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III‘ I -.IIIILIIJ. i III u...II ’II‘ ‘I IIIIII III III-I. ”MIMI. m... lflllllllllllzllWINlllllllllmflllllllllflll 93 10063 963 This is to certify that the thesis entitled SNACKING AND ITS NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE DIETS 0F 5 TO 12 YEAR OLD CHILDREN presented by ROSEMARY F. CALA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.S. Jegreein FOODS % Zajor préssor Date __AuguaL_J_1,J.91_9_ 0.7639 SNACKING AND ITS NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE DIETS OF 5 TO 12 YEAR OLD CHILDREN BY Rosemary Ferrau Cala A Thesis Submi tted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Food Science 1979 ABSTRACT SNACKING AND ITS NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE DIETS OF 5 TO 12 YEAR OLD CHILDREN BY Rosemary Ferrau Cala The results of a nation-wide study of 657 school-age children's (ages 5 to 12) snacking patterns indicated food was consumed between meals most frequently in the afternoon and evening hours. There was no significant difference in snacking frequency among the seven days of the food record. In general, the most frequently consumed foods between meals were beverages other than milk. The second most frequently consumed food group was fruits and vegetables followed by milk, cookies, salted snack foods and ice cream. The remaining foods were consumed as snacks less than 15 percent of the time. Snacks, when consumed, contributed 10 to 20 percent of the total day's nutrient intake. There was a signifciantly proportionate increase in the total daily intake of the majority of the twenty-four nutrients analyzed, when the number of snacks consumed per day was increased successively from none to three. The total daily intake results indicated the children were well nourished as they consumed greater than two-thirds percent of the NRC-RDA for all the nutrients. to my parents, for their love and patience ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am truly grateful to Dr. M. E. Zabik for the knowledge, guidance and understanding she gave me and for her faith in me throughout my graduate program. A special sincere thanks is extended to Dr. K. J. Morgan for her assistance, direction and humor, all of which were essential during this project. I would also like to thank Dr. Nancy Carlson and Ms. Jean McFadden, my committee members for their help and direction. My deepest gratitude is expressed to Dave who understandingly and patiently dried my tears and supplied me with the energy, motivation and sometimes the needed desire to achieve my goal. I am especially thankful to Mark MCClellan, my office- mate for his computer knowledge, mechanical know-how and visual aid expertise, as well as his 'listening ear' and moral support. And finally a note of appreciation to all my friends that contributed their time and energy to help me complete this 'master' piece - DeAnne McClellan and Jan Swanson, the typists; Jean Horung and Gerry Mbck, the computer programmers; and last but not least the family of computers from mini Merlin to mighty Missouri. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES - - LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . Methods of Studying Dietary Intake . Food Consumption Habits . . . . . . . Foods Consumed Between Meals . . . Nutritional Value of Snacks . METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . Nutrient Intake Collection . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . Nutrient Intake Calculation . . . . . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency of Snacking . . . . . . . Frequency and Types of Foods Consumed Between Food Consumption by the Total Sample Meals . Food Consumption by the Four Age Classifications Nutrient Analyses . . . . . . . . . . Nutrient Contribution of Snacks Consumed by the Total Sample . . . . . . . . Nutrient Contribution of Snacks Consumed by the Four Age Classifications . . . . . . Morning Snack . . . . . . . . . . Afternoon Snack . . . . . . . . . Evening Snack . . . . . . . . . . Age Effect on A.M., P.M. and EVE. Snacks Total Days' Snack . . . iv Page 15 18 18 . . 32 38 47 58 73 78 81 Nutrient Contribution of Snacks to Daily Nutrient Intake . . . . . . . . . . . . Influence of Number of Snacks Consumed on Daily Nutrient Intake . . . . . . . . Daily Nutrient Analysis for the Total Sample Daily Nutrient Analyses for the Four Age Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES I. Sample Completed Diary Page. . . . II. Sample Completed Personal Data Page. . . . . . . . III. Introductory Letter which Accompanied the Diary. IV. Code Book for Non-Nutrient Data. V. Newsletter for Project Unlimited . . . . . VI. Food Items in Original 86 Food Groups, and Corresponding 14 Food Groups Used in the Analyses. LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . References Cited General References . . Page 89 102 103 108 124 128 128 129 130 131 135 138 146 146 150 Table 10 11 LIST OF TABLES Age and sex distributions of sample children . Family characteristics of children in sample . Total snacks consumed by each age classification at the three time periods of the days of the week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average snacks consumed by children at three time periods . . . . . . . . . . . . Average snacks consumed by total sample at each time of day and day of week . . . . . . . Total number of observations for twelve food groups consumed by the total sample (n=657) and percent consumption of each food group . . . . . . . . . Total number of observations for each food group and subgroups by the total sample (n=657) and percent contribution of the subgroups to total food group consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total number of each sandwich type consumed by the total sample (n=657) and percent contribution of each type to total sandwich consumption (n=211) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total number of observations for condiment food groups and subgroups for the total sample (11:65 7) O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Percent contribution of twelve food groups to total snacks for total sample and four age classifications . . . . . Percent of total condiment groups and subgroups consumption by four age classifications Vi Page 33 34 39 43 46 49 50 55 57 60 61 Table 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Percent of total food groups and subgroups consumption by four age classifications . . . . . . . 62 Total number of each sandwich type consumed by the total sample and percent consumption of each sandwich by four age classifications . . . . . . 71 Average nutrient composition of morning (A.M.), afternoon (P.M.), evening (EVE.) and total daily snack for the total sample (n-657) . . . . . . . . . 74 Average nutrient composition of total day excluding and including snacks for the total sample (n=657) . . 76 Comparison of percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from total day and total snack by total sample . . . . . . . . . 78 Average nutrient composition of the morning snack (A.M.) for each age classification . . . . . . . . . 79 Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from morning snack for four age classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from afternoon snack for four age classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Average nutrient composition of the afternoon snack (P.M.) for each age classification . . . . . . . . . 83 Average nutrient composition for the evening snack (EVE.) for each of the age classifications . . . . . 85 Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from evening snack for four age classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Average nutrient composition of the average total daily snack for each of the age classifications . . . 88 Average nutrient composition of average total day excluding snacks, for each age classification . . , . 91 Average nutrient composition of total day for each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 vii Table 26 27 28 29 3O 31 32 33 34 35 36 Percent contribution of total daily snack consumed by four age classifications to total day's intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of four nutrients percent contribution to total caloric intake from total snack and total day by four age classifications . . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total day, excluding snacks, when one snack, two snacks, three snacks or no snacks were consumed during the day, for the total sample . . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total day for the total sample, when one snack, two snacks, three snacks and no snacks were consumed . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total day excluding and including snacks for the 5-6 year old children, when none, one, two and three snacks were consumed per day . . . . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of the total day excluding and including snacks for the 7-8 year old children when none, one, two and three snacks were consumed per day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total day excluding and including snacks for the 9-10 year old children when none, one, two and three snacks were consumed per day . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total day excluding and including snacks for the ll-12 year old children when none, one, two and three snacks were consumed per day . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total daily snack when one snack was consumed per day, by each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average nutrient composition of total daily snack when two snacks were consumed per day, for each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . Average nutrient composition of total daily snack when three snacks per day were consumed, for each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii 98 100 104 105 109 110 111 112 115 116 117 Table 37 Average nutrient composition for total day when one snack was consumed per day by each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Average nutrient composition of total day when two snacks were consumed per day by each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Average nutrient composition of total day when three snacks were consumed per day by each age classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix 1'19 120 121 Figure 1 3 LIST OF FIGURES Flow chart of diaries from original panel to the children's sample . . . . . . . . . . . . Percent distribution of united States population and children's sample . . . . . . . . . . . Percent possible A.M., P.M., EVE. and total snacks consumed by each age classification INTRODUCTION 'Snacking,' the word itself conjures up visions of nasty, grinning sugar monsters. In the minds of many Americans, eating between meals is still viewed as a drawback in our society. Over 40 percent of the shoppers questioned by the FDA Consumer Service Division believed snacks were never as good for you as regular meals (Fusillo, 1974). A more recent national survey, completed to determine the consumer attitudes about food, found over 40 percent of the consumers felt it was important not to snack and 46 percent viewed snacking as being somewhat of a serious health threat ‘AnOHLLe1979)‘ Much of the concern over snacking is caused by the awesome reported increased sales of salted snack foods and sweetened carbonated beverages (Burkart, 1969). However, people of all ages are still snacking--especially young people.¥ The most recent survey of junior high school-age students in Rhode Island found the majority of students consumed foods between meals most frequently in the afternoon and evening hours. TThese snacks contributed approximately 10 percent or more of the total daily intake of all nutrients, and had it not been for snacks, the caloric, calcium and thiamin intakes of the students would have been low (Brown et a1., 1979). For children, between meal food consumption is as prevalent as any one meal. The majority of children consume at least one snack per day and sometimes two or three. Potgieter and Mbrse (1955) reported 97 percent of their sample of Connecticut children consumed food between meals. Eppright and coworkers (1970) found energy, calcium, protein, ascorbic acid and iron intakes of the children in the North Central Regional study were unfavorably affected by eating less than four times a day. In 1974, Beyer and Morris found 86 percent of the children of elementary school age studied in Lansing, Michigan, snacked most frequently after school but before dinner. The nutrient content of snacks assessed in these cited studies varied from 8 to 17 percent of the total daily nutrient intake. However, the only nutrients analyzed were calories, protein, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, calcium and iron (Eppright et a1., 1970; Beyer and Mbrris, 1974). Although each study was extensive for its area of the country, it was limited because none of the results can be applied to the United States population! Thus, the objectives of this study were: a) to study the frequency of snacking among school-age children, ages 5 to 12 years, on a national scale, b) to investigate the types of foods consumed between meals and the frequency of their occurrence assnack foods and c) to analyze the foods consumed by children between meals and report the nutritional value of snacks, as well as the percentage of total daily nutrient intake consumed between meals. In addition, nutrient analyses were completed to determine the difference in total day's intake of 24 nutrients when none, one, two and three snacks were consumed by school-age children. LITERATURE REVIEW The study of dietary intake for a large sample of children, and the foods they consume between meals, has been an important part of discovering the meal patterns of children. In the past, many studies have been completed on children and teenagers at all ages, and the nutrient composition of their diets has been reported in a variety of ways. In this literature review, the various methods for studying dietary intake will be reported, as well as the results of previously completed research in the area of children's food consumption habits. In reviewing the literature, it was discovered that very little research on children's snacking patterns had been completed on a large, national scale. Therefore, much of the literature reported dealt with either small samples of school-age children, preschoolers or teenagers. The foods consumed between meals, as well as the nutritional value of these foods and the overall reported dietary status of children was also reviewed. Methods of Studying Dietary Intake Attempts to obtain reasonably accurate food and/or nutrient consumption information about individuals and/or groups of persons, have been made since the late 1930's (Johnson et a1., 1974), A wide variety of methods have been utilizedlnnzone single method has yet to be found ideal for all types of research. One accomplishment in the 4 field of dietary intake methodology has been the realization of the need for a clear distinction between methods used for obtaining the average intake of a group and the average intake of a single individual (Young et 31., 19523). The basic methods most commonly employed in assessing dietary intake include the diet history, diet recall and diet records. Each of these three basic methods has variations as to the number of days, time of day, and exact procedure involved in executing the method. The unique combination of the method and its specific variations depends on the purpose of the study and the available facilities (Youmans et a1., 1942). Defining the purpose and intent of the study is a vital procedure in selecting a method for use, as each has advantages and limitations, which must be considered so that the resulting evaluation is not used beyond its limits or dependability. The diet history essentially consists of an interview by trained personnel, who first determine the basic dietary pattern and then, through a series of inference questions, find variations in usual intake (Burke, 1947). Early work in the area of diet history was completed by Huenemann and Turner in 1942, by comparing average nutrient intakes obtained from diet histories and those obtained from diet records of a small sample of school-age children. The researchers found for all subjects, the nutrient values obtained from the diet history were at least 20 percent greater than the same values obtained from the diet records (Huenemann and Turner, 1942). A similar study was completed on a larger sample of 166 subjects, with similar results - unanimously for all three population groups investigated, i.e., children, teenagers and pregnant adult women, the diet history did not 5 give the same estimate for the average nutrient intake of the groups as did the seven-day record. The mean values reported from the diet history were distinctively higher than the values calculated from the seven-day record (Young et a1., 1952a). Chalmers and coworkers (1952) analyzed the data from the same regional study, previously cited, and questioned the number of days used in a dietary record, as well as which days of the week to include in the study. They concluded from the study of subjects, ages 12 through adult from the Northeastern region of the United States, that a dietary record need only consist of one day when assessing the average nutrient intake of a group of subjects. However, refinements in the conclusion indicated the necessity of using a large sample size to assure reliable results (Chalmers et a1., 1952). This study also assessed the variance in the average nutrient values for the foods consumed on the weekdays as compared to those consumed on the weekends. Although the average nutrient consumptions were not the same from day to day, they were not statistically significantly different from each other. Therefore, it was concluded that it was immaterial which day or days were selected to be studied. However, the researchers strongly stated that this conclusion applied only if no distinct tendency of variation for the specified population had been found and that the absence of day effect may be expected but not assumed (Leverton and Marsh, 1939; Chalmers et a1., 1952). A further complication with one-day dietary records is psycho- logical in nature. A group of subjects, instructed to keep a one day record, may subconsciously eat or consciously record a better diet than usual, thus introducing bias into the survey (Young et a1., 1952b). 6 Van den Berg and Mayer (1954), in studying the intake of obese pregnant women, found average values for caloric intake to be low from one day's record when compared to more prolonged assessments. These differences in caloric values were attributed to under-reporting of certain foods and inadequate description of portion size (Van den Berg and Mayer, 1954). Eppright and coworkers (1952), in a study of 56, 9 to 11 year old children from three Northeastern states, compared a recorded single day's intake with three day records, as well as seven day records of children's intake. Their results indicated analysis of the records for shorter periods of time tended to cause reporting dietary condi- tions better than they seemed and/or better than the analysis provided by records for longer periods of time. For example, the proportion of children in the sample who maintained a continuously good diet for three or seven days was considerably lower than the proportion repre- sented by those based on one day's record of intake. The data also showed a difference in nutrient values for foods consumed by the children on weekdays versus weekends, with decreased milk consumption and increased protein consumption on the weekend. Therefore, if weekends were excluded from the study, there would have been an overestimation of calcium and an underestimation of protein intake for the children investigated (Leverton and Marsh, 1939). Eppright et al. (1952) emphasized that the difference in children's day to day food and nutrient consumption should be an important consideration in a specific method for dietary analysis, and concluded that all days of the week should be included in a study to attain a higher degree of accuracy. Conversely, some researchers have suggested that the average nutrient intake for a group of subjects, calculated from the 24-hour recall method, closely resemble the values from the more time consuming but more accurate seven-day record. In a comparison of the two methods, Young and coworkers (1952b) found when assessing the average nutrient intake of a group, the seven-day record and the 24 hour recall gave approximately the same estimate for dietary intake of most nutrients. Chalmers et al. (1952) suggested that when a 10 percent error could be tolerated, 24 hour recall could be substituted for a seven day record in most circumstances (Chalmers et a1., 1952). Frank and coworkers (1977) successfully used the 24 hour recall method in the assessment of the diets of rural children. However, the variations to the method, incorporated by the researchers, greatly con- tributed to the success in using the 24 hour recall method. The method required interviewers to be trained periodicially in the use of a detailed protocol, graduated food models and visual probes (Frank etal., 1977). Although these variations contributed favorably to the accuracy of the study, they would be considered to be limitations to a national survey of children. Using such a method of 24 hour recall to assess the average dietary intake of a nationwide group of children would require too much time and effort from a large group of dedicated people. There- fore, even though the values obtained from the 24 hour recall method of dietary assessment have proven to be closely related to those values from a seven day record, the feasibility of the use of this particular method, with the variations that lend increased accuracy, would have limited use for a national survey of children's diets. The accuracy of the seven day record would appear to be more desirable. Food Consumption Habits The study of food habits or food consumption patterns encompasses a wide variety of topics ranging from the number of meals consumed each day to the types of food consumed at those meals or between them. In recent years, Americans have seen the disappearance of the three meal a day regimen and a trend toward a four or five meal a day pattern. The three meal a day pattern was an agrarian tradition and many Americans have recently found it neither socially nor nutritionally acceptable in their industrialized society (Sherk, 1971). Different people within our society have different eating patterns. In some areas, two meals a day are common whereas in others, six meals a day are the custom. Despite much research, it has not been determined whether one pattern is intrinsically better for humans than another. It is very difficult to differentiate meal size and meal frequency from other aspects of lifestyle, such as intensity, duration and frequency of work or exercise (Hamilton and Whitney, 1979). There has been much research completed in the area of frequency of food consumption for people of all ages. For example, the 1965 USDA Food Consumption Survey showed 16 percent of the men between the ages of 20 and 34 years had something to eat or drink, six or more times a day. This proportion decreased with age, as 13 percent of the men 35 to 64 years snacked more than three times a day and 5 percent of the men 65 years and older snacked this often. The percentages were slightly smaller for women (Clark, 1969). Potgieter and Morse (1955) reported 97 percent of the 1242 Connecticut school children studied consumed snacks between meals. Hejda and Fabry (1964) found the consumption of a small number of large meals as Opposed to frequent consumption of smaller portions tended to promote fat deposition and overweight in adults. A similar study was completed which compared three types of meal patterns (3 meals a day, 5 meals a day and 7 meals a day) and the relation of meal pattern to the formation and deposit of fat reserves in teenagers and children. For one year, the subjects followed a specific meal pattern, each group of children in the study received the same adequate supply of nutrients by varying portion sizes, dependent upon the number of meals per day which were consumed. It was reported that among older children, i.e., boys 11 to 16 years of age and girls 10 to 16 years of age, who followed a three meal a day pattern, there was an increased tendency to form and deposit fat reserves compared to subjects of equal age who were given five or seven meals a day with corresponding smaller portions (Fabry et a1., 1966). Congruently, it has been noted in a study comparing the eating habits of obese and nonobese teens, that obese adolescents tended to eat less frequently than their leaner peers and omitted breakfast and lunch more often (Huenemann, 1972). Hampton and coworkers (1967) also found a trend toward less frequent eating by obese subjects and that girls had a slight tendency to eat more frequently than their male counterparts. However, there was no relationship between the frequency of eating and overall quality of the diet except that those eating less than three meals a day usually had poorer diets than those who consumed three or more meals a day. The teens who ate frequently tended to have overall good diets (Hampton et a1., 1967). In general, it has been reported that teens snack most frequently during the afternoon and 10 evening hours (Hinton et a1., 1962; Hampton et a1., 1967; Huenemann et a1., 1968; Axelson, 1977; Brown et a1., 1979). /lStudies pertaining to children's frequency of food consumption A‘c—ofl" C:%:§ealed a definite majority of youngsters were consuming four or ,X/five meals a day, and on the whole, males tended to snack somewhat \lgssethan females (Litman et a1., 1964). Eppright and coworkers (1970) examined the diets of preschool children and reported that the frequency of eating changed from infancy through the second and third years and appeared to stabilize in the fourth, fifth and sixth years during which the largest percentage of children ate four or five times a day (Eppright et a1., 1970). A longitudinal study of Lansing, Michigan, children compared the eating habits of children as preschoolers with their meal patterns during elementary school. The snacking frequency of the children at both preschool and elementary school ages were very similar. However, the elementary school child appeared to eat a smaller proportion of his total food intake between meals than he did during his preschool years., Therefore, although the children were still eating the same number of times each day, the nutrients consumed between meals were a larger proportion of the preschoolers' total daily intake than the child of elementary school age (Beyer and Morris, 1974). Although research points to modern America moving closer to a five meal a day pattern, most of society still considers any food consumption other than the three main meals a day to be a snack. The word 'snack' carries a negative connotation in many consumers' minds.§ijo out of five, 42 of a sample of shoppers surveyed by the FDA Consumer Studies Division, believed between meal snacks were never as valuable as food eaten at regular meals (FDA, 1974). This is just one of the myths 11 which perpetuates the 'don't snack' commandment. The commandment is based on two assumptions: that snacks represent extra food beyond that needed, thus prOmoting obesity; or that most snacks are composed of non-nutritious foods and so displace needed nutrients (Hamilton and Whitney, 1979; Thomas and Call, 1973). Neither of these assumptions are completely true because the nutrient value of foods depends little on the time of day when the food is consumed. The important factor is what and how much is consumed. Wisely chosen snacks can positively supplement the diet and contribute to a well balanced total daily intake. However, they may have a reverse effect by adding caloric intake while not providing comparable nutritional value (Fusillo, 1974; Leverton, 1968). Foods Consumed Between Meals Much of the concern over the consumption of snacks is related to the foods consumed as snack foods. Some view snacking as a possible detriment to society. The most popular term associated with between meal food consumption is 'junk food', which is considered to be a group of foods which provides a pleasant taste and calories, but little else (Breeling, 1970; Thomas and Call, 1973). A recent survey reported 90 percent of the United States population regularly eat a limited variety of 'snack foods' (Anon.,l967), which are referred to by retailers as 'happy foods' because they are the fastest selling items on store shelves and counters (Schraider et a1., 1969). Yearly con- sumption of snack foods has risen to two billion dollars worth of salted snack foods, i.e., potato chips, pretzels and puffed snacks and, during 1966, the average American drank almost 18 gallons of soda pop 12 (Burkhart, 1969). Although these facts portray a rather dismal picture for the positive nutritional aspects of snacking, studies in the area of children's food consumption patterns are much more reassuring. Researchers have found a wide variety of foods consumed as 'snack' foods (usually foods requiring little or no preparation). However, difficulty arises in comparison of foods found to be most frequently consumed by children between meals, because throughout literature, foods were not consistently grouped in the same manner, thus preventing separation of single items as being most frequently consumed by children. As an example, Beyer and Morris (1974) grouped carbonated beverages, candy and desserts into a single category listed as 'sweets', which was the second most frequently consumed group, and compared 'sweet' consumption.with non-carbonated, flavored drink consumption which was a single item group. Because of this grouping, it was not possible to compare carbonated drink consumption with non-carbonated drink consumption. Foods in the bread and cereal groups were reported as being most frequently consumed by the children at both preschool and elementary school age, and vegetables were the least popular at both ages. TThere was an increase in fruit, fruit juice and milk consumption as the children matured, accompanied by decreased con- sumption of non-carbonated flavored drinks, nuts, popcorn and potato chips (Beyer and Morris, 1974). Other studies have found a considerable preference for fruits and vegetables, candy, cookies , white milk and carbonated beverages among children. Furthermore, X6 significant differences have been reported in the types of snacks consumed by children due to their age or sex. Instead differences among young children's snacking were found to be influenced by income level; 13 children from higher income families consumed more cookies, candy and soft drinks than children from lower income grousz(Potgieter and Mbrse, 1955; Litman et a1., 1964; Patterson, 1971). Studies of food patterns indicate a notable change in preferences for foods consumed between meals, as children reach their teen years. Dietary differences in the foods consumed as snacks become evident and consequently the nutrients supplied by those snacks are different (Morgan, 1959). In 1971, Callahan reported that 72 percent of the 80,000 Massachusetts children questioned, ranging from ages 5 to 18 years, had three or more servings of sweets that day. Sweets included cakes and pastry, as well as sugar coated cereal and candy. They divided the questionnaire results by age and found 54 percent of the younger children consumed sweets as compared to 77 percent of the 10 to 12 year olds and 80 percent of the junior and senior high school students (Callahan, 1971). It appears that during the pre-teen to early teen years, preferences for particular snack foods change. In a study of 12 to 14 year old Iowa girls, it was reported that 12 year old girls preferred ice cream and cookies and, in contrast, the 14 year old girls preferred candy and soft drinks as snack foods (Hinton et a1., 1962). This change in food preference was also evidenced by repeated findings of decreased milk consumption with age (Beal, 1961; Hinton et a1., 1962; Hruban, 1977; Brown et a1., 1979). Although these previously mentioned studies reported a change in food consumption patterns with the maturity of the child, the subject of food availability becomes a major factor. Accompanying the maturity of a child may be an increased sense of independence. He begins to make more decisions for himself, and many times one of the first 14 decisions he may make, in relation to his diet, may be the choice of a snack food to consume between meals. This food choice independence may coincide with the outset of economic independence as he initially has money to spend as he wishes, and often the money is used to purchase a snack food item (Huenemann et a1., 1968; Pipes, 1977). These are just two of the many environmental factors which can affect the child's snacking decision. Others include social participation, awareness of foods and exposure to mass media (Pipes, 1977). Many researchers feel food availability is one of the main causes for poor snack food choices among teenagers. In some California schools, all candy and soft drink machines have been replaced with vending machines offering orange juice and Hawaiian Punch (Anon.,l977). Other studies have concluded children and teens would choose more nutritious foods for snacks if offered them, even if they were offered less nutritious foods, side by side. In 1977, Crawford found a 27 percent reduction of candy bar sales when apples were offered and a 42 percent reduction in sweetened carbonated beverage consumption when milk was available to Canadian school children (Crawford, 1977). A similar study completed in Columbia City, Indiana, found students tended to choose a greater percentage of nutritious snacks when provided with a wide variety of snack foods (Hruban, 1977). In summary, a change in preference for different foods consumed between meals has been reported. However, no definite reason or cause for this change has been concluded. 15 Nutritional Value of SnaCks When assessing the nutrient value of a snack, the actual units of each nutrient are measured for the foods consumed, e.g., grams of protein or milligrams of iron. These values are compared to the total nutrient intake for the day to determine the contribution of the snack to the total day. To determine the snacks' contribution to the recommended allowance for the person, the nutrient intake is compared to the National Research Council's Recommended Dietary Allowance (NRC- RDA) for the individual person. A study compared the contribution snacks made to the total daily nutrient intake of adolescents from Maine, New York and Rhode Island. Steele and coworkers (1952) reported snacks contributed 10 percent or less to the total daily intake and supplied less than 10 percent of the NRC-RDA of all the nutrients except calories and niacin in the diets of Maine and New York teenagers. However, the Rhode Island teenagers' snacks furnished greater than 10 percent of calories, protein, calcium, phosphorus and riboflavin, and 11 percent or more to the total daily nutrient intake was contributed by the between meal foods (Steele et a1., 1952). Their results coincided with those of a more recent investigation which found snacks contributed between 8 and 17 percent of the total daily intake of all the nutrients investigated for female teenagers, and 11 percent for the males (Brown et a1., 1979). Patterson, in studying children's diets, found socioeconomic status to be an additional factor in the proportion of calories, snacks contributed to the total daily intake. Snacks contributed a larger proportion of calories to the-total daily intake of children age 9 to 11 years, who came from families of high socioeconomic status than to 16 children's diets from families of low socioeconomic status, in Phoenix, Arizona. Seventy-eight percent of the children from families with a high annual income derived less than 20 percent of their calories from snacks whereas 83 percent of the children from lower income families obtained less than 20 percent of their total daily intake from snacks (Patterson, 1971). A longitudinal study completed by Beyer and Morris found as a child reached elementary school age, he received a smaller proportion of his total dietary intake of calories and protein from snacks than he did during his preschool years (Beyer and Morris, 1974). In many studies of children's and adolescents' diets, it has been repeatedly noted that a significant proportion of teens had intakes of ascorbic acid below two-thirds of the NRC—RDA (Morgan, 1959; Wharton, 1963; USDA, 1968; Hampton et a1., 1967; Huenemann et a1., 1968; Kerry et a1., 1968). Steele and coworkers (1952) found a corresponding low ascorbic acid contribution from snacks to the total daily intake of this vitamin (Steele et a1., 1952). However, most of the investigations were conducted in the 1950's and 1960's and the conclusions were based on the NRC-RDA's (1948 and 1958) prior to the reduction of the allow- ances. Currently many foods and beverages are fortified with vitamin C. Thus, the conclusions of such studies are misleading in light of the present NRC-RDA's and increased fortification of food items. A more recent investigation of junior high students from Rhode Island reported the ascorbic acid intake of the teenagers in the sample met the NRC-RDA for the age group (Brown et a1., 1979). However, low intakes of calcium and iron were especially prevalent in the teenage population today as in the past. This may be attributed to the known decreased intake of milk and green leafy vegetables by this 17 population group (Metheny et a1., 1962; USDA, 1968; Kerrey et a1., 1968; Patterson, 1971; Brown et a1., 1979). Furthermore, children were found to be deficient in some of the B vitamins, e.g., riboflavin (Owen and Kram, 1969) and thiamin (Kerrey et a1., 1968). In terms of most other nutrients, for which the NRC has set an RDA, previous research indicated children were following food con- sumption patterns which provided them with foods that supplied nutrients to aid them in meeting their respective NRC-RDA's for the nutrients analyzed. Previous researchers have only studied a limited number of nutrients, e.g., calories, protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. However, there were no reported values for the intake of pyridoxine, vitamins B and D, folacin, magnesium or zinc, even though these 12 nutrients have had NRC-RDA's assessed (Odland et a1., 1962; Metheny et a1., 1962; USDA, 1968; Hampton et a1., 1967; Kerrey et a1., 1968; Patterson, 1971; Brown et a1., 1979). Not only have these nutrient intakes not been reported, but also the intake of those nutrients for which there is no NRC-RDA, e.g., total fat, total carbohydrate, total sugar, crude fiber, cholesterol, sodium, potassium and copper, has not been reported. METHODOLOGY The source of information for this dietary study was a seven- day record completed by a national sample of American families. In the following pages, a complete explanation of the diary, as well as the calculations utilized to complete the analyses of the data will be presented. Nutrient Intake Collection A seven-day diary was used in the study. The diary was developed by marketing personnel of a large cereal manufacturer with consultation from Drs. Gilbert Leveille, Grace Miller, Mary E. Zabik, Rachel Schemmel and Ms. Gaitha Williams at Michigan State University. The directions for the completion of the diary were listed on the front cover and read as follows: The purpose of this study is to discover everything your family consumed in a one week period. It is important to record all foods and beverages - from a full course family dinner to a quick cup of coffee at work. Before you begin to record in your diary, however, please read the following directions and examine the sample day. There is a section for every day of the week. At the start of each day, please write the first name, age and sex of every member of your household in the red area at the top of the page (please do not include guests). The day is broken into 6 consumption periods: Mbrning Meal Midmorning Snack Midday Meal Afternoon Snack 18 19 Evening Meal Evening Snack Foods and beverages consumed away from home — at school, at work, at a restaurant, or when visiting friends - are just as important as those eaten at home. Therefore it is important that you record your entries as soon after eating as possible. The following entries should be included in your recordings (Appendix I): 1. Menu Item Column: Enter in this column, in the light blue area, all foods, beverages, etc. consumed during the meal or snack. If your family eats two kinds of cereal or has several different types of sandwiches for example, please record each type as a separate item. Enter in the same block as the menu item all toppings or additives used on the menu item at the time of eating (syrups, gravies, butter, milk, sugar, etc.). Please be specific in your entries - maple syrup, 2% lowfat milk, grape jelly, etc. Unit of Measure Column: For every menu item and every topping or additive, enter in this column either the word 'number', 'cup', 'ounce', 'teaspoon', or 'tablespoon'. Not only the menu item but the topping or additive as well, must have its own unit of measure. Member of Household Column: in the red area you are to record the number of units consumed. Include the amount of toppings or additives consumed by each household member. An estimate of the unit is satisfactory. Actual measuring is unnecessary. Description Column: For every menu item include in this column: - the brand (if known) - the type and flavor (if applicable) i.e., homemade, strawberry waffles - the method of cooking (if applicable) i.e., scrambled, baked, fried It is not necessary to describe the toppings or additives, only the menu item. 20 5. "Where Eaten" Category: Items consumed away from home are just as important as those items consumed at home. All consumption should be recorded. It is also important, at the end of each meal, to check where that meal was consumed, for each household member. For example, at the morning meal, one of the four categories below must be checked for each household member: Eaten at home Eaten at school Eaten away from home (not including school) Did not eat the morning meal 6. Daily Check: After you have finished your recording for the day, go back over your entries and make sure that for every entry in the blue area (every menu item, and topping or additive), there is an appropriate unit of measure and corresponding numbers in the red area. Also check to see that at the end of each meal, the appropriate category is checked for each household member. 7. At the end of the week, before mailing back your diary please take a few extra minutes and fill in the General Family Information section at the back of the diary for all household members. This is a family project and requires the help and under- standing of every household member - from the youngest to the oldest. Your family represents about 50,000 families, and what you eat and drink everyday is important. This will be a chance to spend some time each day with your family, and find out what they consumed that day. Due to the detail involved, please do not let younger children fill in the diary without your assistance. Thank you for your participation and cooperation in helping to produce an accurate, quality study about what households all over America are eating. Please examine carefully the sample day before beginning. The directions were complete and gave a detailed description of the diary. The sample day was completed and included such items as vitamin pills and coffee with cream and sugar, to reinforce to the subject the importance of recording every item consumed. 21 The last page of the diary entitled, "General Family Information", included the household member's personal data, i.e., name, age, height, weight, general health, dental history, pregnant or lactating and a description of any special diet for each person (if applicable). There was also space to record the family's ethnic background and the amount of money (including food stamps) spent during the week on food and beverages for the household. Sample completed questions of this type were included for the subjects' reference (Appendix II). Data Collection Market Facts of Chicago, Illinois, was hired by the commercial food company to collect the data. Diaries were mailed to 2,000 families of the Consumer Market Panel (CMP) II during the third week of September, 1977. The CMP II has a total of 61,552 households representative of non-institutionalized households within the United States. From these households, any number of panelists from 1,000 to 40,000 can be drawn for mail questionnaires. Consent for participation in these surveys has been obtained by Market Facts. Each panel con- tains families which are balanced by geographic areas, population density, degree of urbanization, income, and age of mother (the panel member). The large number of potential families in CMP II allows for minimum "previous panel" experience bias to occur. It also allows for incorporation of new census parameters in panel selection and minimizes within matrix distortion (i.e., age within income, within any one region). There was a cover letter which accompanied the diary (Appendix III) to explain why the diaries were sent. The panel members and their families were asked to complete the diary during the week beginning 22 Sunday, September 18, 1977, and ending on Saturday, September 24, 1977. There were over 1550 diaries returned to Market Facts. Of those, 1,494 (75 percent of the original 2,000 diaries) were considered to be in usable form, i.e., had at least four days recorded for the family members. The high percentage of return was aided by the food company's gift, a silver hostess serving set, to the panel member upon receipt of the completed diary.. The usable diaries were sent to Michigan State University accompanied by a basic set of data cards for the original 2,000 families receiving the diaries. These cards included the following facts about the panel member and their families: geographic division and state, county, standard metropolitan statisti- cal area, type of dwelling, ownership, form of residence, income, education level of the panel member and spouse, position of husband, department husband works in, employment status of husband, employment status of panel member, household size, age and sex of each family member, marital status, total household income, and population density and degree of urbanization. These cards were first separated into families who returned the diaries and families who did not, to facilitate comparison of socioeconomic data of both groups. Never- theless, the geographic location and socioeconomic data of the panelists who returned the diaries was compared to that of the panelists who failed to return diaries to ascertain whether the CMP II panel, balanced for geographic distribution, population density, income and age of panel member, had become biased by non-returns. The 1,494 diaries received by Michigan State University were separated into families with children ages 5 to 12 years. The total 23 number of families in this category was 404: 210 families had one child between the ages of 5 and 12 years and 194 families had two or more children within the age range.. In total, there were 657 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years in the sample. Before the diaries were sent to Michigan State University, Market Facts covered the mailing label of the panel member. However, the numerical code number was retained and the first six digits of that number were used as the family identification code (Family ID). Each person in the family was assigned a two digit, person identification code number. Consequently, each subject in the sample had an eight digit identification code number, the first six being the family ID and the last two, the person ID within the family. Index cards were compiled, listing the family ID, and each of the family members' first names, ages and persons' ID numbers. The cards were used to record the coder's name and the date the diary was coded. The diaries were coded using the Michigan State University Nutrient Data Bank which is a modified form of the computerized Highland View Hospital - Case Western Reserve (HVH-CWRU) Data Base. Fifteen undergraduate students, majoring in dietetics or foods, served as the coders. The coders were thoroughly trained to use the MSU code book which listed close to 3,000 different food items, including many home-prepared recipes, as well as many fast food restaurant items. Before being hired, the coders were asked to code a.single child's seven-day food consumption as a trial. In coding the children's diets, the coder's used two types of coding forms. The first of these forms was used to systematically 24 record the personal data from the last page of the diary. The personal data code form consisted of thirteen columns across and lines for the data of 20 different children. The first six columns were used to record the six digit family ID number, and the following two columns were used to record the two digit person ID number. The next five columns were utilized to record: a one digit code number for the sex of the child, a two digit code number for the age of the child, to the nearest year, digit code for height and weight (measured to the nearest hundredth), and finally the family's weekly food expenditures were recorded to the nearest dollar. To complete the remaining six columns, the coders referred to the code book supplement which served as a source of information for non-nutrient data (Appendix IV). A line on the code form was completed for each child in the sample. The second code form was specifically used to record the food consumed by the child. Accompanying each child's seven day food record, the coder received a packet of the second code forms. Each of the twenty-one pages of the second code form was divided into two areas for two meals. Each meal was to be recorded, even if there was no food consumed at the meal. The packet consisted of 21 sheets of the code form in order to account for the possible 42 meals during the week (3 main meals and three snacks for each of the seven days). On each page, an information line (L) preceeded the list of meal items (M). This line recorded the six digit family ID number, the two digit person ID number, the day code number (Sunday through Saturday were numbered one through seven, respectively), the meal number (Breakfast through Evening Snack were numbered one through six, respectively), and the location of the meal (see Appendix IV for non-nutrient data). 25 For each food item recorded in the diary, the coder found the corres- ponding item in the MSU code book, matching the food item with the method of preparation and in many cases, even the brand name. The corresponding food item number was recorded on the code form, as well as the appropriate code number for the measurement used and the quantity consumed. There were twenty-two spaces for recording food items at the three main meals and spaces for recording 17 food items at snack times. After the coders had completed the trial diary, it was thoroughly checked for errors and comments were made to make the coding most consistent. The coders were able to check out the number of diaries that could be coded in one week. As the diaries were returned, the coding was spot checked (two out of the seven days) and corrections were made if there were errors. Although there were close to 3,000 foods in the code book, numerous food items were missing and questions arose as to which foods could be substituted or added. To assure consistency, one person handled all the assumptions and additional code numbers. If a home- prepared dish was not in the code book, it was added to the MSU Nutrient Data Bank and assigned a new code number. The Better Homes and Gardens cookbook which is the most widely sold cookbook, was used as a source of recipes for the home-prepared food items. Joy of Cooking, the second most widely sold cookbook, was used as an alternative source when recipes did not appear in the Better Homes and Gardens cookbook. A listing of new code numbers and other coding information was compiled weekly and distributed to the coders (Appendix V). The coders were to use the newsletters as a guide for the basic assumptions made 26 throughout the study, i.e., if a peanut butter and jelly sandwich was listed as being consumed without specific amounts of the ingredients, it was assumed the sandwich consisted of two slices white enriched bread and two and one half tablespoons each of peanut butter and jelly. After the diaries had been checked with code sheets for consistency and correctness, the code sheets were keypunched and verified by the ESR Corporation, Lansing, Michigan. A program was developed to verify the consumption or record of 42 meals for each child (consumed or skipped). Nutrient Intake Calculation Upon completion of keypunching, the diskettes were loaded on to a tape and returned to Michigan State University for analyses. Before proceeding with the analyses, however, the raw data tapes were extensively edited by utilizing a program that searched the data tape for illegal measurement code numbers and unusual portion sizes that had not been corrected through spot checking. Both keypunching errors and coding errors were found in the data tape; corrections were made to assure 95 percent accuracy on the data tapes. While editing the tapes, it was discovered that many times the panel member recorded a meal consumed; however, there were no food or menu items recorded in the diary for that meal. Therefore, a missing value program was designed to incorporate the missing data. For meals that had no recorded food items and were not indicated as not having been consumed, an interpolation method was utilized to supply the missing oberservation if the child in question had consumed the meal in question, four or more times during the week. The inter- polation method used both data from the entire sample and the 27 particular child in question. First, from the portion of the sample for which no unrecorded meals were evident, a set of by meal by day regression equations for each nutrient were estimated. For a particular meal, nutrient and day, the estimated equations were of the form: (1) X=b0+blY+e Where X was the value of the nutrient actually consumed at the meal on a particular day, Y was the average amount of the nutrient consumed at similar meals on the other days in the sample and e was a disturbance term making ordinary least squares an appropriate estimation method. The estimated coefficients b0 and b1 could then be interpreted as usual on normal consumption of the nutrient at the specific meal and a factor indicating how the consumption of the nutrient was conditioned by its consumption levels at the other meals. Thus, b was accounting 1 for habitual persistent consumption patterns. For example, a child from a family that consumed large amounts of meat would be expected to consume more protein than a child from a family not consuming much meat. The value boY made this adjustment. The missing values of the nutrients for children who had no recorded meal (meals) on particular days were then estimated as: 2 A A +‘A _ ( ) X — bO blY A A Where b0 and b1 were ordinary least squares estimates from equation (1), Y was the average of the nutrient consumed at the same meal recorded for other days and E was the estimated nutrient intake for the missing observation. For morning meal estimates the calculations were based on 543 consumption observations; for midday meal, 451; and for evening meal, 550. Observations pertaining to snack consumption patterns were not 28 estimated, i.e., if a snack was recorded as being consumed but no record of food consumed was itemized, the snack was considered to have been skipped. The CDC 6500 was used in the analysis of the data. The programs used to complete the analyses were written by Michigan State University Applications Programming Department, with consultation from Drs. M. E. Zabik and K. J. Morgan. The first and most frequently used program was a simple count program. It was utilized to count the number of snacks and food items consumed during those snack periods, by the total sample. Most often for a more indepth analysis of the sample, the entire group of 5 to 12 year old children was divided into four classifications, based on age. The four classes, each spanning two years, were; 5 to 6, 7 to 8, 9 to 10 and 11 to 12 years. The frequency count program was also utilized to tally the number of snacks and food items consumed by each of the children in the four age classifications. Following the completion of the count program, percent calcula- tions were completed on the data. The first percentage calculation compared the actual number of snacks consumed by a group (whether the group was the total sample or one of the four age classifications) with the total number of possible snacks that could have been consumed. The total number of possible snacks for a group was calculated by multiplying the number of children in the group by 21 (since there were seven days and three possible snack periods each day). For example, for the 162, 5 to 6 year old children, there were 3402 total possible snacks. To determine the total possible snacks for each time period during the day, e.g., A.M., P.M. or EVE., the group size was multiplied by seven. So that for the same 5 to 6 year old age 29 class, there were 1134 total possible A.M., P.M. or EVE, snacks that could have been consumed by the group. A second percent calculation was completed using the results of the number of food items consumed during snacks. All food items on the MSU Nutrient Data Bank were divided into 86 food groups and assigned the selection code number associated with that group. The frequency count program tallied the number of times every food item was consumed by a group of children (again, the group was the total sample, as well as each of the four age classifications). These totals were compared to the total number of snacks consumed by the corresponding age class to determine the proportion of the group's snacks which had the food item as a snack food. For example, white milk was consumed between meals 282 times by the 11 to 12 year olds. The 11 to 12 year old children consumed a total of 1565 snacks during the seven day period; therefore, milk was a component of the 11 to 12 year olds' snacks, 18 percent of the time. This percent calculation was utilized to determine each food group's contribution to the total sample's snack, as well as to the snack of each of the four age classifications. The nutrient analysis of the between meal snack was completed with the aid of the MSU Nutrient Data Bank. There are close to 3,000 different food items on the bank including many home recipes and fast food items. The Nutrient Data Bank allowed calculations for a total of 72 nutrients for each food item. However, only 24 were selected as being relevant to the study. Included in the 24 were those nutrients for which the National Research Council has set a Recommended Dietary Allowance (NRC-RDA), as well as total sugar, total 30 fat, and total carbohydrate, cholesterol, crude fiber, sodium, potassium and copper. The actual nutrient value and percentage NRC-RDA were calculated for the food items consumed by the children as snacks. In determining the percentage NRC-RDA, the child's age, sex and weight were evaluated. Prior to the average snack computations, e.g., average A.M. snack, for the total sample, the percentage NRC-RDA for each child's snack was computed; since the NRC-RDA for each age class of children in the sample is not alike. Also, when calculating the average snack for a group, only those snacks which were consumed were included in the computation. The average A.M., P.M., EVE., total snack, total day excluding snacks and total day were computed for the total sample and each of the four age classifications. The total snack was equal to the sum of A.M., P.M. and EVE. snacks consumed. Following the calculations of average snacks, a percentage calcu- lation to determine the contribution of total protein, total fat, total sugar and additional carbohydrate was completed. Total sugar was subtracted from duatotal carbohydrate value. This resulted in two groups labeled as total sugar and additional carbohydrate. These two values and the value for total protein were multiplied by four. The value for total fat was multiplied by nine, and the sum of the four resultant values was calculated to be the total number of calories received from the food consumed (Pipes, 1977). Each of the four previously calculated values were divided into the number of calories to determine the percentage contribution of total protein, total fat, total sugar and additional carbohydrate to total caloric consumption. The statistical tests utilized included both one-way and two~way analyses of variance (ANOVA), to determine if the differences in the 31 number of snacks consumed, as well as the nutrient values and per- centages NRC-RDA for the foods consumed, were significantly different. Where significant differences were found, a Duncan's Multiple Range test (Duncan, 1957) was completed to further analyze the values and pinpoint the significant differences. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Three aspects of snacking are reported: the frequency of snacking among the children, the frequency and types of foods consumed as snacks, and the nutrient value of snacks. The data was analyzed for the total sample, as well as four subsequent age classifications. The demographic information of the resultant sample of children will be presented. The Sample 210 Diaries With 1 2000-- - ’1500 -—--—- 1494 404 Child Diaries Diaries ‘ Diaries in Diaries with Mailed Returned to Usable Form Children Ages\\\\\\ Market Facts 5 to 12 Years 194 Diaries with 2 or more Children Figure 1. Flow chart of diaries from original panel to the children's sample. Of the 2,000 diaries mailed, 1,500 were returned to Market Facts (Figure 1). Following a preliminary sorting, 1,494 diaries were found to be in usable form and were mailed to Michigan State University (MSU) for analyses. Upon arrival at MSU, the diaries with children between the ages of 5 and 12 years were sorted out. There were 404 diaries containing information of 657 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years. The children were divided into four age classifications, each 32 33 Spanning two years. Table 1 presents the age, sex and number of children in each age classification. Each age class was similar in size with a mean class size of 164 children. Table 1. Age and sex distributions of sample children. Sex Age Total Number Classification Female Male of Children 5-6 92 70 162 7-8 82 86 168 9-10 82 83 165 11-12 65 97 162 Total Sample 321 336 657 The largest group was the 7 to 8 year olds with 168 subjects, 82 females and 86 males. Following the 7 and 8 year olds were the 9 and 10 year olds with 82 females and 83 males. The youngest and eldest age classifications both had 162 children; however, the sex distribution of the groups varied. There were 92 female and 70 male 5 to 6 year olds, and 63 female and 97 male 11 to 12 year olds. There were 321 females and 336 males in the total sample. An analysis of the demographic data for the children and their families was completed to assure the children's sample was not biased by non-returned diaries. Table 2 lists family characteristics and percent of the sample that represented each characteristic. 34 Table 2. Family characteristics of children in sample. Number of Percent of Characteristic Children Total Sample Geographic Location New England 39 5.9 Middle Atlantic 106 16.1 E. North Central 128 19.5 W. North Central 55 8.4 South Atlantic 104 15.8 E. South Atlantic 45 6.8 W. South Atlantic 57 8.7 Mountain 30 4.6 Pacific 93 14.2 Population Density Up to 50,000 152 23.1 50,000 - 499,999 141 21.5 500,000 - 19,999,999 181 27.5 20,000,000 and up 183 27.9 Income Up to 6,000 59 9.0 6,000 — 8,999 80 12.2 9,000 - 9,999 85 12.9 10,000 - 11,999 107 16.3 12,000 - 14,999 94 14.3 15,000 - 17,499 127 19.3 17,500 and up 105 16.0 Household Size 3 or less 64 9.7 4 222 33.8 5 181 27.5 6 99 15.1 7 or more 91 13.9 Marital Status Married 609 92.7 Single 44 6.7 unknown 4 0.6 Age of Father under 35 174 26.5' 35 - 44 305 46.4 45 and up 176 19.2 Unknown 52 7.9 35 Table 2 (cont'd). Number of Percent of Characm‘isuc Children . Total Sample Age of Mother Under 35 300 45.7 35 - 44 280 42.6 45 and up 77 11.7 Education of Father Elementary to less than 4 yrs. H.S. 70 10.7 High School Graduate 166 25.3 Some College 175 26.6 College Graduate or Post Graduate 182 27.7 Unknown 64 9.7 Education of Mother Elementary to less than 4 yrs. H.S. 58 8.8 High School Graduate 291 44.3 Some College 183 27.9 College Graduate or Post Graduate 125 19.0 Occupation of Father* Group I 256 39.0 Group II 287 43.7 Group III 27 4.1 Unknown 87 13.2 Occupation of Mother* Group I 170 25.9 Group II 75 11.4 Group III 5 0.8 Full-time Homemaker 390 59.4 Unknown 17 2.6 Employment Status of Father Full-time and Self-employed 580 88.3 Part-time 4 0.6 Not Employed and Retired 21 3.2 Unknown 52 7.9 Employment Status of Mother Full-time and Self-employed 150 22.8 Part-time 117 17.8, Not Employed, Retired, and Homemaker 390 59.4 *Group I includes professional, manager, clerical. Group II consists of sales, craftman, operative, transport, service worker and private household worker. Group III contains laborer and farmer. 36 Figure 2 compares the percent U.S. population with the percent sample population from the divisions of the country. As the figure indicates, the sample was balanced with respect to population density and geo- graphic area. There were nine geographic divisions. The largest proportion of the children (19.5%) were from the East North Central area which included Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin. The Mbuntain area (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado) had the smallest representation (4.6%), which was expected since the area is not as densely populated as the other eight geographic divisions. Following the East North Central area, in descending order, were Middle Atlantic (16.1%), South Atlantic (15.8%), Pacific (14.2%), West South Atlantic (8.7%), West North Central (8.4%), East South Atlantic (6.8%), New England (5.9%) and as previously reported, Mountain. The percentage distribution of the children in relation to population density was relatively similar (Table 2), as it was for income levels. As expected in survey research, there was a low return from the low income households. However, the Ten-State Study research concentrated on the people from low socioeconomic groups, making the research described herein applicable to the middle income families, as the largest proportion of the sample came from households whose incomes ranged from 15,000 to 17,500 per annum. The greatest percentage of the children (33.8%) were from four member households, whereas 181 children (27.5%) were from families with five members. It should be noted that of the 404 families used in the study, 210 families had only one child between the ages of 5 and 12 years (Figure 1). The remaining 194 families had two or more children within the same 5 to 12 year age range thus, many of the .oHaEmm m.cmuwafi:u new moaumHDQOQ moumum women: we coausnfiwumwe ucoowmm .N mwawem 37 m m .wmnfisc Eouuon ma oHaEmm m.cmuvafi:o owmucmoumm N .uan:: ecu wsu ma sewumaoaoa .m.= owmucmouoma ~mam3m was ok as moi Has sea was so .z.a saw EN mm am an AN an as .z.< w as a mesa saw . osN «mm msN emu HNN mmN am Mme ea am Hoe Nos moa moa om .z.m sma as ma ma me as om an .z.< NH an as Hmuoe .umm .fium .mwase .mp3 .mosa .aoz .csm vowuom coaumowwfimmmao mafia mw< xmmz onu mo mmmn Aw.u:oov m mHAmH 41 snacks for each age classification was further divided into the number of A.M., P.M. and EVE. snacks on each of the seven days of the record. The 5 to 6 year olds consumed the greatest number of snacks during the week (1,688), which was 49 percent of the possible snacks for the youngest age group (Figure 3). The percentage calculations were completed by dividing the total number of snacks for each age group by the total number of possible snacks for the respective age class. The 9 to 10 year olds consumed the fewest snacks (1,490), which was only 43 percent of the total possible snacks for the group. Although the oldest age class, 11 to 12 year olds consumed fewer snacks than the 7 to 8 year olds, (1,565 versus 1,585, respectively), the 11 to 12 year olds consumed a greater percent of their possible snacks than the 7 to 8 year olds (Figure 3). This was due to the age class sizes, there were fewer 11 to 12 year old children in the study thus, fewer possible snacks for the 11 to 12 year old age group than for the 7 to 8 year age class. A two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was completed to find statistically significant differences between the mean number of snacks consumed by each age classification at the three time periods. The results, presented in Table 4, indicate the time of day at which the snacks were consumed was significant with 99 percent confidence and the age of the child was a significant factor in the frequency of snacking with 95 percent confidence. The interaction between time of day and age of the child was also a significant factor in the snacking frequency (P §_0.01). A Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used to pinpoint the differences. The results indicated there was a signifi- cant difference between the number of snacks consumed by the 9 to 10 42 .coaumoamammmao own comm >9 coasmmoo mxomcm amuOu cam .m>m ..z.m ..z.< oanwmmoa mo ucooumm .m ouswfim amen—4.30 ....O uc< O.-a ..... ..... o O I 3.3.“. I /.\ 0 0 Human“ noon on.” ..... ..... HI$ g I... “mum?” (\M a... 0000 Emma.“ /I& Hg 00.. flaw.” /& .... .... ”1...... x» K... .... use.» J‘xxs o I o o . ....ua /\ o I\ o o .....X. l «\n. o o o ...... . IJ\ /\ o o ... . . . Jl( . . .... .N.".. . I \ /\\\ . . Jen-n... o\ 00.00 o o a." \ I /a\\. .00. Hanna“ IIIIIIUI§ a o o ...... one. ”has" .... /.\ o o ”.Efiém ....o .... “1.x." "N. a... ”an” .\> o... ..... o o 23.”. I» O o 9:... l\ I o o. o . 31.x a... “.....x.” I\) n78 d . . o o ..... . . . . a . ...:I o . o o 3.". .\\I O on... . . ”HUN one. ..numx” coo. ”.m...nn MV\\u ..... a .... seal: .... ”use 4x» S . . .... . . ...u. ...H I . . .\unn.\n ’\ , s ...-o. um o 0 ..fix.‘ a... “max“... (\b ' no... u. ”n” can. ”xxx“ H 0000 Human“ “\3 a ...-o ”Yam". 0.0. u "Hanna“ 0000 “Ewan .Is\» 1 o o 1.5“”. one. .."uumll o o 9.3”. 3 ......I....... o . .31." a... “a“... o . 1.1.3". .... .3". o o 3%” ...-Jun?” a... a“? a... email LIOC :- O C C .......... . . .... C . .........l ooxxx o. xx o. >53ll ...-... . v ....... ...... ”unmuunlllll. N . .. 3.1.x...” mummy ...... email! V emmmmm mum .... ”mean" mm as is El. s we ll 1 .8 m N s n N" 3 a +2 m Human .23» a 2:. .... I ..2 erO. 43 year old children and the 5 to 6 year old age class. The S to 6 year old children consumed an average of 80 snacks per day and the 9 to 10 year old class consumed an average of 71 snacks per day. Table 4. Average snacks consumed by children at three time periods. Time Of Day Childrens' Age of Children A.M. P.M. Eve. Daily Aver.* b 5 - 6 54 97 9o 80 7 - 8 34 97 96 7sa’b’ 9 - 10 25 94 95 71a 11 - 12 22 98 104 753’b Total Sample** 343 96b 96b *Significant at P i 0.05 level **Significant at P :_0.01 level aAverages with the same superscript are not significantly different at P §_0.0S (Duncan, 1957). Although the 5 to 6 year olds consumed, on the average, more snacks per day than the three elder age groups, the youngest age group consumed the most A.M. snacks, with a group mean of 54 snacks per morning and the fewest EVE. snacks with a group mean of 90 evening snacks per night. This in part accounts for the significant difference in snacking frequency due to the interaction of time of day and age of child. Another relevant factor was the 11 to 12 year age group consumed the fewest A.M. snacks (a group average of 22 A.M. snacks per day), but snacked more frequently than the three younger age classes during the afternoon (98 P.M. snacks per day for the group) 44 and evening time periods (104 EVE. snacks per day for the group). The results of the Duncan's Multiple Range test indicated a significant difference in the means for the A.M. snacks as compared to the P.M. and EVE. snacks for all age classifications (Table 4). The 5 to 6 year olds consumed significantly more A.M. snacks than the three elder age classifications; further, there was a significant difference between the 7 to 8 year olds and the 11 to 12 year olds' A.M. snacking behavior. The only significant difference among the number of snacks consumed at the afternoon and evening time periods among the age classi- fications, was the 5 to 6 year olds consumed significantly fewer EVE. snacks than did the 11 to 12 year old children. Another two way ANOVA was completed to determine the effect of the day of the week and time of day on the children's snacking patterns. The results once again indicated a significant difference in snacking frequency due to time of day; however, there was no significant difference in the number of snacks consumed among the days of the week (Table 5). The ANOVA also indicated the interaction between time of day and day of the week was significant (P 5 0.01). As previously stated, the major proportion of snacks per day were consumed in the afternoon and evening. In total, thereymne 942 A.M. snacks consumed, 2,692 P.M. snacks, and an evening snack was consumed 2,694 times per day by the total sample. The means for the number of snacks consumed each day at each of the three time periods by the total sample were 34, 96 and 96, respectively. Using Duncan's Multiple Range.test, it was found that on the average, significantly fewer A.M. snacks were consumed by the children than P.M. or EVE. snacks. There was no significant difference between the number of snacks consumed during the 45 afternoon and evening snack periods. A second Duncan's Multiple Range test was completed to analyze the significant difference in snacking frequency due to the interaction of time of day and day of the week. The test indicated no signifi- cant difference in the means for the morning snacks for the entire week, but differences were found for the P.M. and EVE. snacks consumed during the week. The means for the A.M. snacks ranged from a high of 44 snacks consumed on Sunday morning to a low of 29 on Tuesday morning. It was believed the increased number of A.M. snacks consumed on Sunday morning, although not significantly higher than any other day, may have been due to the inclusion of Sunday brunch as a snack rather than a breakfast or lunch meal. According to the Duncan's Multiple Range test results, there was also no statistically significant difference in the evening snacks consumed during the week or the afternoon snacks consumed Tuesday through Friday and Sunday afternoons. However, there were significantly more snacks consumed on Monday afternoon than on either Friday and Saturday afternoon or Thursday and Sunday evening. The highest mean for the P.M. or EVE. snacks was LLLP.M. snacks on Monday, and the fewest P.M. snacks were con- sumed on Saturday, with an average of 73 snacks (Table 5). There are many environmental factors which can influence changes in children's snacking behavior as they mature in our society. When children are young, the majority of their snacks are adult chosen and prepared so that the young child does not come in contact with many foods commonly known as snack foods if the parent chooses other foods for his snack. As the child ages, the mid-morning snack, between breakfast and lunch, is commonly eliminated from many school systems. 46 Table 5. Average snacks consumed by total sample at each time of day and day of week. Time of Day Day of Week A.M. P.M. EVE. Total Day Sunday 44 98 89 77 Monday 38 111 100 83 Tuesday 29 103 90 74 Wednesday 29 101 96 75 Thursday 30 97 94 74 Friday 31 92 99 74 Saturday 35 . 74 105 71 Total Week** 348 96b 96b **Significant at P:p.01 level. aAverages with the same superscript are not significantly different at P:0.05 (Duncan, 1957). This may be replaced with an afernoon or evening snack, as can be evidenced by the increase in the P.M. and EVE. snacks consumed by the older children of the sample. Many of these P.M. and EVE. snacks are chosen by the child with some guidance from parents or other in- fluential adults. Economic factorsrmm'also influence snacking behavior. As a child reaches the age of 11 or 12, he is more likely to have access to money which could be used to purchase a food item to consume between meals. The older children have greater mobility, they are more independent and self-sufficient than younger children. The child's 47 nutritional knowledge and peer group also play an important role in snack choices with maturity. For example, when a young child is in kindergarten, fruit juice and crackers may be served to everyone in the afternoon; he has only the decision of whether or not to consume the food. However, when a child reaches the preadolescent age period, 11 to 12 years, and his group of friends are going to the local grocery store after school, he must not only make the choice of whether or not to snack, but also if he snacks, what to eat. At this point, nutritional knowledge and food availability are important factors. The question arises, will children choose 'nutritious' foods to consume if they are aware of what foods are nutritious or will they choose a food item that is available to them_and is similar to the food item that peers have chosen to consume. Children's snacking does not remain the same throughout life or even throughout childhood as many factors can influ- ence the foods consumed between meals and when they are consumed. Frequency and Types of Foods Consumed Between Meals In order to determine the frequency and types of foods consumed as snack foods, all food items on the Michigan State University Nutrient Data Bank were divided into 86 predetermined food groups (Appendix VI), and assigned a selection code number associated with that food group. Using the selection code numbers as a means to separate the observa- tions, the frequency count program‘was utilized to tally the number of times each food was consumed. Every food or beverage item consumed between meals was counted as a single observation. Therefore, the portion size of the food consumed was not a factor in this assessment. Following the first tabulation, the initial 86 food groups were regrouped and combined to reduce the total number of food groups to 48 fourteen. This regrouping was based on combining similar food items into groups,as well as the accessibility of the food by children, i.e., cookies are more accessible than a piece of cake. Two of the groups were excluded from the ranking as they were considered to be condiments or additions to the main menu items. The results of the consumption of these two food groups will be reported separately. Table 6 lists the twelve food groups used in the study and their corresponding total number of observations for the entire sample (n=657). Food Consumption by the Total Sample. Following the tabulation of the food items consumed between meals, a percent calculation was completed to determine the difference in the contribution of each food group to the total sample's snack consump- tion. The calculation involved division of the number of observations for the food group, by the total number of snacks consumed by the entire sample (6328). The results of the calculation and the rank order of the twelve food groups appear in Table 6. A similar percent calculation was completed to determine the percent contribution of the food subgroups to the main food group. The results of these calculations are presented in Table 7. Beverages other than milk was the most widely consumed food group by the total sample, i.e., it was chosen as a component of snacks 31.5 percent of the time by the children of the sample. Carbonated sweetened beverages were the most frequently consumed beverage of the group, i.e., 47 percent of all beverages other than milk consumed between meals were carbonated sweetened beverages (Table 7). Non- carbonated sweetened beverages were 32 percent of the total food group 49 Table 6. Total number of observations for twelve food groups consumed by the total sample (n=657) and percent consumption of each food group. Number of Percent Food Group Observations Contribution Beverages other than Milk 1991 31.5 Fruits and vegetables 1394 22.0 Milk 1377 21.8 Cookies 1243 19.6 Salted Snack Foods 1025 16.2 Ice Cream and other Frozen Novelties 992 15.7 Cakes, Pies and other Desserts 708 11.2 Candy 579 9.1 Breads and Cereals 508 8.0 Mini-Meal Items 435 6.9 Small Pastry 348 5.5 Other Dairy Products 154 2.4 _50 Table 7. Total number of observations for each food group and subgroups by the total sample (n8657) and percent contribution of the subgroups to total food group consumption. Percent Number of Contribution to Food Group/Subgroup Observations the Total Food Group Beverages other than Milk 19911 2 3 Carbonated Sweet. Bev. 935 47 Non-Garb. Sweet. Bev. 636 32 Natural Fruit Juices 282 14 Other Beverages 138 7 Fruits and Vegetables 1394 Fruits 1306 94 Vegetables 88 6 Milk 1377 White Milk 1205 87 Flavored Milk 172 13 Cookies 1243 Salted Snack Foods 1025 Popcorn 373 36 Potato Chips 250 24 Nuts 141 14 Other Chips and Snacks 124 12 Pretzels 114 11 French Fries 23 _ 2 Ice Cream and other Frozen Novelties 992 Ice Cream 776 78 Frozen Novelties 111 ll Popsicles 75 8 Milkshakes and Malta 30 3 Cakes, Pies and other Desserts 708 Cakes 465 66 - Pies and Pastry 93 13 Sweetened Gelatin 53 8 Pudding 49 7 Speciality Desserts 48 7 ” continued 51 Table 7 (cont' d) . Percent Number of Contribution to Food Group/Subgroup Observations , The Total Food Group Candy 579 Breads and Cereals 508 Crackers 249 35 Breakfast Cereal 145 21 White Bread and Sandwich Buns 73 10 Breakfast and Granola Bars 14 2 Other Lightly Sweetened Breads l3 2 Pancakes and Waffles 10 1 Pasta 4 l Mini-Meal Items 435 Sandwiches 211 49 Meat and Other Protein Products 128 29 Pizza 53 12 Main Meal Dishes 26 6 Preformed Sandwiches 9 2 Soups 8 2 Small Pastry 348 Doughnuts and Creme- filled Pastry 162 48 Prepackaged Baked Goods 133 38 Fruit Breads and Muffins 53 15 Other Dairy Products 154 Cheese 129 84 Yogurt 21 14 Cottage Cheese 4 3 1Total number of observations for the food group. 2Total number of observations for the subgroup. 3Percent contribution of subgroup to total food group. 52 observations, natural fruit juices were only 14 percent and other beverages such as coffee and tea contributed 7 percent to the total number of non-milk beverage observations (1991). Fruits and vegetables were chosen by the total sample 22.0 percent of the time as a snack food and thus were the second most frequently consumed foods by the total sample. Moreover, fruits were the largest proportion (94%) of the total observations of this group, while vegetables contributed only 6 percent. Milk was a component of 21.8 percent of all snacks consumed by the total sample (Table 6). It was the third most frequently consumed food group and could be considered the single most frequently consumed food item. No other single food item was consumed as frequently during snack times, by the total sample, as milk. The milk group was further divided into two categories; white and flavored milk (Table 7). White milk was more frequently consumed than flavored milk as the former contributed 87 percent to the total milk group observations, and flavored milk supplied only 13 percent. The cookie group was the fourth most popular food group as it was chosen 19.6 percent of the time as a snack food. The cookie group included sweetened crackers, i.e., graham<1'animal-shaped, as well as filled, bar or plain cookies. The fifth most frequently consumed food group by the total sample, but often considered to be the leading group of snack foods, was salted snack foods (Thomas and Call, 1973). Only 16.2 percent of all foods consumed between meals were food items from this group. The salted snack food group consisted of six categories listed here in descending order of percent contribution to the total number of salted snack food observations (1025): popcorn (36%), potato chips (24%), nuts (14%), 53 other chips and snacks, i.e., corn chips, cheese puffs or peanut butter - cheese crackers (12%), pretzels (11%) and french fries (2%) (Table 7). The majority of the popcorn consumed was popped at home as opposed to being popped away from home, i.e., a movie theater and, 9 percent of the potato chips consumed were eaten with a dip. The sixth food group was ice cream and other frozen novelties; foods from this group were chosen as‘a snack food, by the total sample, 15.7 percent of the time. Ice cream itself was the most frequently consumed food item included in the group, comprising 78 percent of the total number of observations for the food group. The remaining 22 percent were divided among frozen novelties: creamsicles, fudgesicles or ice cream sandwiches, which contributed 11 percent; popsicles 8 percent; and milkshakes or malts the final 3 percent (Table 7). Only 14 percent of the ice cream was consumed with a topping or syrup and 10 percent was consumed with a cone. Cakes, pies and other desserts were chosen as snack food by the total sample 11.2 percent of the time. Included in this group, listed with their corresponding percent contribution to the total number of group observations (Table 7), were: cakes both with and without icing (66%); pies (13%); sweetened gelatin (8%); pudding (7%); and specialty desserts, e.g., chocolate torte and cream puffs (7%). Cakes were the most frequently consumed food of the main food group, and 23 percent of the sweetened gelatin consumed contained fruit. Candy was the eighth most popular food group, having been a snack food 9.1 percent of the time (Table 6). All types of candy were included in the food group: chocolate, chewy, hard and marshmallow, as well as chewing gum. Chocolate candy was the most frequently 54 consumed type of candy within the group. The ninth food group in the ranking was breads and cereals. Foods from this group were a com- ponent of snacks 8.0 percent of the time. The group consisted of the following food items listed in descending order of percent con- tribution to the total number of bread and cereal group observations (508): crackers (35%); breakfast cereal (21%); white bread and buns (not including that consumed as a sandwich, 10%); breakfast or granola bars (2%); other lightly sweetened breads; e.g., raisin or corn bread (2%), pancakes and waffles (1%) and pasta (1%) (Table 7). Of the breakfast cereal consumed as a snack, 84 percent was consumed with milk. Mini-meal items were consumed as a snack 6.9 percent of the time by the total sample. Sandwiches made up the largest proportion of the foods consumed from this group, they supplied 49 percent to the total number of mini—meal items. An indepth analysis of the sandwich category appears in Table 8. The most frequently consumed sandwich was peanut butter and jelly which constituted 31 percent of the total sandwiches. Other types of sandwiches included meat, with or without cheese (11% and 30%, respectively), hamburgers, with or without cheese (2% and 4%, respectively), frankfurters (6%) and peanut butter without jelly (6%), as well as jelly without peanut butter (3%). Meat and other protein products were a small component of the mini-meal item group as they only contributed 29 percent to the total observa- tions for the mini-meal item food group. The meat and other protein product category included meat, fish, poultry and peanut butter which was not consumed as a sandwich. Pizza was the highest contributor (12%) to the mini-meal item food group totals, main-meal dishes (6%), 55 Table 8. Total number of each sandwich type consumed by the total sample (n-657) and percent conbribution of each type to total sandwich conSumption (n-le). Number of Percent Contribution Sandwiches Observations to Total Sandwiches Peanut Butter/Jelly 66 31 Meat 64 3O Meat/Cheese 24 ll Peanut Butter 13 6 Hot Dog 12 6 Cheese 11 5 Hamburger 9 4 Jelly 7 3 Cheeseburger 5 2 56 preformed sandwiches, e.g., McDonald's fish sandwich, (2%) and finally soups which supplied the remaining 2 percent. Following mini-meal items was the food group entitled small pastry (Table 6), which was 5.5 percent of the snack foods chosen for consumption between meals. There were three main components of this group. The first, and most frequently consumed, was doughnuts and pastry which was 48 percent of the total number of observations (348). For the small pastry group, prepackaged baked goods supplied 38 percent of the food items to the total for the group, and fruit breads and muffins contributed 15 percent to the total small pastry intake (Table 7). The last food group in the total sample's ranking was other dairy products, which was consumed as a snack food only 2.4 per- cent of the time (Table 6). The three subgroups of this food group included cheese, which was the most widely consumed constitutent of the food group (84%). This does not include the cheese added to sandwiches. Yogurt supplied 14 percent of the total observations, and cottage cheese contributed 3 percent. As previously mentioned, there were two other groups of foods included in the study, but not listed in the ranking of foods consumed between meals. They were sugars/syrups and condiments. Because they were considered to be additions to the menu item, it was determined to separate these groups from the main ranking of foods consumed as snacks. Table 9 gives the number of observations in both the sugar/ syrup and condiment groups. The sugar/syrup group included such items as table sugar (added to coffee, tea, ready-to-eatzcereal or fresh fruits), ice cream toppings (added to ice cream, and noted in reference to ice cream consumption), jam, jellies and honey (consumed on bread 57 Table 9. Total number of observations for condiment food groups and subgroups for the total sample (n-657). Percent Contribution Number of to the Food Group/Subgroup Observations Total Food Group Condiments 4281 Fat Spreads 2172 513 General Condiments 122 29 Salad Dressings 35 8 Whipped Dessert Topping 24 6 Sour Cream and Dips 22 5 Cream and Coffee Whiteners 8 2 Sugars/Syrups 342 Table Sugar 119 35 Ice Cream Toppings 109 32 Dessert Sauces and Icing 71 21 Jam, Jelly and Honey 35 10 Sugar Substitute and other Sugars 8 2 1Total number of observations for the food group. 2Total number of observations for the subgroup. 3Percent contribution of the subgroup to the food group. 58 or crackers), dessert sauces and icing (coded separately with some uniced cakes or other desserts), sugar substitute and other sugars, e.g., brown or powdered sugar (added to cooked cereal or beverages). The second group, condiments, consisted of fat spreads for bread (used as an ingredient in most sandwiches), salad dressings, whipped dessert toppings (added to sweetened gelatin, pudding or pie), sour cream and dips (noted in relation to potato chip consumption), cream and coffee whitener (added to beverages, cereal or fruit) and general condiments, e.g., salt, pepper, ketchup, pickles and mustard (added to sandwiches or accompanied menu items). The results of the research on the foods most commonly consumed between meals by school-age children (5 to 12 years) indicated many snack foods, typically considered to be poor sources of essential nutrients, ranked lower than those most often named as nutritionally good snack foods. The results support recent research on the prevalence of milk, fruit and carbonated sweetened beverages as popular snack foods (Brown et a1., 1979). However, a closer look at the data reveals obvious trends in the consumption of specific items of food groups as the child matures. Food Consumption by the Four Age Classifications. The frequency count program was again utilized to pinpoint some of the differences in the frequencies of foods consumed between meals by each age group. The total sample (n=657) was divided into the four age classifications, each spanning two years. The computer program tallied each food or beverage consumed between meals, by all of the children in each of the four age classifications, as an observation in 59 one of the original 86 food groups. Then the food groups were con- densed to the previously specified fourteen food groups. Percentage consumption of the 12 food groups used in the ranking was calculated by dividing the number of observations for the food group by the total number of snacks consumed by the respective age classification; 5 to 6 (n=l688), 7 to 8 (n=1585), 9 to 10 (n=1490) and 11 to 12 (n-1565). Table 10 presents the percent of twelve food groups by the four age classifications (not including sugar and syrups or condiments which are presented separately in Table 11). As with the total sample calculations, beverages other than milk was the most frequently consumed food group by all age classifications. The over- all consumption of beverages other than milk was much higher for the 11 to 12 year olds than for the three younger age classes. More than one- third (36.7%) of all snack foods consumed by the 11 to 12 year olds were beverages other than milk. The beverage consumption of the remaining three age groups was not as high, in fact, only a little more than one-fourth (26.0%) of the snack foods consumed by the 7 to 8 year olds were beverages from this group. Sweetened carbonated beverages were the most frequently consumed beverages of the group by all four age classifications (Table 12). However, carbonated beverages made up the larger proportion of all beverages consumed by the 11 to 12 year old children than it did for the other three age classifications. The 11 to 12 year olds also consumed the greatest percentage of coffee and tea. The 5 to 6 year olds drank the largest proportion of non-carbonated sweetened beverages and natural fruit juices. An increasing trend in the consumption of 60 no women: Hmuou x: macaw poem as mcofium>aomno uo amass: mcwm.>qm z; mmum~30Hmo :cfiusevuucou acouuom .ofieEcm _cuou so azcww owe msu cam ceaum>womno H m.n ¢.~ ~.~ m.H e.~ muozmoum swam: umsuo 0.9 m.¢ m.m m.m m.m auummm Hamsm o.m 0.5 Em m.m m6 mew: 13:..ch n.w c.m m.~ q.w o.m mammwmu mam museum H.HH H.m m.m ~.m H.a >m=mo o.HH w.- ~.oH <.o~ N.HH muwommma wosuo mam moan .moxmo n.5H m.m~ ~.oH e.mH n.m~ moaufim>oz caucus uosuo can Emowu sou H.oH m.oH “.mH n.m~ ~.o~ mmoom somcm vouamm m.c~ e.aH «.mH m.m~ c.m~ mmwxoou N.¢H H.0N m.- ~.o~ m.- xaqz ~.HN m.- o.mm c.a~ o.- modemuowo> mam uqsum ~.cm w.om o.e~ m.~m m.~m xHHz cmsu wonuo mowmuo>om Nessa oaua eta sum «aaEmm maaoao coca cowmausu ace mcofiumofiuwmmmfiu om< Hmuoe .mcowumoqummmao own waom mam oHaEmm Hmuou Ham psomsm HmuOu cu mason» poem m>~o3u mo soausnfiwucou acoowom .OH manna 61 .mcofiumofiuwmmmuu own snow an cofiuaasmcoo aaouwnsm scam Hmuou mo osmowom N .m:0aumo«uummmao owe usow an :oHuqssmcoo macaw moo~ HmuOu no-u:oowmma n.NH m.mm o.m~ o.m~ mwmwam uocuo mam musuaumesm umwsm a.m~ a.km o.o~ a.ea zone: was seams .amn H.H~ m.m~ ¢.m~ o.~m moosmm uuommon ~.c~ a.m~ m.sm «.ma weaaaoe sauce mum a.~e m.o~ «.mm c.m~ umwsm magma H.m~ m.m~ «.mm m.¢~ mdsu>m\umw=m in n.~o m.~H o.m~ passage: powwow can Emouu o.oe o.ma o.¢ e.om nee mam Emouo uaom m.o~ m.mm m.mm m.- mwcwaa08 uummmmo commas: H.5m o.m~ o.m ~.m~ mwcammmwn mmamm m.om o.- o.m~ m.¢~ mucmsumcoo Hmuocou o.om «.mm m.o~ c.c~ mmmouam use H.om c.w~ H.m~ ~.¢H mucmawvcou NH I HH OH I a m I m o I m asowwn:m\asouo coon becaumofiufimmmao uw< .m:0wumofiu«mmmao mwm ~30w >n cowuaasmcoo maaowwasm mam masouw ucmEHucoo HmuOu mo acoowom .HH oHnme 62 .mcofiumoauwmmmmo own pace Na acqua52mcoo encuwnam coca HmuOu mo ucooumm N .mCONDmuaufimmmHo own pace >2 acquaesmcou macaw coca Haney mo accouoma H.an N.w H.9N H.0N modem socoum m.NN m.mN m.eN w.NN mawnuoum m.nN o.mN o.NN c.0N axomcm mam mauzu wozuo «.mN m.om o.oN m.mN musz e.mn c.¢~ m.oN o.oN maesu cumuom H.NN c.mN c.5N N.~N swooaom N.oN o.cN N.¢N c.NN mecca xomcm mougmm N.HN n.mN m.mN m.Nm mouxoou m.0N q.cN H.mN o.mN sag: mmuo>mam a.HN n.HN a.mN m.Nm xaaz mugs: m.HN N.~N m.eN o.Nm xfifiz 4.3 ES 92 .2: 823mm; m.mN N.¢N m.oN o.cN magnum w.mN a.NN N.cN H.0N moHnmuomo> can mousse H.mm N.NN m.q~ N.mN mowmwo>om woguo m.mN w.¢N m.a~ m.oN mouasn ufisum amusumz 9:. my: 92.. T: .25 ”.83. .fmouaoz m.mm m.mN m.mH N.mm .uooam moumconumo «.mN H.mN N.oN HQ.NN xaqz saga uosuo mmwmuo>om NH I ad ad I a w I N c I m maaoumn=m\mnsouo moon mcofiumuwuummmmo awe .m:0wumowuwmms~u own anew >2 :ouuesomcoo masowmnam use measuw coo“ fimBOu we ucmouom .NH manmh 63 0 mm II o.mN II mummm o.o~ II II o.oN mmauwms mam moxmommm A.MN ~.ee «.ma «.ma sauce .uomsm saaewaa cacao e.wN o.wN N.mm H.n mwmm maocmuu mam ummmxmowm m.mq N.NN ¢.HN N.NN mean was mmoum wages m.eN m.mN N.NN m.cN ammumo ummmxmoum m.mH m.HN H.¢N m.mm mumxomwo w.oN N.NN m.NN o.wN mamoumo mam mmmoum H.om N.NN N.NN w.mN xmcmu N.NN e.oH «.mm N.NN muwmmmma zuamfiumam m.cH n.0m e.NN m.oz :ouowm N.NN m.¢N m.cN m.HN Emmwo oOH m.NN o.mN m.mN N.NN mmfiuao>oz :ouowm Macao mam Emowo mom NH I HA OH I m m I N c I m masowwm:m\ma=owu moon maofiumoamammmau owd .Aa.ucouV Na means 64 o.nN o.om o.mN mmmmnu mwmuuoo w.MN m.¢a N.NN unswow N.NN m.¢N m.na mmmmno H.mm N.NN m.NN H.ON muoamoum human umnuo «.0N o.NH o.NN mcawwsz can mmmmum uasum m.oH H.mm oeu mcausm cmsamcoo axomcm weaco>m mam :oocwouum .wcacuoe use Eowu mucmauusc mo Esm osu cu amass ma xumcm xaamv amuoe a Na s.a a a.a ca a.a s s.c we .ocaN aaa ssa saa saa we .aaaaos aa as aa aa aa as ea ma we .saamaassz aas msa ~s~ saa we .eaasmssoa Nan asa mam ssa we .saasom sa aaa sa ssa sa Naa ma aaa we .maaosasosa Na asa sa «ma aa asa Na soa we .Eaauasu ma a.a s a.a s a.a a s.o we .aoaa a sa s Na s sa s sa =a .s aaasaa> ma ssa sa sss Na man aa ass =a .< easssa> asses sa sa s aa s sa a sa s: .aausaoa sa ss.o aa sa.s sa sa.o sa aa.s s: .aas nasasa> sa ssa a sea s ss a saa s: .oaaxosasaa ma Na.o sa «a.a Na aa.s ma sa.o we .:a>sasosae aa a.a a a.a a a.a a a.a we .caosaz sa sa.o s oa.o s as.s a sa.o as .aaEsase as aa aa a sa aa as ea we .saa< uasaouas s.o a.a a.a a.a w .umsaa waste as ea sa Na we .aoamssmaoeo ss on am sa w .aswas asses ss ss an an s .saso amuse sa Na sa s s .sss asses sa s aa s sa s sa s w .aassoaa asses ca ass ma ass Na asN ca sea seaboamu < some >< < < sasaasaz ass.»a cos": aasuc ass": asses asses eases .s>s asses .z.a asses .:.< A .Ammoncv madame amuou meg now xumem adapt amuOU mam A.m>mv wcaco>m .A.:.mv coocumuum .A.z.< .sa wanna 75 or P.M. snack periods. The total snack calculation, defined as the sum of consumed A.M., P.M. and EVE. snacks, showed that snacks con- tributed at least 20 percent of the children's NRC-RDA for calories, protein, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, vitamins A and B iron, calcium, 12’ and magnesium. The remainder of the nutrients were consumed in amounts between 10 and 15 percent of the children's NRC-RDA with the exception of vitamin D. The average total daily snack contributed approximately nine percent of the NRC-RDA for vitamin D. It should be noted that vitamin D fortification of two percent and skim milk is not universally regulated among the states in the country (USDA, 1974). Therefore, in assessing the vitamin D content of those items, a conservative approach was used in that it was assumed that these two forms of milk were not fortified. Furthermore, vitamin D is also synthesized in the body from cholesterol in the presence of ultra-violet rays from sunlight. Thus, cholesterol consumption indirectly compensated for the low dietary intakes of vitamin D. Table 15 displays the average total daily nutrient intake for the total sample excluding and including snacks in the total day calcula— tions. As expected, all nutrient intake values were increased when snacks were included in the calculation of average total day con- sumption. Without snacks, children did not consume greater than 100 percent of their recommended allowances for calories, pyridoxine, folacin, vitamin D, magnesium and zinc. However, when snacks were included in the children's diets, the increased pyridoxine and magnesium intakes correspondingly increased the percentage of NRC-RDA of these nutrients consumed, to over 100 percent of the recommended allowance. Zinc and caloric consumption increased to 98 and 94 percent 76 Table 15. Average nutrient composition of total day excluding and including snacks for the total sample (n=657). Total Day Total Day Nutrient ExcludingSnacks Including Snacks Av %RDA Av %RDA Calories 1783 78 2160 95 Total Protein, g 69 188 77 209 Total Fat, g 77 92 Total Carb., g 208 264 Total Sugar, g 100 138 Cholesterol, mg 284 318 Crude Fiber, g 2.7 3.0 Ascorbic Acid, mg 94 227 107 260 Thiamin, mg 1.18 104 1.31 115 Niacin, mg 15.8 105 17.2 114 Riboflavin, mg 1.84 133 2.10 152 Pyridoxine, ug 1184 99 1324 111 Vitamin 812, ug 4.27 209 4.74 232 Folacin, ug 192 67 216 75 Total Vitamin A, TH 5344 160 5931 178 Vitamin D, IU 180 45 209 52 Iron, mg 11.8 104 13.0 115 Calcium, mg 928 106 1090 124 Phosphorus, mg 1205 137 1386 158 Sodium, mg 2525 2833 Potassium, mg 2366 2709 Magnesium, mg 220 87 264 105 Copper, ug 1270 1464 Zinc, mg 9.7 88 10.8 98 77 of the NRC-RDA, respectively. Even though average caloric intake for the total sample was below 100 percent of the NRC-RDA, this was not of major concern since obesity is one of the leading nutrition-related diseases in the country. Both vitamin D and folacin consumptions increased when snacks were included, but the total consumption of these two vitamins was still only 52 and 75 percent of the NRC-RDA for these nutrients, respectively. It should be noted that there is insufficient food composition analyses for folacin (Perloff and Butrum, 1977). Although the techniques for folacin determination have been perfected, there is still insufficient data for many foods. Therefore, this lack of data was believed to have distorted the intake values for folacin. In order to compare the consumption of total sugar, total fat, total protein and additional carbohydrate to the caloric intake of total snack and total day including snacks, a percent calculation was completed. Analysis of the percent distribution of calories obtained from the four nutrients (Table 16), showed approximately 14 percent of the average day's calories were obtained from protein whereas about 8 percent of the total snack's calories were from protein. Fat contributed 39 percent to the average total day's calories and 35 percent to the total snack, i.e., fat comprised a relatively similar proportion of the calories consumed between meals and the average total day's calories. Approximately 23 percent of the total day's calories were from additional carbohydrate and only 18 percent of the total snack calories were contributed by additional carbohydrate., Total sugar added the remaining 25 percent to the total day's calories and 39 percent to the total calories consumed between meals. Therefore, total sugar contributed a greater proportion of the calories to the 78 average total snack than did the other three nutrients, whereas total protein and fat, and additional carbohydrate contributions were lower for the average snack than for the average total day. Total sugar calculations included all simple sugars, e.g., glucose, fructose and maltose, all of which occur naturally in foods, as well as refined sugar such as sucrose. Table 16. Comparison of percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from total day and total snack by total sample. Percent Contribution Nutrients Total Snack Total Day Total Protein 8 14 Total Fat 35 39 Additional Carbohydrate 18 23 Total Sugar 39 25 Nutrient Contribution of Snacks Consumed by the Four Age Classifica- £222:- A more indepth analysis of the sample's nutrient consumption between meals was accomplished following the completion of the cal- culation for the average A.M., P.M., EVE., total snack and total day (including and excluding snacks) for each age classification. Morning Snack. Table 17 presents the mean nutrient values and percent recommended dietary allowance for the A.M. snack consumed by the four age classifications. Comparison of the number of calories 79 m A.c e a.a c a.a m m.o we .ocau «ea oma Ama Ana w: .tmaaoo m mm Na an m oN Na «A we .ssamwcwmz weA mam cAA mam we .esammmuoa mm~ AAA AAA sea we .ssaeom HA and ma add «a cad «a sea we .msuozamoza ea cam AH am A. mod ma mos we .saau~mo c a.a ca a.a A A.c A A.o we .coua m HA a An A AA a AN 2H .a caamua> m «on «a was ma Ans o. mmm =a .< casuaa> amuoe A AA A mm m ma m AH w: .cqamaoa ma on.o ca mn.o ma A~.o ON om.o w: .Aam :Asmaa> A oaa Ha ens A we as Asa w: .mcaxonapAa «a H~.o «A o~.o AA ea.o ma Aa.c we .=A>m~uonae m ~.H m a.a m A.o . o a.a we .cfiumaz o Ha.o ca Aa.o a ao.o ca mo.o we .casmfise .A ca mA ca mm AH om ca we .eau< cantoum< a.a a.a a.a ~.o w .pmnam dunno o~ on AH HA we .Hoamummaogo AN ma ma ad a .tmwam Hmuoa mm mm mm an w ..numo flanges a a m A m .aom fiance «a o «a n ma m «a c w .cfimuoua Hayes oH oqm a AAA A «AA ca AAA mmaboamo < < < eaeN >< “sawtuaz eAnc AA": awn: Add": NH nwaa. ca . a m u A c u m .ccaumowuwmmoao own sumo to“ A.z.< :owumuwuwmmadu uw< .NH canoe 80 consumed as a morning snack indicated an increase in the quantity consumed as the children matured. Consumption was expected to increase with age since the recommended allowance for calories, as well as other nutrients, rise with age. Therefore, when comparing among the age classifications it was important to compare percentage NRC~RDA to determine if the increase in consumption was in proportion to the increased NRC-RDA for the nutrients. The increased consumption of calories at the A.M. snack period was in proportion to the increase in the NRC-RDA for calories for all four age classifications, the same was true for the total protein and zinc consumption. The morning snack contributed 14 to 15 percent and 5 to 6 percent, respectively, to the NRC-RDA's for these two nutrients for all age classifications. By comparison, the youngest age group,5 to 6 years, received 10 percent or greater of the NRC-RDA for 11 nutrients from the A.M. snack, whereas the morning snack provided 10 percent or greater of the NRC-RDA for only seven nutrients to the eldest age class, 11 to 12 years. Nutrients for which there exists no NRC-RDA were also assessed, e.g., total fat, carbohydrate and total sugar. In order to compare these values among age classes, the percent contribution of total protein, total fat, total sugar and additional carbohydrate to the total number of calories provided by these nutrients was calculated. The results of this calculation on the calories consumed for the morning snack, indicated total sugar provided the largest proportion of the calories for the 5 to 6 and 11 to 12 year olds by contributing 37 to 34 percent, respectively (Table 18). Fat was the greatest percentage of the calories consumed for the A.M. snack by the 9 to 10 81 year olds' snack (34%), but total sugar followed closely behind by con- tributing 31 percent to the total calories. Equal proportions of A.M. snack calories of the 7 to 8 year olds' snack came from total sugar and total fat, each contributed 35 percent to the total caloric con- sumption. Table 18. Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from morning snack for four age classifications. Age Classifications Nutrients 5-6 7—8 9-10 11-12 Total Protein 81 10 8 10 Total Fat 31 35 34 33 Additional Carbohydrate 24 20 27 23 Total Sugar 37 35 32 34 1Percent Afternoon Snack. The percent contribution of total protein, total fat and additional carbohydrate to total caloric consumption for the afternoon snack was quite similar to the A.M. snack with respect to the rank order of nutrient contribution. Total sugar was the largest contributor to all four age classifications' P.M. snack caloric consumption: 42 percent for the 5 to 6 year olds; 41, 40 and 39 percent for the 11 to 12, 9 to 10 and 7 to 8 year olds, respectively (Table 19). The percent contribution of the four nutrients'was very similar among age classifications as was evidenced by the percent total sugar contribution. Following total sugar, in descending order, were total fat, additional carbohydrate and total protein. 82 Table 19. Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from afternoon snack for four classifications. Age Classifications Nutrients 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 Total Protein 91 8 9 8 Total Fat 31 35 35 34 Additional Carbohydrate 19 19 17 18 Total Sugar 42 39 4O 41 1Percent Like the A.M. snack, but much more since a greater number of P.M. snacks were consumed by the children, there was little difference in the overall nutrient consumption among the four age classifications (Table 20). However, in comparing the average A.M. and P.M. snacks there was a decrease in average percentage NRC-RDA of many vitamin and minerals obtained from the children's P.M. snack even though there was an increased amount of these nutrients consumed. This was especially evident with the 11 to 12 year olds' consumption of pyridoxine, vitamin B folacin, iron, calcium, phosphorus and 12’ magnesium. Although they consumed the largest amount of these nutrients, the amount consumed contributed a smaller percent NRC-RDA since the recommended allowance was higher for the eldest than for the youngest age classes. In comparing the A.M. and P.M. snacks within age classification (Tables 17 and 20), the P.M. snack contributed a greater percent NRC—RDA of calories, vitamin B 2, magnesium and zinc to the diets of 1 83 A A.A A A.A A A.A A A.A As .ucAA . AAA AAA AAA AAA AA .AAAAoo A AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .AAAoAAAoAA AA AAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .eaAuAAo A A.A AA A.A A A.A A A.A As .coAA A AA A AA A AA A AA AA .A cAsAAA> AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .< :AsAAAA AAAoA A AA A AA A AA A AA A: .AAAAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA .AAA cAeAAA> A AcA A AA A AA. A AA A: .AAAonAAAA AA AA.o AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A As .:A>AAAoAAA A A.A A A.A A A.A A A.A AE .cAuAAz A AA.o A AA.A A AA.A A AA.A As .cAsAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .AAAA AAAAoAAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AE .AoAAAAAAoAu AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA Amuoe AA AA AA AA A .AAAo AAAoA AA AA AA A A .AAA AAAoA AA A AA A AA A AA A A .AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAAoAAu AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAAAAAA AAAuc AAAu: AAA": AAA": AAuAA AA-A A-A A-A :CAAcoAuAmm:AU omé .cowumouuammmau own sumo AoA A.z.mv xoocm coocuouum wzu we :oAuAmanoo Acowuunc mwoum>< .ON o~ame 84 all children. There was also an increase in total fat, total sugar, cholesterol and sodium consumption during the P.M. snack period. Evening Snack. The average nutrient composition of the snack which followed the evening meal (Table 21) indicated when this snack was consumed, it was the largest snack of the day. Increased caloric consumption was accompanied by greater percentage NRC-RDA contribution of the majority of nutrients. In fact, the EVE. snack provided greater than 12 percent of the NRC-RDA for calories, protein, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, vitamin B , total vitamin A, calcium and phosphorus to 12 all the children's diets. There was an increase in total carbohydrate, total sugar, cholesterol, sodium, potassium and copper consumption from the afternoon to evening snack periods. However, the evening snack consumption of total carbohydrate, total sugar and cholesterol by the 5 to 6, 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year old children was remarkably similar, and the 11 to 12 year olds' consumption of the same nutrients was markedly higher than the three younger age classifications (Table 21). Comparing the percent contribution of total protein, additional carbohydrate, total fat and total sugar to the total caloric con- sumption of the EVE. snack (Table 22), among the four age classifica- tions, the ranking of nutrients was exactly the same as the P.M. snack. For all ages, total sugar contributed the largest proportion of total calories consumed during the EVE. snack period. The percentages were very close as both the 11 to 12 and 7 to 8 year olds received 40 percent of their EVE. snack calories from total sugar. The 5 to 6 and 9 to 10 year olds received 38 and 37 percent, respectively, from total sugar. Following total sugar, in descending-order, were total fat, additional carbohydrate and total protein. Although the total 85 A A.A AA A.A AA A.A A A.A AE .AAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA .AAAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AE .sAAuAAA A A.A AA A.A A A.A A A.A As .AAAA A AA A AA A AA A AA AA .A AAeAuA> AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .< AAEAAA> AAAoA A AA A AA A AA A AA AA .AAUAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A A: .A A AAEAAAA A AAA A AAA A AA AA AA A: .AAAAAAAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A As .AA>AAAAAAA A A.A A A.A A A.A A A.A As .AAAAAz A AA.A A AA.A A AA.A A AA.A As .AAEAAAA AA AA AA A AA A AA A As .AAAA AAAAAAAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AE .AoAAAAonAA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA A ..AAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA A .AAA AAAoA AA A AA A . 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Percent contribution of four nutrients to total caloric intake from evening snack for four age classifications. Age Classifications Nutrients 5—6 7-8 9-10 11-12 Total Protein 71 7 8 9 Total Fat 35 35 36 35 Additional Carbohydrate 20 18 19 17 Total Sugar ‘38 40 37 40 1Percent Age Effect on A.M., P.M. and EVE. Snack. Viewing Tables 17, 20, and 21, comparisons can be made for the average A.M., P.M. and EVE. snack for each of the four age classes. When compared to the P.M. and A.M. snacks the 5 to 6 year olds' EVE. snack was composed of the greatest amount of all nutrients analyzed with the exception of ascorbic acid, pyridoxine, folacin, vitamin D, potassium and copper. 87 All of the above listed nutrients were consumed in greatest amounts during the A.M. snack. This may have been due to increased morning snack food consumption by the 5 to 6 year olds and a corresponding decreased EVE. snack consumption when compared to the other three age classifications, i.e., some young children go to bed very shortly after the evening meal (Figure 3). Like the 5 to 6 year olds, the 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds generally had a decrease in the consumption of ascorbic acid, pyridoxine, folacin, vitamin D, potassium and copper during the EVE. snack period. On the Other hand, the 11 to 12 year olds (who may be staying up much later) consumed the greatest quantities of every nutrient at the EVE. snack time reinforcing a previously stated conclusion: the 11 to 12 year olds consumed the largest and the majority of their snacks after the main evening meal. Total Days' Snacks. Table 23 lists the average nutrient composition and percentage NRC- RDA for the total snack. The average total snack for each child was calculated by first summing the A.M., P.M. and EVE. snacks consumed each day, and then computing the mean total snack of these seven possible values. Each child's mean snack was averaged with the other children's mean snack in the same age classification to determine the meal total snack of the age class. With the exceptions of the nutrients niacin and vitamin D, snacks contributed 12 or more percent of the NRC-RDA of all the nutrients, in the diets of the 5 to 6, 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year old children (Table 23). As previously noted,'low vitamin D intakes by the children are expected, since a large portion of the vitamin D is synthesized from sunlight, rather than from direct 88 .mmc Ham passwooo mxomcm .m>m pom ..z.m ..z.< ozu Eoum muomAAusc «0 Sam onu ou Amoco AA xomcm Adamo AmuoHH AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AE .uAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A: .AAAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .AAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .AAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA Aa AAAAAAAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AE .ssAoAAo A A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A As .AoAA A AA A AA A AA A AA AA .A AAeAAAA AA AAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .< aAsAAAA AAAAA A AA AA AA A AA AA AA “mm .AAAAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA . A AAEAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A As .AA>AAAAAAA AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AE .AAumAz AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AE .AAAAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .AAo< AAAAAAAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AE .AAAAAAAAAAA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA A ..AAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA A .AAA Amqu AA AA AA A AA A AA A A .AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AamAuuaz AAA": AAAuA AAA": AAA"A AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :oAumkoAmmmHQ uw< . mCOHquHmammmHU owm mzu mo some now xomom AAAmm Amuou owmum>m may mo :oAuAmanoo uomAAuns mwmuo>< .mm mAnme H 89 dietary sources, and there were no vitamin D values for two percent or skim milk since fortification of these products is not universal. Although snacks contributed 12 percent or greater of the percent NRC- RDA of most nutrients (Table 23), the majority of those nutrients-- calories, protein, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, vitamin 312’ total vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium--were present in quantities greater than 20 percent of the NRC-RDA, for the three youngest age classifications. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed a much smaller proportion of their NRC-RDA even though they consumed a considerably greater amount of the nutrients at in-between meal times. Although between meal food consumption contributed greater than 12 percent of the NRC-RDA of a majority of nutrients, the pre- teens' consumption of some nutrients, e.g., iron and folacin, was not sufficient enough to be 12 percent of their NRC-RDA. The 11 to 12 year olds' NRC-RDA for iron is nearly double that of the younger age groups in the study (18 milligrams versus 10 milligrams). The same is true of the folacin requirement; it gradually rises throughout childhood from 200 micrograms for the 5 to 6 year old to 400 micrograms for the 11 to 12 year old (Food and Nutrition Board, 1974). Nutrient Contribution of Snacks to Daily Nutrient Intake. Since snacks seemed to have made a significant contribution to the children's diets, Table 24 and 25 were prepared to compare the nutrient composition of the average total day excluding and including snacks. Snacks were, on the average, fifteen percent of the total daily intake of all nutrients. A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was completed to determine if there was a significant difference among 90 age classes, in the actual nutrient composition and the percent NRC- RDA of the total day with and without snacks. For the total day excluding snacks (Table 24), there was a significant difference (P i_0.01) in the amount of each nutrient consumed among age classifi- cations, except for vitamins 812 and D. Furthermore, when snacks were included in the nutrient value calculations, again, there was a significant difference (P £_0.01) among the age groups (Table 25) in the amount of most nutrients consumed. Exceptions were ascorbic acid consumption, and Vitamins B and D as there was no significant 12 difference in the consumption of these vitamins across the age classifications. When snacks were included in the total day, a significant difference in the amount of the nutrient consumed was expected among age classifications since the recommended allowance of each nutrient increased with the age of the child. A second ANOVA, was completed on the percentage NRC-RDA values for the nutrients, indicated there was also a significant difference in the percent NRC-RDA consumption among age classifications, reinforcing the statement concerning increased consumption by the 11 to 12 year olds not always being in proportion to increased need of these children. For the total day excluding snacks (Table 24), there was no significant difference in percentage NRC-RDA consumed of calories, protein, ascorbic acid, riboflavin and vitamin D, among age classes. The same was true for the total day nutrient intake which included snack values (Table 25). Therefore, even though there was a significant difference in the amount of calories, protein and riboflavin consumed by the-four age classifications, there was no significant difference in the percentage NRC-RDA of these nutrients 91 .AA AA.A.w_A AA AcmuAAAcAAAAA UAA A.AA AAA A.A AAA A.A AAA AA.A.A AE .AAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA A: .AAAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAAAA As .aAAAAAAAz UAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA As .AAAAAAAAA UAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA As .AAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA «AAAAA Ae .AAAAAAAAAA oAA AAAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA «AAAA AE .EAAAAAA AAA A.AA UAAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAAA inA.AA As .AoAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A AAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA inAAAA AA .A AAAAAAA AAAAA UAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAAAA ma .AAuonA AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A A: . A AAAAAAA UAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAAA AAAAA A: .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA inAA.A As .AAAAAAAAAA AAAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAA «AA.AA As .AAAAAA AAAA AA.A A AA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAA «AAA.A As .AAaAAAA AAA AAA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAA As .AAAA AAAAAAAA UA.A AAA.A AA.A AA.A A .AAAAA AAAAA UAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AE .AvoAAAAoAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA A .AAAAA AAAoA UAAA 0AAAA AAAA AAAA A ..AAAA AAAoA UAA UAA AAA AAA A .AAA AAAoA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAA A .AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA «AAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< AAAA >< «AAA >< AAAA >< AamAAuaz AAA»A AAA»A AAA": AAAua AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :oAumkoAmmmHo uw< .coaumoAmAmmmHo owm comm How .mxomom weavaaoxm Amp Hmuou mwmuo>m mo ooAuAmanoo uowAAuaa owmum>< .QN manma 92 .AAAAA .cmocsnv mo.o.w.m um Accumuqu AAucmuAmAchm uo: mum unuuomuoasm mama :qu mammZA .AA>AA AA.A.w.A AA AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAA «AA.A As .AAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AA .AAAAAA AAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAAAA AE .EAAAAAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA As .AAAAAAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA As .AAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA «AAAAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA «AAAA As .sAAAAAA AAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAAA «AA.AA As .AAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A cAsAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAA AA .< AAsAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAAAA .ma .AAAAAAA AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AA A cAsAAAA AAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA «AAA.A As .AA>AAAAAAA AAAA A.AA AAAAA A.AA AAAA A.AA AAAA «AA.AA AE .AAAAAz AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAA AA.A AAAA «AAA.A As .AAEAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA. AAA AA AE .AAAA AAAAAAAA AA.A AAA.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA A A . AAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAA As AAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAA AAAA A .AAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A ..AAAA AAAAA AAAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAA AAAAA AAA .AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA «AAA A .AAAAAAA AAAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA «AAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAmA >< AAAA >< AAAAAAAA AAA.A AAA": AAA»A AAA"A AA-AA I: AA-A A-A A-A :oAumuAmAmmon mw< .coAumuAuAmmmAu mwm coma new as: Anuou «a :oAAAmoasmu acmwuusc mwmum>< .mN manna 93 consumed by the children. A Duncan's Multiple Range test was completed on the percent NRC-RDA's of the nutrients which were significantly different among the age classes for the total day with and without snacks. The first group of nutrients examined were the vitamins. There was a signifi- cant difference in the children's percentage NRC-RDA consumption of vitamin A, thiamin, niacin, pyridoxine, folacin and vitamin 312 for the total day excluding snacks (Table 24) and for the total day including snacks (Table 25). However, the percent NRC-RDA consumption of ascorbic acid, riboflavin or vitamin D did not differ significantly among the age classifications. Looking first at the results of total day excluding snacks (Table 24), the 5 to 6 year olds consumed a significantly larger proportion of their percent NRC-RDA of folacin, pyridoxine, vitamin A, thiamin and vitamin B 2, than any of the three 1 elder age classes. Furthermore, the 11 to 12 year olds consumed the smallest percentage NRC-RDA of folacin and pyridoxine; however, this consumption was significantly lower than the 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds, as well as the S to 6 year olds. There was no significant difference in the percentage NRC-RDA consumption of thiamin, vitamin A or B12 consumed by the 7 to 8, 9 to 10 or 11 to 12 year olds. The opposite ranking occurred with the percent NRC-RDA of niacin, i.e., the 11 to 12 year olds consumed significantly greater proportions of their percentage NRC-RDA of niacin than the youngest age class. There was no significant difference in the 7 to 8, 9 to 10 or 11 to 12 year olds' percentage NRC-RDA consumption of niacin. Therefore 5 to 6 year olds consumed the significantly smallest proportion of their percentage NRC-RDA for niacin compared to the three elder age classes. 94 When the means of the total daily percentage NRC-RDA consumption including snacks, for folacin and pyridoxine were tested, the 11 to 12 year olds consumed a significantly smaller proportion of their percent NRC-RDA of these nutrients than the 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds (Table 25). The S to 6 year olds consumed a significantly greater proportion of their NRC-RDA for folacin and pyridoxine than the 7 to 8, 9 to 10 and 11 to 12 year olds. Differences among age classifica- tions in percentage NRC-RDA consumption of vitamin A based on total day, were similar to folacin and pyridoxine. The 5 to 6 year olds consumed the significantly greater proportion of their percentage NRC-RDA of vitamin A and the 11 to 12 year olds the significantly smaller. The 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds' percent NRC-RDA con- sumption of vitamin A.was significantly greater than the 11 to 12 year olds but significantly lower than the 5 to 6 year olds. Per- centage NRC—RDA consumption of vitamin B differed slightly among age 12 classifications. The 5 to 6 year olds consumed 299 percent of their NRC-RDA and the 11 to 12 year olds consumed only 181 percent of their NRC-RDA for vitamin 312, which was significantly different from the 5 to 6 and 9 to 10 year olds consumption. There was no significant difference between the 7 to 8 and 11 to 12 year olds percent NRC-RDA consumption of vitamin B Therefore, by comparing the significantly 12' different amounts of vitamins A and B with the mean percentage NRC- 12 RDA of these two vitamins, based on total day with and without snacks, the actual consumption of vitamins A and B increased for all age 12 classifications (Tables 24 and 25) with snacks. The increased con- sumption was in proportion to the increased percent NRC-RDA for the 5 to 6, 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds as it was not proportionate for 95 the 11 to 12 year olds. When snacks were included into the calcula- tion, the 11 to 12 year olds consumed a significantly smaller percent of their NRC-RDA of vitamins A and 312 than the three younger age classes. A similar change in the intake of niacin occurred. When comparing total day with and without snacks, the 11 to 12 year olds' consumed the largest proportion of their percentage NRC-RDA of niacin when snacks were included in the calculation. The S to 6 year olds were significantly lower than the elder three age groups in their percentage NRC—RDA consumption of niacin when snacks were included and excluded from the percentage NRC-RDA calculation (Table 24 and 25). But there was no significant difference in the percentage NRC-RDA consumption of niacin among the three eldest age classifications when snacks were excluded (Table 24). The results for the percentage NRC-RDA consumption of thiamin, when snacks were included in the total day (Table 25), were the same as when snacks were excluded (Table 24); the S to 6 year olds consumed a significantly larger proportion of their NRC-RDA than any of the three elder age classifications and there was no significant difference in the older children's percentage NRC-RDA consumption of thiamin. Like the vitamins, if a significant difference in percentage NRC-RDA consumption of minerals was found among age classifications, a Duncan's Multiple Range test was completed to pinpoint the differences. The mean percentage NRC—RDA consumption of iron, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and zinc were tested for total day excluding and including snacks. The results for total day excluding snacks (Table 24), were the same with respect to the differences among age classifications, as the total day including snack results (Table 25). In comparing the 96 percentage NRC-RDA of iron consumed by all four age classes for both total day with and without snacks included, the 9 to 10 year olds consumed a significantly larger proportion of their percentage NRC-RDA for iron. Following the 9 to 10 year olds, in descending order, were the 5 to 6, 7 to 8 and 11 to 12 year olds. There was a significant difference in percentage NRC-RDA consumption of iron among age classifications. The same descending order of age classes was reported for percentage NRC-RDA consumption of calcium, phosphorus and zinc. However, there was no significant difference in the percentage NRC-RDA consumption of these minerals by the 9 to 10 or 7 to 8 year olds, but both age classes consumed a significantly greater proportion of their NRC-RDA than the 5 to 6 or 11 to 12 year olds. Finally, the magnesium consumption in relation to the percentage NRC-RDA was greatest by the 5 to 6 year olds, followed in descending order by the 9 to 10 and 7 to 8 year olds (of which there was no significant difference) and finally by the 11 to 12 year olds with the lowest percentage NRC-RDA consumption of magnesium (Tables 24 and 25). There were also signifi- cant differences in the consumption of other nutrients for which there was no NRC-RDA. Therefore, a Duncan's Multiple Range test was completed on the significantly different mean nutrient values consumed by the four age classifications (Tables 24 and 25). These nutrients included total fat, total carbohydrate, total sugar, cholesterol, crude fiber, sodium, potassium and copper. When snacks were excluded from the total day's nutrient intake values, the 5 to 6 year olds consumed a significantly smaller amount of these nutrients tested than the 11 to 12 year olds. The same was true of the tested mean consumption of the same nutrients when snacks were included in total daily intake values 97 (Table 25). However, there was no significant difference in the total sugar or copper consumption among the three eldest age classes for the total day with or without snacks. Even though there was an increase in total sugar and copper consumption with maturity, it was not significantly different among the 7 to 8, 9 to 10 or 11 to 12 year old children. The 11 to 12 year olds did consume significantly greater amounts of sodium and potassium when snacks were included and excluded in the total day calculations. Looking at crude fiber, cholesterol, total carbohydrate and total fat, the significant dif- ferences in consumption of these nutrients were between the youngest and eldest age classifications. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed significantly greater amounts of these nutrients than the 5 to 6 year olds. These significant increases in amounts of nutrients consumed, based on total day calculations, were expected since as children mature they tend to consume an increased amount of food. When the average snack of each classification was compared to the respective average total day, it was found that each age group consumed similar percents of their average total daily nutrient consumption as a snack (Table 26). All the children consumed 20 to 21 percent of their total day's calories during inAbetween meals. They also consumed at least 15 percent of their total carbohydrate, total sugar, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and copper. Snacks were responsible for only 13 to 14 per- cent of the total daily intake of cholesterol and sodium. The remaining nutrients were consumed in varying quantities among the age groups, ranging not lower than 10 percent to not more than 22 percent. For example, the S to 6 year olds consumed 11 percent of their total 98 Table 26. Percent contribution of total daily snack1 consumed by four age classifications to total day's intake. Age Classifications Nutrient 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 Calories 21.3 20.3 20.0 21.4 Total Protein, g 11.8 12.2 11.4 12.8 Total Fat, g 13.4 18.0 18.6 19.6 Total Carb., g 26.1 24.2 24.1 26.3 Total Sugar, g 33.6 31.4 31.2 34.7 Cholesterol, mg 14.0 12.8 12.6 13.4 Crude Fiber, g 15.4 13.3 15.6 15.2 Ascorbic Acid, mg 17.5 14.6 16.2 15.1 Thiamin, mg 12.7 10.1 12.7 12.5 Niacin, mg 9.8 9.6 10.2 10.9 Riboflavin, mg 16.1 14.5 14.2 15.6 Pyridoxine, ug 13.2 12.3 12.5 13.1 Vitamin B , ug 11.3 12.2 13.0 11.2 Folacin, ug 13.5 12.0 14.4 14.1 Total Vitamin A, IU 11.4 11.8 12.2 17.0 Vitamin D, IU 18.5 15.1 16.6 15.6 Iron, mg 11.4 11.8 11.9 11.6 Calcium, mg 18.8 17.2 16.3 18.0 Phosphorus, mg 16.2 15.5 14.9 15.9 Sodium, mg 12.7 12.9 13.1 13.7 Potassium, mg 16.1 15.1 14.7 15.8 Magnesium, mg 21.2 17.4 19.8 20.7 Copper, ug 16.7 15.2 15.7 15.8 Zinc, mg 12.6 12.1 11.9 13.2 1 afternoon and evening snacks consumed during the day. 2 Percent Total dialy snack is equal to the sum of nutrients from the morning, 99 vitamin A intake between meals whereas the 11 to 12 year old children consumed 17 percent of their total daily intake of vitamin A from snacks. Interestingly, the 5 to 6 year olds tended to consume a similar higher percent of their total day's nutrients between meals while the two middle age classifications, the 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds, consumed a slightly smaller percentage of their total day's nutrients between meals. The percentage contribution of total fat, total protein, total sugar and additional carbohydrate to the total caloric consumption of the average total day and average total snack was calculated for each age classification. There was very little difference in the percent contribution of the nutrients among the age classes. However, there was no difference in the percent contribution of the four nutrients to the total caloric consumption of total day and total snack (Table 27). The calories consumed between meals came primarily from total sugar followed, in descending order by total fat, additional carbohydrate and total protein. The percent total sugar and total fat contribution ranges for age classifications were very similar; 38 to '40 percent versus 33 to 36 percent, respectively. For the total day, the largest proportion of calories were from total fat followed by total sugar, additional carbohydrate and total protein. In this instance, additional carbohydrate and total sugar were the most closely related by contributing 23 and 25 percent, respectively. To summarize, for the majority of the children, when an evening snack was consumed, it was the largest snack especially for the 11 to 12 year old children. Furthermore, when comparing the average total snack to the total day, it was found in general, that in-between meal 100 .ucmoumm m .Amv Hmuoau .xomsm Agog.H A.AN A.Am ¢.c~ o.mm A.AA a.mm o.c~ c.cq Amwsm Hmuoe o.m~ «.ma m.- A.AA m.- ~.mA w.- w.w~ oumutznonumu HocoAuAcv< N.wm A.An «.mm m.mm A.Am m.qm A.Am m.nm you Amuoa A.AA a.a o.AH a.a m.mA 0.x w.MA mm.m :Amuoum deuce zoo xomcm zoo xomcm an: xomcm axon Hxuocm ucwuuuaz I HA CA I m w I A c I m mcoAumkoAmmvo ow< .mcoAuouAuAmmoHu own a:6u xn Amp Amuou poo xoocm Hmuou scum oxoucw oAAo~mo Amuou cu :oAuanAuucco Acmouma mucmAuAA: AzoA mo comfiumano .mm wanna 101 foods consumed contributed 10 to 20 percent of the total day's nutrient consumption. Snacks made a significant contribution to all the children's diets, when they were consumed. There was very little difference in the percent contribution snacking made to the total day's nutrient consumption among the age classifications, even though there were significant differences:in the actual amounts of the nutrients consumed by the four age classes. There were also signifi- cant differences for the percentage NRC-RDA consumed for the majority of nutrients, among the age classifications. Many times significant differences in the percent NRC-RDA was inversely related to the significant difference in the amount of the nutrient consumed since increased consumption of a nutrient was not in proportion to the increased NRC-RDA for the nutrient as the children matured. For example, many times the 11 to 12 year old children consumed signifi- cantly greater quantities of iron, but at the same time consumed a significantly smaller percentage NRC-RDA of iron than the younger three age classifications. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that as children mature into the pre-teen years, snack foods be chosen wisely to ascertain their making a significant contribution to the total daily intake. 'It should be noted that the overall nutritional status of the children in the sample was very good. Comparing the findings of this study with similar previously completed research, which were completed in years prior to vitamin fortification of many foods, a noticeable difference can be detected. The children of this most recent national survey are no longer deficient in many of the nutrients, e.g., ascorbic acid, calcium and phosphorus, reported to be of concern in 102 earlier studies. It should be noted that earlier studies reported intake values for only a limited number of nutrients, for all of which there existed an NRC-RDA. Vitamins B6 and 312’ magnesium or zinc were not included and/or intakes of these vitamins folacin, were not evaluated in previous reports (Eppright et a1., 1954; Kerrey et a1., 1968; Eppright et a1., 1970; Patterson, 1971; Odland et a1., 1955). Table 25 revealed the children of all four age classifications on the average, consumed at least two-thirds or more of the NRC-RDA for the majority of the nutrients studied. Vitamin D was an exception for every age class; however, a major portion of the children's vitamin D was synthesized from cholesterol in the presence of sunlight. Another cause for low recorded vitamin D intake values was due to the elimination of a vitamin D value for two percent and skim milk on the MSU Nutrient Data Bank since fortification is not mandatory. None of the four age classifications consumed more than 100 percent of their NRC-RDA for calories however, this is not of major concern since obesity is one of the leading nutritional diseases in the nation. Although intakes of pyridoxine, iron, folacin and magnesium.were low for the 11 to 12 year olds, this was primarily due to a sharp increase in the NRC-RDA for these nutrients which was not accompanied by a proportionate increase in consumption of the nutrients. Influence of Number of Snacks Consumed on Daily Nutrient Intake. Since snacking frequently varied with the time of day and age of the child, total daily nutrient consumption was thought to vary with the number of snacks consumed each day. A second calculation was 103 completed to determine if there was a difference in total daily nutrient consumption when the child had one, two, three or no snacks during the day. Differences in nutrient consumption were examined both within an age class and among the four age classifications for the total day and total day excluding snacks. In order to complete these calculations, each of the days in the children's seven-day record was assigned to one of the four groups of days: no snacks, one snack, two snacks or three snacks per day. Following the division of days by the number of snacks consumed, as well as age class, average values for each of the 24 nutrients and percentage NRC—RDA (when applicable), were calculated for the four groups of days. These same mean nutrient values and percent NRC-RDA were also computed for the total sample. Daily Nutrient Analysis for the Total Sample. Tables 28 and 29 reported the mean nutrient values and percentage NRC-RDA for the total day excluding and including snacks, when one, two, three or no snacks were consumed during the day by the total sample. An ANOVA was completed to determine if there was a significant difference in the nutrient consumption among the four 'snacks per day' groups for both the total day excluding and including snacks. For many of the nutrients calculated, there was no significant difference in the average nutritional composition of a total day excluding snacks among the four groups of days. However, there were some exceptions. There were significantly more calories consumed when no snacks were consumed during the day than when one, two, or three snacks were consumed during the day when comparing the total day excluding snack values 104 .Anmaa .cmoaanv mo.o.w.m um uawuowmfic AdusmoAMAchm uos mums uAAAomumasm mEmm one :AAa mammzm AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AE .AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .AAAAAA A A AA A . AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AE AAAAAAAA: AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA As .AAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA . As .AAAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AE .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .sAAAAAA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AE .AAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A :AsAAA> AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA .< :AsAAAA AAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA ma .AAAAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AA . A AAEAAAA AAA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAA.A AAA AAA.A AAA AAA.A AAA AAA.A As .AA>AAAAAAA AA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA . A.AA As .AAAAAz AA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A As .AAsAAAA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AE .AAAA AAAAAAAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA A A AA A . AAA AAA AAA AAA As AAAAAAAAAAA AA A A A . AA AA AAA AAA A AAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAA AAAA A ..AAAA AAAAA AA AA AAA AA A .AAA AAAAA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA A .AAAAAAA AAAAA AA AAAAA AA AAAAAA AA AAAAA AA AAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >A AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAAAAAz AAAuA AAAAnA AAAAuA AAAuA A A A A Axomcm mo nonezz .AAUACA o3u .xomcm moo cos: .mxumcm wcApadoxo .Amp Hmuou mo :oAuAmanoo ucmfiuuac mwmum>< .m damn muou m u no .Am ecu me A: mesmcoo one: A anon on no A omam emu u A A n m u A p p x x : .wm magma 105 .AsnaA .cmucsav no.0.w.m um AcmumuuAc AAucmuAuAchm Ac: mum uAAAumAmaam mama wsu :uA3 mammxm AAA UA.AA AAA UA.AA AA AA.AA AA AA.A As .AAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AA .AAAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AE .sAAAAAAAz AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AAAAA AE .AAAAAAAAA AAAAA UAAAA AAAAA AAAAA . As .sAAAoA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAA AE .sAAAAAA AAA AA AA AAA AA.AA AAA AA AA AAA AA.AA As .AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA .A AAsAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA .A AAAAAAA AAAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA m: .AAAAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AA . AA AAAAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AA AAAAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAA.A AAA UAA.A AAA AAA.A AAA AAA.A AE .AA>AAAAAAA AAA A.AA AAA AA.AA AAA AA.AA AAA AA.AA As .AAAAAz AAA A A.A AAA UAA.A AAA AA.A AAA AAA.A As .AAAAAAA AAA UAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAA As .AAAA AAAAAAAA AA.A AA A AA.A AA.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AE .AAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A .AAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A ..AAAA AAAAA AAAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAA AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAAAAAA AAAoA AAA AAAAA AAA AAAAA AA AAAAA AA AAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAAAAAA AAA.AA AAAAu: AAAAuA AAA": A A A A $3“:ow MO bun—=32 .nmasmcoo mum: mxuncm G: van .mxuzcm mmusu .mxomcm 03A .xumcm mco cos: .oAAecm AAAOA w:u Asa Ann Anuou mo :OAAAAHLEOU Acmuuuac mmnuw>< .¢~ mdnme 106 (Table 28). The same was true of total carbohydrate, cholesterol, crude fiber, riboflavin, phosphorus and copper--significantly increased total day consumption (when snacks were excluded) was evidenced when no snacks were consumed during the day. However, there was no significant difference in the total day (excluding snacks) consumption of crude fiber and copper between the days when none or one snack was consumed. Therefore, the children did consume larger main meals, but not necessarily more nutritious meals, when snacks were not consumed during the day. When snacks were included in the total day calculation (Table 29), there was a significant difference in the consumption of almost every nutrient. The two exceptions were total vitamins A and 812. There was no significant difference in the total day's consumption of these vitamins based on the number of snacks consumed per day. The differences in the amount of a nutrient consumed was as dependent upon the number of snacks consumed, as on whether or not a snack was consumed. It became evident that on the days when snacks were consumed, there was a significant increase in consumption of the nutrients. There was also a significant increase in the consumption of most nutrients with the addition of one, two or three snacks to the total daily intake. Following the completion of a Duncan's Multiple Range test on the average total daily intake of nutrients that were significantly different among the four groups, the highest consumption of the majority of the nutrients occurred when three snacks per day were consumed. The nutrients which were consumed in significantly large amounts were total carbohydrate, total sugar, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium 107 and magnesium. The greatest amount of these nutrients were consumed on days when three snacks were eaten during the day (Table 29). As the number of snacks per day decreased, so did the consumption of these nutrients. There was a significantly smaller total daily intake of these nutrients when two, one and no snacks were consumed during the day. There was no significant difference in the total daily intake of cholesterol, crude fiber, ascorbic acid, niacin, folacin, vitamin D, iron or copper when none or one snack was consumed during the day. However, a significantly greater amount of these nutrients was consumed when two or three snacks were included in the diet. The total daily intake of vitamins A and 812 did not significantly differ when no, one,two or three snacks were consumed per day. Parallelling the increased nutrient intake by the children who consumed snacks, was the increased percentage NRC-RDA consumed by the children. The addition of snacks to the child's daily diet did increase percentage NRC-RDA consumption of nutrients. In fact, on days when no snacks were consumed, average folacin intake for the total sample dropped to two-thirds of the NRC-RDA. However, with the inclusion of snacks in the diet, folacin intake rose from 67 to 72, 78 and 91 percent of the NRC-RDA when one, two and three snacks were consumed, respectively (Table 29). Generally, when snacks were consumed there was a significant difference in the nutrient intake of a child. The addition of one, two and especially three snacks to the total daily intake, significantly increased nutrient consumption for the total sample. There were few nutrient intakes that differed from each other when the total day excluding snacks was analyzed (Table 28). Although caloric consumption of the total day excluding 108 snacks was higher on days when no snacks were consumed, the child did not significantly increase his consumption of the other nutrients at the main meals to compensate for the average 15 percent increase in nutrient consumptions when snacks were consumed (Table 28). Daily Nutrient Analyses for the Four Age Classifications. Following the completion of the analysis of the total sample, each of the four age classifications were also studied to see if there was a difference in the results due to the age of the child. Although no statistical tests were performed on the data, the results of the calculations for the four age classes appeared similar to the total sample calculations. The total day excluding snacks (main meal consumption), indicated the children of all age classes consumed the greatest quantities of calories at main meals when no snacks were consumed during the day (Tables 30, 31, 32 and 33). There was little difference in the consumption of other nutrients. For the S to 6 year olds, the main meals contributed the most total protein, total carbohydrate, total sugar, niacin, pyridoxine, folacin, vitamin D, iron, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and copper when no snacks were consumed during the day. The other nutrient values were lower when no snacks were consumed than when snacks were consumed (Table 30). When comparing the total day (including snacks) nutrient con- sumption of each classification, there was an increased total daily consumption of nutrients when snacks were added to the daily meal pattern (Tables 30 through 33). However, the £5 to 6 year olds consumed a greater amount of ascorbic acid, thiamin, niacin, pyridoxine, vitamins A and D, sodium and copper during main meals when no snacks were consumed than when one snack was consumed during the day (Table 30). 109 .mxumcn chovooA AAA Hooch .mxuocm wcuooauxo zoo Aouosw A.AA A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A AE .AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .AAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .eAAAAAAAz AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA Aav.eAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA Aa .sAAAoA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA .eAAAAAA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA Ae .AAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA .A AAAAAAA AAAA AAAA ‘AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .A AAaAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA mm .AAAAAAA AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA . 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AA AAA AA AA AE .AAu< AAAAAAAA A.A A.A . A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .AoAAAAAAoAA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAA AAA A .AAAAA AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A ..AAAA AAAoA AAA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA :H xm CH xm NCH ~xm mNNu: unmwuuaz 0:02 AAA": 00.2.5. .amw awn vmeamcoo mum: mxumcm mmusu new 03A .mco .mso: 20:3 :muvaazu vac yam» mum mnu AAA mxumcm wcAnaAucA tam wcAssAuxm >51 Acuou ecu A: :oAuAmoaeoU AcmAAuac mmmum>< .Am manna 111 .mxumcm wcAvsaocA AAA Amuoe .mxumcm wcAcaauxm awn AAAOHM A.AA A.A A.AA A.A A.AA A.AA A.AA As .oAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A: .AAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAmchmz AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AE .EAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA . 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A AAEAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A: .AAAAAAAAAA AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A As .=A>AAAoAAA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA As .cAuAAz AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AE .AAEAAAA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .AAu< AAAAoAAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .AAAAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAAAA AonA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A ..AAAA AonA AAA AA AAA AA AA AA AA A .AAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAAAA AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA :H xm :H xm NcH me HAN": uamAAuzz 952 AA": AAA": AAAuc 00H Fa. 03H. 9A0 NAG Amm,mxum:m mo Amnesz .AAA AAA amasmcou mums mxomcm amusu cam 03A .mco .0:0: :0:3 :mAcHAcu vac AmmA oAIa wzu AOA mxomcm wcAuSHUAA can wcAcsaoxm haw Amuou mo :oAuAmanoo ucwauuac mwmum>< .Nm mAan 112 .mxomcm wcqvnaoau Amt Amuoa .mxumcm wcAvaauxu Amt AAuOHN has Amm,mxum:m mo Amnesz A A.AA A.A A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA AaxAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A: .AAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .AAAAAAAA: AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA .Aa .AAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA Aa .aaAAoA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA Ae .ssAAAAA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA As .AoAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA .A :AaAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .< AAAAAA> AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA Am .cAuAAoA AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A A: .A A :AsAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A: .AAAAAAAAAA AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A As .:A>AAAAAAA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA A.AA As .cAuAAz AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A AA.A As .cAeAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA AA .AAu< AAAAouAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .AAAAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA AAA A .AAAAA AonA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A ..AAAA AAAAA AAA AA AAA AA AA AA AA A .AAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAAAA Amqu AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AA AA :A AA AAA AAA AAA"A AAAAAAAA AAA": mwhfih. 03H. .xmu Aug vmesmcou AAA: mxomcm «mung van o3u .mco .mcoc :mz: :mAnAAcu vac Ana» NAIAA Ana AOA Axumcm wcAvaAucA van wcszonm an: Anuou mo :oAuAmoaeoo AcmAAusc mwnuu>< .mm manna 113 There was an increased total daily consumption of these nutrients when two or three snacks were consumed between meals. For the 7 to 8 year olds (Table 31), there was an increased amount of each nutrient con- sumed as each snack was added per day. The largest intake of nutrients was reported when three snacks were consumed per day. When the total daily intake of days when no snacks were consumed was compared to the total daily intake including one snack consumption, there was an increase in every nutrient except vitamins A and 312 and iron. These nutrient intakes either decreased or remained the same for the 7 to 8 year olds. Interestingly, the total days' cholesterol intake when two snacks were included (292 mg.) was very similar to the intake when no snacks were consumed (294 mg.). The 9 to 10 year olds total day nutrient intake when no snacks were consumed was smaller than when one snack was added except for vitamins A and 312, crude fiber and copper intake which were lower when one snack was consumed (Table 32). The addition of two and three snacks per day increased the intake of all nutrients except for vitamin A when snacks were included in the calculations. The total day (including snacks) vitamin A intake did not exceed the total day with no snack value until three snacks were consumed per day. When one and two snacks per day were consumed, a lower intake was evidenced when compared to the total day with no snacks. As with the younger age classes, the lowest vitamin A intake occurred when snacks were consumed during the day. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed the least vitamin A when three snacks per day were consumed (Table 33). Total cholesterol intake was also lower when one and two snacks per day were compared to total intake when no or three snacks were consumed and included in total day 114 calculations. All other total day nutrient intakes were larger when snacks were added to the total daily nutrient intake. In comparing the average total snack when one, two or three snacks were consumed per day (Tables 34, 35 and 36), it was found that as the number of snacks increased so did the intake of all the nutrients for all age classifications. However, in analyzing the total snack data individually, when only one snack per day was consumed (Table 34), there was little difference in the nutrient intake of the 5 to 6, 7 to 8 and 9 to 10 year olds. In fact, the three youngeSt age classifica- tions consumed very similar amounts of total protein, total fat, total carbohydrate, total sugar, riboflavin, vitamin D and calcium from snacks when only one snack per day was consumed. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed greater amounts of each nutrient when only one snack was consumed per day. Although slight differences were noted in the total snack nutrient consumption, when only A AAA A AA A AA A AA A: .chonAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AE .=A>AAAoAAA A A.A A A.A A A.A A A.A As .AAAAAz A AA.A A AA.A A AA.A A AA.A As .cAsAAAA AA A AA AA AA AA AA A AE .AAA< AAAAouA< A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AE .AoAmAAAAvo AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA AonA AA AA AA AA A ..AAAo AAAoA AA AA AA A A .AAA AAAoA AA A AA A AA A AA A A .AAAAAAA AAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAAAAAA «AAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< “AAAAAAA AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A . :oAumkoAomoAu uw< .GOAuooAuAmmvo owo sumo an .on non coasmcoo mos xomsm moo cons xomcm AAAmv AoAOA uo coauumooaoo ucofiuuoc owoum>< .qm manna 116 AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A As .oAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A: .AAAAoA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA .EAAAAAAA: AAA AAA AAA AAA As .eAAAAAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .saAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .eaAUAAA AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AE .coAA AA AA AA AA A AA AA AA AA .A :AEAAA> AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A AAsAAA> AAAoA A AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AMA .AAuonA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A A: . A AAAAuA> AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA A: .ochoAAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A As .=A>AAAoAAA AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A As .AAuAAz AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AE .AAeAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .AAu< UAAAAUAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AA .AoAmAAAAoAA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA A ..AAAA AonA AA AA AA AA A .AAA Amuos AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA muAquAA AAAA >< < AAAA >< AAAA >< AaaAuuaz AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :oAumuAuAmmmHo uw< .soAAAUAwAmmmHu mwm :uwm an .Amv awn twesmcoo muw3 mxomzm 03A saga xomsm AHAmu Hmqu mo :oAuAmoasou AcmAuuac mwmum>< .mm mHan 117 AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AE .AAAA Nmm ¢~A OAA AAm w: .umaaoo AA AAA AA AAA AA AA AA AAA As .AAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AE .AAAAAAAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA As .eAAoAAA AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A As .AAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA .A AAAAAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA AAAA AA .< AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A: .AAoAAoA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA .AAA AAEAAAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA A: .chonAAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AE .:A>AAAAAAA AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A AA A.A As .AAUAAA AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A AA AA.A As .AAAAAAA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AE .AAu< AAAAouA< A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AA AA AA AA AE .AoumAAAAoAA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAA Amuoe AAA AAA AAA AA A ..AAAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA A .AAA AAAoA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A .AAAAAAA AonA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< < AAAA >< AAAA >< AcmAAAAA AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :oAumuwmAmmon ow< .cofiumuawfimmaau own comm AA vmaamaou muws Amt nun mxomcm mmunu cog: xumcm AAAmv AAuOu mo coauamoaaou uamAuusa mmmuu>< .om wanna 118 were consumed by the 11 to 12 year olds, they were not as high in vitamins and minerals as the younger children in the sample (Table 36). A comparison among age classifications was also completed to determine differences in total day consumption when one, two or three snacks were consumed (Tables 37, 38 and 39). Since there was no statistical tests completed on the data and the comparison was made across age classes only the differences in percentage NRC-RDA con- sumption are discussed. When only one snack per day was consumed, less than 100 percent NRC-RDA for calories was consumed by all age classifi- cations. This low caloric intake was not of major concern as it means that fewer 'empty calorie' foods were consumed and more nutrient concentrated foods were chosen. Although the average percentage NRC- RDA for total protein, ascorbic acid, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, vitamin 312 and A and phosphorus differed among the age classifica- tions, it was well over 100 percent of the NRC-RDA for all the age classes. The percent NRC—RDA intake of pyridoxine, folacin, magnesium, iron and zinc intakes sharply decreased for the 11 to 12 year old age class. In fact, when only one snack per day was consumed, the percent NRC-RDA of folacin for ll to 12 year olds dropped to 56 per- cent. However, folacin intake was underestimated because of insufficient analytical data. The percentage NRC-RDA of the other nutrients fall below 100 percent, but not below the two-third or 67 percent mark. The vitamin D intake was low for all age classifications, however this was expected as the majority of vitamin D was not from direct dietary sources, as explained previously. As the number of snacks was increased to two and three per day (Tables 38 and 39), the percent NRC-RDA of all nutrients increased due 119 AA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AA A.A As .UAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .AAAAAA AA AAA AAA AAA AA AAA AAA AAA As .EAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA As .eAAAAAAoA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AE .aAAAoA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAA AE .AAAAAAA AA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA Aa .AoAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A AAeAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA .< :AaAAAA AAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA mw .AAuonA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A A: . 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A :AsAAAA AA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA A: .AAAonAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A As .AA>AAAoAAA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AE .AAomAz AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AE .AAEAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .AAo< AAAAouAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .AoAmAAonAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAAAA AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA A ..AAAA AonA AAA AAA AA AA A .AAA AAAoA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA A .AAmquA AonA AAA AAAA AA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAAAoAAA AAAA >< AAAA >4 AAAA >< AAAA >4 AAAAAAAA AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :OAAAUAmAmmmHu mw< sumo An Amt you woesmcoo muw3 mxomcm o3u 5053 how Hmuou mo :OAuAmanoo AcmAuusc mwmum>< .cofiumoAmAmmmHo mwm .wm magma 121 AA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AE .oAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA A: .AAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA Ae .AAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA .EAAAAAAOA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AE .EAAAoA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA As .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA . AAAA As .EAAAAAA AA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA . A.AA AAA A.AA As .AoAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA .A AAEAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA .< AAAAAAA AAAoA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AAA AAA w» .AAuonA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A A: . A AAEAAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AA .AAAAAAAAAA AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A As .:A>AAAoAAA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AAA A.AA AE .AAomAz AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AAA AA.A AE .AAAAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AE .AAu< UAAAAUAA A.A A.A A.A A.A A .AAAAA AAAAA AAA AAA AAA AAA As .AoAmAAonAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A .AAAAA AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AAA A ..AAAA AAAoA AAA AAA AAA AA A .AAA AonA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA AAA AA A .AAAAAAA AonA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< AAAA >< uamAAAAA AA-AA AA-A A-A A-A :oAumkoAmmmHo mw< An Amp you wussmcoo mumB mxumCA manna :m:3 Amp Hmuou mo :OAuAmanou Acmfipuac wwwuw>€ .coAumoAmAmmmHo mwm comm .mm magma 122 to increased consumption. By consuming three snacks per day, the three youngest groups of children all consumed well over 100 percent of their NRC-RDA for all nutrients except vitamin D and folacin. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed less than 100 percent of their NRC-RDA for all nutrients except vitamin D and folacin. The 11 to 12 year olds consumed less than 100 percent of their NRC-RDA for zinc and iron, as well as vitamin D and folacin. Again, low folacin and vitamin D intakes were due naunderestimation of the nutrient values because of insufficient data. In summary there was no significant difference in the amount of the majority of nutrients consumed from main meals (total day excluding snacks, tables 30 and 33), if none, one, two or three snacks were consumed per day. However, there was a significant difference in the number of calories consumed. When snacks were excluded from total day calculations, the children who consumed snacks between meals consumed fewer calories at the main meals. As the number of snacks per day increased, so did the amount of nutrients consumed increase, when comparing the total day consumption, including snacks among the four age classifications. The younger age classes benefited most from snacks by consuming a greater percent NRC-RDA of vitamins and minerals (Tables 34 through 37). The eldest age class (11 to 12 year olds) increased their nutrient consumption because they consumed larger snacks; however, the increased consumption was not in proportion to their increased NRC-RDA. Consequently, they consumed a lower percent NRC-RDA of iron, folacin, calcium and phosphorus compared to the three younger age classes. All other nutrients were consumed in quantities greater than two-thirds percent NRC-RDA by all children 123 even when no snacks were consumed during the day. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A national survey of 657 school-age children's snacking patterns was completed to determine the foods consumed between meals and the nutrient contribution these foods made to the children's daily diet. A seven-day food diary was utilized to record the children's intake. The sample was balanced by geographic location, population density, income, degree of urbanization and age of mother. The Michigan State University Nutrient Data Bank was used to complete the nutrient analysis of the children's diets. The data bank allowed nutrient calculations for over 3,000 food items. Each food was analyzed for 24 nutrients which were: all the nutrients for which the National Research Council had set a Recommended Dietary Allowance (NRC-RDA); total carbohydrate; total fat; total sugar; crude fiber; cholesterol; sodium; potassium and copper. The results of the food consumption survey indicated the majority of all children's snacking occurred during the afternoon and evening hours, with significantly fewer snacks being consumed between the morning and midday meals. The youngest children of the sample (5 to 6 years) consumed the largest proportion of the A.M. snacks which may have been due to the regularity of an A.M. snack being served in many nursery and kindergarten schools. The food items consumed between meals varied with the age of the child. Of the twelve main food groups used in the study, beverages 124 125 other than milk were the most frequently consumed items by the total sample, as werl as the four age classifications. Fruits and vegetables were ranked second by the total sample and milk was third. The overall ranking of the twelve food groups according to frequency of consumption between meals, did not substantiate the many long-held but unverified beliefs concerning children's snacking. Salted snack foods, candy, and desserts were not consumed as frequently between meals as milk and fruits. Trends in the consumption of specific snack foods were evidenced by increasing or decreasing percentage consumption of food items by the four age classifications. There was an increased consumption of beverages other than milk, salted snack foods, ice cream and other frozen novelties, candy and mini-meal items with the child's maturity. Furthermore, a decreased consumption of milk and cookies was indicated as the child matured. Snacks, when consumed, made a significant contribution to the average total daily nutrient consumption of the children. In general, between meal foods contributed 15 percent or greater of the total day's nutrient consumption of calories, total carbohydrate, total sugar, total fat, crude fiber, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and copper. There was little difference in the percentage contribution snacking made to the total day's nutrient consumption among age classifications even though there were significant differences in the amounts of the nutrients consumed by the four age classifications. However, significantly greater quantities of nutrients consumed by the children was not always indicative of increased percentage NRC-RDA consumption. For example, many 11 to 12 year old children consumed significantly 126 greater quantities of iron but at the same time consumed a signifi- cantly smaller percentage NRC-RDA of iron than the three younger age classifications because the 11-12 year olds' NRC-RDA for iron is almost double that of the three younger age classes. Since the NRC- RDA of most nutrients increases with maturity, it became evident that increased consumption of nutrients was not always proportionate to the increased recommended allowances. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that as children mature, especially in the pre-teen years, snack foods be chosen wisely to ascertain their significant contribur tion to the recommended allowances of the nutrients. The addition of snacks to the daily meal pattern significantly increased the total daily intake of nutrients. On days when no snacks were consumed, the children did not consume enough nutrients at the three main meals of the day to compensate for the nutrients not consumed between meals. With the inclusion of two or three snacks into the daily meal pattern, there were significant increases in the amounts of all nutrients consumed with the exception of vitamins A and 312' The average total daily nutrient intake of the total sample indicated the children were well nourished. The children consumed over 100 percent of their NRC-RDA for total protein, ascorbic acid, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, vitamins and 312, iron, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Only 94 percent of the sample's NRC-RDA of calories was consumed which was not of major concern since obesity is one of the leading nutrition-related diseases in America. Low folacin intake was reported primarily because insufficient data was available regarding the folacin levels in most food items. The direct dietary sources of vitamin D were also low but it should be 127 noted that vitamin D is synthesized by the human body in the presence of sunlight. ' Further studies might include a more indepth analysis of the data in relation to the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the children; the employment status of the mother; age of the parents or the number and age of the siblings. Utilizing the children's personal data (recorded on the last page of the diary) another analysis might include a comparison of the diets and snacking patterns of obese and non-obese children. Other studies could include a similar survey completed on the same sample, within the next two years to investigate the changes in the children's snacking patterns with maturity. Another interesting study could be completed to determine the correlation between a child's knowledge of nutrition and his actual between meal consumption. Included in this study could be some of the environmental factors involved in a snacking decision, i.e., food availability, peer group and activity level. 128 AAA.A .AA AAAAAWAAEAAAAA ANQAMZQHAA Inga 023:).- _§u~Eoo< tinned” _ ,. e , _ .. .. . co 82:3» 0 M A mac VT! 3 SA: 3292 2 Mac! at am . m . , . AA>Eoo< _ a A Am». .2 . ,, . .6 82:39 2 NFC-.6 010 a (W‘:3~< U~¥O°U .. 2m... 32m: m .3310 QSAABSG .333 how»: 0 $233 :5. 93:3 A .A 2.5 . rt: .6 82.9.9 > a turn 1.32%. A $333? :23 9&0 .22. 32%.. m 0 o 32:22 . Its A . A ... , , ..... .5 82:8» 2 when. A (no n 1 :2 big c .5: 3222 08.38 8 cox-u: A... .A ......x......!.. 02:5 CO>Su CO :>— *3 (N ..511313.. 3 in V: —( 3w: :2! W: O» 0233 v: A tun”... :33 32.5.2 so Auste— :2 .. ...: .. 3:631:35: >53 :0. 3A: :5: A... 8 meow. A23: 3:: vi 3.2.5.5“. ski—gum! g» 2. was: at. : «:3 U— u .mggwn £805 a: manta :u: in: ”—3 5%.!- gwma! 3 m2 3:: as?! 5 p; (as: a! .owmm human vouoaaeoo oaaamm H an—zmm: Sample Completed Personal Data Page. 129 APPENDIX II ' GENERAL FAMILY INFORMATION ' (Please complete the following to: each Iamnly membet) m IonY ANNE MIKE Ended Gaga. Kane A: 45 +0 \8 l5 :2. 7 HEIGHT ..th. .5 Fl i-" in. ..5—51 .3...“ ._..fl _FI Fl «annum.; _.Q._In ’ m. In. In ..Lm In __m .....m .__In wacmcm.) mun L220; [Jim Mm 110:» 17... ___m _u ....» GENENAI. HEALTH @ @ EM Emu“: Elam Emu-m Exam Cad-om Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good mm Um um um: Uncut Una: Una-c Um um Um mica". W's doctors donors doctor's doctors cotton comet‘s man comet's mum. can can can can can can can can can mote-om REASON. REASON REASON, 'a win REASON REASON REASON REASON REASON balsam omumstonv an 6») All A» All an an All an Cad-m @ 3/4 3/4 an 314 3M 3M 3M 3M ammo! enema-w v2 v2 @ v2 vz I/2 m v: m madam mama. v4 no In @ @ l/4 vs vs no matador m Non- Nono None None Nom @ Non. Nona Non- um; mm I'm Em much-ct. "mam Mm mum m. Wumtm‘sumWMI Int-IAN, mmevaammetmwmhwwMoo-s? cummcmmdloflmu n 50 'w 130 APPENDIX III Introductory Letter which Accompanied the Diary. CENSUMER Milli PANHS 323 scum FRANKLIN STREET-CHICAGO. ILLINOIS some (7-3052) Dear Panel Member, As the busy fall season is beginning, and children all over are starting a new school year, I would appreciate it if you would take some time to help me discover what your family eats and drinks throughout the day. . Enclosed you will find your family‘s Menu Diary for the week of Sunday, September 18, through Saturday, September 24. What your family consumes everyday is important since your family represents over 50,000 households in the United States. Before beginning to fill in your diary on Sunday, September 18. take some time to read over the directions and to explain to your family the importance of their remembering what they consumed during the day -- while at school or at work. at the end of each reporting day, check over your entries to see if they are clear and complete. Your family is important and so is the record of what they eat and drink. I've enclosed with your diary a sunny yellow magnet with a smiling face. I hope this will not only help you attach your diarv to the refrigerator, but also help brighten your day. I appreciate all the effort and time you are putting into this study. As a token of my appreciation, in a few days you will receive part of a hostess serving set I have picked out for you. The party serving bowl and silver-plated serving spoon also have five companion serving pieces all of the same quality silver pattern. After completing your diary at the end of the week, please return the diary in the stamped reply envelope so that I can send you, as quickly as possible, the five companion silver pieces. I hope you enjoy using your hostess set, and thanks so much for all your help---have a good week. Cordially, / “V7 ‘ I)! /’ L( . APPENDICES Specification Sex P&L SD 131 APPENDIX IV Code Book for Non-Nutrient Data Description Sex Health Status Reasons (contact Dr. Rae Schemmel 5-7725) Dental History (proportion of teeth) Pregnant/ Breast Feeding Special Diet (contact Dr. Rae Schemmel 5-7725) Items Males Females Excellent Good Under Dr.'s Care Cancer Cirrhosis Decreased renal function Diabetes mellitus Diverticulosis Food allergies Gall bladder disease Hyperlipoproteinemias Hypertension Overweight Ulcerative colitis (or other GI tract problems) Ulcers Other (i.e., broken knee) All 3/4 1/2 1/4 NOne Pregnant Breast feeding Not applicable High calories, protein Low fat, high calorie Moderate protein, low sodium and potassium Diabetic High fiber Allergy diet Low fat Low cholesterol/modified fat Restricted sodium Code wNH 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 O9 10 ll 01 02 03 O4 05 06 07 08 O9 APPENDIX IV (cont'd.). Specification EB Description Ethnic Back- ground (contact Dr. Kathy Kolasa 3-1669) 132 Items Weight reduction Soft or pureed Ulcer diet/bland Other Afro-American (black, negro) Alaskan Albanian American Indian Appalachian White/ Southern White Arab Armenian Australian Austrian Basque Belgian Black Muslem Central American (Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Salvador) Canadian Chaldeans Chinese Cornish Cuban Czechoslovakian Dane Dutch/Hollander English/British Eskimo Filipino Finnish French Canadian/Cajun German German-Amish-Ménnonite Greek Gypsie Hawaiian Hungarian Icelandic Indian Irish Israeli Italian Japanese Jewish Code 10 11 12 13 Ol 02 03 04 05 06 O7 08 09 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 APPENDIX IV (cont'd.). Specification Description 133 Items Korean Lebanese Lithuanian Mexican Middle Eastern Mormon Muslem Norwegian Oriental Polish Portuguese Puerto Rico Rumanian Russian Scotch Scotch Irish Slavic South American Spanish Swedish Swiss Syrian Turkish Ukranian Vietnamese Welsh Yemmenite Yugoslavian Use 68 - 78 to categorize if 1 through 67 are not appropriate. American (White) European African Asian Mix of two or more European Mix of two or more European and African Mix of two or more European and Asian Mix of two or more African Mix of two or more Africian and Asian Mix of two or more Asian Other Code 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 6O 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7O 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 134 APPENDIX IV (cont'd.). Specification Description Items Code Day Day of Week Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday \IO‘UIUILDNH Meal Meal Consumed Morning meal Mid-morning snack Midday meal Afternoon snack Evening meal Evening snack O‘U'IJ-‘DJNH Loc Location of At home Meal At school Away from home Not eaten L‘UONI" 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 135 APPENDIX v Newsletter for Project Unlimited Fish Fillet - code as Ocean Perch, 28-0800 Pizza - code as home recipe, 57-4110 unless specified as frozen Meat in general - One serving 8 3 oz. (code 70) use LM and CKD WT. Pork Chop - code as Rib; One serving = 1 chop medium size (code 11) Spareribs - One serving = code 30 for 22-4090 (with BBQ sauce 8 1 tbsp/rib) Bar-B-Q by the cup - 3 oz. of chuck (20-0130) 3 tbsp. barbeque sauce Bar-B-Q Sandwich or Sloppy Joe - 1 hamburger bun 3 oz. ground beef 3 tbsp. Bar-B-Q Sauce Corn Dog or Hush Puppy - l frankfurter (all meat); 1 corn fritter Peanut Butter Sandwich - 2 slices white enriched bread 2.5 tbsp. peanut butter Peanut Butter & Jelly Sandwich - 2 slices white enriched bread 2.5 tbsp peanut butter 2.5 tbsp. jelly Cheese Sandwich - 2 slices of white enriched bread 2 ounces American processed cheese Meat & Cheese Sandwich - 2 slices of white enriched bread 1/3 cup or 1 ounce of meat 1 ounce of cheese Tuna Sandwich - 2 slices white enriched bread 1/3 cup tuna salad Hamburger/Hot Dog - don't forget bun! Ice Cream - all fruit flavors code as strawberry chocolate and butterscotch ripple code as chocolate Nuts on ice cream - walnuts, l tbsp./scoop Crackers - if not specified, use saltines 136 APPENDIX V (cont'd.). 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Taffy Applies - 1 medium apple, 4 caramels Milk - if not specified, use 3.3% fat non-fat dry milk (09-0220 or 09-0200) in codebook is not reconstituted. 1/3 cup as listed = 1 cup milk consumed. Tater Tots, Tater Treats, Tater Puffs, Tater Gems - use code for frozen french fries Doughnuts - if not specified use cake type plain Celery - 4 sticks/stalk Carrot - 6 sticks/carrot Butter on Potato - if amount not specified, use one pat Casseroles - One serving 8 2/3 cup Stews - One serving 8 1 cup Meat Balls - 1/2 slice of meat loaf Cocoa & Hot Chocolate - Code milk separately. Use 2 tbsp. mix per cup milk. Strawberry Shortcake - Code as: Sponge Cake 1 piece Frozen Strawberries 1/2 cup Cool Whip 2 tbsp. Breaded veal Cutlet or Breaded Pork Chop - Code for meat as braised plus 2 tbsp. breadcrumbs Soup - if not specified, code as Campbell's Vegetable Roast Beef - if out of meat not specified, code as 20-0340 Cheese — if not specified, code as American processed cheese Roast Chicken and Turkey - if cut not specified, code as 1/2 light and 1/2 dark meat Ham Roast or Baked Ham - Code 23-0050 Scalloped Potatoes and Ham - for 1 cup serving code as 3/4 cup scalloped potatoes and 1/4 cup chopped ham 137 APPENDIX V (cont'd.). 37. Coke Float - Code as 2 scoops of vanilla ice cream and 8 ounces Coke 38. Cracker Jacks - 84-0480 Caramels (l6) 2 81-0550 Peanuts (05) 2 80-0360 Popcorn (02) l 39. Creamed Vegetables - One serving (1 1/2 cup): 1/3 cup vegetable 2 tbsp. medium white sauce 40. Snow Cone - 1 cup water, 2 tbSp. sirup-fruit flavored NOTES: If have items for a meal, but no LOC., assume home unless obviously consumed elsewhere (as evidenced by variety of food items). If data is completely missing for a meal and/or day and person did not check "did not eat ," then leave LOC. BLANK Also, please attach sheet to outside of codebook telling me what information is missing - the day (Sunday through Saturday) and the meals. 138 APPENDIX VI Food Items in Original 86 Food Groups, and Corresponding 14 Food Groups Used in the Analyses Main 14 Original 86 Foods Within Food Groups Food Groups the Groups Beverages other than Non-Carbonated Sweetened Lemonade Milk Beverages Limeade Artificially Sw. Fruit Juices Gatorade Carbonated Sweetened Cola Beverages Root Beer Cream Soda Fruit-flavored soft drinks Fruits and Vegetables Carbonated, Artificially Sweetened Beverages Natural Fruit and vegetable Juices Other Beverages Fresh and Water- Packed Fruits Syrup Packed Fruits Dried Fruits vegetables Salads All varieties Citrus Grape, Cranberry, etc. Nectars Tomato, Carrot, etc. Ve8 Coffee Tea Water All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties- Fresh Canned or Frozen Tossed greens Macaroni and Potato Cole_Slaw APPENDIX VI (cont'd.) 139 Main 14 Original 86 Foods Within Food Groups Food Groups the Groups Milk Milk, Plain Whole Milk Lowfat Milk Skim Milk Buttermilk Milk, Chocolate Sweet Additions to Milk Cocoa Chocolate Syrup Instant Breakfast Melted Powder Strawberry Powder Cookies Plain Cookies Butter Vanilla and Salted Snack Foods Filled Cookies Bar Cookies Sweetened Crackers Cereal-Marshmallow Cookie Nuts and seeds Snack Crackers Chocolate Wafer Pecan and Peanut Butter Shortbread Sugar Chocolate Chip Coconut Macaroon Oatmeal Raisin Chocolate and Vanilla Sandwich Peanut Sandwich Fig Pumpkin All varieties Graham Animal All varieties All Varieties Peanut Butter/ Cheese Sandwich Crackers APPENDIX VI (cont'd.) Main 14 Food Groups 140 Original 86 Food Groups. Foods Within the Groups Salted Snack Foods Ice Cream and Other Frozen Novelties Cakes, Pies and Other Desserts Potato Chips Other Chips Popcorn Pretzels Other Snack Foods French Fries Ice Cream Frozen Dairy-Based Novelties Popsicles Milkshakes and Malts Iced Cakes All Varieties Potato Sticks Cheese Puffs Tortilla Chips Corn Chips All varieties All varieties Bacon Rinds Egg Rolls ‘ A11 varieties of hors d'oeuvres Fresh Frozen Fast-Food All Flavors Sherbert Ice Milk Frozen Yogurt Creamsicle Fudge Bars Ice Cream Sandwich Drumsticks Ice Cream Bars All Flavors All Flavors Chocolate or Devil's Food With Chocolate Spice with Carmel White with White Yellow with Chocolate APPENDIX VI (cont'd.) Main 14 Food Groups 141 Original 86 Food Groups Foods Within the Groups Cakes, Pies and Other Desserts Candy Cakes Without Icing Specialty Cake Pies Pastry, plain Other Baked Desserts Pudding Sweetened Gelatin Sweetened Gelatin With Fruit Chocolate Candy Hard Candy Chewy Candy Chocolate White Yellow Pound Gingerbread Angel Food and Sponge Brownie Frui t Cake Lady Finger Cheesecake Pineapple-Upside- Down Cake All Varieties Custard Cobbler Torte Strudel All Varieties and Flavors All Flavors All Varieties of Chocolate or Chocolate Coated All Flavors of Small Pieces Hard Candy Lollipops and Suckers Peanut Brittle Candy Corn Carmel Gum Drops Jelly Beans Licorice Peanut/Carmel Bar APPENDIX VI (cont'd.) Main 14 Food Groups 142 Original 86 Food Groups Foods Within the Groups Candy Breads and Cereals Mini-Meal Items Marshmallow Candy Chewing Gum Saltine Crackers Other Salted Crackers Sandwich Bread and Toast Snadwich Buns Other Breads and Rolls Pancakes and Waffles Ready-To-Eat Cereal, Presweetened Ready-To-Eat Cereal, Regular Needs-To-Be-Cooked Cereal Breakfast Squares and Granola Bars Peanut Butter Eggs Soups Circus Peanuts All Varieties of Marshmallows Cotton Candy All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties and Flavors White Whole Wheat Rye All Varieties Raisin Cornbread French Bagels Dinner Rolls Biscuits All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties All Varieties Canned Instant Homemade All Varieties APPENDIX VI (cont'd). Main 14 Food Groups 143 Original 86 Food.Groups Foods Within the Groups Mini-Meal Items Small Pastry Main Meal Dishes Meat Ground Beef Luncheon Meats and Spreads Frankfurters Pizza Preformed Sandwiches Sweetened Bread Pre-Packaged Baked Goods All Combination Dishes Containing Meat, Poultry or Fish Homemade Packaged Frozen Canned All Meat--except ground beef, frankfurter, sausage and luncheon meat Poultry Fish All Varieties Bologna Boiled Ham Spiced Luncheon Meats (Pork/Ham Type) Salami Chicken, Egg, Ham, Turkey and Tuna Salad All Varieties All Varieties Submarine Sandwich Fast-Food Sandwich Vending-Machine Sandwich All Varieties of Fruit Breads Nut Breads Cupcakes Filled Sponge Cake Chocolate Covered Cake Roll APPENDIX VI (cont' d.) 144 Main 14 Original 86 Foods Within Food Groups Food Groups the Groups Small Pastry Doughnuts, plain Cake Yeast Other Dairy Products Condiments Sugars and Syrups Doughnuts, Filled and Coffee Cakes Muffins Cream-Filled Pastry Cheese Yogurt Cottage Cheese Whipped Dessert Topping Fat Spreads Salad Dressing General Condiments Sour Cream and Dips Cream and Coffee Whitener Table Sugar Cream and Fruit Filled Sweet Rolls Cinnamon Buns All Varieties or Coffee Cake All Varieties Eclairs Cream Puffs All Varieties Plain All Flavors All Varieties All Varieties Butter Margarine Shortening and Oil Mayonnaise All Varieties All Seasonings All Pickles and Relishes All Gravies Catsup, Mustard Steak Sauces All varieties All Varieties APPENDIX VI (cont'd.) 145 Main 14 Original 86 Foods Within Food Groups Food Groups the Groups Sugars and Syrups Ice Cream Topping Chocolate Butterscotch Marshmallow Dessert Sauces and Icing Other Sugars Jams, Jellies and Honey Syrups Sugar Substitute A11 Fruit‘ Toppings Custard Sauce All Fruit Sauces All Flavors of Icings Brown Powdered Apple Butter All Varieties of Marmalade All Varieties and Flavors of Jams and Jellies Mblasses Corn Maple All Varieties LIST OF REFERENCES REFERENCES CITED Anon. 1959. Nutritional status U.S.A. Calif. Agr. Exp. Station Bull. 769. Morgan, A. F., ed. Berkley, Calif. . 1967. Pricing is different in convenience stores. Prog. Groc. Mueller, R. W. , ed. 46(10):52. 1977. San Jose: moving more nutritious lunches. Inst./Vo1. Feeding Mag. Wallace, J. Y., ed. 81(3):42. . 1979. What are consumer attitudes about food? Food Process. Hlavacek, R. G., ed. 40(7):22. Axelson, J. M. 1977. Food habits of North Florida teenagers. Thesis. Florida A & M Univer., Tallahasse, Florida. Beal, V. 1961. Dietary intakes of individuals followed through infancy and childhood. Am. J. Pub. Health. 51:1107. Beyer, N. and Morris, P. M. 1974. Food attitudes and snacking patterns of young children. J. Nutr. Ed. 6(4):131. Breeling, J. L. 1970. Are we snacking our way to malnutrition? Today's Health. 48(1):48. Brown, P. T., Bergen, J. G., and Murgp, C. F. 1979. Current trends in food habits and dietary intakes of home economics students in three junior high schools in Rhode Island. Home Ec. Res. J. 7:324. Burkart, A. C. 1969. Smarten up and snack right! Here's how to do it. in The yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D. C., pp. 278. Burke, B. S. 1947. The dietary history as a tool in research. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 23:1041. Callahan, D. L. 1971. You can't teach a hungry child, part 2. Sch. Food Ser. J. 26(8):25. ' Chalmers, F. W., Clayton, M. M., Gates, L. 0., Tucker, R. E., Wertz, A. W., Young, C. M., and Foster, W. D. 1952. The dietary record - how many and which days? J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 28:711. 146 14? Clark, F. 1969. A scorecard on how we Americans are eating. in The Yearbook of Agriculture, Hayes, J., ed. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. pp. 267. Crawford, L. 1977. Junk foods in our schools? A look at student spending in school vending machines and concessions. J. Can. Diet. Assoc. 38:193. Duncan, D. B. 1957. Multiple range test for correlated and hetero- scidastic means. Biometrics. 13:164. Eppright, E. 3., Fox, H. M., Fryer, B. A., Lamkin, G. H., and Vivian, V. M. 1970. Frequency of eating. J. Home Ec. 62:407. Eppright, E. S., Patton, M. B., Marlatt, A. L., and Hathway, M. L. 1952. Dietary study methods. v. Some problems in the collection of dietary information about groups of children. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 28:43. Eppright, E. S., Sidwell, V. D., and Swanson, P. D. 1954. Nutritive value of the diets of Iowa children. J. Nutr. Ed. 54:371. Fabry, P. S., Hejda, S., Cerny, K., Osancova, K., and Pechar, J. 1966. Effects of meal frequency in school children. J. Clin. Nutr. 18:358. Food and Drug Administration. 1974. Consumer nutrition knowledge survey. Division of Consumer Studies, Office of Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Bureau of Foods, Washington, D.C. pp. 31. Food and Nutrition Board. 1974. Recommended dietary allowances (8th edition). National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C. Frank, G. C., Voors, A. W., Schilling, P. E., and Moore, M. C. 1977. Adapting the twenty-four hour recall for epidemeologic studies of school children. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 71:26. Fusillo, A. 1974. Food Shopper's beliefs: myths and realities. Food and Drug Administration Consumer, Washington, D.C. Hamilton, E. M. and Whitney, E. 1979. Nutrition Concepts and Controversies. West Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn. Hampton, M. C., Huenemann, R. L., Shapiro, L. R., and Mitchell, B. W. 1967. Caloric and nutrient intakes of teenagers. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 50:385. Hejda, S. and Fabry, P. S. 1964. Frequency of food intake in relation to some parameters of the nutritional status. Nutr. Diet. 6:216. Hinton, M. A., Chadderdon, H., Eppright, E., and Wolins, L. 1962. Influences on girls' eating behavior. J. Home Ec. 54:842. 148 Hinton, M. A., Eppright, E. S., Chadderdon, H., and Wolins, L. 1963. Eating behavior and dietary intake of girls 12 to 14 years old. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 43:223. Hruban, J. A. 1977. Selection of snack foods from vending machines by high school students. J. Sch. Health. 47:33. Huenemann, R. 1972. Food habits of obese and non-obese adolescents. Postgrad. Med. 51(5):99. Huenemann, R. L., Shapiro, L. R., Hampton, M. C., and Mitchell, B. W. 1968. Food and eating practices of teenagers. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 53:17. Huenemann, R. L. and Turner, D. 1942. Methods of dietary investiga- tion. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 18:562. Johnson, N. E., Nitzke, S., Berg van den, D. L. 1974. A reporting system for nutrient adequacy. Home Ec. Res. J. 2:210. Kerrey, E., Crispin, 8., Fox, H. M., and Kies, C. 1968. Nutritional status of pre—school children. I. Dietary and biochemical findings. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 21:1274. Leverton, R. M. 1968. The paradox of teenage nutrition. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 53:13. Leverton, R. M. and Marsh, A. G. 1939. Comparison of food intakes for weekdays and for Saturday and Sunday. J. Home Ec. 31:111. ' Litman, T. J., Cooney, J. P., and Stief, R. 1964. The views of Minnesota school children on foods. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 45:433. Metheny, N. Y., Hunt, F. E., Patton, M. E., and Heye, H. 1962. The diets of pre-school children. J. Home Ec. 54:297. Odland, L. M., Page, L., and Guild, L. P. 1955. Nutrient intakes and food habits of Montana students. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 31:1134. Owen, G. M. and Kram, K. M. 1969. Nutritional status of preschool children in Mississippi. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 54:490. Patterson, L. 1971. Dietary intake and physical development of Phoenix area children. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 59:106. Perloff, B. P. and Butrum, R. R. 1977. Folacin in selected foods. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 70:161. Pipes, P. L. 1977. Nutrition in Infancy and Childhood. C. V. Mbsby, St. Louis, Mo. pp. 119. Potgieter, M. and Morse, E. H. 1955. Food habits of children. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 31:794. 149 Schraider, W. E., Fast, R. B., Crimmins, J. P., and Derasier, W. W. 1969. Evolving snack technology. Cereal Science Today. 14:203. Sherck, C. K. 1971. Changes in food consumption patterns. Food Tech. 25:914. Steele, B. F., Clayton, M. M., and Tucker, R. E. 1952. Role of breakfast and of between meal foods in adolescents' nutrient intakes. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 28:1054. Thomas, J. A. and Call, D. L. 1973. Eating between meals - a nutrition problem among teenagers? Nutr. Rev. 31:137. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1968. Dietary levels of households in the United States, 1965. Agr. Res. Ser. 12-17. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1974. Federal and state standards for the composition of milk products. Agr. Handbook 51, Washington, D.C. Van den berg, A. S. and Mayer, J. 1954. Comparison of a one-day food record and research dietary history on a group of obese pregnant women. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 30:1239. Wharton, M. A. 1963. Nutritive intake of adolescents. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 42:306. Youmans, J. B., Patton, E. W., and Kern, R. 1942. Surveys of the nutrition of populations. Am. J. Pub. Health. 32:1371. Young, C. M., Chalmers, F. 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