6. The materials slowed me down. 7. I should have had more materials. SA SD APPENDIX C OVERVIEH OVERVIEW OF A TALE OF TWO CITIES IN THIS UNIT YOU WILL LEARN THAT: DICKEN'S EXPLICIT SOCIAL IDEAS IN THIS NOVEL ARE RUDIMENTRAY. THEY AMOUNT T0 NO MORE THAN THIS: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION WAS INEVITABLE BECAUSE ARISTOCRACY EXPLOITED AND PLUNDERED THE POOR UNTIL THEY WERE DRIVEN TO REVOLT. THUS, OPPRES- SIGN ON A LARGE SCALE RESULTS IN ANARCHY. AND ANARCHY IN TURN PRODUCES A POLICE STATE. ONE OF DICKEN'S STRONGEST CONVICTIONS WAS THAT THE ENGLISH PEOPLE MIGHT ERUPT AT ANY MOMENT INTO A MASS OF BLOODY REVOLUTIONISTS. IT IS CLEAR NOW THAT HE WAS MISTAKEN, BUT THE IDEA WAS FIRMLY PLANTED IN HIS MIND, AS WELL AS IN THE MINDS OF HIS CONTEMPORATIES. A TALE OF TWO CITIES WAS PARTLY AN ATTEMPT TO SHOW HIS READERS, ENGLISH NOBLEMEN, THE DANGERS OF A POSSIBLE REVOLUTION. IF THE TERRORS OF REVOLUTION TAKE A POLITICAL FORM, THE HOPE THAT DICKENS HOLDS OUT IN THIS MOVIE HAS DISTINCT RELIGIOUS QUALITIES. IN A VERY BASIC WAY, A TALE OF TWO CITIES IS A STORY OF RESURRECTION. AND THE CENTRAL FIGURE OF THE STORY IS SYDNEY CARTON, WHO RE-INACTS FIGURATIVELY THE SACRIFICAL DEATH OF CHIRST. DICKENS PUTS THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF SALVATION ON A SECULAR BASIS, LEADING NOT TO AN OTHER-WORLDLY HEAVEN BUT TO THE SURVIVAL OF CARTON'S FRIENDS AND TO THE RESURRECTION OF SOCIETY. APPENDIX D INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AFTER VIEWING A TALE OF TWO CITIES YOU WILL BE ABLE TO: 1. 2. 3. 10 UNDERSTAND THE ACTIONS, EMOTIONS AND MOTIVATIONS OF ELEVEN CHARACTERS INTERPRET THE SYMBOLISM OF BLOOD, JACQUES, AND EVREMONDES DESCRIBE AND APPRECIATE SEVERAL PLOT STRANOS, ESP., THE MANETTES, EVREMONDES, AND THE REVOLUTIONARIES IDENTIFY TWO CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION CONCEIVE OF HOW APPARENT PEACEFULNESS CAN TURN INTO THE HORRORS OF REVOLUTION ENVISION THE POSSIBILITY OF CARING FOR SOMEONE ENOUGH TO DIE SO THAT THEY MIGHT BE HAPPY LIST THE TWO CITIES EXPLAIN THE "JACQUES" AND THEIR PART IN A TALE OF TWO CITIES RECOGNIZE THE COMIC RELIEF AS SEEN IN THE RELATIONSHIP OF MR. LORRY AND MISS LUCIE MANETTE . APPRECIATE THE VIEWPOINT OF THE AUTHOR, CHARLES DICKENS APPENDIX E STRUCTURED NOTES (GUIDED REVIEW) STRUCTURED NOTES (GUIDED REVIEW) OF A TALE OF TWO CITIES 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. THE THREE GROUPS DEEPLY INVOLVED IN THE MOVIE ARE THE MANETTES, THE EVREMONDES AND THE REVOLUTIONARIES (JACQUES) THE MOST STRIKING CONTRAST OF THE STORY IS THE LUXUARY OF THE ARISTO CRATS AND THE POVERTY OF THE PEASANTS (RICH AND POOR) THE EXTREME CONDITION OF POVERTY CAN RESULT IN THE HORRORS OF REVOLUTION COMIC RELIEF IS PROVIDED THROUGH THE CONTRASTING CHARACTERS OF LUCIE MANETTE AND MR. LORRY OF TELLSON BANK MR. AND MRS. DEFARGE SYMBOLIZE THE COLD AND HATEFUL INTELLIGENCE THAT FORGED THE REVOLUTION DICKENS, THE AUTHOR OF A TALE OF TWO CITIES, SYMPATHIZES WITH THE REVOLUTIONARIES, BUT DOES NOT AGREE WITH THEIR MEHTODS SIDNEY CARTON IS A FRIEND TO MANY PEOPLE, BUT ESPECIALLY BEFRIENDS A LITTLE SEAMSTRESS AS SHE AND CARTON ARE TAKEN TO THE GUILLOTINE CHARLES DARNAY, A FRIEND OF THE JACQUES AND HUSBAND OF LUCIE MANETTE, IS ULTIMATELY CHARGED AS AN EVREMONDE AND AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE. HE IS RESCUED BY SIDNEY CARTON THE BASTILLE, OR PRISON WAS THE FIRST TARGET OF THE REVOLUTIONARIES UPON LEAVING FRANCE, MOST NOBLEMEN FIRST WENT TO TELLSON BANK TO SETTLE FINANCIAL MATTERS CHARLES DARNAY, THE NEPHEW OF THE MARQUIS EVREMONDE, RETURNS TO PARIS TO HELP A DEAR FRIEND, GABELLE THE PHRASE, "RECALLED TO LIFE" REFERS TO OR. MANETTE'S ESCAPE FROM PRISON AND EVENTUAL PASSAGE TO ENGLAND SIDNEY CARTON AND CHARLES DARNAY LOOKED SO MUCH A LIKE THEY MIGHT HAVE BEEN MISTAKEN FOR TWINS APPENDIX F SOURCES OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS APPENDIX F SOURCES OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Outlooks Through Literature. c. 1968. By Scott, Foresman and CO., Glennview, Illinois. A Tale of Two Cities. Sound Film of the French Revolution. University Film Library. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Film Teachers Resource Book. To Accompany Outlooks Through Literature. c. 1968 by Scott, Foresman and CO., Glennview, Illinois. MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRRRIES III III I III I III II II II III II III II II III 31293100632441