‘1" (I: (1‘ 1 Ill/I fl!!!MIMI/Illa}!!!Will/311W!!!” , arena 23 5?? t .\ ‘1. This is to certify that the thesis entitled A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE FORMATION OF A PROFESSIONAL HOME ECONOMIST IN A LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE S ETT I N G presented by Ann Gabriel Kilsdonk, IHM has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Aegean Family Ecology \ Major professor Date February 22, 1980 0-7 639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE FORMATION OF A PROFESSIONAL HOME ECONOMIST IN A LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE SETTING By Ann Gabriel Kilsdonk, IHM A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family Ecology l980 © Copyright by ANN GABRIEL KILSDONK, IHM I980 ABSTRACT A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE FORMATION OF A PROFESSIONAL HOME ECONOMIST IN A LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE SETTING By Ann Gabriel Kilsdonk, IHM This Study aimed to determine the nature of a human ecological approach to the formation of a professional home economist within a liberal arts college setting. A final objective was to develop a curriculum model reflecting the response to the theoretical question. The process of rational analysis and synthesis of documents 3 of professional organizations and the writings of recognized authori- ties was used to examine the major constructs, namely, liberal educa- tion, professional education, human ecology, and the role of the home economist, inherent in the major research objective. The examination of the development of these constructs identified competencies to be developed in the learner, societal conditions affecting these compe- tencies, and the relationship between the competencies and knowledge as a basis for curriculum decisions. The analyses support the conclusion that unless the interrela- tionship among the proposed ends of undergraduate education, the con- cept of human ecology, and the purposes of the home economics pro- fession were clearly established, conflicts in prioritizing curriculum components would continue. The problem intensifies with the expanse Ann Gabriel Kilsdonk, IHM of knowledge and increased complexity of society. Liberal education was defined as a process which frees a per— son by developing both an understanding of the world itself and the ability to participate in directing the world for the ultimate good of all humankind. The discourse established that the ends of liberal and professional education are interdependent, the latter a logical component of the former. Human ecology, the study of the interdependency and interrela- tionship of human beings with their environment, was shown to necessi- tate the skills and knowledge leading to both a holistic view of the total human-environment interrelationship and an understanding of the interaction of the parts within the whole. Further, the comprehen- siveness of human ecology necessitates defining an area for focused analysis and valuing collaborative methods in problem solving. The study proposed that developing an understanding of human ecological principles would facilitate the integration of the desired ends of an undergraduate education and the knowledge needed to attain these ends, and would clarify the relationship of roles within the home economics profession. The development of this understanding, defined as a human ecological-family ecosystem approach, was shown to be consistent with the goals of a liberal arts college and the profession of home economics. The outcome was described as a profes- sional home economist with a human ecological perspective, that is, a person who l. Manifests an understanding of the wholeness of the uni- verse, the holistic nature of knowledge, and the interrelatedness of both of these in the resolution of human problems, and Ann Gabriel Kilsdonk, IHM 2. Possessing a body of specialized knowledge (home economics philosophy and subject matter), applies this knowledge in a particular area of professional service within the total universal ecosystem and relates this service to the family ecosystem while maintaining as far as possible the ultimate good of the whole. A theoretical curriculum framework was presented in support of this proposition. The framework was further developed into a concrete curriculum model having four major interrelated components: foundation courses selected from the basic arts and sciences, human ecology courses, supporting discipline courses, and electives. Cen— tral to the human ecology grouping is a core of courses focusing on human ecological principles, the family ecosystem as a pivotal trans- formation system within the whole, and how the interaction of systems affects the quality of human life. Segments in the major are based on the principles that ecological systems exist due to life sustaining and enhancing needs, all units of the universe must work together to satisfy human needs, and the professional's role is to facilitate the attainment of these needs. ,_._.—-.._._r' _L_. w. c. __ TO those who have taught me and those whom I have taught ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The undertaking of this study and the bringing of it to com- pletion has been greatly facilitated by the supportive interest and understanding of many persons. It is with sincere gratitude that I acknowledge: The members of my guidance committee who each in their own unique way have inspired and encouraged my doctoral program and this research project: Dr. Norma Bobbitt, Assistant Dean, College of Human Ecology, who as my committee chairperson and dissertation director has insight- fully guided, stimulated, and loyally supported me throughout my degree program and the evolvement of this study. Dr. Paul Dressel, Professor of University Research, who as a teacher, educational researcher, and committee member has challenged me to explore, express, and defend my philosophy of undergraduate education. Dr. Bonnie Morrison, Department of Human Environment and Design, who as an ecological researcher and committee member has empathically shared with me her understanding of the research process and her interest in the development of human ecology as a holistic science. Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, Department of Family Ecology, whose confidence in my ability first encouraged this research and who as a committee member has generously shared with me her expertise in the iv development of family ecology and the home economics profession. My gratitude is extended to other individuals and groups who have in special ways made possible the completion of this research project and my doctoral studies: Dr. Raymond Fleck, former President of Marygrove College and presently Director of Food Protection and Toxicology Center, Univer- sity of California, whose suggestion of a sabbatical leave motivated this degree program and whose interest in my progress and research was a continual source of encouragement and enrichment. The Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, the religious congregation of which I am a member, for loving support through their words of encouragement, concern, and interest, their prayers, and their assistance in many practical ways. The administration and faculty of Marygrove College who have accepted with understanding the limitations on my time while I was completing this study. My mother and the members of my family whose respect for edu- cation and my professional efforts has been lovingly expressed in their encouragement and patience as I have pursued this doctoral program. The American Home Economics Association Foundation for the financial assistance and professional trust invested in me as recipient of the l975—l976 Ellen H. Richards Fellowship. Likewise, the Michigan Home Economics Association for the Dean Marie Dye Graduate Scholarship. It is hoped that this dissertation fittingly expresses the honor and gratitude felt for these awards. The College of Human Ecology for the honor of a dissertation fellowship to assist with final expenses. Also, the Shell Foundation for the Marygrove College Shell Assist Grant which made possible for me a reduced teaching load during periods of this research. Those who have generously assisted me in the preparation of the final copy: Sister Marie Liquori Ewald for her editorial comments; Sister Edith Kenny for her drawing skills; Lourdes Reyes for assistance with typing and checking details; and Merrilyn Wenner for the typing of the final manuscript. My appreciation is humbly extended to all of the above and to the many friends, students, and professional colleagues whose ex- pressions of concern and confidence in me have helped sustain my energies in pursuing a challenging goal in the midst of other deman- ding responsibilities. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii ....... LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . ....... LIST OF SIGNIFICANT SYNTHESIZING STATEMENTS . xv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ........... l The Background and Social Context of the Problem I The Problem and Objectives of the Study ..... 7 Methodology and Design of the Study . . . . . . . 9 Summary and Overview of Study . . ........ ll Preliminary Assumptions ........ l3 II. HOME ECONOMICS UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULA HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......... l5 Introduction .................. 15 Objectives of Review ............. l5 ' . . . l5 Classification of Curriculum L1terature Historical Origins of Home Economics Undergraduate l6 Curricula ................... Prior to 1900 . . . ............ l6 Lake Placid Conferences - l889- T908 ..... 18 Definition of Home Economics as an Area of Study - l902 .............. l8 Efforts to Interpret Ideal ........ l9 Developments Within l9lO to l96O Era ...... 21 Review of Problems in Implementing the Ideal . 2T Curriculum Studies Sponsored by AHEA ..... 22 Evident Conflicting Curriculum Purposes. . . 24 Period of Re- evaluation and Assessment - l959- T970 25 Statement of New Directions - l959 ...... 25 Identification of Curriculum Strengths and Weaknesses ................ 26 Selected Workshops and Seminars ...... 26 Selected Studies ............. 30 Selected Commentaries on Issues of Concern 35 Selected Commentaries on Concepts Basic to Home Economics ................... 37 Search for Future Directions of Profession. . . . 40 Conclusion .................... 43 vii THE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE: THE INTEGRATION OF LIBERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION ......... Introduction ................... Origins of Descriptor "Liberal" in Education . . . Goals of a "Liberal Arts" College ........ Origins of the Descriptor "Professional“ in Education ................... Defining Liberal Education ............ Objectives of Liberal Education ........ Knowledge as a Component of Liberal Education . Definition of Knowledge ........... Bodies of Knowledge as "Disciplines” . . . . Bodies of Knowledge as "Liberal Arts” . . ”Liberal Arts" as Liberalizing Skills ...... Interrelationship of Liberalizing Arts and Knowledge Areas ................ Liberal Versus Professional Education ....... Historical Perspective .............. Contemporary Needs and Attitudes ......... Education of the Professional ............ Role of Professional in Today's Society ..... Societal Changes Related to Professional Education .................. Expanse of Knowledge ............. Growth in Population ............. Other Interrelated Factors .......... Objectives of Professional Education ....... Knowledge as a Component of Professional Education .................. Interdependence of Liberal and Professional Education .................. Conclusion ..................... HUMAN ECOLOGY: MEANING AND USAGE .......... Introduction .................... Origins of Concept ................. Greek Language and Literature .......... "Ecology" -- l9th Century ............ "Home Oekology" -- l870-l9lO ........... "Human Ecology" -- l920's ............ Development of Concept ............... In the Natural and Biological Sciences ...... In the Social Sciences .............. Refinement of the Concept .............. In the Natural and Biological Sciences ...... In the Social Sciences.- ............. Summary of Efforts to Refine Concept ....... viii Chapter Human Ecology and Systems Theory ......... Origins of Systems Theory ........... Recognition of Need for Holistic Perspective ............... Development of System Science Theories . . . Organizing Principles of System Theories. . . . Definition of "Whole" as a System ...... Dimensions of a System ........... Systems Vocabulary ............. Theoretical Model Building ......... Basic Models and Concepts .......... Structural Dimension Concepts ...... Dynamic or Behavioral Dimension ..... Ecological Dimension ........... Basic Characteristics of a Systems Scientist. . Systems Concepts Applied to Human Ecology . . . Contemporary Usage of the Concept of Human Ecology In the Natural Sciences ............ In the Social Sciences ............. Human Ecology and Humanistic Expression . . . . Summary of Contemporary Usage of "Human Ecology" in the Basic Modes of Human Inquiry Home Economics and Human Ecological Concepts . . . Ecosystems and the Meaning of Home Economics. . Ecosystems and Home Economics Research ..... Ecosystems and Curriculum Development ..... Summary of Contemporary Usage of Concepts of Human Ecology in Home Economics ....... Generalizations Coordinating Meaning and Usage of Human Ecology ................ Models to Illustrate Generalizations ....... Summary of Chapter ................ V. SYNCHRONIZATION OF CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES RATIONALE FOR A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE . . Introduction ................... Basic Conceptual Framework for Study ....... Interrelationship of Components of Conceptual Framework ................... Relationship Observed in Pursuit of End Goals . Relationship Observed in Commonality of Goals . Summary of Observed Relationships ....... Means of Integrating Curriculum Components . . . . Human Ecology as a Holistic Perspective . . . . Human Ecological Perspective as Integrative Instrument ................. Basis of Human Ecological Perspective ..... Tenets of Ecology .............. Principles of Human Ecology ......... ix 100 100 100 101 105 105 106 106 107 110 110 114 115 116 117 120 121 124 127 129 130 131 134 135 136 137 141 149 165 170 Chapter Human Ecological Perspective .......... 172 Holistic View - Objective I ......... 172 Professional Service Area - Objective II. . . 173 Interrelating Curriculum Objectives ........ 175 Relationship of Liberal Ends of Education to a Human Ecological Perspective ........ T76 Relationship of Professional Ends of Education to a Human Ecological Perspective ...... 178 Relationship of the Role of a Professional Home Economist to a Human Ecological Perspective . 182 Theoretical Integrative Curriculum Framework. . . . 184 Summary of Chapter ................. 189 VI. ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL HOME ECONOMIST ....... 190 Introduction .................... 191 Knowledge Base for Professional Role ........ 191 Derived from Historical Definition ....... 191 Nature of Immediate Environment ....... 192 Social Nature of Human Beings ........ 192 Study of Relationship Between Humans and Environment ................ 193 Derived From Ecological Principles ....... 194 Derived from Contemporary Statements ...... 197 Knowledge is Synthesized from Fundamental ‘ Sciences ................ . 197 Objective of Synthesized Knowledge - The Improvement of Individual and Family Life. 198 Unifying Core of Knowledge - Family Ecosystem 199 Knowledge Base Related to Professional Service. . . 201 Continuums of Services Facilitating Human Need Satisfaction .............. 203 Focus of Professional Service - Family Ecosystem 203 Distinctiveness of Role of Professional Home Economist .................. 207 Summary of Areas for Professional Service. . . . 211 Knowledge Base and Professional Service Areas Related to Curriculum Content Areas ....... 213 Content Area Based on Philosophy of Profession . 214 Content Area Based on Realm of Professional Activity .................. 216 Summary and Conclusion of Chapter ......... 222 VII. CURRICULUM MODEL. . . . . . . . ........... 225 Introduction .................... 225 Curriculum Objectives Subordinate to a Human Ecological Perspective Goal ........... 227 An Understanding of the Principles of Human Ecology . . ................. 229 An Understanding of the Family Ecosystem . . . . 229 Chapter Development of Curriculum Model .......... 230 Logistics of Curriculum ............. 231 Academic Environment — Liberal Arts College . 231 Limiting Factors of Academic Environment. . . 232 Dimensions of Curriculum Framework ....... 233 Descriptive Elements of Curriculum Framework . . 235 Expansion of Rationale and Description of Elements within Framework ............ 238 Foundation Courses ............... 238 General Description ............. 238 Commentary on Foundation Courses ....... 241 Human Ecology Major ............... 242 Functional Objectives ............ 242 Specializations within Major ......... 243 Human Ecology Core Courses .......... 244 Introductory Comments ........... 244 Description of Core Courses ........ 245 Commentary on Human Ecology Core Courses . 249 Human Ecology Support System Courses ..... 250 Rationale ................. 250 Suggested Course Descriptions ....... 251 Alternate Plan .............. 253 Secondary Support Systems Course ..... 253 Human Ecology Specialized Knowledge Component ................. 254 Rationale ................. 254 Content .................. 255 Structure of Courses ........... 256 Distribution ............... 256 Human Ecology Applied Knowledge Component . . 256 Rationale. . . . ........... . . 256 Suggested Courses ............. 257 Supporting Discipline Courses .......... 259 Electives .................. . . 260 Diagramatic Projections of Curriculum Model . . . . 261 Concluding Commentary on Implementation of Curriculum Plan ................. 265 VIII. VALIDATION OF CURRICULUM MODEL ........ . . . . 270 Introduction and Purpose of Chapter ........ 270 Relationship of Curriculum Objectives and Structure .................... 270 Major Objective ................. 271 Subordinate Objectives ............. 272 Structural Elements of Curriculum Framework. . . 274 Relationship of Curriculum Structure and Specified Knowledge Areas. . . . . ....... 276 xi Chapter Application of Model to An Actual College Situation Selection of Marygrove College for Application. Adaptation of Proposed Curriculum Framework at Marygrove College . . . . . . . . . . Departmental Program ..... Foundation Courses ...... Human Ecology Core Courses . ........ Areas of Concentration within the Major. . . Identification or Title ......... Support System Courses .......... Specialized Knowledge and Applied Knowledge Components ......... Program Planning Guides . . . Summarization of Marygrove Adaptation of Model. Examples of Student Programs .......... Summary and Conclusion of Chapter. . . . . . . . . IX. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . Conclusions ............. . Additional Observations and Implications . . . . Limitations of Study ............... Final Statement ............... . . . . oooooooooooooo LIST OF REFERENCES ........ xii 280 280 281 283 285 286 286 286 287 289 290 293 294 295 300 309 316 321 321 323 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Basic Systems Causal Sequence Model . . . . . . . 27 2 Basic Models of Systems Organization. . . . . . . 112 3 Basic Open and Closed Systems Models. . . . . . . 113 4 Basic Input-Output Model with Feedback Loop . . . 113 5 Conceptualization of the Distinction Between the Human System and the Environmental System . . . . 142 6 Conceptualization of the Three Major Components of the Human Environment . ...... . . . . 143 7 Conceptualization of the Continual Interaction of the Human Being with the Three Major Components of the Environment . . ...... . . . . . . . . 144 8 Theoretical Delimiting of Human Ecological Focus for Academic Study and Professional Service . . . 145 9 Conceptualization and Interdependence of the Varying Magnitudes or Environmental Regions with- 3 in the Total Universe .............. 146 l 10 The Family in Relation to Various Magnitues of the Environment ................. 148 11 The Family and Its Near Environment Related to the Various Dimensions of the Total Human Environment .............. . . . . . 149 12 Major Curricular Components ........... 154 13 Relationships to be Examined and Established in the Conceptualization of the Proposed Curriculum Framework .................... 155 14 Interdependent Relationship of Liberal and Professional Education .............. 159 15 Integrative Nature of Professional Skills Component of an Education ............ 161 xiii Figure Page 16 Need for Integration of General and Specialized Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 17 Integrative and Holistic Nature of a Human Ecological Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 18 Process for Establishing the Rationale that Developing a Human Ecological Perspective Will Function as an Integrative Instrument . . . . . . . 167 19 Development of a Human Ecological Perspective as an Integrative Instrument in the Formation of a Professional Home Economist in a Liberal Arts College Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 20 The Interrelationship of Humans as Social Beings and the Immediate Physical Non—human Environment. . 194 21 Intervening Nature of Social Systems in Indus- trialized Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 22 Home and Family as a Transforming Unit Converting Environmental Resources for the Satisfaction of Human Needs . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 196 23 Summation of the Synthesizing and Integrating of Knowledge as the Basis for the Services of the Professional Home Economist ............ 202 24 Number of Home Economists Involved in Major Professional Service Areas According to 1978 Data . 212 25 Linkage of Specialized Knowledge Areas and Pro— fessional Service Arenas ........... . . . 218 26 Interrelationship of the Types of Knowledge Needed in the Formation of a Professional Home Economist f with a Human Ecological Perspective ........ 221 s 27 Demonstration of Proposed Interrelationship and Sequence of Courses in Curriculum Model to Foster the Integration of Knowledge and the Development of a Human Ecological Perspective ..... . . . . 264 28 Correlation of Objectives with Designated Learning Experiences within Curriculum Framework ...... 277 29 Correlation of the Elements of the Curriculum Framework with the Bodies of Knowledge Considered Essential for Curriculum Objectives ........ 279 30 Exhibits of Student's Four Year Program ...... 297 LIST OF SIGNIFICANT SYNTHESIZING STATEMENTS Definition of Liberal Education in Terms of Broad Behavioral Outcomes to be Attained by an Individual . . . Goals of Professional Education in Terms of Broad Behavioral Outcomes to be Attained by an Individual Seeking a Professional Role. . . . . . . ...... Interdependence of Liberal and Professional Education. . Basic Characteristics of a Systems Scientist . . . Summary of Contemporary Usage of Concepts of Human Ecology in the Profession of Home Economics. . . ..... Characteristics of a Human Ecologist . . Basic Tenets of Ecology. . Principles of Human Ecology. . ........... Distinctiveness of the Professional Home Economist ..... Areas of Knowledge Needed by a Professional Home Economist . Dimensions of Curriculum Framework .......... Descriptive Elements of Curriculum Framework ........ XV 73 76 116 136 138 168 170 208 223 233 235 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION All design is an evolvement. New ideas cause old forms to change. Educational programs, likewise, evolve. They come into being to further the good of a society and its members. New needs cause existing forms to be evaluated and new forms to be generated. Each new need has itself evolved from change in the larger society. This interdependency of change in an educational system and in the society being served determines the future nature of a society. The Background and Social Context of the Problem Education for the profession of home economics has not been immune to this evolvement and this interdependency. The development of a profession by this name emerged out of educational discussions in the late nineteenth century as the American culture was being affected by advancements in technology and related developments in the natural and social sciences. Simultaneously, the American nation was increasing in size, and its populace was becoming more cognizant of democratic ideals and the commitment to insure equal opportunities for each individ— ual. Within this 19th century evolution of thought and technology, concern for improving the quality of life through the application of the principles of the evolving sciences to daily living and working environments came to the foreground. This focused the attention of educational leaders on the relationship of the home environment to the physical and mental well being of persons of all ages. As a consequence, some visionary leaders came together to discuss their concerns and ask how the growing body of scientific knowledge might best be synthesized and applied to the family and the home. A series of annual conferences, later to be known as the "Lake Placid Confer— ences, ensued. Participants soon envisioned a group of dedicated, knowledgeable persons committed to this cause. Subsequently, in 1909 the American Home Economics Association was formed to promote interest, research, and the dissemination of knowledge in "home economics.” In the fifty years that followed these beginnings, higher edu- cation aimed to develop persons able to serve society by enhancing the quality of human living particularly as it emerged from and was affected by the home environment. History reveals that these profes- sionals reacted to societal needs both by making curricular changes as new knowledge developed and by expanding into various kinds of serv- ices beyond the home and classroom which directly or indirectly affect the physical, socia1,and pyschological well-being of persons. As a result, concern that diversity of roles might lead to a loss of unified purpose and mission for the profession permeates the more recent litera- ture. This concern became especially evident in the 19603 following a statement of New Directions by the American Home Economics Association in 1959 and a conference of educators held in French Lick, Indiana in 1961. Further, other societal groups, recognizing the impact of tech- nology, urbanization, population growth, and the general knowledge explosion on the quality of life became more involved in efforts to enable all people to live with respect and dignity. In the late 1960s educational leaders from outside the field identified the need for the home economics profession to clarify its focus and its relationship to other disciplines within the academic arena. Nearly every professional field or academic discipline claimed to be able to address a social concern that the home economics profession also claimed. The question of distinctive realm of interest and professional expertise needed an- swering. From both within and outside the profession this confusion of purpose was creating serious questioning. A logical outgrowth of this confusion and questioning of identity was a re-examination of home economics curriculum goals and the means to achieve them in higher education. Self-studies prompted searches for a philosoPhical base to undergird curriculum decisions as well as for curriculum structures suitable for the increased rate of change that dominates society. At the same time, other philosophers and scientists, looking for common linkages in all bodies of knowledge, were developing a science of general systems theory. Thus, it was not surprising that contemporary home economists, in reviewing the thinking of the original founders, would regard as an ecological systems con- struct the definition of home economics formulated at the 1902 Lake Placid Conference. This definition focuses the study of home economics on the interrelationship of humans as social beings with the physical environment. With this basic framework in mind, two universities, Cornell and Michigan State, restructured and revitalized their curricula in home economics under the title of ”Human Ecology" in 1969 and 1970 respectively. Since that time, although no exact data are available, other units of home economics have sought to emphasize ecological concepts in their program. By 1975, seven units explicitly indicated this emphasis by adopting the title of "Human Ecology“ (Harper, 1976, p. 1). Further, the American Home Economics Association in its state- ment of New Directions II, promulgated in 1975, verified this conceptu— alization of the field in stating that "the core of Home Economics is the family ecosystem.“ Inasmuch as this thrust toward the relationship of humans and their environment can be traced to the origins of home economics, one can question why it was not always so formally stressed. Some analysts say the original concept was lost sight of in the struggle to keep , abreast with scientific and technical knowledge which created a need for specialized areas within the whole. Marshall (1973) asks if the original concept was not too sophisticated to be practical in this era of specialization. While recognizing the need for specialization and the effort required to develop areas within the whole, Lund (1973) states that the profession is now ready to more seriously examine the relations that exist among the components and determine the implica— tions for professional action. In designing a curriculum, the question is how to encourage this examination. Is it really different from previous structures? Is it equally feasible in all types of institu- tions? Will the end product be a professional better able to serve society? Such questions have motivated this study. Challenges, statements of purpose, and trends indicated in the preceding discussion, place a commitment on all units of home economics to evaluate their role. Units in liberal arts colleges are faced with the further task of justifying the professional focus of their field with the overall goals of a liberal arts undergraduate curriculum. The traditional format of higher education until the late nineteenth century was the ”liberal arts” curriculum. As institutions of colle— giate level education for women developed, this format persisted (Rudolph, 1962, pp. 312—318). Some institutions also attempted to incorporate experiences significant to the responsibilities of women in the home (Bevier, 1924, pp. 87-89). Following the Lake Placid Conferences (1899-1908) and the development of home economics as an academic area, this latter prac- tice continued. Presently, of the 370 institutions granting a Bache— lor's degree with a major in home economics, approximately one third are liberal arts colleges (Harper, 1975). The curriculum in these institutions influences the graduates in their professional activity, modes of thinking, and approach to problems. This, in turn, affects the impact on society of the profession of home economics. Pertinent to this study, and in particular to the position of home economics in liberal arts colleges, is the fact that specific career preparation has gradually become an acceptable goal of a liberal arts college. Evidence examined by McGrath and Russell in 1958 indicated that liberal arts collegesthroughout the country almost without exception had incorporated functions of professional, technical, and vocational education. Literature in the 1970s indicates continued pressure on the liberal arts colleges to provide graduates with employable skills if they are to attract students in today's market - of higher education (Scully, 1976). Educational systems cannot be freed from the economic systems of society, rather they are inter— dependent. The growth in knowledge, technologw and population over the past 150 years is very vitally felt by all segments of society. The world itself has figuratively become smaller by complex communication linkages. The land-grant colleges designed initially to serve specialized population groups have become mega-universities attracting people from all segments of society and are generally being recognized as vibrant centers for learning and research. Across the country examples can be found of urban areas which have expanded from key centers for the exchange of marketable goods and services to large metropolitan areas with many pockets of production and exchange surround— ing the original core. Today residential areas have practically oblit- ? erated the rural expanse which formerly separated major cities. As a consequence of these changes, the small, private liberal arts college dedicated to the time—honored, Aristotelian concept that the liberally educated person best serves the needs of society has in recent years been confronted with the tasks of competing with the educa- tional resources available in a large university; of maintaining the breadth necessary for a liberal education while providing the learner ‘ with the specialized knowledge and skills essential for becoming an independent person in society; and with balancing the increasing costs of higher education without the direct support of tax money. All of these changes, expanding bodies of knowledge, society's need for specialized services, the growth of the university, the interconnectedness of cities and nations, and the rising costs of living made more complex by a competitive job market have an im- pact on home economics units in all institutions and in a particular way upon those in small liberal arts colleges. Results of a study made in 1972 by the American Home Economics Association assessing changes in home economics units over the previous ten year period indicated that the name of twenty-two units had been changed to better identify its mission and conceptual base (Weis et a1., 1974, p. 12). Organized data are not available on structural or philosophical changes made to adapt to societal demands but not reflected in a name change. At the same time, it is not intended to imply that every name change was indicative of curriculum changes based on a new or revised concep— tual framework. The Problem and Objectives of the Study This particular study has developed from a desire to find the conceptual linkages that unify the various bodies of knowledge and modes of activity supporting preparation for the profession of home economics in a liberal arts college. Changing societal conditions and movements within the home economics profession have, as indicated above, suggested that the incorporation of a human ecological approach within the curriculum could provide an academically sound conceptual frame— work for curricular decisions. From this proposition two interrelated questions arise: 1. What is a human ecological approach to the formation of a professional home economist? 2. Is such an approach philosophically consistent with the goals of a liberal arts college today? As this study developed a final question surfaced and suggested a possible outcome. 3. Will the holistic concept of human ecology serve as an integrative linkage between the liberal and professional ends of educa- tion? This study searched for answers to these questions and their implications. From the questions, the specific objectives and procedures for this study were derived. Within the questions, certain curriculum goals can be identified, namely the formation of a professional home econo- mist, a liberally educated person, and a human ecological mode of think- ing. The specification of end goals or objectives is the logical first step in all curriculum planning. Dressel (1968, p. 32) has indicated that these objectives should derive from three sources: the needs of society, the needs of the learner, and the authoritative statements of individuals, conferences, and professional organizations. A survey of data from the above sources could yield an unwieldly set of objectives which must in turn be synthesized and prioritized. Secondly, they must be refined to meet the specific needs and resources of an institution. Further, any program within an institution must be in keeping with the overall goals of the institution. Finally, in curriculum planning the specification of objectives is only the first step. The selection, planning, and organization of experiences to achieve these objectives; the integration of experiences; and the development of modes for the evaluation of the program are equally important, sequential,and inter- ) related steps. The objectives and plan of this research are based on the pre— ceding principles of curriculum planning. The major focus, however, has been on the determination of curriculum objectives with the expectation that these, in turn, would identify the needed learning experiences. The ultimate goal was to develop a generalizable curriculum framework which would embrace a human ecological approach to the formation of a professional home economist in a liberal arts college setting. Methodology and Design of the Study The general method used in this research was one of conceptual analysis and logical discourse based on data gathered from the writings and research of recognized authorities. Through this process princi— ples were derived that gave direction to the curriculum model pr0posed. In the development of guiding principles emphasis was placed on behav- ioral outcomes to be achieved in the learner and on the interpreta- tion of a human ecological approach to achieving these outcomes. The first step in addressing the overall problem of the study was to review literature giving direction to and evaluating home eco— nomics programs at the undergraduate level. The intent of this review was not only to give background and purpose to the study but also to identify data that would help justify, define, and give direction to a human ecological approach to the study of home economics in the context of a liberal arts college setting. Given this background the second major step was to review the 10 writings and research of recognized authorities in order to (1) clarify the major constructs in the statement of the problem and (2) identify the educational objectives embodied in each construct. The major concepts were identified as: liberal arts college, human ecology, and professional home economist. Through a conceptual analysis of these constructs and the impact of social change on their meaning, it was anticipated that the characteristics of a liberally educated person, a professional home economist, and a human ecological mode of thinking would evolve. Likewise, it was anticipated that limitations in achieving these objectives at the undergraduate level in a liberal arts college setting would surface. At the onset of the study the third major step was identified as developing a curriculum model stating objectives, general areas of studw and the interrelationship of the components. The major intent of the model was to indicate how the competencies identified through the conceptual analysis would be achieved. In actuality an intervening step had to occur before the model could be developed. This step was to clarify the relationship of the originally identified concepts in view of the conceptual analy- sis and their related educational goals with the basic research question of identifying a human ecological approach. This synchro- nizing step can be seen as developing the conceptual framework for the curriculum model. In so doing, both the commonalities and relationships in the objectives and underlying philosophy derived in the individual conceptual analyses were established. Finally, following the development of the curriculum model the 11 actual feasibility of the model is demonstrated by applying its principles in the modification of the requirements for a human ecology major and the areas of concentration, and of course offerings within the major at Marygrove College in Detroit, Michigan. As a supplement to this research a study was made of the evolution of the curriculum at Marygrove College with particular reference to the curriculum of the home economics/human ecology depart- ment (Kilsdonk, 1978). Marygrove College was identified for this not only because of the writer's association with the College but because it has traditionally supported that a liberal arts education is one which develops the whole person and in so doing enables the person to learn the arts of “how to live and how to earn a living” (Marygrove College, 1926—1976). Secondly, the title of the home economics depart— ment was changed to human ecology in 1971. It was the intent of the writer through this study to develop a basic philosophy that would be useful in supporting the existing curriculum structure and/or suggesting direction for change. Summary and Overview of Study In summary, this study is basically an in—depth conceptual analysis and synthesis for the purpose of establishing guidelines for a curriculum structure encompassing what is identified as a human eco- logical approach to the development of a professional home economist. Its importance derives from the clear statement by the home economics profession that the family ecosystem is the core of the study of home economics as preparation for professional roles. While a few 12 universities have restructured curriculums to achieve this emphasis. it is still in an experimental stage. This study aims to investigate the implications of the association of human ecology concepts with current societal expectations for a professional role, the concepts of a liberal education, the resources of a liberal arts college, and home economics as an area of study preparing for professional service. In contrast to a descriptive study based on objective data of existing conditions and curricula formats, the intent of this study is to establish a rational framework for curricular decisioning based on what theoretically should exist. The process consisted of examining component parts of the educational system involved and establishing the interdependencies and isomorphisms of the parts in order to proj- ect in a curriculum model the dynamics creating a whole greater than the sum of its parts. Inasmuch as each chapter analyzes concepts and synthesizes relationships, the particular process followed is described within each chapter and the ideas generated are synthesized in chapter summa— ries and conclusions. Viewing the study as a whole, Chapters 11, III, IV, and VI could be considered predominantly as the analysis of the major concepts in the research question. Chapters V and VII can be viewed as dominantly synthesizing chapters aiming to achieve the inte— grated and holistic perspective of the curriculum goals. Chapters VII and VIII can be viewed as varying degrees of the application of the theory projected in Chapter V. The final chapter aims to summarize the total study in view of the findings. 13 Preliminary Assumptions At the onset of this study the following assumptions were made: 1. Education in its root meaning is the process of developing the potential of the person to give some control and independence in the world in which one lives and functions. 2. Each educational institution has a right to establish its own reason for being which is subject to the approval by the larger society through the acceptance of the charter and the mandate of commitment to it by legal action. 3.‘ The goals of an institution of higher education are determining factors in justifying the inclusion and nature of a pro- gram of study and its immediate objectives. 4. The primary aim of an institution of higher education is to further the good of society through the cognitive development of the individual beyond the secondary educational level. 5. Cognitive develOpment is not mutually exclusive from affective and psychomotor development. 6. A Liberal Arts College is one which directly or indirectly expresses as a primary goal the liberal education of a person. 7. The concept of "liberal arts" has a variety of interpreta— tions when used to describe a curriculum or an institution of higher learning. 8. A program of study within an institution is appropriate if its goals are consistent with and contribute toward the end goals of the institution. 14 9. Home Economics is a profession. 10. The curriculum in a college has an effect on the future functioning of an individual. 11. A continuing task of an institution of higher learning is to adapt its educational program to changing societal needs while main- taining a consistency with its primary purpose(s) for being. CHAPTER II HOME ECONOMICS UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULA AN HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction Objectives of Review This review of literature is intended to provide background for understanding the evolution and present status of undergraduate curricula directed toward developing a professional home economist. Inasmuch as the total study is examining the nature and feasibility of a human ecological emphasis within the curriculum of a liberal arts college, this review seeks to identify resources which help define and give direction to such an approach as well as those which examine the relationship of home economics to the "liberal arts” con- cept of education. The review also identifies curriculum concerns that motivate assessment and change. Classification of Curriculum Literature Studies related to home economics curricula tend to fall into three general groupings. Some are primarily descriptive and present numerical data on existing programs at the time of the study (Kent, 1936; Brown, 1943; Surveys of the U.S. Office of Education and the American Home Economics Association, 1932—1976). A second group com- bines statistical data with an in-depth analysis based on the 15 l6 philosophical groundings of the profession, societal needs, and/or current curricular problems (Spafford, 1949; Schneider, 1965; Lee and Dressel, 1963; McGrath and Johnson, 1968; Weis, 1974). A final sig— nificant body of literature explores what ought to be or could be in a curriculum in view of an analysis of the meaning of the discipline and the impact of the graduate on society. This philosophical type recognizes that an effective evaluation of an academic program judges the relationship of the underlying philosophy and proposed outcomes to the learning experiences within the program. Further, these studies emphasize the relationship of the program to both immediate institu- tional goals and the broader societal goals. This group, therefore, is highly significant in directing curricular structuring to clearly defined objectives (Scott, 1959; Miller, 1960; Brown, 1964; Henderson, 1965; Dressel, 1968; Brown and Paolucci, 1979). Historical Origins of Home Economics Undergraduate Curricula Prior to 1900 Many sources review the historical beginnings of home economics subject matter within the curriculum in terms of what, where, and how much was taught (Bevier, 1924; Craig, 1945; Lee and Dressel, 1963; Ferrar, 1964; Tate, 1973; Quigley, 1974). All researchers seem to agree that the introduction of home economics into higher education began through an effort to adapt the prevalent ”classical” or "liberal arts” mode of education to the needs of women by providing knowledge and developing skills useful in the management and operation of a home. 17 Three dominant forces motivating these efforts were the growing demand for educational opportunities for women, the extension of public school systems, and the recognition that the evolving body of scientific know— ledge had many applications toward improving the quality and productiv— ity of human activities. In reality these forces were a part of the increasing momentum in the 19th century toward achieving the American democratic ideals of equality of opportunity and an educated populace. Proponents of home economics subject-matter content were seeking its introduction into the existing and long standing curricular patterns at the same time that the expanding bodies of knowledge in the natural science areas and their applied technological forms were seeking acceptance. Home Economics, thus, like the sciences was caught in the curricular debate of whether it was an extension of the liberal arts or an area apart as a practical or applied science. This question permeates the literature to the present day and its resolution by curriculum planners largely determines the nature and position of a home economics program within an insti- tution of higher learning. A further association of home economics with the natural sciences exists in the fact that the very body of knowledge that was emerging as the applied field of “domestic science” was essentially the application of an evolving body of knowledge in the natural sciences to the environment of the home and the physical development of the person in such areas as sanitation, nutritional needs, improved equipment, and adequate light, heat, and water. 18 Lake Placid Conferences - 1889-1908 The first presentation, analysis, and discussion of curricular structures in home economics is found in the recorded proceedings of the Lake Placid Conferences, 1889—1908, which led to the formation of the American Home Economics Association in 1909. Other sources summarize these proceedings (Baldwin, 1949; Craig, 1945; Vaines, 1974). The Lake Placid Conferences gave the formalized, historical foundation to this area of study and professional endeavor. The records indicate that considerable time and thought were given to determining the essential nature of this evolving, broad scope of knowledge; what actual components and subcomponents comprised it; and how these were being or could be incorporated into curricula at various levels of learning. Time was also spent envisioning how this emerging area of knowledge could affect the lives of people through those who would carry the message to the homemaker and through those who would research and develop specialized areas of knowledge which would ultimately find application in improving or serving the home life of individuals and families. Of particular significance to this study were the efforts made at defining the field. Definition of Home Economics as Area of Study - 1902 The 1902 Conference yielded a comprehensive definition which, particularly in recent years, has had a significant place in philo- sophical discussions. It is 19 Home economics in its most comprehensive sense is the study of the laws, conditions, principles, and ideals which are concerned on the one hand with man's immediate physical environment and on the other hand with his nature as a social being, and is the study specially of the relation between these two factors. (p. 70) At the same Conference it was recognized that Home Economics in a narrow sense could be ”given to the study of the empirical sciences with special reference to the practical problems of housework, cooking, etc” (p. 71). It was further stated that In forming a complete definition, however, it may be possi— ble to consider home economics as a philosophical subject, i.e., a study of relation, while the subjects on which it depends, i.e. economics, sociology, chemistry, hygiene and others, are empirical in their nature and concerned with events and phenomena. (p. 71) Efforts to Interpret Ideal Additional and supporting expressions of the underlying philos— ophy and objectives to be achieved through the teaching of home economics can be found in the papers presented at the Lake Placid Conferences by leaders representing different aspects of the emerging discipline. At the Sixth Conference, the ideas were capsulized when the term ”home economics" was said to represent: The ideal home life for to—day unhampered by the traditions of the past. The utilization of all the resources of modern science to improve the home life. The freedom of the home from the dominance of things and their due subordination to ideals. The simplicity in material surroundings which will most free the spirit for the more important and permanent interests of the home and of society. (1904, p. 31 Throughout the Conferences, likewise, various enumeration of subject matter, for example, sanitation, hygiene, dietetics, sociology of the 20 family, economics of consumption, house architecture, and the psy— chology of children, already existing in curricula provided another way of identifying home economics as a body of knowledge. The following comment made at the earlier 1902 Conference indicates the difficulty in conceptualizing the field and conveying its meaning to others: If there is any fitness at all in the definition suggested, or if it even hints at the right way to consider home economics, i.e. as primarily a study of connections and relations between certain phases of man's nature, home economics might be introduced without offense in the most conservative even of eastern colleges, while more liberal institutions would have in their courses of study, as a subhead under home economics, courses which would make practical application of the empirical and technical sci- ences. Almost every school or college above the grade of high schools pretends to have departments of economics and philosophy as well as natural science. What is possible in such schools even, is something to connect and bind together into a consistent whole the pieces of knowledge at present unrelated. Such a binding together is what is meant by home economics. (p. 71) Appendixed to the report of the 1903 Conference (p. 65—71) is a treatise by Ellen H. Richards on ”Home Economics in Higher Education.“ In this she declares, ”There can be no question of the place in a liberal education of a study of man in relation to his environment.“ She supports this position by discussing the influence of the environ— ment of humans, the various levels of concept learning, the relation- ship of the material and social elements in one's environment to the principles within the basic natural and social sciences, the signifi— cance of laboratory work, and the actual purposes of higher education in tenns of human and societal development. This timeless treatise concludes with a suggested undergraduate curriculum in which about 25 21 percent of the work is in domestic science. The remainder has a high portion of the natural sciences plus over 30 percent in English, language, and history. Because it incorporated the then developed bodies of knowledge, this sample curriculum demonstrates the liberalizing and scientific philosophy undergirding home economics in the minds of the early conceptualizers. Developments Within 1910 to 1960 Era Review of Problems in Implementing the Ideal Since 1909 the American Home Economics Association together with leaders from the Land Grant Colleges have probably been the most influential in giving direction to curricular patterns. The Land Grant Act of 1862 had committed to these colleges the special task of promoting the “liberal and practical education of the indus— trial classes” (Rudolph, 1962, p. 249). Therefore, education to facilitate the tasks of the home through the application of science and the development of appropriate skills became an acceptable curricu- lar goal for these colleges even prior to the Lake Placid Conferences. In these colleges as well as in the emerging private colleges for women, courses meeting this need were seen as an extension of the liberal arts and the adaptation of education to a woman's role in the home. With the thrust of the Lake Placid Conferences toward pro— fessionalism, debate over the acceptability of home economics courses within a liberal arts framework intensified and attitudes varied widely (Lee and Dressel, 1963, p. 28). At the same time, as the roles 22 for women with a background in home economics opened in teaching, in health fields, and in business, the offering of courses in home economics helped women's liberal arts colleges satisfy the growing need to provide occupational preparation. Studies conducted by the Institute of Higher Education in the late 19505 and early 1960s indicated that the interdependency of liberal and professional edu— cation was affecting the curricula in all types of institutions (McGrath and Russell, 1958). Ferrar (1964) traces the efforts of home economics educators to adapt the curriculum to changing societal needs and the growing bodies of knowledge and, at the same time, to maintain a significant mission for the profession based on a founda- tion in the arts and sciences. Research indicates that as curricula changed in the 1920 to 1960 era, technical and skill development courses were favored at the expense of the liberal arts. This seemed especially true at the larger colleges and universities (Ferrar, 1964, p. 16; Lee and Dressel, 1963, p. 30). Curriculum Studies Sponsored by AHEA As early as 1935 Effie I. Raitt, president of the American Home Economics Association, attempted to redirect the trend toward overtech- nical programs by stating that professional education implies a “broad cultural foundation in general education and a philosophy which is a comprehension of purpose and relationship" (Ferrar, 1964, p. 21). This expression of thought exemplifies the concern of the profession mani- fested in studies in the next decade as the desirability, scope, and depth of subjects offered were examined (Ferrar, 1964, pp. 21-23; 23 Brown, 1943). During this period, the American Home Economics Association sponsored two studies of significance for this review. Brown's sur— vey in 1943 of seventy-nine liberal arts colleges confirmed that the small college faced the acute problem of how to retain its liberal tradition and at the same time add sufficient professional training to enable its graduates to compete successfully with those of larger colleges and universities. The report of a committee established by AHEA to develop criteria for evaluating college home economics pro- grams was published in 1949 (Spafford, ed.). The study based on visit- ations to sixty of the 371 institutions offering majors in home economics in 1944, included seven different types of institutions. Within the report, commonly known as the “blue book,” the discussion on curriculum expresses the thinking of leaders in the field after finding that ”most institutions of higher learning serve the triple purpose of educating for personal development, for family living, and for professional specialization" (p. 150). The report states: The committee . . . believes that education for home and family life should be the first objective of a program of home economics in higher education. It believes that such education strengthens rather than weakens the pro- fessional preparation of students at the undergraduate level and that it gives meaningful focus to the total program of college education for home economics stu— dents. The department of home economics should provide oppor- tunities for all home economics majors to achieve a balanced and integrated program of general education. It should take major responsibility for the courses focused specifically on problems of family living. These courses should be a unifying core provided for majors in home economics and available to students throughout the institution who wish to select single 24 courses or groups of courses of interest and value to them. Such a core in home economics should form the foundation for all the professional curricula offered in the home economics department. The general education of students majoring in home economics should include study in the humanities and in physical, biological, and social sciences, as well as in home economics. (Spafford, ed., 1949, p. 32) This lengthy quotation and the subsequent criteria contained in the report for assessing a program in home economics affirm that under- standing the home and family should be a primary objective of a 1 home economics program, that the program should have a unifying core of subjects centered on the problems and responsibilities of the family and that the total program should be interrelated with other areas of knowledge. While making these affirmations, the study also recognized the importance of adapting a home economics program to the resources, academic climate and goals of a particular institution. Evident Conflicting Curriculum Purposes If one concludes that the idealism of this 1949 criteria report 1 was accepted, the problems of how to achieve it and to gain public acceptance continued to exist. Further, as newer specialized occupa- tional and research areas developed for home economists, the problems increased in complexity. A positive trend toward a more integrated curriculum occurred with the growing interest in the family and human development. Efforts were made to reverse the strong trend toward a diversity of required home economics courses and to incorporate inter— disciplinary courses focusing on family—centered issues (Ferrar, 1964, 25 p. 28). At the same time distinctions occurring between the broad general programs desirable for teacher preparation and the more specialized programs needed for other occupations created many con- cerns about the extent of the core curriculum and the degree of pro- fessional preparation possible at the undergraduate level. Curricu- lum studies showed a variety of plans, each justifiable in terms of the department's concept of its purpose (Ferrar, 1964, pp. 27—30). Period of Re—Evaluation and Assessment 1959—1970 Statement of New Directions - 1959 In 1959, the American Home Economics Association, following a three-year study, promulgated New Directions. This is a statement of purpose, goals and challenges for the professional. It clearly ex— presses that Home Economics is a field of both knowledge and service primarily concerned with strengthening family life through education, research, service, and the promotion of conditions and competencies conducive to better family living. It further states that home economics as an area of study has the task first to synthesize knowle edge from the humanities, the arts, and the basic sciences, and secondly to apply this knowledge to improving the quality of life. This statement which has become a fundamental document for the pro- fession re-emphasizes the close dependence of home economics upon the root sciences and arts. At the same time, it challenges curriculum planners to find ways to create a curriculum at the undergraduate level able to develop competencies in specialized areas and yet be 26 broad enough to relate family welfare to civic and community develop— ments. Identification of Curriculum Strengths and Weaknesses Selected Workshops and Seminars In 1959 an AHEA sponsored workshop examined concerns of small departments of home economics. Considerable attention was given to the problem of how to achieve both the liberal and professional ends of education. Scott in enlarging on New Directions challenged the faculty in liberal arts colleges to strengthen home economics in higher education in two specific ways. I hope you will explore and be able to demonstrate ways by which home economics instruction can contribute to and constitute a part of a liberal education. A review of our early history reminds us that the liberal arts first nour- ished home economics. President James A. McCain of Kansas State University has said, "Home Economics could become one of the first American Casualities of the Russian Sput- nik . . . (due to) two regrettable conditions: widespread ignorance on the part of the general public (and too many educators) of what home economics is all about and failure on the part of the specialists themselves to keep home economics firmly grounded in the liberal arts . . " The second way in which I believe smaller college depart- ments can lead the way, is to demonstrate undergraduate curricula for home economics majors, which provide the breadth increasingly recognized as important preparation for living in tomorrow's world, yet at the same time pro- vide some degree of what is considered professional prepa- ration. (Scott, 1959, pp. 28-29) Both the promulgation of New Directions and this workshop represent attempts to gain unity of thought within the profession by a clear, historically based, contemporarily studied, and future orientated statement of focus. Yet, the practical implementation of this into 27 satisfactory curriculum frameworks remained unresolved. Literature of the 19605 continues to reflect the deep-seated concerns. In 1960 as an outgrowth of a curriculum study at Michigan State University a small group of administrators met to discuss these concerns. Paul Dressel as a curriculum consultant and outside listener advised the group of the necessity to establish a clearly identifiable field of study in opposition to what appeared to be a grouping of specializations some of which were content oriented and others problem centered. Dressel gave support to the idea of replac~ ing the traditional type of core curriculum made up of course work from various areas of specialization with a smaller core developed , . __ -._F_.-___s___.._...__.__—._..-, - _ _..._.—.-——- from the identification of concepts and attitudes common to all areas (Porter, comp., 1960, pp. 57-59). The following year, 1961, a seminar sponsored by the Home Economics Division of the Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges was held in French Lick, Indiana with the intent of discussing problems of articulation and differentiation of home economics subject matter at various levels of teaching. As the plan- ning committee pursued these goals, once again, the need, indicated previously by Dressel, of identifying key concepts and principles pertinent in the subject matter segments became evident. This approach to identifying a core structure of a discipline is supported by the writings of Ralph Tyler and Jerome Bruner (Home Economics Seminar, 1961, p. 2). The decision to begin this approach represented a significant turning point in the analysis of curricula in home economics. 28 Paul Dressel, consultant for this conference, explained (1) that all applied areas are heavily dependent upon a body of ideas and principles within the more basic arts and sciences, (2) that students must become aware of this relationship in order to develop ability in resolving problems in the applied areas, (3) that the expanse of knowledge can lead to fragmentation unless it is synthesized into larger significant concepts, (4) that the iden- tification of key concepts applicable to several fields can link areas of knowledge giving a sense of wholeness, (5) that the same concept can be used with varying levels of sophistication which in turn can integrate knowledge, and (6) that if instructors do not develop the tools to integrate knowledge, for example, a common conceptual framework, the student's learning process will be slowed (Home Economics Seminar, 1961, pp. 7-10). In conclusion, Dressel encouraged the group to seek basic concepts which give unity to an area of knowledge and in turn facilitate curriculum planning by enabling an orderly progression from the simpler to the more complex concepts and unifying generalizations and principles (Home Economics Seminar, 1961, p. 21). At the same conference James McCain challenged the participants to "view with concern the extent to which home economics had deviated from its original moorings in the liberal arts." He pointed out the weakness of teaching merely the "how“ of doing things without the “why." McCain urged that home economics curricula in higher education be submitted to meticulous scrutiny in order to (1) make appropriate disposition of courses that teach only skills 29 and that are, therefore, vocational in character, and of those that overlap and duplicate content, and (2) find ways to increase the humanistic and social science con- tent of curricula for all fields of specialization within home economics. (Home Economics Seminar, 1961, p. 20) As a result of the curriculum planning and evaluating principles presented by Dressel and McCain, the seminar participants identified the following tasks to be done, if, through educational systems, home economics were ever to move to a mature level as a professional field. 1. Exercise selectivity in subject matter content at all levels through defining precisely those intellectual ideas, concepts, and principles of the undergirding = fields of knowledge as well as its own, which are 1 significant and appropriate for today and around which it proposes to organize its professional component. Be willing to discard the obsolete, the unimportant, the minutiae; eliminate proliferation, duplication, l and overapplication. 1 Find ways of integrating its knowledge, and of rela- ting and applying its principles and concepts to the problems which individuals and families confront. Develop curricula at all levels of education that reflect a reasonable balance and interrelationship between general-liberal education and purely pro- fessional-technical specialization. Liberalize the content of home economics courses and recognize that professional courses, taught with breadth and vision, can make an important contribu- tion to the education of all university students. (Home Economics Seminar, 1961, pp. 21-22) Inasmuch as this seminar and previous workshop brought together educational leaders, there can be little doubt that the principles enunciated and the challenges presented had an impact on curriculum changes in the 19605. No assembled data are available that give a comprehensive view of the changes. Such data could be gathered from 30 the annual reports of specific institutions and through an analysis of catalogues. Selected Studies In addition to the principles elicited within the preceding described workshops and seminars of the early 19605, three other studies of that decade are particularly significant in understanding trends and developing guidelines for curriculum planning in home economics as higher education adjusts to the needs of a rapidly changing society. Schneider (1965) traced the history of home econom- ics in Catholic colleges all of which have a basic commitment to liberal education. The study showed that in 1963, the sixty three colleges offering programs in home economics, although influenced by the move- ment toward professionalism, listed preparation for home and family living as the primary objective and preparation for a profession as secondary. Trends in subject matter areas reflected changes brought about by technology, modifications in patterns of living, and a greater emphasis on consumer and management problems. In a discussion of the problems facing home economics departments in Catholic colleges, Schneider listed the continued questioning of their right to be within the framework of a liberal arts college and the ability to prepare stu— dents to serve the social needs of society in keeping with the teach— ing of the Church as contrasted to the more materialistic goals pro— jected by professionalism. Schneider also listed the problems of cost in relation to small enrollments, heavy faculty teaching loads, providing for adequate professional specialization, insuring quality 31 of teaching staff and maintaining enrollments (Schneider, 1965, pp. 116—126). At approximately the same time the Schneider study was being made, Lee and Dressel made an intensive investigation through the Institute for Higher Education of the relationship between liberal arts studies and professional courses in home economics curricula. The detailed report begins with a comprehensive, logical analysis by Earl McGrath defining and showing the relationship between lib- eral education and education for any profession. This is followed by a review of the fluctuating patterns in home economics curricula as the subject matter developed from a women—orientated education rooted in the liberal arts tradition to its recognition among the practical and technical arts and sciences to the current efforts to establish home economics as a valid professional discipline and body of knowledge. Following this theoretical and historical background, the data obtained through a review of programs in eight universities were analyzed in an effort to identify the present practices and interacting forces affecting the balance of liberal and professional components of the home economics curriculum. The study showed a wide variation in the proportion of professional courses required in the programs examined. This fact influences the possible proportion of time for other components. Liberal arts requirements varied from 27 percent to 66 percent. The trend was away from skill orientation toward theoretical content orientation, reduced laboratory experiences, 32 emphasis on principles and concepts, and the development of courses with broad liberal overtones. The researchers also found considerable variation in conceptions of and support for a core curriculum (Lee and Dressel, 1963, pp. 63-65). The identification of these trends is significant not only because of their relation to the tasks identified at the French Lick seminar but also because the larger universities have a greater influence on the direction of the profession and curriculum objectives than the smaller colleges due to the difference in the number of graduates within the total profession. The basic philosophy of a liberal arts college imposes a stronger and primary commitment to the goals of a liberal education. At the same time graduates must com- pete in the job market with graduates from programs within universities which are professionally orientated and often better known. Further, graduates from liberal arts colleges must feel adequately prepared to embrace a graduate program at a university. The faculty, as pro- fessionals, in both types of institutions have a basic commitment to understand and promote the basic values and philosophy of the pro— fession itself. There is, therefore, an interdependency and inter— relatedness among all types of institutions of higher education influ— encing curriculum planning. In view of the preceding stated relationship, the identifica- tion of critical issues and possible solutions in the Lee and Dressel report has strong implications for all institutions. They conclude that, if home economics is to emerge as a strong, unified field, there 33 must be a revision of courses and curriculum structures that is con- sistent with a clarification of the concept and professional role of home economics. The resolution of the basic problem, thus, must begin with the clarification of the concept of ”home economics“ which at the time of the study appeared to have three distinct interpretations, namely, (1) that it is a single field, (2) that it is a unified field made up of specialities with a unifying core, and (3) that it is a collection of specialities having some minimal tra— ditional relationship but more forcefully linked in an educational institution by an administrative format (Lee and Dressel, 1963, p. 89). The interpretation of "home economics" in turn effects the presence and nature of a ”core" of subjects within a home economics program. The study seriously questioned the capacity of any pro— gram to prepare a generalist in the traditional sense of one equally able in all areas associated with home economics except at a very low level of proficiency. This implies that an undergraduate major must have some specific focus to develop the depth component essential in a valid academic program. Further, the study stresses the need to determine and define those elements common to all aspects of home economics and to reexamine curricula in terms of the focus of these elements. Likewise, the term ”home economics" should be questioned for its capacity to best describe the field. The enumeration of criti- cal curricular issues stressed the importance of developing scientifi- cally based bodies of knowledge for the key areas of concern, namely, food, clothing, shelter, and human relations in the context of family life. The study concludes with a listing of twelve generalizations 34 suggesting steps to be taken as a means of clarifying the relation- ship of home economics to the liberal arts (Lee and Dressel, 1963, pp. 106-107). Because the Lee andDressel study attempts to relate an historical perspective, the existing situation, and principles of curriculum planning in higher education, its conclusions are not only a synthesis of data but also a fundamental tool for further curriculum development. A third significant study of this decade was done by McGrath and Johnson and is actually an outgrowth of the Lee and Dressel study. This 1968 analysis sponsored by the Institute of Higher Education be- gins with an historical review and then proceeds to interpret data on existing programs obtained from a survey of the ninety—nine member institutions in the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges having programs in home economics. The two-fold purpose of the study was to determine the role through which home economics can serve human needs in the next generation in view of socie- tal trends and to give guidelines for educational institutions in plan- ning programs for research and the preparation of professionals. In seeming contrast to the Lee and Dressel report, McGrath and Johnson support the generalist major in saying . . home economics at the undergraduate level can best confirm its heritage and meet present challenges by re- taining a strong generalist major, while expanding its interdisciplinary base in order to fully comprehend con- temporary social problems and those of family life. (1968, p. 88) In making this statement, the study does not deny the importance of some specialized majors but feels the generalist approach is the best ‘ .— 35 undergraduate preparation for the professional field of teaching, business, and community service. In giving guidelines for the imple- mentation of this goal they state the curriculum . must be systematic and interdisciplinary rather than a congeries of snippets of specialization. Its instructional core ought to be the analysis of family structure and functioning; . . Its value orientation, that of assistance to families; and its goal, the creation and enhancement of viable family life. These integrating principles provide the unity of concepts, skills, and values distinctive and necessary to the core of home economics. The scope of concern in the broad undergraduate major should range from human development to consumer economics. This sc0pe will require close integration with the basic analytic disciplines such as biology, sociology, and psy- chology. Indeed these disciplines must provide the grounding for the basic generalist major and for Options within this major organized around certain integrative themes. If home economics is to move in the mainstream of pro— fessional education in the United States, it must broaden its basic undergraduate program through increased liaison with other academic disciplines. (pp. 88-89) The rationale supporting these and other guidelines in this report together with the Lee and Dressel report provide important considera- tions for curriculum planning. Selected Commentaries on Issues of Concern Concern for the academic credibility of college curricula as the foundation for the future professional who would, in turn, deter- mine the strength and viability of the profession itself, is evident in the literature recording the analysis and planning for accreditation L_ 5 h...—.__. _.'cl-.._-.-o— 36 of home economics curricula by the American Home Economics Associa- tion in the 19605 and reaching actualization with pilot studies in 1970. Pertinent to this study, Henderson (1965) listed six critical issues confronting home economics in colleges and universities. Of these she enlarged particularly on the issue of generalization ver- sus specialization, observing that the diversity of preparation re- quired by the specialized groups while threatening the unity of the profession is at the same time a result of the growth and development of the profession. This observation, however, does not deny that commonness of purpose is essential within diversity. Henderson (1965, p. 762) feels that this commonality is not to be found in the facts, principles, and skills of the specialization but in their mutually, socially significant purposes which need to be clearly identified and understood. In a related article, Fleck (1965), drawing on ideas projected by Lee and Dressel (1963), emphasizes the concept of a core curriculum's ability to integrate and unify if the courses included provide the basic understandings and identification of interrelationships common to all home economists regardless of specialization. East, referring to the 1959 definition of home economics, maintained that home economists, although from a variety of specialized areas, have unity of purpose because all are to be concerned with ”helping families shape both the parts and the whole of daily living“ (East, 1965, p. 387). During this same period of time some studies gathering descrip— tive data about existing programs were made (McKee, 1966; Griffith, 1966; Johnson and Swope, 1972). These supported the continued struggle 37 to resolve the problems already identified, namely, clarification of focus, discipline, and key concerns of the professional; diversity of roles and the increasing need for specialized knowledge; and the need for, or the question of an integrating force and/or unifying concepts. At the same time, data reflected efforts to adapt to new demands and to create stronger linkages through restructuring curricula and changing the name of the unit (Johnson and Swope, 1972). Selected Commentaries on Concepts Basic to Home Economics In 1960, Miller, speaking to a national group of administrators of home economics, explored various possible perceptions of home economics within a university and its curriculum. He expressed his belief ”that the heart of home economics is in the relational system of the family" as studied in regard to the "physical, esthetic, social, economic and process variables" which converge to establish the func- tions of the family. He saw home economics as a professional pursuit insofar as it analyzed "several variables and/or technologies bearing upon the family“ and, thus, is applying the arts and sciences; and a liberal pursuit insofar as it is "concerned with human implications of the family in society” (pp. 18-19). After giving the rationale for a suggested numerical distribution of a curriculum,.Miller raised the question of the symbolism implied in the name “home economics” and suggested an evaluation of it. Finally, in closing, he challenged the group to rise above the scientific intrigue of focusing on the artifacts of the home, in order to ”grapple with the humanness and- 38 individualities and commonalities of the family" (p. 22). In 1967, at the annual meeting of the Association of Adminis— trators of Home Economics, Creekmore shared her ideas on concepts basic to home economics. Her perceptions reflected thinking gener— ated by the "Committee on the Future” of home economics at Michigan State University and a review of historical definitions. Synthe— sizing this she defined home economics as the “study of man as a total being, his near environment and the interaction between them.” She then explored the implications of this definition to curriculum development (Creekmore, 1968, p. 95). Reactors to Creekmore's pres— entation, while appreciating the historical roots of the definition, noted its failure to incorporate a professional service focus and commitment (Creekmore, 1968, pp. 99-102). In 1969, Dressel, speaking to a similar group, again directed attention to the need to clarify the singular purpose of home econom— ics and its relation to other disciplines as a basis for curriculum planning. Dressel, like Miller, examined ideas for the re—organiza— tion of home economics units. He, likewise, stressed that the good inherent in the discipline could be equally as well achieved and possibly better understood if given a new designation. Recognizing the need for an academic unit “concerned with the importance and en- hancement of a viable family life,” Dressel suggested ”Human Ecology and Euthenics” as a comprehensive title for such a unit. In so doing, he emphasized the need to refine the comprehensiveness of this con- cept to the immediate environment of the family. He further suggested organizing a curriculum framework around the basic human needs of 39 food, clothing, shelter, affection and socialization as related to five yplp§§_essential for human living. Dressel listed these as aesthetics, ethics or morality, hygenics or health, friendliness or happiness, and coherence or a sense of meaning. Implied would be a consideration of the processes essential to attain these values which Dressel listed as the allocation of resources, governance or decision making, education, production, and recreation. Dressel suggested that experimentation might lead to a creative way to integrate this trio of five essential needs, values and processes into a curriculum organization (Dressel, 1968). As these curriculum analysts examine the issue, going back at times to the 1902 historical definition of home economics, and verbal— ize basic ideas, the concepts of “relationships" and “interdependen- cies” of the family or household unit come to the surface (Miller, 1960; Creekmore, 1968; Dressel, 1968). Likewise, there can be found in the literature the application of systems terminology and ecologi- cal concepts in developing models to express complex interrelation- ships related to areas of home economics (Magrabi, 1965; Young, 1968; Hook and Paolucci, 1970; Burke, 1970; Mannino, 1974; Holding, 1975). Although not expressed diagramatically or in the same terminology, other articles express the growing importance of the interdependency of the home and society (LeBaron, Geyer, Deemer, Lyman, 1967; Ray, 1970; Hamilton and Girard, 1976; Walsh, 1976). In addition to the ecological, relational, interactional, or interdependency concepts, emphasis on the managerial concept of re- source development and its impact on the quality of life also permeates. 4O Byrd (1970) expressed this in defining home economics as the study of "human and material forces affecting homes and families and the utili— zation of knowledge for the benefit of mankind“ (p. 414). Byrd arrived at this definition following a review of the 1902, 1959, and Creekmore definitions; the establishment of four criteria for a definition (the identification of a unifying theme, its spectrum of knowledge, its mission for research and service, and its relation to humanity), and an enumeration of projected societal developments affecting humanneeds to the year 2000 and having implications for the home economist. Search for Future Directions of the Profession In seeking future direction for the profession, the American Home Economics Association sponsored four inter-related activities. A "Lake Placid Conference" of selected representatives and leaders, preceded by a solicitation of opinions from a broader representation of the membership using the Delphi technique, was held in 1973. Fol- lowing this conference, State follow—up meetings, and further discussion at the 1974 Annual Meeting of the Association, the statement of Hpmg Economics - NEW Directions II_was published in 1975. This statement of purpose identifies the family in its various forms as the focus of home economics and states that the professional works through the ”family to affect an optimum balance between people and their environ- ments" and ”accepts the challenge to help people to adjust to change and to shape the future.” It explicitly states that The core of Home Economics is the family ecosystem: the study of the reciprocal relations of family to its natural and man-made environments, the effect of these singly or 41 in unison as they shape the internal functioning of families, and the interplays between the family and other social institutions and the physical environment. (p. 2) This statement, reflecting the efforts to obtain maximum input from the membership, was formulated by a special committee (St. Marie, 1974, pp. 32a-32d). The statement is founded on the assumption that the work of home economics professionals in business, education, and service programs is based on theory and research and includes an assessment of the implications of their activity on the family unit. It was not promulgated as a final statement but rather as the present perspective. Further, other than identifying five timely priorities for activity, the statement stresses the need for each professional to evaluate his/her work in the light of the statement and to inno— vate programs that attempt to respond to these goals (Bivens et a1., 1975, p. 27). The third project Sponsored by AHEA to determine future directions was the Home Economics Image Study: A_Qualitative Investi- gptipp_made by Yankelowich in 1974. The results of this study, which interviewed seventy-nine persons among businesses, government agencies, legislature, secondary education, colleges and universities, and media, stressed again the need to clarify professional goals and identity as a basis for a much needed stronger emphasis on professionalism with a clear and consistent focus. A fourth activity sponsored by the American Home Economics Association in its efforts to clarify the role of the professional home economist is currently in process. Commissioned by the Associa- tion, Marjorie Brown and Beatrice Paolucci formulated a definition of 42 home economics through philosophical analysis based on the historical roots of the profession and the concepts of a profession and a science. The paper was distributed in 1979 for discussion by the membership at regional forms. The statement takes the position that home economics is a profession and a practical science concerned with the persistent problems of home and family. The paper emphasizes that the family is a determinant of the social character of both the individual and of society as a whole. From this position the following statement of professional mission was made: The mission of home economics is to enable families, both as individual units and generally as a social institution, to build and maintain systems of action which lead (1) to maturing in individual self-formation and (2) to en- lightened, cooperative participation in the critique and formulation of social goals and means for accomplishing them. (Brown and Paolucci, 1979,13. 23) It is expected that this paper will stimulate self-examination and rational discourse among the members of the Association and influence the future direction of professional activity. One way of assessing the impact of the preceding efforts to examine the purpose, focus and image of the profession is to observe trends in college curricula changes. A study made in 1973 to determine the reasons for, the extent and results of unit structural or name changes since 1962 indicated that a structural change had occurred in about 40 percent of the 214 units replying whereas only 10 percent or twenty-two indicated a name change (Weis, Manning, and East, 1974). In the 1974-75 bi-annud survey of home economics enrollments and degrees granted, of the 355 units surveyed, 11 percent or forty-one units indicated a title other than "Home Economics" for the unit. A _ _.— ._:‘_ 43 wide range of titles were used with “Human Ecology” representing the largest single group (7 units) (Harper, 1975, p. l). The early study by Weis, et a1. indicated seventeen different titles in the twenty-two indicated changes. The frequent use of the concepts of human, consumer, family, resources, and ecology in titles indi- cate an emerging emphasis (Weis, et a1., 1974, p. 12). One could make a similar conclusion from the data in the 1974—75 Harper report. Conclusion This preceding review of literature indicates that both his- torically and in the present there has been confusion regarding the purpose of the profession of home economics which in turn makes curriculum structuring based on clearly defined goals difficult. Questions of how to balance between general and specialized goals, liberal and professional ends, traditional time—honored values and contemporary needs, scientifically proven facts and technology, and philosophically based ideals and an awareness of human needs continue to be discussed to the present day (Trotter, 1975; Bonde, 1976; Spitz, 1976; Brown and Paolucci, 1979). The literature does indicate that the family in some form is a key concern of the profession but the complex nature of today's society and the evolving impact and changes on the family create an uncertainty in structuring a curriculum true to professional ideals while at the same time satisfying immediate societal needs. These latter needs continue to foster the movement toward specialized career preparation for the undergraduate. There remains, therefore, a continued concern and search for a unifying 44 force that will permeate the thinking and, in turn, create a uniqueness in problem solving and mission that would characterize a professional home economist. The intent of this research is to explore the concept of human ecology as a possible effective link between the goals for the preparation of a professional in the field of home economics and the goals of liberal education in curriculum planning. '1 CHAPTER III THE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE THE INTEGRATION OF LIBERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Introduction The development of a professionally orientated curriculum within the context of a liberal arts college demands a clear under— standing of the meaning of ”liberal arts” as well as the objectives of the professional area under consideration. Before one can examine the compatability of liberal and professional education and determine the ratio allowed each, if considered distinctive, in a total bacca- laureate program, it is logical to define the terms in view of origin, basic purpose, and contemporary usage. The objective of this chap- ter is, therefore, to define and examine the interrelationship of the two terms, “liberal” and “professional" commonly used today to des- cribe or convey ideas regarding a college or curriculum in higher education. A secondary objective is to clarify the meaning of ”liberal arts” as used in this dissertation to describe an educational setting. Origins of the Descriptor ”Liberal” in Education The roots of ”liberal” as a descriptor of education lie deep in the past. Both the derivative of the term and its purpose can be traced to Greek and Roman times. In derivation the term ”liberal” refers to the education provided for the free men, that is, the 45 46 "liberi,” in ancient Greece. The purpose of this education was to cultivate the arts and skills or abilities considered necessary to find meaning in life and to prepare for responsibilities and leader- ship in the existing aristocratic democracy of the Greeks (Martin, 1926, p. 29). The skills of critical thinking and expression as well as the ability to understand and enjoy the known world were cultiva- ted through opportunities to practice these skills and to receive through interaction with others an understanding of the then existing bodies of knowledge. From a subject matter perspective the Greek education found structure in the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music). In- asmuch as this grouping of subjects served the Greek society well and the ancient Greek culture became a model for many future generations, the educational format became the model and basis for the majority of subsequent educational formats through the 19th century. Of parti- cular significance to this study is the fact that the long respected model was originally developed to serve a useful purpose. As time progressed, more knowledge about the known world accumu— lated and was gradually added to the accepted courses of study. Like- wise, the study of languages and various modes of human expression and reaction to the world were progressively included. By the 19th century these bodies of knowledge had expanded to such a degree that it became necessary to limit what could be included in the then estab- lished four year curriculum. This need for limitation became a serious curriculum problem for institutions of higher learning because of the increasing relaization that time for in—depth analysis in a 47 specialized area of knowledge was essential to further the under- standing, management, and enjoyment of the universe. Over the years, as diverse needs and goals were perceived, differing types of educational institutions developed. The term "liberal arts” was used to designate those institutions which con— tinued to pattern their curricula on the classical format derived from the Greek. Unfortunately, some educators interpreted this classical format literally and considered the basic content areas identified 1 by the Greeks as the scope of education. Consequences of this thinking did not become evident until the more specialized bodies of knowledge developed and sought a place in the college curriculum. Resolution of the resulting time distribution conflict frequently was achieved by compartmentalization of content-orientated courses into special programs such as a bachelor of science program versus a bachelor of arts program, and a professionally oriented or ”practi— cal arts” program. This problem continues to the present day and poses problems of interpreting values of an education for today's society. Efforts to resolve the problem rest in focusing on the identification of the desired competencies to be developed in the learner rather than primarily on traditionally specified bodies of content. It is in this context that a ”liberal arts“ college should be defined. 48 Goals of a "Liberal Arts“ Collegg If one accepts the fact that the concept of a “liberal arts” college derives from the ideal of developing a person with skills that qualify for leadership rather than subordination in a society, then one must begin by asking what are these skills perceived necessary for the present and future social milieu of people. In— herent in this assumption is the fact that freedom or independence implies some type of control over the social and material situation one is in rather than being controlled or dominated by the situation. Thus, the concept of ”liberal" means not only education for the free persons of a society versus the non-free, but more profoundly it means an education which frees or liberalizes a person by developing both an understanding of the world itself and the powers that enable direct— ing the world for the ultimate good of all humanity. It was in this context that the ”classical” curriculum was conceived. The curriculum prepared students for the learned professions recognized at the time and “assumed an interdependence between '1iberal' and 'useful' educa— tiod'(Cheit, 1975, p. 8). Proceeding from this premise, a "liberal arts“ college can be defined as one which conceives its primary pur- pose to provide a liberalizing education. Origins of the Descriptor "Professional” in Education With the expansion of knowledge, technological developments, and the need for people with specialized skills as well as the need for a person to have a specialized ability in order to achieve some 49 type of economic security in the modern society, there have been many efforts to define the ends of education and in particular the goals of the undergraduate degree. As already indicated conflict occurred when educators were confronted with the need to satisfy pragmatic, close range demands of society. Consequently, since the nineteenth century a distinction has existed in educational language between liberal and professional education. The former has generally been considered to provide a broad scope of knowledge and to focus on the development of cognitive skills. The latter has tended to be interpreted as centering on the development of specialized and tech— nical skills to give proficiency in a specific area of knowledge essential to satisfying a specific need of society. As these special- ized needs of society increased, the value of a broader education has been questioned. An examination of the meaning of “liberal” and “pro- fessional” can demonstrate that they are compatible and not mutually exclusive terms. Considered as integrated they can be the foundation for a basic curriculum framework intended to prepare people for not only current but also future personal and societal needs. Defining Liberal Education The aim of all education deriving from the root meaning of the term, education, is to lead or draw out from the individual his poten— tial or powers as a human being. Educationalists have classified these as cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (Bloom, ed., 1956, pp. 1—9). The word ”liberal," meaning free, connotes an education which frees an individual by developing those powers which will give 50 control over what might otherwise dominate the individual. The ideal would be genuinely to free a person through education from all that would restrict one physically or psychologically from living fully and abundantly (Adams, 1975, p. 341). In order to achieve this freedom many recognized authorities have examined the question and proposed what should be studied and what methodology should be used. The writings of Plato and Aristotle in ancient times are considered basic. John Henry Newman, Henry Tappan, Justin Morrill, John Stuart Mill, Daniel Gilman and George Elliot are among those of the 19th century whose ideas shaped liberal education programs. Currently one can examine the writings of Robert Hutchins, George Schmidt, William Cunningham, Earl McGrath, Mark Van Doren, Paul Dressel, Thorstein Veblen, and Alfred Whitehead. In 1973, five national higher education associations banding together in an action-research project for the renewal of undergraduate liberal education synthesized various opinions on the historic meaning of education and, as quoted by Cheit, defined it as Not only the mastery of bodies of information and knowledge but coherence among them . . . (enhancing) personal develop- ment and a philosophy of life and providing understanding, appreciation, and competence in the shaping of the physical and social world. (Cheit, 1975, p. 11 quoting from Eggpge ip_Liberal Education, 1973, p. 2) In interpreting this Cheit states, "Liberal education sought in short to develop those energies of the mind that directed skill.” Objectives of Liberal Education In the light of these comments, those of other scholars of the subject, and personal experiences, a liberal education can be defined 51 in terms of broad outcomes to be attained in the individual. These would be the ability: 1. To think, that is, use one's mental capacities to for— mulate ideas 2. To organize, analyze, and synthesize knowledge 3. To understand and communicate with others 4. To make choices and direct change that will serve the good of oneself, others, and society as a whole 5. To appreciate the existing society for how it came into being, for what it is, and for its future potential 6. To conceive man as a complex, thinking, feeling, aspiring, and physical being 7. To envision the interrelatedness of nature and its com- ponent parts with man and society 8. To satisfy one's own need throughout life for growth and a sense of self-worth Knowledge as a Cgmponent of Liberal Education It will be observed that none of the above goals or outcomes specify directly the learning of a definite body of knowledge, how- ever, none of these outcomes can be realized without some basic core of knowledge. The broader the knowledge, the more opportunities will there be to use abilities and skills that go beyond the capacity of recall and imitation; and the clearer becomes the interrelatedness of group; of knowledge and appreciation for the complexity of the universe 52 and the total potential of human beings. For this reason both breadth of knowledge and the capacity to increase understanding are essential to the development of a liberally educated person. Traditionally, a very basic goal of education has been to expand an individual's body of knowledge. Formal education programs should enable this expansion to take place at a faster rate than would normally occur. Definition of Knowledge Webster defines knowledge in terms of what an individual possesses as "all that has been perceived or grasped by the mind.” In terms of what is known he defines it as "the body of facts accumu- lated by mankind." Bloom and others make a distinction among (1) a knowledge of specifics and isolated bits of information, (2) know- ledge of ways of organizing, studying, judging, and criticizing the specifics, and (3) knowledge of the major schemes and patterns by which phenomena and ideas are organized. These latter are the larger structures theories, and generalizations which dominate a subject area and are generally used in studying the phenomena or in solving problems (Bloom, ed., 1956, pp. 201-204). These distinctions repre- sent three levels of kinds of knowledge. Each is interrelated with the other two. The expanse of knowledge a person has can grow hori- zontally at each of these identified levels or it can grow vertically from one level to the next. Although one cannot arrive at the third level without some specifics, one level of knowledge acquisition does not need to be expanded before another begins. The whole process of assimilation of specifics from stimuli and the subsequent accommodation 53 into an increasingly more complex schemata or structure in the mind, as explained by Piaget, attests to this (Wadsworth, 1971, pp. 9—17). If growth in knowledge, therefore, by society as a whole or by an individual, is understood to be through recognizing new relationships, then growth is limited only by the limit of possible relationships. No one can truly measure the human potential for this capacity. Liberal education, therefore, in relation to knowledge can be thought of as that which - sets into action the powers of seeking knowledge and organizing and reorganizing it into action for specific purposes; - gives a person a sense of joy from the use of these powers; - motivates one to develop through the use of these powers in the search for truth; and - frees one through the use of these powers to experience the joy of human growth. Such a definition of liberal education could be narrow in perspective and selfish in objective unless one perceives purposes, the search for truth, and the joy of human growth in the sense of understanding the universe, the people who inhabit it, and the delicate art of main- taining the promotion of both. A truly liberal education would move one toward those levels of human development which Kohlberg describes as the "autonomous or principled” and ”cosmic perspective" levels (1973, pp. 497-499). 54 Bodies of Knowledge as “Disciplines" Closely related to the question of the position of the knowl— edge component in higher education is the practice of organizing knowledge into related areas that have become known as “disciplines.” It is understood that the more one knows in a specific area of knowl- edge the more complex reasoning or finer analysis one is able to do in solving problems related to the knowledge area. The ”disciplin- ing” or training of the mind to critical thinking, thus, has become associated with mastering the content of developing or already recog— nized groups of knowledge. Certain groupings such as the natural sciences, economics, mathematics, and philosophy have, in the course of time, gained the recognition of being the basic disciplines because it appeared that by understanding these bodies of knowledge one gained an understanding of the basic principles necessary for resolving more complex problems. With the growth of knowledge the question of what is basic becomes difficult to resolve. Likewise, it becomes essential for one to define clearly the basis for a division of knowledge into the identified ”disciplines.” As Dressel concludes, a ”discipline develops from the rules of procedure which define its scope and modes of inquiry.“ He further adds that “the identification of disciplines is difficult and unanimity cannot be expected” (1968, pp. 41—42). Bodies of Knowledge as "Liberal Arts" As a description of education, the concept, "liberal arts,“ conveys to many a grouping of subject matter areas that over the course of time have come to be recognized as valuable bodies of 55 knowledge each person should have. In this sense the ”liberal arts“ are closely linked with the concept of ”basic disciplines” just addressed. This interpretation of ”liberal arts” does have some his— torical foundation. As already indicated, the concept of "liberal arts” originated with the Greeks as a descriptor of an education intended to develop skills or abilities considered necessary for effective living. According to Grange a ”liberal arts" education or the ”classical curriculum” was also understood as the means where- by “human beings were provided with an integrated view which would free a person from a one—sided interpretation of life and its exist— ence” (1974, p. 364). Such an objective does reinforce the fact already mentioned that the need for breadth of knowledge is essential if the ultimate goal of freedom is to be achieved. Unfortunately, this liberalizing end is often submerged due to preoccupation with seeking only breadth of knowledge. Others say that “liberal arts” refers to the “seven” liberal arts, the trivium and quadrivium, used by the Greeks to train for accurate thinking and to provide the tools to symbolize one's thoughts (Henderson, 1960, p. 60). This concept of using ”subjects” or knowl- edge areas to develop the critical thinking and communicative person, although philosophically sound, has frequently evolved into an empha— sis on the comprehension of subject matter content as the primary purpose of higher education rather than maintaining the greater goal of developing the higher cognitive and valuing powers of the individual. Through a review of the Aristotelian goals which led to the content areas selected in ancient times, the justification of the choice made 56 can be appreciated and adapted to contemporary needs. (The reader is referred to Books VII and VIII of Politics by Aristotle for his rationale.) "Liberal Arts” as Liberalizing Skills Although confusion exists in interpreting the ”liberal arts," it is most apprOpriate and logical to consider them not as content areas but as skills. In reviewing the origin of the concept, Van Doren states, The right reference in the word "liberal“ is to a family of arts which also have their history and meaning _ The liberal arts, whether or not the fact is known, are. specific arts, clearly distinguished from other arts and performing necessary human functions. . . .are but a few of the arts which anyone possesses or may possess. . are the specifically intellectual arts,and therefore are keys to all of man's Operations as man. . . . Their activity is assumed in the useful and fine arts . . . The liberal arts are the liberating arts. They involve . . . and call for dexterity of both mind and hand. Without these powers no mind is free to be what it desires. (pp. 71-79) Following this rationale, a "liberal arts" college, therefore, as previously stated, would concentrate on the development of basic liberating skills. In response to current questioning of the rele- vance of a "liberal arts” college and education, Bernard Coughlin, president of Gonzaga University, has listed the following timeless skills or arts. The liberal arts are mental arts . . . The skills that are included are: the art of reading, observation and listening, the art of classification and comparison of data, the art of reasoning upon and understanding rela- tionships between data and between ideas, the art of critical analysis and synthesis of data and ideas, the art of drawing conclusions from and presenting ideas, the art of dialogue. The liberal arts as an educational device, therefore, are not a prescribed curriculum or 57 educational program; rather, they are various tools and educational processes for achieving mental skills. (1976, p. 589) Pelikan also considers "liberal arts” synonymous with "liberation arts” contributing to a ”freedom cum discipline" mode of living. He lists as four of the liberation arts, “historical remembrance” or liberation through knowledge of the action and wisdom of other times and places; “critical reflection" or the careful analysis of a situation versus acceptance as it is; ”morale resolve“ or the possession of well thought out values to direct one's life; and "thoughtful reverence" for the wholeness of the universe and for the potential of each human being (1973, p. 293). Other authorities can be identified who list similar skills giving support to and illustrating the interpretation of "liberal arts" as liberalizing skills. Actually these abilities can be developed through all levels of education and within a variety of subject matter content. Fre— quently these skills and the varying levels of development compare to the powers of cognitive thinking already referred to and enumerated by Bloom and others in the Taxonomy gf_Educational Objectives. The preceding references may tend to emphasize the "liberal arts" as primarily mental skills. The concept, however, can be, and was in ancient times, extended to include the development of affective and psychomotor skills needed to maintain a sense of independence in contemporary society. Given this premise, a liberal education defined in terms of powers to be developed which foster freedom through under— standing the world and the ability to function effectively and fear- lessly within it, is an education in the liberal or liberalizing arts. 58 The question remains how to structure a curriculum that insures this development. Interrelationship of Liberalizing Arts and Knowledge Areas Powers or skills cannot be developed and tested in a vacuum. Rather, they must be used in relation to something. This fact, together with the need for an “integrated view of the multi-dimen— sionality of human existence” and the world, and the other enumerated goals of liberal education form a basis for the identification of subject matter in a curriculum. At the same time the growth of knowl- edge, concern for newer concepts and modes of investigation, and the impact of technology and social change can lead to problems of course proliferation and fragmentation. There is, consequently, always a need for some criteria for selecting and organizing knowl— edge (Dressel, 1968, pp. 41-42). Accepting that any classification of the total realm of knowledge must be arbitrary, a system which allows focus on understanding certain segments of the universe simul— taneously with understanding and developing certain ways of inquiry and thinking is particularly helpful. Such an approach frequently divides the modes of knowing and inquiry into three groupings: humanis— tic, scientific, and behavioral scientific. To this can be added the modes of communication or symbolic expression. Finally, although it is actually incorporated in the humanistic mode, philosophical thought as a mode of abstract and integrative thinking can be used (McGrath, 1959, pp. 20—25; Phenix, 1964, pp. 60—61). Understanding the various possible modes of thinking through 59 an exploration of various defined branches of knowledge while at the same time examining knowledge to see relationships contributes to the development of the established ends of a liberal education. Further, it helps the individual realize that all people do not think or arrive at a principle in the same way; gives the individual a greater flexibility in his own thinking; and facilitates functioning in an applied area because the majority of problems encountered today in— volve diverse segments of knowledge reached by different modes of inquiry. In summary, the relationship of ”liberal arts“ to "liberal education" rests on the premise that all education should lead to the development of powers within a human being. Those powers which help one understand the world and function effectively in it have a liberalizing effect on the individual and, thus, can be identified as the liberalizing powers or arts. Their development is an essential objective of a liberal education. Factual knowledge of the varied dimensions of the world and the principles which govern it is essen— tial before human powers can be used in relation to it. Thus, subject matter content is part of any purposeful curriculum. The decision of content incorporation is facilitated by identification of the powers to be developed and their correlation with content areas while preserv— ing the need for breadth of knowledge. The breadth dimension care- fully devised can provide a multi—dimensional perspective of the universe and the ability to appreciate and use the diverse modes of inquiry and varying forms of expression within the human potential. 60 Liberal Versus Professional Education Historical Perspective If one accepts the fact that liberal education is the develop- ment of the powers needed by an individual for freedom to function effectively in society and to find continued meaning in life, it should be evident that for today's economically based society such an education must develop abilities needed to maintain economic security. Yet, this integrated approach of the useful and the noble has caused considerable tension in education resulting in polarities of views. The question is closely linked with the question of relevance in education which has gained increased attention in recent years. The question, however, is not new. Aristotle asked it over two thousand years ago. Existing practice is perplexing; no one knows on what principles we should proceed. Should the useful in life, or should virtue, or should the higher knowledge be the aim of our training? All three opinions have been enter— tained. (p. 412) Aristotle continues his discussion and concludes that the answer of what is liberalizing in education rests in the primary purpose or objective within the individual. The object also which a person sets before him makes a great difference. If he does or learns anything for his own sake . . . or with a view to excellence, the action will not appear illiberal; though if done for the sake of others, the very same action will appear menial and servile. (p. 413) It would appear that Aristotle makes a distinction between education which has a useful purpose and that which does not, and that the free- dom he speaks of as the end of education comes from seeking 61 nonutilitarian ends. It is not, however, that he does not value the useful but rather that he values more highly the dignity of the human being and, therefore, reasons that this dignity merits in life more than utilitarian ends. The following excerpts from ”Politics“ should attest to this: . parents should train their sons, not because it is useful or necessary, but because it is liberal or noble. . But to be always seeking after the useful does not become free and exalted souls. It is clear too that in education habit must go before reason, and the body before the mind. (Aristotle, p. 415) The citizen should be molded to suit the form of govern- ment under which he lives.(p. 411) In this latter excerpt Aristotle not only identifies the useful end but also the fact that the needs of the existing society should deter— mine the educational format. ContemporarygNeeds and Attitudes In a recent examination sponsored by the Carnegie Commission of the relationship of professional preparation to liberal education Cheit points out In the classical curriculum, there was no problem about the place of professions. The curriculum prepared students for the learned professions and assumed an interdependence be- tween liberal and useful. (1975, p. 8) He emphasizes this point by quoting Van Doren. All education is useful, and none is more so than the kind that makes men free to possess their nature. (Van Doren in Cheit, p. 8) In his introduction, however, to his total discussion on the relation- ship of the useful and liberal arts, Cheit speaks to the change in educational belief and practice. 62 Although it was long assumed that liberal education was the paradigm of higher education, the continuing growth of higher education actually masked the fact that this assumption may not have been true for many years. Today . that assumption is so at variance with current experience that it no longer informs or serves as a guide. (p. 8) Contributing to this disparity is the lack of a common under- standing, already noted, of the essential meaning of ”liberal educa- tion" as well as the complexity and confusion caused by rapid changes in society, the growth of knowledge and technology, and the expec- tations placed upon educational systems. These factors are inter- related as Aristotle recognized when he asserted that educational systems are intended to serve the needs of a society. In more recent years the discussion has gained momentum and renewed interest as the economic and social mobility conditions of our country have, of necessity, placed emphasis on "career education." Cheit concludes . what had been a theoretical argument about the aims of education has now become a practical matter for most students, faculties, and institutions. (p. 3) In the nineteenth century when much of this controversy started, the crucial question was how to adapt a system to specialized and indi- vidual needs. In this recent period of concern the question has changed from how does one fit the "useful” into the curriculum to how does one maintain the "liberal" component (Cheit, 1975, p. 136). On the surface, this change of direction can be said to be caused by the societal con- ditions focusing around "careers" and "vocationalism" in education. But, more accurately, the urgency of the question is both the need for persons who will be, and the desire of persons to be of service to society in resolving some of its vital problems such as food 63 limitations, environmental quality, population growth, diminished natural resources, technological impact, social responsibility, and economic growth. The complex dimensions of these problems have challenged both academic and professional groups to respond. The challenge, moreover, is so great that it causes both the academic and professional domains to interface as they seek solutions. Such a situation by its very nature helps to re-focus educational direc- tion on competencies to be developed in the learner rather than primarily on specified bodies of content. This dissertation rests on the theory that only in the first context, that is, competencies to be developed, can the academic positions of "liberal“ and ”pro- fessional" education rightfully be examined and integrated. As already established, a liberal education should help a person develop a sense of self—worth. Humans are social beings. Con- sequently, persons cannot develop the powers inherent in their poten- tial or have access to the means to attain them apart from some linkage with a social group. This need for being a part of a group, that is, a society, has a reciprocal response in that a person is motivated to serve and be served. Not‘to do so hinders the develop- ment of self-worth. Subsumed, therefore, in this broader goal of maintaining a sense of self-worth is the need to develop powers that enable a person to serve and share with others. A basic definition of a professional is a person having specialized knowledge and skill and using this in the service of others according to their need. By accepting the relationship of the end goal of self-worth with the concept of a professional, professional education can be subsumed in _—.._.__ A__ 64 the broader concept of liberal education. This relationship will be further clarified through an examination of the role of the pro- fessional in today's society in order to identify needed competencies. This will be followed by a consideration of the knowledge base implied by the competencies. From this analysis curriculum planning principles will be derived. Education of the Professional Role of Professional in Todayfs Society The fact that we are living in a society of rapid change is readily accepted. Not so readily understood, however, is how this change affects the institutions a society has created to achieve its ends. One such institution is the role of a "professional." The title, ”professional," implies one who professes to know more about something than the majority of the people. Society, therefore, looks to such a person to make wise and knowledge—based decisions on crucial issues. Since crucial issues normally center around the maintenance and meaning of life, the traditionally accepted professions are those which develop, maintain, and give meaning to human life by focusing on the human being and/or environmental factors and/or the interaction of the two. Typical professions, therefore, are various aspects of medicine and health, law and diplomacy, teaching, theology, engineering, architecture, social welfare, international relations, and business management. Within each of these major groupings there can be many sub-groupings. In summary a professional can be described as: . fin-d'F-u 1.. -. 65 One who having sufficient understanding of a body of knowl— edge is recognized as being able to make or guide decisions which will better the individual and society. The profes— sional role, therefore, embodies service and commitment based on knowledge, or the application of knowledge to human needs. Educational systems in the course of time have been developed by society for the purpose of helping individuals acquire the knowledge needed by the professional and to affirm that the person is qualified to make judgements using this knowledge for the best interests of human- kind. Implied, therefore, is not only the specialized knowledge but also an understanding of the human condition and the capacity to make reasoned decisions. If one accepts the above description, so, too, must one accept that as human and societal needs change so will the specifics of the professional's role. As the role changes, there are implications for the educational preparation for the role. Historically the major purpose of all higher education was to prepare people to serve society in the specialized ways now known as the professions. The very special— ized knowledge needed for the specific area of expertise was acquired through individual guidance and actual practice while studying and working with someone already serving society in a similar role. This experiential period of development was preceded by an education in the already identified classical tradition. It was not until the ex— panse of knowledge in the nineteenth century, continuing via research and technological developments through our present day, that it was 66 felt necessary to intensify the rate at which this specialized knowl— edge was acquired through formalized learning situations. During this same period of time a more democratic approach to education as well as the continued growth in population have increased the number of people seeking to be educated as well as those needing the services of people with specialized skills. The history of education at all levels during the past 100 years is a record of the human effort to adapt to these changing needs and the efforts of institutions of higher learning to develop and adapt programs in order to fulfill its commitment to give society qualified professionals. The judging of the effectiveness of the adaptations rests in what is really intended by the attribute, “qualified." Schein has made a careful study of the role of the professional today in order to determine implications for the future education of the professional. His work in the early 19705 is part of a long se— quence of efforts dating back to the often quoted writings of Flexner in the early 19005. (Flexner's work focused primarily on the medical profession but has become a standard against which other professionally directed educational formats have been assessed.) The findings of Schein verify and expand what McGlothin pointed out in 1960. McGlothin recognized that the expanse of knowledge, the population increase, and the increased use of technology have collect- ively contributed to the increased complexity of the professional role, to the increased level of knowledge and skill reqUired to be a' practitioner, to increased professional opportunities, and to increased competition for students (McGlothin, 1960, p. ix). 67 Societal Changes Related to Professional Education Expanse of Knowledge There is no question that the expanse of knowledge demands a more intense preparation in the professional area of specialization. The curriculum question is whether this knowledge base should be ob— tained by extended time of preparation or a curtailment of other facets of the educational program or a combination of these or some alternate method. By its very nature, the expanse of knowledge leads to an increasing differentiation of professional areas into specialties and sub-specialties. In turn, this creates more professional and support- ing occupational roles. Subsequently, more opportunities exist for specialization in educational programs. Such differentiation can lead to isolation in analytical thinking and the application of prin— ciples. Further, it can create a perspective which fails to under— stand, appreciate, and consider factors of the human dimension affected by the specialized area. As Lyman of Stanford University stated in an address in 1973 If ever there was a danger that a narrowly professional view would make people insensitive to the needs of all outside their professional enclosure, there is such a danger now. (Lyman as quoted in Cheit, 1975, pp. 14-15) In spite of seemingly obvious anti-humanistic results of single—minded pursuance of the useful, societal pressures toward individual develop- ment, employability, and economic security can cause people to lose sight of larger social ends and responsibilities. Thus, there exists the need to explore the integrated nature gf_all knowledge and 68 professional services. A second complexity resulting from the growth of knowledge is the continual need to be aware of current developments in a pro— fessional field, to evaluate implications for existing knowledge and practices, and to share experiences with others if the professional is to bring to the analysis of a problem the most valid, present ex- pertise. These needs require the continual search for truth coupled with the abilities pp_analyze data and t9 interact with other pro- fessionals as a means of renewal and self-development. Growth in Population The growth in population means not only more people to be served but also a wider range of specialized needs. In order to coordinate the specialist with the specialized needs of people, the ability to diagnose needs and identify resources for resolving them is necessary. Such an ability requires understanding g_range gf_human needs, the function pf varying societal institutions, and human sgpport systems; and the ability tg_interact and collaborate with others. The need for these abilities is further substantiated by the actual work settings within which many professionals function today. Changes in both knowledge and population have created a shift from the professional as an autonomous practitioner working directly with a single client to one working with a group and often removed from the individuals who are actually influenced by the professional decisions. Frequently, the professional is only one of a team within a complex system having vertical and horizontal dimensions contributing to 69 satisfying the needs of individuals. To be one specialist among many demands respect for the expertise gf_others, the ability to see the commonalities and the interrelatedness pf roles and ideas, and an appreciation for various perspectives and dimensions ping problem. This movement away from less direct relations with a client and greater dependence on collaborative efforts alters the traditional support for a professional's self-image and sense of self-worth. The significance of the interdependency of roles, the ability to find self-satisfying rewards in collaborative efforts, and the impor- tance of individual responsibility needs to be emphasized. Further, since the traditional mode of interaction with a single professional over an extended period of time is frequently non-existent, the pro- fessional must develop within the client a sense of confidence in the system. Other Interrelated Factors Due to the unique linkage of knowledge and service in the pro— fessional role, a change in one societal factor affects another. This is seen in the increased delineation of qualifications for entrance into a professional area, in the increased number of specialized occu- pational roles, and in the complexity of the social issues the pro- fessional person is expected to help resolve. The educational prepara- tion must not only satisfy specified qualifications, but must also enable the individual to move vertically or horizontally in a broad professional area to accomodate varying interests, abilities, and .- .~_.-.‘~.- ~— -.-¢ . 70 changing societal demands. Problems such as poverty, resource distribution, environmen- tal quality, physical and psychological health, and the humane appli- cations of technology cannot be resolved through the expertise of one professional area alone. Rather, the resolution of problems today must begin with the ability to identify and examine interacting forces contributing to the situation. This must be followed first by the analysis of each force and, secondly, by the weighing and syn- thesizing of the data unveiled. To accomplish this both proficiency in the specialized area and the ability to integrate the interacting forces are necessary. Schein concludes that As specialization increases, it becomes harder for pro- fessionals to work together on interdisciplinary teams because greater differentiation of fields and speciali— zation leads to sets of attitudes and concepts that can be easily shared only with fellow practitioners in the same or in a related discipline. (1972, p. 39) To off-set the conflict between societal problems needing interdisciplinary action and the uni-disciplinary focus of the professional, the professional requires interdisciplinary skills, or the appreciation of them in others, for the sake of interaction within the realm of specialty and across professional areas. Such interaction calls for collaborative working skills. In addition, so important is this need for a cross-disciplinary method of problem solving, that there is a renewed demand today for the general practi— tioner in the profession. The objective here would be one who could make initial diagnosis and, then, if necessary, refer the client to a more specialized person, as well as one who has the skills necessary to weld together teams representing varying channels of problem solving. - _- ~‘-"'H m: -..=—v 71 Summarizing the impact of change on the role of the professional, Shein stated . as society is becoming more differentiated and complex, the work roles of professionals are becoming more varied and complex. This complexity generates forces toward differentiation of the professions into more specialties, creates jurisdictional problems among professions and among specialties within pro- fessions, forces new definitions of the proper role of the professional and his proper responsibility to clients, and creates the need for more integrators to coordinate the efforts of different specialists. (1972, p. 20) One can add to this the complex nature of problem solving confronting professionals today. Sagen enumerates the conditions contributing to the complexity of this task as . conflicting values about goals and acceptable solu- tions, . . . the need for multi—disciplinary rather than single disciplinary approaches, substantial modification of principles and the invention of ad hoc solutions to fit particular situations, incomplete information, and limits of time and other resources. (1973, pp. 509-510) In the preceding discussion on societal changes, implications for the education of the professional have been suggested. An attempt to summarize these as the basis of a definition of professional educa— tion will now be made. Objectives of Professional Education Previously a professional was defined as one who having suffi- cient knowledge is recognized as being able to make or guide decisions that will better the individual and society. Webster states that a professional is one who professes to have acquired some special know— ledge and uses it for instructing, guiding, advising, or serving others in some way. Schein states that in essence the task of the professional 72 is to deliver a service in response to a client need (1972, p. 31). In each of these definitions the key ideas of knowledge—based serV- ice and satisfying a human need are intrinsic. For the individual's ultimate good, satisfying his needs must be weighed against the impact on the larger society. Further, there are often alternate ways of achieving the same end. These, likewise, must be identified and weighed. The capacity to service the client in this broader perspective is characteristic of a higher level of professional activity. A second key consideration is that each person at some time is dependent on others for needs. Different individuals in one's social milieu satisfy different needs. Likewise, each individual has capacities to be of service to others. Consequently, at varying levels and in varying situations one is interchangeably a "professional” and a “client.” The direction of this discussion has been on the higher levels of professional activity, that is, on the capacity to give a service based on a high level of knowledge and skill. Institutions of higher education are expected to facilitate the ability to provide this level of human activity. According to McGlothin, professional educa— tion is expected to “set the student on the start” toward achieving: a. Competence to practice his profession with sufficient knowledge and skill to satisfy its requirements; b. Social understanding, with sufficient breadth to place his practice in the context of the society which supports it, and to develop capacity for leadership in public affairs; c. Personality characteristics which make possible effective practice; 73 d. Zest for continued study to steadily increase knowl- edge and skill needed for practice, and e. Competence in conducting or interpreting research so that he can add to human knowledge either through discovery or application of new truths. (1960, p. 7) By enlarging on these competencies in order to incorporate competen- cies suggested by the expectations of a professional today, it can be said that professional education should enable a person: 1. To provide with competence a service requiring special— ized knowledge and skill 2. To work both directly and indirectly in relating the service one is capable of giving to others if and when it is needed 3. To use one’s special knowledge and skill as a primary source of income, if necessary 4. To attain recognition by others as capable of giving this service 5. To respect the dignity of each person 6. To understand and appreciate the varying needs of people and society 7. To work both independently and collaboratively in resolv— ing problems related to one's area of proficiency 8. To be instrumental in bringing about change for the good of society 9. To understand the interdependence of social systems 10. To place the larger goals of society above self-centered goals in decision—making related to one's professional field 74 11. To integrate both convergent and divergent forms of thinking 12. To relate and integrate one's expertise with others both within and beyondone's professional field 13. To find motivational satisfaction that fosters commitment in the service of others 14. To maintain quality in and to improve one's area of service through self—development 15. To adapt one's service to changing patterns of human needs Although each of the above competencies is listed separately, none is mutually exclusive of another and all interrelate to achieve in the person the capacity to give knowledge—based service in response to human needs. Certain things should be apparent in the preceding list. First, knowledge as an end in itself is not listed but is either inherent to achieving ends listed or is identified as a means to an end. Sec- ondly, each quality listed demands the development of certain subor- dinate skills. Thirdly, the above skills and the implied subordinate skills equate with, extend, or provide a concrete expression of the previously enumerated ends of liberal education. Knowledge as a Component of Professional Education In relating the above competencies to knowledge Schein iden- tifies the commonly accepted elements of professional knowledge as: 75 1. An underlying discipline or basic science component upon which practice rests or from which it developed 2. An applied science or "engineering" component from which many of the day-to-day diagnostic procedures and problem solutions are derived 3. A skills and attitudinal component that concerns the actual performance of services to the client, using the underlying basic and applied knowledge. (1972, p. 43) In view of the changing demands made upon the professional today, Schein advocates that as these components are structured into a curriculum there is the need for (1) more flexibility in programs than in the past to permit paths leading to a variety of careers, (2) more transdisciplinary curricula that integrate several disci- plines to facilitate greater ability to respond to social problems, and (3) the "complete integration of the behavioral and social scien- ces into professional curricula at the basic and applied skill 1evel"(p. 70), and (4) the use of modules which integrate the basic, applied, and skill components of knowledge (p. 149). Cheit feels professional education of quality today should provide the student opportunities to (1) analyze and deal with complex problems and (2) gain competence in organizational theory, legal reasoning, policy analysis, systems analysis, and operations research (1975, p. 140). This latter coincides with Schein's conclusion that both independent and collaborative work today requires the development of managerial skills (p. 136). 3 Although the definition of a professional emphasizes special- ized knowledge, the fact that authorities who have examined the con- temporary role of the professional are stressing the value of 76 interdisciplinary approaches and the ability to integrate broad areas of knowledge in problem solving, and, in turn, relate this integrated knowledge in a more specific manner within a complex range of human needs, emphasizes the need for breadth of knowledge as well. In the concluding section of this chapter an attempt will be made to show that many of the content and skill demands of the education for a professional coincide with the enumerated ends of a liberalizing education and the need for certain kinds of knowledge. The attaining of one end of education, thus, is interdependent with the attainment of the other. Interdependence of Liberal and Professional Educational Goals It would be difficult for anyone today to question the value of any of the preceding knowledge and skill oriented foci within a curriculum. The problem occurs when the curriculum planner tries to fit all desired goals into the four year undergraduate time limit. It, thus, becomes necessary to prioritize outcomes and to limit ex- pectations. More important is it necessary to try to see the inter— dependency of desired outcomes and their related means as components of a curriculum. Problems of balance occur when this interrelated- ness is not sought out or when the focus is on a single educational competency, such as ability to give service based on specialized knowl— edge and skill. Earl McGrath, former United States Commissioner of Education and the director of many Carnegie sponsored studies, has been 77 examining the evolution of higher education for over twenty years. He responds to this question of balance by regarding undergraduate education as only the beginning of a continuing growth process. Questions concerning the purposes of professional educa- tion cannot be answered in the abstract. They must be considered in terms of the vast bulk of modern knowledge, its rate of growth and change, the time available to the average student for preemployment training, and especially the proper purpose of initial education in a vocation. As these various factors which irresistibly shape professional education are analyzed, the dominant principle in curricu- lum construction is thrown into high relief. It becomes axiomatic that the student can be, and in principle should be, given only such basic specialized instruction as will qualify him for initial gainful employment. (McGrath, 1959, p. 35) After referring to the opinions of leaders in the professional fields he goes on to say Cogent reasons have similarly been advanced by leaders in all the professions to support the view that an under- graduate curriculum should embrace only those learning experiences necessary to orient the student broadly in his chosen occupation without aiming to cultivate a high degree of competence in any of its specialized branches. (p. 36) In addition to this basic orientation to the profession, McGrath feels the undergraduate program should develop flexibility of mind and personality that enables one to adapt to new problems and demands; emphasize broad principles, key ideas, and overarching generalizations rather than detailed facts or techniques; and culti- vate attitudes and motivations which are not the sole concern of any subject matter field but the responsibility of all (McGrath, 1959, pp. 36-41). Such educational goals reinforce the need for the basic liberalizing skills or objectives of a liberal education as an integral 78 part of a well thought out educational preparation for a profession or career in today's world. In addition to these basic cognitive and valuing skills, McGrath emphasizes the need for breadth of knowledge. In his estimation, highly specialized undergraduate instruction does not provide the person with the flexibility necessary to adapt to varying business structures and policies as well as to changes that will occur due to technological advances and the consequent changing societal needs and values. This flexibility requires not only a breadth of general and specialized knowledge but also intellectual skills and an appreciation of the evolving nature of societies (p. 37). McGrath feels strongly that emphasis on pre- mature specialization at the undergraduate level will not allow for the development of the powers of thinking, valuing, decisioning and broadness of view that are needed for future and/or more intense development (p. 39). More recently as McGrath senses the thrust toward vocationalism and the liberal arts college questioning its position, he has again expressed the need for an integrated approach to undergraduate educa— tion. In a four year college period, a good beginning can be made in both career and general education. Considering the tempo of social change today to hope for more is visionary. Indeed, it is delusive to cultivate the view among students that at graduation they have concluded their preparation either for the special activities of a particular job or for the fuller responsibilities of personal and public life. (McGrath, 1974, p. 288) In addition to the need for powers that enable flexibility gpg continual self—development, all current literature on the role of the professional today emphasizes the need for social awareness due 79 to the nature of the issues facing society today that the professional and all the citizens are being called upon to resolve. Schein's evalu- ation of the situation gives added support to the need for a broad and integrated education. The professions are so specialized that they have become unresponsive to certain classes of social problems that require an interdisciplinary or interprofessional point of view. (p. 59) Finally, a broad integrated background helps to prepare the professional for the work-setting of today. As already indicated, the professional today seldom works alone and often works removed Effective interaction among team members A from the individual client. can occur only when members understand and esteem each other. broad knowledge base and an understanding of how people justifiably approach problems according to their experience and perspective will reduce tension and encourage interaction because there will be a recognition of and appreciation for the needs of various points of view in resolving problems. Further, it will help the future pro- fessional understand why it takes time and thought to arrive at effective solutions to complex problems. Schein found these skills often lacking in the modern professional and yet sees them to be essential as a result of the societal trends that move the professional from an autonomous specialist to a member of a team expected to work collaboratively with fellow professionals and with clients (1972, p. 60). _ w <-_.-'.- . . .- 95%.M" . 80 Conclusion If one moves from the original premise that a liberal arts college is one committed to developing the liberalizing powers or skills an individual needs to function as a responsible and contrib- uting person in today's society, the task is to structure a curric- ulum that will foster the above broad ends. Although they are funda— mental, an individual needs more today than the cognitive skills of clear and creative thinking. Both from a liberalizing point of View and from an applied knowledge perspective, a broad range of knowl- edge and an understanding of the human condition are important. To accomplish these goals a curriculum which aims at having the ends of liberal education as listed on page 51 permeate all teaching; which develops a breadth of knowledge dimension on the principle of dis- ciplines defined as modes of knowing and related to specific content areas; which gives emphasis to social interactional needs through an understanding of the behavioral sciences; which promotes a view of the macro— and the micro—culture as a system supporting human needs; and which allows time for an in-depth study wherein cognitive, judg- mental and decisioning skills are applied within the context of a limited knowledge area would simultaneously achieve the ends of a liberally and professionally oriented education. A curriculum of this kind would, thus, bring about a merging of these two seemingly con- flicting but actually interdependent ends of education and would actualize the ability to apply knowledge and skills as a liberalizing art. The task presented here is not new. The challenge to achieve it increases in urgency as society changes and the wealth of knowledge 81 continues to grow. The solution rests in finding means toward synthesis and integration while allowing for the specific needs of today's students, tomorrow's professionals, and the future good of society. CHAPTER IV HUMAN ECOLOGY: MEANING AND USAGE Introduction The incorporation of a “human ecological" approach into a curriculum framework necessitates an understanding of the meaning of ”human ecology.“ The objective of this chapter is to probe this meaning as a basis for identifying curriculum outcomes. The term ecology itself is commonly defined as the interre- lationship and interdependency of an organism and its environment. The descriptive term “human" defines the organism as “homo sapiens“ and limits ”human ecology“ to the reciprocal relationships and inter- dependencies of people and their environments. This very comprehen— sive concept could embrace the total spectrum of knowledge insofar as all knowledge contributes to an understanding of the universe and how people can effectively live within it for the good of the whole. By examining the origins of the concept of human ecology, the evolved interpretation over the course of time, and the current resurgent usage of the term, it can be deduced that a human ecologi- cal perspective is one that gives a unified view to the reciprocal relations of human beings and their environments by causing a person to focus not only on the entities involved but also on the totality produced by the interaction and the interdependency of the identified 82 83 components. Further, the use of models and the terminology currently used to describe this relationship is consistent with the terminology used by researchers in the evolving general systems theory which has as its goal to establish a structure capable of synthesizing knowl— edge from many, if not all, of the sciences. This, in turn, indi— cates a close relationship of ”ecological“ and ”systems” thinking. Finally, through a closer look at current research and commentaries, the utilization of an ecological systems framework to describe the interdependencies of the micro-environment of individuals as they seek to satisfy needs through resources in the home and marketplace can be seen as an effective tool for enabling a holistic, synthe- sizing, integrated perspective. Lastly, and somewhat implied, ”human ecology” cannot be understood apart from the concepts of ”ecology“ and ”ecosystem.” Origins of the Concept Greek Language and Literature The term ”ecology” derives from the Greek “OIKOS” meaning house and “LOGUS” meaning knowledge. In this sense it can be inter— preted to mean the study of the immediate house or habitat of a living object, or, if spelled OEKOS, it is interpreted in the broad universal meaning as the study of the house or habitat of every living object, that is, the total environment (Clarke, 1973, p. 40). The term "economics” also derives from this same root word combined with “NEMEIN” meaning to distribute or manage. Modern concepts of economics did not take form until the eighteenth century, although 84 the application of many of its basic principles can be found in the classic Greek thesis of about four hundred B.C. by Xenophon entitled "Oeconomicus.” Herein are discussed the principles and art of estate and household management (Capps, et al., ed. 1923). "Ecology,“ although basically a broader term than economics, came into use in the nineteenth century with the development of speciali— zations in the sciences. As will be seen, the concern of ”ecology” for maintaining a balance in nature relates it in meaning to the managerial or distributive concept contained in “economics.“ ”Ecology“ —- 19th Century Knight gives this description of the origins of the term ”ecology" in the nineteenth century. In 1859, Geoffrey Saint Hilaire used the term ethology to refer to the study of relationships between the organism and the environment, but the term was never generally accepted by the earlier ecologists. . Nine years later, Reiter introduced the termo oekologie derived from the Greek oikos meaning "home” and logus, a ”discussion or study.” Ernst Haekel is often falsely credited with the derivation of the term because he defined it in the literature a year later. The term has since been anglicized to ”ecology.” (1965, p. 8) Others credit Thoreau with the first use of the term in 1858 in reference to persons studying in an area of natural science (Levine, et a1., 1975, p. 1). Although possibly not the first user of the term, authorities do credit the German biologist Haeckel with the first clear definition of “ecology” in about 1868 or 1870 when he stated By ecology we mean the body of knowledge concerning the economy of nature—-the investigations of the total re- lations of the animal both to its inorganic and to its 85 organic environment, including above all, its friendly and inimical relations with those animals and plants with which it comes directly or indirectly into contact -—in21word, ecology is the study of all the complex interrelations referred to by Darwin as the conditions of the struggle for existence. (Haeckel as quoted in Levine, et a1., 1975, p. 1) or, at a later date in the History gf_Creation, written in 1876, he stated The oecology of organisms, the knowledge of the sum of the relations of organisms to the surrounding outer world, to organic and inorganic conditions of existence: the so—called “economy of nature,” the correlations be— tween all organisms living together in one and the same locality, their adaptation of their surrounding, their modification in the struggle for existence...(Haeckel as quoted in Black, 1970, p. 2) From these excerpts can be extracted some basic ecological concepts: complex interrelations, inorganic and organic environ— ment, sum of relations, balance or economy of nature, adaptation, and struggle for existence. At the same time it will be observed that Haeckel's focus was biological and that his particular concern was the evolution of plant and animal life. His work is influenced by the extensive studies of Darwin and the maturing of the natural and physical sciences. This latter evolvement was occurring particu- larly in Germany in the middle nineteenth century with the develop- ment of universities and the pursuance of knowledge as an end in it- self (Rudolph, 1962, pp. 222—235; 356). Because of Haeckel's basic biological-natural science interests, he did not concern himself directly with the impact of the environment on the human being. The studies germinating from his concern of the organism-environment relationship, however, influenced the work of later biologists and the formation of ecosystem theories applicable to the human being. 86 "Home Oekology” -- 1870-1910 While scientific studies were developing intensely in Europe in the 19th century, the United States was immersed in both territorial growth and the expansion of industrial and business enterprises. The new nation, molding to the needs and aspirations of an increasing and diverse population, was changing in economic, educational, and cultural patterns. Industries grew out of expanding bodies of technical-scien— tific knowledge and caused heavy concentrations of complex industrial- business-residential areas to develop. In turn, disease and poor health caused by air and water pollution became a civic concern. In this milieu Ellen Swallow Richards, an 1870 graduate of Vassar College, recognized the need to find ways to control the human use of the environment in order to make it conducive to human health and ease the human struggle for existence. By overcoming social barriers she was admitted as the first woman student at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and later was accepted as a valid instructor there. As a scientist she was aware of Haeckel's definition of "Oekologie" but her focus was on what humans needed to know and what they could do to maintain an environment conducive to human life and well being (Clarke, 1973, p. 114). Her investigations relating water, soil, and food science to the human condition evidence her concern. Consequently, Robert Clarke, a recent biographer, has called her the "woman who founded ecology.” An earlier biography by Caroline Hunt (1912) brings forth Ellen Richards' deep social awareness as she pro- moted ”euthentics.” By 1892 Richards had gained recognition for progress in both science and the education of women. Clarke summarizes 87 this, stating: Ellen Swallow had worked at an unbelievable pace to develop the interdisciplines of an environmental science she believed the next 100 years required. She knew work alone was no guarantee of permanence for the knowledge she had pulled together. If anything, the changing world—-specialized, mechanical, cosmetic—-seemed to take things apart. The world is whole, like the environment. But in working with that world, the specialists of science and technology, government, and industry were fragmenting it. Focused on their own individual fields, burying deeper and deeper in their respective niches they seemed oblivious to the envi- ronment around them. The first Lady of Science had gone in the opposite direction putting sciences together to nurture the roots of environ- ment. But to perpetuate her conglomerate body of knowledge and its applications, a permanent structure was required. Ernst Haeckel had been right when he suggested the name for a science of everybody's home. Ellen Swallow began to fill the void that accompanied Oekologie's 1873 proposal with her collection of old knowledge cross—fertilized with new to build ”home science" for environment and life within it. (1973, p. 113 Ellen Richards recognized the need for a science that would focus primarily on the immediate home environment of people and be- come the particular body of knowledge every homemaker should have. She regarded the home as the place where not only physical life but also the basic principles of life were nurtured. Convinced that human— kind is both the ”provider and product“ of its environment, she felt humans must accept the responsibility for controlling the shaping and changing of the environment. She wanted to call this proposed science “Home Oekology” to express the reciprocal influence of the immediate environment of a person's activities on the total environ- ment of humans. She expressed this relationship in comments such as "people learn to grow up and create more of the same kind of 88 environment in which they learned” (Richards quoted in Clarke, p. 118). Or, ” . . . science has to apply its knowledge to (improve) that unit of the community, the home, for upon the welfare of the home depends the welfare of the commonwealth“ (Richards quoted in Clarke, p. 141). On the evening of November 30, 1882 she set forth her ideals and called for more emphasis in environmental knowledge in a speech to a group of distinguished Boston industry and business people in stating For this knowledge of right living, we have a new name . . . let Oekology be henceforth the science of [bur] normal lives . . . the worthiest of all the applied sciences which teaches the principles on which to found healthy . . . and happy life . . . (Richards quoted in Clarke, p. 120) In the 19705 the exploitation of natural resources, and the importance of the attitude of each individual to help regain an ecologi- cal balance seems quite evident. But in the 18905 the public was not ready for Ellen Richard's vision, and scientists were engaged in developing single areas of science. Consequently, the concept of an integrated pattern of scientific knowledge lost prominent focus. At the turn of the century Ellen Richards proposed to a group of con- cerned followers and educators the name “Home Oecology" for an area of academic study (Clarke, p. 116-xv). The group, however, chose to call the area ”Home Economics” (Lake Placid Conference, 1899, p. 4). With this action, until recent years, the concept of ”ecology“ has been the domain of the natural and social scientists. Ellen H. Richard's ideas are preserved in her writings (see listing, Clarke, pp. 256-259) and eventually focus on ”euthenics” which she defined 89 as the science of controllable environments (Richards, 1910). ”Human Ecology" —- 19205 As has been indicated the development of ecology as a biologi- cal science began in the 18705 and focused primarily on principles common to all life as observed in the environmental impact on plants and animals. Not until more recent years have the natural scientists related the condition of the physical and natural environment to the human condition as Richards tried to do. Interest, however, in the development of pgmpp_communities and their adaptations to their environ- ments emerged with Darwin's theory of evolution in the nineteenth cen- tury. As demographic data on population growth, spatial patterns of economic activity, geographic conditions and urban locations accu— mulated, the study of determinants of land use and the effect on humans became the concern of sociologists. In this context the con— cept of ”human ecology” was first popularized by Robert L. Park and his associates in the 19205. Park began to correlate the principles of community, succession, and distribution as they were being developed in the biological sciences with the actions of human beings (Michel— son, 1970, p. 8). Amos Hawley credits Roderick McKenzie with being the first sociologist to present a definitive statement on human ecology (McKenzie, edited by Hawley, 1968, p. xi). In 1924 McKenzie wrote The young sciences of plant and animal ecology have become fairly well established. Their respective fields are ap- parently quite well defined, and a set of concepts for analysis is becoming rather generally accepted. The sub— ject of human ecology, however, is still practically an unsurveyed field, that is, so far as a systematic and 9O scientific approach is concerned. To be sure, hosts of studies have been made which touch the field of human ecology in one or another of its varied aspects, but there has developed no science of human ecology which is comparable in precision of observation or in method of analysis with the recent sciences of plant and animal ecology. (McKenzie, p. 3) Having appraised the situation, McKenzie, working from a basic biological definition of ecology defined human ecology as a study of the ”spatial and temporal relations of human beings as effected by the selective, distributive, and accommodative forces of the environment.“ He further enlarged on this saying, ”Human ecology is fundamentally interested in the effect of position in both time and space upon human institutions and human behavior.” (p.4.). In summary, therefore, the concept of human ecology, although based on the Greek word ”oikos" meaning house, derives its meaning from its usage in the biological sciences as defined by Haeckel, in the home oekology/home economics literature as defined by Richards, and more specifically as “human ecology" in the field of social sciences. Development of the Concept Since the 19205 the most abundant body of literature desig- nated as “human ecology” is in the social sciences. The physical and biological sciences have used the single term ”ecology" to continue to explore the effect of all aspects of the natural environment on living organisms. Until more recent years, the concerns identified by Ellen Richards as ”home oecology“ have been submerged in the development of home economics or remained within the realm of the 91 natural sciences. By an examination of the evolution of the term in the natural and social sciences, it should be possible to identify the distinctive human ecological concerns of these sciences and the relationship of these concerns to home economics. In the Natural and Biological Sciences According to Odum, a biologist, ”ecology" is regarded as a division of biology; the functioning of the community and non-living environment together form an ecological system or ecosystem; and ecosystem, as a more technical word for nature, conceptualizes ”ecology” as the study of both the structure and function of nature. The biol- ogist uses the term “population” to identify a §jpgl§_kind of organism. "Community“ refers to gll_populations or kinds of organisms in an area (Odum, E., 1963, pp. 3—4). In relating ecology to humans, Metress states ”human ecology . . . considers the effects of man's biophysical environment upon him and the effects he has on his environment” (Met— ress, 1971, p. 5). Based on this premise, the natural scientist would examine the impact of climatic and terrain conditions, and the quality of air, water, and food sources on human living as well as the ways humans have modified the natural environment. In an ecologi— cal context the primary concern is with the ability of the human organism to adapt to its environment and/or adapt its environment to facilitate survival. In the Social Sciences In contrast, the sociological perspective of human ecology has 92 traditionally placed emphasis on localized or territorially delimited social structures and social phenomena. This has given community a central focus in sociological human ecological literature (Wirth, 1945 in Theodorson, 1961, p. 73). Many studies classified as ”human ecology” focus on objective descriptions of the social interaction and change of communities and regions. Often these studies tend to be geographical in nature and fittingly are classified as ”human geography.” Although the writings of Park, Burgess, and McKenzie are generally credited with establishing the original scope of human ecology as a sociological study, subsequent theoretical writings by Park, Wirth, Hawley, and Quinn indicate confusion and the continual need to clarify the scope of human ecology and to distinguish it from other areas as geography, anthropology, and social and cultural ecology (Park, 1952; Quinn, 1950; Hawley, 1950; Theodorson, 1961). In a review of the literature Theodorson states, In the sociological study of human ecology an initially rapid development and expansion was followed by a period of severe criticism and re— —evaluation which seemed . . to mark the decline of human ecology . . . The last decade, however, has seen a marked revival of interest . . . and certain disagreements as to the proper definition and em- phasis of the field. (1961, p. vi) In both the natural and sociological sciences, theorists, thus, struggled with the broadness of the concept of ”human ecology” and sought ways to delimit it without losing the focus of interrela- tionships and interdependencies inherent in Haeckel's original defi- nition of ecology. An effort will now be made to search for consen— sus of thought and principles as the concept continued to develop. 93 Refinement of the Concgpt In the Natural and Biological Sciences Because the natural sciences by definition deal with objec- tive realities, the early ecological studies focused on the inter— dependency of plants and animals with the environment. Eventually broad areas subdivided into the study of Specific groups of organisms and large bodies of observable data accumulated. This data base became the foundation for studies relating the biophysical environ- ment to the human species. The expanded life span and decreased infant mortality rates evidence the extensive strides these sciences have made in controlling factors which threaten the survival of the human organism. (Control or balance of nature, adaptation, and struggle for existence were among the basic concerns of the organism- environment interrelationship identified by Haeckel.) Traditionally, the focus has been on the organism adapting to or finding a more life sustaining environment. In more recent years the complexity of the human and nature interdependency, that is, human ecology, has been more fully recognized because of the human ability to control and consciously manipulate the ecosystem. This is a sociological concept (Sargent II and Shimkin, in Metress, 1971, pp. 20—28). Moreover, neither the individual nor the environment are uniform and stable, and both can be viewed in themselves as complex systems. In recogni- knowledge derived from many specialized disciplines gpg_aspects g: science (Lewis & Taylor, 1967, p. 2; Bresler, 1966, introduction). 94 The natural scientist when examining the ecological aspects of the human condition has discovered the need to include the social—cul— tural context. Sargent II, a natural scientist, expresses this in stating In essence, human ecology seeks to understand man and his problems by studying individuals and populations as biologi- cal entities profoundly modified by culture and by studying the effects of environment on man and those of man upon his environment. The environment in which man has his being is complex. It embraces physical, biological, and socio— economic components. Human ecology observes man in these contexts in terms of his physiological and behavioral tolerances and the genetic and social mechanisms that pro- vide continuities, feedback stabilities, and progressive adaptations of biological and cultural evolution. (1974, pp. 1-2) In summary, at this present time the concept of human ecology in the natural sciences is generally limited to the interrelationship of humans with the physical environment. In limiting, however, it is recognized that human ecology is the study of a high level, complex ecosystem involving the need for a multidisciplinary analysis within the natural sciences, to interrelate the natural science findings with the social sciences, to accept the inseparateness of the organism and environment, and to depend upon cybernetic systems terminology for the expression of both the interrelatedness and the evolving character- istics of its components as well as the total system. In the Social Sciences As noted, the natural scientist originally tended to study individual organisms and environmental factors as separate entities and has progressively moved toward a more ecological, holistic approach. In contrast, ”human ecology“ as a social science began more 95 holistically and has subsequently been broken down into more special— ized areas. According to Wirth, Park conceived “human ecology” in the early twenties as not a branch of sociology but rather a perspective, a method, and a body of knowledge essential for the scientific study of social life, and hence, like social psychology, a general discipline basic to all the social sciences. He recognized its kinship to, and derivation from, geography and biology. (Wirth, 1945, in Theodorson, 1961, p. 72) Park emphasized that ”human ecology” differed from biology in that the latter was concerned more with the relationship of the human being with the habitat, whereas human ecology in a sociological sense was concerned with the relationship of humans to humans as affected by the habitat. Park and his followers set limits by con- fining the ecological study of human relations largely to observing the struggle for space and, thus, the sociological approach was concerned with studying the supremacy of humans over animals in their ability to shape space or the environment (Wirth, in Theodorson, p 72). These early human ecologists used the terms ”competition“ and “cooperation” to describe this human to human and space relationship. They also did not distinguish between community and society, and, thus the transmission of cultural ideals and its impact was not within their scope of investigation. In the classical or original concept of human ecology as reviewed by Theodorson Human society is seen as organized on two levels: the biotic and the cultural. The biotic level involves basic, nonthoughtful adjustments made in the struggle for existence. This level is subsocial and is based on the organization of symbiotic relationships. The struggle for existence, based on competitive co—operation, also determines the spatial distribution of 96 persons. The spatial distribution is therefore seen as reflecting the organization of the biotic level of society. The cultural level of society, based on communication and consensus, is seen as a super struc— ture resting upon the biotic level. . . . The biotic level of human organization is regarded as the proper field of investigation for human ecology, and therefore cultural factors are excluded from ecological investi- gations. (1961, pp. 3—4) McKenzie, although a close follower of Park, did not exclude cultural influence completely. In 1926, he listed the factors causing changing spatial relations as geographic, economic, cultural and technical, and political and administrative (McKenzie, edited by Hawley, 1968, p. 23). Like Park, McKenzie accepted “competition” as the basic ecological process and focused attention on why communi— ties organized or took the form they did (Theodorson, p. 4). Mc- Kenzie's later writings reveal his fascination by the capacity of technology and culture to expand the territory accessible to human organizations, and, in turn, the impact of this expansion on the cul- ture. Mindful of the expansiveness of the environment of humans, McKenzie, like Park, recognized the breadth of the human ecological concept. McKenzie felt human ecology defined a problem that subsumed the parameters of all other disciplines. Upon reviewing McKenzie's writings in the light of newer knowledge, Hawley states (The emphasis falls upon the system as a whole . . . This breadth of conception is one of the great virtues of human ecology and also the source of its major diffi— culties. A holistic as against a fragmentary view of man's collective life casts a much clearer light on the meaning of specific events and offers a closer approxi- mation to realism. (1968, p. xiv) McKenzie's awareness of the nature of the human community and dynamic character of the culture upon the physical environment is 97 further reflected in the following excerpts from his writings. None of the specialized disciplines views the community as an organic entity in which human elements are bound together in an intricate and ever changing web of life. (p. 103) . The human ecologist . . . unlike . . . workers in the biological sciences must always take cognizance of the cultural complex in which the symbiotic relations mani- fest themselves. (p. 104) Even though the above excerpts illustrate that “human ecology“ was viewed as a holistic, integrative concept by this early and prominent theorist, the major focus by sociologists has been the nature and development of community structures which represents a "deliberate limitation of the subject.“ Hawley discusses the need for this. ”Too often,” wrote Hawley in 1950, “ecology is viewed as an all-inclusive point of view—-a study of life in relation to all of environment . . . To have substance, ecology must have bounds“ (p. v). Seeing human ecology as a ”logical extension of the system of thought and techniques of investigation developed in the study of the collective life of lower organisms to the study of man,“ Haw— ley defined human ecology as "the study of the form and development of the community in pgmgp population” (1950, p. 68). This he regards as a central problem of sociology but feels an ecological analysis would focus both on the developmental process of community by drawing on demographic and geographic data and on the functional relationships of the community organization. The scope would be limited by the state- ment of the problem and the scientific tools of analysis. In summary Hawley states 98 The question of how men relate themselves to one another in order to live in their habitats yields a description of community structure in terms of its overt and measurable features. It does not provide explanations of all the many ramifications of human interrelationships, though it may serve as a fruitful source of hypotheses concerning those aspects of the community. (p. 74) Twenty years later, in a retrospective view of the develop— ment of human ecology as a social science, Michelson (1970) concludes that human ecology has failed to achieve its expected goals for society because of limitations it directly or indirectly imposed. In the effort to base it on the scientific analysis technique of the biologi— cal sciences, human ecology became engrossed in definable patterns of community organization. In so doing, researchers emphasized specific variables. At first many of these were statistics, for example, demographic data. Later, more process orientated variables were examined. Other researchers, using a methodology in social area analysis, related social rank, urbanization, and segregation to a dependent social organization variable. A third approach, identified by Theodorson (1961) as social— cultural, emphasizes deep—rooted cultural values rather than economics as a primary cause of community organization and re-organization. In Michelson's critique, the sociologically orientated human ecologist, although using valid scientific methods, has not explicitly related the physical environment with the many variables of social science. Michelson definitely recognizes that human ecology is a linkage of the social and physical sciences. He, thus, creates the challenge to find ways to maintain this linkage in human ecological analyses (1970, 99 Summary of Efforts to Refine Concept of Human Ecology The preceding discussion on the development and refinement of the concept of "human ecology“ in the natural and social sciences shows that while each science found it necessary to limit concerns with the former focusing more on the biophysical relationships of humans and their environment and the latter on the social-cultural relation— ship, each science is continually confronted with the inadequacy of findings and continues to search for ways to more fully explain the relationships and interdependencies. With the evolution of ideas in both areas the terms “system" and ”ecosystem" came to the fore— ground. Secondly, each area indicates the need for the data of the other in order to achieve a truly ecological interpretation of phenomena. As this evolvement was occurring particularly in these two areas of science and their related sub-areas, recognition of the weaknesses inherent in Specialization in the sciences was causing concerned scientists to seek a framework to synthesize knowledge derived from the many advances in the analytical research of all the sciences. Consequently, attention was given to “wholes” or ”systems“ of interrelated components. It is within this evolvement that the term ”ecosystem“ came into usage and can be defined. Before examining the more current usage of and reflections on ”human ecology“ as a perspective for integrative thinking, therefore, an examination of the term ”system“ in reference to holistic thinking as appropriate. 100 Human Ecology and Systems Theory Origins of Systems Theory Recognition of the Need for a Holistic Perspective The recognition of the need for "wholeness” in thinking and problem analysis is not new. The basis of philosophy and the later more empirical sciences originated when the early Greeks began to recognize in the world ”an order or kosmos which was intelligible and, hence, controllable in thought and rational action" (Bertalanffy, 1975, p. 149). Aristotle is credited among the first to state the basic principle, "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” In development both historically and within an individual, however, scientific thought tends to move from the analysis of organized simple objects, to a study of the parts of recognized complexities seemingly organized, to the challenge of recognizing, and then in— vestigating for understanding, the organization of the complexities of many parts (Blauberg, et al., in Gray and Rizzo, 1973, p. 246). Or, another way of expressing this is to say that pgly_gradually is it realized that an understanding of the whole is not achieved solely through an understanding of each part and that an understan- ding of the whole is essential to an understanding of each part (Churchman, 1968a, p. v). For these reasons the scientific investi— gation of wholes is comparatively new in modern scientific techniques. It is developing into a ”systems science” aiming to identify in an organized manner various types of systems and modes of analysis. The empirical—inductive method of scientific inquiry developed 101 in the physical sciences where the use of the controlled experiment and the analytical method have contributed extensively to our knowl- edge of causal relations of physical phenomena in a linear manner. As scientists attempted to apply these analytical techniques of the physical sciences to living organisms they were confronted by the realization that understanding the phenomena observed came through a perception of the whole rather than the parts alone. A living organism was seen to be a complex whole. It can be understood through a knowledge of the parts that comprise it and its structure can be described, but its actions are determined by how its inner components interact. Furthermore, an organism is subject to change as a result of this interaction and, thus, can be studied in terms of its past, present, and anticipated development. Experimentation has shown that a living organism cannot be broken down and then reassembled, and, thus, is more than the mathematical sum of the component parts. When the scientist attempts to investigate the relationship of the non-living environment and/or other living or— ganisms to the living organism of concern, he further realizes he is dealing with the interaction of complex wholes within a larger whole. The ecological scientist, thus, is confronted with seeking ways to perceive and understand the ”whole.” Ways of doing this are being generated by a cross-disciplinary group of scientists. Development of System Science Theory An awareness that following the methods of analytical research, that is, the separating of problems into as many sub-elements as 102 possible and attempting to explain events in causal, mathematical laws was not yielding an understanding of the wholeness of things as defined above, caused researchers in the biological and human sciences in various parts of the world to reflect (Bertalanffy, 1975, p. 150). Bertalanffy, a German biologist, was among the first to suggest in the 1930's the need to go beyond the investigation of single parts and examine the ”coordination of parts and processes." He suggested the need for a “system theory of the organism“ (1975, p. 152) which later became known as “general systems theory.” Researchers in other fields were thinking similarly as is indicated by this excerpt from a message of the American economist, Kenneth Boulding, to Bertalanffy. I seem to have come to much the same conclusions as you have reached though approaching it from the direction of economics and the social sciences rather than biology-- that there is a body of what I have been calling ”general empirical theory” or "general systems theory” in your excellent terminology which is of wide applicability in many different disciplines. (Bertalanffy, 1975, p. 155) James Miller, a psychologist, records events starting in 1949 at the University of Chicago in which a group of scientists began to wonder if a ”sufficient body of facts existed to justify developing an empirically testable general theory of behavior." In reference to the biological and social fields involved, this group coined the word, ”behavioral sciences” (Miller, 1955, p. 513). In the mid 19505 in Switzerland, Erwin Laszlo, a philosopher, was seeking a way to combine "philosophical astuteness with scientific information.” His research led him to Whitehead‘s “philosophy of organism“ and then to a formulation of his own “Theory of Organic Relations" (Laszlo, 1972, pp. vii-viii). In the 19605 while in America, 103 Laszlo encountered the writings of Bertalanffy, recognized the mutuality of their concerns, and, as a philosopher, was quick to characterize Bertalanffy, although a biologist, as an integrative thinker and philosopher (Laszlo, 1972, p. viii). In each of their respective areas these scholars saw the weakness of increased emphasis on specialized knowledge and phenomena without relating this to the total sum of knowledge humans have about the universe. They saw the need to re—establish the importance of synthesis, wholeness, and integration in the perspectives of science, human beings, and the world. Bertalanffy's way of doing this was to seek out the commonalities in all sciences as each science explored , the "systems“ within its traditional domain of inquiry. Boulding, in retrospect, describes ”General Systems Theory” as the response for a systematic theoretical lgy§l_gf thought that would identify the similarities in the systematic analysis of different disciplines and, thus, establish a common base for communication (Boulding, 1956 reprint in Buckley, pp. 3—4, 1968). The seeking of a common theortetical language as a means of unification is not a new idea. In the scientific world, Anatol Rapo- port, a mathematician, recalls that until the middle of the 19th cen— tury, physics, the study of the physical objective world, encompassed several branches of inquiry dealing with what appeared to be unrelated phenomena such as mechanics, light, sound, heat, electricity, and 3 magnetism. However, by expressing the cause and effect relationships of the variables observed in mathematical terminolOQy, the objective realities were raised to an abstract level capable of creating a 104 common theoretical framework. When the scientist tried to extend the unifying principles of the analytical method and language of mathematics to living organisms and processes, the method provided only a partial explanation and limited the capacity to anticipate outcomes. Further, in ecological studies within both the social and biological sciences, it became necessary to use terms descrip— tive of complex units and processes such as ”organism,” ”life,” ”adaptation,“ ”development,“ ”species,” and “selection.” An under— standing of the minute parts of these wholes, although contributing, does not describe the significance of the functioning of the parts together in the whole unit. In the world about us can be found a continuum of organized wholes or systems ranging from basic mechani— cal models to complex organic models. In the Newtonian mechanical model the whole is the sum of the parts (Deutch, in Buckley, 1968, p. 388). As the continuum of systems moves toward complexity, whole— ness becomes more than the sum of parts and is dependent upon a com- plex integration of the parts. As evidence of this, much of man's understanding of events is attained by perception of “whole" expressed 11 [I in words such as ”personality, man," "culture,“ ”society,“ and “environment.“ To describe and explain how this integrated wholeness exists and evolves in the widest variety of systems and in relation to all systems has been the motivating force generating general systems theories. To achieve this end, theorists have built upon constructs descriptive of less complex systems. From their efforts have come classifications of systems, a vocabulary descriptive of varying characteristics, and conceptual models useful for describing 105 processes, degrees of variance, interacting factors, and continuums of predictability. As a final integrative goal, theorists have sought to develop a paradigm for transdicsiplinary synthesis. If human ecology is considered the study of the human ecoSyStgm, these developments have implication for use in expressing a human ecological perspective. Organizing Principles of System Theories Definition of “Whole" as a System Recognition that the world is a ”whole” in itself and, in turn, made up of a series of subordinate "wholes” each affecting the whole of which it is a part is fundamental to the various modern system theories. In these theories the term “system" is not used in the ver- nacular or organizational sense to convey "systematic" or orderly progression but rather as a synonym for a "whole" which functions as a whole by virtue of the interdependence of its parts (Rapoport, in Buckley, 1968, p. xviii). Likewise, Webster defines a system as a "set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or organic whole.“ Kuhn adds to these definitions in stating that a ”system is any set of interrelated or interacting components . To say that two components interact means that a change in one component brings about or induces some change in the other" (Kuhn, 1975, p. 10). The Kuhn definition focuses on the effect of changes in the variables in determining the nature of this complex whole, whereas, the Rapoport definition tends to focus on the action of a complex whole in itself. Both of these foci are essential to 106 understanding ecological interdependencies and human ecosystems. Dimensions of a System Basic to the search for an understanding of “wholeness" by system scientists is the ideal of viewing complex entities as "systems” rather than a configuration of parts. To assist analysis theorists have identified within a complex system three dimensions each of which can be examined separately but together comprise the integrated whole. These dimensions are the structural or "domain” dimension of a system existing at the moment of analysis; the be- havioral or I'dynamic" dimension which describes the system's evolve- ment or gradual develOpment; and the “ecological“ dimension which describes the system's relationship with or way of responding to inputs from its environment or other systems (Sutherland, 1975, p. 99; Rapoport, in Buckley, 1968, p. xvii). It is the ecological aspect in particular that distinguishes the complex systems from the linear, mechanical systems and limits the capacity to predict outcomes (Sutherland, 1975, p. 110). Kuhn states that the analysis of complex systems leads to both a “body of knowledge" and a "particular way of organizing knowl- edge". As to the latter, it is a way of looking at many different kinds of things so that their similarities are more readily apparent. If successful, it enables us to under- stand a wider variety of things with a smaller bundle of basic principles. (Kuhn, 1975, p. 10) Systems Vocabulary AS a "body of knowledge" system analysis has developed a .a- 107 vocabulary applicable to the specialized systems studied in the smallest segment of the world of knowledge while at the same time and using the same vocabulary segments interacting in a system of systems of any size can be described. For example, the use of the term ecosystem encompasses an understanding of terms such as in— put, output, boundary, throughput, feedback, transformation, inter- dependency, sub-system, components, interface, closed, open, loop, finality, differentiation, and similar terms many of which originated in the field of cybernetics. These same terms are also used to indicate components of theoretical models which are used as a way of “organizing knowledge.“ Theoretical Model Building In addition to yielding a unifying vocabulary, the analysis 1 of existing systems has resulted in theoretical frameworks or models demonstrating the interrelationship of system concepts. The develop- ment of models has been a basic goal of system theorists to facilitate the explanation of interrelated concepts, the components of a system, and/or the causes of variance in a system in a manner that is compre- hensible to a cross disciplinary audience. Boulding confirms this goal in defining Ygeneral systems theory" as the name given to a "level of theoretical model building which lies somewhere between the highly generalized construction of pure mathematics and the specific theories of the specialized disciplines" (Boulding in Buckley, 1968, p. 3). Bertalanffy, likewise, emphasizes the importance of models in stating that a "system" in general system theory is a “model of 108 a general nature that is a conceptual analog of certain rather uni— versal traits of observed entities" (1975, p. 159). Further, he considers the models produced through the various system theories as particularly concerned with multivariate problems which are not only interdisciplinary, but, moreover,'transcend the conventional fields of science“ (Bertalanffy in Buckley, 1968, p. 14). The models developed by system theorists have been arrived at by one of two general methods of research or a combination of both. The empirical—inductive method takes the world as it is found, examines the various systems in it, and draws up statements about the regularities observed to exist. Bertalanffy says this “empirico— intuitive" method ”remains close to reality and can be easily illus- trated and even verified by examples” but ”lacks a mathematical ele- gance and deductive strength" often highly valued (in Buckley, p. 15). The second method, hypothetical-deductive, considers a set of all conceivable systems and then reduces the set to a more reason- able size by establishing and defining generic terms. The difficulty in this deductive process is whether the fundamental terms are correctly chosen and how readily they will be accepted by other theorists (Bertalanffi/in Buckley, p. 17). Sutherland (1975) in describing the analytical tasks of the system theorists emphasizes the complementary nature of these two methods. In his estimation, the empirical-induc- tive modality of analysis, although adaptable to those systems whose properties are observable and amenable to quantification and experimen- tal manipulation, cannot be applied initially to complex, organic systems. For these, Sutherland states the scientist must begin with a 109 hypothetical—deductive methodology (p. 8). To accept, therefore, the challenge to examine complex wholes, the scientist must be willing to move away from the exactness of empirical analysis. The alert system scientist will suggest that there is a relatively significant class of phenomena (i.e., essen— tially "organic“ systems) that simply . . . are not proper targets for empirical-inductive analysis. In treating such systems as these, the scientist is forced to adopt an analytical modality that does not depend for its significance on the availability of a high quality data base . . . the hypothetico-deductive modality. (Sutherland, p. 10) In considering the above statement the inductive and deduc— tive methods should not be seen as competitive ways of science but rather complementary. . the deductive approach is employed only when we lack the predicates for the inductive, and is employed in the thought that hopefully our operations on the deductive di- mension will ultimately allow us to employ the more pre— cise and generally more accurate inductive methods. In short, in the face of extremely complex phenomena, the hypothetico-deductive modality is not a substitute for the inductive, but a prerequisite. (Sutherland, p. 12) In opposition to criticism of the thrust of systems theory toward the use of conceptual models, Bertalanffy states, ”Its aim is not . . . hazy analogies, it is to establish principles applicable to entities not covered in conventional science” (Bertalanffy in Buckley, p. 20). As already indicated the exploration of ”wholes“ and “wholeness" is a primary goal of general systems theory and the models produced. The user of the models generated must accept the fact that no model can reproduce the total of reality but rather can mirror only facets of it. Further system theorists seek “to classify systems by the way the components are organized (interrelated) 110 and to derive the ”laws” or typical patterns of behavior for the different classes Of systems singled out by the taxonomy” developed (Rapoport in Buckley, 1968, p. xvii). System theory is not a new scientific method but rather a new emphasis. It has developed from synthesizing scientific concepts derived by analysis and is intended to transcend and unify specialized disciplines. For this reason, an understanding of the basic models and the related concepts be- comes an effective tool and frame of reference for anyone examining human ecological relationships and relating concepts from various bodies of knowledge to a specific situation. Basic Models and Concepts Structural Dimension Concepts. The most frequently used model in systems science is that demonstrating a system as a causal sequence of input being transformed into output by some process. THROUGHPUT P H 0R -— PUT IN UT PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION > OUT Figure 1: Basic Systems Causal Sequence Model This is applicable to simple, mechanistic systems but when the scien- tist moves to more complex systems subject to a variety of environ- mental impacts and evidencing the dynamics Of change more must be considered. Such is any system with an ecological dimension. The analysis of such systems, however, begins by examining the structural dimensions, that is, its boundary or spatial limits, its major 111 components or subsystems and their distribution within the system, and the influence of the interaction among the components. Virtually all systems can be described as developing by either ”segmentation” or ”differentiation.“ In a fully segmented system all components are alike structurally and functionally, thus the task Of unification or integration and control Of the whole is minimal. In comparison, a system which has developed through differentiation will ultimately have components that are each structurally and func- tionally unique. On the interim continuum would be varying degrees from similarity to uniqueness in structure or function or both. The greater the uniqueness Of components, the more complex the system. A human ecological system will be seen to reflect this uniqueness of components and, thus, to have developed by differentiation. This leads to the recognition that ecological systems are basically ”organized complexity.“ The scientist, therefore, can seek to identify patterns of organization. Because "hierarchical" arrange- ment is most commonly found in both natural and human systems, a basic classification is ”hierarchical" and ”non-hierarchical“ systems. As the word implies, a hierarchy is an assembly of components that may be looked at in terms of levels. A level may be one or many component elements and is often defined as a sub-system or sub—set. In turn, the influence of one level upon another becomes a mode of classifying hierarchical systems. From the study of hierarchical organizations, it has further been observed that the different levels within a hierarchy Often merit different descriptions (Sutherland, 1975, p. 54). In the non—hierarchical organization would be the partially and fully segmented 112 systems and social organizations in which each segment functions fairly independent of another. Figure 2 suggests basic models of hierarchical and non—hierarchical organizations. 1555.23,? 0.3:. HIERARCHICAL NON—HIERARCHICAL AND SEGMENTED Figure 2: Basic Models of Systems Organization Another distinction among simple and complex systems is the degree Of influence by exterior forces. A closed system is one which is minimally dependent upon outside influences or whose ”internal properties are well buffered against external intrusions” (Sutherland, p. 41). No system could survive if completely open. So, for the system scientist, an “Open” system is generally defined as one that is “highly dependent upon external events or operators, or one whose growth of survival depends on a constant interchange with environ- mental factors” (Sutherland, p. 41). The presence Of the third key dimension of a system, the ecological aspect, by definition implies a degree of openness in the system. The capacity to diagram this will vary with the complexity of both the system and the environment in which it resides and with which it interfaces. Figure 3 compares the Open and closed system. According to Sutherland, the study of an Open system demands 113 that the scientist have a more ”open" or wider perspective than a non—system scientist might be expected to have. The study becomes one focusing on interactions and complex causal sequences (p. 43). Output] Input Input ,.. I2 ]\ x’ \\’//’,7 02 \ /7 Output \ \ 0 I3 ..“§i>l __..—e> 3 I, ’7'» \. on OPEN SYSTEM CLOSED SYSTEM Figure 3: Basic Open and Closed Systems Models Another dimension considered in a basic systems model is that of “feedback” which is closely related to the concepts of "open“ and “closed." A system that has the capacity to react and change as a result of changes in its environment responds to ”feedback” and is known as a ”closed—loop" system. Further, it has within it some monitoring or decisioning sub—system which controls the degree of reaction. Thus, the basic model in order to convey this reaction to the environment which is a primary characteristic of an ecological system changes to: THROUGHPUT \ ’ / INPUT ASSIMILATION 0R OUTPUT \\\’/,//5’ PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION ‘\\\fi> // \\ // \ / ‘5 ~ - _FEEDBACK LOOP.— 4"“ Figure 4: Basic Input—Output Model with Feedback Loop In considering the degrees of complexity, a system can be 114 classified as discrete or continuous, and linear or non-linear. Com- plex ecological systems will be continuous, that is the variables are constantly in a state Of change and, thus, point values cannot be Obtained. Complex ecological systems will also be non-linear, that is the components functioning together as a whole are more than their additive sum. This is the concept Of synergy which is essen- tial to understanding an integrated system holistically (Sutherland, pp. 30-31). Dygpmic or Behavioral Dimension Concepts. The foregoing terms are primarily used to describe the structural dimension Of a system. The degree Of similarity or distinctiveness Of the parts of a system influences the behavioral dimension. In viewing the dynamic or behav- ioral dimension the concern is to depict change that occurs in the course of time. More specifically, the dynamics of a system encompass what a system does. This includes purpose, process, change and achievement or what can be classified as ”functional analysis.” In some systems as functions occur the structure remains or can be assumed to remain the same. The scientist, in turn, is concerned with qualitative and quantitative changes or differences occurring between two points. This Sutherland describes as a ”macro-analysis” (pp. 64-65). If, in contrast, the structure of the system changes in the dynamics of time, a micro—analysis must be used. Thus, a micro- behavioral analysis is generally associated with the study of human systems or those which are non-stationary, that is, the structure will eventually change. Behaviorally, the system scientists have tended to 115 classify systems as ”steady state," that is, the system exhibits a constant single mode; or ”finite state,” that is, one exhibiting different characteristics over a period of time but "each starting state gives sufficient information to determine what the concluding state will be” (Sutherland, p. 74); and varying degrees of multi- finality, that is, those which ”given any set of starting-state conditions will have two or more concluding-state conditions” (Suther- land, p. 79). Complex ecological systems will come into this latter classification. Models used to describe the changing dynamics of systems are basically graphs depicting change over a period of time. Ecological Dimension. As this consideration of systems moves from the simple to complex systems, so, too, does the consideration of each succeeding dimension gain in significance. Consequently, at the more complex levels, the concern must be for all three dimensions: structure, dynamics and ecological relationships. TO embrace and express this three dimensional framework, it becomes necessary to move to higher levels of abstraction. The complex system is the type of system the general system theorist has focused on and is Of particu- lar importance in this study because of the ecological dimension of human systems, that is, systems which respond to inputs from surround- ing systems and in turn are modified. In summary of the preceding, a model of an ecological system would indicate characteristics of complexity, development by differentiation, having a degree of Open- ness, reacting to feedback, emphasis on interaction, complex causal sequences, change over the course Of time, non-linearity, and having 116 two or more possible concluding state conditions. Because of the number of variables that could exist in each of these characteristics, models need to be very theoretical and consequently, unless under- stood, may appear simplistic. Basic Characteristics of a Systems Scientist The preceding discussion examining the manner in which system theorists have tried to establish models to explain wholeness or integrated and ecological systems leads to the identification of cer— tain characteristics Of a systems approach to problems. The problem solver would: 1. Focus on holistic concerns 2. Search for Opportunities to make linkages between systems 3. Tend to comprehend complexity before contemplating action 4. Not be restricted to a particular academic discipline 5. Appreciate an interdisciplinary approach to an analysis 6. Value synthesis higher than analysis 7. Be more problem oriented than tool oriented 8. Not be "a priori" committed to either quantitative or qualitative analysis 9. Recognize that the analytical method to be used must be determined by the problem at hand 10. Be familiar with both inductive and deductive processes 117 11. Be able to meld concepts from both quantitative and qualitative analysis 12. Seek for isomorphisms, that is, a property that is shared between two or more superficially different systems that allow us to approach them as a defined class phenomena, and 13. Exert strong efforts to solve problems completely, not just a piece at a time or for some short period The listing suggests both the characteristics of an educational pro— gram using a human ecological approach in the formation Of a pro— fessiOnal home economist, and the characteristics one would expect in the product of the program. Systems Concepts Applied to Human Ecology The preceding examination of systems concepts and the iden- tification of the basic characteristics of both an ecological sys— tem and of a person approaching an analysis in an ecological sys— tems manner brings this study to the transitional step of relating the above principles to ppmpg ecology. If a system is a set of interrelated components forming a unity or a whole and if ecology is the study of the interrelatedness and interdependency of the two components, organisms and environment, then an ecosystem can be considered to be a specific kind of system involving the interaction and interdependency of both living and non- living parts within a defined whole. In turn, human ecology becomes the study of human ecosystems. This has been affirmed by the usage 118 of the term in the natural and social sciences both of which, like all sciences, aim to contribute to the understanding of the human being, the universe, and the relationship of the two through the analysis of specific data (Caws, 1965, pp. 5-6). The application of systems concepts to the human-environ- mental interplay in view of the synthesizing purpose of systems theories should simplify the comprehension of the whole and the ability to relate Specific facets of the interplay to the whole. To accomplish this the identification of the structural compo— nentsand the interfacing of these components or their intra-eco— logical action must become a part of the analysis when applying systems concepts to the interaction of humans with their environ— ment (or human ecology) and the significance Of each to other hu- man needs. The significance of analyzing human ecosystems from a holis- tic perspective is related to the complexity of both the universe itself and the totality of humanity which together impact the immedi— ate and extended human condition. The ability to identify the vari— ables and the significance of each to other human needs is essential to the resolution of any problem related to the human condition. The world today is confronted with problems that transcend the primary concerns of any single science or area of knowledge. Further, because the ultimate Objective should be the quality Of the human condition, these complex problems Of resource availability, pollu— tion, human physical and psychological health and safety, communica— tion linkages, and the development of the human potential must be 119 viewed in the context of the dynamics Of human life with a realization Of the interdependency of human behavior and subsequent environmental conditions. Micklin (1973) identifies the tendency to resolve issues by examining isolated aspects or subordinate issues and proposing imme- diate, short-range, pragmatic solutions without seeing the isolated issues in relation to other issues or a more comprehensive long range view (p. xiv). The utilization of systems models and concepts is a proposed way Of overcoming this weakness by envisioning an isolated problem in relation to other problems and in relation to a larger view Of the human environment. TO do this the commonalities Of issues must be identified by raising the description of the issues from con- crete to abstract terminology. Using this tactic, Micklin (1973) seeks to reduce the complex- ity Of multiple issues and variables to the comprehensive terminology of social organization and process when he states . . the relationship among the raw materials Of human ecological systems--i.e., populations and their environ- ments——are mediated through and largely determined by certain aspects Of social organization. The primary question to be explored involves the identification and the delineation of the social processes through which human aggregates adapt themselves to the exigen- cies and contingencies Of particular demographic and environmental conditions. (p. xiv) Implied in this statement is the basic pragmatic problem moti— vating interaction in any system, that is, the survival of the parts. In an ecological system, it is the survival of the organism without losing the means to survive. Logically, therefore, the ultimate objective motivating action in an ecosystem is maintaining the 120 interdependent parts. Given these key dimensions, the application Of systems theory to human ecosystems is seeing the environment as the "input"; the manner in which the user adapts to the environment as the "throughoutput”; and the "survival” or fulfillment Of human needs as the primary "output" which together with excess materials will affect the nature and quality of the total environment. A human ecological analysis would be made by first identifying both the population or human aggregate of concern and the environment or system which sur— rounds it. This would be followed by the identification Of the proc- esses the individual or aggregate is capable of using in adapting to the environmental input, and by defining the environmental condi- tions to which the human aggregate is responding. In the final analysis the change occurring or "output" would be Observed and evaluated. Contemporary Usage of the Coneept Of Human Ecology In consideration Of the various modes of human adaptation which the human being has the potential to use throughout the life cycle, it should become apparent that no single area of science can concern itself with all of the environmental conditions which the human organism can utilize and adapt to for survival. The complexity of this problem is further intensified by the growth Of knowledge in both the natural and human sciences and the consequent technological developments. The resolution Of the problem is not found in trying to identify what science is "human ecology" because the concept 121 of ”human ecology" has been used in all sciences. Rather, it is in examining how it has been used. In reality, it is used in both a specialized and comprehensive manner. To demonstrate this, selected recent writings in the natural and social sciences will be examined together with reflections on the use of “human ecology“ in the arts. Of particular focus will be those works which bear the title ”Human Ecology” or have the relationship of humans with the environment implied in the title. In the Natural Sciences The Center for Human Ecology at the University of Illinois was established in 1965 as an outgrowth of the zoology department. From the experiences of members of this group in teaching an inter— disciplinary course, the text, Hpmeg Ecology, evolved in 1975. Al- though the text has a biological—natural science origin, the theme of it is "that humans, like all living organisms, function in their environment by means of adaptation,” and that ”the most important hu- man adaptive mechanism . . . is culture” (Levine, et a1., l975,preface). The theme, thus, aims to link the social and natural science per- spective in achieving a “holistic view of man‘s role in nature” (pref- ace). After an explanation of the nature of ”human ecology," the text examines the human environment as a physical-chemical habitat and from a biological perspective. These introductory sections are followed by three main sections: ”Man's Physical Evolution;“ ”Man's Sociocultural Evolution; and ”Man's Confrontation with His Environ— ment.” This last section examines the current complex issues of 122 food, population, diseases, and pollution. In deciding what should or should not be included, this group Obviously is influenced by their area of specialization while recognizing the need for a broad perspective. This is expressed in the following: Is "human ecology,” then, an empty phase, a useless slo- gan? Must it be divided and subdivided until we are left with only the same academic ”disciplines” into which all knowledge is safely and barrenly pigeonholed? On the contrary! It is the synthesis of these many dis— ciplines, their coming together into the broad, inter— disciplinary and multidisciplinary field of human ecology, that is vital to the understanding of ourselves and our eternal predicament. Human ecology is, literally, the science Of man in his house, and man's house is the planet Earth. (Levine, et a1., 1975, p. 1) Clearly, human ecology, is too broad for any one person to master in detail. But an overview of the field gives a framework on which to hang the data and theories Of specialized fields, as well as a broad perspective on the nature and limitations of man and his environments, past, present, and future. (p. 2) A second recent treatise on human ecology with origins in the biological sciences compiled by Sargent II (1974) takes a slightly different route to the same goal. He describes the issue Of synthe- sis and his approach by stating This book treats of human ecology and seeks to identify its nature and scope. . . . In these times when disciplines are both fragmenting and realigning, human ecology is difficult to identify precisely. We see it as a concep- tual framework for studying and understanding ”Man in Nature” and in . . . this book we look at ecosystems, man, man's use of resources, the human condition, and manage- ment of environmental quality. We do not contend that we have encompassed all that might be human ecology, but these chapters do provide a reasonable comprehensive and cohesive picture Of a field that has yet fully to mature. (Sargent II, 1974, p. v.) 123 The writings by Boughey, inasmuch as they derive from the Department of Population and Environmental Biology of the University Of California deserve attention. Boughey states, Human ecology is a young and yet an Old science. As with all disciplines generated from the union Of several Older traditions, . Although these converging interests of the social, biological, and medical sciences, together with engineering, represent largely independent incursions into human ecology, it is apparent that they must meet on some common ground. The rational forces for these varied interests is in the funda- mental ecological concept Of the ecosystem. Societies of Homo Sapiens . . . are tied inseparably to the micro- and macroecosystems of this planet. They are subject to the same laws that govern performance and behavior Of the other populations included within ecosystems. (Boughey, 1971, pp. v-v1 In organization Of content this text moves from the origins Of man to the emergence Of the urban civilization and then examines the impact of this development on population, air and water pollution, and natural resource utilization. Significant to this study are Boughey's interpretations Of human ecology. In addition to the above, he also states It (ecology) is . . . simply and briefly described as the study Of ecosystems. . . . it is possible to . . . define human ecology as the study Of the development and inter- actions Of human societies with one another and with their environment. . The study Of human ecology, as it is most commonly under- stood by ecologists, therefore, includes both a backward view Of these early ecosystems in which human forms played an integral but less destructive role, and a forward look necessitating an urgent consideration of the catastrophic effects Of . . . human intrusion into contemporary environ- ments. Only with the development of the ecosystem concept in ecology was it realized that populations, communities, and 124 ecosystems had to be studied together, the . . . holistic approach (Smuts, 1926). Fortunately this realization was soon followed by an appreciation that the techniques of systems analysis could be applied to such studies. The more ecosystems came to be studied with this holistic approach, the more ecologists realized that the effect of human occupation was all pervasive (Odum, 1969). There was no population, community, or ecosystem left on earth completely independent Of the effect of human cultural behavior. (Boughey, 1971, pp. 1-3) The final excerpt above links in a very pointed manner the concepts of ecology and ecosystems. This linkage is essential if the inter— dependence Of people with their environment is to be understood. The content analysis Of the above texts by respected authori- ties in the natural sciences identifies the comprehensiveness of human ecology. An examination Of recent presentations on human ecology from the social sciences reveals a similar pattern. In the Social Sciences Micklin (1973),a sociologist, developed his framework for the study Of human ecology around two basic principles, namely that sur- vival is a primary motivation for humans and that social organization is the means to achieve this end. These principles are generally con- sistent with contemporary human ecological frameworks developed by social scientists. As in the natural sciences, the central focus Of human ecology is the relationship of human organisms and the environ- ment. The social scientist, however, places emphasis on the collec- tivity or the population as the unit Of analysis which in turn causes the examination of ”social processes" rather than individual roles to be the factor creating ecological relationships. Consequently, 125 ecological analysis for the social scientist leads to explanations Of social change. Further, the social scientist sees the environment which affects human activity as being comprised Of both material conditions and ideas generated by human resources. Finally, the social scientist will evaluate the survival aspect from both a quan- titative and qualitative aspect (Micklin, pp. 3-4). In summary of the sociological contemporary view, Micklin states The assumptions guiding this examination of human ecology suggest a focus on relationships between collectivities and their environments. These relationships are mediated through socially organized activities aimed at satisfying the requisites Of collective survival. (p. 5) In the sociological framework exemplified by Micklin, adapta- tion Of and by the interacting components of population and environ- ment determines the degree and kinds Of ecological activity. Adapta- tion can be considered in terms of either the mechanics Of social organization or the outcomes Of adaptation on both the population and the environmental phenomena. The latter can be interpreted in terms Of quantitative to qualitative survival with the ideal being a balanced impact on each component. This approach involves understanding the dynamics and influence of adaptive mechanisms used by the components. As evidenced in Micklin's text, it eventually leads to the examination of critical contemporary concerns such as population control, use and availability Of resources, and environmental quality. In summary, the social scientist focuses analysis on the impact Of social organization on the environment in contrast to the natural scientist focusing on the more physical aspects of human life and 126 environment. Ultimately, both the natural and social scientist are concerned with the same critical contemporary issues. Solutions for these literally cut across all bodies Of knowledge. Consequently, it can be induced that a human ecological perspective demands a merger of existing bodies Of science while at the same time it allows each scientist to determine a conceptual framework for a logical analysis Of the person-environment relationship. Eventually, if the ultimate good is to be achieved, there must be a synthesizing and prioritizing Of goals and solutions among all sciences. Bews (1973) summarized this in saying: While in one sense, ecology is merely a view-point, in another sense it is the most complete science of life, since life is not a thing in itself but a process, which of necessity continuously involves the environment, . As a view—point, human ecology Obviously has an important bearing on human conduct, on the kind Of question that is vitally interesting to everyone of us, how to make the most of our lives and how to live happily. It supplies a working philosophy Of life and conduct. (p. 278) As a science, Bews continues, human ecology is ”distinguished by its holistic outlook and technique. It investigates as fully as possible the most essential feature of life, its relationship to the environment from which it cannot be separated“ (p. 279). e As a view-point, Bews states, human ecology ; regards life as an interaction between the environment and man as a living organism. Sometimes it concentrates on the environment itself, sometimes on man itself, but finally it always endeavors to view the environment-func- tion-organism triad as one definitely, integrated whole. The result is a habit Of mind, a mode of thinking, and a general 'philosophy Of life'. (p. 284) - "OM—- , TO understand how a human being actually experiences the human relationship with the environment, it is necessary to examine the ways 127 humans have chosen to express these feelings and ideals over the course of time as expressed in history and the arts. Human Ecology and Humanistic Expression Historically the term ”human ecology” as descriptive Of an area of investigation and knowledge has been used primarily by social scientists and, periodically, by natural scientists as they have examined the interdependency Of human beings and nature. Human reflections on this interplay are also found in works of art and self—expression. The study of the various arts, therefore, enhances an understanding of the human ecological relationship with the environ- ment. Works of art divide into two basic types. One type represents the technologies humans have developed to gain dominance over nature and/or to make components of the environment available as resources for achieving other goals. In this sense understanding technologies gpg_technigues contributes to understanding the interrelationship of humans and nature. Beyond this Obvious functionalism seen in the practical arti— facts of humans, there are the literary, visual and performing arts of humans. An analysis Of these gives an understanding of how humans view their environment, what humans value within it, their under- standing of it, and how the environment affects a human as a person. Through the use of materials in the environment which a human combines in a variety of ways and through using the varied capacities of a human being for self-expression, the artist gives us “an integrated 128 interpretation of what he has seen or heard” (Bews, 1973, p. 291). These works Of art do not reproduce nature but rather they interpret life and often idealize the environment-human interplay. Much of our present environment is made by humans, thus reflecting human creativity in seeking not only to give functionalism but also to enhance the environment in a way that reflects the human concept of the beautiful and good. This concept in some way is derived from interaction with and contemplation Of the world around a person or the environment. Examples Of this would be the painter who ”puts on record his own reaction to some aspect of his environment" (Bews, p. 292), the architect who blends the need of a functional space with a sensi- bility to materials and an expression of an idea through them, the musician who seeks to express the many kinds of sounds that exist in nature which a human is able to hear and respond to, the artist who mimics nature or expresses a human response to environmental forces through the movements and gestures Of dance and drama, and finally the literary artist who has recorded in prose and poetry human reflec- tions and aspirations as influenced by the environment. If the essence of ecological thinking is being aware Of the interrelationship that exists between human and nature, the study of the creative ef— forts of human beings in each period of history can give us insights into this interrelationship. This is especially true because the human's response as a thinking and feeling being is basically a re- sponse tothe human senses as touched by stimuli within the environment. (An excellent exposition of the human ecological dimensions Of the arts 129 is given in Bews, 1973, pp. 290-302). Summary of Contemporary Usage of ”Human Ecology” in the Basic Modes Of Human Inguiry The preceding discussion on the contemporary focus of human ecology in the basic modes of human inquiry and resulting in basic areas of knowledge gives support to the following generalizations: 1. Human ecology is an all encompassing area Of study 2. Human ecology as the study of the human—environment interrelationship can be viewed from a variety of perspectives 3. Perspectives for viewing human ecological relationships can be broadly classifed as the natural sciences, the social sciences, humanities, and technology. The latter two groups can be combined as the arts Of humans 4. The knowledge that accrues from each perspective is recognized as giving only a partial understanding of the human-environ- mental relationship and thus is interdependent with the knowledge from other perspectives in attaining a fuller understanding 5. Each perspective of the human-environmental relationship although limited ultimately identifies and expresses concern for simi- lar imbalances in the human-environment interrelationship 6. Each perspective and resulting science or art arrives at an examination or exposition of contemporary issues that are related to the development of the human potential and/or the survival of the human organism 7. All perspectives and resulting sciences have found that 130 the use of ecological systems terminology facilitates expressing the relationship of one area of knowledge to another and to the totality of the human-environment interrelationship These ideas are expressed quite succinctly in the following state- ment: The value Of human ecology, as in the case of ecology, generally lies in its synthesizing effect. It not only provides a pattern into which may be fitted all the separate human sciences, but it affords a means of testing the relative value Of each method of approach to the all im- portant, all-embracing question Of how and why man is as he is and behaves as he does. It unifies all the human sciences and enables each one to find its proper place in a generalized study Of man. (Bews, 1973, pp. 13-14) Home Economics and Human Ecological Concepts Any area of applied knowledge because of the ultimate effect the application will have on the human condition can benefit from a holistic view. One such area is that concerned with bettering the daily living of individuals and families. This applied area, as indicated earlier in this study, was originally conceived as ”home ecology“ but later formally entitled “home economics“ when efforts were made to establish it as an academic area in the early 19005. In recent years, as specified in Chapter II, home economists have re- examined the concepts Of ecology. This current usage Of ecological concepts in interpreting the profession, in focusing research, and in describing curricula will be briefly reviewed as preliminary to defining a human ecological approach to the formation of a professional home economist. 131 EcoSystems and the Meaning of Home Economics The 1959 statement Of Ney_Directions promulgated by the Ameri— can Home Economics Association stressed that the professional home economist must synthesize knowledge from the basic areas of knowledge before making application to human living. It further states, ”It is the only field concerned with helping families shape both the parts and the whole Of the pattern of daily living.“ This added comment places emphasis on a holistic view. Both Of these concepts identified as intrinsic to home economics (that is, the synthesis of knowledge and a holiStic perspective) are, likewise, considered essen— tial to systems thinking and ecological relationships. As more recent theorists have reviewed the 1902 Lake Placid Conference definition of home economics they have emphasized that home economics is the study of the interrelationship of the social nature of human beings with their immediate environment. Typically, Creekmore (1968) attempts to motivate change from a focus on practical applications of the synthesis of the sciences, to a focus not only on this but also on the impact of the application of knowledge in one area of human living upon another aspect Of human living. This recip— rocal concept is basic to ecological systems concepts. Continuing with the same basic idea, Hook and Paolucci (1970) brought to the foreground and interpreted the family, long designated as a primary concern of the profession (Quilling, 1970; Schlater, 1970), as an ecosystem. In relating the concept of ecology to the family, the home is seen as the life support system or environment for each 132 family member or organism; or, if the family is viewed as a social unit, the physical and social components of the home situation become the environmental support system for the aggregate group. This perspective aims to move the viewer from seeing two or more separate parts or entities to seeing the interdependency Of parts. The family as a life support system is dependent upon the natural environment for physical sustenance and upon the social organizations which are related to man's humanness and give quality and meaning to life. Home economists for some time have emphasized the social—emotional environment. It is necessary for the field (as it focuses on the family) to link both the natural environment and the social environ— ment. Therein lie its uniqueness and strength. (Hook and Paolucci, 1970, p. 316) Hook and Paolucci support their proposal to view the family as an ecosystem with a statement by Cantlon to the U. S. Senate in 1968 . . encourage the home economics curricula in the United States to adopt as a curricular focal point ”the home as an ecosystem.“ Learning to think of each household as a system of inputs and losses of energy and materials would provide a means of relating to the larger . . . ecosystems. The concept of the family ecosystem, thus, includes how the interfacing of family members and consumers with support systems beyond the immediate household influences the totality of the man—environment relationship. This generalization re-affirms what Ellen H. Richards articulated in the 18905 when she promoted "home oekology.” She, at that time, recognized that the macro—units of society can be no stronger or in better balance than the micro-units of which they are made. As Trotter (1975) states Mrs. Richards had concluded that the home is the root unit of the social environment, and that if the total environment is to be improved, if the human organism is to live in har- mony with the environment, then these relationships must be 133 learned at the source . . . in the home and in the family. (13. 9) Growing professional concern for this reciprocal relationship and interdependency Of the home and the larger units of society is re— flected through the 19705 in a large number Of articles in the Journal pf_fipge_Economics, the official organ of the profession. These arti- cles reflect efforts to try to understand the interdependency of humans with the environment, and, in turn, to define the subsequent responsi- bility of the profession to identify ways and means to foster a balance in this relationship. A sampling shows these fall into three major groupings. First, are those which explore the profession's response to societal needs in the past and the challenge to adapt to future needs (Spritze, 1976; Bonde, 1976; Trotter, 1975). Secondly, are arti- cles which focus more specifically on the interrelated nature of the professional with both larger and smaller segments of society (Osternig, 1977; Byrd, 1970; Hook and Paolucci, 1970; Ray, 1970; Mannino, 1974; Holding; 1975; Metzen, 1975; Wadsworth, 1976; St. Marie, 1978). In addition to these two groupings of selected articles, certain issues Of the Journal contain articles that collectively focus on major human ecological problems facing society today: limited energy resources (January, 1976), world food supplies (November, 1975), consumer protec- tion (January, 1978), and changing sex roles (January, 1973). This general movement in the profession is epitomized and given direction in the statement of purpose, Ney_Directions II, promulgated by AHEA in 1975. This statement defined the core of home economics as the family ecosystem and was intended to ”provide leadership to the 134 profession at a time when the interplays between the family and society call for new insights and new emphases.“ The statement itself empha- sizes the need to relate the present to the past and to help people ”adjust“ to change and to shape the future.” This latter emphasis recognizes the dynamic dimension Of a human ecological system. Ecosystems and Home Economics Research Research in an academic area defines its mode of inquiry and ultimate knowledge base. In this respect, research emanating from home economics' sources and espousing ecological concepts should aid in interpreting the use of “human ecology”. A sampling reviewed indi- cated that an ecological systems framework is used for both analysis and synthesis; that the researcher tends to place emphasis on one key aspect of the human-environment interplay; that systems models and terminology are used to express relationships; and that a human ecologi— cal perspective is viewed as examining the reciprocal effects of interacting systems (Burk, 1970; Vaines, 1974; King, 1975; Morrison, 1975; Sontag, 1978). These research directions indicate competencies needed to both interpret and contribute to developments in the field. Compton and Hall give additional insights into this by stating . . . the overall focus in human ecology research must be upon the whole if it is to be a dynamic research enterpr1se in tune with today's demands. . . researchers must work as part of a team with other members Of other disciplines on complex soc1al problems requiring multidisciplinary approaches toward 1mprov1ng the quality of living in an increasingly polluted env1ron— ment. (Compton & Hall, 1972, p. 6) They add to this by quoting Dubos 135 It (human ecology research) requires the analysis of actual human s1tuations and the use of experimental models repro— ducing some selected aspects Of these situations. (Dubos in Compton & Hall, 1972, p. 4) Ecosystems and Curriculum Development It can be expected that the emphasis on ecological concepts both in the interpretation Of the concept of home economics and in expanding its body of knowledge through research would be reflected in curriculum formats. At present four universities (Cornell, Howard, Michigan State,and Maryland) use "Human Ecology" to desig— nate the unit within the University formerly known as "Home Economics.” In each instance the change Of name followed a lengthy curriculum study and restructuring of programs. In addition three liberal arts colleges (Marygrove, Marywood, and Mercyhurst) are known to presently designate their former department of home economics by the title Of ”Human Ecology.” Although not as explicit as “human ecology, con- cern for the human—environment interplay in relation to the inter— dependency of the family, the use of resources and the achievement of quality of life for both present and future generations is re- flected in changes that identify some aspect of human development or resource use. The Weis, East and Manning study in 1972-74 reported approximately seventeen name changes related to human ecology such as “Human Resource Development,” ”Family and Consumer Resources,” and "Home and Community Services.“ 136 Summary Of Contemporary Usage of Concepts of Human Ecology in Home Economics The preceding review Of Journal articles, research projects, curriculum formats and statements Of Objectives indicating the growing use Of ecological concepts and models to comprehensively express goals and to explore ideas by the profession of home eco— nomics causes one to conclude: 1. That the profession of home economics is recognizing ecological terminology and conceptual frameworks as a means of communicating to others the underlying philosophy Of the profession 2. That the profession in specifying the family ecosystem as its focus indicates it studies and serves the family as an interde- pendent unit in society 3. That the profession recognizes itself as being fundamentally broad based and committed to a holistic approach to problem solving 4. That the human ecological perspective is seen as a syner- gic framework within which the sub-system Of specialized dimensions of the profession can be examined Further, the analysis Of the movement toward ecological think— ing within the profession gives support to the following assumptions: 1. An ecological systems framework facilitates the under- standing Of the interrelatedness of systems 2. The near or immediate environment of an organism is a valid delimitation Of the broad concept Of human ecology 3. The home is considered a Significant social and physical ‘_‘*_‘—_—-—d _— 137 environment affecting human development 4. The development Of a human being is affected by and affects not only the immediate situation or system Of which it is a part but all systems that directly or indirectly relate to it 5. There is a valid need for developing an understanding of and for continued research in the interrelationship between hu- mans and the larger environment as it emanates from the interplay Of humans and their near environment 6. The traditional subject matter areas associated with home economics (food, clothing, shelter, family, and human development) are bodies Of knowledge fundamental to analyzing the effectiveness of societal systems developed to support the human existence 7. The delimitation Of human ecology to the immediate or near home and living environment does not exclude the consideration of broad based complex societal problems (that is, population growth, =_.__..__.L.—-—D_..f_.- Sin energy resources, pollution, food supply, resource distribution, etc.) and Usage Of Human Ecology Generalizations Coordinatipg Meaning_ ‘ Through this extensive examination Of the meaning and usage Of human ecology, it has become evident that this holistic concept is applicable to any academic area. TO apply it demands that the focus of the academic area is viewed as a system in the universe interacting with other human and non-human systems to determine the nature Of the whole. The approach taken to the study of this interrelation and interdependency, and the particular variables examined is what makes i 138 one academic area distinctive from another. Yet, ultimately, due to the holistic nature of human ecology the knowledge derived from one approach is inadequate for problem solving and must converge with the knowledge of other approaches. These observations lead to cer— tain generalizations which help identify the desired outcomes Of a human ecological approach in a curriculum. In a more particular way they enable relating the human ecological approach in one academic area to the approach utilized in another area. Human ecology in its broadest meaning results in a holistic perspective Of the interaction and interdependency of humans and the total universe. It recognizes that the human being is an essential component of the totality and that human actions both influence and are influenced by the development Of ell_other components. Human ecology as an area of study, thus, aims to understand all Of the parts of this universe in relation to all other parts and see how this dynamic interrelationship affects both the parts and the whole. The magnitude of the universe and the finiteness Of the human capacity necessitate segmentation of the universe for analytical purposes. Thus, to achieve any depth analysis of the interrelationship the scientist must focus on specific parts. From these broad generaliza- l tions the characteristics of an individual human ecologist can be 1 determined. Such a person should have: 1. An awareness of the interdependency and interrelation- ship Of the total universe and human action, that is, a holistic view 2. A greater knowledge of and awareness of the interaction 139 of components in a specific segment Of the universe, that is, a focused area pf analytical interest 3. A concern for not only the descriptive characteristics of the primary focus or system of analysis but also for the impact of this system on neighboring systems and in particular on the inter— action Of the two, that is, an ecological concern 4. An effort to relate the knowledge one has of the specific segment to the total human environment interplay, that is, a gggeg_ ecolOgical synthesizing capacity; and 5. A recognition that the limitations of an individual's knowledge must be compensated by collaborative analytical and syn- thesizing efforts with others in order to achieve the desired balan— ced human-environment interplay, that is, a value for collaborative efforts If one accepts the above, it can be deduced further that: 6. Each human ecologist will define an area or system within the whole as focus for analysis. Further, human ecologists with similar areas Of focus will group together and create academic disci- plines 7. Already existing movements in scientific efforts identify three key ways of defining an area Of focused analytical interest: a) defining an organism in the universe and relating it to all elements in its environment moving from the near to the extended environment. This is basically the area of focused analytical interest Of the ha“<‘.“"fl a.» 140 natural scientist b) defining a human component of the universe and relating it to the interplay of other living and non-living components of the environment with- in a defined range Of the environment. This is basically how the sociologist functions ecologically, that is, a human aggregate is defined and studied in relation to human and non-human factors Of its de- fined environment c) identifying a limited range Of the environment and focusing on all of the human-environmental inter- dependent interaction within this range. This is basically the approach of the home economics human ecologist whose focus is the interaction Of the in- dividual and family group within the near or immediate home and living environment 8. A clear distinction between the human ecological concerns Of one academic area from another is difficult t9 attain because Of the ecological (interdependent and interrelated)concern Of each focus and the holistic nature Of the universe 9. Because the universe is a whole, all human ecologists, irrespective Of their initial focus, will have Similar concerns and ultimately examine problems related to the utilization Of natural resources and the continuation of the human existence 10. The search for a common language to enable collaborative efforts has resulted in the use Of systems terminology and conceptual 141 mggel§_to express ecological relationships irrespective Of the initial disciplinary focus and basic language 11. The use Of models facilitates maintaining the holistic view peculiar to human ecology while allowing more analytical atten— tion on specific components 12. The use of systems terminology and models makes the charac- teristics Of a systems scientist (see page 116) intrinsic to human ecological thinking 13. As growth in knowledge occurs, the number Of potential areas for specialized knowledge and analytical focus in the universe will increase 14. As specialization increases, the struggle to maintain a holistic view increases 15. As human ecological sensitivities increase, academic dis- cipline area boundaries decrease. Models to Illustrate Generalizations Inasmuch as the essential difference between one academic area's approach to human ecology versus that Of another is what gives distinc- tiveness, yet ultimately the holistic nature of human ecology makes all areas Of knowledge converge, Figures 5 through 11 are intended to illustrate the differences. The universe as a complex system made up Of interrelated parts as minute as electrons can be perceived as one large circle. Ecologi- cally speaking the concern is with maintaining not only the ultimate configuration but even more so the life sustaining relationship between 142 living matter or organism(s) in the total system and what is extrane— ous to the organism or the supporting environmental system. The en— vironmental system for any single organism or group of organisms is a composite Of both living and non—living elements. In pgpep_ecology the organism of concern is the human being. One can, thus, conceptua— lize a distinction between the human being and the remainder of the universe as diagrammed in Figure 5 (a) or (b). (:H OR E$® ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN SYSTEM SYSTEM OF CONCERN THE UNIVERSE (a) (b) Figure 5: Conceptualizations of the Distinction between the Human System and the Environmental System Simplified, Figure 5 becomes the common E <--5>H interaction formula. The arrows in any model represent the interaction of the interfacing systems. Since the primary difference in the possible academic or pro— fessional foci is how ”E" of the ”Environmental System" is perceived it is helpful to perceive these differences diagrammatically in rela- tion to the whole. Figure 6, based on the concepts and distinctions in the Morrison model (1975, pp. 81-84) subdivides "E" into three components: natural andnonlnmmn environment; social-behavioral or 143 human environment; and human-built environment. an NON—HUMAN ENVIRONMENT SOCIAL— BEHAVIORAL or HUMAN—BUILT ENVIRONMENT HUMAN ENVIRONMENT Figure 6: Conceptualization of the Three Major Components of the Human Environment The use Of free flowing lines in the diagrams is intended to convey that there is no exact distribution of the three environ- mental components and that their distribution changes as one moves from one environmental situation to another. If one places the human symbol in the center of the diagram (see Figure 7), it can be abstracted that the human being is in constant contact with an indefinite amount Of each of these components. The arrows indicate the interaction and the ecological interdependency. 144 8'9 BEHAVIORAL Figure 7: Conceptualization Of the Continual Interaction Of the Human Being with the Three Major Components of the Environment In summary, Figure 7 illustrates that the environment of humans can theoretically be divided into three interfacing and quantifiably fluctuating components or systems in a dynamism affecting the evolve- ment Of humans as well as each component. Recognizing the interdependence of each component, academically it can be said the focus Of the natural science human ecologist is the natural environment component, the sociological human ecologist is concerned with the social behavioral component, and, although they do not commonly use the term Of "human ecology," engineers, architects, manufacturers, and certain social scientists concerned with human- built social institutions have as a primary concern the human-built environment. Figure 8 illustrates this theoretical division. 145 NATURAL and NON-HUMAN ENVIRONMENT HUMAN- SOCIAL— BEHAVIORAL or HUMAN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT Focus of Architects, Engineers, Manufac- Sociological Human Natural Science Human turers and some Ecological Focus Ecological Focus Social Scientists Figure 8: Theoretical Delimiting Of Human Ecological Focus for Academic Study and Professional Service It should become evident that it would be impossible to achieve com- plete segmentation. Further, it defeats the concept of a holistic approach. Thus, each Of these major groupings cannot be ecologically approached completely separated from the other. Further, for analy- tical purposes within each major grouping can be found various sub— ordinate foci. One conceptualization Of further subordination can be achieved by establishing parameters or boundaries limiting and iden- tifying the distance the environment extends from the organism. Thus, in Figure 9 the universe diagram becomes one Of concentric circles with each circle representing a different magnitude or level of environ— ment. The arrows indicate that no level (or near or distal region) is independent from another. Interaction and influegpe are constantly occurring. 146 THE UNIVERSE H (--—---i E E = Environment of Humans H = Humanity E = n 2: e i = 1 e1, e2 . . . en = levels or regions within the total Environment Figure 9: Conceptualization and Interdependence of the Varying Magnitudes or Environmental Regions within the Total Universe For example, within the natural environment of the human being one ca consider the layers of the earth, the terrestrial surface, and 3 the levels of the atmosphere. Within each Of these there are vari- ous subordinate components each affecting the human existence. In sociology, the levels could represent quantitative differences in the size Of the human population being considered as well as the size of the environment with which the human population Of concern is interacting, for example, from the individual, to small groups, neigh- borhood, cities, regional areas, and to the total population. Again, while examining a specific facet of the environment the scientist limits ecological analysis not only by defining the system of concern and the boundary of its environment but also by the limits of one's academic commitment. For example, the biologist will examine an 147 ecosystem . . as a unit Of biological organization made up of all the organisms in a given area (that is ”community“ ) inter- acting with the physical environment. (Odum, E. P. in ) Boughey, 1973, p. 14 Or, the sociologist may confine his analysis to urban geographic developments (Shepherd, P., in Boughey, 1973, p. 37). In actual practice, therefore, the very comprehensiveness Of human ecology necessitates that the human ecologist define the area of concern. It is in view of this that the profession Of home econom— ics has identified as its primary area of concern the ”fam1ly in its various forms" and the ”family as an ecosystem" (AHEA, Ney_0irections II, 1975). This focus has been defined as the study of the reciprocal relations of the family tO its natural and man—made environments, the effect of these singly or in unison as they shape the internal functioning of families, and the interplays between the family and other social institutions and the physical environment. (10. 2) In this sense we can visualize the family as the aggregate of concern with the home or daily living setting defined as the boundary Of the ecosystem being studied. Figure 10 uses an adaptation Of the Gross, Crandall and Knoll (1973, p. 113) model to represent the family in relation to its various environments. If one superimposes Figure 10 on Figure 7 demonstrating the classification of the elements of the human environment into natural, human—built, and social—behavioral components as in Figure 11, it can be clearly observed that the analysis of the interaction and interdependence of the family with its near environment involves an awareness of all facets Of the total l48 environment. DISTAL ENVIRONMENT INTERMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT EAR ENVIRONMENT Figure lO: The Family in Relation to Various Magni- tudes of the Environment l49 NATURAL and NON—HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERMEDIATE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT Figure ll: The Family and Its Near Environment Related to the Various Dimensions of the Total Human Environment Summary of Chapter The purpose of this chapter has been to examine the concept of “human ecology“ in order to define what should be a ”human ecological approach“ to the formation of a professional home economist. Both its literal meaning and contemporary usage were examined. Originating in the late l9th century with the coinage of the word ”ecology" in the ISO biological sciences for the study of the interrelatedness and inter— dependency of an organism and its habitat, ecological concepts were also identified at this early date by people who would later call them- selves home economists. The concept of ”human ecology", however, first found regular usage in the social sciences to study the develop— ment and movement of communities of people. Over the course of time three factors seem to dominate in each scholarly field that has examined ecological relationships: (l) the term, human ecology, in actuality has been used within a limited conceptual framework, (2) gradually systems terminology was used to describe the interrelationships, and (3) each field has become critical of itself for a lack of holism in its perspective. The challenge, therefore, is how to maintain the holistic perspective while seeking an understanding of the component parts contributing to a whole greater than the sum of the parts, and fur— thering the human organism and its life sustaining support system, or environment. A series of generalizations were developed to summarize the use of ”human ecology” in the basic areas of science and in the professional field of home economics. These, in turn, were coordinated and used to identify the characteristics of a human ecologist (see page l38) and approaches to human ecological analysis in academia. Dia— grams were used to illustrate these generalizations (Figures 5—ll). In conclusion, the study of the home and family with the ulti- mate goal of achieving quality of life through the management of resources when viewed in a human ecological perspective will see the l5l family as a pivotal point in the total ecosystem of the universe. The family itself becomes a sub-system of the whole. The inter— action with the family and its immediate physical and social environ- ment is seen as not only affecting the immediate household and its members but all systems beyond it because the interdependency and interrelatedness of systems is comprehended. Given, therefore, that the professional home economist is fundamentally concerned with improving the quality of human life by maintaining quality in home and family life, a human ecological approach to this activity would be one l. that recognizes all of the interfacing systems that affect the quality of home and family life and aims to comprehend how a change in one system will affect another, and 2. that sees the family as a pivotal system in the supra human ecosystem of the universe. CHAPTER V SYNCHRONIZATION OF CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES RATIONALE FOR A HUMAN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction The preceding chapters have examined literature related to (l) the development of curricula in higher education directed toward the formation of a professional home economist, (2) the development of the concepts of liberal and professional education and their interdependence in the context of a liberal arts college, and (3) the development of the concept of human ecology and ecological sys- tems as areas of study. In each of the preceding examinations of literature the intent was to search for (l) the basic meaning of the concepts being investigated and the underlying philosophy ex- pressed in (a) the original usage of the concept, (b) the actual expression of the concept as it evolved in the course of time, and (c) the prevailing opinion of recognized authorities; (2) the indica- tion of problems or issues in relating the ideal to actual practice; and (3) implications for a contemporary undergraduate curriculum by identifying (a) desired behavioral characteristics which in turn suggest the objectives of a curriculum, and (b) areas of knowledge and basic understandings essential to possessing the desired behavioral characteristics. Within each chapter an attempt was regularly made to synthesize and summarize ideas. In this chapter the effort will be made to establish essential linkages in the preceding chapters l52 l53 and to identify commonalities in order to establish a synchroniza- tion of objectives as a basis for developing a curriculum structure. The method will be first to recall the main concepts in the purpose of this study in order to re-establish a framework of thought and direction for establishing relationships. Secondly, as a basis for establishing commonalities, dominant ideas that pervaded each of the in-depth studies of the essential concepts in the initial framework will be highlighted. Thirdly, a means of unifying these commonali- ties and other objectives into a curriculum framework will be estab- lished. Finally, the more detailed summaries in each area will be examined to support the proposed means for synchronization. Basic Conceptual Framework for This Study As stated in the introduction to this dissertation the main objective is to establish a valid response to the question, "What should be a human ecological approach to the formation of a professional home economist in a liberal arts college setting?“ The ultimate goal, therefore, is a curriculum structure intended to prepare a person to function effectively as a professional in the areas of service common to the home economics profession. The distinguishing factor in the format of the curriculum is its relationship to the undergraduate curriculum of a liberal arts college. In contrast to the university setting which encompasses varying levels of higher education and opportunities for in-depth growth in specialized knowledge within professionally orientated colleges, the liberal arts college is per— ceived as a four year undergraduate institution having as its primary PUVP (see cepi of l homt exp the mi je( l54 purpose to provide a liberal education for the students enrolled (see Chapter III, The Liberal Arts College). In the traditional con- cept of the problem the need existed to interrelate in the formation Of the future professional the objectives of liberal education,. home economics subject matter, and the ability to meet professional expectations. This particular study adds to the basic framework the question Of what a "human ecological approach“ implies in the for- mat Of a curriculum. Simply projected, Figure l2 is intended to pro- ject the major curricular components effecting the outcome. HOME ECONOMIST GOALS OF LIBERAL EDUCATION GOALS OF 1 HOME ECONOMICS PROFESSIONAL PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION \‘\\\\\\53 GRADUATE ze/””///” AND SUBJECT MATTER HUMAN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH Figure l2: Major Curricular Components Each of the components could be conceived as entities and treated separately within a curriculum. In such an approach the determination of the size of each component, as reflected in the time devoted to the development of it, is a constant problem. Further, unle‘ fl i c The but cat‘ coml ind to por l55 unless the parts are seen as interrelated and interdependent, con- flicts can result in the growth Of the individual as a whole person. The intent Of this study is not only to understand each component but also to determine what relationships exist within the broad edu— cational goals of each in order to reduce the number of separate components to be juxtapositioned. The relationships Of concern are indicated by the dotted lines in Figure l3. The task, therefore, is to determine the commonalities and linkages which will hold the com- ponents together in the singleness of the graduate. Subsumed in .7 GOALS OF a l.. LIBERAL EDUCATION ‘\\\ /// A L \\\ A! I &. GOALS OF “"'T""""' """""" If HDME ECONOMICS PROFESSIONAL I PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION \ / AND GRADUATE % | HOME SUBJECT MATTER \ , ECONOMIST ,4 \ I \\ ' ,l \ I 4\ I \\ l // \ V / / -* HUMAN ECOLOGICAL APPROACHIP Figure 13: Relationships tO be Examined and Established in the Conceptualization Of the Proposed Curriculum Framework establishing each Of these linkages iS the need to define the Signifi- cance Of each component to the Ultimate whole. The content Of the preceding Chapters was intended to provide the basis for the rationale of the linkages and the Significance Of the components to the research probl therl them pon cor COI l56 problem. A review of the dominant ideas in each chapter indicates there is a relationship both in the pursuit of goals and in the goals themselves. Interrelationship of Components of Conceptual Framework Relationship Observed in the Pursuit of End Goals It became evident in the exploration of the three basic com- ponents, namely,the undergraduate education Of a home economist, the concept of a liberal arts college, and the role of a professional in contemporary society, that the ability to achieve the desired goals, purposes and ideals of each has been stymied because of the impact on problem solving by (l) the growth of knowledge, and (2) the in— creasing complexity of our contemporary society due to both the growth and diversity of the population, that is, the people to be served. Consequently, within the review of each of these components the search for a means to satisfy the need Of specialization without losing an integrated perspective and an awareness of the interrelated- ness of knowledge and the interdependency of human concerns for the future good of human-kind has repeatedly surfaced. The fourth component in the basic conceptual framework, the concept of a "human ecological approach“, likewise, is related to the above generalizations. The philosophy underlying the development of the concept Of human ecology and the related general systems theory is motivated by the recognized complexity of micro- and macro—societies and the diversity of approaches to solving problems related to human welfan ’ langua of knD systen pendei relat incre the a conce need inte Reg m Lib the ire SU| ed of kr l57 welfare. This complexity, in turn, indicated the need for a common language and an understanding of the interrelatedness of the bodies of knowledge available to human-kind with the understanding that all systems, human, natural, and human-built, should function interde- pendently if the ultimate good of human—kind is to be attained. Within the four basic concepts Of this study, therefore, a relationship exists due to the fact that the complexity derived from increased knowledge and increased and diverse human concerns impedes the attainment of goals inherent in each concept. Further, each concept in seeking a way to overcome this impediment identifies the need for both specialized knowledge and a way of understanding the interrelatedness of all knowledge and human concerns when involved in a problem solving task. Relationship Observed in the Commonality Of Goals Liberal and Professional Education In addition to the relationships identified in the preceding, the recognition of other existing relationships helps compact the framework. The discussion in Chapter III, The Liberal Arts College, supported the interrelationship of the goals of liberal and professional education. It emphasized the interdependence Of the liberalizing end of a sense of human dignity, self-worth, and independence with the knowledge based service role expected Of a professional person. In addition, the complexity of the service arenas in which the professional functions today supports the fact that an education will not be truly liberalizing to one in a professional role unless it has given adequa them. unders sense By exa in fu fessi deter Home Profe fess one dill of vid en< lZl l58 adequate attention to human systems and the ways to function within them. A liberal education seeks to develop within a person an understanding of all that surrounds one to give the human being a sense of dominance rather than subordination in life situations. By examining the role of the professional and the problems encountered in fulfilling it, the knowledge and skill needed to give the pro— fessional a sense of confidence and liberation in the role can be ‘determined. Home Economics and Professional Education If one accepts the knowledge and skills needed for a pro— fessional role as subsumed in the goals Of a liberalizing education, one is saying that the future professional needs all of the ends Of a liberal education perceived in a broad way and achieved through an understanding of the broad areas Of knowledge and the development of intellectual and judgmental skills. These skills and knowledge, in turn, direct feelings and actions in various aspects Of the indi- vidual's life. In fulfillment Of the self-worth and independent ends Of liberal education, the future professional also needs special- ized knowledge and skills in order to render a special service to society. In the curriculum model to be proposed in this particular study, this specialized body of knowledge would be the philosophy and subject matter preparatory for the profession Of home economists. The goals of the profession of home economics and the knowledge supporting the attainment Of these goals, therefore, determine the specialized knowledge needed. Likewise, these goals give direction to the broader goals 01 losophy of scie of libe ing Cll cle, h profes compre interv mmmr liben thrDU socie l59 goals of professional education. Further, by definition the phi— losophy and subject matter of home economics draw upon the principles of science, human interaction and expression encompassed in the ends of liberal education. Figure l4 represents this relationship. The outer all embrac— ing circle represents the ends of liberal education. The inner cir- cle, in turn, represents those ends directed toward a specialized professional role. In keeping with the philosophy that there is a comprehensiveness which must be perceived before specialization, the intervening circle is indicative that certain powers and knowledge are common to all professions and, in reality, these are part of a broad liberalizing education but are identified and given significance through the examination of a professional's role in contemporary society (see Chapter III, pp.64-7l). l. Goals of Liberal Education 1 2. General Goals of Professional Education 3. Goals Relevant to a Specific Profession (Philosophy and Subject Matter Preparatory for Profession of Home Economics) Figure l4: Interdependent Relationship Of Liberal and Professional Education ’hsee, economi< DOSSESS' conside arrows, compone turn, i of this profes scope tems, these 0f km which compo mensi makir t0 hl inte. SEY‘V m educ goa l6O Likewise, the applied aspect of any profession and of home economics in particular is built on broad areas Of knowledge and the possession of basic human skills. No component in the model can be considered independent. If this interdependency, indicated by the arrows, is not understood, the result can be an overemphasis on one component Of the curriculum to the forced reduction Of another. In turn, the desired ultimate end may not be achieved. The understanding of this interdependency, therefore, is a critical element. The preceding discussion reinforces that the development of professional skills is dependent upon having familiarity with a broad scope of knowledge, an understanding of the interaction of human sys- tems, the powers to interact in the context Of both knowledge and these systems, and the development of a particular or specialized body of knowledge and skill (philosophy and subject matter of home economics) which will be used in a particular way. The so named “professional component” of a curriculum, thus, should use the resources of two di- mensions of knowledge, one broad and one specific, to develop decision making and implementing skills that will govern future action related to human welfare. This task of unifying knowledge and action is an integrative function. Figure l5 is intended to demonstrate this Ob- servation. Summary of Observed Relationships By relating this observation to curriculum planning in higher education and to the identified impediments in the seeking of the goals of each component, additional conclusions can be formulated. WC ((1(r..i . . I, mcwflcmmech: cuawbice c< uvwcwwwo . . \I‘il i i||\|\il ‘iiilll \li mwomuzozx LO monmzm—ZHD QmNHIEHomEm mwomizsozv. no monmszHQ 9‘qu covpmozvm cw mo pcmcoasou mFwam chowmmmwoca mo mczpmz m>vumemmch ”m? mtzmvm mcmspo to mow>cmm to» mouo+zocx mcwm: c? m—wam maorm>mm vocmmz mwov>gmm mo moon—a new mvcvx mmwwwpcmcH mFwam mcwxmsacowmwomv new ,coeumowczeeoo .szpOOFPmucH- xpvcm535 to acemn __m3 0p pcmapwssoo vcm Low cgmocou- mow>emm chowmmmmoga PPM op coEEou mafia—zocx new mtmzoa to ucwanFm>wo mcp mewspmcmtpm memo: cuss; mcvxwm~pmm cowpum mo Ego» m ops? mmcmFZOCx to mcowme>wv LOmmE w>onm mgp to cowpmgmmpcr mgp cem30p umpumgwa 25on 2222038 zl<. mm 228:8 2228505 Vb N l6l mAAme onHPo>m pmma mow to _ 3ww> c? mmgw>wcs esp mo mpwpm pcmmmea one zpm?00m to pcman_w>mc mczpsw esp L0\v:m _m:vw>vv2w Ucm .m—mwuv .—mwpcmpoa co memmgaEm spwz esp Op pmmcmpcw Luv—zoom mo .x—szww>wucw ccm >Fm>wpuw__oo .xpwcmszx use mono—zocx to mcowmcmewu mmgm>wcz esp mo mewpmxm co; o :F F; were coo mmvwflzomw wogwamem cwmwewo Lo pcwECoce>cm waoom new Fmownga one mo mmum_3ocx umrwmpmv ecu ”mo mmvm_zocx Umempmv to mmmgmmv mcwxgw> mcwvcmpmemucz :paon12w c< ”vmcwwmo spwz mcwvcmpmgmvc: UONTFMmewm < ”umcwmmo m00m¢3ozx ma monmzmzHo omNH4 U:.~N.~m¢:¢:>v A.maaexcw_ ace actemw_napma mfiwcowpmg esp mo :owpmucmmmcq mcp c? umzo—Pom Lotto any memovvcw mBOLLm Lm>o mgmnszzv pcmE:mecH m>mpmgmmch an we cowuocsu __?3 w>vpumqmcma PmowmoPoom sass: a mcvao_w>wo “any w—wcowpmm wcp mewcmwfinmpwm Low mmmooga ”my mczmwd pmeocoum mac: _mcowmmmwoem to m_om a m>waomgmcma Pmuwmo—oum seas: < mcvaorm>mo Emgmoga Pocowpmusvm mo mm>wpommao l67 3 O“ pmwsocoom ago: chowmmwcoga m to 301 L8 coEEmawé 5 umummz A o Empmxmoum fimw mepmz pummazm wee xsaomorwca \\ so we zpwamd ex AV 5 2) $583ng mipumamcoa N w Fmovmoroom cuss: _movmo_oum cuss: i m» < 558:3 5.58:3 choemmowoga to mFmow.m1|mv_mLmnw4 to mrmow mm_awo:wga FQOTmOFOON cmE:: to mzpm> mewNwmmgpcxw « More s an org relate defini to an) Tenet: syste accet livil caus the l68 More specifically ”ecology” is the study Of and a way Of examining an organism (or organisms) not just in itself but how the organism(s) relates to the environment and the environment to it. From this definition the following basic tenets Of ecology derive. They apply to any organism—environment interrelationship. Tenets of Ecology l. The basic frame Of reference in ecology is an ecological system or "ecosystem” 2. Systems terminology and conceptual models are commonly accepted as a way of expressing ecological relationships 3. An ecosystem is a set or arrangement of living and non- living things in the world which are related in such a way as to form an organic whole 4. The dynamic interrelationship of the parts of an ecosystem cause the whole to be greater than the sum Of its parts 5. Ecosystems exist in all shapes and Sizes ranging from the total ecosystem Of the universe to the microcosm of a single living cell 6. Within each ecosystem there are four identifiable parts: a. the basic elements, compounds, and components of the environment b. the power tg_convert or transform the elements into life sustaining substances c. The consumers or the organism(s) which are nourished by the substanced produced, and whi ti\ l69 d. the pgwer_tg_redgg§_substances to basic element stages to be re-converted 7. Within each ecosystem there are three basic processes which create the interdependent action and relationship or the connec- tive linkages among the parts of the whole a. the energy flow or the essential ability to bring about change and to make the system operate b. the nutrient cycles or the process causing the continuous movement of substances through the system to create a web of life; and c. the flow or exchange Of information in a stimuli- response interaction giving direction tO change and adaptation 8. The interdependent action Of the ecosystem is motivated primarily by the struggle for existence 9. The dynamics Of the interdependent processes of an ecosys- tem cause adaptation and change in the organism and its environment lO.' Ecosystems are organized complexities that can be studied in respect to structural dimensions, the processes that create change over a period Of time, and the ecological interaction and resulting change ll. In an ecosystem everything is connected to everything else l2. A change in one part Of an ecosystem effects a change in another l3. Nothing in an ecosystem can increase indefinitely without destroying the whole ta1 Scl t t1 a l7O l4. The parts Of an ecosystem must remain in balance to main- tain a dynamic system able to sustain the life Of the organism Schoenfeld summarizes these tenets in stating An ecosystem, then, is a community made up Of all the organisms in a given area, interacting with themselves and with the physical environment via a flow Of energy, a cycling of materials, and an exchange Of messages. The environment shapes the community, the community modifies the environment, and each plays upon the var- ious citizens Of the ecosystem. (l974, p. 22l) Proceeding from the above ecological principles applicable to the total science Of ecology, adding the modifier "human" to ecology to Specify the organisms in the system, and drawing upon conclusions arrived at in Chapter IV the following basic principles intended to express the synthesizing value Of a human ecological perspective have been derived. In subsequent discussions these will be referred to as the "Principles Of Human Ecology." Principles Of Human Ecology I. Human Ecology in its broadest meaning is a holistic per- spective of the interaction and interdependency of humans (organism(s) of concern) and the total universe (the defined environment Of the organisms(s) ) 11. Human Ecosystems can exist in all shapes and sizes ranging from the total human ecosystem Of the universe to the microcosm Of a single living human cell with each smaller system a part Of a larger system until the total universe is involved III. For analytical purposes the system of concern within the total human ecological system needs to be defined in terms Of the on hu1 l7l organism Of concern and the boundaries of the environment with which it is interacting in an interdependent and interrelated manner IV. As part of any human ecosystem the environment is subject to influence of humans and humans are influenced by the environment V. The human ability to control and direct change makes a human ecosystem distinctive from other ecosystems VI. The interacting parts Of a human ecosystem are involved in life sustaining processes contributing tO the physical, emotional and intellectual well being and growth Of the human organism VII. Change over the course Of time in human ecosystems reflect adaptations necessitated by change in interfacing systems or human growth needs VIII. A human ecosystem's present state is a development from a previous state and a prediction of a future state IX. The earth as a sub-system of the universe is a supra-life support system for subordinate systems within it. X. Sub-systems Of the earth can be viewed as sub-support sys- tems for subordinate human systems within the totality of humanity XI. Inasmuch as no system is independent of the total human ecological system, the analysis of a single system within the whole is incomplete without an examination Of systems beyond it in terms Of the effects Of the interaction and interdependency From the acceptance Of the above Principles of Human Ecology, the remaining discussions, following the outline in Figure l8, are intended to link the major constructs Of this study as projected in Figure 13 l72 with the two terminal Objectives of a human ecological approach toward the formation of a professional home economist (see page l65). Human Ecological Perspective Holistic View - Objective I In viewing a human ecological system, large or small, the person sees not only the parts but also the interdependent nature Of the parts and how a change in one part affects another. Illus- trated, this would mean the person views the world around one in its various forms ranging from tangible visible Objects to processes and systems, to varying realms Of systems; and the information that describes and interprets these not as separate entities as in dia- gram A but as interdependent as in diagram 8 with the whole an entity in itself and greater than the sum of its parts. 0 O 0 000000 W -A- -3- With this in mind, by helping students perceive the components Of the universe as a set Of interacting systems, a holistic view Of the universe should develop. Understanding, likewise, that all knowl- edge is in some way derived from human perception Of the universe and is, in turn, used to describe and explain the multiple phenomena Of the universe, the view Of the universe as a set of interacting systems should cause the student to draw upon the varied sources Of knowledge 1 T k a t tc ac l73 in the process of explaining the universe (or some segment of it). This activity should foster the assimilation and accomodation Of knowledge in the structures Of the mind, as explained by Piaget, and, thus, cause the student to experience the holistic nature, or the integration, Of knowledge. If, in the process Of doing the above, an explanation leading to an understanding of the established Principles Of Human Ecology is added, the student should understand the significance of the environ- ment (total or restricted) to the human organism and accept a responsi- bility for its maintenance in the resolution Of human problems. Fur- ther, aware Of the human responsibility involved, the future profes- sional should be motivated to ask what is the effect Of change on the realtionships Observed and, in turn, on the related systems, and weigh this effect in the decision making process. Developing, there- fore, an understanding Of human ecological relationships should lead the student to the attainment of the terminal Objective I established as characteristic of one who has developed a human ecological per- spective in the pursuit of professional activities, namely: I. It Should enable the student to manifest an understanding of the wholeness Of the universe, the holistic nature Of knowledge, and the interrelatedness Of both of these in the resolution of human problems Professional Service Area - Objective II Inasmuch as a human ecological system can exist in a variety of sizes (Principle II) the vision of ecosystems within the whole as l74 well as the fact that each Of these is affecting the whole should be self-evident. Further, in accepting that what exists can be known, it is likewise accepted that Specialized bodies Of knowledge have developed from the search for understanding or ”knowing” that which has been perceived to exist. An understanding Of the whole demands some understanding of the parts of which it is composed. This will eventually lead an individual to focus on a system or area Of analyt- ical interest. Given the opportunity in an educational setting to share in the accumulated and developing body of knowledge about such a system and accepting the interdependency of the system to the whole (Principles V, VI, VIII, IX), the person with an ecological per- spective Should be motivated and be able to use knowledge to maintain the parts of the system without creating an irreversible imbalance in the whole Of the universal system. This means that the analysis Of the system Of interest will seek not only the understanding Of its parts (Ecological Tenet 6) but also an understanding Of the inter- action and interdependency Of these parts and the life sustaining {processes (Ecological Tenets 4, 7, 8) on the system Of concern and !upon other systems (Principles V, VI). Fundamentally, this understanding Of the interdependency Of the system Of concern is the scientific knowledge, skill and attitude 'idesired in the graduate as expressed in terminal Objective II. It idepends on both the possession Of specialized knowledge and an under— istanding Of human ecological relationships and interdependencies. Further, Since a Single professional will know more about one system or an aspect of it than another, all persons with a human ecological . iii- .Tlllilillilil 1 1.1 -. i lliliilll 1 : -J T75 perspective will have a common unifying concern Of maintaining a rational equilibrium in the system based on the recognition of the interdependency and interrelatedness of humankind with its en— vironment (Principles III, IX). By focusing, therefore, on an understanding Of human ecological principles in the formation Of a professional person, Objective II should be attained, namely II. It Should enable the student, possessing a body Of Specialized knowledge, tO apply this knowledge in a particular area Of professional service in the total universal ecosystem and relate this service to a human system within the whole while maintaining as far as possible the ultimate good Of the total system In conclusion, the development Of a human ecological perspec- tive based on an understanding Of ecological principles, the holistic nature Of the universe, and the nature of its interdependent parts together with a more intense knowledge of a single part in relation to the whole can be said to integrate special and broad areas Of knowl- edge as well as cultivate the awareness Of ultimate human concerns in the problem solving-decision making role of the graduate. This is the essence Of terminal Objectives I and II. Interrelating Curriculum Objectives Since all curriculum planning and evaluation processes begin .with and are dependent upon Objectives or desired outcomes in the ( learner, specific effort has been made throughout this study to syn- } thesize ideas in the form Of behavior goals to be sought for and by l . the learner. Consequently the convergence now in process is to relate .1 . -H..ialilflm..laml.dnm humans] J. T76 previously identified sets Of goals, suggesting of themselves content to be studied and/or learning experiences to be provided, with the two summative or terminal Objectives which express the Characteristics one would expect a human ecological approach in a curriculum to achieve in the learner. The intent is to identify the interrelation- ship Of subordinate goals to demonstrate that the pursuance Of one set both complements and helps attain another. With this purpose in mind, the liberal and professional goals of education will be examined in relation to the development of a human ecological perspective. Although it will be referred to in the discussion, the interrelation- ship Of liberal and professional education, with the latter recognized to be a component of the former, has previously been established (see Chapter III). Relationship of Liberal Ends Of Education to a Human Ecological Perspective In Chapter III a liberal education was defined in terms Of broad, interrelated powers to be developed in the individual in order to give a person a sense Of control over one's life and the world that environs it (see page Bl). A re-examination Of these ends and the supporting rationale makes it evident that their development contributes to the desired holistic perspective Of the universe and the ability to interrelate knowledge and action for the good Of humanity as expressed in Objectives I and II. This is true because the powers listed contain two basic elements. One, the development Of intellec- tual, communicative, attitudinal, and judgmental powers, can be l77 developed through the context Of any body Of knowledge presuming the powers are understood and nurtured. Achieving the second element, interdependent with the first, depends upon understanding certain bodies Of knowledge and an increasingly larger scope Of knowledge 50 as to appreciate humanity, society, and the world itself; and then to make appropriate judgments. Anyone examining ecological systems, likewise, needs these understandings and appre- ciations as well as an understanding Of the various modes of analy- sis and the interrelatedness Of academic disciplines (see Chapter IV). The development Of a human ecological perspective, that is, an awareness Of the interdependency Of the systems Of the universe, will also involve achieving the ends Of a liberal education. The distinguishing difference is in the primary focus Of each. Liberal ends of education focus on the development Of liberalizing powers founded in bodies Of knowledge. This is based on the premise that insofar as one knows and understands something, one can control or have power over it leading to freedom from subordination by it. Continual growth in knowledge leads to an understanding and control, within human limits, Of the universe. The human ecological perspec- tive focuses on the holistic nature of the universe and the inter- iependency Of the systems within it. Understanding these systems and their interdependency is dependent upon knowledge. Once under- ;tood, the ”freedom from subordination" end of liberal education Illl be pursued in the context of maintaining an ecological balance n the universal system. In conclusion, there is, therefore, a l78 direct and interdependent relationship between the human ecological perspective and a liberal education because one enhances the other enabling the ideals of each to better achieved. Oiagrammati- cally the result would be expressed as: Human Ecological Perspectiveé—)Goals Of Liberal Education It has already been established that the professional ends Of educa- tion are subsumed within the ends Of liberal education. Inasmuch, however, as the question being pursued in this study rests in the formation Of a professional person, namely a home economist, the professional ends Of education must, likewise, be examined in rela- tion to the development Of a human ecological perspective. Relationship Of the Professional Ends Of Education to a Human Ecological Perspective In Chapter III, following an analysis of the role expected of a professional in contemporary society fifteen interdependent competencies were identified as essential ends Of an educational program preparing one for the knowledge based service role of a professional (see pages 73-74). These can be synthesized into five more comprehensive knowledge, Skill and attitudinal needs. I. The need for a specialized knowledge or an in-depth understanding Of a certain body Of knowledge (This is particularly true Of competencies numbered l, 2, 3, 4, 7, and l2 on pages 73-74.) II. The ability to relate this knowledge to individual human needs as well as the needs Of a larger segment Of society l79 (This is particularly true of competencies l, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ll and l2 on pages 73-74.) III. The ability to understand, communicate, and work with a large variety Of people and in a variety Of settings (This is particularly true Of competencies 2, 5, 6, 7, ll and 12 on pages 73-74.) IV. The ability to weigh personal pursuits in relation tO the good Of the whole (This is particularly true Of competencies 5, 6, 8, 9, l0 and l2 on pages 73-74.) V. The ability tO grow in knowledge and skill in order to adapt to changing needs and conditions (This is particularly true of competencies 3, l4 and l5 on pages 73-74.) Because these Objectives define the characteristics of a professional it is expected that I, the need for specialized knowledge, and II, the ability to use this knowledge in the service of others, would embrace several Of the initially listed competencies as the above correlation indicates. The significance Of II, III, and IV as indi- cated by the number Of subordinate related competencies has implica- tions for curriculum planning. TO attain these it would be necessary to understand the variables in society in terms of interacting sys- tems and structures, and how professional services and actions will affect not only a Single client or small groups being serviced but also how they will ultimately affect the whole Of society. This is a human ecological concept and goal. Further, it places a strong emphasis on understanding social systems of society and the various l80 modes Of human interaction. It has already been established that the ends Of professional education are subsumed under the liberal ends Of education and the knowledge obtained in the pursuance of these ends contributes toward and is integrated by understanding the principles of human ecology and, thus, helps the student achieve a holistic perspective. By accepting these correlations, it can be concluded that attention to the development Of a human ecological perspective will give the future professional not only the awareness Of human systems and their interdependency with each other and with other facets of the environment but also will foster the ability to blend the knowledge and skills peculiar to a specific profession with other systems and with the services Of other professionals. The resulting relationship tends to look like this: Human Ecological Perspective-—e>Professional Ends Of Education . At the same time the value Of a human ecological perspective rests in its power to aid decisions. When specialized knowledge, a key need Of ’ a professional, is perceived as knowledge about a single system within ;a whole ecological system, such knowledge contributes to a human :ecological perspective. This perception causes an arrow to move in l =the Opposite direction in the diagram. Human Ecological Perspective«e—-Professional Ends Of Education In the same mode Of thinking, the matrix can be further devel- oped. Although the liberal ends Of education have already been l8l established as needed by a professional, the examination of the professional's role in Chapter III identified certain kinds of knowl- edge that would be needed tO achieve the ends of a liberalizing education in today's complex society. The increased need to under- stand the diversities in human personalities and the intricate network Of social systems was Observed in particular. Thus, the pursuit of professional ends enhances and gives added meaning to the broader liberalizing ends. These principles combined with the preceding principle generate the following linkages Liberal Ends of Education Human Ecological Perspective I Professional Ends Of Education Since the develOpment Of an understanding of human ecologi- cal principles constitutes the synthesizing power Of a human ecologi- cal perspective, and since both the liberal and professional ends of education are not only supported by but also support the understanding Of these principles; and since professional service and decision mak- ing are guided by knowledge, it can be concluded that the under- standing Of the principles Of human ecology will contribute to the convergence of the liberal and professional ends Of education within the terminal Objectives I and II which characterize a professional with a human ecological perspective. There now remains the need to review the rationale supporting the development of a human ecological perspective in preparation for l82 the specific professional role of a home economist and to fit the results into the framework. In view of the preceding rationale and the lengthy rationale given in the chapter on human ecology, the establishment Of the present linkage will be consolidated through the use of a series of assumptions. Relationship Of the Role of a Professional Home Economist to a Human Ecological Perspective Since ecology is the study of ecosystems and human ecology is the study of the human ecosystem; and since the maintenance Of balance in the human ecosystem through the application of ecological principles is essential to maintaining human—kind; and since the role of a professional is service to others based on a unique body Of knowledge, then an essential role of service for a professional is to contribute to maintaining the balance of the human ecosystem. Fur- ther, if one accepts that the ultimate role Of the professional will be achieved best when the immediate problem of concern is viewed in the total good of human-kind (that is, a holistic perspective of the human ecosystem) and the person guiding the resolution of the prob— lem (that is, the professional) can not only draw on the resources of his own and other person's areas of specialization (that is, the breadth Of knowledge) but also can integrate the contribution Of each into the solution of problems, then it permits moving to the identi— fication Of a specific human eCOSystem to be the focal point of a professional's service and the determinant of the content in the area of specialized knowledge. l83 The family ecosystem has been identified as the focal point of the profession of home economics (AHEA, N§w_Directions II, l975). The educational preparation for the professional home economist, thus, should focus on an understanding Of this ecosystem. The family ecosystem is a subsystem within the totality of the total human ecosystem. As part of a whole in which the inter— dependency of the parts make the whole greater than the sum of the parts, the family ecosystem is an integral part. The part cannot be understood without understanding the whole, nor the whole without understanding the part. In the same direction of thought, an understanding of the family, itself, as an ecosystem is dependent upon an understanding of the principles of human ecology. The family ecosystem contains parts within its whole. For purposes of limiting the focus Of analysis, the whole must be defined by a boundary, that is, the point at which the system of concern comes in contact with surround— ing systems. Since all systems in actuality overlap, the boundary is somewhat arbitrary. By identifying the parts and the life-sus- taining and enhancing processes peculiar to the family ecosystem, the specific knowledge objectives needed by the professional home economist can be determined. Further, these parts and processes (and their sub-parts and processes) will need to be related to the systems subordinate to and beyond the family ecosystem. Again, for the pur- pose Of focusing analysis, the boundary of the larger systems can be defined by terminology suggesting spacial limits as house, neighbor— hood, city, nation. With this in mind, the I'family and its near l84 environment“ has been used to describe the analytical focus of the home economics profession. As enlarged upon in Chapter III, Human Ecology, the near environment of the family will embrace components of the natural and non—human environment. Knowledge of the systems involved, insofar as they exist in the near environment, together with the search for understanding their interdependencies, will constitute the specialized knowledge component or home economics subject matter of the matrix. Conversely, the subject matter will enable the person to seek the good Of the family ecosystem in a practi— cal manner, that is by rendering service based on knowledge. The preceding relationships so established can be diagramed as: Principles Of Human Ecology Professional Service with Human Ecological Perspective /7\ Home Economics Family Ecosystem :< := Subject Matter Areas Theoretical Integrative Curriculum Model By combining the diagrams relating the various major ends of education to a human ecological perspective, and by incorporating some intervening concepts highlighted in the discussion, the model used to identify the process for establishing the value of developing a human ecological perspective as an integrative instrument (Figure L‘ l85 l8) can be modified to demonstrate its effectiveness in fostering convergence. The revision, Figure l9, demonstrates that such con— vergence is dependent upon an understanding of human ecological principles. A study of the matrix produced in the model raises questions pertinent to this study. First, would not the convergence Of goals take place without the development of this perspective inasmuch as the direction of arrows indicates an interrelationship does occur on the right-hand side of the model? The basic response is that it is not impossible for inte- gration tO take place because this is a function of the mind. Inte- gration takes place within the individual and cannot be forced. For it to take place, however, some exterior motivation is needed. For example, a problem to be resolved according to its degree of complex- ity will cause the resolver to draw upon the various knowledge and skill resources the resolver has. In the life-time of a person, the problensone encounters and solves promote the integration of knowl— edge. The greater the number and variety of problems and the greater the kinds of resources one can draw upon, the higher the level of integration. The purpose Of using a specific integrative instrument within a curriculum is to cause integration sooner in order to improve the quality of problem solving. The importance of seeking this integra- tion is based on the complex network of knowledge and human interaction that characterizes the setting in which a professional must function l86 mopppmm wow—Poo mpg< wage; . Foeoovo o cw “mesocoom oEoI Pocowmmoooco m to cowp . ogp cw pcosotpmcH o>wpogmoocH so we o>wpooomcoo FoowmoFoom cogs: o to pooEoo_o>oo .mr moaned . “sopmzm Fopop ocp do ooom opoawppo ozo oFDWmmoo mm to; we mcwcwopcvoe Ongz oromz asp cmcpez AEopmxmooo zpwEmm ocpv Eopmzm cogs; o op oow>oom mwcp mopoFoe oco Eopmxmmmm m mgo>wco Popop asp c? mow>oom Pocowmmowoeo mo oogo Lopzowueoo o ow omoopzocx mega mow_ o . Agoppoe powwoom oco agoomopwco mowEocooo oEoSV omoo_3ocx oonFowooom mo xooo o meromommoo HH . ooo .mEo_oooo :oEo; do cowu:_omog ocp c? omoso mo soon to mmocoopopmggopcw ocp oco . omoorzocx do meson: owpmwro; asp .omgo>w:: on“ do mmocmpozg one mo mcwocopmcmoco co mpmowwcoz H on: oco mo oocwmooe memumzm ucoooom mowsocoom mso: mo cowmmowooo mceococcm oco newswopmomioweo Low Loppoz powwoom oco Acoomo_w;a > e / mommooogo Poowmgoom do mEopmxmioom mow>eom mo mooxe oco s\\\A omooF3ocx oed+ooom 4r/Jr 6 Eopmxmoom 3E“; cowpwozvm _ecowmmoooea to a_eoo sm>oeomammoa oeom Amazozoom ozo: oazoommmaoma oomom omoflzocx A, e cowpoooom Pogoowo do m_oow e < éomooEoCV. “B bZoCoficoswo A V 328m :25: -.p_:z ago new omoo>wca one do xpwfiopoe mo moromocwoo on“ mcwocopmoooc: l87 in today's society. Further, the discussion establishing that the pursuit of the goals of liberal education, professional education, and specialization in home economics created an interdependent relationship (Figure l4), made it evident that unless this inter— dependency is recognized, the components will be pursued as separate entities with each competing against the other for time blocks in a curriculum. A human ecological systems framework provides a reference point for prioritizing the parts, for judging the relative size Of components, and for demonstrating the interrelationships. Further, it gives the student a rationale and a framework tO build upon for continuing the process Of self—develOpment. These factors, all being true and supportive of the instrument, do not eliminate other means to integration within a curriculum. A second question is how does this perspective resolve the difficulties encountered when incorporating the liberal and profes— sional ends Of education into a curriculum or when practicing a profession due to the increase in knowledge and the growth and di- versity of human needs? As a consequence Of Specializations caused by these factors, the home economics profession identified the diffi- culty of maintaining a central focus and unified approach to problem solving. The development Of a human ecological perspective would counteract this difficulty by reinforcing the family ecosystem as the central focus Of the profession and by providing a framework for identifying problems at the interfaces Of systems as well as for weighing the effectiveness Of solutions. The perspective empha- sizes viewing the family, its function and environment as critical ..... l88 and pivotal sub-systems in the total human ecosystem; and judging the solution to problems in terms Of the ability to maintain balance in the micro and macro systems. In the analysis of the conflict Of the pursuit of liberal and professional ends of education, it became evident that the resolution of human problems complexed by the growth in pOpulation , would be best achieved when the problem was viewed in the context r of the total good of mankind and the resolver not only could draw on the resources of colleagues with Specialized knowledge but also i could integrate the contribution of each in the solution. The func— ‘ tional purpose of a human ecological perspective is to help the 1 individual understand the interrelatedness Of a change in one system upon another, the complexity and variety within the whole, the limits of one’s own area Of specialized knowledge inasmuch as it focuses on one system among the whole and, thus, the importance Of interde— pendent working relations with others having different kinds Of knowledge. Finally, the discussion of human ecology, while emphasizing human ecology as a holistic perspective, continually pointed out that the need for specialized knowledge Of the interacting systems and the growing number Of diverse systems made the larger perspective difficult to maintain in the analysis of problems. The program proposed, that is,helping a person understand the whole and envision a specific system Of concern as only part Of the whole, is vital to interpreting any type Of ecological relationship. l89 Summary Of Chapter The purpose Of this chapter was to synchronize the educational . objectives established and supported through the analyses within the preceding chapters with the overall Objectives Of this study. The i chapter proposes and supports that the development Of an understanding of the principles Of human ecology in order to establish a human ecological perspective in problem solving would integrate what other- ' wise might be perceived as separate entities within a curriculum. Such a perspective is dependent upon both specialized and broad areas ‘ Of knowledge and a recognition Of the interdependency Of systems in fostering the human good as well as the good Of the total universe. The latter is regarded as an essential and complex life-sustaining and support system Of humanity. The proposal was supportéd by estab- lishing the synthesizing value Of human ecological principles and then by relating these principles to the goals Of liberal and professional education and to the profession Of home economics. With the establishment of a theoretical framework demonstra— ting how the development of a human ecological perspective can be an integrative force both within a curriculum and in the making Of decisions by the professional, the task remains to demonstrate how to operationalize this development in an undergraduate curriculum in the context Of a liberal arts college. Before doing so it is necessary to more clearly identify the Specialized knowledge needed by a pro- fessional home economist SO as to be able to view problems in a human ecological manner. CHAPTER VI ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL HOME ECONOMIST IDENTIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE BASE Introduction It is necessary to conceptualize the anticipated role Of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective before it is possible tO specify the components of a curriculum directed toward this end. This chapter enlarges on the professional end Of education in the integrative curriculum framework (Figure l9) presented in the previous chapter by giving a rationale for: l. The substance Of home economics "philosophy and subject matter” espoused by the home economics profession and based on a family ecosystem focus, and 2. The relationship Of the study of home economics "subject matter“ and a human ecological perspective tO areas Of professional service In support Of the rationale presented, Official documents Of the American Home Economics Association will be used. Some Of these have been quoted elsewhere in this dissertation but are presented here to recapitulate and to aid synthesis. For emphasis at this time cer- tain words will be underlined. Also, it is recalled that a profession- al's role has been defined as "knowledge based service.“ To be l90 l9l recognized as a “professional role" the knowledge base and the resulting service must rise above that common to all people and, in today's society, must be confirmed to some degree by an organiza— tion responsible for maintaining standards and establishing a guiding philosophy for service. This is the work of the American Home Economics Association. The Association's work is supported and en— larged upon by other professional associations representing areas of professional service related to and philosophically consistent . with the ideals supported by the American Home Economics Association. Although reference may be made, it is not the scope Of this disser— tation to enlarge on specific professional roles. Further, in the analysis of subject matter or areas Of knowl— edge tO be comprehended to enable adequate and authentic professional service, it is not the scope of this study to justify "home economics“ as an academic discipline nor to justify its position in the classifi- cation and ordering of knowledge. Rather the Object is to determine in the context of a supporting rationale the areas of knowledge needed for professional service as a home economist in the broad domains Of society. Knowledge Base for Professional Role Derived from Historic Definition In its origin and reaffirmed by contemporary documents, Home Economics as an area Of knowledge to be studied is defined as: Home Economics in its most comprehensive sense is the study of laws, conditions, principles, and ideals which are concerned on the one hand with man's immediate physical environment and l92 on the other with man's nature g§_p_social beipg, and is the study -Spec1ally Of the relation between these two factors. (Lake Placid Conference, l902, pp. 70—7l) Within this definition a three dimensional body Of knowledge is de— scribed. Further, it is not defined as a single autonomous body of knowledge but a synthesis with emphasis not on the parts alone but on the relationship and integration of the parts. Nature Of Immediate Environment One dimension Of knowledge in the preceding definition is the nature Of the phenomena in a human's immediate environment which can be interpreted as an individual's normal living and working spaces. This near environment can be further specified as the ppm§_and it§_ environs and then extended tO the market place where the individual exchanges services or resources for supplies (material and non-material) essential for maintaining and promoting growth in one's life. If this exchange is viewed in an ecosystem perspective, the home as the system of concern is envisioned as a place where resources from outside the system are takenin and transformed to satisfy human needs. Social Nature of Human Beings The second dimension expressed in the above definition is the study Of "man's nature as a social being." Basically, this involves the study Of human nature and the causes Of human interaction. Intrin- sic tO this dimension is understanding how humans develop and satisfy needs for self-expression and interaction with others. It implies that the home economist views the human being not just as a single unit but as part Of a social unit established through some form Of T93 interaction and perceived relationship. The basic social unit Of society is the family. This unit has been accepted as the pivotal social unit on which the home economics profession focuses and aims to serve (New Directions II, l975). As such, the nature pf_the family and human interaction within it should determine an essential knowl— edge component for the professional as well as a basic arena for service. As an ecosystem, the profession views this unit as a pive ' otal cause in the formation Of the individuals that comprise it as well . as in the formation Of the larger units Of society, the shape and 4 structure Of which SO formed individuals will influence. Study Of Relationship Between Humans and Environment The third dimension, within home economics as an area Of study, expressed in this historic definition and fundamental to it is under— standing the relationship between the two other dimensions. Implied is the recognition, first, that the other two dimensions are connected in some manner; secondly, granted that a relationship exists, one di— mension will influence the other, and, thirdly, the nature Of the rela- l tionship is uncertain and, thus, an object Of study and analysis. A i basic model depicting these three dimensions and their relationship is I presented in Figure 20. From the preceding explanation it can be deducted that in order to be proficient in the study Of home economics an individual must understand the nature Of the immediate physical environment in which humans function, the nature Of the human person with emphasis on the social aspect Of the human being, the social relationships and T94 groupings established as a result Of this social nature, and the influence of these components on the development of each. This latter relationship dimension is an ecological concept and, thus, expands the knowledge needed. IE _ the immediate physical non- human environment Of man and the laws, conditions, princi— ples, and ideals which govern it. I = the human being as a social being O + O = other individuals with whom the human being as a social being interacts <———> = indication that IE and I + (0+0)n interrelate, with one affecting the other Figure 20: The Interrelationship of Humans as Social Beings and the Immediate Physical Non-human Environment Derived from Ecological Principles According to the principles of ecology interdependent relation- ships between an organism and its environment exist in order to provide lifp sustaining and enhancing pgggg, The resources for supplying these needs are in the environment surrounding the organism. The organism as a system in itself reaches to the environment for resources which it will take in and transform to satisfy needs within itself. History shows us that with the development of civilization and industrialization a complex network of intervening social systems have been developed by humans in order to maximize the use of resources and skills to accomplish l95 and manage efficiently this transformation. Both exchange systems (for example, economic, business) and control systems (for example, government political) are established. These are in some way preceded by a gradually expanding productive system which produces items for exchange. All Of these interfacing systems, in turn, require an educative system to enable individuals to continue the purposes of the systems. In view Of this natural evolution Figure 20 can be modified to indicate the intervening nature Of social systems in ur‘<(< <. industrialized societies. This is depicted in Figure 2l. NE = Natural Environment - Basic source of life sustaining resources SS = Social Enabling Systems - Such as economic, business, government, political and education I = Individual with human needs and powers Figure 2l: Intervening Nature Of Social System in Indus- trialized Societies Likewise, the IgpIIy_ps-gp_established social system can be . viewed as interfacing with these larger systems, thus, reciprocating I with them in the exchange Of goods, resources, and services as well as replicating in itself economic, governing, nurturing (educative), and productive functions. Readily envisioned is the transformation Of material goods to more usable items within the environs Of the home. Not so readily seen but vital to the total system is the development Of the individual or human resources within this same l96 environment and the fact that, they, in turn, will influence the larger social units and all humanity. In ecological and systems terminology the family, thus, can be thought of as a ppppp_transforming ppII_converting the multiple types Of phenomena in the environment to other phenomena in the environment capable of satisfying and enhancing human needs. The same is true Of subsystems or individuals who comprise the family. Further, the family ecosystem is the primary source of the ppmgp resource which will comprise and determine the future Of society. In a systems model framework, Figure 22 depicts this social—physical interdependent relationship of the home and family to other units of society. F ___________________________ "l 1 I | System of Concern: | | Resources ——-;> The Home and ——€> Satisfied Needs l I Family Unit // y l Needs -———-——€> -—€> Unused Resources I I %\ / and Wastes \ \ / / l L.____.____ ______ __ _.__.;Tj: :: ::LZ :: _____________ 4 INPUT ———————-e> TRANSFORMATION ———-——-————€> OUTPUT ‘ \ —————— FEEDBACK ————— —— ’ ’ Figure 22: Home and Family as a Transforming Unit Converting Environmental Resources for the Satisfaction of Human Needs For a more detailed model depicting the linkages between the individual, the home and family unit, and the distal environment, one is referred to the Ecological Systems Framework model developed by Vaines (l974, p. lll). l97 Derived from Contemporary Statements , Two contemporary statements made by the American Home Econom- ics Association in l959 and l975 respectively give continual support to this three dimensional professional focus. The family is identified as the social unit of concern for the professional together with the responsibility for maintaining positive reciprocal relationships between the family and other social units as well as with the non- In turn, these statements determine dimensions In l959 human environment. of the knowledge base necessary for professional service. the following statement was promulgated: Home Economics synthesizes knowledge drawn from its own research, from the physical, biological, and social sci— ences and the arts and applies this to improving the lives Of families and individuals. . . . It is the only field concerned with helping families shape both the parts and the whole of the pattern Of daily living. (N§w_Directions, l959, p. In l975 this clarifying statement was made: The core of home economics is the family ecosystem: The study of the reciprocal relations of the family to its natural and man-made environments, the effect Of these singly or in unison as they Shape the internal function- ings of families, and the interplay between the family and other social institutions and the physical environ- ment. (Ngw_Directions II, l975, p. 2) Knowledge is Synthesized from Fundamental Sciences The l959 statement emphasizes the various bodies Of knowledge the professional needs to synthesize before the implications derived can be applied to improving family life. The resulting synthesis of knowledge is formulated into ”home economics subject matter.” It L. EMHHQAM... tw...i...u...” . l98 differs from the basic fundamental bodies Of knowledge because in the process of synthesis it draws from several Of the fundamental sciences in order to understand a component of the home or near environment which is recognized as essential for satisfying human needs and promoting human development. In SO doing, the developer of these derived bodies of knowledge must first always analyze the nature of human needs and the human potential. The understandings necessary for this preliminary analysis, likewise, are derived from elements in the more basic sciences. Eventually, as a result of this analytical and synthesizing process each fairly organized area of knowledge which is considered part of the specialized knowledge of the professional home economist can be called a synthetic science. In view of the fact that the synthesis was undertaken in order to achieve a practical end, home economics is, likewise, a practical science (Martin, l957, p. 27; Brown and Paolucci, l979). Objective of Synthesized Knowledge - The Improvement of Individual and Family Life The l959 statement identifies the objective of the synthesis of knowledge into ”home economics subject matter” to be the improve- mgpI_of the lives of individuals and families. In examining the ecological relations thus far in this study the Objective Of the profession has been interpreted as providing the life sustaining needs. Obviously, life must be sustained before it can be improved. The task to improve implies a moral judgment of what ppgpI_tO be beyond what must be or what is. This goal implies the ability to qualify a l99 situation. Such ability is dependent upon an understanding of the potential of the human being and being able to envision and accept some degree of positive, undefinable growth, as well as to accept the quantifiable limits and potential of the resources one uses to achieve the desired goal. The l975 statement emphasizes this interdependency. Further, it highlights the moral responsibility Of the professional to understand the reciprocal relation of the family and its environment so that in the development of each a har- monious balance working toward the ultimate good of the human race will be achieved. This is fundamentally an understanding of the family ecosystem which the profession has identified as the unifying understanding intended to guide the professional home economist (Ngy Directions II, 1975). As already indicated, this is not a new con- cept but was inherent in the l902 definition of the science of home economics. Unifying Core of Knowledge - Family Ecosystem The l975 statement of the American Home Economics Association, identifying the family ecosystem as a focus of activity for the pro— fessional, envisions the home as a central place of activity from which individuals (collectively or singly) reach out to the larger environment to find the ways to satisfy and enhance human needs. At the same time and for the same purpose within the home or immediate ecosystem Of the family, individuals are relating to the immediate or near environment which is composed of other humans plus other living and non—living Objects. 200 The basic human needs of the human organism have been con- tinually recognized as food, clothing, shelter, and human interaction. In terms of ecological principles, the means to satisfy these needs and to develop human life are in the non-living and living, near and far environments Of the human being. Figure 22 (p. 196) demon— strates how the family system, composed Of individuals, is reciprocal with all other systems in the environment. Simultaneously, it must be understood that the good Of the other organisms and non-living Objects in the environment must be sustained if the environment is to remain a viable resource for sustaining and enhancing human life. The understanding Of the reciprocal relationship Of the interfacing systems leads to the identification Of the parts within the inter- facing systems that need tO be understood so that the professional will be serving society in a way that promotes the continuance Of the interchange. These ecological principles lead to the identification Of bodies Of knowledge essential for professional service directed toward improving the quality Of life. Science has defined and is continually attempting to refine combinations Of resources in the environment that will sustain human life in an optimum manner. As new knowledge evolves and technology alters the human condition, both new resources and new dimensions Of the basic human needs develop. For example, a body of knowledge continually evolving supports what physical nutrient substances the body must take in to maintain Optimum health, what Objects in the natural environment can provide these, and the multiple ways they can be changed and combined into substances which the body can take in and transform to sustain and 20l enhance life. The whole body of knowledge is commonly called “Foods and Nutrition.“ It can extend from knowledge directing the cultiva- tion and control of the land by humans and the tools they utilize to provide food substances (thus, blending the natural, social- behavioral, and man—built environments); to the individual selecting food items from a home storage unit and preparing them for human intake; to the analysis of how the human body will use what is con— sumed to transform it intO the human organism as life is sustained and developed. This example demonstrates once again the interdepend- ent nature of the human system with other systems in the universe. Similarly, around the human need for clothing, shelter, and pppgp_IpIgp; gpIIpp_ bodies of scientifically based knowledge have developed and continue to evolve. In all cases it is a procedure of synthesizing knowledge to be used in making practical applications and judgments beneficial to human life. Figure 23 demonstrates this process Of synthesizing and integrating knowledge as a basis for professional serv— ice. Knowledge Base Related to Professional Service If one accepts that food, clothing, shelter, and human inter- action are basic human needs which the professional home economist can help families and individuals achieve, continuums of professional serv- ice roles can be identified that facilitate satisfying these needs. It is not the purpose of this paper to enumerate the multiple roles possible. Rather, it is to demonstrate that a person aware of the total continuum is better qualified to do a task at any point on the 202 SOCIAL SCIENCES PHYSICAL SCIENCES BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES] HUMANITIES; i HOME ECONOMICS RESEARCH AND UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS, COMPONENTS OF THE HOME ENVIRONMENE AND THE FAMILY ECOSYSTEM l DINO OF THE HOME ECONOMIST I PROFESSIONAL SERVICES OF THE HOME ECONOMIST DIRECTED TOWARD l. Improving the lives Of families and individuals 2. Maintaining and assisting the family ecosystem Figure 23: Summation Of the Synthesizing and Integrating of Knowledge as the Basis for the Serv1ces of the Professional Home Economist continuum. Further, it is expected to demonstrate that a pivotal point on the continuum is the home and family, or the basic unit in society which functions as a social unit to transform the products beyond the unit into ways Of satisfying the life sustaining needs Of the individuals within it. These continuums will be briefly explored and related to the family ecosystem. 203 Continuums Of Services Facilitating Human Need Satisfaction An enlargement Of the previously given capsulized view of satisfying human nutrient needs would present a long continuum from energy sources, to the conversion Of natural substances to products usable by man, to the conversion Of the latter into energy by man to be used for other conversion activities. All along this continuum the services and powers of humans can function to keep the process moving. The professional home economist, or one who focuses on the home and family transforming process, is concerned with helping families transform the food items available tO them in such a way that the physical and emotional well-being Of the individual will be sus- tained and enhanced. At the same time, a supporting and related group of professionals (who could be home economists) understanding the food and nutritional needs Of humans must work to make the necessary products available to the home or an alternate place. This would involve a knowledge Of the production and distribution systems opera- tive in society. At the other end Of the continuum, and not independ- *ent Of it, are those professionals who understand more fully how the human body actually uses these foods to maintain normalcy and to correct abnormalcy or provides a counteractive force to maintain a degree Of balance essential to sustaining life. This example demonstrates the professional roles available to persons concerned with the interrelationship and interdependency 50f humans with both their social and physical environment. Its remphasis is on satisfying the ”food” need of man through the work Of a 204 broad group of professionals each serving the individual directly or indirectly to satisfy or enrich this basic need. It also implies two interrelated bodies of knowledge essential to making judgments at any point on the continuum. These are (l) understanding the nutritive needs Of humans and the factors that influence the satis— faction of these needs, and (2) how food or alternative substances can be produced, transformed, and used to satisfy these needs. A Similar continuum can be envisioned for satisfying the human need for Clothing and shelter. These two basic needs are Often not seen as basic because their impact on sustaining the physical life is not as readily analyzed. Further, they are Often perceived in a very limited sense. Both can be demonstrated as fundamental for protection from external physical forces that would endanger life. More significant, though, is their ability to satisfy man's need for self-expression and maintaining varying amounts and kinds of personal space. Both Of these have been demonstrated as essential to the psychological health and growth Of the individual. These fac— tors move the knowledge continuum in the direction of the psychological and aesthetic needs of humans. (It should be recalled that the holis— tic nature Of the human being makes all physical, psychological, and emotional basic and growth needs interdependent.) TO Obtain these needs the human must look beyond oneself to the larger environment. Again, the professional could function in any position on the con- tinuum with a certain group converging to enable the selection, use, Icare and storage Of clothing in the home or equivalent setting, and in the shaping and enriching Of the various degrees Of living and ' ——.— F.—— 4 205 working spaces Of individuals as members of the primary social unit, the family. The fourth commonly accepted human need is interaction with others. Although there are many ways this need can be met, all people in some way from the moment Of life belong to a family in one or more of its various forms: communal, extended, or nuclear. The Home Economics profession defines the family as a unit of intimate transacting and interdependent persons who share some values and goals, responsibility for deci- sions and resources, and have commitment to one another over time. (AHEA, New Directions, l975, p. 2) It is within this family unit, normally defined by physical or rela- tional boundaries, that people reach out and communicate with others in response to this need for human interaction and also to satisfy other human physical and psychological needs. Again, a continuum Of resources in relation to needs can exist. Some social-psychological needs can be achieved independent Of the core family ecosystem. Inter- action with others can occur in systems such as educational, recrea- tional or business, but the principles governing this interaction in any form, (that is, reSpect, cooperation, authority roles, subordina- tion roles, allowances for diversity while maintaining unity, distri- bution Of resources, communication, manipulation Of the physical en- vironment) are first nurtured and developed in small social groups that fit the definition of a family and are then applied and further developed consciously and unconsciously in larger or alternative group settings. Since a function of the family is to provide a means for and 206 to develop skills in human interaction, the professional can work directly with families through educational and human service organi- zations, large or small, so that within the family growth-producing human relations will be sought and maintained. Further, the pro- fessional can work with individuals directly or indirectly through the larger systems with which the family interacts and is dependent upon for producing and controlling the flow of goods, information, and services to the family. Fundamental to this professional service, therefore, is first, an understanding pf_the interactional needs pf: humans Ip_their total development and how the unit of the family and the other units in society contribute to them. Secondly, the pro— fessional role demands an understanding Of how these interactional needs contribute Ip_and receive satisfaction througp_the achievement pf_the other basic needs pj_humans Ip_their life cycle, thus, creating an interdependency in the achieving of all needs. Thirdly, and equally important, is the need to understand how human interaction contributes Ip_the ideals and values held by an individual who, in turn, will influence human interaction within a social unit and the eventual structure and functioning of other social units. Bodies Of knowledge have evolved as humans have explored the impact Of various modes Of human interaction on human beings, on social systems, and on the varying stages Of human physical, psychological, and emotional growth. There is an opportunity for the professional to use this specialized knowledge in a wide range of serViceS fostering the develop- ment Of human interaction, or the use Of human interaction to achieve the higher goals Of a social group. It is important that this 207 interaction be consistent with goals fostering quality in human life. An understanding of the family as the pivotal system in the influence of human interaction on individual and societal development aids the prioritization Of Objectives in professional services. Focus Of Professional Service - Family Ecosystem In each of the four basic human needs discussed, a continuum has been expressed. In all continuums some fairly clearly defined units of society can be identified. For example, the individual, the family, the neighborhood, the exchange and distribution centers for goods and services outside the home or the market place, the production systems, and the government or control systems can generally be defined with some type Of limiting boundary. AS the continuum grows from its human beginning to the largest expansion the intervening units become less clearly defined. The only truly clear units are the microscopic cell at the origin and the totality Of the human society at the other end. The family, because Of its closeness tO the point Of origin has greater specification and, thus, as a system its boundaries are easier to define than the increasingly larger and more complex societal units. Further, the concept of the family in some form has been recognized in every known human civilization. NO human unit can be completely separated from other human units due to its dynamic ecological nature. Thus, each is influenced by all surrounding and subsequent units. It follows, therefore, that broadly speaking, professional activity in every unit of society can in some way affect the family. At the 208 same time, the ability to define the family within limits, as well as its pivotal position in relation to other units, allows it to be a focal point for professional service. Professional literature supports that the home economist is primarily concerned with servicing the family unit Of society SO that its needs are met and its linkages with the larger units are maintained. Subsequently, the four continuums based pp_human need satisfaction as well as the family unit identify major areas Of knowledge-based professional service for a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. All Of these areas are concerned in some way with the interaction Of humans with the environment and all directly or indirectly affect and are affected by the family unit. Distinctiveness Of the Professional Role of a Home Economist The preceding discussion indicates that home economics can be viewed as a comprehensive profession based on a synthesis of knowledge. This is true because, as already indicated, its peculiar body of knowledge, deriving from more theoretical bodies Of knowledge and its own research, is primarily directed to the satisfaction of basic human needs and the process of how humans can and should manage their immediate and extended environments in order to achieve these needs in a human-enriching manner. Human needs and the resources to satisfy them can be examined from a Simple listing Of facts and techniques to an increasingly detailed analysis. Further, they can be examined expansively to embrace the total universe as all humanity joins in a complex matrix of activities to transform resources to satisfy human 209 needs and improve the quality Of life. This is a basic human drive. Its pursuit is not the domain of any single profession. Rather, professional service should facilitate its pursuit. From the perspective of the goal of satisfying human needs and “improving the quality of life for individuals and families" there is no occupa- tion or professional area that cannot be linked to the profession Of home economics. One must ask, therefore, what gives distinction tO the profession? Hook and Paolucci respond to the question by saying, A Single profession can bring knowledge tO bear on only a limited part of the environment; hence, home economists generally define their sphere of concern as the family and that part Of the near environment that impinges di- rectly upon the family and is subject to manipulation by the family. Home Economists attend to the interaction of man as a total being and his near environments, es- pecially as this interaction is managed by the family. (l970, p. 3l6) This means that in the truest sense the home economist works with and for families in their nuclear, extended, or other forms within the immediate physical environment families establish, that is, the home, to satisfy the needs of family members through the use of available resources in order to Obtain the Optimum human development of its members. At the same time, from the preceding discussions based on resource availability and the satisfaction of human needs, there are various positions in society that persons with a family ecosystem focus in their professional development (area Of specialized knowledge) . can fulfill. They do not necessarily need to be identified by the title "home economist" but a philosophical stance, derived from their 2l0 educational formation regarding the family as a pivotal unit influ- encing both human and societal development, will influence their decisions in managing activities and their evaluation of a situation. For example, if the homemaker possesses the body of knowledge for this task, the homemaker or home manager is the essential pro— fessional role. The next group Of professionals would be those who help the homemaker maximize the potential Of the home in its contri— bution to human development through educational means in formal and informal settings and the various communication media that bring knowledge to the homemaker. Interrelated with this group is a third group of professionals functioning to make available to the homemaker the resources needed in satisfying human needs or in inter- preting how a particular group Of resources can best be used in the immediate physical environment Of the family and individuals. A fourth important and equally interrelated group of professionals includes those who are available to help the family resolve conflicts (physical, technical, or emotional) in the pursuit of needs. As technological advances have increased the variety of ways for satis- fying needs, society itself has become more complex and diversified. Consequently, the greater is the need for the service Of a professional tO resolve the problems involved in the processes of evaluating the overall effectiveness of resources, and of efficiently bringing them to the availability of persons and Of families. What, therefore, gives distinctiveness to the role of the home economist is twofold. Primarily, it is the philosophical attitude or awareness that recognizes the family in its variety of forms as a 2ll primary, vital, and pivotal unit in society because within this unit human beings are nurtured and sustained. Inherent in this belief is, first, that the quality Of human beings determines the eventual quality of society and the environment in which all humans are nurtured; and secondly, that the evolution of conditions in the larger society should be supportive of the family and the nurturing of human life and development. Given this philosophical Stance, and enriched with an understanding of human needs and development, the home economist has possession of a unique body of knowledge and skills that can be used to facilitate the role of the family and its members in satisfying human needs and nurturing human development. It is the combination of this philosophical stance and knowledge—based activity committed to the service of the family and its members that gives distinctiveness to the role of a home economist. Within this broad perspective many specialized roles, determined by the details of the knowledge-based preparation and subsequent experiences, can exist. At the same time within society many related services and occupations are being filled by individuals who do not merit this title because the motivation for activity is not founded on the above stated philosophical stance. Summary of Areas for Professional Service Statements by the American Home Economics Association support the rationale that the professional home economist can serve society in a variety Of professional areas. 2l2 Home Economics is the field of knowledge and service pri- marily concerned with strengthening family life through: -educating the individual for family living -improving the services and goods used by families -conducting research to discover the changing needs Of individuals and families and the means Of satisfying these needs -furthering community, national, and world condi- tions favorable to family living. (AHEA, ng Directions, 1959, p. 4) The focus Of home economics is the family. Home Econo- mists work through many professional channels to help improve the quality Of individual and family life. . . . Most home economists are employed in education, business, human services or research. (AHEA, The Opportunity pf. g_Lifetime, l978) Data published by the Association in l978 on the area or place Of activity for home economists supports the above and is summarized in Figure 24. Major Areas Number Of Home Economists Involved Human Services COOperative Extension Services 5,550 Homemaking 25,000 Dietetics 45,000 Government, Social, and Health and Welfare Organization 7,000 Business and Industry 5,000 Education Preprimary and Elementary 2,000 Secondary 53,000 College and University 7,000 Adult l6,000 Research l,500 Figure 24: Number Of Home Economists Involved in Major Professional Service Areas According to 1978 Data (The Opportunity pf_g_Lifetime) 2T3 Exact data in regard to professional service roles of home economists are difficult to solicit because once a person with a basic home economics orientation moves into a certain area of professional serv- ice the person is Often identified by a title other than “home economist." This is particularly true in the business and government domains. Knowledge Base and Professional Service Areas Related to Curriculum Content Areas Having examined the two interacting components in the defini- tion of a professional, namely, the knowledge base and the nature Of services given, it is now necessary to identify more Specifically the components Of the curriculum which will directly serve these purposes. In curriculum development, particularly at the undergraduate level, one is faced with how much an individual person can comprehend in order truly to give knowledge based service to others. It must be kept in mind that the undergraduate program is only one phase in the development Of an individual who wishes to serve society in a pro— fessional manner. As in all phases of development, this phase should be foundational to later learning experiences in which the professional will engage. At the same time in the light Of the ends of a liberal education, the undergraduate program should at least provide for entrance into some level of professional activity. The body Of Specialized knowledge a person explores in formative educational ex— periences will determine the type of professional activity one can authentically engage in. 2l4 Content Area Based on Philosophy of the Profession Because the home economist's concern is the family and in particular the family ecosystem, an understanding of the fngIy, its functions, purposes, and interrelational systems, is fundamental to the future professional. This understanding should derive from and incorporate an understanding of the developmental needs gI_ng_sub— systems pI_the family, that is, individuals, and the functioning Of the market place where goods and services are exchanged to satisfy human needs. Further, if a main function Of the social unit Of the family is to satisfy human needs and enhance human development, it is important that the home economist can understand, analyze, and evaluate the behavior within the family unit as it functions to achieve this ultimate goal. Two interrelated sub-interactional systems are constantly interfacing within the family; l. The psycho-social or personal sub—system is primarily concerned with the integration and solidarity of the group, the in- ternal relations of the members to each other, personality develop- ment, and the socialization Of family members 2. The managerial sub—system or instrumental activity is primarily concerned with the achievement Of family and individual goals and with transactions between the group and its environments (Gross, Crandal, and Knoll, l973, p. 9) Although these systems seemingly have distinct functions, neither 2l5 could exist without the other. Further, inasmuch as each system is directed toward human development goals, the values espoused and developed by the family and their effect on decision-making will have long range effects. In consequence Of the above, a professional dealing with the human system Of the family, directly or indirectly, needs to under- stand Clearly the managerial activity involved in the pursuit Of goals, particularly those goals considered essential for the mainte- nance and enhancement of human life. This activity derives from the cognitive, valuing and decision-making powers characteristic only Of the human being. Simultaneously, it must be recognized that these powers cannot develop apart from one's environment as it is through perception via the senses that all knowledge configurations and value prioritizations are established in the human mind. Further, the decisions made within the family related to life sustaining and enhancing needs will affect the systems beyond the family in terms Of expectations placed upon them. Conversely, the managerial activity Of systems beyond the family will determine the availability of material resources and environmental conditions (purity of air and water, quiet, aesthetic beauty, security, temperature control, non- human organic life, human freedom and the like) conducive to the well being Of human physical, psychological, and emotional life. In the light Of the preceding, a professional with a holistic perspective of the family's relationship to other systems versus a singular or atomistic view Of the family is as important to the ulti- mate good Of society as is knowledge Of human developmental needs. 2l6 Likewise, it is important that the understanding of the family and its functions as well as any other body Of specialized knowledge supportive of these functions be viewed and used in terms of its relationship to all other dimensions of knowledge and the universal— ity of the human-environmental system. This principle supports the development Of a human-ecological perspective for the professional home economist as was enlarged upon in the previous chapter. The above discussion establishes the truth that there is a common body pf_knowledge related Ip_understanding the family, basic human needs, the attainment pI_these needs within the family unit, and the reciprocal relationship Ip_other units Ip_society that all professional home economists should have to establish a unifying con- ceptual base for problem solving. To function, however, as a pro- fessional rendering knowledge based service, this basic body of knowledge related to understanding the family ecosystem must generally be supplemented by two types Of more specialized knowledge. Content Area Based on Realm Of Professional Activity From the earlier discussion identifying the professional home economist as one who would facilitate the functioning Of the family in its role Of satisfying human needs and nurturing human development, it can logically be concluded that areas Of specialized knowledge for a professional home economist would be within the four main categories derived from a consideration Of the basic needs Of humans. These are: foods and nutrition, clothing and textiles, Shelter and furnish- ings, and human interaction and development. These broad categories 2l7 can be further subdivided into areas of increasing specialization. In the discussion on areas for professional service, it was demonstrated that the home economist could service humanity through a variety Of social systems which have been developed to facilitate the attainment Of human needs while at the same time maintaining the total good Of society. Each Of these systems (education, human serv- ices, business, government, and industry) has its individual purposes and modes of Operation. Further, this broad classification of sys- tems can be subdivided into more specific categories with Specific modes Of operation. To function within these systems, therefore, demands an understanding Of the system which, in turn, constitutes a second area of Specialized knowledge for the professional. These two areas Of knowledge which will give unique characteristics to the individual professional home economist can be summed up as: l. Knowledge which focuses on understanding in a more in- depth manner a specific human need or the interactive processes in- volved in achieving these needs within the family and its near en- vironment 2. Knowledge which focuses on understanding the purpose, functions, processes and special techniques involved in the human system or institution through which the professional will work directly or indirectly to service the family unit Of society. Figure 25 diagrams the relationship Of these twO areas Of knowledge. The diagram is intended to depict the concept that it is not the possession Of in-depth specialized knowledge related to human 2l8 KNOWLEDGE FUNDAMENTAL MAJOR PROFESSIONAL SERVICE TO SATISFYING HUMAN ARENAS EMBRACING LIFE LIFE SUSTAININ'G—AN‘D SUSTAINING AND ENHANCING ENHANCING NEEDS = "KHN" SUPPORT SYSTEMS = "PSA" LIJ FOODS AND NUTRITION \ g 8 / BUSINESS E 3 S ‘3': E E CLOTHING AND TEXTILES\ {LEW /EDUCATION 00 LL. :3 E Z SHELTER/HOUSING AND i 3 E N GOVERNMENT FURNISHINGS é if; e; LIJ D e z \> HUMAN SERVICES <1; HUMAN INTERACTION AND / m DEVELOPMENT The Philosophy, Structure, Decision Making and Implementing Processes, Skills and Techniques Essential for Working Effectively within a Single Professional Service Arena = "KPSA" Figure 25: Linkage Of Specialized Knowledge Areas and Professional Service.Arenas needs alone which determines the actual place of professional service but rather the supplementing Of this knowledge with knowledge, Skills, and techniques directed toward understanding the guiding philosophy and structure of a particular social institution and the ability tO work within it. This latter body Of knowledge creates the linkage between scientifically based knowledge alone and the ability to use knowledge for the good Of humanity in an enabling or intervening social system. Assuming that all social institutions ultimately aim to serve humanity, they can be categorized according to subordinate purposes into four major arenas or Spheres for professional service: 2l9 Business, Education, Government and Human Services. It is through these institutions that a professional functions directly or indirectly to service the needs Of humankind. In viewing the diagram it Should be recognized that there is an interdependency in these two types Of knowledge determining the quality and the type of service to be given. Likewise, there is an interdependency between the philosophy a person holds as a home econo- mist based On an understanding Of the family ecosystem and the philos- ophy undergirding the arena Of professional service which when syn- thesized will affect the nature Of the service given. Taken by itself, therefore, Figure 25 may give a distorted view of the essential components of a curriculum directed toward the development of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. Figure 25 must be seen in relation to Figure 23 (p. 202) which links the synthesized knowledge the professional needs with fundamental bodies Of knowledge (FBK). These are fundamental, like- wise, to achieving the broad liberal and professional ends of educa- tion established in Chapter III. Further, it must be clearly under- stood that the identified Specialized bodies Of knowledge in Figure 25 (that is, knowledge related to human needs (KHN) and areas Of serv— ice (KPSA) ) alone do not form the judgmental framework that Should characterize the professional home economist. This knowledge must be integrated with an understanding Of the philosophy Of knowledge and service established and espoused by the Home Economics profession (PHEP) as discussed previously in this chapter and based on an under- standing Of the family ecosystem (FE) as discussed in both this 220 chapter and Chapter IV on human ecology. Finally, as proposed in Chapter V, Figure l9, the major means of integration fundamental tO understanding the family ecosystem and to making professional decisions is knowledge and understanding of the synthesizing prin- ciples Of human ecology (KPHE). Figure 26 attempts to summarize and depict how these various kinds Of knowledge mgsp_interrelate and be integrated in the formation and conceptualization Of a pro- fessional home economist with a human ecological perspective. KPHE FBK PHEP &FE KHN KPSA I-III II-III 22l Knowledge and understanding Of Principles of Human Ecology Fundamental Bodies of Knowledge leading to understanding the multidimensionality of knowledge and systems Of the universe Knowledge leading to understanding the Philosophy of the Home Economics Profession and the nature and functioning Of the Family Ecosystem Specialized Knowledge fundamental to understanding and satisfying a specific life sustaining and enhancing Human Need Specialized Knowledge of the philosophy, structure, decision making and imple- menting process, skills, and techniques essential for working effectively within a single Professional Service Arena Knowledge leading to understanding the relationship of the Specialized human need knowledge to the family ecosystem and the philosophy Of the home economics profes- sion . Knowledge of the principles and skills governing the application of the philosophy of the home economics profession and the family ecosystem within a specific professional arena Knowledge of the principles and skills governing the application of the special- ized human need knowledge within a professional service arena PHE-HEP==The Professional Home Economist with a Human Ecological Perspective Figure 26: Interrelationship Of the Types Of Knowledge Needed in the Formation of a Professional Home Economist with a Human Ecological Perspective 222 Summary and Conclusion This chapter has intended to identify and give the rationale for the specialized areas Of knowledge needed to understand the family ecosystem as a pivotal system in the holistic perspective Of the total human ecosystem. Secondly, it has aimed to relate this knowledge to areas Of professional service. Further, in the context Of the total dissertation it has enlarged on the I'home economics philosophy and subject matter“ and its linkages tO other components in the framework presented in Chapter V (Figure l9, p. l86) illustrating the integrative function Of a human ecological perspective. By way Of summarizing these linkages two guiding principles emerge as under- girding a curriculum directed toward the development of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. These assume that the focus of the profession is the family ecosystem. l. In an ecological relationship the interdependency exists due to life sustaining and enhancing needs Of the organism. Hence, the bodies Of knowledge to be pursued in depth derive from identi- fying human needs and the processes involved in satisfying these needs within the family ecosystem as part Of the total human ecosystem. 2. All units Of the universe must work together to satisfy human needs. Hence, opportunities for professional service exist in the varying social systems Of society for people with an under- standing Of the relationship between the availability Of resources and the transformation Of resources into the satisfaction and enhance- ment of human needs. 223 Based on these principles eight interdependent areas Of knowledge evolve that would be essential in the formation Of a professional home econo- mist with a human ecological perspective: l. Principles governing ecosystems and in particular the family ecosystem's part Of the total human ecosystem 2. Principles explaining the systems within the universe, human ways of understanding these systems,and human reaction to these systems 3. The basic needs Of humans (food, clothing, Shelter, and human interaction) and how resources in the environment within and beyond the family satisfy these needs for the development and enrichment of human life 4. Systems within the family ecosystem and the processes for developing and maintaining the system as a whole and its sub- systems 5. Structure and functioning Of systems beyond the family and their hfluence in achieving human needs, for example, the dis- tributive, legal, economic, political, production, communication, and environmental control systems 6. In-depth knowledge Of a specific human need and its attainment or the interactive processes involved in achieving human needs within the family and its near environment 7. Purposes, functions, processes, and special techniques Of the human system or institution through which the individual will work directly or indirectly to service the family unit of society 224 8. Philosophy espoused by the home economics profession integrated into a human ecological perspective in the resolution Of human problems These areas Of knowledge are supportive and consistent with the goal Of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective defined in Chapter V as one who I. Manifests an understanding Of the wholeness of the universe, the holistic nature Of knowledge, and the interrelatedness Of both Of these in the resolution Of human problems, and II. Possessing a body of specialized knowledge (home economics philosophy and subject matter), applies this knowledge in a particular area of professional service in the total universal ecosystem and re- lates this service to a human system (the family ecosystem) within the whole while maintaining as far as possible the ultimate good Of the total system. CHAPTER VII CURRICULUM MODEL Introduction The preceding chapters have been an effort to explore, develop and intensify a rationale supportive of a human ecological approach to the formation Of a professional home economist in the context Of the philOSOphy Of a liberal arts college. The object of this chapter is to develop a concrete curriculum model directed toward attaining the major and subordinate Objectives contained in the rationale and incorporated into a theoretical model presented in Chapter V (Figure l9). In establishing the Objectives of a liberal arts college and their implications for curriculum planning, the general and specific goals Of a liberal education were identified and Shown to embrace and contribute to the ends sought in preparing for a professional role. After exploring the concept Of human ecology and its use in various disciplines (Chapter IV) it was concluded that a human ecologi- cal approach to the development Of a professional home economist would be one that (l) recognizes all Of the interacting systems affecting the quality Of home and family life and demonstrates how a change in one system will affect another, and (2) perceives the family as a pivotal system in the supra-human ecosystem Of the universe. The ensuing theoretical curriculum model developed in Chapter V 225 226 .omoopzocx do meson: omumw—o; ecu .omeo>+:: one we mmocoPozz we» we Ammp .o Eotw oopooooxv mcvupom omoppou mpc< _oeoo_o o :? omFEocoom oEo: .ocoemmowoco o co co_ooELod . ogomrd may cw poosogumcfi m>wuogmoocw so we m>wwooomooo FoOTmo_oow cogs: o co ozo5oo_o>oo .mp . .Ewumxm moou o o com o map a m o wmmoo mo cow mo mcwcwoocmoe open: open: any :P;u_3 Aaoumzmowo a~wamw “new Eomem oWho: Muoupmow>cmm mwzg moooFoL oco Empmxmmmw momco>wcz Pogo“ mg» cw wom>eom Focowmmo+ogo +0 ooeo Lo_=owoeoo o cw omoopzocx mega wow? 0 .HH Agouuoe poomoow oco xgoomopwgo mowsocoom oEosv mono—zocx omNWFowomom eo xooo o mowmmomm a o mmozoopoPOLCoocw on» oco . ocwocoumeooco co mommwwcoz H ocz oco mo oocwmooe oco .msopooga cesac wo cowuo_omog use cw woos» wo goon w mEopmxm ueoooom moweocoou ago: mo cowmmowoco mowoeozcw coo meromoumomiowvo to; gauge: “oohoom oco agoomopwsa , 6 $3895 PoowaoPoom do mEoomzmuoom oo_>eom do moome oco lf/Jr s\\\a mmom_3o:¥ orwwomom 6 Emumxmoou 3.2.8 A . eotomozoo —m:owmmm$oga $0 mpmoo em>HHummmmwa 4<0Hw0400m Zwcs on“ mo xuWPopo» mo 227 is based on the proposition that an understanding Of the principles of human ecology will integrate the previously surfaced educational Objectives into a unified curriculum structure. These principles are seen as a way to foster a holistic perspective in professional decision making. They support the need for a broad range of knowledge, intellectual and judgmental skills, and specialized knowledge by a pro- fessional person. Finally, they logically identify the family ecos system as the focus Of the service of the professional home economist and the determinant Of the Specialized knowledge component. The ulti- mate goal Of the curriculum framework presented (Figure l9) is a pro— fessional home economist with a human ecological perspective. Other models previously presented and demonstrating the relationship Of identified curriculum Objectives are Figure l7 (page l64) which empha— sizes the all encompassing nature Of a human ecological perspective; and Figure ll (page l49) which demonstrates the interrelatedness Of systems within the whole, justifies the family as a pivotal system, and identifies basic knowledge areas essential to understanding these systems and the resulting ecological relationships. Curriculum Objectives Subordinate TO a Human Ecological Perspective Goal These models and supporting rationale identify four essential Objectives subordinate to terminal Objectives I and II expressed in the theoretical framework (Figure l9). These are the need for l. An understanding Of the principles Of human ecology 2. An understanding of the family ecosystem 228 TO these two "knowledge" oriented Objectives must be added "knowledge ~based service“ orientated Objectives if the curriculum is to prepare for a professional role. These would be 3. Sufficient understanding of a certain aspect Of the family ecosystem to help achieve and maintain the family system and its sub-systems 4. An understanding Of the responsibilities inherent in the decision making roles Of the professional relative to seeking the ultimate good of interacting systems with emphasis on the quality Of human life Chapter VI was developed with the intention of enlarging on and developing the rationale for the Specialized knowledge essential for serving society in a role consistent with the philosophical concept of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. Figure 26 ( p. 22l) demonstrates this interrelationship Of knowledge and service. The discussion within Chapter VI supports the above Objectives, their relationship to the professional role, and the knowledge needed for their attainment. At the same time, the interrelationship Of Objectives l and 2 above with Objectives 3 and 4 above, and with the overall Objective Of this dissertation, that is, to create a linkage between the liberal and professional ends Of education and human ecological concepts and principles, justifies identifying some subordinate Objectives before presenting a concrete curriculum model. 229 Objective l - An Understanding Of the Principles Of Human Ecology Since the immediate professional focus is the family ecosystem, the graduate or future professional will need sufficient knowledge in the natural and social sciences, the arts and humanities to support an understanding of l.l The dignity Of humanity based on the individual in particu- lar as a social, physical,and rational organism l.2 The elements, source, and potential of the physical, social, and human built environment, and l.3 The interdependent reciprocal relationshipsthat exist in the totality Of the human-environment interplay The need for this knowledge derives from the need to understand the principles Of human ecology based on the tenets Of ecology (Chapter V pp. l68-l69).It would be expected that the "breadth of knowledge” dimension in a curriculum would provide l.l and l.2 and contribute to l.3. It would remain for a more explicit specialized dimension in the curriculum to focus on l.3 presuming some comprehension of l.l and l.2 have been attained. Objective 2 - An Understandipg_of the Family Ecosystem For an understanding Of the family ecosystem with the ultimate aim Of using this comprehension in professional activities more than an understanding Of the general principles of human ecology is necessary. This content would derive from an understanding Of the organizing principles Of systems theory, ecological principles, and the nature 230 of the family as a dynamic ecological unit. (This has been enlarged upon elsewhere in this dissertation.) In summary,this content would involve four interrelated Objectives: 2.l Understanding both the concept and the principles governing the family ecosystem 2.2 Understanding supported by substantive knowledge of the needs of the individuals within the family (structure of and sub— systems or parts within the whole) that must be met if the family (the whole) is to be maintained 2.3 Understanding how the family as a system provides life- sustaining and enhancing needs and becomes an entity greater than its parts (behavioral dimensions and ecological relations within the whole) 2.4 Understanding how the family as a subsystem depends on systems beyond itself to be sustained and how the survival of the family affects the whole universal system (behavioral dimensions and ecological relations of a system within other systems in varying levels of its environment) Development Of Curriculum Model Inasmuch as the theoretical, integrative framework (Figure l9) and other models demonstrate that attaining the above objectives both contributes to and draws upon other components of the framework, the emphasis in moving from the identification of objectives to the identification of experiences directed toward achieving these objectives will focus primarily on developing Objectives l, 2, 3, and 4 as 23l subordinate tO the two major Objectives describing a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. AS will be Ob- served, however, the interdependent nature Of these Objectives in relation to bodies of knowledge and to the underlying ecological perspective being sought prevents them from being four distinct com— ponents of a curriculum. Both Figures l9 and 26 are attempts to illustrate this interdependency which should be kept in mind as Specifics of a potential curriculum are now being presented. Logistics Of Curriculum Academic Environment - Liberal Arts College Setting The program to be described will be viewed as a four year or eight semester undergraduate program in a liberal arts college. This setting supported by the rationale in Chapter III, The Liberal Arts College, allows the following assumptions related to the facilitating agents (Dressel, 1968, p. 23) Of a program to be made: l. A professionally orientated program in the confines Of a liberal arts college will have available for its use the support systems Of courses, methods Of teaching, and learning Objectives that are primarily directed toward a liberalizing education 2. A liberal arts college will have a basic educational program expected Of all students to facilitate the attainment Of the liberal ends Of education 3. The capacity Of the basic educational program to attain the ends of a liberal education will depend on three interrelated factors: 232 a. The college's expression Of its basic understanding of or philosophy Of a liberal education b. The college's ability to operationalize its philosophy into a basic Curriculum intended to attain the ex- pressed Objectives c. The college's ability to develop faculty who are sensitive to the endsrrfliberal education and committed to the development Of these ends in the context Of their teaching 4. Cognizant Of the end Of liberal education the professionally oriented efforts would be considered as an integral part of the whole and not a parallel program Limiting Factors Of Academic Environment A realistic factor needing recognition is that the use Of “human ecology" in relation to home economics as both an area Of knowl— edge and a philosophy motivating professional service, although Of deep historical origins and rationally sound as demonstrated in the chapter on human ecology, is comparatively new in the liberal arts college academic environment. Consequently, it is logical to expect that a program developed at this time while seeking the ideal will reflect remnants of the past. Further, in order to bridge the psy- chological gap that can exist when confronted with unfamiliar terms, course titles and descriptive terminology may reflect seemingly tra- ditional ideas. It is the contention Of the writer that the actual . 5 ....m...i..l«. nu ...l Viz/... , . .u. If TLLTLLT Ll .TLETWJLLGWPP... .. 233 content, development,and philosophical orientation Of a course is controlled by the person teaching it. Thus, the ideal may not be approached until the faculty involved not only has been orientated to the ideas of a human ecologicakfamily ecosystem perspective but also has internalized them to the degree that they, rather than tra- ditional values, dominate decisions regarding course structuring, learning experiences, and evaluative processes. Based on the above reflection, the curriculum presented Should be viewed not as final but as something evolving in operational details. A final comment must be made affecting the nature Of courses offered. The setting, as indicated, is a liberal arts college. In addition, it is perceived as being small and collegial in nature as compared to the large university with independent units. In contrast to the number and variety Of courses a large university can Offer tO accommodate a wide range Of student interests, a small college usually must make a single course accommodate more than one purpose. If this single course is built on a foundation of basic sciences, its strength is in its power to demonstrate the synthesis of knowledge and to involve the student in an integration of knowledge experience. The actual potential for this is very dependent upon the instructor's background in the sciences and the ability to lead the student to syn- thesize and to apply previously learned principles Of science and art in new and relevant situations. Dimensions of Curriculum Framework Given the preceding background Of Objectives and logistics, 234 a curriculum model in terms Of courses, defined as any teacher 'directed learning experience recognized as worthy Of credits toward a bachelor's degree, will be proposed. Ultimately the framework will have dimensions contributing toward: l. Breadth pf_Knowledge ~ directed toward understanding the totality Of the universe and the multidimensionality Of knowledge 2. Specialized Knowledge - directed toward (l) understanding the pivotal family ecosystem and its sub-2nd support-systems; and (2) the ability to use this knowledge in satisfying human needs 3. Integration pI_Knowledoe - directed toward developing a human ecologicalend holistic approach to problem solving as well as one's view Of life and the universe It will further seek to develop 4. Intellectual Skills of critical thinking and the ability to acquire, analyze, organize, and synthesize knowledge 5. Communication skills essential for interacting with others in written, oral, and symbolic forms 6. Decision-makipg and judgmental skills essential to assuming responsibilities for the well-being Of humanity 7. Practical, professional skills essential to using one's specialized knowledge in a specific service arena of society The above dimensions are intended to incorporate the liberal and pro- fessional ends Of education, the principles Of human ecology, and the philosophy and subject matter Of home economics as discussed in the 235 chapters of this study and presented as essential components in the formation of a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective (Figure l9). Descriptive Elements Of Curriculum Framework I. Foundation Courses: Courses selected from Offerings of other departments of the college representing the fundamental areas Of knowledge with the intent Of developing understandings essential for courses within the department relating knowledge to human needs and the human-environment interrelationship. The foundation courses are related in purpose and may contribute toward satisfying the gen- eral education requirements Of the College but are identified in a more specific way as part Of the total program for a student majoring in Human Ecology. II. Human Ecologngajor: Courses selected from offerings Of the Human Ecology Department and constituting approximately 25-30 percent Of the lZBSemester credit hours required for graduation: II-l. Human Ecolqu_Core Courses: Courses required Of each student majoring in Human Ecology. Courses would focus primarily on understanding the princi- ples governing the total human ecological system and the family ecosystem; and the relation of these principles to the profession Of home economics, related professional roles, and the ultimate good Of society II-2. Support System Courses: Courses which examine a III. Supporting Discipline Courses: Courses selected from 236 Single life sustaining and enhancing support system in an interdisciplingpy and ecological manner. One or more Of these courses, selected according to the specific professional orienta- tion Of the student, would be required in each student's program Specialized Knowledge Component: Courses which focus primarily on the science Of a life-sus- taining and enhancing system, and secondarily on the application Of this knowledge in a professional role Applied Knowledge Component: Courses which focus on principles governing the application Of knowl- edge in the service Of others, and/or actual experience in a professionally related role Offerings Of other departments according to the Specialized profes- sional orientation of the student within the broader professional home economist role. In certain situations academic criteria estab- lished by professional organizations would prescribe the courses. Normally a grouping of these courses will constitute a "minor” area of concentration, that is 15 to 20 percent Of the total credits earned toward graduation requirements. Additional supporting discipline courses could constitute another 15 to 20 percent Of the total program. Supporting discipline courses serve one or more Of the following pur- poses: q-.—-l.lI.-'-o-L.“_'I _ .. .... .an' IV. 237 TO understand the structure, functions, and mode Of Operation Of systems interfacing with the family ecosystem TO explore a body Of knowledge supporting an understanding Of a human support system TO understand the philosophygstructure, skills, and techniques essential for working effectively in a specific professional service arena TO develop in a particular way intellectual, communication, and/or technical skills To further an understanding Of the non-human environment TO further an understanding Of humanity and Of human developmental needs Electives: Courses selected according to individual in- terest and needs to complete the requirements for a bachelor Of arts degree in the context Of the Objectives Of a liberal education. Pre- scribed courses and the selections made in satisfying the general education requirements of a college and the foundation and supporting discipline courses significant to this human ecological and profes- sionally oriented program, could allow 15 percent of the student's program for electives. 238 Expansion Of Rationale and Description Of Elements within Framework Inasmuch as the general education requirements Of a college will differ from institution to institution in specific details, and, likewise, the actual packaging of courses will differ, a deliberate attempt has been made to keep the following descriptions generalized. It is presumed, therefore, that the ideas generated would be adapted to particular situations. Foundation Courses (1) General Description Students would be expected to complete within approximately the first two years courses providing an understanding Of: I—l. Principles Operative 1p the Natural Environment pp Natural Science Rationale: Chemistry based on an understanding of the laws Of physics explores the principles controlling the development and decomposition of the compounds in our environment which individuals use to satisfy needs. Biology, the study Of the nature of life itself, examines the impact Of environmental forces on the maintenance Of life as well as principles governing the interaction of any organism and its environment, I-2. Ipe Nature pI_Human Beings Rationale: Particularly through the study Of psychology and philosophy individuals gain an understanding Of how - |_ . ual.-..h u.“— I-3. 239 humans relate to the environment through perception and, in turn, develop intellectually and emotionally. Philosophy can be considered a science of how human reason arrives at an explanation Of the cause and interrelation Of gII things. This knowledge causes a person to determine the relative importance Of things, and, thus, provides a basis for determining the rela- tionship of humans to the environment. Philosophical principles and thinking, therefore, are fundamental to human ecological consciousness and the subsequent judg- ments. Psychology as the science which deals with the mind Of man in any Of its aspects and the resulting human behavior is, likewise, fundamental to understand- ing how humans respond to conditions Of the environ- ment. The Nature pf_the Human Being's Expression pI_Se1f gpg Concept pI_Humanity pp_"Humanities" Rationale: Courses in history, literature, and the arts, Often grouped as “humanities“ further an under- standing Of (1) the nature of the human being, (2) what humans have valued over the course Of time, (3) how humans have expressed, prioritized, and pursued values, and (4) how humans have perceived and used components Of the environment in the pursuit Of goods reflective Of the values held. Humans express these ideas in the things they accalim as worthy Of celebration, . .. ..M HFMFWUGRFFMHMDMUHHVT (L.i I-4. 240 as joy—giving, or as concerns. These acclamations are to be found and understood in the study Of history, literature,and the arts. The Nature gf_SOCiety and Social Institutions pp "Social Science” I-5. Rationale: Basic course work that incorporates the underlying principles and fundamental concepts Of sociology, economics and business, and political science and government cause the student to understand the social behavioral patterns Of humanity. This behav- ior causes both problems and issues to evolve as well as social systems and institutions to be develOped to resolve these problems. This area, thus, constitutes a study Of the social-behavioral environment and the human built environment (social institutions) which together with the natural environment (natural science) are considered three of the four major components Of the total human-environment system (Figure '7, p. 144)- Principles pi Design Rationale: The forming and shaping Of the physical en- vironment by a human being involves the constant manipu- lation Of objects in Space to create configurations. If these are aesthetically satisfying and enriching, they contribute positively to the quality Of human life. Course work, therefore, leading to an understand- ing Of the principles Of design and an Opportunity to 24l apply these should foster an aesthetic sensitivity in a professional person. I-6. Communication Skills Rationale: Depending on the initial capacity Of the student, course work in writing, speaking, mathematics, and various art forms are essential to helping individ— uals express ideas and perceive the ideas expressed by others. Inasmuch as the use of words as symbols to express ideas is the dominant form Of communication in the world today Specific course work encouraging the development Of writing skills and ability to critically read and synthesize the ideas expressed by others is needed for both the self-development of the person and the ability to interact with systems in the human envi- ronment. Commentary on Foundation Courses The above descriptions Of foundation studies to be included in approximately the first two years Of an undergraduate curriculum are intended to form the pgsIs_for a human ecological perspective in a professional home economist as well as for more specialized courses focusing on dimensions Of the family ecosystem. Inasmuch as home econom- ics subject matter is a synthetic science (versus autonomous) to truly understand any aspect Of it depends upon a basic knowledge in the funda— mental sciences. These courses can contribute, likewise, to an under- standing Of the multi-dimensionality of knowledge and the various modes 242 Of knowing (that is, scientific, humanistic, philosophical, analytical), as well as to the development of the intellectual and judgmental Skills fundamental for the liberalizing ends Of education and contributing to the understanding Of humanity that is essential for professional interaction. Specifics for how the above courses would be fulfilled are depend- ent upon the structure Of courses and the general education requirements Of a college. Additional course work expanding these foundational courses can continue through the four year program and can also be categorized as "supporting discipline courses” or as "electives" in the proposed curriculum schema. A tentative minimal distribution Of semester credit hours allowed for these areas in the first two years might be: I-l. Natural Science 6-8 I-4. Social Science 9-12 I-2. Nature Of Human I-5. Principles of Beings 6-8 Design 3- 4 I-3. Humanities 6—8 I-6. Communication Arts 8-12 Such a distribution would permit a range from 38 to 52 semester credit hours out Of the normal 64 for that span Of time or from 60 to 80 per- cent Of the course work in the first two years. Human Ecology Major (II) Functional Objectives As indicated in the Integrative Framework (Figure 19) the ter- minal objectives are to be attained through the totality of the student's four year program. The courses within the major are designed to serve 243 four subordinate functional Objectives: 1. TO facilitate the integration Of the student's total college program through an understanding of human ecological principles 2. To provide a focused and enlarged understanding Of the family ecosystem 3. TO provide the specialized and synthesized knowledge for understanding a Single life sustaining and enhancing support sys- tem as a basis for professional service 4. TO provide an integrative linkage between the Specialized knowledge related tO satisfying human needs and the professional arena for service Although there is a relationship between the four subordinate curriculum elements Of the major (see pages 235-236) and the four functional Objec- tives stated above,it is an interdependent relationship rather than direct. That is, each element in some way contributes to all four Objectives although one Objective may seemingly dominate within the element. This should become evident as the elements are enlarged upon. Specializations within Major Objective three above indicates the need for understanding a single life sustaining and enhancing support system as a basis for serv- ice. AS developed in Chapter VI, “The Role Of the Professional Home Economist," these will be limited to the systems Operative in satisfying the human needs Of food, clothing, shelter and human interaction. In turn, the specialized knowledge will be grouped under the titles of “Foods and Nutrition," ”Clothing and Textiles," "Shelter/Housing and 244 Furnishings,” and ”Human Interaction and Development" (see Figure 25). Likewise, Objective four above for purposes Of this study will be considered as relating to the major professional service arenas iden— tified in Chapter VI (Figures 25 and 26). Human Ecology Core Courses (II-1 ) Introductory Comments. This grouping Of required courses is perceived as a fundamental means Of effecting an integrative linkage of : l. The broad dimensions of knowledge and the more Special- ized knowledge of ”home economics philosophy and subject matter" 2. The broad liberalizing ends of education and the profes- sionally orientated component within the broader ends 3. The theoretical concepts guiding the profession Of home economics and the actual problems and concerns requiring the attention and services Of the professional In relation to the proposition Of this dissertation (as developed in Chapter V) that understanding the principles of human ecology consti- tutes an integrative linkage, the core courses are also Viewed as a fundamental means for: 4. Understanding the principles governing the total human ecological system 5. Relating human ecological principles to the family ecosys- tem, and for 6. Relating the concept Of the family ecosystem to the pro- fession Of home economics, the roles practiced within it and the . . II I . ll .l'T..-.w...u.. .mlr TIFFILW ......|.L |LL .r . 245 broader concerns of the human society With the integrative framework and these Objectives in mind, and with the knowledge that these courses are preceded and supplemented by other courses the following core Of four courses (nine semester credits), is suggested: Description of Core Courses II-l.l. Foundations in Human Ecology - 2 semester credits Rationale: This is an introductory course tO be taken the first year. It Should develop a basic understanding of the concept Of human ecology; the principles governing the human ecosystem; and descriptive terminology. These concepts and prin- ciples would be related to the family ecosystem, tO the profession Of home economics, and to the develop- ment Of humans and human society. Further, the course Should provide the rationale for other courses re- quired in this program and explain their interrela- tionship. Suggested Course Description: Historical review Of the concept of human ecology and its relationship to home economics as an academic discipline and profession. Survey of contemporary environmental and human concerns. Human ecological principles and systems concepts applied to the family as an ecosystem. Exploration Of careers and Opportunities II-l.2. 246 for professional service. Management pf_Family Resources — 3 semester credits Rationale: This course, taken in the third year, would first review in the context Of the student's maturing experiences the principles Of human ecology with special emphasis on the family ecosystem. Pri— marily, it should cause the student to examine in- depth how the family ecosystem functions socially and managerially as a pivotal unit in the transfor- mation Of resources in the environment to satisfy human needs. The course would regard and examine management (including its principles and subprocesses) as a dynamic interactive process affecting human development and the quality Of both the home and the extended environment. Further, the course would be intended to help the students relate their own developing specialized knowledge of a human need satisfaction to the impact of activities within the home and family and how this, in turn, will affect their own future professional decisions and service. Suggested Course Description: Principles Of manage- ment related to the use of resources in achieving the goals of family ecosystems; comparison Of families and individuals regarding goals sought, resources available, and managerial behavior; emphasis on decision making and the dynamics Of the management II—l.3. 247 process; case studies; time, energy, and space analysis. Professional Development Contacts — 1 semester credit Rationale: Based on the recognition that all learning does not and cannot occur in formal classroom settings; that seeing professional persons function in nonacademic settings presents models Of thought and action; and that experiencing and contemplating "real world" prob- lems and Situations motivates self-development as well as helps to integrate theory and action, this course is intended to encourage the student to participate in activities that will achieve the above Objectives as well as broaden the student's understanding Of human ecological principles and/or the diversity Of roles possible within the home economics profession. Having completed the "Foundations in Human Ecology” course, the Student would be expected to identify, participate in, and report on a minimum of twelve self-selected experiences. In both counseling for and evaluating these experiences, diversity Of experience and the ability to relate the experience to human ecological principles, the family ecosystem and/or the role of a home economist should be considered important. Suggested Course Description: Experiences over a two to three year period selected to help students com- prehend the role of professionals functioning in II-l.4. 248 specific areas of human ecology; become familiar with related professional organizations; and further understand issues affecting the quality Of human life. Departmental Research Seminar — 3 semester credits Rationale: A human ecological perspective has been defined as one which recognizes the interrelatedness of the systems of the universe and the various bodies Of knowledge. Problems occur at the interfaces of systems. Their resolution involves the ability to analyze the systems for the cause of conflict and determine a solution favorable to the total system. At the end of a four year program the student, draw— ing upon and expanding previous studies Should be able to demonstrate an aWareness of the interdepend— ency of systems in both the cause and resolution of problems as well as an ability to use this in defining a solution to a contemporary problem or issue based question. Further, the comprehensiveness of the concept of human ecology necessitates that although for analytical purposes its principles are applied to specified segments of the environment— human interplay, ultimately the analysis of one approach must converge with the analysis of other approaches in examining a common concern. The re- search seminar experience, thus, is considered a 249 final experience to encourage the integration of knowledge and an extended awareness Of human con- cerns, the interdependency Of all systems, and of personal and professional responsibility in resolving societal problems. Suggested Course Description: Research, analysis, and synthesis of data examining a contemporary problem affecting the quality Of life; individual investigations apply ecological principles to relate an aspect of the family ecosystem to other societal systems in suggesting a course Of action for maintaining equilibrium in the human-environ- mental system; seminar presentation and defense Of individual research; participation in seminar dis- cussions. Commentppy on Human Ecology Core Courses. Certain factors Should be noted in the ”Core" courses: 1. There is an entry (Foundations . . . ), a midway (Manage- ment . . .), and terminal (. . . Seminar) experience with a linkage element (Professional . . . Contacts) 2. Although all are intended to relate human ecological principles, the family ecosystem, and professional activity, each varies in its emphasis and course structure 3. The courses themselves do not give sufficient specialized knowledge for professional preparation or for total understanding 250 Of the human-environment interdependency. Rather, their Objectives must be perceived in relation to all courses in a student's four year pro- gram Human Ecology Support System Courses (II-2) Rationale. Since it is accepted that there are four basic life sustaining and enhancing needs (food, clothing, shelter, and human interaction) which the human being must satisfy; that within the environment a network Of interacting systems have developed which affect both the quantity and quality expected Of these needs; and that the professional home economist will serve society within this net- work, one course related to each Of these basic needs would examine in a substantive manner the environment-human satisfaction interplay as well as the principles that Should be operatiVe as the human being exercises control in the functioning Of this system. Prior to taking a "support system” course, the student would have taken the "Foundations in Human Ecology" course; have completed the foundation courses in the basic arts and sciences; and have com- pleted some course work relating more Specifically to the science and technology Of satisfying a specific human need. The support system courses would be intended to foster the integration Of knowledge; to demonstrate the interrelationship of societal systems involved in satisfying a Specific human need; to emphasize how this societal net- work affects the nature of the human need satisfaction; and, finally, to examine this network in both its supra- and sub—support system interrelationship with the family ecosystem. 25l Ideally each student majoring in human ecology would take each course. TO do so would give the desired broad perspective but from a practical point Of View the time involved would conflict with the time needed for course work essential to the Specialized knowl— edge needed for functioning in certain professional roles. Conse- quently, only one such course would normally be required in the Specialized programs. Others would be recommended according to the professional interests Of the student. If the student's professional interest requires a more generalized approach, the support system courses provide this but would limit time for more advanced work in the science, art, or technology of satisfying a particular human need. Suggested Course Descriptions. Given below are suggested course titles and descriptions for each broad area Of Specialization within the major based on life sustaining and enhancing needs. These courses would normally be taken toward the end Of the second or within the third year Of undergraduate studies. It will be noted that the course descriptions tend to indicate the overall thrust Of the particular areas Of Speciali- zation and suggest the type of more specialized knowledge needed either within the subject matter area itself or in related arts and sciences to enable and enhance practical problem solving in professional situa- tions. II-2.l. Clothing and Textiles Area Clothing and Human Behavior - Ecological and inter- disciplinary study Of the sociological, psychologi- cal, aesthetical, and economic factors affecting II-2.2. II-2.3. II-2.4. 252 clothing production, availability, and choices. Design and management principles applied to Clothing selection and consumer problems. Foods and Nutrition Area Food and Society - Physiological, social, economic, and psychological factors influencing attitudes and issues toward foods. Impact Of urbanization, food resources, global distribution and cultures on food availability, use, and the quality Of human life. Human Interaction and Development Area Family Relations - Stages and dynamics Of individual and family life cycles related to interpersonal relationships, role performance, responsibilities, and human development. Patterns of family living social and cultural forces examined in relation to the family ecosystem. Shelter/Housing and Furnishings Environmental Psychology - Impact of the physical and aesthetical aspects Of the home and work environ— ment on human development, behavior, and society; human spatial needs, modes Of organizing space and reciprocal effects; concepts Of territoriality, crowding, privacy, life-Space and behavioral set- tings explored. 253 Alternate Plan. A primary objective of each ”support system” course is to help students comprehend the interrelated and interdepend- ent nature Of varying bodies of knowledge in understanding human needs and of human and non—human systems in society in satisfying these needs. This is not to deny that within each course a certain body of substantive knowledge can also be comprehended. The ideal is to have a Single course that focuses on the synthesizing process as has been suggested in the above course descriptions. At the same time it must be recognized that a grouping of courses taught by a faculty person who reinforces the ecological principles and fosters synthesis by the type Of problems examined and conceptual models presented could achieve the same goal. Based on typical course Offerings, some suggested groupings are: Food Science + Nutrition + Meal Management Textiles + Clothing Selection + History of Clothing and Textiles Developmental Psychology + Family Relations + Home Management Housing + Interior Design Obviously the above alternate plan is greatly dependent upon faculty mem— bers teaching in specialized areas having a strong commitment to and an understanding of a human ecological perspective and the family ecosystem as a central focus of the profession. Secondary Support System Courses. In a department focusing on human ecological systems, courses can be developed which focus not so 254 much on several systems interacting to satisfy a single life sustain— ing need but rather on a single system in society, or on a single resource in the environment which by its nature affects the satisfac- tion of several human needs. The decision to Offer, and the content of, a course of this nature will depend on the academic structure of a department and the type of courses Offered by other departments. Such a course could be required or highly recommended for all majors. Typical courses might be: A. One which focuses on the reciprocal relationship of the individual and family systems with the market— place in attaining life sustaining and enhancing needs such as "consumer economics” or more Specifi- cally ”personal and family finance“ B. One which focuses on the reciprocal relationship of individual and family systems with the natural environment in the utilization of energy—driven equipment to enhance the work and living environ- ment or extend the physical and energy capacities of the human being. Such a course might typically be called ”home equipment” or “household physics“ Human Ecology Specialized Knowledge Component (II—3) Rationale. Professional competency derives from scientifically based technical and theoretical knowledge. Home Economics as a dis- cipline preparatory for professional service has focused on synthesiZ- ing knowledge from other arts and sciences and applying these to 255 individual and family needs. Bodies Of knowledge, thus, have developed ' that can be related to basic life sustaining and enhancing needs (Figure 25). Comprehension of these bodies of knowledge with some degree of intensity is essential for one to function as a home econo- mist. The degree Of intensity determines whether one functions as a “specialist“ in one life sustaining and enhancing area or in a more comprehensive or integrative role because of a broader understanding of these areas of knowledge. The composition of the ”Specialized knowledge” component, thus, is a strong determinant of the ultimate nature of professional service; and, likewise, determines the kinds of course work from supporting disciplines to be selected to comple— ment this component within the major. Content. Because institutions vary according to modes of course structuring, specific professional interests of students, specializations Of available faculty, Offerings in other departments, and teaching-learning resources it is impractical to detail Specifics Of these courses. It is presumed that the majority would require previous study in the more autonomous bodies Of knowledge, and that the focus, content, and structure of the human ecology courses would be primarily directed toward an intensive understanding of how the basic principles are operative when applied to an environmental re- source in satisfying human needs. General areas Of study encompassed in such courses would be food science; nutrition; textiles; architec— ture and interiors; stages Of family and human development; housing, interior, and clothing design; equipment and furnishings; financial 256 and resource management. For each area courses can be developed for introductory and advanced levels. Structure of Courses. The courses within this component can be structured to range from formally organized, highly structured classes to laboratory-experiential types, to less structured independ- ent study and problem orientated type courses. Within this component, if not within another, the student Should develop skills essential to self-directed study within their area Of Specialization. Distribution. This component of the major is somewhat flexible in size depending on the type of knowledge needed for the professional focus of the student. Approximately 30 to 50 percent of the major courses would be in this component. Human Ecology Applied Knowledge Component (II-4) Rationale. As indicated in Chapter VI the professional home economist normally utilizes his/her specialized knowledge in one of the major social systems of society developed to facilitate the process of converting environmental resources to satisfy and enhance human developmental needs (see Figure 25). These systems were identified as business, education, government, and human services. No system is exclusive in its operation or goals but each has its own unique charac- teristics which must be known in order to function within it. An understanding Of these characteristics and an ability to apply one's knowledge in the service of others through a particular system is essential in the formation of a professional. Figure 26, demonstrating 257 this principle, identifies the types Of knowledge essential for achiev— ing this end, and how the interfacing of large blocks of knowledge creates components that involve the application of knowledge. The “applied knowledge” component of the major focuses on this integration Of theory and action. This component presumes the student has acquired a basic under— standing Of the philosophy of the profession Of home economics, the principles of human ecology, and the nature and functioning of the family ecosystem through the basic human ecology core courses and a support system course. Further, the applied knowledge component is dependent on the student having a substantive knowledge of the human need—satisfying resource (food, clothing, shelter, and/or human inter- action) as acquired in the Specialized knowledge component of the major as well as a general knowledge of the structure and function of the system for the intended professional service (business, government, education,or human services) acquired in the Supporting discipline component of the entire program. The “applied knowledge” component, thus, is interdependent with and complements the other components. Suggested Courses. Courses within this component would be of two complementary types both of which are important to the end goal: (In accordance with the academic organization of an institution these courses or their equivalency might be Offered by a related department and, thus, not be considered part of the major.) A. A formalized classroom approach with the opportunity to Observe on—site practicing professionals and ... 258 professional responsibilities; and to apply principles primarily in hypothetical situations B. A learning experience acquired primarily through working in a professionally orientated situation related to one's anticipated specialized professional role It is suggested that the giving Of credit for this second type of experience be optional but that an experience of this type be re- quired for graduation. Credit for the experience allows greater super- vision and guidance by a faculty adviser in attaining educational goals. This type of course is typically called a “practicum,” “internship,“ or “cooperative work or field study experience.” Courses within the first category would examine, if not examined elsewhere, possible professional roles, work situations, types and needs of clients, organizational behavior, and the ethics and stand— ards undergirding professional decisions. Students would take at least one course Of this nature. The best qualified instructor for such a course will have both the academic qualifications and profes— sional experience in the particular service arena. Typical courses in this category might be: Methods Of Teaching Home Economics. Within this course the philosophy and subject matter of home economics and the family ecosys- tem would be interrelated with principles Operative in the educational system. Food Service Systems Management. Within this course the Specialized knowledge of foods and nutrition, the philosophy of the home economics profession and the family ecosystem would be 259 interrelated with principles operative in the business and human serv- ice systems Of society as anticipated areas for service. Similarly structured courses might focus on an interrelation— ship with the clothing industry, the home furnishings industry or community nutrition services. Supporting Discipline Courses (III) Through the careful selection of courses from other depart- ments the Objectives listed on pages 236auw1237can be attained. Knowledge concentrations can be established which expand the stu— dent's understanding Of the universe and human systems, foster con- centrated intellectual activity, and contribute to the student's knowledge base for professional service. For example, a natural science concentration would be supportive Of foods and nutrition services; the social sciences are supportive Of human development understandings and services; art and humanities are supportive Of environmental design type services; and computer science would be supportive Of a research or business interest. For acquiring an understanding of the philosophy, structure, Skills, and techniques essential for working effectively within a professional service arena, courses or a "minor" concentration in business, education, government, or social work should be selected. Other important purposes of this component are to attain in- creased understandings and appreciations Of the human and nonhuman dimensions Of the environment and to develop the communication and technical Skills necessary to interact within the various systems. 260 These competencies both enhance the understanding of human ecological principles and further the liberal and professional ends of education. Throughout this study the need for understanding human nature, social behavior, and the network Of enabling social systems has con- stantly surfaced as important in achieving the liberal ends of educa- tion; for functioning effectively as a professional, and, in particu- lar as a professional home economist; and for comprehending the inter— dependent and reciprocal relationship of the human being with the immediate and distant human and non-human environment. Course work contributing to these understandings should be part Of this component. Each of the above ends is not necessarily distinctive. Single courses or groups Of courses can be taken to meet several purposes. In many ways this component is an extension of the basic component Of foundation courses. This component, however, Should be pursued with more specific purposes based on the Specialized interests of the indi— vidual as well as the Objective to become a professional home economist with a human ecological perspective. Electives (IV) This final and last element Of the curriculum framework seems self-explanatory and will not be further enlarged upon. It is under- standable that the selection Of courses within this component may be guided more by personal desires than professional aspirations. 261 Diagrammatic Projections Of Curriculum Model A curriculum model has been presented and described in terms of four major elements, namely: arts and sciences tration Foundation Courses: required course work in the basic Human Ecology Courses: the ”major” or in—depth concen- Human Ecology Core Courses: courses required of all majors Support System Courses: courses presenting an ecological and interdisciplinary study Of a Single life-sustaining and enhancing need Specialized Knowledge Courses: a group of courses focusing on a Single life-sustaining need Applied Knowledge Component: course work Of experiences focusing on relating theoretical knowledge to actual professional service Supporting Discipline Courses: course work selected from Offerings of other departments Of the College according to student's professional goals vidual interest Electives: enrichment courses selected according to indi- The model was developed on the premise that an understanding Of human ecological principles would serve as a means Of integrating the broad 262 dimensions of knowledge needed for achieving the liberalizing ends of education with the specialized knowledge needed for professional serv- ice. (It has previously been demonstrated that these two bodies Of knowledge complement each other serving the ends of liberal and pro- fessional education.) Fundamental to the model, likewise, is the rationale that these same human ecological principles are inherent in the philOSOphy motivating the profession of home economics and are critical to an understanding of the stated focus Of the profession, the family ecosystem. The model, therefore, places emphasis within the major component (that is, the course work in human ecology) on clari- fying an understanding Of these principles and using them as a means Of integrating into a whole the other areas Of knowledge, and, in particular, for understanding the interdependencies and interrelation- ships Of the family ecosystem. This was expressed in the four functional Objectives of the major (see page 243) and the limiting Of the areas for Specialized knowledge within the major (see pages 243-44). In support Of this rationale several paradigms have been developed. In particular Figure 19 demonstrates how these principles enhance understandings and serve to integrate the various declared ends of education as well as the kinds Of knowledge needed to achieve these ends. Figure 26 identifies the kinds Of knowledge a professional home economist needs, how some of these various bodies Of knowledge form, and their relation to the principles Of human ecology. The final product or graduate is intended to be a professional home economist who brings to her role Of serving life-sustaining and enhancing needs Of the family a human ecological perspective. This dissertation has 263 explicitly defined such a person as one who 1. Manifests an understanding Of the wholeness of the uni- verse, the holistic nature Of knowledge, and the interrelatedness of both Of these in the resolution Of human problems, and 2. Possessing a body Of specialized knowledge (home economics philosophy and subject matter), applies this knowledge in a particular area of professional service in the total universal ecosystem and relates this service to a human system (the family ecosystem) within the whole while maintaining as far as possible the ultimate good Of the total system The holistic circle symbol used in Figure 26 is intended to convey the convergence Of the dimensions of the curriculum within the person. Figure 27 has been developed to conceptualize how this convergence gradually takes place through the sequential process of the curriculum. As stated in the description of the elements of the curriculum model, the function Of the human ecology courses, that is, the major concentration, is intended not only to give the student the specialized knowledge essential for serving a life-sustaining and enhancing human need but more particularly to purposely develop a human ecological per- spective that focuses and influences the professional service of assisting the family ecosystem. Figure 27 attempts to illustrate this integrative function Of the major by its central position and the out— reach Of its core components SO as to interface with other bodies Of knowledge. 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