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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Physical Growth Characteristics of
Early, Average, and Late Maturing Females
Grouped According to Age at Peak Height Velocity

presented by

2
Crystal Diane Fountain

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. Jegreein HPE&R

 

 

Major profess

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PHYSICAL GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF
EARLY, AVERAGE, AND LATE MATURINC FEMALES
GROUPED ACCORDING TO AGE AT

PEAK HEIGHT VELOCITY

BY

Crystal Diane Fountain

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation

1979

ABSTRACT
PHYSICAL GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF
EARLY, AVERAGE, AND LATE MATURING FEMALES

GROUPED ACCORDING TO AGE AT
PEAK HEIGHT VELOCITY

By

Crystal Diane Fountain

The specific purposes of this study were to (1) determine if com-
binations of physical growth measures taken during childhood could be
useful in predicting age at peak height velocity and onset of menstrua-
tion; (2) investigate differences in the magnitude and duration of the
adolescent peak height spurt for early, average, and late maturing fe-
males; and (3) examine the relationship between age at peak height
velocity and age of menarche among the three maturity groups.

Longitudinal data on five parameters of growth (standing height,
sitting height, biacromial diameter, biiliac width, weight) and recall
data on menarche were used to evaluate developmental patterns and ma-
turation rates of sixty-five female subjects. Level of maturity (early
average, late) was chosen as the independent variable in this study and
was determined by the age at peak height velocity for each girl. Early
maturers (n=21) had peak height velocity before 11.5 years of age,
average maturers (n=28) experienced peak velocity between 11.5 and 12.5
years, inclusive, while late developers (n=l6) attained their peak

height velocity after 12.5 years.

Crystal Diane Fountain

The findings indicate that accurate predictions of age at peak
height velocity (APHV) and age of menarche (MA) may be difficult to ob-
tain from measures of physical growth taken at nine years of age. Low
relationships existed among all the physical growth variables and APHV
and MA. The highest coefficient obtained was -.37 between biacromial
width and MA.

Predictive equations for APHV and MA were similar. Of the five
growth parameters measured, the biacromial and biiliac widths provided
the best predictors of APHV, accounting for 11.2% of the variance. The
stepwise regression procedure yielded the following equation:

APHV = 18.822 - .389(Biacromial) + .216(Biiliac) i_.969
The prediction of MA from the growth measures showed that a higher per-
centage of the variance (15.0%) was explained than in the prediction of
APHV, but that a larger standard error of the estimate existed. The
regression was:

MA = 19.837 - .510(Biacromia1) + .624(Standing Height) : 1.092

A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that the maturity
main effect was significant (p‘(.0001). Univariate F procedures, step-
down F tests, and discriminant function analyses indicated that spurt
height (SH), spurt duration (SD), peak height velocity (PHV), and in-
terval had important roles in differentiating the three maturityrgroups.
Significant differences occurred between early and late maturers for
SD, PHV, and interval. Moreover, the early developing females also
differed statistically from the average maturers on PHV and interval,

with the early maturing females displaying a longer SD and interval

Crystal Diane Fountain

and a higher PHV. These data indicated that early maturers entered

their adolescent growth cycle at a younger age but grew for a longer
time before maturity than average or late developers. It seems that
the later developing female is nearer her complete biological matura-

tion at the time of PHV than the early maturer and, therefore, has a

shorter interval to MA.

DEDICATION

To all those teachers who have provided me with the background
necessary for graduate study, the desire to learn more, and the incen-
tive to strive for higher goals.

Special dedication to the following physical educators who had a
profound influence in directing my life and chosen profession:

Floyd Anderson
Natalie Barfield
Lea Barrett

Delene Darst

Anne Hadarits

Mary Jane Nicholson

Jean Osborne

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Vern Seefeldt
for his guidance, advice, and support during the five years of my grad-
uate study. His "open door policy" and accessibility provided numerous
teachable moments that accounted for a major part of my graduate educa—
tion. Especially for the extra time he spent during the completion of
this dissertation, I thank him.

My appreciation also is extended to Professor John Haubenstricker
who has given freely of his time and provided invaluable advice on many
occasions.

I also wish to thank Professors William Heusner and William
Schmidt for their assistance on the doctoral committee.

To Dr. Dan Gould and Dr. Kwok-Wai Ho, I give my thanks. Their
stimulating discussions and help in the data interpretation were a
tremendous aid in the completion of this study.

Special bouquets are given to my friends who, in various ways,
helped me through the ups and downs of preparing a dissertation --

Kathy, Mary, Bev, Dale, and Mo. I will be forever grateful to you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .
LIST OF FIGURES . . .
CHAPTER

I THE PROBLEM .

Statement of the Problem

Significance of the Study .

Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Research Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scope of the Investigation

Definitions . . . . .

II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .

Pattern of Growth . . . . . .
Phases of Distance Graph . . . . .
Characteristics of Velocity Graphs .
Techniques of Curve-fitting . . . . . . . . . .
Variability in Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parameters of Growth . . . . . . .
Magnitude of Peak Height Velocity . . . . .
Duration of Peak Height Spurt . . . . . . . .
Relationship of Age at Menarche to Age at Peak

Height Velocity . . . . . . . . . . .
Prediction of Menarche and Age at Peak Height Velocity
Predictions Based on Skeletal Age . . . . . . . .

Predictions Based upon Secondary Sex Characteristics .

Predictions Based upon Height, Weight, and Body Build
Recall of Menarche . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . .

III RESEARCH METHODS . . . . . . . . .

Background of the Study .
Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sample of the Motor Performance Study . . . . . . .
Sub-sample of the Motor Performance Study . . . .
Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Independent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ConductofTreatments

Description of Measurements . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

vi

vii

10
l3
14
17
17
18

20
22
23
24
26
3O
31

35

35
37
37
38
38
39
40
40
41

IV

Procurement of Menarche Data . . . . . . . . . . . .
Processing the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preparation of Data on Physical Growth . . . . . . .
Preparation of Data on Menarche . . . . . . . .
Procedures for Statistical Analyses . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Predictability of Age at Peak Height Velocity and
Menarche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Differences in the Adolescent Growth Spurt among Early,
Average, and Late Maturing Females . . . . . . .

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . .

Suma ry O O I O O O O O I C O C O O O O O 0
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

APPENDIX C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

BIBLIOGRAPHY O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 I O O O O O

42
43
43
43
44
44

46

46

52
57

61
61
63
64
66
68

69
76

4—1

4-2

4-3

4-4

4-5

4-6

LIST OF TABLES

Measures of Physical Growth Obtained Semi-annually . .

Time Interval Between Age at Peak Height Velocity and

Menarcheal Age

Motor Performance Study:
Motor Performance .

Research Model .

Means and Standard Deviations of the Variables Used to
Predict Age at Peak Height Velocity and Menarche

Intercorrelation Coefficients of Growth Measures and Body
Size Indices at Nine Years, Age at Peak Height Velocity,

and Menarche

Stepwise Multiple Regression of Predictor Variables on
Age at Peak Height Velocity and Menarche Age

Regression Coefficients of Predichr Variables Selected

Measures of Physical Growth and

on the Basis of the Adjusted R Statistic .

Intercorrelation Matrix for the Five Dependent Variables
of the Adolescent Growth Cycle

Maturity Main Effect .

Vector Means and Standard Deviations of the Dependent

Variable by Maturity Level

Results of the Scheffé Post Hoc Tests for the Dependent
Variables that Were Affected Significantly by

Maturity Level

vi

21

36

39

47

48

50

51

53

53

55

57

LIST OF FIGURES

2-1 The Four Phases of Growth in Standing Height for
Human Beings O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

2-2 Typical Velocity Curve for Gain in Standing Height
for Females O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

2-3 Definitions of the Parameters of the Growth Cycle of
Human Beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2—4 Example of the Graphical Technique Used to Interpolate
the Growth Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4-1 Mean Dependent Variable Scores for the Maturity
biain Effect 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 0

vii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Physical growth of human beings is highly predictable. Measures
of length and breadth follow a definitive pattern of developmeng.encom-
passing four phases. However, children proceed through their growth
cycles at different rates, and individual variations in physical growth
and motor abilities occur throughout the childhood and adolescent
years. During the circumpuberal period, subjects can readily be divid-
ed into early, average, or late maturers according to their age at the
onset of adolescent growth. It seemed appropriate, then, to determine
whether the attainment of specific physical and biological events asso-
ciated with puberty can be predicted from anthropometric data obtained

in childhood.

Statement of the Problem

 

The purpose of this research effort was three—fold. First, this
study was designed to decide if childhood measures of height, weight,
body size, and/or body shape could be used to predict age at peak
height velocity and the onset of menstruation in females. Second, the
study investigated differences in the magnitude and duration of the
adolescent peak height spurt for early, average, and late maturing
females. A third area of investigation was to determine the relation-
ship between age of menarche and age at peak height velocity among the

three maturity groups.

Significance of the Study

 

It is common knowledge that children often are:compared to a stan-
dard in some area of performance or development; for example, the fif-
tieth percentile of the fifty yard dash or the average heightznulweight
for a specific chronological age. Too often, all children are judged
by the mean values obtained from cross sectional data. It would be
more appropriate to evaluate individuals according to standards from a
longitudinal study of subjects selected from similar environmental cir-
cumstances. Therefore, one objective of this study was to develop cri-
teria to assess a girl's progress toward physical maturation according
to the appropriate growth pattern of an early, average, or late devel-
oping female and not necessarily according to the "normal" cycle.

Physical growth and body size have an effect on an individual's
ability to perform motor skills. Physical educators and athletic
coaches are constantly aware of the need to match students in some
sports on the basis of size in order to provide healthy and enjoyable
activity for them. The results from this investigation could help
classify females by maturation criteria. These groupings then could
be used to investigate whether classification of females by maturity
level accounts for differences in athletic ability or motor perfor-
mance. If such differences were reported, then the maturation criteria
would be useful in equalizing competition on youth athletic teams or in
physical education and recreational activity settings. This study
also would provide the format whereby data relating maturity level to

motor performance of males could be analyzed.

Research Hypotheses

It was hypothesized that:

l. A selected number of childhood measures including height,
weight, and breadths can account for a substantial per-
centage of the variance in age at peak height velocity
and age at menarche.

2. The magnitude of the spurt will be greater and the dura-
tion of adolescent growth will be longer in the early
maturing girls compared to the average and late maturers.
The same relationship will exist between the average ver-
sus the late maturing groups.

3. The time interval between age at peak height velocity and
age at menarche will be inversely related to the age at

peak height velocity.

Research Plan

Data on five parameters of growth were collected semi-annually on

the subjects (Table 1-1). In most cases the measurements on the

Table l-l: Measures of Physical Growth
Obtained Semi-Annually

 

Weight

Standing Height
Sitting Height
Biacromial Diameter

Biiliac Diameter

 

 

girls were obtained first during early childhood and continued semi-
annually for the next twelve years. All records containing continuous
data from nine years of age through the completion of the adolescent
growth spurt were included in the analyses.

In addition, menarche data were obtained on the subjects by the
recall method. A letter explaining the study and requesting the age
and/or date of first menstruation was sent to the girls and/or their
mothers (Appendix A). Several guidelines were mentioned in the letter
to facilitate the accurate recording of a specific date or time of

menarche.

Scope of the Investigation

 

This investigation was delimited to the growth patterns and mea-
surements of females during middle childhood and encompassing the ado-
lescent growth spurt, but excluding the attainment of mature stature.
Factors that could influence growth, such as diet, disease, or compe-
titive activities, were not studied. Subject selection was limited
to 65 females enrolled in the longitudinal Motor Performance Study at
Michigan State University on whom data were available from middle
childhood through adolescence.

The following assumptions were made:

1. The data are representative of other females in the Motor

Performance Study and throughout the State of Michigan.

2. Measures of physical growth are stable over time.

3. The subjects were honest in their responses concerning

age at menarche.

Potential weaknesses existed in the endeavor. One limitation of
the study was that the anthropometric measurements were taken by four
different investigators throughout the length of the study. Three
of these, though, were all instructed and tested for reliability and
accuracy by the fourth person, the primary investigator of the Motor
Performance Study. A second limitation was that recall of menarche
is not entirely accurate. Therefore, adjustment was made for the sys-
tematic underestimation of menarcheal age by adding six months to the
age cited in the imprecise responses (see Chapter 3, page 30 for a de-
tailed explanation). Finally, errors of recording or measurement could
have been made. An attempt was made to minimize such errors by
having the recorder compare each measurement to the one documented at
the previous measurement period. Clarification or remeasurement was
requested if a discrepancy, such as regression in the length of a long

bone, was reported.

Definitions

 

The following definitions will aid the understanding of this
study:

1. Acrom—radiale--upper arm length

2. Adolescent growth spurt--period of accelerated growth fol-
lowing childhood; also called "puberty" and the "circum-
puberal period"

3. Biacromial width--shoulder width

4. Biiliac width-~hip width

5. Chronological age--time since birth

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

Development--used interchangeably with growth and matura—
tion; usually denotes a combination of the two
Girth—-measure of circumference

Growth--changes in physical properties, such as gain in
height and weight

Maturation--changes in functional capacity, such as sexual
development

Menarche-~first menstruation

Peak height velocity--maximum annual increment in height
during the growth spurt

Radio-stylion—-forearm length

Skeletal age--degree of development of the bones of the
body

Skinfold--measure of subcutaneous fat

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Normal human beings have highly predictable patterns of growth
during their lives. From conception until maturity, marked changes in
physical growth occur. For example, measures of height, weight, leg
length, and arm girth all change with development. It was the purpose
of this review to: (l) examine the pattern of growth in stature for
females; (2) discuss individual growth parameters, especially those as-
sociated with the adolescent spurt; (3) inspect the relationship of
menarche to other variables of physical growth; and (4) report the re-

liability of menarcheal data obtained via the recall method.

Pattern of Growth

 

When absolute measures of length and breadth are plotted, the re-
sulting curve is S-shaped (Figure 2-1). This distance curve shows a
cumulative gain in stature throughout the growing years, or actual
height attained at successive chronological ages. The cumulative curve
is a basic description of the additive outcome of stature or a record
of the distance traveled toward final adult height. The oldest longi-
tudinal record of stature was provided by de Montbeillard who measured
and noted his son's height from birth to eighteen years of age during
the years of 1759 to 1777 (Scammon, 1927). The normal patterncflfstand-
ing height can be divided into four phases as shown in Figure 2-1

(Scammon, 1927; Deming, 1957; Malina, 1975, p. 8).

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Phases of the Distance Graph

Infancy, phase one, usually extends from birth until approximately
two years of age. This phase is a time of rapid growth of a child, as
can be detected by the steepness of the curve. The body uses this per—
iod as a time for "catch-up growth," as described by Prader, 35 a1.
(1963), to compensate for any deprivation that may have occurred during
interuterine life. Because the physical dimensions of the child are
changing rapidly in infancy, prediction of future growth would meet
with little success during these years.

Phase two, childhood, follows infancy and extends until the onset
of the adolescent growth spurt. This period is characterizedtnrsteady,
uniform development, shown in Figure 2-1 as the low sloping part of the
line that rises at a fairly constant rate. This consistency or sta-
bility of growth during childhood has been documented by several inves-
tigators (Meredith, 1935; Simmons and Todd, 1938; Shuttleworth, 1949 a,
b). The average gain per child during this period is approximately
6 tun per year; Since rate of growth is relatively stable during this
phase, predictions of measures such as final adult height would be more
accurate than those made during infancy.

The third portion of the human growth curve is represented by the
sharp increase depicted in Figure 2-1. Known as adolescence or puber-
ty, this period varies greatly in both its onset and termination as
well as in its intensity and duration. In girls the spurt can occur
from 8-19 years of age with an average gain of 8 cm per year. The
normal duration is approximately 2-2% years, with the average peak
gain occurring from twelve to thirteen years of age (Tanner, 1962, p.

l; Malina, 1975, p. 21). Largo, gt a1. (1978) reported an average

10

duration of 3.8 years in girls with peak height velocity equaling 7.1
cm, mean onset of spurt being 9.6 years of age, and age at peak height
velocity equaling 12.2 years. The period surrounding the adolescent
growth spurt is one of great change in young peOple and is a time of
considerable variability in physical characteristics and abilities among
individuals.

Adulthood, the fourth and final phase of the human growth cycle,
begins after the acceleration of growth during adolescence:hscompleted.
The flattened portion of the curve in Figure 2-1 depicts that adult sta-
ture has been reached and that no more gain in height will occur.

In brief, then, the cumulative curve is descriptive of the data
and depicts the total distance traveled toward maturity. It has limit-
ed applicability, though, as a diagnostic tool when analyzing the ado-
lescent growth spurt. Exact onset, intensity, and duration of the
spurt are extremely difficult to ascertain via the distance graph.
Therefore, for quantitative analyses, the velocity curve displaying

incremental changes should be used.

Characteristics of the Velocity Graph

 

Children proceed through the growth cycle at different rates. A
velocity graph, then, can be used to characterize how individuals grow,
as such a plot would show incremental change from year to year. Shut-
tleworth (1937) and Tanner (1952) suggested that the study of physical
growth was clarified through the use of velocity rather than distance
curves. Boas (1932) discussed the close relationship of the entire

growth curve to the moment of maximum rate of growth.

11

The typical velocity curve for gain in height of females is shown
in Figure 2-2. During infancy the velocity of growth decreases tremen-
dously until the early childhood years. The rate of growth during
childhood is fairly constant until just prior to the adolescent growth
spurt. At this point, several investigators show a pre-spurt dip in
growth velocity (Scammon, 1927; Shuttleworth, 1937; Israelshon, 1960;
Lindgren, 1978) (shown in Figure 2-4). This dip is followed by the
sharp rise in growth ranging from 7 to 12 cm per year. After the ado-
lescent gain, there is a steady decrease in velocity until the zero
point, signifying that adult height has been attained.

Specific parameters of growth such as peak height velocity and on-
set of the spurt are easily identified on the velocity plot (Figure
2-3). For the present purposes, these characteristics of the growth
cycle were adapted from Largo, gt 51 (1978) and defined as follows:

1. MPSV - minimal pre-spurt velocity; onset of growth spurt

2. AMPSV - age at minimal pre-spurt velocity; age at which

spurt begins

3. PHV - peak height velocity; maximum height velocity during

the growth spurt

4. APHV - age at peak height velocity

5. SH - spurt height or increase in height velocity during

the growth spurt; calculated as PHV - MPSV

6. ST - spurt termination; return to MPSV

7. AST - age at spurt termination

8. SD - spurt duration or length of growth spurt; calculated

as AST - AMPSV

12

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Figure 2-2: Typical Velocity Curve for Gain in Standing Height for
Females.

 

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Chronological Age
Figure 2-3: Definitions of the Parameters of the Growth Cycle of Human
Beings. (See text for detailed explanation.)

l3

9. SI - spurt intensity or area of the spurt; calculated

as SD x SH

Techniques of Curve-fitting

 

Growth data have been smoothed with either graphical or computer-
ized procedures in order to remove (1) measurement error, (2) seasonal
variation, and (3) minor variations due to other causes (Tanner, gt EL,
1966a). Several techniques have been used to fit longitudinal growth
data to a curve. The Gompertz function was first used by Deming (1957)
to describe the data of the adolescent growth spurt. However, the
lower asymptote of the spurt (onset of adolescent growth) was not al-
ways easily and objectively determined. Other investigators since have
stated that the logistic function fits the growth data for height bet-
ter than the Gompertz curve (Marubini, gt 51., 1972). These scientists
reported that the logistic model showed slightly lower residuals than
the Gompertz function. Bock,_gt_al. (1973) described a double logis-
tic function with two separate components--pre-puberta1 and adolescent
--summed to complete the model. Six parameters were used to establish
the growth curve, five of which were estimated by non-linear least
squares and the sixth being the actual measurement of mature stature.
The predicted values of this function, though, were high from ages four
to six years, low in early adolescence, and again low in late adoles-
cence. The authors acknowledged that the model might need a slight
change in composition. As stated earlier, these functions require a
measure of final height in order to be used to estimate the growth

curve .

14

If data on mature stature are not available, a graphical technique
can be used to deal with the adolescent growth spurt (Figure 2-4).
Four steps are necessary in this procedure, adpated from Tanner, gt 31.
(19663).
1. Plot the individual measurements.
2. Draw a distance curve through the points by linear inter-
polation.
3. Read off increments from this distance curve at three-month
intervals, convert to cm/year, and plot.
4. Draw the velocity curve through these points.
This procedure is clearly an exacting method, but does allow one to
avoid the constraints of a preselected curve to be fitted. Individual
variations in growth (i.e., a pre-spurt dip) may be retained in the
curve rather than smoothed out. The finalized velocity graph then can
be labeled according to the parameters adapted from Largo, fig 31 (1978L

listed in the preceeding section.

Variability in Growth

 

Various parts of the body develop at different rates during the
growth cycle from conception to adulthood. After birth, a child's head
will double in size, while the trunk triples, the arms quadruple, and
the legs increase five-fold (Krogman, 1955). The head is the fastest-
develOping structure before birth. During infancy, the trunk grows
the fastest, whereas, during childhood until adolescence, the arms and
legs have the highest velocity. Finally, the trunk continues growing
between puberty and adulthood (Whipple, 1966, p. 122). The proportions
of the individual segments to each other change throughout the growth

cycle. Therefore, anthrOpometric measures of these body parts and

15

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their relationships to each other possibly could be used to predict the
various characteristics of future physical growth.

The time of onset of different growth parameters is highly varia-
ble. Tanner, gt al. (1966a) reported APHV for girls ranging from 10.5-
13.5 years, with age at menarche occurring from 11.4-14.7 years. The
data of Anderson, E£.El° (1965) indicated that skeletal age at menarche
varied between 11.5 and 14.5 years while that of chronological age at
menarche varied from 10.08-15.83 years. Numerous investigators have
reported mean ages of menarche (MA) ranging from 12.3-14.0 years (Tan-
ner, 1973; Richardson and Pietus, 1977; Neyzi and Alp, 1975; Zacharias,
_gt‘al., 1970; Frisch and Revelle, 1970; Johnston, gt 31., 1971; Lind-
gren, 1976; Frisancho, st 31., 1969; Livson and McNeill, 1962; Damon,
g£_al,, 1969; Ljung,_gt.al., 1974; Kralj-Cercek, 1956; Boas, 1932;
Deming, 1957; Bojlen, gt al., 1954; Kantero and Widholm, 1971). Mar-
shall (1974) published data showing ages at breast stage two (BZ)
ranging from 8-14 years, while that at breast stage five (BS) ranged
between 12 and 16 years. Pubic hair stages (PH), APHV, and
MA all showed variability in occurrence of four to five years. Onat
and Ertem (1974) depicted wide ranges at onset for PHV (10.61-14.46
years), PH2 (10.41-12.21 years), B2 (10.41-12.14 years), and axillary
hair (11.33-12.51 years).

To minimize the ranges in age of onset of characteristics, it ap-
pears necessary to group individuals according to some parameter.
Height age, weight age, skeletal age, MA, and APHV have all been used
to classify children for specific events. However, Shuttleworth (1939)
cited four advantages in using age at maximum rate of growth for the

classification of individuals. First, there is universal application;

17

i.e., both sexes can be grouped in this manner. Second, it is a highly
reliable technique. Third, such classification provides an excellent
basis for grouping individuals with a similar growth pattern. Finally,
APHV is a good indicator of underlying endocrine events and sexual ma-
turity. Many studies have used APHV to divide individuals into groups
of early, average, and late maturers (Lindgren, 1978; Largo, E£.§l’
1978; Tanner, gt al., 1976; Onat and Ertem, 1974; Boas, 1932; Shuttle-
worth, 1937, 1939; Deming, 1957; Tanner,_gtial., 1966a, b; Marubini,

_gt.§1., 1971; Tanner and Whitehouse, 1976).

Parameters of Growth

 

The growth cycle has several identifiable phases and variables
that can be analyzed. Some of these parameters will be discussed here.
Special attention will be paid to those characteristics defined in the

typical velocity graph for standing height (Figure 2-3, p. 12).

Magnitude of Peak Height Velocity

 

Numerous investigators have reported that the earlier the APHV,
the more intense will be the growth spurt (Boas, 1930, 1932; Shuttle—
worth, 1937, 1939; Deming, 1957; Tanner, gt 21" 1966a, b, 1976; Maru-
bini,.gt.g1., 1971; Lindgren, 1978). Lindgren (1978) reported signifi—
cant differences in spurt intensities (SI) of 8.7 cm, 8.2 cm, and 7.9
cm among three groups whose mean APHV was 10.7 years, 12.0 years, and
13.5 years, respectively. It would appear from these findings that the
growth of the early maturer is more intense at adolescence than that
of the average or late developing individual.

However, several studies fail to support this claim. Onat and

Ertem (1974) found that the magnitude of the spurt did not correlate

18

significantly with APHV. An inverse trend was depicted, though, with

a mean drop of .22 cm in PHV per year of APHV. This value should be
compared to Deming's (1957) report of a .93 cm and Tanner's (1966a) of
a .47 cm drop in PHV per year of APHV. In another study, the magnitude
of the spurt was almost identical for well-nourished (early) and mal-
nourished (late) individuals (Dreizen, SEES.” 1967). Israelshon (1960)
stated that peak height velocities for an ectomorph (late maturer) and
a mesomorph (early maturer) were similar, although acceleration was
greater in the late individual. Moreover, Richey (1937) reported that
early maturing females showed lower PHV than average maturers.

A controversy exists, therefore, concerning magnitudecflfthe growth
spurt in relationship to time of maximum rate of growth. The greatest
amount of evidence shows that early maturing females have a significant-
ly more intense spurt than the average or late maturers. Other studies
have shown no significant differences in magnitude of SI. A longitudi-
nal study and analyses of appropriate growth parameters might clarify

this situation.

Duration of Peak Height Spurt

 

Evidence concerning the duration of the adolescent growth spurt
(SD) is inconclusive. Marshall and Tanner (1969) and Reynolds and Wines
(1948) found no difference in the average rate of passage through puberty
for early and late maturers. Moreover, in 1970, Marshall and Tanner
reported that the duration of the spurt varies so greatly that one male
could develop secondary sex characteristics two years later than
another, but reach sexual maturity first. Reynolds and Wines (1948)

used the appearance of the first secondary sex charactersitics (either

19

breast bud or pubic hair) as the onset of the spurt, whereas time of
menarche marked its termination. However, when their data were grouped
by "duration of maturation" (3.6 years = long; 1.4 years = short),
there was a difference of two years in the termination of growth (MA)
but little difference in the appearance of the breasts or pubic hair
(onset of growth). Boas (1932) reported that the earlier the APHV oc-
curred, the shorter was the total period of growth. Frisch and Revelle
(1971b) showed that the mean time interval between onset of PHV and MA
was eight months longer for late maturers than for early maturers. In
contrast, Marubini, gt El. (1971) stated that late maturers evidenced a
spurt of shorter duration when compared to early maturers; that is,
they had a more rapid rate of growth in height.

There is also controversial evidence concerning a sex difference
in SD. Largo, gt 31. (1978), Tanner, gt 31. (1967), and Deming (1957)
reported that the growth spurt of the male was longer. However, Bock,
.gt.gl. (1973) found no difference in SD between males and females.

Evidence pertaining to growth rate after PHV might lend insight to
the controversy concerning SD. Two studies revealed longer growth per-
iods after PHV for early versus average versus late maturing females.
Onat and Ertem (1974) reported that growth velocity after PHV was sig-
nificantly and inversely related to APHV. Growth after PHV was more
intense in girls who had an earlier growth spurt, with a difference of
7.38 cm favoring early maturers. They reported a significant mean de-
crease in velocity after PHV of 2.5 cm per year of APHV. It is pos-
sible that since females with an early growth spurt are relatively less
mature in sexual development at PHV, they would grow a longer time af-

ter PHV to attain maturation. marshall (1974) found that the

20

individual with a late PHV grew less after PHV than the child who
reached PHV at an earlier skeletal age. Anderson, gt El. (1965) pub-
lished differences between maturity groups in growth of the trunk fol-
lowing PHV and after menarche. The early maturing group grew 10.4 cm
after PHV and 9.5 cm after menarche, the average maturer showed gains
of 5.6 cm and 4.6 cm, while the late maturer gained 1.7 cm and 2.1 cm,
respectively.

In contrast, Frisch and Revelle (1971b) showed that the mean time
interval between AMPSV (age at onset of spurt) and MA equaled eight
months longer for late maturers when compared to early developers. They
also found that early and late maturing girls (divided by MA) gained
the same mean amount of height, about 22 cm, from AMPSV to MA. Addi-
tional data are needed to clarify the contradictory results obtained
concerning duration of the growth spurt as well as growth after PHV un-
til maturity.

Relationship of Age at Menarche to
Age at Peak Height Velocity

 

 

The menarche traditionally has been the visible means for identi—
fying the completion of the physical changes at adolescence in females.
Boros,_gt_§1. (1977) used hormone assays to verify that the important
physiological changes occurred before menarche. Therefore, menarche
marks the completion of events, not the beginning. Menarche and the
point of maximum deceleration of height growth occur simultaneously
(Israelshon, 1960; Marshall and Tanner, 1969). It might be beneficial
to understand the relationships between menarche and the other growth

characteristics.

21

The correlations between MA and APHV have been reported as .59
(Marubini, gt_al., 1971), .69 (Lindgren, 1976), .75 (Shuttleworth,
1939), .76 (Onat and Ertem, 1974), .91 (Marshall and Tanner, 1969),
and .933 (Deming, 1957). Marubini's figure is significantly smaller
than those of Deming and Marshall and Tanner. A conflict exists, then,
about the relationship between MA and APHV. Deming reported a mean in-
terval of 14-15 months between APHV and MA, while Hewitt and Acheson
(1961) stated that the average interval between age at peak accelera-
tion and MA was 17-19 months.

Other investigators have found variation in length of time between
age at peak height velocity and age at menarche. The bulk of the evi-
dence supports the contention that the younger APHV yields a longer in-
terval until menarche (Lindgren, 1978; Tanner, gt_§1., 1976; Onat and
Ertem, 1974; Deming, 1957; Boas, 1932). Boas' data show constantly
decreasing intervals per year of increase in APHV (Table 241).

Table 2-1: Time Interval Between Age at Peak

Height Velocity and Menarcheal Age.
Data of Boas (1932).

 

 

 

APHV (Years) INTERVAL T0 MENARCHE (Years)
9.5 2.28
10.5 1.56
11.5 1.10
12.5 1.05
13.5 .98

 

 

However, several studies have reported that late maturers display the
longest interval between APHV and MA. Shuttleworth (1937) reported that
fOr early maturers MA occurred close to APHV, while for later maturers

menarche occurred approximately eighteen months after the end of the

22

year of maximum growth. Simmons and Greulich (1943) indicated that
there were progressively greater gaps between APHV and MA as maturity
status moved from early to late.

In Sweden, Ljung, gt El. (1974) have published data indicating
that the average interval from APHV to MA Imus decreased in the past
ninety years. The interval was 3.1 years in 1883, 2.0 years in 1938,
and 1.7 years in 1974. These data, coupled with the knowledge of a se-
cular trend toward earlier maturity, suggest that the early maturing
female has a shorter interval between APHV and MA than later maturing
individuals. More likely, the female is probably growing at a faster
velocity in a shorter time and is, therefore, more mature at the time
of PHV. This greater maturity would allow the succeeding interval to
be shortened because not as much time would be needed to reach matura-
tion. More study is needed to clarify the relationship of the APHV to
MA. Such an investigation could also help in understanding the dif-
ference in spurt duration, or lack thereof, among early, average, and
late maturing females.

Prediction of Menarche and Age at
Peak Height Velocity

A useful tool in studying the development of females would be the
ability to predict accurately the APHV or MA. Accuracy in either of
these predictions would enable researchers, parents, teachers, or
physicians to classify a girl as an early, average, or late developer
during her childhood and then to assess her progress in growth accord-
ingly. Likewise, as the events of maximum growth and first menstrua-
tion neared, the individual could be prepared emotionally for the rapid

changes about to occur in her body. This section discusses the

23

prediction of menarche and APHV based on skeletal age, secondary sex

characteristics, and body size.

Predictions Based on Skeletal Agg

Predictions of MA and APHV based on skeletal age (SA) have been
widely used in growth studies. Several investigators have shown that
the inclusion of skeletal age in the prediction of MA reduced the error
when compared to the use of chronological age (CA) alone (Marshall,
1974; Marshall and de Limongi, 1976). The standard deviation for SA
at menarche was .39 years, while that for CA at menarche was .84 years.
In Marshall's (1974) study, 85% (50 of 59) of the females experienced
menarche when their skeletal age was between 13-14 years. The regres-
sion equation was:

MA = 13.3 - .68 (SA-CA),
with a residual standard deviation of .656. Frisancho,_gt_§1. (1969)
correlated menarche with the appearance of the thumb adductor sesa-
moid (r = .751). The sesamoid appeared an average of twenty-two months
before MA. Their regression equation was:
MA = .550 + 1.120 (Appearance of sesamoid),

with a standard error of .14. Nicholson and Hanley (1953) found a cor-
relation of .85 between MA and age at reaching SA 12.75 years. Deming
(1957) looked at the fusion of the capitellum of the humerus (first
long bone epiphysis to close) and reported a correlation of .93 with
MA. The correlation of this epiphyseal fusion with APHV was .93 for
females and .86 for males. In addition, correlations with the onsetIIf
secondary sex characteristics were .78 (females) and .56 (males). She

also found significant sex differences in the timing of the fusion of

24

the capitellum. For females the fusion occurred approximately seven
months after PHV; for males the average interval was 17% months.

Skeletal age seems to have a varied effect on growth parameters.
Simmons and Greulich (1943) reported that girls who experienced me-
narche early had SA greater than CA at menarche, while those who
reached menarche at a later age had SA less than CA at menarche. Fe-
males delayed in SA also reached PHV at a later age (Onat and Ertem,
1974). Marshall (1974) stated that wide variations occurred in SA at
times of PHV and the onset of secondary sex characteristics, with vari-
ations as great as five years or more at times.

Skeletal age, then, is intimately related to the various aspects
of the growth cycle. However, the use of x-rays to assess development
is not practical in most situations. The cost of equipment and person-
nel to administer and read the individual x-rays would be prohibitive
to most school districts wishing to assess growth. Many parents could
not afford to have non-insured radiographs taken and, if they could,
experienced radiologists usually are not readily available for a read-
ing of SA. Parental permission may be difficult to obtain because of
the negative image, fear, and health risk associated with exposure to
radiation. Therefore, a safer, quicker, more convenient, less expen-
sive, and practical method of assessing maturity status would be a
valuable aid in classifying children in various educational and recrea-

tional settings.

Predictions Based upon Secondary Sex Characteristics
The appearance of the secondary sex characteristics has been used

to predict ensuing events of the growth cycle. On the average,

25

menarche occurs two years after the breast begins developing and pubic
hair appears (Reynolds and Wines, 1948; Tanner, 1952; Marshall and Tan-
ner, 1969). Reynolds and Wines (1948) reported correlations of .86 and
.70 between MA and the appearance of the breast bud and pubic hair,
respectively. If Marshall and Tanner's (1969) stages of breast develop-
ment are used, the menarche usually occurs during stages B3 and B4
with the following prediction equation:

MA = 13.46 + .46 (Age at B2 - 11.17) i 1.9 years.
Because of the large standard error, these authors stated that the age
of onset of breast develOpment was not a useful indicator of MA.

Point systems and regression techniques have been used to deter-
mine MA. The degree of maturity of the breasts, uterus, pubic and
axillary hair, as well as a hormone-cytologic assay have been assessed.
Menarche occurred at a mean of thirteen points and B3 stage of breast
develOpment(Borsos,.gt.§1., 1977). Zacharias , gt 31. (1970) combined
breast budding and appearance of pubic hair and published this regres-

sion:
MA = 57.8 + .373 (Age in months of onset of breast

bud) + .286 (Age in months of appearance of pubic
hair)‘:_23,
where S equals the standard error of the estimate of 11.1 months.
Thus, the 95% prediction interval for any particular female would span
44.4 months.
It appears that the use of the onset of secondary sex characteris-
tics is not a precise predictor of MA. The limits of normal variation
for individuals are too great for these events to be a useful or prac-

tical tool in the assessment of developmental status. Since the

26

ultimate goal is to be able to divide females into groups of early,
average, or late maturers, another combination of growth measures might

be more useful in predicting APHV and/or MA.

Predictions Based upon Height, Weight, and Body Build

Significant differences occur among the maturity groups when
height, weight, and body build are included in the analyses. Early
maturers are consistently taller and heavier than other groups through-
out childhood and have greater proportions of muscle, bone, and fat
from ages 7-13 years. Conversely, late maturers are usually smaller
than early maturers from 6-15 years and have the more linear constitu—
tion (Shuttleworth, 1937, 1949a, 1949b; Richey, 1937; Lindgren, 1978).
When girls were classified by height at a particular age, significant
differences existed between the tall (greater than eighty-fourth per-
centile) and the short (less than sixteenth percentile) female,
with the taller having the earlier menarche (Kantero and Widholm,
1971). Onat and Ertem (1974) noted that the girls who were advanced
in height for age reached PHV earlier than shorter individuals. Rey-
nolds and Wines (1948) reported a negative relationship between height
at age eight years (H8) and MA, while Deming (1957) obtained a signifi-
cant, but weak, correlation (-.489) between APHV and H8 for females.
However, Tanner, gt El. (1976) noted that age of menarche was indepen-
dent of body size both at onset of the growth spurt as well as at ma-
turity. Lindgren (1978) reported that the mean height and weight of
females for each of the three maturation stages differed at PHV but
not at menarche.

The inclusion of measures of weight for predicting maturity status

should be considered. Onat and Ertem's (1974) weight index for age

27

correlated better with APHV than did their height index for age. They
also noted a direct relationship (r = .30) between weight attained at
PHV and APHV. This should be expected because the greater the age at
PHV, the more time those persons have to grow and the heavier they will
be at the time of PHV. However, Lindgren (1978) reported that mean
height and weight did not differ at peak weight velocity (PWV) nor at
MA for early, average, and late maturers, even though there was a sig-
nificant difference at PHV. She also found that no significant dif-
ference existed between APWV and MA among maturity groups classified
according to APHV. The average time interval between APWV and MA was
~6.i .05 years. The magnitude of the PWV was the same for early,
average, and late developing females. This finding supports that of
Frisch and Revelle (1971a, b) who found that early and late maturers
gain the same mean amount of weight, about 17 kg, from APMSV to
MA. These investigators also reported that the height and weight
spurts began one year before the appearance of the secondary sex
characteristics and approximately 3.2 years before menarche. They
proposed the "critical weight hypothesis" whereby a girl had to attain
a certain weight (48kg) in order to experience menarche. This hypothe-
sis has been discredited by other investigators who found that the
weight limits were too highly variable to reasonably predict an indi-
vidual's MA (Lindgren, 1978; Billewicz,_gt.§1., 1976; Marshall and de
Limongi, 1976; Cameron, 1976; Johnston,_gt.§1., 1975; Johnston,_gt_§1.,
1971).

Lindgren (1978) stated that it is better to consider a critical
time of approximately .6 years after PWV when menarche will occur. She

showed that the time interval between PWV and PHV differed

28

significantly by .9 years for early maturers, .5 years for average,
and .2 years for late females. Mean weights for the three maturity
groups differed significantly at each age from 10-16 years. Early ma-
turers also evidenced a consistently larger weight/height index
throughout childhood than the late maturers. In 1976, Lindgren re-
ported a correlation of .61 between MA and APWV, while Bodzar (1977)
reported significant differences in the weights of menstruating and
non-menstruating females.

Body weight alone is not the most critical parameter involved in
prediction of menarche (Neyzi and Alp, 1975). Their subjects were
divided by percentiles of weight into three groups: (1) less than the
twenty-fifth percentile, (2) between the twenty-fifth and seventy-fifth
percentiles, and (3) greater than the seventy-fifth percentile. Next,
each weight class was divided into three height categories using the
same percentile groupings. The results showed that menarche occurred
earliest in the ”big" girl, whose weight and height both were in the
seventy-fifth or higher percentile. The second earliest menarche ap-
peared in females who were in the heaviest weight category and the mid-
dle height category (p<(.02). Menarche showed a relative delay in all
low weight groups. These authors concluded that body type rather than
body weight per se was an important determinant of onset of menstrua-
tion (Neyzi and Alp, 1975).

The various proportions of the body segments have been used often
as predictors of maturity level. In the study of Kantero and Widholm
(1971), the mesomorphic females reached menarche first, the endomorphs
second, and the ectomorphs latest. The menarche of the mesomorph was

4.8 months before that of the endomorph, while 11.4 months separated

29

the date between mesomorphs and ectomorphs (p (.001). Kralj-Cercek
(1956) found that MA differed according to the body build of the sub-
jects. Those females classified as "feminine" attained menarche at
12.93 years, those in the "medium" category at 13.5 years, while those
of linear build had their first menstruation at 14.6 years of age.
Bayley (1943) published bi-iliac/height curves for early, average, and
late maturers, while another investigator developed the body build

index:
sitting height x weight/height

 

shoulder width/hip width
High values for this index would reflect heavy people with short legs
and wide hips. Low values would indicate lean, long-legged individuals
with broad shoulders (Deming, 1957). High scores characterize the
early maturers, while a low index is reflective of the later developer.
However, no significant correlations between APHV and the body build

index were found. Jacobson (1954) computed values for three propor-

 

 

radius length (2) bi-iliac breadth
tibia length bi-acromial breadth

(3) bi-iliac breadth He found no differences in scores for these in-
radius length

tions: (1)

 

dices between groups divided by MA. However, significant differences
in the absolute lengths of the tibia and radius and in a fat factor
occurred between the early and late maturing groups. The early ma-
turers had shorter bones and a larger fat factor. McNeill and Livson
(1963) accounted for differences in the maturation rate between groups
by using the ponderal index (height/cube root of weight) at age eight
years. This index was also used by Hillman, gt El. (1970) where a
higher value indicated a delayed MA (p«(.00005). Differences in height

and weight, in height to weight, and in the height to width ratios also

30

were found among the three maturity groups. It appears that these mea-
sures would probably be critical in successfully predicting the develop-

mental status of females.

Recall of Menarche

 

Menarche is one growth parameter that cannot be measured. Its oc-
currence must be noted and then calculated as to the girl's age at the
time of menarche (MA). If the exact date of her first menstruation is
unknown and no longitudinal record has been kept by either the re-
searchers, parents, or girl, it becomes necessary to calculate the
menarche on the basis of recall of the event.

The question, then, is how accurate and reliable are menarcheal
data obtained by the recall method? Correlations between recalled and
actual MA have ranged from .60 to .84 (Damon and Bajema, 1974; Livson
and McNeill, 1962; Bergsten-Brucefors, 1976; Barker and Stone, 1936).
A large pr0portion of females recollect MA in terms of whole or half-
years. Bergsten-Brucefors (1976) found slight clustering around :
twelve months of actual MA with eleven percent of the girls being in
error by exactly : one year. Thus, it seemed easier to recall the
month than the actual year of MA. Because there is a tendency to re-
port MA in whole years, there is a systematic underestimation of actual
age at first menstruation (Bojlen,_gt.§1., 1954; Livson and McNeill,
1962; Poppleton and Brown, 1966; Zacharias, st 31., 1970). For exam-
ple, a girl might have her menarche anytime during the thirteenth year
of her life (twelve years, four months; twelve years, seven months;
twelve years, ten months), and each of these ages would probably be

reported as twelve years old. The recollective method leads to an

31

average reported MA that is six months to one year lower than the
status-quo method. To compensate for this weakness, several investi-
gators have adjusted the recalled MA by + one-half year for the impre-
cise data--those responses not corroborated by a specific event or

date or not stated in exact years and months of age (Livson and McNeill
1962; Poppleton and Brown, 1966; Zacharias, gt a1., 1970).

Recall of MA becomes more reliable as the interval of time between
menarche and recollection decreases. In 1954, Bojlen, gt g1. reported
that in a group of fourteen year old females, 68% gave precise re-
sponses concerning recalled MA; whereas, only 22% of the nineteen year
old females knew precise dates of menarche. The correlations between
remembered and previously recorded dates are higher (r = .84, .81) when
recall is from one to six years after menarche (Barker and Stone, 1936;
Bergsten-Brucefors, 1976) when compared to those (r = .75, .60) from a
longer interval of 17-39 years after the event (Livson and McNeill,

1962; Damon, 1974).

Summary

The cycle of growth in females was reviewed with respect to four
areas: (1) the growth in height, (2) the growth parameters associated
with the adolescent spurt, (3) the relationship of menarche to other
variables of physical growth, and (4) the reliability of menarcheal
data obtained via the recall method.

The distance graph depicts four phases of growth in stature for
females. Infancy is a time of rapid growth that preceeds childhood, a
period of steady, uniform development when predictionslmffuture growth

would be more reliable than those made during infancy. The adolescent

32

period follows childhood and is marked by a sharp increase in height
gain. The period surrounding the adolescent growth spurt is one of
great change in young people and is a time of great variability in
physical characteristics and abilities among individuals. Adulthood is
the final phase of the human growth cycle and marks cessation of growth
in height.

Because exact onset, intensity, and duration of the spurt are ex-
tremely difficult to ascertain via the distance graph, the characteris-
tics of the velocity curve were discussed. The velocity graph shows
incremental changes from year to year and, hence, specific parameterscxf
growth such as peak height velocity and onset of the spurt are easily
identified. Several characteristics of the growth cycle were defined
with relation to the velocity graph, their variability in onset was
documented, and techniques for interpolating these records were dis-
cussed.

The magnitude of the growth spurt is related to the age at maxi-
mum rate of growth. The greatest amount of evidence shows that early
maturing females have a significantly more intense spurt than the
average or late maturers. Other studies have shown no significant dif-
ferences in spurt intensity.

Evidence concerning duration of the adolescent spurt and the re-
lationship between age at menarche and age at peak height velocity is
inconclusive. Some researchers have reported that the early maturer
has a longer spurt than the later maturer, while others have published
opposite findings. Investigators have also found variation in length
of time between age at peak height velocity and age at menarche. The

bulk of the evidence supports the contention that the earlier the time

33

of peak velocity, the longer the interval to menarche. Earlier studies,
though, indicated that the late maturing female experienced a longer
interval between the two events than the early maturer.

Prediction of menarche and age at maximum growth based on skeletal
age, secondary sex characteristics, and body size were discussed.
Skeletal age is intimately related to the various aspects of the growth
cycle and, when used to predict age at menarche, reduces the error when
compared to inclusion of only chronological age. However, the use of
x-rays to assess development is not practical in most situations.

The appearance of the secondary sex characteristics has been used
to predict ensuing events of the growth cycle, though it appears that
their onset is not a precise predictor of menarche. The limits of nor-
mal variation for individuals are too great for these events to be a
useful or practical tool in the assessment of developmental status.

Significant differences occur among the maturity groups when
height, weight, and body build are included in the prediction of
menarche and age at peak height velocity. Early maturers are consis-
tently taller and heavier than other groups throughout childhood,
while late maturers are generally smaller than early maturers from 6-15
years of age and have the more linear constitutions. Differences in
height and weight, in height to weight, and in the height to width ra-
tios among the three maturity groups suggest that these measures would
probably be critical in successfully predicting developmental status
of females.

Menarcheal data obtained via recall are not entirely accurate.
Because there is a tendency to report age at menarche in whole years,

a systematic underestimation of actual age at first menstruation

34

occurs. To compensate for this error, data on age at menarche that
is not corroborated by a specific event or date should be adjusted by

adding one-half year to the reported age.

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS

The specific aims of this investigation were to (1) determine if
combinations of physical measures taken during childhood could be useful
in predicting age at peak height velocity and onset of menstruation;

(2) investigate differences in the magnitude and duration of the adoles-
cent peak height spurt for early, average, and late maturing females;
and (3) examine the relationship between age of menarche and age at

peak height velocity among the three maturity groups. Longitudinal data
on five parameters of growth and recall data on menarche were used to
evaluate developmental patterns and maturation rates of the female sub-
jects. Because individuals can readily be divided into early, average,
or late maturers at the onset of adolescence, it seemed appropriate to
study the interrelationships of physical characteristics preceeding and
surrounding the growth spurt to determine if predictions of maturity

could be made from these growth variables.

Background of the Study

 

The current study was one portion of a larger endeavor, the Motor
Performance Study (MPS), that is in its twelfth year of operation at
Michigan State University. The MP8 is a longitudinal investigation that
seeks to determine the influence that physical growth and biological

maturity have on motor skill performance. The longitudinal nature of

35

36

the MPS has resulted in an accumulation of data on rates of growth, ma-
turity, and motor development.

The semi-annual assessment of physical growth in children begins
at the age of two years, whereas the assessment of motor performance is
begun at approximately five years of age. Table 3-1 lists the thirteen
measures of growth and the seven variables of motor performance that
are obtained every six months. In addition to those variables, periodic

Table 3-1: MOtor Performance Study:
Measures of Physical Growth and Motor Performance

 

 

 

Measures of Physical Growth Measures of Motor Performance
Weight 4 Bent arm hang
Standing height Thirty yard dash
Sitting height Sit and reach
Biacromial diameter Jump and reach
Biiliac diameter Agility shuttle run
Acrom-radiate Standing long jump
Radio-stylion Endurance shuttle run
Arm girth
Thigh girth
Calf girth

Triceps skinfold
Subscapular skinfold
Umbilical skinfold

 

 

filmings of motor patterns in children and youth have been scheduled as
well as assessment of skeletal age via a hand-wrist x-ray. Two programs
operate within MP8: (1) the research program whereby data on growth and
motor performance are obtained from ages two to twenty years; and (2)
the instructional program whereby children age five to fourteen years

are taught fundamental motor patterns, sports skills, and dances.

37

Three broad objectives that guided the program at its inception are
still in force today. They are:

1. To provide a research setting for the study of physical
growth and motor develOpment during infancy, childhood,
and adolescence.

2. To provide a laboratory setting for undergraduate students
with majors and minors in physical education for the ob-
servation and teaching of elementary school children.

3. To provide an opportunity for the enrollees of the program

to learn the sports skills and dances of their culture
under the supervision of competent instructors.

SamplingiProcedures

 

Sample selection involved identifying those females whose data
were relevant to the present endeavor from those who were members of
the MPS. This section first describes the sample of the MP8 and then

the criteria by which the sub-sample was obtained.

Sample of the Motor Performance Study

 

The MP3 began in January, 1968, with an initial enrollment of
eighty children in the instructional program, equally divided between
boys and girls, ranging in age from five to eight years. In addition,
thirty children between the ages of two and four years were enrolled in
a non-instructional program which provided for the semi-annual assess-
ment of physical growth and motor performance. The pilot operation dur-
ing the winter and spring terms of 1968 was followed by an expanded sum-
mer program during which the age range was extended to include children
nine and ten years of age. Concurrently, forty children were added at
the kindergartenilevel. Presently, children are measured starting at
age two years until cessation of their growth, while they are enrolled

in the skills instruction only from kindergarten through seventh grade.

38

To date, over 1200 children have been enrolled in the programs. The
subjects are primarily white and have a socio-economic status of middle
to upper class.

Parents register their child before he/she is two years of age and
make an extended commitment to the longitudinal study. In addition, a
tuition fee of eighteen dollars per term is assessed to the first child
of each family during his/her enrollment in the skills program. Addi-
tional children of the same family pay one-half of the usual fee.
Therefore, the MP8 sample consists of voluntary subjects whose parents
request to enter the study, make a long-term commitment to the research
program, and pay tuition from kindergarten through seventh grade for the

instructional program.

Sub-sample of the Motor Performance Study

 

Because this investigation was delimited to analyses of the growth
patterns and measurements of females, the sub-sample was limited to
those families enrolled in the longitudinal study and for whom necessary
data were available or obtainable. Criteria for inclusion in the sub-
sample were (1) growth data were available beginning at age nine years
for the subjects, (2) the individual‘s data encompassed the adolescent
growth spurt, and (3) menarche data were obtainable from the subjects.
The application of these criteria to the data resulted in a total sample
of sixty-five females. Of the total, twenty-one were early maturers,

twenty-eight were average developers, and sixteen were late maturers.

Experimental Design

 

The research model used was designed to compare three groups of fe-

males who were divided by APHV into early, average, or late developers.

39

Multivariant analyses were set up to differentiate among the groups on
indices of body build at specific ages during childhood, the magnitude
and duration of the peak height spurt, and the time interval between
APHV and MA (Table 3-2). In addition, multiple regression and correla-
tion techniques were used to study the predictability of APHV and MA

from growth data taken at young ages.

Table 3-2: Research Model

 

Age at Peak Height Velocity

Early Average Late
X1 XI X1
Xi X2 X2
X X.. X .

X = Various growth parameters
Age at menarche
Peak height of spurt
Duration of spurt
Body build at age nine years

 

 

Dependent Variables
The dependent variables used in this study were the measures of

growth taken semi-annually, age at menarche, the magnitude of the height
spurt, the duration of the growth period, and various combinationscufall
of these. Several confounding variables may have affected the results.
These were diet, illness, or competitive sports' activity. No absolute
controls for these factors were set up; however, due to the frequency
with which most children were seen and also to the relationships estab-
lished with the families in the longitudinal program, several checks on

these extraneous influences were inherent in the design. First, as

40

noted earlier, the socio-economic status was basically average to upper
middle class. Therefore, diet most likely was not a negative factor.
Secondly, if a child had been seriously ill for a time, parents usually
reported this occurrence at the six-month visit. In addition, extended
absence of a child in the instructional program was noted and questioned
at the yearly parental conference. Thirdly, the involvement of subjects
in highly competitive training programs was noted on their data sheets.
Thus, the data of swimmers, for example, could be compared to those who
did not compete regularly. It was believed, then, that these possibly
confounding influences were controlled as adequately as possible in a

longitudinal study.

Independent Variable

 

Maturation rate (early, average, late) was chosen as the indepen-
dent variable in this study. Maturity level was identified by first de-
termining the APHV for each girl and then assigning her data to the ap-
propriate group. Because APHV ranges from 10.5-13.5 years, early ma-
turers were defined as those girls with PHV less than 11.5 years, aver-
age maturers between 11.5 and 12.5 years, while late developers at-
tained their PHV after 12.5 years (Deming, 1957; Tanner, et al., 1966a;

Bock, et al., 1973).

Conduct of Treatments

 

Protocol for the semi-annual measurements involved several steps.
In June-July and December-January, a time was arranged for assessment
or each Child's growth. Each subject's data record was procured from
the files and arranged in order of appointment. A sample form for the

recording of growth data can be found in Appendix B. When the subject

41

arrived, current grade in school, chronological age, and the date of
measurement were entered onto the form by the recorder. At that time,

measurement commenced.

Description of Measurements

 

For measurement of physical growth each child wore a bathing suit
and was barefooted. Measurements were taken on the left side of the
subject. All values were read to the nearest millimeter except weight,
which was recorded to the nearest pound. A detailed description of the
actual measurements follows in the order of their assessment.

1. Weight: The subject stood with arms hanging freely at the
sides of the body in the middle of the platform scale.

2. Standing height: Measurements were taken with the subject
standing against a wall. Heels were placed together, in
contact with the wall. Hands were allowed to hang freely
at the sides. The head was positioned in the Frankfurt
plane. A two-meter, metal anthropometer was placed paral-
lel to the wall, at the mid-frontal plane. The sliding
bar of the anthropometer was brought down, without pres-
sure, on the vertex.

 

3. Sitting height: The subject was seated on a thirty cen-
timeter bench, with the back against the wall. Subject
assumed the sitting position by first leaning forward and
then sliding as far back as possible before sitting up-
right. The feet were placed so the thighs were perpendi-
cular to the trunk and parallel to the floor. Head and
anthropometer position were identical to those for stand-
ing height.

 

4. Biacromial breadth: The subject stood with the back to
the examiner. The acromion processes were first palpated
with the index fingers. One end of the sliding calipers
was placed just to the left acromion process. The free
end was moved until it was just to the right of the right
acromial process. The caliper was held so that the ends
pointed up slightly. No pressure was applied.

 

5. Biiliac breadth: The subject stood with the back to the
examiner. The iliac crests were located by palpation.
The points of the caliper were placed on the lateral
side of each crest and pressed firmly in order to depress
the fat over the bone.

 

42

The recorder compared each reading with the previously documented one
and, if a discrepancy existed, asked for clarification and/or remeasure-
ment. After completing all measurements, the examiner reviewed the data

sheet for possible errors and conducted a short parental conference.

Procurement of Menarche Data

Unlike the growth parameters, menarche data were obtained only
once by the recall method. A letter explaining the study and request-
ing the age and/or date at first menstruation was sent to the girls
and/or their mothers. A form was also included for recording the
menarche data (Appendix A). Several guidelines (i.e., season of the
year, special event) were mentioned in the letter to facilitate the ac-
curate recording of the specific date or time of menarche. Subjects
were asked to be as specific as possible regarding year and month of
onset. A telephone call was then made to each mother to discuss her
and her daughter's willingness to provide the data as well as to prompt
accuracy in recording and speed in response. If no data were received
within two weeks, a second call was made to remind the subjects. If no
data were received after the letter and two telephone calls, the sub-
jects were approached as they came for their next measurements. After
that, no further contact was attempted, and individuals who did not
comply with the request were excluded from the list of potential sub-
jects. A total of 154 subjects were contacted. Of these, 132 (95 men-
struating, 37 non-menstruating) replied to the query for a percentage
of 85.7%. As noted previously (p. 38), the application of the criteria
for inclusion in the sub-sample resulted in a total sample of 65 females

Thirty records for which MA was obtained revealed incomplete growth data

43

Processihg the Data
After procuring the data, additional steps were followed to en-
sure accurate analyses. This section will detail the sequence of pro-
cessing the growth data, then the techniques of preparing the menarche

data, and, finally, the procedures for statistical analyses.

Preparation of Data on Physical Growth
Following each measurement period, all data were placed on Holarith
cards, verified, and maintained on the subject's data form. Four steps,
adapted from Tanner,_gtial. (1966a), were then taken to determine APHV
(Figure 2-4, p. 15).
l. The individual measurements of standing height were plot-
ted as a distance graph.
2. A curve was drawn through the points via linear inter-
polation.
3. Increments from this distance curve were plotted.
4. A velocity curve was drawn through these points.
After the finalized velocity graph was obtained, the curve was labeled
according to the parameters adapted from Largo, gt El. (1978) that were
discussed in Chapter II (p. 11). These values were also added to the

individual's data cards.

Preparation of Data on Menarche

Menarche data were divided into precise and imprecise responses.
Precise responses were those that noted a specific date of menarche or
had a calculated year and month of menarche. Imprecise data were those
that were not calculated specifically. To compensate for the documented

tendency for MA to be reported in whole years, six months was added to

44

the MA for each imprecise response. Of the 132 subjects who replied

to the survey, ninety-five had attained menarche. Ninety of these
(94.7%) recorded precise responses, necessitating adjustments on only
five cases, 5.3% of the total. The MA was then added to each subject's

card file.

Procedures for Statistical Analyses

All data were analyzed on the Michigan State University Control
Data Corporation 6500 (CDC 6500) computer using routines from the Sta-
tistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Multiple regression
and correlation techniques were used to study the predictability of
APHV and MA from growth data of childhood. Multivariate analyses
(MANOVA) were conducted to differentiate among the three maturity
levels on the dependent variables. Discriminant analyses, univariate
F's, and step-down F's were examined to identify the dependent measures
that contributed to the variances among maturity levels. Scheffé post
hoc tests were used to evaluate differences between pairs of means
whenever a significant univariant F-ratio was obtained. The 0.05 level
of significance was established for the MANOVA and AOV analyses, while
the .10 level was used in the Scheffé procedures due to the low power

of these multiple comparisons tests.

Summary

A longitudinal design was employed to study the growth and devel-
opment of sixty-five females. The subjects were a subsample chosen
from individuals in the MPS. Measurements were taken at six-month in-
tervals on five indices of growth, and girls were categorized by APHV

into early, average, or late maturers. Menarche data were obtained

45

via letter or telephone, adjusted if imprecise, and added to the re-
cords. After the data were procured, processed, and checked, they were
subjected to multivariate analyses and correlation and regression tech-

niques to determine differences among the maturity levels.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study investigated the predictability of age at peak height
velocity and the onset of menstruation in females from measures of
height, weight, and body size taken during childhood at age nine years.
In addition, this research effort examined differences in specific as-
pects of the adolescent growth spurt (i.e., magnitude, duration) among
early, average, and late maturing females divided according to their
ages at peak height velocity. Data were obtained semi-annually on
the subjects during a twelve year longitudinal growth study.

In this chapter, the results will be presented in three sections.
First, the findings from the regression analysesthat determined the
predictability of age at peak height velocity and age at menarche will
be reviewed and discussed. Second, the results from the multivariate
analyses will be presented and examined in relationship to the three
maturity groups. Third, the findings will be discussed and compared
to the responses of previous investigators.

Predictability of Age
at Peak Height Velocity and Menarche

 

 

It was hypothesized that a selected number of childhood measures
including height, weight, and breadths can account for a substantial
percentage of the variance in age at peak height velocity and age at
menarche. Therefore, five absolute measures of growth and four indices

of body shape on sixty-five females were used to determine if age at

46

47

Table 4-1: Means and Standard Deviations of the
Variables Used to Predict Age at
Peak Height Velocity and Menarche

 

 

(n = 65)

Variable 3333; Standard Deviation
Standing height (9 years) 132.7 cm 5.17 cm
Sitting height (9 years) 70.8 cm 2.53 cm
Biacromial width (9 years) 29.1 cm 1.29 cm
Biiliac width (9 years) 20.5 cm 1.10 cm
Weight (9 years) 28.5 kg 3.89 kg
Ponderal index 13.18 .43
Iliac/height ratio .15 .01
Trunk breadth index .71 .03
Body build index 10.75 1.60
APHV 11.96 yr 1.03 yr
MA 13.29 yr 1.18 yr

 

 

.peak height velocity (APHV) and age at menarche (MA) could be predicted
during childhood (Table 4-1). The overall variable means and standard

deviations indicate that, in general, the body size indices do not vary

greatly throughout the sample. The index of body build (see Chapter 2,
page 29) had a standard deviation of 1.60, while the ponderal index
showed .43, the trunk breadth measured .03, and the iliac/height ratio
.01. MOreover, when the four indices were entered together into a re-
gression analysis separate from the absolute growth measures, none of
the ratios made a significant contribution to the prediction of APHV and
MA. Consequently, no predictive equations were established (p >..05).
The findings indicate that good predictions of APHV and MA may be
difficult to obtain from measures of physical growth taken at nine years
of age. In general, low relationships existed between all the variables

and the ages at PHV and menarche (Table 4-2). Of the four indices used,

48

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49

the highest correlation obtained was .23 between trunk breadth and APHV.
The correlations of the five growth measures with APHV and MA were
slightly higher than those of the indices, with the highest coefficient
being -.37 between biacromial width and MA. Furthermore, all correla-
tions among the individual growth measures, as well as some among the
indices of body shapes, were moderate to high. The correlation between
APHV and MA was .68. This result, coupled with the fact that the coef-
ficients of correlations for APHV and MA were similar for all variables,
indicate that predictive equations for these two dependent variables

probably are similar.

Stepwise multiple regression techniques were used with standing
height, sitting height, biacromial width, biiliac width, and weight
as the predictor variables of APHV and MA (Table 4-3). The stepwise
procedures for predicting APHV showed that weight did not contribute
significantly to the regression equation. Biacromial width, followed
by biiliac diameter, contributed most to the prediction (pI< .01).

The r2 statistic reflects that 13.9% of the variance in APHV can be
accounted for by these two measures. However, according to the ad-
justed r2 (adjusted for changing degrees of freedom with each step),
only 11.2% of the variance can be explained by measures of shoulder and
hip widths taken at age nine years. Note that even though standing and
sitting heights contributed significantly to the regression (p < .05),
the multiple r and r2 increased only minutely, and the adjusted r2 ac-
tually decreased. In addition, the inclusion of the two height mea-
sures slightly increased the standard error of the estimate (SEE). It

seems, then, that of the five growth parameters measured at nine years

50

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51

of age, the biacromial and biiliac widths provided the best predictors
of APHV, accounting for only 11.2% of the variance. Table 4-4 provides
the regression coefficients, the constant, and the standard error of the
coefficients (SEC) based on the inclusion of only biacromial and biiliac
measures.

Table 4-4: Regression Coefficients of Predictor

Variables Selected on the Basis
of the Adjusted R Statistic

 

 

 

 

Variable Resgression Coefficient SEE
Predicting APHV
Biacromial width - .389 .127
Biiliac width .216 .149
Constant 18.822 2.78
Predicting MA
Biacromial width - .510 .144
Standing height .624 .361
Constant 19.837 3.62

 

 

The prediction of MA from the five growth parameters showed that a
higher percentage of the variance was explained than in the prediction
of APHV, but that a larger SEE existed (Table 4-3). All five growth
variables contributed significantly to the stepwise regression on MA.
However, analysis based on the adjusted r2 indicated that biacromial
width and standing height, with a multiple r of .421, explained the
highest amount of variance (15.0%) with the lowest SEE (1.092) (Tables
4-3 and 4-4). These two regression analyses indicated that prediction
of APHV and MA from growth variables during childhood were too low and
individual variation too high to be practical. Higher multiple r's and

percent variances might be found if skinfolds, circumferences, or

52

measures of secondary sex characteristics had been included as predictor
variables.

Another regression analysis was run forcing each of the five growth
parameters into the prediction of APHV and MA first. After the initial
variable was forced into the equation, the program was allowed to enter
any of the other growth measures. Results from these regression proce-
dures are shown in Appendix C.

Differences in the Adolescent Growth Spurt among
Early, Average, and Late Maturing Females

 

 

Five aspects of the adolescent growth spurt were compared in early
(EM), average (AM), and late (LM) maturing females to determine (1) if
differences in adolescent growth existed among the three groups, and
(2) which variables contributed most to the variance. These comparisons
by level of maturity enabled the last two research hypotheses to be
tested. It was hypothesized that the magnitude and duration of the
adolescent growth spurt and the interval of time between APHV and MA
would be greatest in the EM females, followed by that of the AM and
then LM subjects. Early maturers (n=21) had PHV before 11.5 years of
age, AM (n=28) reached PHV between 11.5 and 12.5 years inclusive, and
LM (n=l6) attained their PHV after age 12.5 years. The intercorrelation
matrix of the five dependent variables is shown in Table 4-5. Interval
has low correlations with the other four parameters of the growth spurt,
while the relationships among the other four parameters range from low
to high (.12 - .90).

Spurt height (SH), spurt duration (SD), spurt intensity (SI), peak
height velocity (PHV), and the time between peak velocity and menarche

(interval) were used as the dependent variables in a one-way

53

Table 4-5: Intercorrelation Matrix for the Five
Dependent Variables of the
Adolescent Growth Cycle (n - 65)

 

Spurt duration .65

Spurt intensity .90 .87

Peak height velocity .68 .12 .43

Interval .06 .05 .07 -.01
Spurt Spurt Spurt Peak height
height duration intensity velocity

 

 

multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with the three levels of
physical maturity (EM, AM, LM) as the independent variable. The re-
sults revealed that the maturity main effect was significant, F
(10,116) a 4.90 (p‘(.0001). Univariate and stepdown F tests, as well
as discriminant function analyses, were used to determine the relative
contributions of the dependent variables to the significant MANOVA

main effect (Table 4-6). These three analyses indicated that SH, SD,

Table 4-6: Maturity Main Effect

 

Standardized discrimi-

 

 

 

 

Dependent variable Univariate F Stepdown F nant Function coeff.

Spurt height 1.55 1.55 1.48
Spurt duration 4.70** 3.93 -l.27
Spurt intensity 2.69 1.34 .03
Peak height velocity 4. 56** 9 . 78*** -1 . 32
Interval 4.21* 3.19* — .45
* p4(.05

** p< .01

W: p< .001

 

 

54

PHV, and Interval had important roles in differentiating the three ma-
turity groups. The two F analyses showed significant contributions of
SD, PHV, and Interval to the overall effect, while the standardized co-
efficients from the discriminant analyses weighted SH (1.48) highest,
followed by PHV (-1.32) and SD (-l.27).

The discrepancy in weightings of the variables between the step-
down and discriminant procedures probably resulted from these tests
using slightly different techniques. In the stepdown analysis, each
step takes into account the contribution of the preceeding variable
before assigning an F value; whereas, the purpose of discriminant analy-
sis is to find the best linear combination of the original variables
such that maximum differences among groups will emerge. The values in
Table 4-6 show that SH was more important when considered in linear
combination with the other dependent variables than when used in a pre-
determined stepwise procedures. Likewise, interval is a significant
variable in the stepdown techniques, but ranks fourth in the best
linear combination as determined by discriminant analysis.

The fact that 81 contributes little to the significant MANOVA is
not surprising. In this study SI was computed by multiplying SH and
SD. Therefore, one would expect that after SH and SD have been entered
into the analyses, insignificant benefit would be gained by including
SI.

Nevertheless, four aspects of the adolescent growth spurt (SH,

SD, PHV, Interval) remained important in differentiating the three ma-
turity groups. SD and PHV were weighted highly on all three analyses,
while Interval was significant on the F tests and SH was ranked on the

discriminant analyses. Although PHV includes SH, both variables were

55

weighted heavily in the discriminant analysis, indicating that even
though girls have various height velocities during childhood and at
the onset of the spurt, SH and PHV still contribute significantly to
differences among EM, AM, and LM.

Examination of the vector means and standard deviations of each
dependent variable revealed trends among the levels of maturity on each
aspect of the adolescent growth cycle (Table 4-7). In general, the EM

females had the highest mean on each variable, followed by AM and then

Table 4-7: Vector Means and Standard Deviations
of the Dependent Variables by Maturity Level (n = 65)

 

Dependent Variables

 

Spurt Spurt Spurt Peak height
Maturity height duration intensity velocity Interval
level (cm) (vr) 3cm”) (cm) (yr)
53:11,: ‘i 3.4 2.58 9.51 8.8 1.77
“ e 5 SD 1.4 .79 5.83 1.0 .76
(n = 21)
3:32; i 2.8 2.26 6.90 8.1 1.17
(n 8 28) SD 1.1 .80 4.26 .9 .95
:Efirers I 2.7 1.79 5.79 7.8 1.02
SD 1 8 .75 5 55 1.3 .80
(n . 16)
Sample —- 0 2 2 8
Total X 3. . 5 7.47 .2 1.33
SD 1.4 .83 5.26 1.1 .90
(n = 65)

 

 

LM. That is, EM had a higher SH, SI, and PHV and a longer SD and In-
terval than did the AM and LM subjects (Figure 4-1).

Scheffé post hoc procedures were conducted on the values for SD,
PHV, and Interval to determine if significant differences existed among

the maturity groups on these variables (Table 4-8). On all three

 

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Maturity Laval Maturity Laval

Maturity Laval

Mean Dependent Variable Scores for the Maturity Main Effect.

Figure 4-1:

57

Table 4-8: Results of the Scheffé Post Hoc
Tests for the Dependent Variables that Were
Affected Significantly by Maturity Level

Maturity Level
Dependent Variable

 

 

 

Early Average ‘ngg
Spurt duration 2.58 2.26 1.79
Peak height velocity 8.8 8.1 7.8
Interval 1.77 1.17 1.02

 

 

 

parameters, EM differed significantly from LM. The EM displayed a sig-
nificantly higher PHV and longer SD and Interval than the LM. More-
over, the EM females also differed significantly from the AM subjects
on PHV and Interval. No statistically significant differences between
AM and LM emerged on any of the three variables, though. the AM fe-

males had higher means than the LM individuals throughout the dependent

variables studied.

Discussion

The data analyses on predictability of APHV and MA generally sup-
port the findings published by other investigators. The intercorrela-
tion coefficients of APHV and MA with the four body build indices were
low, ranging from -.15 to .23. These results agree with those of Dem-
ing (1957) and Jacobsen (1954), who found no significant correlations
among the growth parameters and no significant differences among ma-
turity groups in scores on the indices. Moreover, an inverse and weak
relationship existed between standing height and APHV (-.22) and MA

(-.10), agreeing with the data of Reynolds and Wines (1948) and also

Deming (1957).

58

The predictive equations of APHV and MA from this study reveal
lower standard errors of the estimate than do those from previous in-
vesigations (Marshall and Tanner, 1969; Zacharias, 23 al., 1970).

These scientists published regressions for MA with an SEE of approxi-
mately 1.9 years. The highest SEE from the present data is 1.09 years
(predicting MA), while the lowest is .97 years (predicting APHV).
Marshall (1974) presented predictions of MA with an SEE of .66, while
Frisancho, 25 a1. (1969) indicated an SEE of .14. These regressions
included a skeletal age in the analyses. It seems, then, that good
predictions of APHV and MA, without the inclusion of SA, or a close
estimate of this variable, are too difficult to obtain from data taken
during childhood. The estimates would be too highly variable to aid in
individual counseling. It appears necessary to determine growth
characteristics that could reasonably replace SA in predictive analy-
ses.

In the present endeavor, the interval of time between APHV and MA
differed significantly between the early maturing females and those in
the two other maturity groups (EM - 1.77 yr, AM a 1.17 yr, LM = 1.02
yr” i - 1.33). These results agree closely with those of Lindgren
(1978), who found significant differences among the three levels of
maturity (EM = 1.6 yr, AM - 1.2 yr, LM = .7 yr, i = 1.2 yr), and sup-
port the data of Boas (1932) and Onat and Ertem (1974) who reported
differences in the interval from APHV to MA by maturity group. Contra-
dictory data have been published earlier by Simmons and Greulich (1943)
and Shuttleworth (1937). It would seem that the later developing fe-

male is nearer her complete biological maturation at the time of PHV

59

than the early maturer and, therefore, would have a shorter interval
until the onset of menstruation.

Data from this investigation on the relationship of APHV to MA
lend insight to the understanding of the role of spurt duration in the
adolescent growth cycle. Israelsohn (1960) and Marshall and Tanner
(1969) determined that menarche occurs at the point of maximum decel-
eration of growth in height after the PHV. Therefore, if EM have a
longer interval to maximum deceleration, then it could be expected
that their SD would be longer. The findings of the present study
confirm this observation. Spurt duration contributed significantly
to the MANOVA main effect by level of maturation and was statistically
different between EM (2.58 yr) and LM (1.79 yr) subjects. These data
support those of Marubini, gt 31. (1971) and Onat and Ertem (1974) and
contradict the findings of Boas (1932) and Frish and Revelle (1971b),
who indicated significant differences in the opposite direction. No
significant differences in SD by maturity level were reported by others
(Marshall and Tanner, 1969, 1970; Reynolds and Wines, 1948).

Some controversy has existed concerning magnitude of the growth
spurt in relationship to time of maximum rate of growth. The greatest
amount of evidence shows that EM females have a significantly more in-
tense spurt than the AM or LM, while other studies have depicted either
no differences or opposite trends. The present data do not fully
clarify these discrepancies concerning spurt height. According to the
discriminant analyses, SH is weighted the highest in contributing to
the maturity main effect. The univariate and stepdown F's were not
significant, though, so post hoc analyses could not be run to determine

if the three maturity levels differed significantly. The EM showed the

60

highest mean (3.4 cm), while the AM (2.8 cm) and LM (2.7 cm) had simi-
lar means for SH. Apparently, SH contributes to the MANOVA significant
effect, but its true contribution might be compounded within that of
PHV.

The values of PHV were weighted highly on all three analyses (uni-
variate F, stepdown F, discriminant analysis) as significant contribu-
tors to the maturity main effect. In addition, EM (8.8 cm) had signi-
ficantly higher PHV's than either AM (8.1 cm) or LM (7.8 cm). The
fact that EM grow faster during childhood than AM andIJIand, therefore,
enter the growth spurt at a faster velocity probably helps account for
the differences in PHV. It seems, though, that the SH also has an

important role in differentiating the three levels of maturity.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purposes of this study were to (1) determine if childhood

measures of height, weight, body size, and/or body shape could be used

to predict age at peak height velocity (APHV) and the onset of men-

struation (MA) in females; (2) investigate differences in the adoles-

cent growth spurt for early, average, and late maturing females; and

(3) study the relationship between age of menarche and age at peak

height velocity among the three maturity groups.

The following statements summarize the findings:

1.

Low relationships existed among all the physical growth
variables and the ages at PHV and menarche. The highest
coefficient obtained was -.37 between biacromial width
and MA.

All correlations among the individual growth measures
ranked moderate to high (.55 - .84).

The indices of body size did not vary greatly through-
out the three levels of maturation. None of the ratios
made a significant contribution to the prediction of
APHV and MA and, consequently, no predictive equations
were established that included these indices.

Of the five growth parameters measured at age nine years,
the biacromial and biiliac widths provided the best

61

62

predictors of APHV, accounting for 11.2% of the variance.
The regression equation was:

APHV = 18.822 - .389 (Biacromial) + .216 (Biiliac) 11.969
The prediction of MA from the growth parameters showed
a higher percentage of the variance (15.0%) was explained
than in the prediction of APHV, but that a larger standard
error of the estimate (SEE) existed. The best regres-

sion equation was:

MA = 19.837 - .510 (Biacromial) + .624 (Standing height) : 1.092

6.

A one-way multivariate analysis of variance, with the
three levels of physical maturity (early, average, late)
as the independent variable, revealed that the maturity
main effect was significant (p C .0001).

Univariate F procedures, stepdown F tests, and discrimi-
nant function analyses indicated that spurt height, spurt
duration, peak height velocity, and interval had important
roles in differentiating the three maturity groups.

On all five aspects of the adolescent growth spurt, early
maturers displayed higher mean values than average devel-
opers who showed larger means than late maturers.
Significant differences occurred between early and late
maturers for spurt duration, peak height velocity, and
interval. Moreover, the early developing females also
differed statistically from the average maturers on PHV

and interval.

63

Conclusions

 

The results suggest the following conclusions:

1.

Accurate predictions of APHV and MA, without the inclu-
sion of skeletal age, may be too difficult to obtain from
growth data taken at nine years of age. The two regres-
sion analyses indicated that prediction of APHV and MA
from growth variables during childhood were too low and
individual variation too high to be of practical value.
Predictive equations for APHV and MA were similar since
the correlations between each of these variables with the
other growth measures were similar. In addition, the
correlation between APHV and MA was .68, which indicates
that a prediction of MA that would include APHV would
probably be more accurate than that relying only on data
at age nine years.

Although other studies have shown no differences in spurt
duration (SD) by maturity level, these results indicated
that SD contributed significantly to such differences,

at least between early and late maturing females. Early
developers had an adolescent growth cycle of approxi-
mately 2.58 years, while that of the late maturers was
1.79 years.

The interval of time between peak velocity and menarche
decreased as level of maturity moved from early to late.
These data, together with those of SD, indicated that
early maturers entered their adolescent growth cycle

at a younger age but grew for a longer time before

64

maturity than average or late developers. It would seem
that the later developing female is nearer her complete
biological maturation at the time of PHV than the early
maturer and, therefore, would have a shorter interval

until onset of menstruation.

Recommendations

Based on this investigation, the following recommendations are

tendered:

1.

In order to decrease the SEE in the predictive analyses
for APHV and MA, it appears necessary to determine
growth characteristics that could reasonably replace
skeletal age.

It could be beneficial to parents, teachers, physicians,
and researchers if regression techniques for MA were
utilized that included APHV. These data, in conjunction
with that of SD, could be used during the adolescent
growth spurt to estimate the time of complete maturity
for a female or the amount of growth that could be ex—
pected after PHV.

The study should be duplicated with a larger sample in
order to alleviate the possible biasing effect of delet-
ing subjects vflx>showed an incomplete growth spurt.

Some early maturers already were into their spurt by
age 9 years, while some later maturers had not yet

reached maturity at the completion of the study.

65

4. A parallel study for males should be conducted to see
if the same aspects of the adolescent spurt cause dif-
ferences among the maturity levels.

5. The variables of spurt intensity and body shape indices

probably could be deleted in future investigations.

6. Future research in this area should incorporate various
growth measures not only during childhood, but also at

PHV, MA, and adulthood.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Letter of Request for Menarche Data

Form for Recording Menarche Data

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

DEPARTMENT OF I'll-.ALTH PHYSICAL EDL CATION AND RECREATION EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824
MOTOR PERFORMANCE STL'DY ' WOMEN‘S INTRAML'RAL BUILDING

The Motor Performance Study is currently completing its llth year of operation.

We are in the initial processes of the longitudinal data analyses and are review-
ing all records of our subjects. Your daughter's record is excellent and will help
us in our attempt to answer many questions in the areas of physical growth and
motor performance. A xerox copy of her data record is enclosed with this letter.

As doctoral students specializing in growth and development we are interested es-
pecially in the development of females. Our study deals with the relationship of
the onset of menstruation in girls to their physical growth and motor performance.
We need your help in this project. Would you please record the age and/or the date
of your daughter's first menstrual period on the form enclosed with this letter?
Try to be as specific as possible, for example, "12 years 9 months; June, 1972."
If actual dates cannot be recalled, please list a close approximation in terms of
grade in school such as, "first day of 8th grade; late summer between the 6th and
7th grades; etc." If menstruation has not begun, please indicate this under 92m-
ments. A second objective of this study is to determine the predictability of
the onset of maturity indicators in children from those of their parents; there-
fore, it would be most beneficial to have your age at first menstruation. Again,
please attempt to be as specific as possible in providing the information such
as, "14 years, 9 months."

After completing the enclosed form, please return it promptly in the self—addressed,
stamped envelope. If you have any questions, please contact either Crystal Fountain
or Molly Sapp at 353-9467.

We appreciate yOur time and thoughtfulness for participating in this project and

for your years of diligence to the Motor Performance Study. As always, the data
will be maintained in strict confidence. Thank you.

Sincerely,

Crystal Fountain Molly Sapp

With the knowledge and approval of the faculty coordinators,

Vern Seefeldt John Haubenstricker

66

67

MOTOR PERFORMANCE STUDY

Form for Menarche Data

Daughter's Name: I.D. Number

Birthdate:

 

Date of First Menstruation:

 

Age at First Menstruation:

 

Comments (if any):

Mother's Age at First Menstruation:

 

 

 

Today's Date Signature of Person Completing Form

APPENDIX B

Form for Recording Growth Data

SEX

GRADE

CHRONOL.

AGE (MO.)

SKELETAL
AGE (MO.)

BIACROMIAL

STANDING
HEIGHT
SITTING
HEIGHT
DIAMETER
BIILIAC
DIAMETER

WEIGHT

DATE

 

0-21

 

22-27

 

28-33

 

34-39

 

40-45

 

46-51

 

52-57

 

58-63

 

70-75

 

76-81

 

82-87

 

88-93

 

94-99

 

100-105

 

106-111

 

112-117

 

118-123

 

124-129

 

130-135

 

136-141

 

142-147

 

148-153

 

154-159

 

160-165

 

166-171

 

172-177

 

178-183

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NAME:

NUMBER:

BIRTHDATE:

68

APPENDIX C

DATA FROM REGRESSION PROCEDURES
THAT FORCED EACH GROWTH VARIABLE

INTO THE PREDICTIVE EQUATION FIRST

 

 

Ho. a «a
no. a 2

 

 

 

 

69

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, M., Hwang, S. C., & Green, W. T. Growth of the normal trunk
in boys and girls during the second decade of life related to age,
maturity and ossification of the iliac epiphyses. Journal of Bone
and Joint Surgery, 1965, 14A, 1554-1564.

 

Barker, R. G., & Stone, L. P. Physical development in relation to
menarcheal age in university women. Human Biology, 1936, 8, 198-
222.

 

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