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I“ .‘ b - ‘ ' I- A-“ l 4-. . v' c- . 0., — a .... H‘ 1.. ".173“ £941" 3453.1 211.. - . 11115.1..1 1““- 11’1“ ‘.. ‘ 111111.11r 3;...1111. 1. _. “ "'1 111.1 “ 111111 1.11. II II III III III III III II III III II IIIII II IIIIII ' L m x A R r Michigan State University rHE‘fB This is to certify that the thesis entitled EVALUATION OF NORTHERN PINE PLANTATIONS AS DISPOSAL SITES FOR MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE presented by 'L ’ I. a Dale Gordon Brockway has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Forestry degree in Major professor Date—4’72]; A9”) /977 07639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. T' :7 ‘w' I muI’I‘wdu I a I‘ EVALUATION OF NORTHERN PINE PLANTATIONS AS DISPOSAL SITES FOR MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE By Dale Gordon Brockway A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Departmem of Forestry 1979. am ""7“.“ "x , . pidLI (figural I ,. . A I _A . T . -292: --~ ‘ 3—3 “l L f". It? ABSTRACT EVALUATION OF NORTHERN PINE PLANTATIONS AS DISPOSAL SITES FOR MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SLUDGE By Dale Gordon Brockway The effect of sewage sludge applications in thinned pine plantations was examined for changes in forest litter, soil, water quality and vegetation growth. Nutrient status of understory and trees was also determined on four coarse textured outwash soils in northern Michigan. Industrial sludge from a paper mill was applied in a 40— year-old red pine (Ejnu§_resinosa Ait.) plantation in June of l976 at rates of 2.0, 4.0, 7.9 and 15.7 tonne/ha (dry weight). The sludge rates were equivalent to total nitrogen applications of 140, 278, 549 and 1,091 kg/ha, respectively. Municipal sludge, high in cadmium, was applied to a 36-year-old red pine and white pine (Pinus strobus L.) plantation in July of l976 at rates of 5.4, 9.7 and l9.3 tonne/ha (dry weight), equivalent to total nitrogen applications of 323, 578 and 1,156 kg/ha, respectively. Litter nutrient levels were significantly increased on both sites following sludge application. The addition of nitrogen to the litter precipitated a structural change wherein a second and third zone of fermentation could be discerned along the margins of the sludge layer in the litter profile. Forest litter pH significantly increased with V Dale Gordon Brockway treatment. Carbon to nitrogen ratios were narrowed to ratios as low as 24:l. No appreciable increase in the rate of litter decomposition was observed on either site over a two-year period. Increases in nutrient transfer from the litter layer to the underlying soil were limited to soluble forms of major nutrients: N0 -N, NH -N, P and K. Increases in the levels of these nutrients 3 4 occurred primarily in the 0-5 cm soil layer; however, increases in soil N03-N down to 30 cm were observed under the industrial sludge treatments. Organic-N, the largest N fraction in the sludges, was largely retained in the litter layer as were zinc, cadmium and the remaining elements. The quality of water moving from the treated plots was monitored using wells inserted into the surface of the water table aquifer and porous cup suction lysimeters. During l976 all measured chemical elements remained below 0.l ppm. Following snow melt in l977, nitrate levels exceeded the 10 ppm potable water standard under plots receiving the highest sludge treatment rates. Maximum sludge dosage rates which would not exceed established water quality standards were computed to be l9.l tonne/ha (l,l44 kg N/ha) for the municipal sludge tests and 9.5 tonne/ha (660 kg N/ha) for the industrial sludge tests. Understory plants on the industrial sludge treatment site assimilated as much as 128% total N and 370% total P more than controls. Above-ground biomass of the understory increased by as much as 92% over controls. Understory plants on the municipal sludge test site assim- ilated as much as 144% total N and l88% total P more than controls. Above-ground biomass production increased by as much as 132% over Dale Gordon Brockway controls. Cadmium concentrations in understory vegetation increased to a maximum of 22.7 ppm on the site receiving municipal sludge, presenting a possible food chain build—up problem in the ecosystem. Foliar nitrogen concentrations increased in sludge fertilized pine trees. Significant increases in needle length and dry weight were also evident. There was little evidence on either site that roots of overstory trees had begun to develop in the enriched litter nutrient reservoir. The sludge treated pine trees showed evidence of expanding the photosynthetic production base as a prelude to future volume growth responses. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr. Dean Urie and Dr. Donald White for their excellent guidance and wise counsel throughout the coarse of this investigation. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. James Hart, Jr., Dr. Bernard Knezek and Dr. Melvin Koelling. Substantial acknowledgments are due to John Cooley, Ray Harris, Bill Dunn, Bruce Birr, Julie Patterson, Karen Hoag, Rick Watson, John Marshall, Al Lewis and Fonda Noaker for their invaluable assistance during the field and laboratory phases of this study. This project was funded by the U.S. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. The author is grateful to this agency for its financial support. A very special thanks is extended to Dean Urie for his encouragement, understanding, assistance and friendship throughout all phases of this study. Finally, special thanks is due Ms. Grace Rutherford for her excellent assistance in manuscript preparation. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .......................... v LIST OF FIGURES ........... . . . . .......... ix VITA ............................... xii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ....................... 1 Background ....................... 1 Study Objectives .................... 6 II. LITERATURE REVIEW .................... 7 Historical Perspective ................. 7 Sludge Composition . . . ................ 10 Important Nutrients ........ . ......... ll Potentially Hazardous Elements ............. l4 Pathogens and Pesticides ............... . l8 Water Quality Implications ............... l9 Soil and Vegetation Considerations ........... 20 III. STUDY SITES ........ . .............. 26 Geography ............... . . . ..... 26 Geology ........ . ............... 26 Soils and Hydrology ....... . ...... . . . . 29 Udell ........... . . .......... 29 Pine River . ..... . ..... . . . . . . . . . 34 Present Vegetation ............... . . . . 37 Climate ...... . . . . . ....... . ..... 43 Study Design ....... . ....... . ...... 43 Udell . . .......... . . . . . ...... 43 N Pine River . . . .................. 44 Iv. MATERIALS AND METHODS . ........ . ....... . 49 Sludge Treatment . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . 49 Weather Data . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 52 :4 I in II, I Chapter Water Quality Analysis ................. Soil Evaluation .................... Forest Floor and Understory .............. Slash ......................... Overstory ....................... V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................. Sludge Treatment .................... Sludge Composition ................. Nutrient Loading .................. Forest Litter and Logging Slash ............ Litter pH ..................... Nutrient Enrichment ................ Physical Changes .................. Slash ....................... Soil .......................... Soil Chemistry ................... Soil Physical Properties .............. Water Quality ..................... Groundwater Recharge ................ Nitrate ...................... Zinc ........................ Sludge Dosage and Water Quality .......... Understory Vegetation ................. Nutrient Concentrations .............. Plant Growth .................... Overstory Trees .................... Nutrient Status .................. Growth Responses .................. Comparison of Site Dynamics .............. VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............... Summary ........................ Recommendations .................... APPENDIX ............................. LITERATURE CITED ......................... L-v-vv 15-1. Table 13. 14. 15. LIST OF TABLES Mean elemental concentrations in industrial and municipal sludges, l976 ................. Nutrient loading by industrial sludge application on the Udell study site ................. Nutrient loading by municipal sludge application on the Pine River study site .............. Litter pH changes resulting from sludge treatment . . . . Specific conductivity of litter, l977 .......... Litter nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the Udell site ..................... Litter nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the Pine River site ................... Litter zinc and cadmium concentrations on the Pine River site ....................... Litter dry weights and carbon to nitrogen ratios, 1976 and 1977 ...................... Slash nutrient concentrations and nutrient loads . . . . Soil nitrogen concentrations, 0-5 cm depth ....... Soil specific conductivity, base saturation and cation exchange capacity, 0-5 cm depth ............. Soil pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio, 0-5 cm depth Soil phosphorus concentrations, 0-5 cm depth ...... Soil zinc and cadmium concentrations, 0-5 cm depth Soil nitrate and ammonia in lower soil layers on the Udell site ....................... Page 70 72 74 76 77 78 79 81 83 89 91 93 94 96 97 98 INIIII. Table 17. 18. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Soil nitrate and ammonia in lower soil layer on the Pine River site ..................... Calculation of groundwater recharge on the Udell study site according to Thornthwaite's water budget method Calculation of groundwater recharge on the Pine River study Site according to Thornthwaite's water budget method ......................... Soil water nitrate concentrations and nitrate escape from the rooting zone estimation for the Pine River site under red pine (r) and white pine (w) ....... Soil water zinc concentrations and zinc escape from the rooting zone estimation for the Pine River site under red pine (r) and white pine (w) .......... Understory nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations . . . . Understory cadmium and copper concentrations ...... Understory above-ground biomass ............. Overstory needle nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and ratios ....................... Overstory needle potassium concentrations ........ Overstory needle boron concentrations .......... Overstory fasicle dry weight and needle length, 1977 Radial growth in overstory pines ............ Udell site species list of vascular plants ....... Pine River Site species list of vascular plants ..... Litter nutrient concentrations on the Udell site Red pine litter nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site ..................... White pine litter nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site ..................... vi Page 99 102 103 110 113 123 125 128 133 135 137 139 144 158 159 160 161 162 Table 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. Soil nutrient concentrations on the Udell site, 0-5 cm depth ....................... Soil nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under red pine, 0-5 cm depth ............... Soil nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under white pine, 0-5 cm depth .............. Soil TKN and total P on the Udell site .......... Soil K and Na on the Udell site .............. Soil Ca and Mg on the Udell site ............. Soil Fe and Mn on the Udell site ............. Soil Zn and Cu on the Udell site ............. Soil Cd and Pb on the Udell site ............. Soil Cr and Ni on the Udell site ............. Soil pH and specific conductivity on the Udell site . . . . Soil exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity on the Udell site ..................... Soil base saturation and organic matter on the Udell site ........................ Soil TKN and total P on the Pine River site ........ Soil K and Na on the Pine River site ........... Soil Ca and Mg on the Pine River site ........... Soil Fe and Mn on the Pine River site ........... Soil Zn and Cu on the Pine River site ........... Soil Cd and Pb on the Pine River site ........... Soil Cr and Ni on the Pine River site ........... Soil pH and specific conductivity on the Pine River site ........................... vii Page 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 Table 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. Soil exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity on the Pine River site ................... Soil base saturation and organic matter on the Pine River site ....................... Soil bulk density .................... Soil moisture ...................... Understory nutrient concentrations on the Udell site Understory nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under red pine ................... Understory nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under white pine .................. Nutrient concentrations in red pine needles on the Udell site ....................... Nutrient concentrations in red pine needles on the Pine River site ..................... Nutrient concentrations in white pine needles on the Pine River site ................... Height growth of overstory trees prior to and following treatment ................... Growth parameters for overstory trees .......... Linear regression equations correlating physical parameters with sludge treatment rates ......... viii Page 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 2 w ,FW—f—‘fi_g fa WW p—v——,f Figure l. 2. LIST OF FIGURES Sludge production during biological sewage treatment . . . Udell Experimental Forest and Pine River Experimental Forest ......................... Soil horizon description for the typifying pedon of the Rubicon series ................... Soil horizon description for the typifying pedon of the Croswell series .................. Soil horizon description for the typifying pedon of the Grayling series .................. Soil horizon description for the typifying pedon of the Menominee series .................. Red pine plantation on Udell Experimental Forest . . . . White pine on Pine River Experimental Forest plantation ....................... Study plots in a 40—year-old red pine plantation on the Udell Experimental Forest ............ Study plots in a 36-year-old red pine and white pine plantation on the Pine River Experimental Forest ......................... All-terrain tanker sludge application on Udell site Portable pipeline and fire hose sprayer sludge application on Pine River site ............. Groundwater sampling from galvanized steel well . . . . Soil percolate sampling from ceramic cup suction lysimeter ....................... Undisturbed soil core sampler ............. ix Page 28 31 33 36 39 42 42 46 48 51 51 56 56 59 Figure 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Undisturbed soil cores: 0-5 cm and 5-10 cm ...... Understory plant collection within a l m2 sampling square ......................... Forest floor sampling within a 0.25 m2 collection area .......................... Collecting branch samples from the upper crown of codominant trees .................... Sludge induced zones of fermentation in pine litter Logging slash on study plots .............. Nitrate concentrations in the groundwater on the Udell study site .................... Nitrate concentrations in the soil water on the Pine River study site ................. Zinc concentrations in the soil water on the Pine River study site .................... Estimation of the maximum sludge application rates allowable upon the Udell and Pine River sites which will also meet nitrate standards for groundwater . . . . Pteridium understory .................. Vaccinium understory .................. gargx understory .................... Mixed understory including Vaccinium, Pteridium, Gaultheria and grasses ................. Lush late season growth of bracken fern on plot receiving highest sludge treatment rate ........ Average red pine needle length on the Udell site . . . . Average red pine needle length on the Pine River Site Average white pine needle length on Pine River site Page 59 62 62 67 86 88 106 108 112 116 120 120 122 122 131 141 143 143 "TF‘I‘Vy—' . v.:'~. . . w w: - {w I Au. Udell site dynamics following industrial sludge 1h . application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 .I, 35. Pine River site dynamics following municipal sludge application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 ’Mflunr THC'H‘I ICh'I’MI- 9.1V. Imu' fl I|I3('(~1-4-\II-:éimi ‘99 I ”W M” IIfIIajIl-I.I£“': .. VITA DALE GORDON BROCKNAY Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy FINAL EXAMINATION: April 24, 1979 GUIDANCE COMMITTEE Dr. James Hart, Jr. (Chairman), Department of Forestry Dr. Donald White, Department of Forestry Dr. Bernard Knezek, Department of Crop and Soil Science Dr. Dean Urie, U.S. Forest Service DISSERTATION: Evaluation of Northern Pine Plantations as Disposal Sites for Municipal and Industrial Sludge BIOGRAPHICAL ITEM: Born: April 4, 1951, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. EDUCATION: Delta College, A.S., 1971. Michigan State University, 8.5., 1973. Michigan State University, M.S., 1975. PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: July 1978-March 1979; July l976-December 1976 Research Forester, U.S. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, East Lansing, Michigan. September 1976-June 1978; September 1974-June 1976 Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Forestry, Michigan State University. April 1974-September 1974 Research Technician, Department of Forestry Michigan State University. ORGANIZATIONS: Society of American Foresters Soil Science Society of America Xi Sigma Pi I N, fi“ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background Production of wastes is an intrinsic function of all living things. The ability of a population to adequately deal with its produced wastes can, to a large degree, determine its continued success in the ecosystem. Civilizations have suffered greatly from disease spawned in improperly treated human and domestic animal waste. Recent decades have witnessed a progressive degradation of surface water resources as inadequately treated industrial and municipal wastes have been wantonly discharged into rivers and lakes. In the United States 90.5 billion liters (24 billion gallons) of domestic sewage was discharged in 1975 (Freshman 1977). Although the pathogen hazard present in this waste has been largely abated as a result of advances in biology and chemistry, waste discharge of this magnitude represented a significant nutrient loss, 733 million kg of nitrogen, 674 million kg of phosphorus and 428 million kg of potassium or 9%, 16% and 11%, respectively, of the national fertilizer consumption of these elements. The value of these discharged nutrients amounted to 561 million dollars. Primary, secondary and tertiary stages of waste treatment have reduced the nutrient levels in discharged effluents. During the primary and secondary stages of this biological sewage treatment, however, solid materials are concentrated into a nutrient rich sludge (Peterson et al. 1973), 1 dry tonne of sludge per 4.2 million liters of sewage, which, in itself, constitutes a significant disposal problem (Figure l). Sludge incineration and landfills pose substantial environmental or economic limitations when compared to the alternative of land spreading (Forester et al. 1977). Many recent research efforts have, therefore, focused upon land application of sludges. Land spreading is being investigated not only as a way of abating the environmental pollution hazard posed by sludge but also as a method of fertilizing systems under intensive crop management. Of the two cultural systems available for sludge land spreading, agricultural lands impose a more stringent set of appli— cation constraints than do forest lands. Sludges often present a heavy metal hazard which can limit their use in the production of food crops (Urie 1971). Chaney (1973) cites the following maximum metal limits for sludges used on food crops: 2,000 ppm Zn, 800 ppm Cu, 100 ppm Ni, Cd 0.5% of Zn, 100 ppm B, 1,000 ppm Pb and 15 ppm Hg. 0f the above elements some present a phytotoxic potential, i.e., Zn, while others. such as Cd, have been implicated in deterioration of animal tissues, notably in Itai-itai disease. Food crop production using certain sewage sludges constitutes then an economic risk to the grower and a health risk to the consumer unless precautionary measures are taken. Lands engaged in the production of forest crops present a set of environmental conditions which make them favorable sites for disposal 6 .Liill .m'm ‘ .i. bus (15503. ‘ timlfilfl 5M6 mhukwsqmmm ‘. 9m shall-.3 Mn w; it _..3. u '3‘}on _ Figure l. Sludge production during biological sewage treatment.1 1R. B. Dean and J. E. Smith. 1973. The properties of sludge. In: Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents on Land. Ed. by D. R. Wright, R. Kleis and C. Carlson. Nat. Assoc. State Univ. and Land-Grant Colleges, Washington, D.C., p. 40. Egan. Boucooom anew 3.390 @ All .8890 ©1--- moo @liz .3 .1]. raccooom O O O .223 o O rllve EDGE 3033 3am of sewage sludge. Forestlands are generally more remote than are agricultural lands, with recreation uses generally of a dispersed nature which would minimize the opportunity of human contact with unpleasant odors and pathogens present in freshly applied sludge. Forest crops are generally non-edible, i.e., wood products, thereby diminishing the risk of human exposure to elements hazardous in the food chain. The harvest of tree boles offers a means of partially removing the sludge-supplied elements from the treated forest site. Nutrient uptake by trees under intensive culture may indeed be the best wildland management alternative that will help the United States proceed toward “zero discharge" of wastes into surface waters by offering long—term nutrient retention (Urie 1975). Forestlands do, however, present some problems with respect to the practice of sludge spreading. Prevailing public attitudes conceptualize the forest ecosystem as pristine and regard environmental changes resulting from waste treatment as an unnatural disturbance (Smith and Evans 1977). Dense forest stands present the greatest degree of obstruction to equipment commonly used in sludge spreading, i.e., tank trucks, while clearcuts, available once in a rotation, present the least obstruction, with thinned stands affording adequate access for continued stand treatment throughout the rotation. Site disturbance resulting from needed road construction must be curtailed. Surface runoff is a problem on steeper sites while groundwater nitrate enrichment poses a potential threat on others. Alteration of wildlife populations may occur as exotic plant seeds are delivered to the site, native forage become locally scarce or forage nutrition changes. The hazard of food chain transmission of potentially lethal elements to wildlife populations cannot be overlooked. Study Objectives The primary objective of this study was to determine the sewage sludge loading rates which can be utilized in pine plantations growing on coarse textured outwash sands without impairing groundwater quality or the integrity of the forest ecosystem. In meeting this goal two study sites near Nellston, Michigan were examined, the first a red pine plantation on the Udell Experimental Forest and the second a red pine and white pine plantation on the Pine River Experimental Forest. At each site soil percolate and groundwater quality were monitored, changes in soil nutrient levels and surface soil physical properties were measured, nutrient enrichment and physical changes in the forest litter layer were determined and nutrient uptake and growth of under- story and overstory plants were evaluated. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Historical Perspective Traditional approaches to disposal of sewage have primarily relied upon dilution via discharge into available surface water resources. Since the onset of the industrial revolution, growing populations have, to a great extent, compounded the degree of water quality degradation. The Rivers Pollution Prevention Act of 1876 was enacted in Britain, representing the earliest attempt by western man to diminish pollution of surface waters while, at the same time, spawning the practice of sewage farming (Haith and Chapman 1977). Section 13 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 represented the first attempt in the United States to prohibit the discharge of refuse into navigable waters (Sullivan 1973). This law, however, suffered from lack of enforcement until the mid-twentieth century. The Water Pollution Act of 1948 gave states the primary enforcement responsibility in water pollution cases with assistance to be pro- vided by the federal government. However, this law lacked substance until the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956 which authorized large scale grants to assist states in planning and building sewage treatment facilities. Public awareness of the national environmental crisis culminated in the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 which sought to eliminate the practice of sludge dumping in ocean waters off the east coast (Sullivan 1973) and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1974 (PL 92-500) which attempted to focus attention on the need to develop waste management techniques which are cost-effective and environmentally sound (Morris and Jewell 1977). Land application of waste effluents and sludges was cited as a major alternative in eliminating pollutant discharge into navigable waters by 1985. While section 301 of PL 92-500 specified all sewage must receive secondary stage treatment, increasing the national pro- duction of sludge, sections 402 and 403 authorized ocean dumping of sludge only by permit issued in the public interest. As a result, land treatment of sludges has received increased interest. 0f the sludge treatment alternatives currently available, incineration and landfills pose formidable problems when compared to land spreading. Incineration requires currently expensive fossil fuels and poses an air pollution hazard. Landfills also require high cost fuels during dewatering, constitute a waste of valuable nutrients and pose a potential groundwater pollution threat. Although not without its problems, land spreading presently appears to offer the greatest potential for water pollution abatement and use of the valuable nutrient resource contained in sewage sludge. Estimates by Sommers (1977) based on national sludge production concluded that less than 1% of the agricultural land in the United States would be required for application of sewage sludge at a fertilization rate of 100 kg N/ha/yr. Although agriculture possesses the land base to process domestic sludge production, the use of wild- lands, more specifically forestlands, offers several significant advantages by comparison. Heavy metal accumulations in croplands, which could present a genuine hazard in terms of food chain trans- mission to human consumers, are far less troublesome in forestlands where products are generally non-edible in nature (Smith and Evans 1977). The longer rotations of forests can immobilize and redistribute a tremendous amount of applied nutrients for as long as 50 years or more while shorter cropland rotations cannot provide this storage and redistribution function. Forest sites offer remoteness and lower population densities thereby diminishing the risk of human contact with pathogens present in sludges and the degradation of environmental aesthetics near population centers. Surface application of sludges on forest sites allows for volitalization loss of ammonia, an aid in curtailing soil percolate nitrate levels, while sludge incorporation into a mixed plow layer thwarts this process. Many forest soils are deep, porous and well drained, with an abundance of animal and root channels offering optimal infiltration and negligible overland flow. These soils often contain high aluminum levels which allow the fixation of large amounts of phosphorus and a surface organic matter layer which can capture significant amounts of other nutrients. Agricultural soils often develop traffic pans which impede percolation and lack a surface layer of organic matter. Forests offer a more highly diverse and 10 stable ecosystem than do cropland monocultures which remain highly vulnerable to environmental perturbation. Forestland offers the largest single land type area in the United States, 305.3 million ha or 33.2% of all lands, available for sewage sludge disposal, excluding the Great Plains and the Southwest. Limited use for this purpose is currently a result of the absence of workable delivery systems and uncertainty regarding appropriate sludge dosage rates. In France, authorities were hesitant to apply waste sludges to forestlands (Rieben 1976). Although wastes enjoyed limited use in agriculture, high costs of transportation to sites low in productivity, uncertainty as to impact on environmental homeostasis and public objections to the practice were among the reasons cited. Evers (1977) reported, however, that a working group has recently issued guidelines for utilization of urban wastes in German forests. Although they have no legal status, they are expected to aid land managers in sludge application decisions. Hungarian officials have already established forest land spreading as the most feasible method of sewage purification and utilization (Tihanyi 1975). Sludge Composition Prior to the advent of synthetic fertilizer manufacture, organic wastes, in spite of their long standing undefined chemical nature, were considered of great value to agriculture. As national interest now returns to utilization of organic wastes as fertilizers, analytical advances have allowed an improved chemical definition of the sewage media under consideration. €Q—. 11 Sewage sludges are commonly nutrient-rich liquids containing an average of 5% solids (Kardos et a1. 1977). Typical paper mill sludges will vary widely in their composition, many having a carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) as high as 150:1 as a result of a high cellulose fiber content. Total nitrogen content in domestic sludges may range from 1% to 15% by dry weight but is more commonly 3% to 6%, 40% to 75% of this being present as organic nitrogen. Phosphorus content is typically between 1% and 4% by dry weight while that of potassium ranges from 0.2% to 1.0%. Municipal sludges derived from industrialized urban centers usually contain concentrations of zinc, copper, cadmium, lead and mercury in excess of those present in soils. Pesticides are often also present in sludges as are the ubiquitous pathogenic microorganisms (McCalla et a1. 1977). Important Nutrients The primary goal of sludge land spreading is to dispose of the contained nutrient load in a manner such that the ecosystem components can immobilize and assimilate the elements applied thus avoiding contamination of groundwater, impairment of biological production and long—term degradation of environmental aesthetics. One of the foremost hazards is contamination of groundwater with nitrate-nitrogen. Prober et a1. (1973) have presented the detailed standards for water quality established by the U.S. Public Health Service and report that current nitrate levels for potable water should not exceed 10 ppm. Although forest watersheds are sources of high quality water, fertili- zation can lead to quality degradation (Sopper 1975). Added nitrogen 12 can generally be internalized by forest ecosystems but nitrate levels can exceed 10 ppm when dosage rates exceed 300 to 400 kg N/ha as has been reported by Kreutzer and Weiger (1974) under Scotch pine and Norway spruce and 0tchere—Boateng and Ballard (1978) when urea was applied to coarse textured soils low in organic matter. Digested sludge applied to conifers in Germany at greater than 300 kg N/ha ' resulted in soil percolate with peak nitrate concentration as high as 160 ppm, suggesting the possibility of groundwater pollution (Huser 1977). Despite these findings, numerous other researchers contend that high nitrogen dosage rates not necessarily need always lead to soil percolate nitrate enrichment. Cole et a1. (1975) found no substantial nitrate leaching under second growth Douglas-fir growing on a gravelly, sandy loam outwash when fertilized with 448 kg N/ha as urea. Tamm (1975) reported similar results when ammonium nitrate and urea were applied to a site recently clearcut. Nitrogen applied in sewage sludge at a rate of 300 kg/ha to a hardwood forest growing on acidic, loamy soil in Germany resulted in no significant soil perco- late nitrate enrichment (Keller and Beda-Puta 1976). Johnson and Urie (1976) maintained percolate nitrate levels below 10 ppm by adjusting their application rate of raw recreation campground vault wastes to 116 kg N/ha. Except for the study of Perkins et a1. (1975) where elevated nitrate levels in Heavenly Valley Creek were traced directly to discharges from a secondary sewage effluent treatment project under subalpine fir in the Tahoe basin watershed, almost no direct evidence 13 exists which demonstrates that soil percolate nitrate levels exceeding the 10 ppm USPHS limit in fact cause significant degradation of ground- water or surface water quality beyond the immediate locality. Nitrate groundwater pollution nonetheless continues to be of major concern, a fact which has focused attention upon the various steps of nitrogen transformation. Encouraging ammonia volitalization can be an important tool in abating soil water nitrate pollution as nitrate precursor levels are decreased (Urie et a1. 1978). King (1973) has determined that as much as 36% of the total nitrogen in a surface applied sludge can escape to the atmosphere, this primarily as ammonia gas, while as little as 16% of the total nitrogen escapes as gas from sludge incorporated into the surface soil. Madandrappa (1975) reported an average of 7 days to volatilize as little as 3.75% of the total nitrogen applied as urea while Beauchamp et a1. (1978) have estimated the half life of volatile ammonia for sludge applied in the field to range from 3.6 to 5.0 days. Terry (1976) concluded that conditions favoring volatilization of ammonia in sludges include rapid drying of the sludge, application to soils low in clay and soil pH values near 7.5. Increasing soil pH to 6 and soil nitrate levels to 100 ppm will stimulate the activity of nitrate reductase present in forest soils and thereby lead to the ultimate volatilization of N20 and N2 as gases (Theobald and Smith 1974). This denitrification process, however, is of low activity in acidic soils. High carbon to nitrogen ratios will stimulate denitrification resulting in significant loss as nitrate is reduced to N20 and N2 gases (Epstein et a1. 1978). At a carbon to nitrogen ratio of greater than 27:1 very little nitrate is produced (Heilman 1974). In sludges of high cadmium, zinc and lead content, Wilson (1977) reported a depressed nitrification rate following land application. Temperatures below 5°C restricted nitri- fication while Harris (1976) reported an absence of nitrate production in freezing weather. Despite this lack of production, nitrate has been detected percolating through sandy soils during the winter season. Phosphorus, primarily as ortho-phosphate, is a major concern as a key nutrient in pollution of surface water resources. Forest soils often can adsorb large amounts of phosphorus (Powers et a1. 1975) particularly those low in pH and high in iron and aluminum (Ballard and Fiskell 1974). Phosphorus present in sludge presents no real water pollution hazard when applied to soil in that it is removed and held tenaciously by rapid sorption, slow mineralization and insolubilization, plant uptake or microbiological immobilization (Tofflemire and Chen 1977). Humphreys and Pritchett (1971) have confirmed that little if any phosphorus leaching occurs in forest soils. Potentially Hazardous Elements Trace elements present in sewage sludge may benefit plant production by supplying needed micronutrients to forest species. Certain trace elements, however, represent a threat to plants and animals. Allaway (1977) noted two opposing view points regarding the heavy metal hazard in sewage sludges. The first contends that concentration of undesirable elements in productive soils constitutes unnecessary pollution even if the residues are not assimilated by plants. The opposing view believes that accumulation of potentially toxic elements can be allowed in productive soils up to the point of creating a problem. Forestland sludge spreading management is not compatible with the former viewpoint, but must, instead, attempt to avoid the point of ecosystem poisoning alluded to in the latter viewpoint. Trace elements commonly found in sewage sludge include cadmium, zinc, copper, boron, lead, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, iron and manganese. Of these, the greatest hazard is that presented by cadmium, an element implicated in both plant and animal disturbances. Generally, soluble cadmium represents a greater health risk than that of organic cadmium in plant tissue (Allaway l977). Potable water levels should not exceed the 10 ppb cadmium limit set by the USPHS. Although Sidle and Kardos (l977c) have shown cadmium to be less readily leached from land spread sludge than zinc, Baker et a1. (1977) reported cadmium hydroxide to be one hundred times more soluble than zinc hydroxide and thus more biologically active. Precipitation of cadmium carbonate occurs in sandy soils at pH greater than 7 (Street et a1. 1977); however, under more acidic soil conditions the very mobile divalent cation is dominant. Soil cadmium levels exceeding 0.1 ppm have been 16 shown to reduce crop yields by causing damage to root tissue (Turner 1973). Various plants show different abilities to accumulate cadmium in their tissues. Page et a1. (1972) have noted, however, that foliar cadmium levels are proportional to soil solution cadmium concentrations. It was reported that 0.1 ppm cadmium in soil solution can lead to foliar cadmium levels as high as 9 to 90 ppm. Cadmium levels below 1 ppm in items consumed by man and animals are known to be toxic (Baker et a1. 1977). In Japan the Ministry of Health Standards has established a maximum limit of 0.4 ppm cadmium for unhulled rice used for human consumption (Jones et a1. 1975). This action followed the discovery of the local occurrence of Itai-itai disease, a painful degenerative illness occurring as a result of cadmium accumulation in the kidneys and coincident bone deterioration (Allaway 1977). Cadmium concentrates in foliage rather than seeds and fruits (Allaway 1977), a fact which accounts for the low levels of cadmium found in ring-necked pheasants fed corn grain grown with a cadmium-enriched sludge (Melsted et a1. 1977). Cadmium accumulated only in the pheasant duodenum, kidney and liver, tissue generally not consumed by humans but largely consumed by other predators of this species. Cadmium food chain transfer remains, nonetheless, a major concern with grazing and browse-consuming herbivores. Zinc has been implicated in depressed crop yields by King and Morris (1972). Like cadmium, zinc is very mobile in its divalent ionic form and easily leached from land applied sludge (Laggerwerff et a1. 1976). Zinc applied in sludge remains available to plants over many years (Chaney et a1. 1977) and has been implicated in plant toxicities at levels greater than 500 ppm in foliage (Allaway 1977). Because zinc deficiencies are widespread, however, in plants and animals, it is hoped that zinc present in sludges can supplement food crop levels. Current potable water standards allow 5 ppm for zinc (Prober et a1. 1973). Cdpper is less easily leached from sludge than are cadmium and zinc and readily converts to amphoteric copper with its continued stability dependent on acidity (Laggerwerff et a1. 1976). Although it has been implicated in plant toxicities on organic soils, copper is readily adsorbed in the upper 15 cm of mineral forest soils (Sidle and Kardos 1977a and b). This process generally results in high qual- ity water yield meeting the 12 ppb copper limit and little threat of copper toxicities to plants or animals. Stone and Baird (1956), Neary (1974) and Minroe (1975) have demonstrated the sensitivity of pines to excessive boron applications. Boron toxicity is generally confined to sewage effluent irrigation where large quantities of soluble boron compounds are concentrated in needle tips as a by-product of transpiration (Allaway l977). Boron is generally present in sludges at non-toxic levels. The remaining trace elements listed are not considered hazardous when applied in waste sludges. Lead applied to soil forms a relatively insoluble carbonate which dissociates only under extremely acidic conditions. Chromium once introduced into soil oxidizes to the trivalent state and precipitates as an insoluble hydroxide which can l8 dissociate only at very low pH. Nickel is adsorbed tenaciously on soil exchange sites and molybdenum forms a very insoluble ferro- molybdate compound (Lindsay 1973). Iron has not been demonstrated to be toxic. Manganese, while mobile under reducing conditions in its divalent form, is naturally abundant and not toxic in forest systems. Pratt et a1. (1977) have suggested that sludge mining for trace elements or decreasing sludge dosage rates where required may help diminish future toxicity hazards encountered in land spreading of sludges. Pathogens and Pesticides Menzies (1977) included Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella and Escherichia £911 bacteria, Entamoeba histolytica protozoa, Ascaris lumbricoides nematode ova and various viruses among the pathogenic agents commonly present in sewage sludges. Pathogens can survive in soils treated with sludge; however, survival rates are dependent upon soil moisture, formation of spores, temperature, inci- dent sunlight and presence of'chemically and biologically antagonistic agents (Morrison and Martin 1977). Drying and solar radiation appear to induce the greatest mortality among sludge borne pathogens, while soil particles are often effective in entrapping and immobilizing them. Menzies (1977) has pointed out that the standard practice of using E, £911 counts cannot be relied upon as an accurate index of pathogen survival in sludges applied to soil. Edmonds (1976) reported that few bacteria from an anaerobically digested, dewatered sludge applied to a clearcut forest site on gravelly glacial outwash penetrated greater than 5 cm of soil. The soil acted as an effective biological filter allowing only slight bacterial penetration to groundwater. Bacterial contamination from surface runoff in the first season following treatment appeared much more likely than contamination from bacteria percolating to groundwater. No pathogenic bacteria could be isolated from this soil 267 days after sludge application. The following precautions were advised for protection from the pathogen hazard present in sewage sludges: (1) adequate treatment of human wastes, (2) allow ample time for pathogen die—off following sludge application before opening land to human use, (3) limit rates of waste applications to a site to avoid pathogen population build up, (4) avoid areas near large populations when applying sludge to land, (5) maintain high levels of immunity and health care for animals and humans, and (6) use geologic and hydrologic knowledge to avoid con- tamination of water resources (Morrison and Martin 1977). Pesticides also represent a hazard in many sewage sludges. Although they are often very potently toxic compounds, McCalla et a1. (1977) suggested that organic matter and clay particles present in soil are effective inactivators of these materials. Water Quality Implications A major objective of sludge land spreading management is to insure the continued yield of high quality water, low in or devoid of any.hazardous material. Nitrate, zinc and cadmium exceeding 10 ppm, 5 ppm and 10 ppb, respectively, are unacceptable in water flowing from 20 sludge treated watersheds. Runoff contaminated with pathogens and pesticide residues is equally unacceptable. Managers must not only guard against off-site contamination but should also insure on-site environmental integrity. Nitrate enrichment of soil water may be minimized by encouraging denitrifi- cation on treated sites. Maintaining soil pH near neutral levels will ensure minimal problems with trace elements (Urie 1975). Continuous monitoring of free soil water and the unconfined aquifer provide data relevant to meeting these goals. Soil and Vegetation Considerations Barring disturbance, the nutrients in a forest are cycled to meet the needs of the stand components. Nutrient cycling is facil- itated by litter decomposition, a process that (1) produces a humus layer which improves site fertility and soil moisture relations and (2) slowly releases nutrients which are readily available for plant assimilation. Excessive buildup of organic matter on the forest floor, as occurs during stand thinning, can, however, adversely effect the chemical balance of this decomposition process by temporarily upsetting the litter carbon to nitrogen ratio (R. E. Miller et a1. 1976). Sludge distributed on the surface to forested sites is applied directly to the litter layer and surface soil. Nutrients applied in this manner have been shown to accelerate the decomposition rate of forest litter (Bramryd 1976). This phenomenon was ostensibly a result of narrowed carbon to nitrogen ratios (Turner 1977) which stimulated the metabolic activity of indigenous microbial saprophytes, ammonifiers 21 and nitrifiers (Shumakov et a1. 1974). Although fungi appear to be the dominant microorganism in forest soils and litters (Miller 1973), bacterial populations are primarily increased by nitrogen additions, resulting in accelerated litter decay rates (Kelly 1973). Forest soils are highly variable in nature and their suitability for processing sewage sludge depends on their microfloral and macrofaunal populations and their complement of organic matter and colloidal particles. Sludge organics underwent extensive decomposition once applied to soil. A major portion was converted to soluble inorgan— ics, the remainder becoming soil humus following substantial modifica— tion (Broadbent 1973). The primary effect of adding inorganic nitrogen to the soil was to stimulate further mineralization of organic nitrogen (Broadbent 1965). Stanford and Smith (1972) have estimated the "half- 1ife" mineralization rate for nitrogen in entisols, alfisols, aridisols, ultisols and mollisols to be approximately 12.8: 2.2 weeks. Ammonium produced during mineralization which did not undergo nitrification was reported to exchange for potassium on the exchange complex resulting in potassium leaching losses (Crane 1972). Nitrate, conversely, was very poorly held in soil and, as Koenig (1976) pointed out, was highly susceptible to leaching losses. Trace elements in sludge, as illus- trated in Germany by Moll et a1. (1977), were generally immobilized in the upper 10 cm of soil, even when applied to a dune sand low in organic matter and cation exchange capacity. The forest floor is the most biologically active interface of the soil system and, to a great degree, determines the composition 22 of solutions passing down through the soil below it (McColl 1973). Adding sludge nutrients to this interface was found to (1) increase soil moisture and aggregate stability, (2) initially increase hydraulic conductivity followed by a decrease resulting from soil pore clogging by the products of microbial decomposition and (3) increase soil carbon dioxide levels while decreasing soil oxygen, root growth and nutrient uptake (Epstein 1973). As C02 tension increases in soil, hydrogen ions from carbonic acid replace cations on soil particles resulting in leaching losses of valuable bases (McColl and Cole 1968). While many researchers have reported that nutrient additions to forest soils depress mycorrhizae levels, Berry and Marx (1977) indicated that sewage sludge application rates of 34 to 69 metric tons per hectare stimulated the formation of ectomycorrhizal assoc- ciations with and resultant growth increase among loblolly pine seedlings. Menge (1975) counted fewer mycorrhizal root tips on loblolly pine receiving 356 kg N/ha/yr than on controls. However, Berry and Marx (1976) demonstrated a dynamic interaction between dried sewage sludge and Pisolithus tinctorius which shows great promise for growing pines on eroded forest sites. The literature is replete with accounts of the many benefits derived by plant species from nutrient applications. Macy (1936) treated the concept of "critical nutrient percentage" in some detail, contending that a crucial minimum level exists for every nutrient in each plant species below which metabolic processes are impaired. In their extensive bibliography on forest fertilization research, White 23 and Leaf (1956) stated that forest plants have their critical nutrient requirements adjusted to low levels as an adaptation to low ambient soil fertility conditions, while agricultural plants have been selectively bred for higher yields, resulting in a greater nutrient demand. Pritchett (1977) has stated that forest site quality can improve through fertilizer application, thus enhancing plant growth and nutrient status. Numerous fertilizer benefits to growth are cited in the literature. While Mitchell and Kellogg (1970) found little volume increase in a 50-year-old Douglas-fir stand treated with less than 200 kg N/ha, Morrison et a1. (1976) reported an excellent growth response in 45 year old jack pine fertilized with nitrogen at rates up to 448 kg/ha. Twenty-year-old Douglas fir treated with nitrogen demonstrated increased basal area, stem height, branch length, needle length and width and number of needles per branch (Brix and Ebell 1969). Nitrogen fertilized balsam fir produced darker green needles, heavier terminal buds, greater number of buds and longer leaders, lateral shoots and needles (Timmer et a1. 1977). White et a1. (1971) reported that 392 kg diammonium phosphate/ha increased both fine root and total root biomass in slash pine 145% and 58%, respectively, whereas, Rawson (1972) found diameter increases exceeding 500% for radiata pine in New Zealand treated with superphosphate. Leaf et a1. (1975) reported increased leader and radial growth in red pine fertilized with potassium. 24 Improvement of foliar nutrition through fertilizer application is commonly noted. Wells (1970) and H. G. Miller et a1. (1976) in the United States and Hippeli (1976) and Franz and Bierstedt (19756) in Germany are among those who have improved foliar nitrogen status in pines with nitrogen fertilizer applications. Baker (1970) and Timmer and Stone (1978) have shown similar results in western hemlock and balsam fir, respectively. Weetman and Algar (1974) have determined that maximum basal area growth occurs in 40-year-old jack pine when foliar nitrogen is maintained near 1.7%. Bulgarian white pine is seen to improve its foliar phosphorous levels when phosphorous fertilizer is applied (Donov 1977) while red pine foliar potassium was found to increase 140% when supplied with potassium soil additions (Wittwer et a1. 1975). As with commercial fertilizers, sludge nutrient additions were seen to augment plant growth and improve plant nutrition (Smith and Evans 1977). Urie et a1. (1978) reported a doubling of vegetation production in rye growing in wildlife openings treated with 14.6 metric tons of sludge per hectare, this equivalent to 446 kg N/ha. Increased height and diameter growth of red pine in Pennsylvania was observed following sewage waste application (Sopper 1973). Nitrogen content of the herbaceous understory was reportedly increased 63% following treatment with raw sewage wastes (Johnson and Urie 1976) while crude protein content of grass treated with sludge increased 26% (King and Morris 1974). An important step in recycling the nutrients delivered to a site in sewage sludge is the harvesting of useful products and 25 the nutrients they contain. Kardos et a1. (1977) have reported nutrient harvests as high as 390 kg N, 62 kg P and 380 kg K/ha/yr from three cuttings of reed canarygrass on a site treated with sewage effluent. Additionally, the potential immobilization of elements in non-consumable woody plant parts exists. Urie (1971), however, cautions that tree bole removal at harvest cannot be looked upon as the total answer to immobilization of harmful elements, as a great proportion of any tree's assimilated nutrients are left on—site in the form of leaves and branches. Cooley (1978) has determined that har— vesting whole poplars during the dormant season removed 80% of the nitrogen accumulated during irrigation with sewage oxidation pond effluent, while harvesting only stems removed approximately 30%. CHAPTER III STUDY SITES Geography The sites examined in this study are located in the northern portion of the Manistee National Forest near Cadillac, Michigan. The first site is on the Udell Experimental Forest 7 km west of Wellston, Michigan and legally located in NEk, SE8, Section 18, Township 21 North, Range 14 West, in Manistee County (see Figure 2). The second site is on the Pine River Experimental Forest 13 km east of Wellston, Michigan and legally described as N3, SEk, Section 17, Township 21 North, Range 12 West, in Wexford County. Both sites lie in the Manistee-Grayling Plain physiographic region of Michigan's lower peninsula (Sommers [Ed.] 1977). Surface topography ranges from nearly level to gently rolling hills. Both sites lie in the watershed of the Manistee River which drains westward to its terminus at Lake Michigan's eastern shore. Geology Surface formations on both sites are dominated by a medium altitude outwash plain of stratified, coarse unconsolidated deposits. These materials are primarily sands and gravels which were deposited during the Port Huron substage of Valdern late Pleistocene 26 I I . v. . g~\. . If; 3 ‘ ~ . ‘g 5 , ., . .r'l. 's,‘ - ' mm a! 1 .FfiW-fi" ,. h . i.’ . . i , l - i ;“‘ .5 slur 1 ~ .| .I '5. .\ § E 1 p. 4- . -. z T. - o - \:‘* .‘h ‘ ._t r .. _ v . ~ l \‘ J r ‘ B J ~ I 1 inn-1%.. .me‘m‘. 1 9m was i‘aw‘ r .;::.15» Itoiél 2C?331£ Fn9m315613 319101 ,-»4 27 Figure 2. Udell Experimental Forest and Pine River Experimental Forest.1 lUdell Experimental Forest, Wellston, Michigan. Lake States Forest Experiment Station. Forest Service, U.S.D.A. 28 20.52531. 0413.040 / tioém w .1... pmmmoa ammo... 4S2mzauaxm 4..- 63 these pine plantations could be described as a mar humus dominated by a litter layer of pine needles, deciduous plant leaves, pine canes and fallen tree branches generally less than 7 mm in diameter, in various stages of decomposition, lying upon a clearly defined mineral soil surface. Following understory sampling, all forest litter down to mineral soil was collected within a 0.25 m2 area and stored in paper bags (Figure 18). Understory and litter samples were dried in a forced draft oven at 75°C for 24 hours, weighed and ground in a Wiley mill with a 20 mesh screen. Samples were combined into one composite sample per plot for each component and chemically analyzed at the Research Analytical Laboratory of the University of Minnesota at St. Paul. Total nitrogen on these tissue samples was determined by the semi- micro Kjeldahl method and P, K, Ca, Mg, A1, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, 8, Co, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni was measured using an inductively coupled plasma emission spectrophotometer (Applied Research Laboratories). Litter pH and specific conductivity was measured at the U.S. Forest Service Research Laboratory in East Lansing using, respectively, a glass electrode and a conductivity meter. Slash Following thinning operations on both sites in early 1976 trails of patterned slash were left upon the study plots. This slash consisted of tree branches, tops and needles, much of which became undiscernible from normal litter fall materials. Unless obviously 64 traceable to harvest activity, all plant residues under 7 mm diameter were considered forest litter. All materials larger than 7 mm in diameter were regarded as slash unless their state of decay indicated that they were present on the forest floor prior to thinning. A more complete perspective of the long-term nutrient availability on the two sites was anticipated through sampling the slash residues present upon the study plots. Slash sampling was conducted in September 1976 by two methods adopted from Howard and Ward (1972). Slash on the Udell site was oriented in a north-south manner. Four sample transects l m x 23 m were cut in an east—west orientation, perpendicular to the slash pattern, in control plots and all materials classified as slash were collected. Slash on the Pine River site was arranged in a somewhat less regular pattern depending on plot location. Four randomly oriented transects l m x 15 m were cut from plot center to plot perimeter, two in red pine and two in white pine control plots and all slash materials were collected. Sampled slash residues were weighed in the field and subsamples were collected, transported to the laboratory where they were oven dried at 75°C for 24 hours, weighed and ground in a Wiley mill with a 20 mesh screen. Chemical analysis was conducted as described above for litter and understory plant tissues. 65 Overstory Evaluation of diameter, height, needle growth and foliar nutrient status were undertaken to document overstory responses to treatment. Following the 1976 and 1977 growing season DBH measure— ments were recorded on five sample trees per Udell plot and Pine River red pine plot and on 10 trees per Pine River white pine plot using a diameter tape. As Wright et a1. (1972) have noted the lower genetic variability in the growth characteristics of red pine, a lower sampling intensity was used for this species than for white pine. Also following the 1977 growing season increment cores were taken at breast height on each of the same trees to assess the recent history of the stands' radial growth. During late August of 1976 and 1977, subsequent to bud set and needle maturation (Benzie 1977), branch samples were collected from the uppermost sunlit crown of the codominant trees (Leaf 1973), 5 trees per red pine plot and 10 trees per white pine plot, and placed into a composite plot sample paper bag (Figure 19). From these, shoot, fasicle and needle samples from the current year's production were obtained (Hall 1966). Shoots were weighed before drying to determine their fresh weight. All tissues were then oven dried at 75°C in a forced draft oven and weighed. Needle lengths were recorded on 15 needles per plot. A11 needle samples were then ground in a Wiley mill with a 20 mesh screen (White 1958) and chemically analyzed as previously described for litter and understory plant tissues. 66 Figure 19. Collecting branch samples from the upper crown of codominant trees. 67 68 In April of 1978, during the dormant season, 5 trees per Udell plot and 2 trees per Pine River plot (20 trees/ha) were felled and their overall length and internodal growth along their mainstems recorded in the field for the 1973 to 1977 individual growing seasons. A cross-sectional disc at the base of each tree's live crown were then removed to assess radial growth occurring at this point during the previous four growing seasons. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sludge Treatment A major concern of sewage sludge landspreading is adequate disposal of the nutrients contained in the applied waste. In evaluating each ecosystem's ability to capture and recycle supplementary nutrients, it was necessary to chemically define each sludge as a prerequisite to determining the ultimate fate of these elements. Sludge Composition The mean elemental concentrations of both sludges may be seen in Table 1. In examining the composition of these two sludges, it was noted that the most prominent difference between them was the presence of greater levels of trace elements and heavy metals in the municipal sludge. When compared with the data summarized by Kardos et a1. (1977) for typical sludges produced in the United States, it was found that Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd were present in the municipal sludge in moderate to high concentrations while levels present in the industrial sludge were quite low. In the municipal sludge Cu, Ni and Cd were found to _ exceed their respective 800, 100 and 10 ppm levels of potentially hazardous rate of application. These elements were present at nonhazardous levels in the industrial sludge. 69 70 Table 1. Mean elemental concentrations in industrial and municipal sludges, 1976 Pine River site: Udell site: Municipal sludge Industrial sludge (paper mill) Element Cadillac, Michigan PCA, Filer City, Michigan ---------------------- ppm, dry wt.-----------------—---- NH4 16,600 4,442 N03 24 1,147 TKN 60,000 69,500 P 78,200 10,000 K 1,540 2,100 Na -- 88 Ca 14,000 17,400 Mg 7,760 4,900 Fe 1,420 2,400 Mn 1,540 1,060 Zn 1,648 542 Cu 1,040 48 B 2 43 Pb 960 49 Cr 780 27 Cd 440 5 Ni 192 17 71 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen and total phosphorus were relatively high in both sludges while potassium levels were low to moderate (Kardos et a1. 1977). Calcium concentrations were moderate and magnesium levels were somewhat high in both the municipal and industrial sludge. The sludge total solids content in each case was found to be 5.5%. Carbon to nitrogen ratios were determined to be 12.7:1 for the municipal sludge and 8.8:1 for the industrial sludge. Both values approximated the optimum 12:1 ratio considered ideal for humus mineral- ization in the forest environment. Zinc to cadmium ratios were computed to be 3.7:1 for the municipal sludge and 108:1 for the industrial sludge. Domestic Zn:Cd being normally 100:1, indicated the industrial sludge to be low in cadmium with respect to zinc; however, the municipal sludge was a high cadmium sludge. Nutrient Loadigg_ Because nitrogen has been shown to greatly influence vegetation growth, biological decay rates and soil water quality in forest ecosystems, it was selected as the index nutrient by which sludge application rates were determined. Nutrient loading with industrial sludge is shown in Table 2. Nitrogen application rates ranged from 140 kg/ha to 1,091 kg/ha. The higher rates were intended to test the limits of the site with regard to assimilation and retention of nutrients and enrichment of groundwater. Phosphorus application rates varied from 20 kg/ha to 157 kg/ha. Additions of other nutrients were low, even at the highest rate of sludge application. 72 Table 2. Nutrient loading by industrial sludge application on the Udell study site Sludge application rate (tonne/ha) Element 2.0 4.0 7.9 15.7 ----------------------- kg/ha ----------------------- NH4 9.0 17.8 35.1 69.7 N03 2.3 4.6 9.1 18.1 TKN 140.1 278.0 549.1 1,091.2 P 20.2 40.0 79.0 157.0 K 4.2 8.4 16.6 33.0 Na 0.18 0.35 0.70 1.4 Ca 37.6 69.6 137.5 273.2 Mg 10.6 19.6 38.7 76.9 Fe 5.2 9.6 19.0 37.7 Mn 2.3 4.3 8.4 16.6 Zn 1.2 2.2 4.3 8.5 Cu 0.10 0.19 0.38 0.75 B 0.09 0.17 0.34 0.68 Pb 0.11 0.20 0.39 0.77 Cr 0.06 0.11 0.21 0.42 Cd 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 Ni 0.04 0.07 0.13 0.27 73 In Table 3, nutrient loading with municipal sludge may be seen. Nitrogen application rates ranged from 322 kg/ha to 1,155 kg/ha. Most of the nitrogen applied in both sludges was present as organic-N, approximately 25% of which is available for plant uptake in any single growing season. The percentage of total-N present as ammonia varied from 6% in the industrial sludge to 28% in the municipal sludge. Ammonia gas volitalization potentials may be assumed to have been proportional for the two sludges. Nitrate additions are of minor significance, being less than 20 kg/ha in each case. Total phosphorus additions with municipal sludge were rela- tively high ranging from 420‘kg/ha to 1,506 kg/ha. These P loading rates were an order of magnitude greater than those supplied by industrial sludge at equivalent sludge application rates. Trace elements (Zn and Cu) and heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni) in the municipal sludge were applied in amounts one to two orders of magnitude greater than with the industrial sludge. Additions of other nutrients in the municipal sludge were moderately low. Forest Litter and Logging Slash Sludge applied to forest ecosystems was introduced onto the forest floor where, upon drying, it became a constituent of the litter layer. The initial impacts of sludge application were observed in the litter layer, primarily as a result of nutrient additions. 74 Table 3. Nutrient loading by municipal sludge application on the Pine River study site Sludge application rate (tonne/ha) Element 5.4 9.7 19.3 -------------------- kg/ha.—-----------—---—------ NH4 89.3 160.0 319.8 N03 0.11 0.22 0.45 TKN 322.6 577.9 1,155.8 P 420.4 753.2 1,506.4 K 8.3 14.8 29.7 Na -— -- -— Ca 75.3 134.8 270.0 Mg 41.7 74.7 149.5 Fe 7.6 13.7 27.3 Mn 8.3 14.8 29.7 Zn 8.8 15.9 31.7 Cu 5.6 10.0 20.0 B 0.01 0.02 0.03 Pb 5.2 9.3 18.5 Cr 4.1 7.5 15.0 Cd 2.4 4.3 8.5 Ni 1.0 1.9 3.7 75 Litter pH Litter pH was seen to increase with increasing rates of sludge application on both sites (Table 4). Addition of basic cations elevated pH in the red pine litter on the Udell site as high as 6.1, nearly two pH units above the control in 1976. By late 1977 cation leaching, nutrient assimilation by plants and nitrification resulted in pH decreases at all treatment levels. Treated plot pH's nonetheless remained significantly greater than those in control plots. Litter pH also demonstrated increases in sludge treated plots on the Pine River site in 1976 with a subsequent decline occurring in 1977. These pH values were in general significantly greater than those in controls. Worthy of note was the finding that white pine litters were of higher pH in both control and treated plots. The trends established for litter specific conductivity were similar to those discussed for pH (Table 5). Sludge applications were found to significantly increase the total salts content of the litter upon both study sites. Nutrient Enrichment Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were significantly increased in the Udell study site litter (Table 6). Control nitrogen levels were surpassed in the initial season following treatment by levels exceeding 2% at the highest sludge application rate. Native phosphorus levels near 0.05% were increased nearly one order of magnitude to 0.41% at the highest sludge treatment rate. Other nutrients (K, Ca, Mg, Al, Na, Fe, Zn, Cu, B, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni) 76 Table 4. Litter pH changes resulting from sludge treatment pH Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 Udell study site 15.7 6.la* 4.9a 7.9 5.9ab 5.0a 4.0 5.8ab 4.8a 2.0 5.4b 5.0a 0.0 4.2c 4.1b Red pine White pine Red pine White pine Pine River study site 19.3 5.9a 6.3a 5.2a 5.6a 9.7 5.7a 6.1ab 5.4a 5.4a 5.4 5.3b 5.7b 4.8ab 5.2a 0.0 4.2c 4.6c 4.36 4.76 *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 77 Table 5. Specific conductivity of litter, l977 Sludge treatment Specific conductivity (tonne/ha) (umhos/cm) Udell stugy_site 15.7 2,290a* 7.9 2,043a 4,0 1,340b 2.0 817bc 0.0 506C Red pine White pine Pine River study site 19.3 1,027a 7936 9.7 708ab 554ab 5.4 4946b 454b 0.0 34Gb 310b *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed py different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 78 Table 6. Litter nitrogen and phosphorus concentration on the Udell site TKN Total P Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 ..................... % --_-----_----------- 15.7 2.27a* 1.96a 0.41a 0.37a 7.9 1.50b 1.78a 0.29ab 0.34a 4.0 1.80ab 1.52b 0.24b 0.21b 2.0 1.41bc 1.32b 0.15bc 0.16b 0.0 0.90c 0.93c 0.05c 0.07b *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed py gigferent letters are significantly different at the .05 level in the forest litter were increased significantly by sludge application; however, their impact upon litter decay was minimal. These data may be seen in Table 32 in the appendix. As with the litter on the Udell site, nitrogen was significantly increased in the red pine litter and the white pine litter on the Pine River site (Table 7). Red pine litter N increased from control levels of 0.85% to 1.33% at the highest sludge treatment rate in 1976 and remained relatively stable through 1977. Native N levels in white pine litter increased from 0.99% to 1.61% in 1976, declining somewhat by the end of the 1977 growing season. Phosphorus levels in these litters were correspondingly increased following treatment. Red pine litter P increased from control levels of 0.05% to 0.44% in 1976 and 1.25% in 1977 and white pine litter P increased from similar control 79 Table 7. Litter nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the Pine River site TKN Total P Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 ..................... % ---________--_------- Red pine 19.3 1.33a* 1.34a 0.44a 1.25a 9.7 1.25a 1.21ab 0.34ab 1.15a 5.4 1.12ab 0.98b 0.30b 0.54b 0.0 0.85b 0.70c 0.05c 0.05c Whitegpine 19.3 1.61a 1.32a 0.81a 1.45a 9.7 1.55ab 1.33a 0.66ab 1.12a 5.4 1.20bc 1.10ab 0.4lb 0.59b 0.0 0.99c 0.76b 0.06c 0.05c *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 80 levels to 0.81% in 1976 and 1.45% in 1977, at the high sludge application rates. The apparent increase in P levels on treated plots from 1976 to 1977 could not be explained. Zinc and cadmium were also seen to undergo significant elevation of their concentrations in the litter on the Pine River site (Table 8). Control Zn levels near 60 ppm in red pine litter were increased more than an order of magnitude and those near 80 ppm in white pine litter rose to over 1,300 ppm by 1977, at the highest sludge application rate. Cadmium in control plots averaged approximately 1.0 ppm. Sludge additions elevated Cd levels to over 100 ppm in both red pine and white pine litters, by 1977. The control levels of N and P found in the litters on the Udell site and the Pine River site were comparable to those reported under western pines, Pinus ponderosa and E, monticola, by Daubermire and Prusso (1963), having very similar pH values. In the case of N and P, as with nearly all other measured nutrients, the increased levels of these elements in the forest litter was directly related to the nutrient application rates employed during sewage sludge disposal. 0n the Pine River site Cd levels in litter represented a potential hazard to plants exploiting the litter nutrient reservoir. Other nutrients (K, Ca, Mg, Al, Na, Fe, Mn, Cu, B, Pb, Cr and Ni) in the forest litter were also significantly increased via sludge application. These data are presented in Tables 33 and 34 in the appendix. 81 Table 8. Litter zinc and cadmium concentrations on the Pine River site Zn Cd Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 -------------------- ppm -------------------- Red pine l9.3 757a* 1,150a 63.2a 117.0a 9.7 634ab 1,058a 54.3ab 110.0a 5.4 520b 527b 40.7b 51.96 0.0 62c 58c 1.0c 0.8b Whiteypine 19.3 1,422a 1,330a 122.8a 136.2a 9.7 1,111ab 1,046a 85.1ab 107.5a 5.4 74lb 558b 60.7b 53.2b 0.0 81c 79c 1.3c 1.1c *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 82 Physical Changes The most obvious physical change in the forest litter resulting from sludge application was an increase in litter dry weight per unit area (Table 9). Under the red pine on the Udell site a dry weight increase from 1,558 g/m2 for controls to 4,386 g/m2 for the highest dosage rate was effected. This represents an increase of 182% over the control. On the Pine River site the litter weight increased from 1,162 g/m2 to 3,011 g/m2 under the white pine (159%) and from 1,963 g/m2 to 2,978 g/m2 under the red pine (52%). The litter dry weights in controls, equivalent to 15.58, 11.62 and 19.63 tonne/ha, respec- tively, were comparable to those determined by Wollum and Schubert (1975) for thinned 43-year-old ponderosa pine in the Southwest and by Ffolliott et a1. (1976) for ponderosa pine growing on sandy alluvium in Arizona. The rates of litter decomposition may be inferred by comparing litter dry weights for 1976 and 1977. Although the nitrogen supplied with the sludge application narrowed the carbon to nitrogen ratio, it can be seen from the litter weight data that no appreciable acceleration in decay rate occurred. Variation in litter weight under a forest canopy is reportedly a result of species composition and basal area of the stand (Wooldridge 1970). As these factors were kept uniform on each study site, the variation in litter weights was most likely a function of the solids applied through the imposed treatments. Linear regression computations correlating sludge application rate with litter dry weight yielded r2 values ranging from 0.83 to 0.99 (Table 68 in Appendix). 83 Table 9. Litter dry weights and carbon to nitrogen ratios, 1976 and 1977 1976 1977 Sludge treatment Dry weight Dry wei ht (tonne/ha) (g/mz) C:N (g/ng C:N Udell site 15.7 4,386a* 24.2 4,982a 28.1 7.9 2,984b 30.6 4,077ab 30.9 4.0 2,520bc 36.7 2,995bc 36.2 2.0 1,989bc 39.0 2,495bc 41.7 0.0 1,558c 61.1 2,062c 59.1 Pine River site Red pine 19.3 2,978a 41.4 3,292a 41.0 9.7 2,134a 44.0 3,116ab 45.5 5.4 2,004a 49.1 2,154ab 56.1 0.0 1,963a 64.7 1,898b 78.6 White pine 19.3 3,011a 34.2 3,551a 41.7 9.7 2,649a 35.5 2,547a 41.4 5.4 1,917bc 45.8 2,484a 50.0 0.0 1,162c 55.6 2,079a 72.4 *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed py different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 84 Although the changes in carbon to nitrogen ratios failed to produce a reduction in the biomass of the total litter mass, locally within the litter layer decomposition of litter material was visible. In 1977 a second and third zone of fermentation was found in the litter between the pre-1976 and 1976 litterfall materials (Figure 20). This change in litter layer structure was best developed on high sludge dosage plots, occurring in the zones of locally favorable C:N at the sludge-litter interface. This characteristic L-F-S-F-L-F-H structure was not present on control plots. Slash Following the stand thinning in early 1976, a considerable mass of logging slash was present upon the sites. By the second growing season some of this material had begun to break up and become a part of the litter layer (Figure 21). At typical rates of slash decompo- sition, slash has not been implicated as a factor significantly influencing short-term nutrient cycling (R. E. Miller et a1. 1976). Slash sampling, however, was conducted in the interest of gaining an improved perspective of longer term site nutrient dynamics. Slash dry weights on the Udell site averaged 3.85 kg/m2 (38.5 tonne/ha) while those on the Pine River site averaged 2.82 kg/m2 (28.2 tonne/ha) under red pine and 3.67 kg/m2 (36.7 tonne/ha) under white pine. The nutrient concentration and nutrient load of each slash is presented in Table 10. The slash materials contained respectable quantities of N, over 260 kg/ha; K, approximately 100 kg/ha; Ca, from 100 to 200 kg/ha; and Mn, ranging from near 20 to 30 kg/ha. 85 Figure 20. Sludge induced zone of fermentation in pine litter. 86 H- Humiflcaiian Layer 5 = Sludge Cake FI- Fermeniation Layer L = Litter Layer 1976 litter sludge layer 87 Figure 21. Logging slash on study plots. 88 89 Table 10. Slash nutrient concentrations and nutrient loads Udell site Pine River site Red pine Red pine White pine Conc. Load Conc. Load Conc. Load Element (ppm) (kg/ha) (ppm) (kg/ha) (ppm) (kg/ha) TKN 6,800 261.8 10,800 304.6 8,900 326.6 P 688 26.5 1,214 34.2 1,104 40.5 K 2,344 90.2 4,095 115.5 3,491 128.1 Ca 4,389 169.0 4,341 122.4 6,009 220.5 Mg 655 25.2 1,154 32.5 1,049 38.5 A1 276 10.6 445 12.5 341 12.5 Na 9 0.3 5 0.1 6 0.2 Fe 96.0 3.7 76.7 2.2 79.1 2.9 Mn 804.0 31.0 1,103.8 31.1 504.3 18.5 Zn 46.7 1.8 58.1 1.6 64.1 2.4 Cu 3.7 0.1 3.0 0.1 7.0 0.3 B 14.0 0.5 21.6 0.6 18.4 0.7 Pb 29.6 1.1 9.0 0.3 15.9 0.6 Cr 2.9 0.1 3.2 0.1 1.8 0.1 Cd 0.8 0.03 0.4 0.01 0.9 0.03 Ni 1.9 0.1 3.9 0.1 2.0 0.1 90 Other nutrients were present in the slash in low amounts. When the slow rate of slash decomposition is considered, the nutrients annually released from this material were of minor consequence when compared to those delivered to the site during sludge disposal. §gjj_ Sludge nutrients applied to forest litter may be expected to enter the surface soil layers through the processes of litter decomposition and leaching resulting from percolating rainfall. The effect of this transfer was measured to ascertain the initial impact of treatment upon soil nutrient reserves and soil physical properties. As the surface soil layer is biologically the most active, measurements were most intensive in this region. Soil Chemistry The most dramatic effect of sludge treatment upon the 0-5 cm soil layer was the significant increase in N03-N and NH4-N in the plots receiving the highest dosage rates (Table 11). Nitrogen delivery to these sites appeared not to increase soil TKN levels, implying that a majority of the N, applied as organic-N, remained in the litter layer above. The significant elevation in NH4—N and N03-N soil levels were a function of their greater solubility as they were carried downward into the soil by percolating rainwater. From 1976 to 1977 NOB-N levels increased in the soil of treated plots, an indication of nitrification activity in and above this layer. Table 11. Soil nitrogen concentrations, 0-5 cm depth N03 NH4 TKN Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 1976 1977 ----------------------- ppnl-----—----------------- Udell site 15.7 2.9a* 19.6a 19.9a 29.6a 850a 683a 7.9 0.5b 4.6b 18.5ab 19.7ab 790a 703a 4.0 0.3b l.5bc 13.6abc 15.3ab 763a 603a 2.0 0.2b l.3bc 12.8bc 13.1b 873a 690a 0.0 0.2b 0.lc 10.8c 7.5b 847a 627a Pine River site Red pine l9.3 0.8a 1.5a 26.2a 19.0a 807a 623a 9.7 0.4a 0.3b 12.3b 10.8a 767a 623a 5.4 0.8a 0.4b 12.8b 21.4a 727a 667a 0.0 0.3a 0.lb 7.5b 14.1a 647a 613a White pine 19.3 4.1a 9.1a 26.7a 20.6a 720a 637a 9.7 2.5ab 2.4ab 15.3b 19.0a 700a 567a 5.4 0.7ab 1.1b 11.8bc 19.5a 883a 657a 0.0 0.3b 0.7b 9.1c 17.8a 757a 633a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 92 Nitrification produces hydrogen ions which can displace cations on the exchange complex. This effect was in poor evidence on these sites, as neither a consistently significant increase nor decrease was observed for other cations in the soil (Appendix, Tables 35-37). Cation additions of minor magnitude were observed; however, their impact upon the total base reserves was minimal (Table 12). Significant increases in soil base saturation were sporadic and poorly related to sludge treatment levels. However, soil specific conductiv- ity significantly increased on both sites in 1976 as a result of the leaching of soluble salts from the treated litter cover and the initial transfer of sludge supernatant at the time of treatment. This trend was seen to dissipate by 1977 as these soluble materials were assimilated by plants and leached from the soil profile. The absence of major translocations of nutrients from the litter into the soil produced little change in soil pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio in the first two seasons following sludge treatment (Table 13). In 1976 pH did increase with sludge application under red pine but these trends were not significant on either side. Trends in pH were similar in 1977. Although soluble N entered the 0-5 cm soil layer, it was present in insufficient amounts to produce any meaningful narrowing in the C to N ratio there. Soil phosphorus was significantly increased on the Udell site during 1976 and continued through the 1977 growing season. As liquid phosphoric acid was added to the industrial wastewater prior to its treatment, possibly the soluble phosphorus in the supernatant elevated 93 Table 12. Soil specific conductivity, base saturation and cation exchange capacity, 0-5 cm depth Specific Cation exchange conductivity Base saturation capacity (umhos/cm) (%) (meq./100 g) Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 1976 1977 Udell site 15.7 266a* 312a 15.0a 14.2a 8.04aab 7.23ab 7.9 263a 225b ll.3ab 11.4a 8.06ab 5.55b 4.0 208ab 252ab 9.2b 10.1a 6.54b 6.45ab 2.0 244ab 207b 12.5a 9.8a 7.37ab 7.66ab 0.0 l84b 187b 9.8b 9.3a 9.6la 7.00ab Pine River site Red pine l9.3 231a 206a 16.7a 12.5a 7.60a 6.73a 9.7 182ab 178a 19.2a 17.3a 7.79a 7.16a 5.4 157bc 234a 13.5a ll.0a 7.33a 6.74a 0.0 119c 164a 10.3a 9.7a 6.58a 5.79a White pine 19.3 244a 317a 20.7a 24.1a 7.41a 7.46a 9.7 177b 230b 16.6a 14.2b 7.00a 7.49a 5.4 l77b 286ab 26.1a 20.6ab 7.83a 7.22a 0.0 144b 248ab 25.8a 18.6ab 6.61a 7.31a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 94 Table 13. Soil pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio, 0-5 cm depth PH C:N Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 Udell site 15.7 4.20a* 4.40a 36.6 22.1 7.9 3.97a 4.22a 30.4 19.3 4.0 4.13a 4.15a 30.4 28.0 2.0 4.20a 4.20a 32.9 24.4 0.0 3.90a 4.17a 43.8 24.6 Pine River site Red pine 19.3 4.57a 4.46a 26.3 21.8 9.7 4.53a 4.51a 33.1 24.6 5.4 4.53a 4.26a 33.7 19.1 0.0 4.30a 4.30a 27.5 18.3 White pine l9.3 4.63a 4.55a 30.5 23.1 9.7 4.47a 4.35a 26.5 21.2 5.4 4.53a 4.47a 42.6 24.2 0.0 4.80a 4.50a 26.1 22.9 *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 95 total P in the soil of treated plots by the movement of this mobile P form into the surface soil during and shortly after sludge application. Soil P on the Pine River site was not significantly increased following sludge treatment in 1976. Higher native phosphorus levels and greater site variability diminished the impact of the supplemental phosphorus upon the soil (Table 14). Soil zinc levels were moderate ranging from a low of 2.0 ppm on the Udell site to a high of 6.2 ppm on the Pine River site (Table 15). Soil cadmium concentrations were variable from less than 0.1 ppm to 0.4 ppm on the control and treated plots of both study sites, often exceeding the 0.1 ppm level described by Turner (1973) as causing root damage to growing vegetable crops. As Baker et a1. (1977) pointed out, however, there was no indication of a toxic Cd buildup in grain crops until Cd levels in soil exceed 0.5 ppm. The zinc and cadmium applied in the sludge remained largely in the litter layer during both growing seasons, as significant increase trends in their soil levels were poorly developed. The only exception was the 1977 soil Cd levels under the white pine litter which did show a consistent increase with increasing sludge dosage. In soil layers below the 5 cm depth fluctuations in soil nutrient concentrations were far less pronounced. On both study sites soil N03-N was elevated in 1976 and 1977 under the highest rates of sludge treatment (Tables 16 and 17). While soil N03-N concentrations generally ran less than 2.0 ppm, levels as high as 10.2 ppm were detected in the 5-10 cm soil layer on the Udell site. 96 Table 14. Soil phosphorus concentrations, 0-5 cm depth Total P Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 ---------- PPm ----------- Udell site 15.7 171a* 141a 7.9 l4lab 102b 4.0 125bc 99b 2.0 150ab 97b 0.0 101c 86b Pine River site Red pine 19.3 157a 146a 9.7 164a 137a 5.4 163a 111a 0.0 143a 109a White pine l9.3 164a 150a 9.7 174a 109ab 5.4 122a l32ab 0.0 170a 93b *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 97 Table 15. Soil zinc and cadmium concentrations, 0-5 cm depth Zn Cd Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 -------------------- ppm —------------------- Udell site 15.7 2.7ab* 3.0a <0.lb 0.4a 7.9 2.6ab 2.1a 0.lab 0.2b 4.0 2.0b 2.4a 0.0b 0.3ab 2.0 2.5ab 3.1a <0.lb 0.3ab 0.0 3.2a 2.6a 0.1a 0.3ab Pine River site Red pine 19.3 3.5ab 2.6a 0.3a 0.2a 9.7 6.2a 3.2a 0.3a 0.2a 5.4 3.5ab 2.7a 0.3a 0.2a 0.0 2.3b 2.3a 0.0a 0.2a White pine 19.3 3.0a 4.3a 0.0a 0.3a 9.7 4.1a 4.0a 0.3a 0.2ab 5.4 4.9a 5.2a 0.3a 0.2ab 0.0 4.0a 3.0a 0.3a 0.lb *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by gifferent letters are significantly different at the .05 level L. .0. . 98 Table 16. Soil nitrate and ammonia in lower soil layers on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 ------------ N03 (ppm)------—-------- 1976 15.7 1.3 2.1 0.6 0.4 7.9 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.4 4.0 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4 2.0 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 1977 15.7 10.2 8.2 2.8 1.0 7.9 3.6 0.7 0.7 0.1 4.0 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.2 2.0 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 ------------- NH3 (ppm) ---------------- 1976 15.7 13.8 7.5 4.1 3.9 7.9 12.1 8.1 10.9 2.7 4.0 8.8 6.4 5.2 1.7 2.0 11.0 5.7 4.4 1.9 0.0 6.6 6.2 3.2 1.7 1977 15.7 11.6 7.1 4.2 2.2 7.9 10.8 3.2 2.6 1.5 4.0 12.4 2.4 1.8 0.8 2.0 10.5 5.0 2.5 3.2 0.0 6.3 2.5 2.8 0.3 99 Soil nitrate and ammonia in lower soil layers on the Pine River site Tab1e 17. 105—120 Soil depth (cm) 45-60 15-30 5-10 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year N03 (ppm) ine Red .440 000 n4nqn4.4 nonununu 5444 0000 J382 .Inoo.o. 3740 9950 1976 232] 0000 3733 0000 5313 0000 5333 10.00. 3740 9950 1977 Whitegpine 1976 5464“ AmnwnwnU. 9A44 nw0.0.0. 4343 .|.O.nu.nU. 3740. 995nm 1|221I” 3nu.nU.nw 6A3] 20.nU.0. 5533 3000 8056 1100 3J4AU. 995nU. 1977 --------------NH4 (ppm)-~------------ ine Red .1019 51|1| 899-]. 4433 644no. 98—].5 9385 889.]. 1 BJAHO. 995nm 1976 6900.9 1|..IInU.0. 6944 1212 990] 2232 28s|o3 5&8?“ 3740 9950 1977 White pine l976 1049 2322 30.52 5&6r0. 4H8J1I. AurDQ—l. 3740 9950 1 0273 3740 9950 1 1977 lOO Soil NH3-N levels were also somewhat elevated in soils under the highest treatment rates. Maximum NH3-N levels of 18.9 ppm were measured on the Pine River site in the S-lO cm soil layer. TKN failed to increase in these deeper soil layers, indicating a lack of organic-N movement into these depths (Appendix, Tables 38 and 48). As indicated earlier, organic-N appears to have been immobilized in the litter layer while mobile N forms, N03 and NH4, leached downward into the soil profile. As with the case of total N, most other measured nutrients and soil chemistry parameters did not exhibit appreciable change below the 5 cm depth (Appendix, Tables 38-57). Minor elevations of Na and Mg were detected in the 5-l0 cm and l5-30 cm soil layers on the Udell site and slight increases in the specific conductivity in the 5-l0 cm soil layer were noted on both study sites. Generally, however, the influence of the sludge upon the chemistry of lower soil layers was minimal. Soil Physical Properties Soil bulk density and moisture content in the upper 10 cm, measured at a single point in time on both study sites, were unaffected by the sludge treatments (Appendix, Tables 58 and 59). This result was not unexpected, considering that few nutrients significantly increased in these soil layers. Without substantial modification of the nutrient equilibria, the action of proliferating microorganisms and plant roots could hardly be anticipated to significantly modify the soil bulk density or moisture content. 101 Water Quality During the two years subsequent to sludge treatment, soil water on both sites was sampled using wells and suction lysimeters. Nitrate, NH4, total P, TKN, Zn, Cd, Cu and Ni were monitored during this time. During the 1976 season all measured elements remained below 0.l ppm. During snowmelt early in the l977 season, however, elevated nitrate levels appeared in the water samples taken from both sites. Groundwater Recharge As nutrients in the pine ecosystem move into groundwater during periods of recharge, it was necessary to compute the groundwater recharge occurring on the two sites. The water budget method developed by Thornthwaite and Mather (l957) was employed, utilizing temperature and rainfall data collected at U.S. Forest Service field weather sta- tions located near each study area. Groundwater recharge and other water budget parameters are presented in Table 18 for the Udell site and in Table l9 for the Pine River site. MoSt recharge of groundwater occurred in spring, following snowmelt, and in fall, when evapo- transpiration potential declined. Nitrate Under the red pine plantation on the Udell site no groundwater nitrate levels were in excess of 0.1 ppm during 1976. However, with snowmelt in early April l977, N03-N levels in excess of the l0 ppm standard set by the U.S. Public Health Service were detected in groundwater following melting of the snowpack under plots receiving 1(32 o.o m.~__ m.om o.o c.—m m.me- q._e ~.om m.op apaa m.~m ~.pom «.m—p m.nm o.oop m.~m ~.pep ~.em ~._p mesa p.~p o.~m~ o.omp _.~p o.oop —.~p m.ao ~.Nm ~.~p xa: w.~om o.-p o.e¢ o.w~ o.oo_ o.m~ p.mm F.cp o.m pwgn< o.o e.mmm m.m o.o m.a~m ¢.~_ e.~_ o.c ~.ou guns: o.o ~.m~m m.~ o.c e.~cm N.Om ~.0m o.c ~.-- xgoagamu o.o ¢.~mm n.mp o.c ~.~mm p.em p.ww o.o m.m- xgmacoa mum— o.o ~.~m~ o.—m o.o —.—m~ p.pmp —.pmp o.o p.o- nonsmumo m.mo— m.mm~ p.mo m.mop o.oo— m.mop o.mp— N.“ p.m L2.5302 o.mm ~.mmp ~.o~ o.mm o.oop m.cc m.m~ e._m m.o concave o.o o.co m.m o.o m.om m.mc —.mop m.om m.e— gmaeounom o.o c.5m a.o_ o.° ~.oe N.o. ~.oo. o.oa m.~. am=m=< o.o o._m m.—~ o.o o.om o.w_u «.mmp e.o¢— ~.- span o.o a.o~ m.me o.o o.mm m.em- o.—m m.mo m.mp «can o.o m.mm_ m.~m o.e o.~m c.eo- w.¢ o.wo m.m_ um: m.- m.~mm m.mN— m.u~ o.oo_ m.n~ m.~m ~.o~ ~.o pvua< o.~mm ¢.~N~ e.~m m.ow o.oo_ m.oo m.oo o.c ~.p- coca: o.o m.o~m ~.o o.o m.o~m p.mm _.em o.o o.o—- xguagnom o.o p.mpm ~.o o.o e.e—m e.cmp e.em— o.o o.mp- agencaa sump o.o ~._w_ ~._ o.o o.om— p.mm —.om o.o e.~- Lonmuoo o.o ~.om_ m.~ o.o o.m~_ o.em m.vm o.o o.o- Lmasm>oz o.o m.m~ m.e o.o o.oo o.om m.mm m.ep o.m Loaouuo o.o o.mm o.w o.o o.om v.9- o.Oe m.ce p.m_ gmnsmuqmm o.o ~.me ~.~_ o.o o.~m ~.~_ m.~n m.eo o.m— umama< o.o m.mo ".mm o.o o.m~ o.m~- m... «.mm ..N_ spaa o.o o.om_ m.o~ o.o o.oo e.ov- m.om o.mm v.5p mean —.mm _.-m o.~cp _.mm o.oop —.mw o.wop a.- o.m so: ~.o~ ¢.mom “.mwp N.o~ o.oo— ~.o~ m.om p.o_ o.m —*Ln< _.ch o.-m _.eo m.m~— o.oo_ m.w~p m.m~p o.o m.o- coco: o.o -- .. o.o o.oom m.cw w.ow o.o m.~- xeoagaam o.o -- -- o.o m.aom p.~op —.~op o.o o.m- xgmacoa oxmp o.o -- -- o.o ~.no~ ~.~op ~.~cp o.o m.m- consaumo m.oo -- -- m.oo o.oo_ m.oo e.o~ o.m _.o swasm>oz m.m~ -- -- m.mm o.oop w.m~ ~.~m e.—m w.op Lonouuc mnmp -------- ................. - ............................ _==- ......... ------------------------ ............ ---..uo---- mmgozuog cowucmuma wwoczg m:_acam mangoum wag umz wag xpgucoz ma xpgucoe menumgoaswa zuco: som> quuzbczogu page» «Laumpoz mcaum_oe Ppom umumanv< xpgucos x vozums ummcaa Loam: m.mu_czcuccozh on memvcoooc mu_m xuaum _pmu= use so mmgoguog cmumzucaogm go :o_ump=u—nu .m_ apps» 103 .I"..- - ' 'l'- .031 III I i... 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Nitrate-N levels declined until June and rose sharply again in July and September, at which time both the 15.7 and the 7.9 tonne/ha sludge treated plot groups exceeded the 10 ppm standard. By May of l978, following snowmelt, these same treatment groups equaled or exceeded the USPHS nitrate standard again. Water samples taken from plots receiving lighter dosages of sludge were not seen to exceed 5.7 ppm nitrate at anytime. Should groundwater containing nitrate levels in excess of the l0 ppm standard travel along the piezometric gradient and experience insufficient dilution before encountering receiving surface waters, a nitrate pollution hazard could develop as a result of sludge application. Water quality beyond the vicinity of the site was not measured, however. Under the red pine and white pine plantation on the Pine River site soil water nitrate levels did not exceed 0.l ppm during l976. Following the spring snowmelt in l977, however, nitrate levels under both red pine and white pine exceeded the 10 ppm standard where treated with 19.3 tonne of municipal sludge per hectare (Figure 23). Soil water nitrate concentrations under white pine plots remained above l0 ppm from spring through the end of l977 while those under red pine plots experienced greater variation peaking in late spring and in early fall. In l978, scant data indicated elevated nitrate levels under high treatment plots once again. Water samples from plots receiving lower sludge dosages did not exceed 2.8 ppm N03-N during the study period. 105 Figure 22. Nitrate concentrations in groundwater on the Udell study site. 106 Ohm. ~50. qaeuechmzroma .324: 863$. Efi... ..|.H..H..H....H ..\.. . e7. 3 . I a . ./ \ 8.2, \s 3.5. Cum: 0 CMN :9. .. . 0 ON mdu mdu o no... :58... IIIII .. ad I! ....... U o. o." ....... i c. Q‘ l ...... .. a.» lzssfiel % 2t 3. :25 “23... 3d: 0. ON 0 r0 ( ‘|/ 6m) album JO uouwuaouog mom punmg 107 Figure 23. Nitrate concentrations in soil water on the Pine River study site. 108 And. was, a 5.90 m._~. mn~o flow 0 ONNO 20¢. .3... ages: 3E com 130.36 :55... 2...... 2...? 83¢ 2...... no... 4 2% Q8. 0 o n.w~ wwu ..o¢ o .dm 0 on (1mm) mom" ;o uououuaouog amooJad nos 109 In Table 20 nitrate losses from the rooting zone under the Pine River pines were calculated. It should be noted from this data that high nitrate levels in soil water produced no loss of nitrogen from the rooting zone during non-recharge months. The danger of groundwater enrichment is only posed during months when excessive nitrate levels coincide with recharge water volumes sufficient to transport the soluble nitrate anion into the surface aquifer. Under the highest treatment rate the annual N03-N loss during l977 was 53.3 kg/ha under the white pine plots and 73.8 kg/ha under the red pine plots. These amounts were equivalent to 4.6% and 6.4%, respectively, of the l,l55 kg N/ha delivered to the plots during sludge treatment. Nitrate loss from the site on lower dosage rate plots was indistin- guishable from background values in controls. During 1978 evidence of excessive nitrate levels was obtained only under white pine plots at maximum dosage rates (Figure 23). N do 3 0 During the l977 season some of the water samples obtained via suction lysimetry on the Pine River site indicated the presence of zinc in concentrations exceeding the 5 ppm USPHS standard under plots receiving the highest sludge dosage rate, l9.3 tonne/ha (Figure 24). Zinc levels were most elevated in water samples obtained under white pine plots. As with nitrate, zinc losses from the rooting zone were also computed (Table 2l). Losses during 1977 amounted to 9.5 kg Zn/ha under white pine and 2.8 kg Zn/ha under red pine, or 30% and 9%, respectively, of the zinc applied with the sludge treatment. At lower dosage rates, no zinc increases were noted in the soil water samples. Soil water nitrate concentrations and nitrate escape from the rooting zone estimation for the Pine River site under red pine (r) and white pine (w) Table 20. Escape from rooting zone Concentration Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 19.3w 19.3r 9.7r 5.4r 0.0r l9.3w l9.3r 9.7r 5.4r 0.0r Recharge Month Year ------- kg/ha ------ -----__-_--_- pp." ---------- ---m.-- 110 OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO <0.l <0.l <0.l <0.l <0.l OOOOOOO OOOOOOO '6 s... 5- 0 m .D OXOHOO CPDQH>U 3330000 OO. 8 u. >55 La) Luv ‘9 0 03:50. VI .0 OLUM- 033490 :DLLXCPOQH>U umgn’q-azawucw rau. 1: OO5!- LIB «1:3.— OLUOP 03>, CD85>5CP OIL < '7'? 1978 111 Figure 24. Zinc concentrations in soil water on the Pine River study site. 112 osm. 4 a _.. s. 4 .2 m a o z o m AmGZQK 1 39:3 3 o 36:55:. 2E3: mm . .6... .222. SE 2...; Ilell .. 0.0 mm 1.9!! .. Em mm 1.0.1- .. nd. mm ll .32... 2x953 n6. a3 83¢ out 61:33 O'O'. WLII 2.9%. 1 Sim O. ( 1/6w) ougz ;o uououuaouoo amassed nos 113 o.o o.o o.o o.o P.o P.o ~.o m.o o o emaemomo P.o p.o ~._ m.m P.o ~.o P._ n.m m.oop L52552 P.o P.o F.F m.m ~.o _.o o.~ m.m o.mm gonouuo P.o P.o o.o N.~ ~.o F.o N.P m.¢ N.m¢ emnsmuamm o.o o.o o.o o.o N.o F.o m.o m.m o.o pm=m=< o.o o.o o.o o.o ~.o _.o m.o w.P o.o apaw o.o o.o o.o o.o ~.o P.o m.o m.m o.o mesa o.o o.o o.o o.o N.o ~.o ~.F m.m o.o he: sump u----------m;\mx ...................... Eaauuun ........ nines--- Lo.o L¢.m em.mp 3m.mp L5.0 Le.m gm.mp 3m.mF magmgumm gucoz me> Am;\mccouv pcmspmmeu mmuapm mcoN mcwuoog Eoew wamumm cowumgucwucou sz mcwa mpwcz new ALV mcwn not gone: muwm gw>wm mew; on“ Low :o_umswpmm mcoN mcwuooe mgp sot; mamumm ocw~ new meowpmgpcwocou uch Lopez Fwom .FN mpnmb 114 The disparity between zinc levels under red pine compared with those under white pine prompted a careful examination of the suction lysimeter water samplers. It was noted that in the white pine plots those yielding consistently elevated zinc concentrations were installed in the planting furrow where sludge ponded during application had concentrated. Further, slope of the microtopography surrounding these lysimeters was near zero percent resulting in the downward movement of zinc from pockets of excessive accumulation through sandy soil with high infiltration. The outcome of these circumstances was unrepresentative levels of Zn in soil water percolating near these lysimeters. The lower zinc levels in soil water measured from samplers placed between furrows, in all probability, yielded much more realistic data concerning zinc dynamics in the soil percolate beneath the Pine River pine plantation on the whole. Sludge Dosage and Water Quality A primary goal of this investigation was to determine the maximum sludge application rates usable on each site which would not endanger groundwater quality. To this end linear regression analysis was conducted, correlating soil water nitrate levels with sludge treatment rates (Figure 25). On the Udell study site, analysis determined that sludge treatment rates should not exceed 9.5 tonne/ha in order to meet the l0 ppm NO3-N health standard. Analysis of the Pine River site data indicated that maximum sludge dosages should not exceed l9.l tonne/ha. The proportion of the variability in soil nitrate levels explained by 115 Figure 25. Estimation of the maximum sludge application rates allowable upon the Udell and Pine River sites which will also meet nitrate standards for groundwater. 116 23 foiffltoonEBE... 032m 0. o _ n ON m. o. m 0 q _ S . :5... £2358 " . 332m .835: . :51 use :3: .. ON \.825 ___s_ 38E 8283 22.2 8 88m 8.3. £83 83m 38 .8 cesefiu o. 0. ON mom has U! voumiuawoo OIOJUN 006w 117 sludge treatment rates ranged from 0.76 on the Pine River site to 0.98 on the Udell site. The higher treatment maximum computed for the Pine River site may be attributed to its higher native fertility, providing greater soil nutrient retention. The higher water table under the Udell red pines diminished the treatment maximum on this site, as percolating soil water experienced a shorter residence time in the unsaturated zone. The highest sludge dosage rates, l5.7 tonne/ha on the Udell site and l9.3 tonne/ha on the Pine River site, exceeded their respective computed application maximums, 9.5 and l9.l tonne/ha. These rates and the 7.9 tonne/ha industrial sludge rate, were the only treatments to produce N03-N levels exceeding 10 ppm in soil water. At comparable N application rates, soil water N03-N was seen by 0tchere-Boateng (l976) to exceed 10 ppm in coarse textured soil under pine. However, as Kreutzer and Neiger (l974) pointed out, soil water N03-N concen- trations in excess of 10 ppm do not in every situation constitute a threat to the quality of groundwater, as dilution effects must be considered. In spite of the excessive soil water nitrate levels in the highest treatment rate plots on the Pine River site, no evidence of nitrate enrichment could be detected in groundwater flowing from this site. The absence of groundwater enrichment on this site was largely a function of the extremely small proportion of the watershed which was sludge treated and the uncertainty surrounding the actual direction of subsurface water flow from the study site. The impact of other nutrients upon water quality was minimal on both study sites. As with the studies of Humphreys and Pritchett 118 (1971), little if any leaching of phosphorus occurred below the plots on either site. Regression analysis of zinc data from the Pine River plots indicated that only 28% of the variation in soil water Zn levels was explained by the sludge treatments and that a dosage rate of at least 31.8 tonne/ha, exceeding all rates employed, would be needed to produce soil water Zn concentrations exceeding the 5 ppm standard. UnderstorygVegetation The impact of sludge applied nutrients upon the vegetative component of pine ecosystems was investigated with regard to assessing nutritional benefits and detecting potentially hazardous elemental accumulations in understory and overstory plants. In the understory the total above-ground vegetation was harvested, chemically analyzed and compared with control plots and data published by Gerloff et a1. (1964) for undisturbed understories of similar species composition. Because the understory maintains a high proportion of its total root biomass near the biologically active soil-litter interface, it was anticipated that understory nutrient concentrations would be diagnostic of initial vegetation nutrient assimilation trends. Representative understory types may be seen in Figures 26 through 29. Nutrient Concentrations Understory vegetation significantly benefited from nitrogen and phosphorus additions to both study areas (Table 22). While mean N concentrations in control plots ranged from 1.03% to 1.41%, N levels progressively increased in plots receiving increasing sludge dosages 119 Figure 26. Pteridium understory. Figure 27. Vaccinium understory. 120 121 Figure 28. Carex understory. Figure 29. Mixed understory including Vaccinium, Pteridium, Gaultheria and grasses. 1‘ ‘7‘ ‘ 1 , It/fi ‘ 123 Table 22. Understory nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations TKN Total P Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 ..................... % _---------_---_------ Udell site 15.7 2.35a* 2.28a 0.385a 0.219ab 7.9 2.34a 2.42a 0.l90b 0.247a 4.0 1.63ab 1.94ab 0.154b 0.l90abc 2.0 l.27ab l.54bc 0.094b 0.l42bc 0.0 l.03b l.26c 0.082b 0.108c Pine River site Red pine l9.3 2.66a 2.96a 0.326a 0.374a 9.7 l.93ab 2.10b 0.276ab 0.272ab 5.4 1.81ab 1.74b 0.223b 0.266b 0.0 1.15b l.2lc 0.116c 0.130c White pine l9.3 2.41a 2.81a 0.338a 0.363a 9.7 2.12ab 2.l7b 0.336a 0.294b 5.4 1.51b 1.7lc 0.264a 0.242b 0.0 1.41b l.36c 0.l64b 0.167c *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 124 and exceeded 2% at the highest treatment rates. Control P levels did not exceed 0.l67% while understories receiving the highest sludge dosages generally exceeded 0.3%. The significant increases in N and P were the result of understory plant roots exploiting the enriched litter and surface soil. Control levels of N, P and other macronutrients were comparable to those reported by Gerloff et al. (1964) for similar species assemblages. Other macronutrients examined, K, Ca, Mg,and Na,fhiled to produce consistently significant trends of uptake. These elements were generally present in low to moderate concentrations (Appendix, Tables 60-62). Significant understory increases in cadmium were detected on the Pine River site in 1976 and again in 1977 (Table 23). Levels of Cd on treated plots ranged from 10.7 ppm to 22.7 ppm in 1976 while control plots registered less than 1 ppm. Although Cd levels declined in l977, plots receiving the highest sludge dosages maintained signif- icantly elevated Cd concentrations over controls. Noting the absence of increased soil Cd levels, the understory Cd increases were undoubt- edly the result of direct exploitation of the enriched litter material by understory plant roots and/or plant surface absorption. Allaway (1977) has indicated that Cd concentrates in foliage rather than in seeds and fruits. Baker et al. (1977) recommended maintaining foliar Cd levels below 1.0 ppm to avoid potential food chain buildup problems in the ecosystem. The understory Cd levels reported for the sludge treated plots on the Pine River site were values for all above-ground plant parts (stem + leaves + fruit and 125 Table 23. Understory cadmium and copper concentrations Cd Cu Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 -------------------- ppm ------------------- Udell site 15.7 l.0a* 0.6a 15.3a 5.8a 7.9 0.7b 0.5ab 13.2ab 5.7a 4.0 0.5bc 0.4abc 10.2b 5.1a 2.0 0.5bc 0.3bc 10.6b 5.0a 0.0 0.4c 0.2c 9.9b 4.5a Pine River site Red pine l9.3 13.8a 2.0a 37.7a 8.3a 9.7 16.4a l.4ab 38.8a 6.2b 5.4 l0.7ab 2.6a 26.4ab 7.2ab 0.0 0.7b 0.3b 10.3b 3.5c White pine l9.3 22.1a 2.8a 50.la 9.5a .7 22.7a l.0b Sl.la 5.2b 5.4 16.3ab l.lab 44.la 6.0b 0 0.9b 0.6b l6.la 4.8b *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 126 seeds) combined and as such represent a dilution of the higher foliar concentrations which would be most subject to wildlife grazing. Cadmium levels reported in understory plants on this site did constitute a potential food chain transfer hazard during the 1976 and 1977 growing seasons. Cadmium levels on the Udell site indicated no hazardous accumulation in the understory plants. Plant toxicity symptoms arising from cadmium accumulation were not apparent on either study site. Understory copper levels in sludge treated plots on the Pine River site significantly exceed those in controls by 1977. In 1976 these levels were in excess of those reported by Gerloff et al (1964) and exceeded the 20 ppm toxic limit reported by Jones (1973). No copper toxicity symptoms were noted in the understory plants examined, however. Gagnon et al. (1958) concluded that differential accumulation of nutrients by different understory species was dependent upon inherent species properties and Waring and Youngberg (1972) noted that the nutri- tional needs of agronomic crops varied greatly from those of forest plants. The nutrient toxicity (and deficiency) limits established for domesticated plants which have been genetically modified through many generations lose their applicability among the wild plants in a forest setting. The Cu levels in understory plants on the Pine River site, although quite high by agronomic standards, appeared to be within the range acceptable to wild genotypes in this study area. Copper levels in understory plants on the Udell site were comparable to those reported by Gerloff et al. (l964). 127 Other micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and B) and heavy metals (Pb, Cr and Ni) remained variable in their uptake trends. Understory Fe was elevated on both sites as a result of treatment. Although foliar Mn commonly approached or exceeded 1,000 ppm on both sites, no definitive trends for its assimilation could be deduced. Increases in Zn, Pb, Cr and Ni concentrations were generally significant in 1976 and diminished by 1977 (Appendix, Tables 60-62). Plant Growth In the first year following treatment significant trends of increased understory biomass production resulting from sludge dosages were nonexistent (Table 24). By 1977, however, understory production increased on all plots, a result of overstory thinning in l976 pre- sumably, and the highest sludge treatment plots under the red pine produced biomasses significantly greater than their controls on both study sites. A nonsignificant trend in biomass increase with treatment increase was partially established in the understory under white pine. Regression analysis correlating understory biomass in 1977 with sludge dosage in l976 accounted for 78% of the variability under the Pine River red pine and only 33% of the variability under the Udell red pine. Absence of a significant trend in the understory beneath white pine was thought to be a function of the greater native fertility of the soil there, noting the high biomass production in the control plots in 1977. 128 Table 24. Understory above-ground biomass Biomass (g/mz) Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 Udell site 15.7 ll.0b* 54.6a 7.9 ll.4ab 28.6c 4.0 17.2ab 40.0ab 2.0 27.4a 40.9bc 0.0 24.8ab 28.5c Pine River site Red pine l9.3 16.9a 50.4a 9.7 12.8a 46.8ab 5.4 6.3a 22.4b 0.0 21.5a 21.7b White pine 19.3 9.7a 45.4a 9.7 ll.3a 46.6a 5.4 16.9a 41.6a 0.0 14.9a 35.9a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 129 McConnel and Smith (1970) found that understory production increased from 8.4 g/m2 to 46.89/m2 under ponderosa pine in eastern Washington following stand thinning. Agee and Biswell (1970) reported that understory production increased from 2.0 g/m2 to 25.5 g/m2 under thinned and fertilized ponderosa pine in northern California. The low r2 value determined for biomass production under the Udell red pine may have been a result of stand thinning effects upon the understory (Cochran 1975). Sludge treatment appeared to stimulate understory productivity, allowing the ground vegetation on both sites to out- produce the 37.8 g/m2 found under sugar maple-basswood and birch forests on dry sites in northern Wisconsin (Zavitkovski 1972). Visual inspection of the plots receiving the highest sludge treatment rates revealed the lush green growth of bracken fern in these plots during the late growing season when vegetation in the surrounding area had already begun to discolor and approach dormancy (Figure 30). This response was similar to that produced when luxury consumption of abundant nitrogen in the environment prolongs succulent growth. Overstory Trees Foliage samples were collected from codominant red pine and white pine trees to determine whether sludge treatments influenced foliar nutrient status and growth in the overstory. As nutrient content of the various tree parts (leaves, bark, branches, stem and roots) has been seen to be quite variable, current year's foliage produced in the upper tree crown was sampled in late August as being 130 Figure 30. Lush late season growth of bracken fern on plot receiving highest sludge treatment rate. ‘L; .‘.‘ k ‘ .qn, ‘ fl "1 '. "'f’: I ‘l .- " r. 4 ‘e " ’ ' JunJ $— Eivm v x ‘1} .1 . l 7" “. J ‘ .u' 132 most indicative of the nutrient economy of recently matured, metabolically active overstory tissues (van den Driessche 1974). Although tree stems contain greater total nutrient amounts, tree leaves remain the most sensitive indicators of mineral nutrient change. Nutrient Status Pines growing on plots treated with sludge experienced significant foliar N concentration elevation over those found on controls (Table 25). By 1977 foliar N levels from plots receiving the highest sludge dosages ranged from 1.59% to 2.03%, while those from controls ranged from 1.09% to 1.30%. On the Udell site an increase of 62% in foliar N was observed and on the Pine River site increases of 46% for red pine and 29% for white pine foliar N were seen during 1977. Foliar P levels were not significantly increased by the sludge nutrient applications on either site. However, by 1977 increases in the N to P ratio had occurred among the trees receiving the highest treatment rates. Mallonee (1975) reported foliar N increases in pines as the result of comparable N additions to the forest environment. Wollum and Davey (1975) point out that although the greatest N needs in pines occur prior to age 30, N additions are of benefit to older pines, such as were present on these study sites. The pines on the control plots of both sites fell into the lower portion of the tolerable N:P for pines, 5:1 to 16:1. Additions of N to sludge treated plots improved this ratio, allowing it to approach to optimum for pines of 10:1 (van den Driessche 1974). 133 Table 25. Overstory needle nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and ratios N:P Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 1976 1977 ........................ % ____-__-___-_-___-______ Udell site 15.7 1.24a* 2.03a 0.168a 0.184a 7.4 11.0 7.9 1.17ab 1.57b 0.166a 0.170a 7.0 9.2 4.0 1.13b l.39c 0.168a 0.171a 6.7 8.1 2.0 1.09b 1.29c 0.l64a 0.176a 6.6 7.3 0.0 1.09b l.25c 0.165a 0.l7la 6.6 7.3 Pine River site Red pine 19.3 1.28a 1.59a 0.157b 0.155a 8.2 10.3 9.7 1.17b 1.36b 0.151b 0.179a 7.7 7.6 5.4 1.14bc l.l7bc 0.176a 0.169a 6.5 .9 0.0 1.10c 1.09c 0.158b 0.l74a 7.0 .3 White pine l9.3 1.36a 1.68a 0.168a 0.l65b 8.1 10.2 9.7 l.24b 1.47b 0.17la 0.183a 7.3 8.0 5.4 l.l6bc l.36bc 0.167a 0.l77ab 6.9 7.7 0.0 1.09c 1.30c 0.l64a 0.183a 6.6 7.1 *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 134 The assimilation of elements by different plant species is a function of their inherent morphological and physiological properties. In considering the differential nutrient content of red pine and white pine foliage, it is not only prudent to consider differences in the native fertility of the soil in which each was growing, but also the way in which each species selectively exploits that soil. Garin (1942) reported that white pine fine roots, which are feeder roots, were found primarily in the A soil horizon with far fewer occurring in the B horizon. Red pine, on the other hand, had, in general, fewer total fine roots and concentrated them in the A and Bl horizons. Nitrogen was readily assimilated from the soil under both tree species. No significant trend of increased P uptake developed for either pine or either site. However, a different pattern of K assimilation developed for the red pine growing on the Udell site as compared to that on the Pine River site. Foliar K was significantly increased with sludge treatment in the red pine growing on the Udell site in 1976 and 1977 (Table 26), as were litter K and soil K. On the Pine River site foliar K levels did not increase with treatment, as was the case with soil K levels. However, under the red pine on the Pine River site litter K levels were significantly elevated by 1977, indicating that K assimilation by the pines was occurring via the soil and that the feeder roots had failed to directly tap the nutrient reservoir in the forest litter. 135 Table 26. Overstory needle potassium concentrations Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 ........... % ------------ Udell site 15.7 0.707a* 0.924a 7.9 0.69la 0.848b 4.0 0.685a 0.817b 2.0 0.652ab 0.731c 0.0 0.620b 0.77lc Pine River site Red pine l9.3 0.697a 0.698a 9.7 0.698a 0.67la 5.4 0.697a 0.728a 0.0 0.699a 0.733a White pine 19.3 0.728a 0.725a 9.7 0.751a 0.772a 5.4 0.740a 0.769a 0.0 0.7l4a 0.764a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 136 Neary (1974), in a municipal wastewater irrigation study, noted needle necrosis, a symptom of boron toxicity, with foliar 8 levels exceeding 75 ppm in red pine. As Stone and Baird (1956) indicated, B toxicity in pine foliage is likely to occur in pines when 8 concentrations exceed 45 ppm. No significant increases in foliar B were noted in the overstory foliage sampled (Table 27). All levels of B were well below those reported to be toxic. Considering the low amounts added with land treatment, 0.03 to 0.68 kg/ha, B was not seen as a major hazard in sludges. Minroe (1975) found that forest plants of the genus Vaccinium are less tolerant to B additions than pines. Should B eventually become troublesome, species of this genus could be used as indicators of potentially toxic conditions before pine trees could be endangered. Other analyzed elements (Ca, Mg, A1, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni) failed to exhibit consistent trends of significant increase with increasing sludge applications (Appendix, Tables 63-65). Foliar nutrient concentrations were generally found to be low to mod- erate when compared to levels reported by Gerloff et al. (1964) and Young and Carpenter (1967). Foliar Fe was identified as possibly deficient in red pine on both sites, as levels below the 40 ppm critical value determined for pines by Ingestad (1960) were consistently obtained from analysis. 137 Table 27. Overstory needle boron concentrations B Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 ----------- ppm------------ Udell site 15.7 l7.5a* 16.0a 7.9 20.5a 15.4a 4.0 19.2a 17.5a 2.0 17.4a l7.0a 0.0 17.6a 17.6a Pine River site Red pine l9.3 17.7a 15.4b 9.7 17.4a 16.1ab 5.4 17.9a 15.9ab 0.0 18.7a 18.5a White pine 19.3 20.5a 16.4b 9.7 21.3a 18.0ab 5.4 21.7a 17.3b 0.0 20.5a 20.3a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 138 Growth Responses The initial overstory growth responses which could be related to sludge treatment appeared as increases in fasicle dry weight and needle length (Table 28). Fasicle weight was significantly increased on treated red pine plots on both study sites by 1977; however, the weights for treated white pine fasicles were not significantly greater than those in controls. The dry weight increases represented a 47% increase over controls (r2 = .71) in the Udell site red pine and a 50% increase over controls (r2 = .997) in the Pine River site red pine, each at their respective highest sludge dosage. Needle length for red pine growing on the Udell site exhibited a significant increase, amounting to as much as a 30% increase over controls (Figure 31), with increasing sludge treatement rates (r2 = .86). The trends of needle length increase of red pine and white pine on the Pine River site were not significant, however (Figures 32 and 33). Apparently, the greater variability among trees sampled on the Pine River site contributed to the lack of significance in these trends. Needles obtained from treated plots, upon visual inspection, appeared to have a darker green color than those from control plots. In Table 29 data concerning annual radial increment at breast height and biennial radial growth at the base of the live crown are presented. Significant increases in annual radial growth with treat- ment were seen in white pine in 1976 and 1977. These growth increases represented 39% in 1976 (r2 = .99) and 47% in 1977 (r2 = .94) at the highest treatment rates over those in controls. Radial growth trends failed to develop with treatment for red pine on either site. 139 Table 28. Overstory fasicle dry weight and needle length, l977 Sludge treatment Fasicle dry weight Needle length (tonne/ha) (9) (mm) Udell site 15.7 0.072a* 122.1a 7.9 0.066a 113.7ab 4.0 0.067a 110.3b 2.0 0.051b 96.4c 0.0 0.049b 93.6c Pine River site Red pine l9.3 0.066a 109.7a 9.7 0.054ab 95.9a 5.4 0.050ab 93.6a 0.0 0.044b 86.9a White pine 19.3 0.032a 67.5a 9.7 0.029ab 64.9a 5.4 0.025b 65.0a 0.0 0.028ab 59.7a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 140 Figure 31. Average red pine needle length on the Udell site. 41 1 kno- uzz a: 3:0. athzuiiusxu 3.0: 142 Figure 32. Average red pine needle length on the Pine River site. Figure 33. Average white pine needle length on the Pine River site. 143 BED PINE I977 IIVII EXPERIMENTAL FOREST WHITE PIN! 1977 1 .4 .1 .¢ .1 .1 .1 =4 .- "4 "I o“ 3 144 Table 29. Radial growth in overstory pines Annual radial Radial growth at base increment of live crown Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 l974+ 1975 l976i-l977 ..................... mm -_----_---_-------_-- Udell site 15.7 l.8a* 1.5a 6.4c 6.0b 7.9 l.9a l.6a 6.7abc 6.3ab 4.0 l.7a l.6a 7.la 6.9a 2.0 l.7a 1.5a 6.5bc 6.4ab 0.0 l.7a l.6a 7.0a 6.5ab Pine River site Red pine l9.3 l.7a l.7a 6.9a 6.9a 9.7 2.4a 2.0a 6.5a 4.7a 5.4 2.0a l.8a 7.9a 7.la 0.0 2.0a l.8a 6.7a 6.2a White pine l9.3 2.5a 2.2a 6.8b 4.9b 9.7 2.2ab 2.0ab 8.8ab 5.8ab 5.4 2.0ab l.8ab 9.0a 6.7a 0.0 l.8b l.5b 8.2ab 6.9a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed py different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . 145 Increases in radial growth at the base of the live crown failed to develop with treatment for either species on either site. A significant decrease of 29% was observed in the radial growth at the base of the live crown of white pine receiving l9.3 tonne of sludge per hectare (r2 = .96). All other silvicultural growth parameters examined failed to produce significant trends of increase with sludge treatment (Appendix, Tables 66 and 67). These results were similar to those of Miller and Miller (1976) and Tolle (l976) who found increases in foliar biomass, needle length and stem radial growth in pines subject to nutrient additions, particularly nitrogen. Mader and Howarth (l970) have demonstrated that growth in red pine in Massachusetts was significantly related to foliar nutrient levels and Miller and Cooper (1973) have determined that volume growth was maximized when foliar nitrogen exceeded 2%. The across-the-board improvement of nitrogen nutrition with sludge treatment and increasing trends in fasicle dry weight and needle length were indicative of slow buildup in overstory photosyn- thetic capacity. Other growth parameters, i.e., radial increment and height, have generally not yet responded to treatment, because as Leaf et al. (l970) pointed out, a lapse time of 2 to 5 years from the date of treatment is needed to remedy nutrient deficiencies and build up an increased photosynthetic mechanism capability thereby permitting the trees to demonstrate a growth response to nutrient additions in their environment. This lag time is of particular importance in trees which experience predeterminant growth patterns, as do pines. Subsequent 146 growing seasons on these study plots should find increasing growth responses to treatment among the overstory trees. Comparison of Site Dynamics The major intent of this study has been to evaluate the suitability of thinned, pole-sized red pine and white pine plantations growing in coarse textured soils for sewage sludge landspreading. Up to this point sludge properties, litter, soil chemistry, water quality and understory and overstory vegetation growth and nutrition have been considered on a largely individual basis. Figures 34 and 35 summarize the major individual changes and provide an integrated perspective of growth and nutrient dynamics for each site. Sludge treatment resulted in nutrient enrichment of forest litter and the upper soil layers on both sites. Nitrogen, as NH4-N and N03-N, exhibited considerable increases in its movement from litter to soil, understory and overstory, including significant losses as NO3-N below the rooting zone at the highest treatment rates. The Udell site, with its shallower water table, appeared to be a less desirable site for sludge disposal, in that percolating soil water, rich in N03, underwent a shorter retention period in the unsaturated soil zone allowing less opportunity for nutrient reduction prior to entering the groundwater aquifer. Increased transfer of P and K from litter to the surface soil layers occurred only on the Udell site to any significant degree. On this site N and P assimilation by the understory from the litter and soil was significantly elevated, while increased N and K uptake by the 147 Figsre 34. ‘dell site dynamics following industrial sludge application. 148 h “.58 3:8: _ 304mm noz Eb. 3.2 more 38.2.“..5fl 2.2 on -o 88.8. oz: xi H 4.8 _ a. z . w. .n v. a :2 oz 059 355-2292? 3 . 390.85 In IIIJM111 .Seficco.5_§._“_~ 2.9 n a x 2 cut... Sumo... a»: t H“ , . 5:38... pagan“ ._ot£_._- - __2§._.. -22.. 5.2 8322.5 82.33 8828. a. 85:2. 22...... : mum. 8:52. areas. : >mOhmmw>o >memmmoz: 6% .x .a. z uooaom 149 Figure 35. Pine River site dynamics following municipal sludge application. 150 .5 _... wZON ozzbom 30.. mm noz sum. H 1 .50. 83.3... moz 25 z .0126. 0320:. : 0N2 .:om _ moz mew. .rz 8:28 2:82.. 8 388$ In .N 2223...; 203:: : mum. 1E3 hmwmoh. omen c2839... 032.2». -22.. 3:8 8.8295 .N 5:32 3.23:. >mprmmw>o 3.2:..- 4 to .a.z 05m. _ .2a.nqe~3xm;‘ magnum , :8854 282. 5238.88 82.33 .8322: 8 5:33... @9295 2 >memmwoz: 151 overstory from the soil was demonstrated. 0n the Pine River site increased amounts of N were assimilated by the overstory from the soil, while those assimilated by the understory appeared to originate from the soil and litter. The understory here also obtained signifi- cantly increased amounts of P and Cd from the forest litter. It was questionable whether overstory roots on either site had responded in any significant way to nutrient additions in the forest litter, as the pines demonstrated the ability to significantly elevate their uptake of nutrients increased only in the soil. The overall response of the vegetation components on each site was similar. The nutrients applied with sludge treatment, particularly nitrogen, improved the nutritional status of the species, precipitating an increase in foliar tissue growth, thereby expanding the photosynthetic production base. Although volume growth increases in the overstories were not well expressed, biomass increases resulting from treatment in the understories were in good evidence. The cadmium levels discovered in the understory vegetation on the Pine River site, however, represented a possible food chain transfer hazard to wildlife and presented another limitation to municipal sludge disposal in forests, in addition to that already posed by NO3—N losses below the rooting zone. Thinned, pole-sized red pine and white pine plantations appear to be capable of accommodating sewage sludges and usefully incorporating the supplementary nutrients into ecosystem components. The nitrogen application rates, however, should be adjusted so as not 152 to exceed 448 kg N/ha, to minimize the possibility of enriching the underlying groundwater with N03-N produced during nitrification. Furthermore, Youngberg (1975) and Wells et al. (1976) reported that maximum growth benefit to pines is derived from N application rates near 448 kg/ha. The litter layer was paramount in effecting capture of the applied nutrients and the soil, with the exception of N03-N at the highest treatment levels, served as an effective filter for percolate nutrient solutions. The most outstanding, unresolved problem identified by this study was the food chain hazard presented by excessive Cd in the understory plants growing on the Pine River site. Future research should determine the actual severity of this hazard and offer possible abatement alternatives. ‘II'I‘I [1"] it. all“! 1|.II‘I‘I [III 1’11f 111 (JII‘I‘I CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Industrial sewage sludge from a paper mill was applied via an all-terrain tanker to a previously thinned 40-year-old red pine plantation located on the Udell Experimental Forest during June of 1976 at rates of 2.0, 4.0, 7.9 and l5.7 tonne per hectare. Municipal sewage sludge from the city of Cadillac, Michigan was applied using portable pipelines and a fire hose sprayer to a previously thinned 36-year-old red pine and white pine plantation located on the Pine River Experimental Forest during July of l976 at rates of 5.4, 9.7 and l9.3 tonne per hectare. These sludge application rates were equivalent to total nitrogen rates of l40, 278, 549 and l,09l kg/ha and 323, 578 and 1,156 kg/ha, respectively. The municipal sludge was a high cadmium sludge with a Zn:Cd ratio of 3.7t1. Upon drying the sludge became a part of the forest litter layer, significantly increasing the nutrient levels found in this ecosystem component on both study sites. Litter cadmium levels as high as 136 ppm were measured on the Pine River site. Within the forest litter, pH and specific conductivity significantly increased with treatment and C to N ratios were narrowed to as low as 24.2:l. The addition of nitrogen to the litter precipitated a structural change wherein a second and third zone of fermentation could be 153 154 discerned along the margins of the sludge layer in the litter profile. As of 1977, however, no appreciable increase was observed in the rate of litter decomposition on either site. Increases in nutrient transfer from the litter layer to the underlying soil occurred only to a limited degree. On both sites the 0-5 cm soil layer experienced significant increases in NH4-N and NOB-N but not total N, indicating that the largest N fraction, organic-N, was mostly retained in the litter layer above. Total P increased in the Rubicon and Croswell sands of the Udell site but not in the Grayling and Menominee sands of the Pine River site. On both sites soil specific conductivity temporarily increased; however, no significant soil pH, C to N ratio or other nutrient or physical changes in the 0-5 cm layer were observed. Soil cadmium level increase trends were generally poorly developed with a range of values from 0.1 to 0.4 ppm, indicating little Cd movement from the litter into the surface soil. The soil below the 5 cm depth experienced minimal influence from sludge treatment. 0n the Udell site NOB-N increases were seen down to 30 cm while the Pine River soils exhibited N03—N increases only down to 10 cm. On both sites NH4-N increased down to the 10 cm soil depth. No other evidence of chemical or physical change was found in the lower soil depths. The quality of water moving from the treated plots was monitored using wells inserted into the surface of the water table aquifer and porous cup soil water samplers. During 1976 all measured 155 elements remained below 0.1 ppm. Nith snowmelt early in the 1977 season, however, elevated nitrate levels appeared in the water under both sites. Although N03-N levels in soil water under the highest sludge treatment plots exceeded the 10 ppm USPHS standard throughout much of the year, significant losses from the rooting zone occurred only during months of groundwater recharge in spring and fall. Maximum allowable sludge dosage rates which would meet the 10 ppm N03-N standard were computed to be 19.1 tonne per hectare for the Pine River site and 9.5 tonne per hectare for the Udell site. These limits indicated the inherent superiority of the Pine River site as a sludge disposal area, with its deeper water table, over the Udell site, with its shallower water table and hence shorter percolate retention time in the unsaturated zone. Understory plants on the Udell site significantly improved their nutritional status and growth by increasing their N and P assimilation from the enriched soil and litter layers. Increases as great as 128% in total N, 370% in total P and 92% in total above ground biomass production resulting from treatment were measured on this site. Understory plants on the Pine River site also improved their nutritional status and growth with treatment. Significantly increased levels of N, from soil and litter, and P and Cd, from litter, were assimilated. Increases as high as 144% in total N, 188% in total P and 132% in total above-ground biomass were seen here. However, understory cadmium concentrations, as great as 22.7 ppm, exceeded 156 the desired 1.0 ppm foliar recommendation for avoiding food chain buildup problems in the ecosystem. The red pine growing on the Udell site benefited nutritionally from the N and K supplied in the sludge treatment while the red pine and white pine growing on the Pine River site underwent an improvement in their N status. On both sites there was little evidence that the roots of the overstory had begun to exploit the enriched forest litter nutrient reservoir to any significant degree. Growth benefits to the trees were primarily expressed in terms of increased needle length and dry weight. Both stands appeared, at this point, to be expanding their photosynthetic production base as a prelude to future volume growth responses. Recommendations Data compiled in the course of this study have indicated that thinned, pole-sized red pine and white pine plantations growing in coarse textured soils derived from glacial outwash are capable of usefully incorporating into their various ecosystem components the nutrients delivered to them by sewage sludge landspreading. Within the limits imposed by these terrestrial ecosystems groundwater quality can be ensured and vegetation growth and nutrition can be improved in conjunction with sludge disposal. The following recommendations are offered as guidelines for meeting the environmental limitations inherent in these conifer systems. 157 1. To ensure that soil percolate and groundwater nitrate levels meet the 10 ppm USPHS standard, sludge application rates should not exceed 9.5 tonnes per hectare on sites with high water tables, i.e., within 3 m of the surface as on the Udell site, and 19.1 tonnes per hectare on sites with deep water tables, i.e., greater than 25 m from the surface as on the Pine River site. These limits correspond to 660 kg N/ha and 1,144 kg N/ha, respectively. 2. To optimally benefit overstory growth in these conifer ecosystems, sludge dosages should be adjusted so that approximately 448 kg N/ha is applied to either type of setting. 3. Diminishing the food chain transfer hazard posed by excessive cadmium accumulation in understory plants should be achieved by lowering sludge Cd levels prior to landspreading, as even the lowest sludge application rate employed produced under- stories with Cd exceeding 1 ppm. Using wildlife populations as a means of terrestrial dispersal for this element would be a practice accompanied by some risk. Sewage sludge landspreading in northern coniferous forests should not be conducted with the notion of disposing the maximum sludge volume upon the smallest possible land area. Rather, sludge recycling is best conducted from the perspective of insuring long-term ecosystem integrity, by maintaining a groundwater recharge of high quality and vigorous production of vegetation while minimizing the opportunity for toxic element accumulation in the environment. APPENDIX APPENDIX Table 30. Udell site species list of vascular plants Common name Scientific name Family Red pine Pinus resinosa, Ait. Pinaceae Jack pine Pinus banksiana, Lamb. Pinaceae White oak Quercus alba, L. Fagaceae Black oak Quercus velutina, Lamb. Fagaceae Cherry Prunus spp., L. Rosaceae Hawthorne Crataegus spp., L. Rosaceae Red maple Acer rubrum, L. Aceraceae Serviceberry Amelanchier spp., Med. Rosaceae Brambles Rubus spp., L. Rosaceae Gooseberries, currants Ribes spp., L. Saxifragaceae Sweet fern Comptonia peregrina, (L.) Coult. Myricaceae Mapleleaf Viburnum Viburnum acerifolium, L. Caprifoliaceae Blueberry Vaccinium spp., L. Ericaceae Bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum, (L.) Kuhn. Polypodiaceae Dogbane Apocynum androsaemifolium, L. Apocynaceae False Solomon's seal Smilacina stellata, (L.) Desf. Liliaceae Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens, L. Ericaceae Goldenrod Solidago spp., L. Compositae Red sorrel Rumex Acetosella, L. Polygonaceae Wild lityof'the valley Maianthemum canadense, Desf. Liliaceae Cow wheat Melampyrum lineare, Desr. Scrophulariaceae Schizachne Schizachne purpurascens (Torr.) Swallen Gramineae Poverty oat grass Danthonia spicata, (L.) Beauv. Gramineae Big bluestem Andropogon Gerardi, Vitm. Gramineae Panic grass Panicum depauperatum, Muhl. Gramineae Sedge Carex spp., L. Cyperaceae 158 159 Table 31. Pine River site species list of vascular plants ("a" occurs in red pine plots; "b" occurs in white pine plots) Common name Scientific name Family Eastern white pine b Pinus strobus, L. Pinaceae Red pine a Pinus resinosa, Ait. Pinaceae Quaking aspen ab Populus tremuloides, Michx. Salicaceae Bigtooth aspen b Populus grandidentata, Michx. Salicaceae White oak ab Quercus alba, L. Fagaceae Northern red oak ab Quercus rubra, L. Fagaceae Black oak ab Quercus velutina, Lamb Fagaceae Sassafras b Sassafras albidum, (Nutt.) Nées. Lauraceae Cherry ab Prunus spp., L. Rosaceae Red maple ab Acer rubrum, L. Aceraceae Mountain maple b Acer spicatum, Lam. Aceraceae White ash b Fraxinus americana, L. Oleaceae Sweet fern ab Comptonia peregrina, (L.) Coult. Myricaceae Speckled alder b Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. Betulaceae Gooseberries, currants a Ribes spp., L. Saxifragaceae Brambles ab Rubus spp., L. Rosaceae Serviceberry ab Amelanchier spp., Med. Rosaceae Blueberry ab Vaccinium spp., L. Ericaceae Mapleleaf viburnum ab Viburnum acerifolium, L. Caprifoliaceae Bracken fern ab Pteridium aquilinum, (L.) Kuhn Polypodiaceae Schizachne ab Schizachne purpurascens, (Torr.) Swallen Gramineae Poverty oat grass ab Danthonia spicata, (L.) Beauv. Gramineae Panic grass ab Panicum depauperatum, Muhl. Gramineae Big bluestem b Andropogon Gerardi, Vitm. Gramineae Sedge ab Carex spp., L. Cyperaceae False Solomon's seal ab Smilacina stellata, (L.) Desf. Liliaceae Wild lily of the valley ab Maianthemum canadense, Desf. Liliaceae Red sorrel ab Rumex Acetosella, L. Polygonaceae Dogbane ab Apocynum androsaemifolium, L. Apocynaceae Goldenrod ab Solidago spp., L. Compositae Pussy toes ab Antennaria neglecta, Greene. Compositae Hawkweed ab Hieracium spp., L. Compositae Arrow aster a Aster sagittofolius, Willd. Compositae Butterfly-weed a Asclepias tuberosa, L. Asclepiadaceae Tumble mustard a Sisymbrium altissimum, L. Cruciferae St. John's wort a Hypericum perforatum, L. 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R ------- ma az _< a: mu x Lam> “a;\m==opv ucmsummgp mmcapm Lm>wa wcwa asp co mcowumcucmocoo pcmwcuzc Lmuuwp wcwa muwcz .vm wpnmh 163 Table 35. Soil nutrient concentrations on the Udell site, 0-5 cm depth Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year K Ca Mg Na H 0M --------------- meq/100 g ------------- --%-- 15.7 1976 0.10ab* 0.76a 0.14a 0.16a 6.88a 5.68a 7.9 0.10a 0.59ab 0.12ab 0.09ab 7.15a 4.37a 4.0 0.07b 0.43b 0.08c 0.03bc 5.93a 4.22a 2.0 0.07ab 0.69a 0 llbc 0.04bc 6.47a 5.23a 0.0 0.076 0.77a 0 llabc 0.00c 8.67a 6.75a 15.7 1977 0.09a 0.73a 0.l7a 0.05a 6.19ab 2.82a 7.9 0.05b 0.43a 0 10ab 0.03b 4.93b 2.49a 4.0 0.06b 0.48a 0.09b 0.02b 5.81ab 3.08a 2.0 0.05b 0.60a 0.09b 0.02b 6.89a 3.07a 0.0 0.05b 0.48a 0.09b 0.02b 6.37ab 2.80a Fe Cu Mn Pb Cr N1 --------------------- ppm --------------------- 15.7 1976 172a 0 3a 47.9a 3.7a 0.1a 0.lb 7.9 178a 0 2a 44.8a 4.1a 0.1a 0.lb 4.0 203a 0 3a 54.9a 3.6a 0.1a 0.0c 2.0 186a 0 2a 46.4a 4.4a 0.1a <0.lc 0.0 194a 0 2a 70.3a 4.9a 0 la 0 2a 15.7 1977 152ab 0 4a 46.1a 3.2a 0.1a 0.2a 7.9 l49b 0 2a 38.4a 2.9a 0.1a 0.lb 4.0 164ab 0 3a 41.4a 3.0a 0.1a 0.2a 2.0 182a 0 3a 38.6a .3.3a 0 la 0.2a 0.0 181a 0 4a 43.8a 3.1a 0 la 0.2a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). Table 36. pine, 0-5 cm depth 164 Soil nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under red Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year K Ca Mg Na H 0M -------------- meq/lOD g ----------- --%-- 19.3 1976 0.06a* 1.01a 0.15a 0.03a 6.36a 3.86a 9.7 0.06a 1.27a 0.15a 0.03a 6.29a 4.61a 5.4 0.05a 0.79a 0.11a 0.02ab 6.36a 4.46a 0.0 0.04a 0.57a 0.09a 0.01b 5.88a 3.24a 19.3 1977 0.04a 0.69a 0.07a 0.03a 5.91a 2.48ab 9.7 0.05a 1.10a 0.12a 0.02a 5.87a 2.79a 5.4 0.04a 0.61a 0.06a 0.01a 6.01a 2.32ab 0.0 0.04a 0.45a 0.06a 0.01a 5.23a 2.04b Fe Cu Mn Pb Cr Ni -------------------- ppm -------------------- 19.3 1976 165a 0.1a 93.8a 2.5a 0.1a <0.la 9.7 161a 0.2a 76.7ab 2.7a 0.1a 0.1a 5.4 149a 0.1a 61.9ab 3.3a 0.1a 0.1a 0.0 153a 0.1a 41.6b 2.9a 0.1a <0.la 19.3 1977 156a 0.3a 73.8a 2.1a 0.1a 0.2a 9.7 147a 0.4a 47.1a 2.5a 0.1a 0.2ab 5.4 147a 0.2a 69.1a 2.6a 0.1a 0.lab 0.0 140a 0.3a 50.8a 3.1a 0.1a 0.lb *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 165 Table 37. Soil nutrient concentrations on the Pine River site under white pine, 0-5 cm depth Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year K Ca Mg Na H 0M -------------- meq/100 g------------- --%-- 19.3 1976 0.08a* 1.64 0.20a 0.01a 5.81a 4.02a 9.7 0.08a 0.93a 0.16a 0.02a 5.81a 3.36a 5.4 0.08a 1.76a 0.24a <0.01a 5.74a 6.85a 0.0 0.09a 1.36a 0.23a 0.01a 4.92a 3.59a 19.3 1977 0.05a 1.64a 0.16a ' 0.01a 5.60a 2.71a 9.7 0.05a 0.92a 0.09a 0.01a 6.43a 2.19a 5.4 0.05a 1.30a 0.13a 0.01a 5.74a 2.89a 0.0 0.05a 1.15a 0.13a 0.01a 5.98a 2.37a Fe Cu Mn Pb Cr Ni -------------------- ppm -------------------- 19.3 1976 142a 0.1a 59.5ab 2.4a 0.1a 0.0a 9.7 155a 0.2a 52.0b 2.9a 0.1a 0.0a 5.4 161a 0.1a 82.6a 3.6a 0.1a 0.1a 0.0 128a 0.1a 51 7b 2.3a 0.1a 0.0a 19.3 1977 124ab 0 7a 52.1ab 2.8a 0.0b 0.2a 9.7 145a 0 4ab 37.5b 2.3a 0.1a 0.2a 5.4 117b 0 5ab 67.4a 2.7a 0.0b 0.2a 0.0 ll3b 0 3b 66.1ab 1.9a 0.1a 0.2a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level L.S.D. . Table 38. 166 Soil TKN and total P on the Udell site Sludge treatment Soil depth (cm) Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 ------------- TKN (ppm) ------—--------- 1976 15.7 620 320 150 150 7.9 720 300 170 60 4.0 590 330 170 90 2.0 660 300 170 90 0.0 530 320 200 50 1977 15.7 490 290 100 40 7.9 520 250 90 40 4.0 620 260 90 40 2.0 590 250 110 50 0.0 490 340 110 60 ----------- Total P (ppm) ------—--—---- 1976 15.7 141 195 133 66 7.9 157 139 156 71 4.0 181 144 139 54 2.0 157 167 128 60 0.0 116 167 122 60 1977 15.7 100 137 93 52 7.9 84 107 81 49 4.0 103 129 90 49 2.0 85 139 100 49 0.0 79 104 100 49 167 Table 39. Soil K and Na on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 ----------- K (meq/100 g) -------------- 1976 15.7 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 7.9 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 4.0 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 2.0 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 1977 15.7 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.01 7.9 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 4.0 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 2.0 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.0 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 ----------- Na (meq/100 g)-------------- 1976 15.7 0.10 0.01 0.01 0.00 7.9 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.0 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.0 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1977 15.7 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.02 7.9 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 4.0 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 2.0 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 168 Table 40. Soil Ca and Mg on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 ----------- Ca (meq/100 g)------------- 1976 15.7 0.30 0.12 0.06 0.04 7.9 0.21 0.07 0.03 0.01 4.0 0.24 0.08 0.04 0.01 2.0 0.30 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.0 0.23 0.08 0.01 0.01 1977 15.7 0.27 0.12 0.03 0.03 7.9 0.25 0.08 0.07 0.04 4.0 0.22 0.15 0.05 0.03 2.0 0.29 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.0 0.16 0.05 0.06 0.02 ----------- Mg (meq/lOO g)------------- 1976 15.7 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 7.9 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.0 0.06 0.05 0.00 0.00 2.0 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 1977 15.7 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01 7.9 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 4.0 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.0 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.0 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 169 Table 41. Soil Fe and Mn on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 -------------- Fe (ppm)---------------- 1976 15.7 164.4 38.3 10.4 14.1 7.9 179.5 41.6 13.1 6.4 4.0 183.5 36.6 10.3 5.0 2.0 185.6 53.1 12.6 6.1 0.0 172.1 50.2 13.0 6.0 1977 15.7 111.5 25.9 9.3 6.9 7.9 133.2 21.8 10.5 5.9 4.0 139.4 24.8 8.1 6.0 2.0 137.5 23.4 10.4 6.1 0.0 123.8 26.6 10.2 5.2 --------------- Mn (ppm)---------------- 1976 15.7 38.6 4.1 1.0 1.8 7.9 36.9 5.9 1.6 0.9 4.0 32.8 4.6 1.1 0.8 2.0 35.1 5.7 0.6 -- 0.0 43.1 8.2 1.4 0.8 1977 15.7 27.9 2.2 0.5 0.4 7.9 26.1 1.5 0.8 0.4 4.0 34.6 1.9 0.4 0.6 2.0 23.2 1.3 1.2 0.5 0.0 31.9 2.1 1.0 0.5 170 Soil Zn and Cu on the Udell site Table 42. Soil depth (cm) 105-120 15-30 45-60 5-10 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year --------------Zn (ppm)----------------- 1976 1977 ------—-------Cu (ppm)----------------- 1976 1977 171 Soil Cd and Pb on the Udell site Table 43. Soil depth (cm) 15-30 105-120 45-60 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 5-10 Year ---------------Cd (ppm)-------—-------- 1976 1977 ---------------Pb (ppm)---------------- 1976 1977 172 Soil Cr and Ni on the Udell site Table 44. Soil depth (cm) 105-120 45-60 15-30 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 5-10 Year ---------------Cr (ppm)---------------- 1976 1977 ---------------Ni (ppm)---------------- 1976 1977 173 Table 45. Soil pH and specific conductivity on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 .................. pH_-_-__-_---_-_---_- 1976 15.7 4.2 4.9 5.1 5.2 7.9 4.2 4.8 5.2 5.1 4.0 4.1 4.9 5.0 5.1 2.0 4.2 4.9 5.0 5.1 0.0 4.1 4.8 5.0 5.1 1977 15.7 4.2 4.9 5.0 5.1 7.9 4.1 4.9 5.0 5.1 4.0 4.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 2.0 4.1 5.1 5.0 5.1 0.0 4.2 5.0 5.0 5.1 ---Specific conductivity (umhos/cm)--- 1976 15.7 201 -- -- -- 7.9 157 -- -- -- 4.0 148 -- -- -- 2.0 160 -- -- -- 0.0 157 -- -- -- 1977 15.7 215 139 79 69 7.9 197 88 69 71 4.0 201 79 53 62 2.0 188 71 74 76 0.0 147 71 69 53 174 Table 46. Soil exchange acidity and cation exchange capacity on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 ------------- H (meq/100 g)-------------- 1976 15.7 4.75 5.78 2.89 1.65 7.9 4.95 5.57 3.71 1.44 4.0 5.57 5.37 3.10 1.65 2.0 5.37 5.57 3.51 1.44 0.0 4.33 5.16 2.89 1.44 1977 15.7 5.66 5.12 2.86 1.98 7.9 5.54 4.62 2.04 0.62 4.0 5.69 4.76 2.72 2.12 2.0 7.05 5.98 1.58 0.82 0.0 5.04 4.54 2.14 1.82 ----------- CEC (meq/100 g) ----------—- 1976 15.7 5.27 5.93 2.96 1.69 7.9 5.28 5.65 3.74 1.45 4.0 5.94 5.46 3.14 1.66 2.0 5.79 5.71 3.56 1.46 0.0 4.63 5.25 2.90 1.45 1977 15.7 6.11 5.37 2.95 2.04 7.9 5.92 4.76 2.15 0.68 4.0 6.00 4.98 2.80 2.17 2.0 7.45 6.13 1.66 0.87 0.0 5.28 4.64 2.23 1.86 175 Table 47. Soil base saturation and organic matter on the Udell site Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment Year (tonne/ha) 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 --------- Base saturation (%) ----------- 1976 15.7 9.9 2.5 2.4 2.4 7.9 6.2 1.4 0.8 0.7 4.0 6.2 1.6 1.3 0.6 2.0 7.3 2.5 1.4 1.4 0.0 6.5 1.7 0.3 0.7 1977 15.7 7.3 4.7 3.1 3.0 7.9 6.3 2.9 5.1 8.8 4.0 5.3 4.4 2.9 2.3 2.0 5.3 2.4 4.8 5.7 0.0 4.8 2.2 4.0 2.2 ---------- Organic matter (%)------------ 1976 15.7 3.11 -- 2.87 -- 7.9 2.98 -- 2.67 -- 4.0 3.36 -- 2.78 -- 2.0 3.72 -- 2.98 -- 0.0 3.42 -- 2.93 -- 1977 15.7 2.08 1.51 0.62 0.22 7.9 2.27 1.34 0.65 0.17 4.0 2.27 1.47 0.58 0 22 2.0 2.46 1.61 0.60 0 20 0.0 2.10 1.34 0.62 0 19 176 om mop ~m~ mm cu app mNN mop o.o we o—F map em me mm NNF PFP ¢.m oe «up cup mop cu Np, m~_ PPP ~.m mm mop map NFF mm cop mwp sup m.mp sump P¢F map mmm om, Pep mop NNN omp o.o om amp mew me, no amp mew Rep e.m on map wmm mpp mm mop wmm mpp n.m mm mmm mop “up mm mmm map va m.m_ mnmp ------------------------- AEaaV a Punch------------- om amp omm omm om amp cum omm o.o cc o¢~ cum omm oe opp com one ¢.m ow opp omm omm om opp omm 0¢e ~.m oc omp cum cum om cop cum omv m.mp Bump om o—m omm omm ow OFN omm omm 0.0 cc cup com cam ow cup com ovm e.m co com ONN cum om com cum cum m.m o omm omm omm o omm CNN omm m.m_ mumF -------------------------- ..Asaav zxp -------------- amp-mop oo-me om-m_ op-m omp-mop oo-me om-mp o_-m Am;\mccopv me> pcwapmmgu mmvapm AEUV spawn _wom mcwa mums: mama cum 832m ca>wm 8:22 8:3 go a _auou new zge _wom .mw mpnmp 177 Po.o Fo.o No.o _o.o No.0 No.0 mo.o Po.o o.o Po.o Po.o No.o Po.o ~o.o ~o.o mo.o No.o ¢.m Po.o _o.o Fo.o Po.o Fo.o No.o mo.o _o.o n.m Po.o Fo.o No.0 Fo.o No.0 No.o no.0 No.0 m.m_ NumF mo.o mo.o No.0 oo.o mo.o mo.o No.o oo.o o.o Fo.o Po.o No.o oo.o Po.o po.o No.o oo.o ¢.m oo.o _o.o _o.o mo.o oo.o —o.o _o.o mo.o ~.m oo.o ao.o eo.o Po.o oo.o co.o wo.o Fo.o m.m_ oum~ ------------------------- Am oop\cmsv mz -------------- Fo.o No.o No.o mo.o Po.o Fo.o No.0 mo.o o.o Fo.o No.o mo.o co.o Fo.o No.o No.0 mo.o ¢.m Po.o No.o mo.o mo.o Po.o No.0 No.0 mo.o ~.m Po.o No.o no.0 mo.o Fo.o po.o No.o mo.o m.m_ “nap mo.o mo.o No.o mo.o mo.o mo.o No.o mo.o o.o oo.o Fo.o No.o mo.o oo.o Fo.o No.o mo.o q.m oo.o ~o.o No.0 mo.o oo.o No.0 No.o oo.o N.m Fo.o No.o mo.o mo.o Fo.o ~o.o mo.o mo.o m.mp ommp ......................... 3 8:85 V.1-1-1-11---11------ amp-mop om-me om-mp oP-m cup-mop om-mc om-mp oF-m Am;\mccopv me> pawspmwga mmcsFm AEUV spawn Fwom 8:28 832:3 8:28 88¢ mpmm gm>wm mew; mg» no mz can x Fwom .me mpnmh 178 F0.0 ~0.0 00.0 50.0 ~0.0 Po.0 00.0 00.0 0.0 no.0 no.0 No.0 o0.0 P0.0 no.0 No.0 00.0 0.0 P0.0 P0.0 no.0 00.0 nn.0 No.0 no.0 00.0 “.0 _0.0 No.0 no.0 No.0 no.0 F0.0 P0.0 00.0 n.0F “Koo P0.0 F0.0 no.0 00.0 F0.0 _0.0 No.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 F0.0 no.0 PF.0 00.0 ~0.0 no.0 FF.0 0.0 00.0 F0.o no.0 0F.0 00.0 F0.0 no.0 0F.0 “.0 00.0 no.0 no.0 NF.0 00.0 no.0 no.0 NF.0 n.0P oqu ------------------------- A0 00_\owev oz ------------- No.0 0P.0 nn.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 o_.0 No.0 0.0 NF.0 Rn.0 on.0 Fn.0 no.0 no.0 op.0 00.0 0.0 no.0 00.0 m~.0 on.0 0F.p 00.0 mp.0 on.o 5.0 No.0 N_.0 o_.0 ~0.0 ¢~.0 00.0 __.0 no.0 n.o_ “sop 00.0 n~.0 NP.0 no.0 00.0 np.0 NF.0 no.0 0.0 No.0 00.0 op.0 N~.0 00.0 00.0 op.0 NN.0 0.0 No.0 ~_.0 0F.0 no.0 No.0 NF.0 op.0 no.0 “.0 00.0 mp.0 n_.0 0~.0 00.0 m_.0 n~.0 0m.0 n.0_ omo— ------------------------ A0 00~\0wsv mo------------- 0NF-mop 00-00 0n-m_ 0_-m 0NF-00_ 00-00 0n-m_ 0F-m Am;\mccoov me> 000500820 mooo_m 2580 58888 Foam 8:08 woos: 8:28 88¢ 830m ca>wm 8:22 as“ =0 a: new no _Pom .Om mpnap 179 8.2 0.2 e.~ 0.22 0.0 _.N P.o_ o._~ 0.0 _.F 0.2 o.n 4.0m 2.0 0.0 _.n m.nm e.m 0.0 4.0 m.~ m.mn 4.2 0.0 ~.m ¢.nn 2.8 F._ ¢.n w.n e.nm o.~ 4.0 F.N n.00 n.m_ N~m_ F.N m.n 0.0 “.mn 0.0 m.N ¢.m n.mn 0.0 4.. 2.4 o.~_ «.24 4., 2., 4.0 o.~n e.m ~._ -- 0.0 e.ne m.N m.n m.0p 0.m~ 2.8 4.2 N.n 0.x o.~0 -- m.~ n.n N.oo m.m_ 0282 -- ........................ - 25880 c: --- ...................... --- n.0, m.e_ 0.mn 0.ma_ N.o e.- m.- P.n__ 0.0 N.n e.m_ 8.82 «.mm_ m.m ~.N_ _._m 2.842 e.m m.m m.NF F.em_ 0.0mp n.m 2.42 0.02 m.n__ 2.0 P.n _.mp ~.mn n._2_ 0.8 N.m N.0N m.mm n.8, Rhm_ N.o v.22 n.04 m.mn 0.0 N.NP m.ne 0.mpp 0.0 0.2 n.2m N.nn n.me_ _.n o.~_ 0._~ 0.22. e.m 2.0 -- e.eo_ n.~N_ 0.m_ 0.0m m.nm m.m0_ 2.0 4.2 e.- _.mm m.n_. -- 0.0N m.mm m.¢__ n.m_ 0~m_ -- ........................ - Asaao an .............. -------- ...... om_-mo_ oo-me on-m2 op-m o~_-mo_ 00-me on-m_ op-m Aa;\a==ooo cam» pcmsummgu moo=_m 2580 spawn _Pom 8:28 882;: 8:28 88m 8328 28>?“ 8:22 ago co :2 new 82 _wom .Fm apnap te TVEI" S1 Soil Zn and Cu on the Pine R Table 52. White pine Red pine Soil depth (cm) 45-60 105-120 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 15-30 5-10 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) Year ---------------Zn (ppm)-------------- d'v—r—O OOOO (\mmo OOI—l— mmmm COCO r—ON‘D NNl-‘f— Q'I—v—O COCO [\mmo COP-r— 1.0“)an OOOO v—ONKD NNF—F- MNVO 03031170 P 1976 180 ("OF-NN COCO Q’NNF- COO!— toomc3c3c$ Ov—I—O COCO Of—l—o COCO Nan—m 0000 0000 Mfiio 20:60 1976 V00 POOP- COCO C O 6000 GOOD fizNMN COCO 00¢ r—F-OO c>c5c5c> COCO OOOO NNNN COCO Mffifi'c O;O;LDO 1977 te TVEY‘ S1 Soil Cd and Pb on the Pine R Table 53. White pine Red pine Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment 105-120 45-60 105-120 5-10 15-30 45-60 15-30 5-10 (tonne/ha) Year ---------------Cd (ppm)----—---------- COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO MEVO SOLOC 1976 181 COCO COCO COCO COCO (”756:0 0:0;LDC 1977 -------------- Pb (ppm)-------------- COCO 0090.00") COCO Comr- I—F-r-F- INF-m . o 0 COO LDNMLO COCO NEDLOLD COCO mem l—I—r—r— MNOC 030;“)0 1976 r—NNN COCO QNMM COCO lefim COCO CNNN Of—F'o COCO NMNN COCO LOCLDQ‘ COCO ONI—to F—l—F—f— MNQ'C SSOLDC 1977 te 1V8? 51 Soil Cr and Ni on the Pine R Table 54. White pine Red pine Soil depth (cm) Sludge treatment 105-120 45-60 5-10 15-30 45-60 105-120 5-10 15-30 (tonne/ha) Year -------------- Cr (ppm)-------—------- COCO COCO COCO COCO CCt-C CCCC I CCC | o 0 COO COCO COCO CCCC COCO COCO MNVC O50;LOC 1976 182 COCO COCO COCO COCO m Cv—CC COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO COCO r-r—oo CCCC COCO MNVC COLOC 1977 --------------—Ni (ppm)-------------- I—CCC COCO COCO COCO NNr-N COCO COCO COCO POOO COCO COCO COCO NNl—N COCO COCO COCO MNQ’C COLOC 1976 CCCr- COCO c COCO COCO COCO COCO c5c5c> COCO NFFF COCO Mffdzo SOLOC 1977 183 N0 00 00 00m 00 00 mm 00. 0.0 N0 00 00 n00 00 n0 o0 00m 0.0 n0 00 00 000 000 N0 00 000 0.0 00 mm NR 000 N0 00 00 000 0.00 0000 - - - 000 - - - n00 0.0 - - - ~00 - - - om, 0.0 - - - ~0_ - - - N00 0.0 - - - ~00 - - - 000 n.00 0000 ----- ------AEU\mo;E:V x00>00000=ou 00000000--------- 0.0 0.0 0.0 n.0 0.0 0.0 N.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n.0 0.0 0.0 «.0 0.0 0.0 n.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n.0 0.0 n.00 0000 - - - 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.0 - - - 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.0 - - - 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.0 - - - 0.0 - - - 0.0 n.0, 0000 lllllllllllllllllllll Illllllll IQ IlllllllllllllllllllIllllllllII 0N0-000 00-00 0n-0_ 00-0 000-000 00-00 on-0_ 00-0 A0;\0::o0v L00> 000200000 000000 0000 00000 0000 0:00 000:3 0:00 000 0000 00>0m 0:00 0:0 :0 >00>00000000 00000000 0:0 :0 0000 .00 00000 184 ...0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 .0.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0... 00. 00.0 ...0 0.0 .0.0 0..0 .0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 .0.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.0 00.. .0.. 00.0 00.. 0.0. 0.0. 00.. 00.0 0..0 00.0 00.. 00.0 0..0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 -- 00.. 00.0 00.0 -- 00.. 0.0 00.0 ...0 00.0 00.. 00.0 ...0 00.0 00.. 0.0. 000. ........................ .0 00.\0000 000.i----------------------- 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0..0 ...0 0.0 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.0 0... 00.0 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 00.. 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 00.. 00.0 00.0 0.0. .00. 00.. 00.0 00.0 0..0 00.. 00.0 00.0 0..0 0.0 .0.0 00.. 0..0 0..0 .0.0 00.. 0..0 0..0 0.0 00.0 00.0 -- 00.0 00.0 00.0 -- 00.0 0.0 .0.0 00.0 00.0 0..0 .0.0 00.0 00.0 0..0 0.0. 0.0. ......................... .0 00.\0000 0 -------------------------- 00.-00. 00-00 00-0. 0.-0 00.-00. 00-00 00-0. 0.-0 .000000000 000. .000 00000 .000 00.0 00.03 00.0 000 000000000 0000.0 0000 00>0m 0000 000 00 00000000 000000x0 000000 000 0000000 000000x0 .000 .00 00000 185 0n.0 .0.0 n0.. no.. 00.0 00.0 on.. 00.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 00.. 00.0 00.0 0n.. 0..N 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 0..~ .n.0 00.0 00.. 00.. 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.. 0n.0 n.o. 000. 00.0 00.0 0... 00.0 0n.0 00.0 0... 00.0 0.0 0n.0 00.0 00.. 00.0 0n.0 00.0 on.. n0.n 0.0 0n.0 N... 00.. 00.0 00.0 N... 00.. No.0 0.0 00.0 0... 00.. n0.n 00.0 0... 00.. .0.n 0.0. 0.0. ----------------------- ARV 000000 0.00000 ------------ 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0. 0.0. ..0 o.n 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.n 0.0 0.00 ..0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.0 0.0. n0. 0.0 0.0 0.0 n.o. 000. 0.0 0.0 0.0 N... 0.0 0.0 0.0 N... 0.0 0.0 ..0 0.0 0.0. 0.0 ..0 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.0 ..0 0.0. 0.0. 0.0 ..0 - 0.0. 0.0 0.0. 0.0 0.0 0.0. 0.0. 0.. 0.0 0.0. 0.0. 000. ---------------------- .00 0000000000 0000 ----------- 0~.-00. 00-00 00.0. 0.-0 00.-00. 00-00 00-0. 0.-0 .00\000000 000> 000000000 0000.0 .000 00000 .000 00.0 00.03 00.0 000 00.0 00>.0 00.0 000 00 000000 0.00000 000 0000000000 0000 .000 .00 0.00. 186 Table 58. Soil bulk density Soil depth (cm) 0-5 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) 1976 1977 1976 1977 ------------------- g/cm3 ------------------- Udell site l5.7 l.lOa* l.lla l.24a l.24a 7.9 l.09a l.l7a l.21a l.22a 4.0 l.l4a l.l2a l.24a l.23a 2.0 1.083 l.l6a l.21a l.23a 0.0 l.05a l.l4a l.2la l.26a Pine River site Red pine 19.3 l.lBa l.l8a l.26a l.22a 9.7 l.09a l.03a l.23a l.l3a 5.4 l.l6a l.l9a l.25a l.25a 0.0 l.lQa l.lSa 1.28a l.21a White pine l9.3 l.l3a l.l8a l.25a l.32a 9.7 l.lla l.l7a l.26a l.26a 5.4 l.06a l.l7a l.l9a l.30a 0.0 l.08a l.lGa l.23a l.26a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 187 Table 59. Soil moisture Soil depth (cm) 0-5 5-l0 Sludge treatment (tonne/ha) l976 l977 1976 1977 ..................... % ----___-__---------- Udell site l5.7 9.2a* ll.la 6.7a 9.la 7.9 6.5a 9.4a 6.0a 9.la 4.0 6.4a lO.9a 6.2a 8.9a 2.0 7.9a lO.4a 9.0a 9.5a 0.0 9.6a 9.7a 8.0a 8.6a Pine River site Red pine l9.3 4.9a l0.3a 4.5a ll.la 9.7 5.3a ll.la 3.8a 8.0a 5.4 4.6a 9.5a 8.la 8.9a 0.0 4.6a 9.la 3.7a 8.6a White pine l9.3 5.0a ll.3a 6.0a 8.6a 9.7 4.8a ll.6a 4.5a 9.la 5.4 5.4a lO.7a 5.8a 8.6a 0.0 4.1a lO.2a 4.4a 9.9a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group followed by different letters are significantly different at the .05 level (L.S.D.). 188 .0.0.0.0V 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00:00 .000000 0000 000 000003 00000020 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 000.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0000 0.00 -u---- ........ -u---u-----u--- 000 -i-----------u--------u----- 02 00 00 0 00 0: 00.00 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 000.000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 000.000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 00.000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 000.000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0000 0.00 00.00 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 000.000 000.00 00000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 000.000 000.00— 00000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 00.000 00.000 00000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 00.000 00.000 0000 0000.0 0000.0 00000.0 0000 0.00 in--- ............. 000 ...... u .......... u------ 0 a- ..... 00 02 00 0: 00 x 000> 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 00000 000 00 00000000000000 00000000 000000000: .00 00000 189 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 0030—000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 00000020 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.000 0000.0 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 000.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 000.00 0000 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 000.0 00.00 000.00 00.00 000.000 0000 0.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.000 0000 0.0 00.0 00.00 000.00 00.00 00.000 0000 0000 0.00 -u---------- ..... .u.......... 000 -iuuiuiuu--u------------n-u- 02 00 00 0 0N 02 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0000 0.00 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 00000.0 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000.0 000.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000.0 000.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 00000.0 0000 0.00 ------ ............ --000 ................. -u------0 ....... 00 02 00 0: 00 x 000> 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 000 00000 0000 00>00 0000 000 00 00000000000000 00000000 000000000: .00 00000 190 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 00000020 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 000.00 00.00 0000.0 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 0000 0.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 000.000 0000 0.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.0— 00.000 0000 0.0 00.0 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.000 0000 0000 0.00 ............. -u------------- 000 u--------------u-- .u....... 02 00 00 0 0N 0: 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 00000 00.00 000 0000.0 0000.0 00000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0000 0.00 0000 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000.0 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000.0 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000.0 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 «0000.0 0000 0.00 .................. 000 -u---------u---- ------- 0 -u----- 00 02 00 0: 00 g 000> 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 00003 00000 0000 00>00 0000 000 00 00000000000000 00000000 000000000: .00 00000 191 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 00000020 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 000.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 000.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0000 0.00 -------------------------- 000 -u-----u--------------uu- 02 00 00 00 00 00 0000 00.00 00.00 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 000.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 00000 000.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 000.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 000.00 000.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0000 0.0— 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 00000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 00000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 00000.0 0000 0.00 uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu 000 nuuiiuuuiuuiuu- I. .0. l. 02 00 02 00 0: 00 0000 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 00000 000 00 0000000 0000 000 00 00000000000000 00000002 .00 00000 192 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 000000z« 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.00 0000 0.00 ....................... 000 u---uunuu---uu--uu-uuun-u- 02 00 00 00 00 :0 0000 00.00 00.0 00000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 00000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0000 0.00 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000 «0000.0 0000 0.00 ................... 000 .i---:u---!i------ .. 0. .i :z 00 02 0< 02 00 0000 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 00>00 0000 000 :0 0000000 0:00 000 00 00000000000000 00000002 .00 00000 193 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 00000020 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0000 0.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 000.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00 0000 0.00 ...................... .u.. 000 u--------u-----------u-u-u- 02 00 00 00 00 00 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 000.00 00.0 0000 00000.0 00000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.00 0000 00000.0 00000.0 0.0 0000 000.00 00.00 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0000 0.00 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000.0 0000.0 0.0 0000 00.00 00.0 0000 0000.0 «0000.0 0000 0.00 ..................... 000-u-------------------- --0-- 02 00 02 0< 0: 00 000> 0000000000 000000000 000000 0000 00>00 0000 000 00 0000000 0000 00003 00 00000000000000 00000002 .00 00000 Table 66. treatment 194 Height growth of overstory trees prior to and following Sludge treatment Height growth (tonne/ha) 1973 1974 1975 1976 1979 ...................... cm ------------------_--- Ude11 site 15.7 44.3ab* 49.4a 49.8a 46.1a 31.7a 7.9 44.5ab 45.0a 51.0a 46.6a 31.7a 4.0 50.8a 46.9a 52.2a 39.4b 34.4a 2.0 47.8ab 43.7a 50.2a 41.7ab 32.8a 0.0 42.8b 43.8a 52.4a 45.4a 32.9a Pine River site Red pine 19.3 45.2a 43.8a 50.2a 49.5a 29.8a 9.7 44.8a 47.3a 60.2a 55.0a 34.5a 5.4 38.0a 45.0a 57.7a 48.3a 40.3a 0.0 43.8a 43.2a 56.3a 49.5a 29.8a White pine 19.3 55.0a 58.8a 66.7ab 36.8b 23.5a 9.7 65.8a 61.7a 53.8b 61.5a 32.8a 5.4 62.3a 66.5a 82.2a 46.0ab 23.2a 0.0 49.0a 66.3a 56.2b 47.5ab 27.8a *Numbers within the same column, study site and species group foilowed by different ietters are significantly different at the .05 levei (L.S.D.). 195 .0.0.0.00 00>00 00. 000 00 000000000 0000000000000 000 0000000 000000000 00 00300000 00000 0000000 000 0000 00000 .000000 0000 000 000003 0000002. 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.00 0:00 00003 00.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 . 00.000 00.0 000.0 0.00 0000 000 0000 00>00 0000 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.0 0.0 00.0 000.0 000.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.000 00.0 «00.0 0.00 0000 00000 0000 00 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000000000 .IIIIIIIIIIu 000000000 000000 0000 .000 000 0000 0000 000 000 z~0 000000 00000 .:.0.0 000000 000000 00 00000000 00000 .0: 000 00000 03000 0>00 00 0000 00 003000 000000 00000000 00 00000000 . 000000000 00000< 00000 0000000>0 000 0000000000 002000 .00 00000 196 00. 00.0 + x00.0- u 0 000-00000 02000 0>00 00 0000 00 003000 000000 00. 00.0 + x00.0 u 0 000000 .00 000000 .000000000 000000 .000 00. 00.0 + 000.0 n 0 000000 .00 000000 .000000000 000000 .000 00. 000.0 + x0.00 u 0 0000.0 .0; 000 000000 0000 00003 000. 000.0 + x0000.0 n 0 000000 .02 000 0000000 00. 0.00 + x00.0 n 0 000000 .0: 000 0000000000 00. 000.0 + x0.00 u 0 000000 .03 000 000000 0000 000 0000 00>0m 0:00 00. 0.00 + 000.0 n 0 000000 000000 000002 00. 0000.0 + 00000.0 u 0 000000 .0; 000 0.00000 00. 0.00 + xmo._ u 0 000000 .0: 000 000000000: 00. 000.0 + x~.00_ u 0 000000 .03 000 000000 00. 000.0 + x0.000 u 0 000000 .03 000 000000 0000 0000: N0 0 + x0 n 0 000000000 0000000000000 00000000 0000000000 00 00000000000 00000 000000000 000000 0003 0000000000 00000000 00000000000 000000000 0000000000 000000 .00 00000 LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Agee, J. 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