" . I I . I - ”HIT" I140 .‘I‘I‘II It'Y’l'meII‘I‘I‘I‘Iw. urn?!" ‘IHIIIO hull” It
I A I”, Inn?" 'HIIHI I'I'. A“ . W (I’m'c‘w "(1%4“ ' "If. ($3.91? WW4” 714- 3" 3:“ t.
It.“ 23' IIIIIIIII.IIII II.IIII IlfillI'IIII I'I"'I"l ‘ III]. I 33} ’l I «.l '1: ~ firm :6”?
"'. .II I: IIIII INII'III I Ih‘v ‘ I mph-"Ktblflf'flhlw‘ul IIII “IIIIIIIIIQIIILISflI Rafi I?“ .m
" I ., . =2
, 27' “I"?! '.'I"!'. q)“ LI
1' I 'r I Q). :1)“ III/vs) ' I IIIIIfiI‘ I%Ig HulffI
”I? I/mfiw‘ .IJ‘WIH‘I'I'IIW‘N ifil’flu' I???I‘f'f:1:~7'
IIIIIIIIwwII’M ‘ ’ . I
j“ .

 

’II'I'II . my}. .. ’I mg: "
391;!!le ?.4 "bi: '(‘f‘i‘jféfi } §é§£é¥é3gifrg ELF";
(1’13”?qu “MM, 'I.Im:£’1“'ltym.béjit“? I

5‘“ If"

IIII .
I II If}! I” ('1
I" I, 3%?!” 4‘35

 

    
  
 
  
 
 
      

.LI‘ . I
‘I .' I In Q ~
1‘ I": gggflo‘ln ‘ .gfjfw‘ , \- I
. I I‘ . .I . }, I! J ~ J
"a%%flfi?fifi~m«I‘w

‘7"‘5 WMIEQ ‘ éfimms‘
‘ 'I¢N"‘I.‘§f{"’vl’i"". . “L-Jtfifi’" J:
. l‘ ". 1 v |";I:;;"- A.
' film‘a‘zfii 1373???» um a???

IIIHIIII gawk.
“a.“ I; ”:35 fig «C1325:

"‘13::FIJI. H! “W

._ . diam

"3"(IL1‘ zfif‘fiflfmfl ”‘9
‘ ‘I‘

' 35.1 THEE?

 
    
      
        
  
     
     
    
  

'9; Ié
'.-Lu

-'V. ’.I 'fiIII". 1‘! I (I ‘??I
1): 4:31? 7
$33513; ‘

1/51 I; :1? L}‘
I .:. ._I
"‘33: . ’ nor.
I .. 4'” i .7
‘ {“4“}, '- ‘1‘
IQ" .45»
III vii". i. R"
t D .
-- 7%. '4

 
  

W! I
'lfi‘:’
Ir rLHm

‘-

   

   
    
       
   

‘-I

4‘" '2')”
I WI".
(III I”;

  
 
    

x;

 
 
  
      
      
 
 
  

II ..
W1 11"“ ,{f3;?1 . .
'11-:I' .I
:‘5? “tn-I'M ."Ifl'. I"? J'w f

’
I.\I\“I\)II:V’;NIIJ‘II.IIIIIII”1"l-‘i‘{NAT}
.-| ‘r“' (.I “I ‘
III. I I’M. i“. I ' I... I’L'M‘II.» :7? 4.3.1
’ . 'HI"..

III I; .r’; If! .
II‘3II‘ ‘III II“, ’JJJIR'I'V'ta

ll ,‘ U-
P" I. (II UII I' 1 -II‘YIPI ‘E’IFIfiI’IYA ii): '1'?!“

. .11 157'

   

          

.dgf ',!-.Q‘.:,... w‘.‘
I" . ‘;'*I’” I, ‘\rl;~I:":' If.
(4“ fi’}' 1"}: if! “:3... ' ’
‘II'I'

   
     
   

 
     
       

?’ 1- 1"

  

 

      
 
    
 

 

"#33" ._I I. . I“ .I I’ u . vf‘ "'i' lli‘.1fi"l-!J"“J“"I':'J. Jim-2 .-,—-. ,; -’ ~
”““' I ...I.,."' "WI ’ I ’N"a&~-'III%”~"I'w“FI . #5nw£%#“
”It; IIIII'I‘ {I f *rfI'I'f IIJI NI; 1 "I I IIIIfIIjII III'III‘ ' '. II Ill’fifij' I'I'JI' . “fl II, "' :"fiifil‘ "'JI ; " ridirflé' “:2.~
Iiiij LI‘Ir'rI .III, 'lv‘t' In H I." ' 'y I‘ "I‘ :‘I‘n' '7'?“ "'r A" fiIflI' . “zu-ng'.

. :1 53")" ‘I III. r t,
I; I 1)”! {fI—I‘I ‘II'IIIII‘I’. II/I’II (“I IIII III" '“I III‘I ‘II'. I'II'IIVLSI’I‘Im 1].?!in Q’qus'tj
J "II :"II‘ I‘IIII'” ‘5

1.2.. .
IIII'I' III I'IIII' ”I“!

 
    
      
  
      
 

- l ‘fI III‘ I‘.‘ 5‘3;

. I III
W‘I V A . [I‘DII I ." " 'l I ,"‘ -"' ' 7'
"l1 )‘“1I‘.'II}’ ‘r-|l‘ i‘ .. ' . 4 I " _'- I. ' ‘ ‘Iix‘r‘ .I;.. IPIa I 1"”

* "’ m I -
3“: I' _' l '. .- III 'I' (.1. - ."' .II.‘.' " If”?! .I' 'J ‘I... l ' It I 1.1:}? . , I.
, !- I‘;,..:I' I.I:L,JII:III,HI ' ,. I. . . . I. Ii... " ”-"’ iIII- IN}, ' KIIIIII
.IIIIIIII-I I] '. I" . iIJIv‘H H)“ ' I I)" ” III. I III I '.-..‘-",'II -'~;I'Il :I) (“I II.”.I'zIII " 9? E A,” (IF‘IJ
(IF'II'II -. ILII'IITI‘I. I. 'i g'tlulIIhII' ‘ I1I?'_|I"|)H ‘I’ Him": 'I’. if‘ I 0 I.” 11;:th1"":
‘ | , y — ' ' I Myl a? “1:53;“ I r»-III.'.I"‘.'!E',.:;‘LH "k 1.3,?
"" I ‘1 '3‘ 7'7. ‘V .IIiI' ‘ 'Ir'H .

‘ I, III-IL. I‘ I 37.5

,III'

  

l '.;I:
‘ . ..

  

   

  
  

  
    
  

   

    

. g .‘ . .
"K K I, , 'E?|Iu'"{1fl"" . .'- . . . .
.'P"' ‘—"' I 'HI I 'rj‘: ’ “2 h
-'.= |;‘I . Is Jali¢ ' ‘ . “‘ ‘V .
fflfltl'r} I'I-’I§ ' -"¥' "‘ N‘ Ifi «.9.- fl
rI.~‘~_ :III ' .i' M . .7 '2 'I‘:‘ I” 5‘14“: —~'L"
I.I..LI IIIILI— We III, ,, 4;.” I'I'I 1; ,II I I. U ”J ”.433 “i A!
.II‘ I. JiI' 77 1’1": I 'II I I :I_|I. 7: L 1.,“
Ila?” ‘II' III-'I'IIIIII- III II: II:‘ I:I_JII'.I.I ”LII 1H?" . J 7 : .7, “,3; if I‘-
I. ‘7. . £1}: Tll‘l-I lu,‘ H'E'Ml‘l‘If‘1lL‘y'II’rl " ' ‘-I>-. I .I ‘
. a . l'I ‘ ‘I: J p .- I .7," ' ‘:‘l‘ .é-I’...'"1JJ‘-.,.
r... ~"" "-‘J‘Ir ‘ ‘ ".4”: I . ' ' ‘ ‘ I. ".' " '.‘.I:...-:".‘I“'j "WINK“. “3‘. —'

. 7 ».’ :lf'” ' T .. '
s—‘Inn' " f'l‘t IIV|;II‘| "I. "I ,'."I..I I. l-‘Ill'll I|I! I‘II'I LI. III:”‘1'.“-‘Al‘l"ll.lIilL‘.|:"l"l-‘
." '..I I II'. II- , II-III ' 'I'v“ ' I.' AI”. 0

. ' ‘ I V ' . ' I" ”IH Ill l.I I I' “I IIII‘ '
. II‘II ‘ III'JIW‘ "II 'I‘ I!“ ‘ IHIIII'I'."II (III I“ “(”h‘ ”I! ‘ IV'I “I II II.

lI-J' ..I .-.."I“ , ,_II ' ..'.I ...I . '
fiII'II'I I‘IIIIIIIIII I II'II‘III ‘ II'IIIIIIIIQI ‘I' IIIIIIIII'IIIII'. ”IIIII‘I'III‘II’IIIIII II HUII'HII H“l‘

III-IIII» h I I! 'I:l I

‘ ‘ ‘ P W III‘ 'WHH‘” " VI‘ “I .'I IIvDHIH’I".W"I'IM‘1IIII:|II| ‘HHWWWI‘III‘ " l ‘ .
I I I II II III|' III III IIIIIIII I I I IIIII .I II I IIII .III IIIII'I I .“l' .l" .‘
”'1“. .‘ ' _.... w‘i'II. I II“I"( I".‘"'.'. um .I....1‘ I'MIIIII'I 'I " MIIJ'I‘

g LIBRARY "
, Michigan State
’ University ,-

.J

  
  
 

l 1|}:qu m Illl Ill mm L!" ll will! mu m JL 2: l L

1293 85

  

VHS-2413

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Planning for Energy Sustainable

Futures

presented by

Anabel Dwyer

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

degree in

 

 

Master in Urban Planning

j 444/24” J; 9244/“...

fiajor professor

 

Date November 9, 1979

0-7639

 

~'- Wig,

W4" .4

     
   
 

HQ'

OVERDUE FINES:
25¢ per day per item

RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS.

Place in book return to remve
charge from circulation records

 

 

MAY212005
#3313 {)3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PLANNING FOR ENERGY SUSTAINABLE FUTURES

By

Anabel Dwyer

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING

School or Urban Planning and
Landscape Architecture

1979

ABSTRACT

PLANNING FOR ENERGY SUSTAINABLE FUTURES

By
Anabel Dwyer

Futures are the business of professional planners. Although
energy planning has not been a traditional part of the planners'
work, the central fact of the future in the United States is the
‘ sharp decline in the availability of cheap fossil fuels. Planners
face profound new choices and complexities as they deal with the
realities of the energy crisis.

Approaches to solving the energy crisis which rely on
combinations of appropriate technologies, locally based and renew-
able, have the best chance of leading this culture toward futures
which are sustainable in the long term. This thesis presentsa i
set of reasoning and planning processes which can facilitate the i
use of appropriate technologies. I I W \

The Introduction sets forth the basic argument of the thesis.
In Chapter II, the theoretical assumptions of future energy alterna-
tives are discussed in the context of a model of culture. Enumera-
tion of some relevant existing energy projects follows in Chapter

III.

Anabel Dwyer

Chapter IV, a case study of Urban Options, an East Lansing
group advocating appropriate technologies, reveals that energy
conversions to these technologies will require political action.

In Chapter V, new processes and data, which planners will
need to use in conversion to locally scaled energy technologies,
are discussed.

In Chapter VI, an area of downtown East Lansing is used as
an example showing planning and implementation of technical and
economic conversion to appropriate technologies.

Chapter VII pursues the socio-political level of conversion
to locally based technologies and summarizes changes in decision-
making and implementation portions of professional planning practice.

The Conclusion finds that the depth and severity of the
energy crisis and approaches reasonable and possible for long term
solutions require that the planning profession alter the substance

and form of its commonly practiced methodology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My thanks for encouragement and support within the School
of Urban Planning go, in particular, to Professors Sanford Farness,
John Mullin, Keith Honey and Carl Goldschmidt. In addition a few
students pointed the way toward realization of changes advocated
here. I want to thank Ron Oster for his decency and conversation.

The combination of ideas put together in this thesis came
primarily from five years of discussion and organizing with David
Dwyer, Linda Easley and Charles Ipcar. This is my expression of
what we have done together.

That much of our academic thought is coming to fuition at
Urban Options is less due to this kind of abstract work than it is
to the hard, practical work of the Urban Options Staff and Board.
My faith in the basic intelligence and creativity of people, their
ability to deal constructively with a crisis as enormous as the
energy crisis, is supported by the work of Urban Options and the
enthusiasm it has generated.

In the hope of carving a possible, even an exciting future
for our children, Daphne and Anthony, I have put together this
thesis. And I thank David, Daphne and Anthony for their immeasur-

able help.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES .

Chapter

I.
II.

III.

IV.

INTRODUCTION
THE ENERGY CRISIS .

Projections .

Complexity

Culture .

Cultural Change .

United States Futures--Cultural Choices
The Hard Path
The Soft Path

CONVERSION ALONG THE SOFT PATH: EXAMPLES .

Levels of Cultural Impact and Concern
City Projects
Paper Studies . .
Neighborhood Projects .
Single House Projects .

URBAN OPTIONS

Urban Options Chronology

Opposition . .

Meaning for Soft Path Solutions to the Energy
Crisis . . . . . . .

TRANSITION IN PLANNING METHODS: PRESENT METHODS TO
SOFT PATH METHODS . . . . . . . . .

Existing Data . .
Modifications in Data Collection and .Presentation
Sequence of Planning Considerations .

Page

vi

62

64
73
75

Chapter

VI.

VII.

VIII.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS IN CONVERSION TO
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES IN DOWNTOWN EAST LANSING,
MICHIGAN .

Data Base . .
End Use Energy Needs .
Summary for Relevant Existing Planning Data .
General Demographic Data
Transportation Data .
Buildings Data
Weather Data
Modification of Existing Data
Collection of Additional Data

Technological Change . .
Step 1: A Transportation Plan
Step 2: A Buildings Plan .
Step 3: Electricity . .
Step 4: Integrating Suggested Technologies .

THE SOCIO- POLITICAL LEVEL OF CONVERSION STRATEGIES
FOR CHANGE ALONG THE SOFT PATH . .

Decentralization
Decentralization as a Technical Necessity
Decentralization as a Cultural Necessity .

Two Approaches to Change . . .
Decentralization as a Logical Direction: Lessons
From Political Reform Movements . .

Grass Roots Change Through Decentralized Energy
Systems . . . . . . .
Urban Options Experience

Structural Change

Role of the Professional Planner
A New Planning Process .
A New Planner .

CONCLUSIONS

APPENDICES .

A.
B.
C.

CENSUS TRACTS CITY OF EAST LANSING
EAST LANSING NEIGHBORHOODS
EAST LANSING ZONING

iv

Page

110
110
111
111
113
114

125
128

129

131
132

134

138

139
141
143

APPENDICES Page

D. STUDY AREA: RENTAL LICENSE . . . . . . . . . 145
E. STUDY AREA: COMPREHENSIVE PLAN 1980 . . . . . . 147
F. SOLAR ENERGY THAT CAN BE COLLECTED . . . . . . 149
G. AUTOMOBILE TERRITORY: ~EAST LANSING . . . . . . 151
H. ENERGY HOUSE AUDIT WITH GAS HEAT . . . . . . . 153
I. ENERGY HOUSE AUDIT WITH ELECTRIC HEAT . . .‘ . . 155

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Figure

OkOCDVO‘UT-wa

N —‘
.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

LIST OF FIGURES

Crude Oil Resources of the United States .
The 1976 Energy Budget .

A Model of Culture

Present U.S. Culture and Possible Futures
Village Homes Land Allocation

Cerro Gordo Base Plan

Winona Neighborhood Change: Existing and Phase 1 .
Winona Neighborhood Change: Phases 2 and 3 .
West Garfield Park

Energy Consumption Flow Chart: Michigan,l975
Energy Consumption by Sector: Michigan, 1975

End Use Energy Consumption by Percentage of Sectors:
Michigan 1975 . . . . . . . . . . .

End Uses in the U.S. by Quality .

End Uses in the U.S. by Sector and Work

Michigan End Uses and Possible Reductions in Use
Matrix Proposed by A.I.P.

Human End Use Needs and Supply Alternatives .

Present End Uses Transitional and Future Alternatives.

Michigan End Uses by Percentage .

Study Area East Lansing

vi

Page

10
13
19
34
39
43
44
47
65
66

68
69
7O
72
74
75
76
79
84

Figure
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

27.
28.
29.

30.
31.

32.
33.

Study Area Base Map

Study Area Block Analysis

Major Arteries: East Lansing Area

Daily Car Trips Within Zones

Daily Car Trips from CEO to Neighboring Zones .

Appropriate Transportation Plan: Downtown East
Lansing .

Existing Street Map
Proposed Narrower Streest

Downtown East Lansing Using Appropriate
Technologies . . . . . . .

Transition Process to Appropriate Technologies

Funds Available for Appropriate Technologies
Conversions . . . . .

Levels of Decision Making

Systems of Organization: Solar Decisions

vii

Page
85
87
89
91
92

94
96
97

105
106

108
127
130

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Major changes in the way of life in the United States will
inevitably result from predicted sharp decline in availability of
cheap fossil fuels. United States culture, heavily dependent on
these cheap fuels, continues to increase demand for fossil fuels
and precipitates the sharp decline in their availability and rise
in cost. In speculated upon methods of dealing with this crisis,
two alternatives have been articulated.

One alternative concentrates capital expenditures in large
centralized technologies, facilities and bureaucracies. These take
increasing amounts of capital simply to sustain themselves rather
than producing products or results which address human needs. This
is the path that Amory Lovins designates "hard" (Lovins, 1977:26).
Its name includes the connotation "difficult" because it reaches a
dead end in the long term (20 years or so) as it becomes caught in
a "capital trap" (Lovins, 1977:60).

The other alternative, which Lovins calls the “soft" path
allocates increasing amounts of capital to localized and renewable
energy supply techniques with a basis in and emphasis on conserva-
tion. Techniques for supplying energy are scaled to the uses for
which they are intended such as food, warmth, lighting and transpor-

tation.

In the short run (10 or 15 years), the "hard" path may give
the illusion of normality in the United States. Beyond that, if
not before then, shortages of basic fuels are bound to occur.
Catastrophes, freezing, starvation are the inevitable kinds of
results. These have already occurred in many parts of the third
world and were narrowly escaped at Three Mile Island.

Conversion along the soft path is now possible on the
technical and economic levels. Locally applicable, renewable energy
technologies are available for conservation and supply of energy.
If it is planned now, with sufficient lead time, conversion along
this soft path could be orderly and creative.

The problem with conversion to soft technologies lies in
the socio-political level of present U.S. culture. The soft path
necessitates basic changes in the hierarchial decision-making
structures that now exist in the United States. As such it
represents a direct threat to those whose lives and livelihoods
depend upon such structures.

Long term, planned solutions to the energy crisis then
become difficult because many planners and policy makers view
decision-making unilinearally and primarily in terms of their
positions in the decision-making structures. Because planners are
frequently locked into support of the present socio-political
system, they'upy' abrogate their responsibilities as professionals
whose business is a liveable future. And except in cases where

exceptionally foresighted individuals have emerged, local efforts

at long term planning with decentralization and participation as
essential features, are being squashed or made unnecessarily
difficult by the planners themselves.

In now common planning methodology, planners have based
alternative choices on implicit assumptions about the nature of
culture and social systems. In earlier times, these hidden assump-
tions may have been commonly agreed to. But in dealing with the
energy crisis, it becomes essential for planners to refine their
processes and articulate basic and varying premises. Different
premises will result in different kinds of data and radically
different methods of implementation.

Time and money exist now for the planning profession to
take an active role in working toward sustainable futures. These
choices are essentially political and, paradoxically, may lessen
the planners own role in broad decision-making power and broaden
the base of pe0ple from which decisions are made. Planners do
have responsibilities for the future. Even de facto planning for
oblivion is not supportable professionally. I

Many locally based groups are making significant progress
toward long lasting solutions to the energy crisis. But many
planners and policy makers confound such soft path solutions. When
attempts at basic change are counteracted, the kinds of structural
changes that need to occur in the culture become more obvious. The
methods at arriving at alternatives, kinds of data and ways of
implementing change in decision-making structures, are probably

only speculated upon as the need to change the system arises.

Soft path solutions to the energy crisis tie together
radical political advocacy of the kinds exhibited in the poor
peoples, anti-war and neighborhood movements, with appropriately
scaled and reliable technologies. The energy crisis deepens as it
becomes a crisis, not merely of technology, but of our basic
societal structure and of our ability to adapt to a different
future.

Transitions, even involving major cultural change can be
staged and planned. Whether they are or not in the next 20 years
in the United States, depends to some degree on the vision, depth
of understanding and methodology of planners themselves. It is the
purpose of this thesis, by way of the line or argument outlined in
this chapter, to refine the vision and techniques of planners as

they begin to seek solutions to the energy crisis.

CHAPTER II

THE ENERGY CRISIS

The energy crisis became a planning problem only as a result
of the oil crisis of 1973, the long gas lines and the sudden rise in
prices. It was this that pressed upon the consciousnesses of
Americans above the poverty line, that a fragile and transient
symbiosis existed between our gluttonous way of life and the easy,
cheap flow of fossil fuels.

People began to realize that an ever-increasing demand for
fossil fuels cannot be met by a decreasing supply of these same
fuels. Questions began to be raised: How much oil do we have left?

What are we going to do after it is gone?

Projections

 

Projections, warning of a sudden decrease in oil supplies
had been made before the crisis of 1973, particularly by M. King
.Hubbert (1971,1973). Projections of the remaining crude oil in the
United States,for example, are based upon rates of recovery. There
are basically two ways of calculating those projections. Commoner
summarizes those ways as follows:

Hubbert plots the amount of oil discovered per year for
successive years, Zapp plots the amount of oil discovered

per foot of exploratory well drilled for successive cumula-
tive lengths of well drilled. In this way, Zapp's method,

unlike Hubbert's measures the amount of oil found for a
given amount of exploratory effort (Commoner, 1976:51).

In other words, as Commoner explains, the Zapp method
eliminates the economic factor, the cost of drilling and calculates
on purely physical grounds the amount of oil remaining. The problem
becomes one of determining how much oil, for instance there actually
is under ground versus how much oil might be feasibly or economically
extracted. Using these different methods, Hubbert projects a
remaining 64 billion barrels from 1974 (Commoner, 1976:49) and Zapp
projects 400 to 600 billion barrels of remaining oil (Commoner, 1976:
50).

In 1975, the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
(Circular 725, 1979) combined these two types of projections in
the following way. The USGS called "reserves" 112 billion barrels
which are "identified resources known to be recoverable with current
technology under present economic conditions" (USGS:1975:2). The
total number of barrels of crude oil remaining in the United States
is projected at 440 billion barrels (Figure l). The lower figure,
with the economic constraint defined as part of it, is comparable
to the Hubbert projections. The higher figure reflecting total
amounts of oil existing, whether economical to extract or not, is
comparable to the Zapp figure.

Different kinds of projections are voiced in many places.
Koenig (1977:1603 Stoudt and Myers, 1977) gives those of Hubbert
exclusively. Projections used by Dix (1977:63ff.) are based on

Hubbert and the USGS:725 study portion called "Reserves."

CRUDE OIL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES

(BILLION BARRELS)

lDENTlFlED |

Demonstrated ! UNDlSCOVERED
Measured indicated Inferred

RESERVES Learnsaxfig
ecouomc34.250 4.636 23.1 |.s:ss:zsi50-127§§§§§§§

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SLE-
ECONOMIC

 

 

ttfimfimrfimfincfleamaficknfliN-W A

 

 

 

Total U.S. Cumulative Oil Production 106 Billion Barrels

12/31/74
(uses: 725.1975 21 )

FIGURE 1.--Crude Oil Resources of the United States

Hayes, (1979:233ff.) summaries these and other studies and concludes
similarly that United States "resources of conventional oil will be
seriously depleted by the year 2000" (Hayes, 1979:234).

When Hubbert, Koenig and Dix assert projections, they assume
that a given and present economic situation will "permit" the extrac-
tion of only the lower amount of oil. When Zapp and Commoner
endeavor to eliminate a static economic factor in projections, they
assume that there is a necessary distinction to be made between the
amount of oil remaining and how difficult or expensive it may be to
extract it. Drilling for oil, from now on will become more expensive,
but this is an economic question and not a physical or natural fact

and should be expressed as such (Commoner, 1976:57; Hayes, 1979:233).

Complexity
The confusion in these projection figures results from a

lack of explicitness on the part of all those projecting about their
own concepts of the whole of culture. What do these projections
mean? Where does economics and technology fit into a concept of the
whole? Hidden assumptions are often revealed in discussions of
projections. For example, Dix says the following:

The environmentalists have joined forces with the ultra-

conservatives in blocking legislation and stopping progress

in the planning and building of energy productions systems

by the petroleum and electric utility corporations. A

leader of the environmental movement, Barry Commoner, is

engaged in totally unscientific and indefinsible claims as

to the size and availability of the United States petroleum
resource (Dix, 1977z7).

This kind of outrage relies on hidden assumptions. One
assumption is that the energy crisis is one of supply, that is, the
problem is that the supply is limited not that the demand is
unrealistically high. (Solutions to the crisis using the Dix
assumption need to center on increasing the energy supplies, not on
reducing the demand (Mobil, 1977). Another assumption, hidden in
the Dix statement is that natural fact, technology and economics
are all inseparable and that their present relationship as it
exists in the United States today is immutable and cannot be
changed. This assumption fails to distinguish cultural from
natural fact.

Dix proceeds in his own discussion to quote the USGS:725
study as a reliable source of projection figures, carefully avoiding
the full chart of their own projections as reproduced in Figure 1.
Clearly it is not the physical projections Dix doesn't like about
Commoner. What is it?

Often these arguments become hot and the content obscured.
The fact that we have from 112-440 billion barrels of crude oil
remaining in the United States and use about 6 billion barrels
of oil equivalent per year (Figure 2) does not result in the simple
conclusion that we have from 18 to 73 years left before we cease
to exist.

The meaning of these figures, whether we plan it or choose
it or not, is that people in the United States will have to make

basic changes in their culture in the next 20 years because of the

10

THE I976 ENERGY BUDGET

Total: 37 Million Barrels of Oil Per Day
(MBD)

Domestic-
Petroleum
Production

  
 
  

Petroleu:
Imports

 

    

4211C)9%3
I0.0 MBD
Coal Natural Gas
4n1°t3
1.5'rAB$> 2L17SMD
Renewable [-0 MBD
Hydro-Electric Nuclear

Geo-Thermal'”
(Commoner,1977:4)

FIGURE 2.--The 1976 Energy Budget

11

fact that so much of our present cultural system depends upon
present quantities of cheap extraction of abundant fossil fuels.
Our present cultural system,including current economic expectations
of rates or profit return,is structured so that corporations will
remove only between 84 and 112 billion barrels of oil. At 1976
rates of consumption (Figure 2) and not including any increase in
rate of consumption, that will last for about 18 years.

If more barrels of oil are extracted, they will become more
expensive and at some point prohibitively expensive. But because
it is possible to predict that our present consumptive way of life
will change fairly soon and probably dramatically, does not mean
that planning and discussion should cease while we wait for "dooms-
day." What it does mean is that people in general and planners in
particular need to understand something about human cultures and
how they operate. Then we can explore the ways in which this

culture might change and the alternatives open to us.

Culture
Culture is a concept used by anthropologists to describe
the system by which human beings organize their activities-and
relationships. As defined by Marshall Sahlins, culture is:
a system of things, social relations and ideas, a com-
plex mechanism by which people exist and persist . . .
organized not merely to order relations but to sustain
human existence (Kaplan and Manners, 1972:4).
Culture is a particularly human system of adaptation. Many

different cultures exist and can be distinguished and described.

\.

12

These cultures operate within the constraints of the natural
system but they are entities which can be distinguished from nature
in that they are learned, transmitted and changed by human beings.
Cultures in general have some common characteristics. They
have structures within which people operate, these are frameworks or
rules of the game. As people pursue their activities they can and
do modify those structures. AnthrOpologists agree that all cultures
consist of three general components, sometimes divided into five,
the ideological, the socio-political, and the techno-economic.
Definitions of these levels or components of culture are as
follows:

Ideological: The ideological sybsystems of a culture consist
of all its beliefs and values which related to
the organization, objects and activities of the
culture. In this model (Figure 3) we have found
it useful to draw a distinction between ideal
(structural) and real (practical) ideologies,
those Spoken and those practiced

Socio-political: The term social structure is used to describe
the more-or-less enduring relationships among
people and organizations of people in a culture.
The political mode is concerned with the workings
of power and authority in the process of decision
making.

Techno-economic: The term techno-economics describes those
structures and activities directly involved in
the production, distribution and consumption of
goods, energy and services. The structural
aspect of this component (the means of production)
includes tools, machinery of production as well
as the techniques and practical knowledge (i.e.,
science) of production, while the mode of produc-
tion refers to the actual activities of produc-
tion (Dwyer, et al., 1979:13).

13

 

 

C U LTLJ R E
STRUCTURE - ACTIVITY”
FRAMEWORK BEHAVIOR
l I I I
l I l
C t C S
IDEOLOGICAL I 331193255 I I REWSIaII'Iiil-ons I
| Values (IT—F" |
' Ethics \\l I/, I
l \AA/I I
—'- 1'— SOCIAL STRUCTURE —I‘>/ \I7 POLITICS 7
SOC IO" 1 gektionships /I\ II [Alec'i‘sions l
0 es ut orit
POI. ITICAL I Rules {4.3; I..\?Power y I
I Regulations \I [\I / 1
I 1( \V 1
______i. _______ JV _____ ._fi
: TECHNOLOGY /'/ \l\ ECONOMICS l
TECHNO" ' Prattical Knowledge, M Producgion :
o s Distri tion
ECONOMIC I Mgchinery L '— —l ConsumpIIion |
I I I (of energy,goods,I
' I 1 services 8 food)
_____ _.L________.__J__ l_ ..___ ._.___|

 

 

 

FIGURE 3.--A Model of Culture

(Dwyer, et al., 1979:15)

14

These components have been put together in the form of a
model in Figure 3. This model is one way of synthesizing, for
discussion, the various theories and contentions involved in studies
of culture. The distinction, made in the model, between structure
and activity has been traditionally drawn on the techno-economic
and socio-political levels. The same kind of dichotomy is drawn
in this model on the ideological level because it helps explain an
ideological split that exists in present culture in the United
States.1

Such a model is a way of clarifying areas of theoretical
discussion and dispute in studies of culture. Debates in anthro-
pological theory center around two major questions: The first is
which, if any, component, or feature within a component is central
in influence and importance to a given culture or to cultures in
general? The second debate is whether the structure or the
activity of cultures or culture is primary.

In regard to the first question, there are examples in
studies of cultures where a particular component or feature within

a component seems to be central to change or to the maintenance

of the status quo. In the United States, on the technological

 

1Theoretical generalizations should not, of course be made
on the basis of one example but this distinction may well be a
valid one on the ideological level as well as on the techno-economic
and socio-political levels. In general, as Richard Adams notes:
"One would think that the anthropologist with his cliam to the
holistic study of man, would long since have accepted that this
wholeness lies in a world that is at once symbolic and energetic"
(Adams, 1978:28). It is assumed here that this dichotomy exists
in present U.S. culture on the ideological level.

15

level, some argue the introduction of the automobile seems to have
been central to the develOpment of the present configuration of
culture in the United States. Others will argue, that though the
car seems central it is merely a technology which supports a deeper
production and decision-making system more fundamentally character-
istic of U.S. culture (Commoner, 1976:188-90; Baldwin, 1979:12).

The secong question, the debate between the dominance of
structure or activity in culture has to do with the importance of
the status quo versus the importance of change in cultures and
studies of cultures. Some students say, on the one hand that much
of human behavior can be explained by the structure of a culture,
that human activity is for the most part defined by these formal
parameters, the structure.

Other anthropologists argue that human manipulation of
change is the basic characteristic of culture. These students say
that it is the study of change having to do with ongoing, explain-
able human activity which constitutes the importance of studies of
culture (Hannerz, 1970:129-32).

For the purposes of this thesis, however, it is less
important to argue about which theory may be more accurate, than
it is to understand that aspects or components of cultures do not
exist in vacuums. Components and features within components are
interwoven in various ways with each other so that cultures can
be described as wholes with various explanatory relationships

existing among parts.

16

Because this culture, for instance has a plethora of
material goods, does not mean that is consists solely of technology.
Because there is a strong sense of the individual in U.S. culture
does not mean that this society does not have structure. And
because this society has huge and often unmanageable structures
such as bureaucracies does not mean that it will not change.

In addition, there is whether implicit or explicit a con-
cept of the whole upon which judgments about what is possible,
future course of culture, and even energy projections are made
(Harvey, 1973:288-96). The definition of culture and the model
. explained above are offered as a means of making explicit,for

discussion,concepts of the whole.

Cultural Change

 

It is both observable and documented that cultures change
through time. Some observers consider the essence of that change
to be cyclical. H. T. Odum, for instance, describes processes by
which cultures have accumulated and squandered energy only to over-
step the bounds and tolerance of nature.

During times when energy flows have been tapped and

there are no new sources, Lotka's principle requires

that those systems win that do not attempt fruitless
growth but instead use all available energies in long-
staying, high diversity steady-state works (Odum, l976:8).

Odum's discussion could be interpreted as suggesting

recurring loops of change through time. But cultural evolution

has not been merely cyclical. It may involve cycles, but cultural

17

evolution is, as Margaret Mead has said, "directional change"
(Kaplan and Manners, 1972:49).

The rapid depletion of cheap fossil fuels will change many
facets of culture in the United States. Because of the basic
nature of this crisis, culture in the United States is probably
not headed for a no growth end of a recurring loop. Some
structural changes as well as some behavioral modifications will
be required in dealing with this crisis (Rappaport, 1977:9).

In the four million or so years of human cultural evolution,
major changes have occurred in "adaptive strategies" from hunting
and gathering, horticulture and pastoral nomadism, agriculture and
industrialism (Vivelo, 1978:212-13). With these have come various
forms of economic, political and social organizations and ideologies.
From some knowledge of the range of possibilities human cultures
have employed in their history, we can postulate changes which
might occur in the United States as this culture enters a post-
industrial era.

Studies of cultural evolution raise two major questions:
(1) By what mechanisms do cultures evolve? and (2) Why do some
cultures adapt and change in order to improve their chances for
survival and others become "dead ends?? Leslie White's original
thesis concerning cultural evolution described cultures moving
toward increasing concentrations of power and source of energy.
Leslie White, however, changed his mind (White, 1975:176) in the

kinds of ways Rappaport discusses:

18

If cultural evolutionary process is necessarily linked to
increase in energy flux, this suggests that a contradic-
tion may inhere in the very process of cultural evolution
itself. At the very least, its future trajectory remains
very much in question (Rappaport, l977:3).
Rappaport suggests a different principal mechanism of cultural
evolution, cultures are adaptive if they maintain what he calls,
"their long-term flexibility" (Rappaport, 1977:9).

Culture change comes about because of pressures from
within a culture, from other cultures or from nature. These pres-
sures can be stated in the form of "contradictions" which will
resolve themselves or need resolution. In Figure 4, following,
contradictions in present United States culture are stated in terms
of the model shown in Figure 3. I

On the techno-economic level, there is a contradiction
between dependence upon fossil fuels and the rapid escalation in
prices of those fuels. On the socio-political level, low-level
specific decisions such as how to travel around town, which have
need for flexibility especially in view of rising fuel costs, are
made at high structural levels. The almost required use of the
car for local travel where the car is most inappropriate, has been
mandated and sustained at very high levels through such mechanisms
as the highway subsidies. On the ideological level the contradic-
tion is between justification for fulfilling the needs of corpora-
tions versus fulfilling human needs.

How we, in the United States choose to resolve these kinds

of contradictions in our present cultural system, is our choice.

19

Amm "asap .._m um .mezov

 

 

Lasuquagnaafl
a» .au_aau we“ cc use:

so» a ou cowuaaucum.o
mu_zozouu

mcounpammz po>ua

so; a» gs.: co =°.u~emcu oz
son a as men: mcc.m_uma _—K
mu_»_4oa

 

mucaaamz cououm xucocms ca

magma cupom was: ecu Luzon
opus: ma guam mowao_c=;oop
um~.pacucmu o_nwmmmuumc_

>woaozzuw»

mauvpm woecosw
—poz guvz movuocuammcam

vm~.—acucmu apucmmmmcuc_
maahuzmpm 4<_uom

aucoacca Co co.uoouoca

 

»u_pu=c puaam :c.uae:m:ou use a.eoca
um: men nee—unconcou as» we mummz

 

>wGAOuc_

 

 

=h<a awe: axe

 

»__~=aw eou:g.r»m.o
mou.>com tee muooo

co.uo=ucca uu~,_ocucoumn
mu_2920um

mcvxazlco—mvuwo :—
co—uaa.u—ucoa camcammuwz

m_m>m4 muavcaocna< an
m:o*m_omo mummcnocaan
mu~h_4ca

 

m_apmmouo<

muomz om: new use msmm» o»
vmuvam mu.uo—o:;uop Lo_om
m_oum pmem vauocmma:_
>¢o4ozzumh

co_uacvsmmm*o tea cowaanvcu
Imp: .azcm Lou mammcazumz

mcc.ua~.:mmco coagconcavmz
acocum um~mecucmowo
manhuampm 4<_uom

 

.mmoe_aaaz co u.=mL=a «:5 egg sucmn_s .aeLS.
.msaxm a. ;u_;x e. eeoa 0:» a: x=_ro 3oz moon were age.

w.aoma ——m to» mmucaommz
um: ma amzz mama: cuss:

>ooaowc_

 

 

2p<a know uzh

mmmakam mjm: mmoa

meanest GPQWWmoa can wL=S_=u .m.= “camera--.e mm=weu

 

 

aeL3 e_co3
=mcc¢.eme< ae_3 a as

emeaaaLBmLQ new =_ mamaszz

mace; cw umuacoca mam
mqoco co muuzuoca m—mcwm

mquozouu

mcoammz was
.mmcpzomz .m—ooh we
ecogpm—a m cow mwmmm
ms» mam mmoczommm
mpnmzmcmmucoz amwzu

>co;oz:umh

 

azocmcww:

mgu cw mm>oz ucmzaa cue:
mmmmmcocH apwcocu=< ccm
.Lozoa .zuwppnwmcogmmm

zupmmz ou mcwccooo<
vmxcmm mpaomm

mumwpmwomam xcmz

 

 

 

 

 

gun a an mmwomcozmmczm

mum: mcowmwuwo umoz umNPPmcacmu mmcmn

mqufiaoa mmahuamhm 4<Huom

m—nmaczou ucsou Haze

mm=_;c =_ euzcrw mmeesp a? negate

aweoca cowum>cmmcou

mpgoma Ppm com

copugsamcou “wage :_ mmocsommm

am: we “was am: an awn:

mummz mzomumcoaeou mummz cuss:
>monomo~

>hH>Hpu< umahuamhm

“$5.530 .m .3 szmmma

 

20

Whatever kinds of changes we make, the fact remains, that cultures
do change, they do not remain static and they do not become exact
replicas of other cultures. All cultures in the world are not
becoming like the United States anymore than the present would
revert to the 19th century were we to use energy more frugally.
Certain aspects of a culture may be similar to previous aspects of
that culture or imitate or emulate aspects of other cultures as

they change.

United States Futures--Cultural Choices
In 1976, Amory Lovins described the two fundamental choices
Open now to the United States as it seeks to resolve the contradic-
tions inherent in the present cultural system. Lovins calls these
choices the "hard" and the "soft" paths and defines them as follows:
The hard path relies on the rapid expansion of centralized
high technologies to increase supplies of energy, especially
in the form of electricity. The soft path combines a
prompt and serious commitment to efficient use of energy,
rapid develOpment of renewable energy sources matched in
scale and in energy quality to end use needs and special
transitional fossil fuel technologies (Lovins, l976:4).
In Figure 4, above, the cultural characteristics of the
hard and soft paths are outlined using the same model of culture
as shown in Figure 3. These characteristics are drawn from various

sources explained in more detail below.

The Hard Path

 

The outline in Figure 4 may be sufficient to reject the
hard path as a desirable or possible alternative. The characteris-

tics<yfthe hard path include: captial intensity, necessity for a

21

narrow governing political elite, highly toxic waste, wastefulness
and uneven distribution. It is perhaps the economic infeasibility
which provides one of the most readily understood arguments.

Our past major transitions in energy supply were smooth
because we subsidized them with cheap fossil fuels. Now
our new energy supplies are ten or a hundred times more
capital intensive and will stay that way. If our future
is enerated by economic activity fueled by synthetic gas
at $25 a barrel-equivalent, nuclear electricity at $60-
120 a barrel equivalent and the like, and if the energy
sector itself requires much of that capital just to
maintain itself, will capital still be as cheap and
plentiful as it is now or will we have fallen into a
"capital trap"? . . . Thus, if neither the soft nor the
hard path were preferable on cost or other grounds, we
would still be wise to use our remaining cheap fossil
fuels--sparingly--to finance a transition as nearly as
possible straight to our ultimate energyaincome sources.
We shall not have another chance to get there (Lovins,
1977:60).

"Capital traps" includes such technologies as breeder
reactors, solar satellites and fusion all of which are highly
centralized, require large amounts of capital and are, because of
distribution, waste and vulnerability problems,unlikely to succeed
(Stobaugh and Yergin, 1979:108ff.)

On the socio-political level Lovins offers some explanation
of what might be expected with these hard technologies.

Discouraging nuclear violence and coercion requires some
abrogation of civil liberties; guarding long-lived wastes
against geological or social contingencies implies some
form of hierarchiacal social rigidity or homogeneity to
insulate the technological priesthood from social turbu-
lence and making political decisions about nuclear

hazards which are compulsory, remote from social experi-
ence, disputed unknown or unknowable may tempt governments
to bypass democratic decisions in favor of an elitist
technology (Lovins, 1977:55).

22

Some people advocate nuclear power as necessary for the
future of the United States, because they feel the direction for
bigger more SOphisticated technologies is beyond human control.
At the same time, they feel that the technologies themselves are
within their control. In reality the reverse is the case. For
instance, one aSpect of nuclear technologies, the safe storage of
20 million kilograms of Plutonium 239 yearly for 250,000 years is
beyond human control (Hayes, 1978:8).

The limits of human control were put succinctly in a New
Yorker editorial reflecting on the Three Mile Island accident:

The main thing thatTNannersconcerned with nuclear power

left out of their scenarios was not the correct workings

of some valve or control panel. It was the thing that no

scenario can ever take into account, simple human falli-

bility. . . . The Faustian proposal that the experts

make to us is to let them lay their fallible human hands

on eternity, and it is unacceptable. . . (New Yorker,

April 16, 1979:28).
Given the choice, the hard path, with characteristics as described
above and as shown in Figure 4 will certainly be rejected. The
resolutions it offers are short-lived at best and highly dangerous

at worst.

The Soft Path

The alternative, advocacy of the soft path, requires study
of the cultural details involved. It becomes easier to chart a
course toward soft resolutions if specific cultural characteristics
of that resolution are known. What follows in the remainder of

this chapter is a description of some of the principles that

23

localized soft path resolutions will have in common. This descrip-

tion is generalized and brief. A more detailed study of soft path

approaches follows in Chapters III through VII.

Technologies.--Soft path technologies were described by

 

E. F. Schumacher in 1973 as "intermediate technologies" (Schumacher,

1973: 138ff.) and are now more commonly called "appropriate technolo-

gies." The characteristics of these technologies were listed by

Lovins in the following manner:

1.

They rely on renewable energy flows that are always
there whether we use them or not, such as sun, wind
and vegetation: on energy income, not on depletable
energy capital.

They are diverse so that energy supply is an aggregate
of very many individually modest contributions, each
designed for maximum effectiveness in particular
circumstances.

They are flexible and relatively low technology--
which does not mean unsophisticated, but rather

easy to understand and without esoteric skills,
accessible rather than arcane.

They are matched in scale and in geographic distri-
bution to end-use needs, taking advantage of free
distribution of most natural energy flows.

They are matched in quality to end-use needs
(Lovins, 1977:38-9).

The end use needs such as food, light, heat or motion can

be classified by the physical nature of the task to be done. In

the United States today at the point of end use:

58% of the energy is required as heat, Split equally

38%

4%

between temperatures above and below the boiling
point of water

provides mechanical motion

31% in vehicles

3% in pipelines

4% in industrial electrical motors

requres electricity for lighting, electronics, tele
communications, electrometallUQY. electrochemistry,
arc welding, electric motors in home appliances and
railways (Lovins, 1977:39).

24

As will be explained in more detail later (Chapters V and
VI) study of these present end uses reveals places where conserva-
tion programs could be instituted, where the energy supply is not
matched in scale and quality to these needs. For example of the
total energy used for electricity, about 3% is due to commercial
overlighting (Lovins, 1977:39). Matching the use to the supply is
a first step, which in the case of electricity can eliminate a
need for construction of new expensive and dangerous electrical

generating plants.

Economics.--0n the economic level of culture, Burns and
Borsodi offer methods of calculating a soft path system. Borsodi
claimed (1947) that "more than 2/3 of the things which an average
family now buys could be produced more economically at home than
they could be bought factory made" (Borsodi, 1947:15). An economy
centered on the household, block and neighborhood eliminates the
profit, transport and overhead costs inherent in some of the retail,
wholesale and manufacturing sectors of existing distribution
systems (Burns, 1975:210).

Traditional, Keynesian theories of economics where exports
of a region or nation are basic will be turned around in the soft
path. Local or regional relative self-sufficiency will be con-
sidered most important, most basic to the health of the economy.
Exports, the surplus, will be distributed as unneeded commodities
and will not be considered primary (Castells, 1977; Harvey, 1973;

Commoner, 1976).

25

As cheap capital decreases, expenditures of capital will
be more closely scrutinized by people in general. Calculations of
capital reallocation could begin at the household level-where new
allocations of savings and disposable income could be made toward
applications of appropriate technologies. In addition people will
begin to scrutinize allocations of public funds and increase
demands for wider participation in decisions about the allocation
of those funds.

Calculations of the amounts of money presently available
for reallocation will be made (Chapter VI, p.108). These will
clarify the nature of decisions that can be made in facilitating

soft path approaches to the energy crisis.

Socio-Politics.--On the socio-political level, moves toward

 

the soft path will require changes in the decision making systems
now employed in the United States. Rappaport points out (Rappaport,
1977:19ff.) that many of the decisions which should be made at low
levels of a complex system are now made via complicated bureaucrat-
ized regulation at high, inappropriate and rigidified levels. In
Chapter VII various possibilities for changing the socio-political
systems along a soft path are discussed.

In 1973, William Bunge devised a chart of decision making
and levels of organization in the United States. In Chapter VII
(p.127), the chart is matched with levels of concern and decision

making necessary for the implementation of soft path technologies.

26

This illustrates more Specifically levels of organization possible
in an apprOpriate technologies world.

In addition to the kinds of organizations and structures
possible in an appropriate technologies world, a description of the
politics or actions likely in such a world needs to be made also.
Such descriptions come primarily from the poor peoples movements.
Alinsky (1972), Kotler, (1969) and Boggs (1974),for instance,
articulate political processes which match the level and scale of
application of most appropriate technologies to appropriate decision
making structures.

Kotler summarizes some of the issues as follows:

The primary aspect of political liberty is local delibera-
tion; the central administration always contends against
the people for the monopoly of deliberative control. . . .
The left must decide whether it wants social change or
political revolution; benign administration or political
life; social engineering or political freedom; participa-
tory democracy or local control. If it chooses the latter,
radical politics will find that the middle class as well

as the poor have a personal stake in revolution. This

conception of revolution will free radical politics of its
compassionate malaise (Kotler, 1969:162).

Ideologies.--0n the ideological level, the soft path will

 

require a choice, a clear resolution of the contradictions indicated
by the Figure 4 chart. The soft path ideology will certainly con-
tain, in part, an ethic of respect for the natural environment,

from which modern United States culture can draw upon many American

Indian ideologies. Concomitantly, a conservation ethic is

essential to the soft path.

27

Lovins describes the soft path ideology in terms of
personal values:

Those values that could sustain life-styles of elegant
frugality are not new. . . . Such values as thrift,
simplicity, diversity, neighborliness, humility and
craftsmanship. . . . Offered those choice freely and
equitably many people would choose as Herman Daly puts
it "growth in thin s that count rather than in things
merely countable" ILovins, 1976:13).

We will draw here on spoken but often not yet realized
traditions which may involved further discussion of the 5th
Amendment's ensuring of "life, liberty and property" as against
the merits of Jefferson's declaration for “life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness."

The process of planning for sustainable futures in the
United States today involves explicit necessity to move along soft
path resolutions. The hard path is neither acceptable nor sustain-
able. In order to differentiate hard path from soft path resolu-
tions, an articulated concept of the whole, of culture, is essential.

Using a concept of culture, it becomes possible to specify
soft path resolutions in general terms. Discussion of specifics

then can become easier to analyze and more systematic. With these

set of premises, then, a planning process can proceed.

CHAPTER III
CONVERSION ALONG THE SOFT PATH: EXAMPLES

Levels of Cultural Impact and Concern

A first step in a planning process seeking to implement a
soft path approach to the energy crisis is an investigation of
projects and programs which attempt to come to grips with the
energy crisis. Soft path solutions as advocated by cities, utili-
ties or neighborhoods can be distinguished frOm hard path solutions
when general cultural characteristics as outlined in Chapter II are
kept in mind.

Examples of such soft path experiments, programs and pro-
jects are described in this chapter. As a group they illustrate
various approaches to change along the soft path. Some projects,
such as the Arks, Access, Farallones Institute are single house
demonstrations. The emphasis in these projects is on technological
experimentation. Other projects such as 519 E. 11th Street and
West Garfield Park are integral parts of neighborhood organizations
and neighborhood organizing.

Winona is an example of physical projections drawn out of
the context of real life situations. The Chesapeake example
involves similar academic speculation of possibilities on the

socio-political and economic levels in conversion.

28

29

Cerro Gordo is a project in the tradition of 18th century
utopias and is removed from the problems of conversion as it
proceeds with a fresh slate toward new soft path ideas. Seattle
and Davis, through local utilities and government,respective1y,
have initiated major changes starting from conventional political
practices.

A breakdown of the project emphasis in terms of the model
of culture explained in Chapter 11 (Figure 3) is presented below.
This is not meant to establish a ranking in impact. It does
illustrate the range of concern and experimentation in the cultural
context illustrated by Figure 3, as well as the variety of

approaches that can be taken when advocating substantial change.

Techno-Economic Socio-Political Ideological

 

 

 

DAVIS

 

 

 

SEATTLE

l
I {CERRO-GORDO

1"""-1'
I_.___.J

EINONA E

WEST GARFIELD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

r
; CHESAPEAKE

 

 

 

[1

 

 

 

 

 

11TH STREET

 

 

 

p-qr

 

THE_ARKS I

.1

 

 

l fl

‘ACCESS

 

 

 

30

These projects are classified in the diagram above according
to the explicitness of their public statements. As with people who
advocate the hard path, soft path advocates often assume considerably
more than they state. Here these projects are tied together by
their attempts to influence the course of this culture along a soft
path. Looking at the areas of cultural impact of these projects
helps in understanding directions and problems in concerted attempts

to influence this culture toward sustainable futures.

City Projects

Davis,_California.--AS Mayor Black of Davis said in a

 

February, 1978 speech in East Lansing: "We generated debate and
created political controversy. This is good and positive." The
success of their program is attested to by the enthusiasm of the
converted opposition, the local builders (Living Systems, 1977:114).

The City's commitment is evidenced by its court challenge
against Pacific Gas and Electric, which wanted to increase rates
for conservation advertising. Davis had already conserved more
than Pacific Gas and Electric was advocating and did not feel
obligated to pay the rate increase.

The Davis process began in 1973 with a year of assessment
of data and experimentation which resulted in the 1974 report
(Living Systems, 1974). The Prologue stated the strong commitments
on the part of the City:

Our homes are now places of consumption. Our homes are
then end result of the fattest culture on earth: while

others starve, we try to figure out how to avoid cooking
a Cup-O-Soup. . . .

31

Our style forces us to consume: yet the more we consume,
the more likely it is that if one thing goes wrong we
won't be able to put it back together. If the electricity
goes off we can't cook, food in the refrigerator goes bad;
can't wash clothes, we are too hot or too cold, no enter-
tainment, no lights. No man on the TV to tell us. . .
(Living Systems, l974:iv).

This first study includes breakdowns of patterns of house-
hold energy consumption in Davis, building performance, ways to
improve existing buildings, proposed building standards, a chapter
on neighborhood planning for energy conservation, and methods of
redrawing subdivisions. As a result of this study Davis adopted a
series of ordinances as revisions to the City Code.

The revisions and additions to the Code included a Housing
Code revision which sets minimum performance energy conservation
standards for residential construction. The Trees and Shrubs
addition prescribes proper planting of trees and Shrubs which were
found to significantly raise and lower the ambient temperature of
neighborhoods in winter and summer respectively. A biological
control of pests ordinance was written.

The city nullified regulations that banned clotheslines,
solar heated its own swimming pools, rewrote the setback require-
ments so that fences would not block the low angle of the winter
sun. The home occupation ordinance “protects residential neighbor-
hoods" but still allows for small home-based or cottage industries
through home occupation definitions (The Elements, 1977:19).

Part of the neighborhood plan was to narrow the streets to

lessen the amount of heat-catching asphalt. In addition, the

32

recycling system supports itself financially while recycling glass,
aluminum cans, bi-metal cans and newspapers. A strong education
program facilitates various conversion experiments as well as con-
servation on the part of homeowners. A resale ordinance is now
being written requiring certain minimum conservation standards for
the resale of a house.

The city encourages the use of bicycles by a complete bike
network including the requirement for bike paths in new subdivisions.
"The potential of bicycle transportation cannot be realized without
the necessary environmental support systems including street clos-
ings, licensing, training, bike paths and rules of the road"

(The Elements, 1977:25).

As a result of these programs the city of Davis registered
a net reduction of 16% in use of electricity in the four years.

This level of conservation was achieved by the programs above which
encouraged energy saving practices among residents of Davis.

The adoption process of the Davis Code involved considerable
public education including testing, solar simulation, posters and
slide shows. The ordinance and resolution drafts were reviewed
with active opposition of Davis developers. After the code was
written, an educational program for city staff, local builders,
designers and developers presented general information about design
with the climate and two approaches possible to the code itself.

The first approach required builders and designers "to

state their window and floor area, roof color, Show that the

\

33

required percentage of windows are shaded on August 21 and how
shading was calculated and compare the cumulative total heat gain

and loss with the standard" (Living Systems, 1977:23).

The designers using a second approach must
calculate the heat gain and loss through the walls, roof
floor and windows. They must also take into account
radiant heat gain and heat loss through windows as well
as conductive losses. They subtract the winter radiant
heat gain through_the window (which can be stored in
the thermal mass of the house) from the heat loss, while
the summer radiant gains through unshaded windows must be
added. After the total heat gain and heat loss are com-
puted, the designers compared the results with the
standard (Living Systems, 1977:24).

Starting from the premise that considerable amount of heat
can be stored or captured in the winter and that buildings can be
shaded from heat in the summer, the Davis City Council has proceeded
to change the form of the city. Figure 4 illustrates orientation and
land allocation in Village Homes subdivision in Davis, the proto-
type for much of the Davis experimentation.

The Davis goal is to reduce energy consumption by 50% by
1985. Davis is a city seriously interested in conservation and
change and attempts to involve as many people as possible. A
recent discussion with former residents of Village Homes, the
solar subdivision that lead to many of Davis' programs, indicates
that not only the form but also the social fabric of the city is
changing with the increased use of appropriate and solar technolo-
gies (Fridgen, 1979).

In Village Homes, for instance, cars are secondary placed

behind the houses. This creates a common Space in groups of 8-10

34

VILLAGE HOMES
LAND ALLOCATION

 

.4

(Bainbridge,et al.,1979:16)
FIGURE 5:--Village Homes Land Allocation

35

homes. Decisions are made together about the use and care of those
common spaces while the residents of the subdivision as a whole
make decisions about general policy. One such decision restricts
the size of private enclosures.

VIn Village Homes, people expect to be directly involved in
conservation and the workings and implications of their solarhomes.
They don't expect the technology to do everything for them"(Hamrin,
1979:18).

Many of the experiments initiated by Mike and Judy Corbett
in Village Homes, have been incorporated into city policy. The
city government itself has jumped into, rather than opposed change
with imagination and enthusiasm. "Immediate feedback, on results,
peer approval, community support, public recognition of accomplish-
ment--all contribute to achieving that most difficult task: getting

people to change the way they do things" (Hamrin, 1979:33).

Seattle, Washington

 

The Seattle conservation study, Energy 1990,-and resulting

 

programs,began as a decision and resulted in considerable action.
It differs from many conventional data gathering programs in that
it began as a publically owned utility study with GENUINE involvement

of a strong citizen committee:

The key ingredient was a true commitment by the utility
to listen to the committee, to give the committee com-
plete freedom to all information and facts desired, to
allow all activities to be conducted openly, and to

-allow all conclusions, recommendations and opinions to
be published as part of the final report (Henault, l978:2).

36

The open policy debate centered on supply by nuclear power
or lessening of demand by conservation. In 1976, the Seattle
City Council voted to meet the city's energy requirements through
the year 1990 by conservation. The vote included code revisions,
specific legislation specifying energy conservation plans, and a
resolution that specifically outlined that general policies be
governed by elements of resource use, conservation, sound economics,
and environmental responsibility.

Seattle City Light began by studying their load character-
istics in some detail. They then devised a series of programs to
reduce electrical demand. Some of these programs are:

Commercial and Industrial Projects: Energy Management
Seminars, Utility Training Seminars, Energy Audits,
Programs for Reducing Overlighting

Residential Projects: Development of Heat Loss
Standards, Energy Audit Programs, Low Income Insula-
tion and Weatherization Projects

Education/Outreach Projects: Thermographs, Portable
Exhibits, Energy Information Centers, Advertising
Programs for Public Awareness, Energy Conservation
Devices lemonstrations, Solar Utilization Projects
Research, Development and Demonstrations: Passive
Solar Projects, Demonstrations of Hot Water Conserva-
tion and Solar Hot Water Heating Devices, Solar Utiliza-
tion Projects

In-House Systems: Programs for Conservation and
Maximum Efficiency in Existing Generating Facilities,
Waste Heat Utilization and Co-Generation, and Load
Management Programs.

In 1977, as a result of these conservati ve programs,
Seattle City Light reported the following savings:

37

MW Savings
Commercial 40
Industrial 12

Residential 20 (Melcher, et al. 1979:2)

This amounted to about an 8% reduction in what the electri-
cal requirements would have been without the Conservation programs.
Including considerable economic growth, the 1978 projected a
savings were 56 MW. IThe Megawatt saved is the difference between
what is actually consumed and what would have been consumed had
conservation not been practiced. Seattle City Light's goal is for
a 20% reduction in their projected 1990 demand or an increase in
savings of 16.4 MW annually. They are well ahead of schedule in
meeting their goal"(Melcher, et al., 1979:3).

Henault attributes the success of the Seattle programs to
unusually dedicated and open-minded utility officials, mayor and
city council and to an effective citizens committee. As in Davis
virgorous debate helped in the interest and involvement of people

generally.

Cerro Gordo,¥0regon

Beginning from an ideological commitment, the Cerro Gordo
Community in Lane County, Oregon presently consists of about 100
families planning a new town on a 50 acre site. Eventually, they
hope to have 2100 people on a 1200 acre site, of which 100 acres
will be developed. From their advertising brochure comes the

following:

38

The startling thing about new towns is that there is
hardly anything new about them. But Cerro Gordo is

different. The people who hope to move in there are
designing a community themselves before it is built.
In essence, they are erecting a community of people

not buildings. When they are able to go ahead with

construction, they will have reached a consensus on

what they want. In the process they will have also

learned the word neighbor (Town Forum, l977:3).

The Cerro Gordo Community assumptions include definitions
of appropriate technology. community, organic agriculture, ecology.
education and challenges. The Base Plan includes a description of
the Site, a summary of the work on transportation, utilities, land
use and agriculture. Transportation will be by trolley connected
to existing railroad systems at Cottage Grove, 5 miles from the
site. Water, electricity and gas will be supplied on site by
wells, windmills and methane in a phased process: Waste will be
separated at the source and recycled.

The Land Use Map (Figure 6) indicates placement of the
Village Center, Residential, Manufacturing and Open Space districts.1
These do not look very different in form from many postulated
developments.

In building the Community and the homesites, the Base Plan
document says:

During the last two years we have tried to synthesize

the community concept and the Site dynamics through
this first draft of the base plan. . . . It is

 

1Under the no clearing assumption, 150 acres maximum are
located for agriculture. This amount should be compared with the
4300 acres required to support the 2150 population at the present
2 acres per person American average (Town Forum, 1977:19).

39

 

CERRO GORDO
BASE PLA N

16)

“t- (Town Forum,1977

FIGURE 6.--Cerro Gordo Base Plan

40

important that all of the homes built on Cerro Gordo
respect the environmental limits of the site and further
the long range community plan as we build an integrated

and ecosystemic community. We also want to organize a
variety of environments and life-styles so that indivi-
duals and small groups can realize their personal dreams
within the context of the larger supportive community. . . .

Cerro Gordo isn't a commune but neither is it a land
development. Cerro Gordo is a face-to-face interpersonal
community the very nature of which requires its partici-
pants to examine themselves, their goals, their motiva-
tions and their expectations and work together with their
future neighbors to assist one another in realizing their
personal and community goals (Town Forum, 1977:23).

In the available preliminary base plan much is missing,
especially a description of the workings of the community associa-
tion itself which is so central to the plan's conception.

The process of conversion of this society will be far more
complex than building a community of self-chosen, like-minded people
in an idyllic spot. But Cerro Gordo may be emerging at a more
fortuitous time in history than did its 17th century predecessors.
A modern Harmony could be a living example in the building of new
urban form through community decision-making.

Similar projects are going on in Soap Lake Washington
where the development of a solar community is:

conceived as an opportunity to consciously and gradually
introduce a new energy-related technology into a community,
taking time to consider its effect, in this case on rural
community life and growth. "The goal is to allow ideas to
be integrated and expanded by the values, conditions, and
needs of the peOple who will use them," writes Gregory

Higgins, Project Director. Project Associates for Soap
Lake Solar Community (Bessong, 1977:15).

41

Paper Studies

Winona, Minnesota.--The Winona example is a paper study of
a conversion of a city of 27,000 to self-sufficiency by the year
2000. Drawn by the Energy Design Studio at the University of
Minnesota, it works toward "a new way of life based on decentraliza-
tion, smaller more rational units of production and distribution
and reliance on the natural energy flows of the biosphere"
(University of Minnesota, 1975:30).

Change would fall into three phases. The first phase
"limits needlessly wasted fossil fuel energy and expands household
and neighborhood production by means of insulation, weatherstripping,
heat pipes, backyard vegetable gardens with cold frames and compost-
ing" (University of Minnesota, 1975:31). The second phase converts
to energy systems which do not require fossil fuels by using green-
houses, wind, trees as wind breaks and food supplement, raising
goats, rabbits, ducks, chickens and fish and providing means of
storing food (University of Minnesota, 1975:32).

The third phase "explores new social patterns“ through the
efficient use of solar and wind energy and the gradual shift from
an energy-intensive to a labor-intensive society. In that process
people will live near work in extended families. Larger groups of
people will share and cooperate which will allow for economic self-
sufficiency and diversity. Education, medicine and communication
will remain at high levels" (University of Minnesota, 1975:35). '

The city of Winona was analyzed as a whole and then with

detailed studies of the CBD, a Neighborhood Example, Food Co-ops

42

and Markets, Food and Waste Complex, Riverfront Research and
Exposition Center, Winona State University, Latch Island and the
Monastery. The Neighborhood example is used here as an example of
the three phase conversion process proposed.

In Phase 1 some houses are joined together by a canopy
system. Gardens are planted on the inner block. In Phase 2 solar
collectors are added on some roofs, some houses are connected by
built rather than inflatable enclosures and other houses are
fenced off by surrounding walls. Superblocks are defined by
street closings (Figures 7 and 8).

In Phase 3, inner blocks are developed, one as a garden
cooperative, another as enclosed living-working center, a third for
aquaculture, a fourth as a small shops mall. The superblock idea
is fully developed, common space is used and houses are enclosed
with their own private space. Transportation is by trolley down
the main thorough fares (Figure 8).

Other than the fact that phase three is to be completed by
the year 2000, nothing is said about the time periods involved in
each phase, the way decisions are made about the content of each
phase, who does the work, or how those peOple are trained. Even
if this were a viable plan, which it might well be, it is only a
physical or technological conversion.

The change in the form itself as Shown below will only come
about as part of a process, education and organization of people
toward a system in which they not only make many more decisions but

also execute them.

43

H 82: ea 2.59;“. ”855 8232202 283:; 5.8:
89328825: Lo 5.52.2.3

t . . /6~JQ a... x a . . I. . l
. I v . . \
. v n.
if I: , . . ...L . .

 

. - 3e Ix, (a
. _ _. emf.

mozqzo aoozmomzomz

44

m was N mmmaea "mmeaeu eooecoacm_mz a=o=_z--.w mzawan

210922 .3825: .3 Dwmcmica .

      

I;

45

Chesapeake Bay.--James Ridgeway explains processes of con-

 

version on a regional level in a disucssion of the Chesapeake Bay
region (Ridgeway, 1975:154ff.). Explaining that new energy policies
with self-sufficiency as an assumed basis cannot be merely recon-
structions of the past. He recounts the history of the Chesapeake
Bay region:
In the 17th century the region provided staples to England
and the continent, first furs then tobacco, later wheat and
cotton and during the 19th century iron ore. . . . Never
in its history have the peOple of this region sought to lay
claim to their own destiny. . . . The Chesapeake region was
always a colony, first of EurOpe then of New York and Boston.
The ships of the East India Company were exchanged for the
railroads of Morgan and Rockefeller (Ridgeway, 1975:156).

Suggesting corrections of history rather than threatening
retrogressions, Ridgeway outlines a process of reopening railroads
and canals for the purpose of creating regional self-sufficiency.
"At its most basic level that means redirecting the flow of
chickens from Boston to Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, of potatoes
from national markets to regional markets"(Ridgeway, 1975:159).

The kinds of systemic change advocated here requires the
involvement of the people of the Chesapeake Bay area aided by a
coherent and supportive regional and national policy. Specifically
Ridgeway suggests "a network of democratically consituted local
regional and national energy organizations" (Ridgeway, 1975:162).

Citing Davis, anti-nuclear activity and building of mass
transit systems, Ridgeway envisions conversion on a regional and

national level as well as on the local level. Speculation about

the nature of regional and national changes that might be required

46

in moving along soft paths, is important because some kinds of
cooperation and exchange will be required at larger than local

levels.

Neighborhood Projects

 

West Garfield Park, Chicago.--In West Garfield Park,
Chicago, a neighborhood group has successfully installed and is
operating a 880 square foot hydroponic greenhouse. There are 317
acres of similar available space, flat rooftops in the neighborhood
(Figure 9).

The decision to construct the greenhouse resulted from the
work of the Christian Action Ministry's Health Action Committee.
The Committee discovered that the poor quality and expense of the
locally available fruits and vegetables contributed to the low
state of health of many residents (Collier, 1978).

The greenhouse now supplies annually 26,000 lbs. of fresh
greens, tomatoes, cucumbers, melons and beans. They cost 30¢ less
per pound than in the supermarket and have created 2 full time jobs.
Discussions of the whole neighborhood economic dependence system
have resulted as well as a new look at the neighborhood itself.

The success of the greenhouse project has resulted in the construc-
tion of two more greenhouses and the eyeing of vacant industrial
parks and more available space for other self-sufficiency projects.
Figure 9 illustrates the kind of drawing and figuring that goes on
in the Center for Neighborhood Technology as they postulate further

change in their urban form.

47

xemm upwwmcww ummzln.m maawfiu

 

 

cmoz\:o.PFP= manucmam coogcongawwz

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3:

 

 

83 .1338 a $3838....
.mn_ emu mpmm Appsmu mmmew><
- . mm4m<hmwm> oz< mhfiamu
ocu< \mcomcma mNH co macs—pmzc mm
meo< P xuopm \mmc< mamcm><
mpnaoa can mxoopm vaucmuwmmm
oom.ma .c>\cmxcoz \uw< oppnsa
oom.m mcmxcoz noxapaEmca
ooo.oe coauapsaoa .auoc
e a=Le_L=m\mSL== mmacasa
ooo.o~ mm:P_—wzo "much
. . mmco< NHm mecca amp;
.LIIIjII . a mmco< «we umwgsouo
- - . f _ . a - . 2:528”.
“ENJ— . w N S EELS-=8 3:852
. .4”-.- w 4 o“ —o*ucmupmmm umcoucmn<
paw A9 o a w. a om :82,
IL
.III+1 - — -1. 4 m mm _mmocwseou
III w u com mummcpm
u on m_oo;um
Ihmwmmmmnu I furl m a w o“ momam :mqo
_ 111.1. 2 Se is $233.35 C a m
. com .xa pmwcumzucm 32 a o
_ , ML .4 mm“ mmc< xcma
300.430.10.10: "van.“ nnnpflxnonrrirr... I .Jm--u..i..:s:s: mmgu< IMWdldlzfl
Jae. 2&8: x a
L a 3 a $3 GEES .33
.u 92

 

48

This project arose from need as defined by a neighborhood

group. A parallel example exists in New York City.

519 11th Street.--519 11th Street in lower Manhattan was,

 

in 1975, just another abandoned 100 year old tenament. A group of
residents as a "last resorts received a $177,000 mortgage from the
city which they pay back by "sweat equity." At an hourly rate

they gutted, insulated, added storm windows and rehabilitated the
apartment building. They saved 60% of the heating bill and now own
the building (Energy Task Force, 1977).

Solar collectors on the roof supply 85% of the hot water
and save 20% of the heat. A windmill provides some of the electri-
city and on a good day runs the Consolidated Edison meter backwards.

All this was accomplished by a group of people who own

the apartment building cooperatively and are now teaching the

skills and the process to other neighborhood residents. A WNET
interview with the participants yielded the following quotes:

The important thing is that for the first time low income
peOple have gotten ownership to these properties. And

they gain ownership by putting in their sweat. . . .

We're dealing with a new technology in our society and
we're dealing with a social change issue . . . an
appropriate blend of technology happening between com-
munity groups and the new survival tools of the future . . .
(WNET, 1977:5).

The important thing to remember is that we are in
essence creating a local economy in a neighborhood
which has traditionally been a dependent economy (Ibid.,8).

In the whole history of urban renewal and Model Cities the
government programs have done nothing to stop the deterior-
ation. What was missing was bringing the people into

it Showing them how to do it, giving them an opportunity

to accomplish what government money could not (Skurka and
Naar, 1976:195).

49

Critical elements in these examples of change in urban
neighborhoods include local control and ingenuity. But if conver-
sion and savings are to occur in sufficient numbers of American
neighborhoods, it would behoOve those of us who use the most to act
on these examples before the need is as great. Misery is obscured

by success in these cases.

Single House Prqjects

Agge§§,--Like the Farallones Institute in Berkeley,
California, The Access house is a neighborhood conversion demonstra-
tion project being carried out in Milwaukee by the University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Architecture and Urban Planning.
Here a typical old frame inner city house has been converted for
living and demonstration purposes to apprOpriate a soft technology
(Schade, 1977).

It serves as a center and display of various systems.
Various types of collectors are mounted on the south wall and
roof for water and space heating. Shutters have been constructed
and installed along with a general weatherization. A clivus
multrum serves as a toilet. The garage has been converted into
a greenhouse. Andra sauna is made entirely of recycled materials.
Except that the house is open their relationship to the surrounding

neighborhood is minimal.

50

The Arks: Woods Hole, Massachusettsijrince Edward Island.--

 

The Arks at Woods Hole and Prince Edward Island are the experimental
living systems of the New Alchemy Institute. They are based on
ideological principles:

People once again had to be given control over those neces-

sities upon which their lives depend--access to food,

shelter and to an environment not poisoned by industrial

wastes (Tood, l977:x).

The Arks demonstrate with a high degree of technical
SOphistication, two self- sustaining bio-shelters. Principles of
self-sufficiency have been substantiated by specific integrated
experiments in vegetable and protein growing as well as biological
controls of pests, self-sufficient Shelter and self-sustaining
agriculture (Baldwin, 1978; Todd, 1977).

Based on general principles of appropriate technologies as
described by Schumaker (1973) and Lovins (1976,77) the New
Alchemists developed Specific integrated systems. For fish farming,
for instance, they linked a series of ponds. In an upper pool
water is filtered through crushed quahog shells, an earth filter of
oxygenating plants and algae culture. The water then flows to a
middle pool which continas algae, aquatic plants, and live bearing
fishes or invertebrates such as Daphnia. The purified water
finally goes to a lower pool where the edible fish, such as Tilapia
and plants are grown under shelter of, and heated by a greenhouse.
The water is recirculated for purification up to the upper pool by
a windmill. This example of an apprOpriate, self contained and
technologically SOphisticated protein growing system, is indicative

of the work of the New Alchemists (Todd, 1977:90-93).

51

The seeds of a cultural conversion along the soft path are
present in the combination of all the projects outlined above as
well as other summarized in Brunner (1978), (Citizens Energy
Project (1979), and Ridgeway (1979). Technological and economic,
social political and ideological problems, positions and on-going
experiments have been discussed. In varying degrees parts of a
soft path culture,then,have been adapted in various localities.

Change is being approached from all possible cultural tacks
as these examples also illustrate. But whole culture change has not
yet occurred in the United States in response to the energy crisis.
The vast majority of policies, programs, structure, allocations of
resources and modes of decision-making have not responded to the
leadership exemplified in these examples and proceed along the hard
path.

The process of culture change, then, a major part of the
business of planners is more difficult, profound and interesting
then a summation of existing examples. While those projects
Operate in appropriate directions they have not been adapted by
the society as a whole. A more detailed examination of a specific
local project will begin to illustrate the complexity of what is

involved and the degree of opposition to necessary kinds of change.

CHAPTER IV

URBAN OPTIONS

In December, 1977, a small group of East Lansing, Michigan
residents met to plan ways to consciously emulate some of the
experimentation outlined in Chapter III. Starting from an appro-
priate techologies or soft path premise, the group began discussing
plans for projects and programs in East Lansing.

East Lansing was chosen as an initial place of focus
because it had elected a liberal City Council, it is a University
town, and the School District had received a Humanities grant
which in part brought the Mayor and one of the Councilmen from
Davis, California for discussions of the Davis programs. Turning
East Lansing into the Davis of the Midwest seemed a logical and
relatively simple undertaking.

The initial Urban Options group consisted of local
designers, architects, builders, University teachers and students
and concerned individuals. The group formed itself into a non-
profit corporation and met as the Board of Directors of that cor-
poration once per week.

In order to effect apprOpriate technologies research and
solutions to the energy crisis, Urban Options formulated two pro-

grams. One project was the Energy House, envisioned as an

52

53

on-going drop-in demonstration center where the process of weatheri-
zation and solar retrofit could be accomplished in workshops on a
typical inner city older frame structure.

Appropriate technology task forces were the second major
purpose defined by Urban Options members. The task forces were to
study appropriate technologies solutions to energy problems related
to housing, water and waste management, transportation and urban
agriculture. Their focus was to be on the city as a whole, or in
blocks and neighborhoods and they were designed to make larger than

single house level recommendations to the city, county and university.

Urban Options Chronology
A chronology of the activities of Urban Options is presented

here to give the reader a sense of the development of the project.

1977

December: Initial Discussions

1978

January - Organization met regularly, expanded, incorporated,

March: and defined Energy House and Task Forces as suit-
able projects. Began search for the most usable
city-owned house.

March: Formal request for presentation to and work session
with City Council.

March 30: City Manager's report denied the need for Urban
Options (Coffman, 1978).

April 15: Urban Options responded to City Manager's report.

June 9: Urban Options objected to the content of the East

Lansing/MSU Energy proposal to Argonne Laboratory
(East Lansing, May, 1978).

June 20:

July -
September:

October 12:

November

November 18:

December 2:
December 9:

November -
December:

1979

January:

February:

February 17:
February 23:

54

City Council passed resolution which agreed to pro-
vide Urban Options with a city-owned house for its
Energy demonstration projects and to pay for the
utilities on the condition that all materials needed
in the retrofitting process come from some other
source or were donated (East Lansing, June, 1978).

Comprehensive Education Training Act (CETA) applica-
tion submitted for four full time Urban Options
staff peOple. Handicapper accessibility green-
house design teams met frequently to draw plans for
the Energy House.

Task Force work clarified and National Center for
Appropriate Technology (NCAT) Grant submitted.

Report on material donations submitted to Council
as basis for use of the house. Donations totalled
$1,330 mostly in retorfitting equipment supplies
from local hardware and lumber stores.

Department of Energy Greenhouse grant submitted
Meetings take place in the Energy House

Caulking and Weatherstripping Workshop

Storm Windows and Shutter WorkshOp

Wall Insulation Workshop

Contract meetings with the City result in no
contract.

CETA Grant comes through to hire 4 full time staff
people. An Energy House Coordinator, two Task
Force Coordinators and a.Communications Coordinator.
Hiring Committee formed from the Board.

Four CETA staff peOple hired and begin official
work. The Energy House is open 6 days per week

9-5.

Home Weatherization Workshop

Benefit at Edgewood Church

February 24:

February -
March:

March 10:
March 17:

March 31:
March:

March -
April -
May:

April -
May:

April 28:

April:

May 20:

May

May 26:

June:

55

Home Insulation Workshop

Task Forces formed and began to meet.

Home Energy Conservation WorkshOp

Solar Window Box Heater for the Drug Education
Center

Solar Window Box Heater for Urban Options
Work Session with City Council

Interior Design Classes work on designs for
Urban Options as a walk-in education center

Cartography interns begin work with the Transporta-
tion and Buildings Task Forces

Task Forces submit comments to City Master Plan
Committees.

Westherization Team began outlining the concept
of a trained team which could support itself with-
out.relying on grants.

Handicapper accessibility workshop, modified the
Energy House so that it is accessible.

Senators and Congressmen and Utilities representa-
tives visit Urban Options as an alternative to their
tour of the Midland nuclear plant.

Visitors and lectures from: Village Homes, Davis;
Farallones Institute, Berkeley; Sunstructures,
Ann Arbor.

Benefit in the Rathskeller with the Michigan Solar
Energy Association.

Urban Options receives a DOE Greenhouse Grant,
Total: $10,000 (Urban Options, October, 1978).

Urban Gardening Workshop

Task Force mid-year

Solar Cooker Workshop

Reapplication for CETA staff continuation

Reformulation of design team and large Board
meeting

56

July and Solar Greenhouse Design and Construction Workshops.
August: A course for Participants.
July Urban Options receives a Community Development

Grant to conduct weatherization workshops in the
downtown East Lansing Community Development area.
A half time staff person is hired to complete that
work. Total: $11,000 (Urban Options, May, 1979).

August: Horticulturalist is hired, half time, to monitor
the greenhouse as part of the DOE Grant.

CETA Grant extended through July 1980
City submits energy education elect grant to the
Michigan Energy Administration. Urban Options is
not consulted (East Lansing, August, 1979).
Urban Options receives grant from Governor's Energy
Awareness Committee to construct and diSplay a
portable solar greenhouse. Total: $1,400
Opposition
Urban Options projects were designed to broaden the kinds
and quality of energy decisions made by residents and local govern-
ments. The focus of the intense activity chronicled above was to
bring into the Energy House and the policy planning process as many
people as possible and work with them developing skills necessary in
an appropriate technologies world.
As can be seen from the history outlined above, the City of
East Lansing has cooperated only minimally with Urban Options and
has at various points opposed Urban Options work. It is instructive
to look more closely at the nature of that opposition.
As a group of people outside the existing machinery of city

government, Urban Options peOple trained and established themselves

as experts in the increasingly important field of energy conservation

57

and appropriate technologies. PeOple inside the "accepted" network
for decision making reacted in the ways summarized below.

In March 1978, shortly after the idea of an Urban Options
project was first presented publically, the City Manager (Coffman,
1978) directed considerable staff time and money to convince Council
that the Urban Options projects were unnecessary and unworkable.
The arguments presented by the City Manager were dispelled and
City Council designated a house for Urban Options use.

In April, 1978 some Michigan State University Urban Planning
school faculty and graduate students found an Argonne Laboratory
Request for Proposal which asked for analysis of city wide energy
use patterns in a proscribed system that Argonne Laboratory was
interested in testing. Part of the proposal was designated to
request citizen input into the analysis.

In response to this section of the proposal, the City staff
and the MSU School of Urban Planning set up a task force made up
primarily of utilities representatives (East Lansing, May, 1978).
Because these utilities peOple were avowedly opposed to any
genuine conservation or appropriate technologies programs, this
feature of the proposal resulted in active opposition at City
Council meetings. The grant bid to Argonne labs was unsuccessful.

In anticipation of the Argonne grant and for the purpose
of rewriting the Master Plan, the city allocated funds for a
number of task forces, among them an energy task force. This task

force began to be an official reason why Urban Options should

58

receive little financial support and no recognition by City official-
dom.

By November 1978, when Urban Options requested contract
negotiations with the city, the City Manager began a new directive,
to design a parking ramp so that the Urban Options Energy House
would be razed. By May, 1979 when it became obvious that the
particular design eliminating the Energy House, was unreasonable and
would not be accepted by Council, a group called the Urban Obervatory
was suddenly formed in City Hall to advocate parking ramps. Urban
Options was referred to by a City Council candidate and the chair-
person of the Planning Commission as just another "energy club."

These official attempts by City Staff at discrediting and/
or eliminating Urban Options were temporarily silenced when the
Department of Energy awarded a grant to Urban Options to build a
solar greenhouse (Urban Options, October, 1978). A proposal sub-
mitted by the City in the same grant cycle was denied.

The City Manager responded by declaring that construction
of the greenhouse couldn't be approved by the City because it was
designed to be built over the sidewalk. He had mistaken the rail-
road ties which enclosed the raised bed urban gardens for a
foundation for the greenhouse.

At the same time, the City staff and the MSU School of
Urban Planning were again writing a proposal designed to undermine
Urban Options. This time the State Energy Administration issued a
Irequest to city governments to initiate Community Energy Education

Project. This is exactly what Urban Options had done, both

59

knowledgably and effectively. But Urban Options was neither con-
sulted in the proposal writing not included in the advisory com-
mittee (East Lansing, August, 1979).

The Energy Consciousness Coordinator hired to carry out the
proposal was an expert in the media, not energy because, in the
words of one City planner on the hiring committee, "There's lots
of inmeation on energy these days. Anyone can read about it."
People involved in energy organizing with Urban Options were not
considered for the job. As a result another opportunity for for-
ging constructive links between local energy experts and the city
machinery was lost.

In general the opposition to Urban Options by the East
Lansing City Government lies in two categories: personal and
structural. Urban Options poses a personal threat to the individual
power and professional knowledge of the City Manager and Several
other City staff members as Urban Options deals with authority on
the crucial question of energy. This problem is compounded by the
power the City Manager is used to having in swaying Council members.

The City of East Lansing has a City Manager form of govern-
ment where the City Manager and staff receive salaries to carry out
City Council policy. City Council members are paid very little, must
hold another job in order to live and can spend relatively little
time on city policy and issues. The involvement of Council is,
per force, marginal.

The City Manager, in conjunction with some of the staff,

has developed a system of decision making which plays Council

60

members off against each other, as part of a means of keeping con-
trol of those decisions. The nature of solutions to the energy
crisis being proposed and implemented by Urban Options requires a
far more open, participatory system of decision making than the
City Manager had grown accustomed to.

Urban Options is accomplishing visible and useful alterna-
tives and responses to the energy crisis for people in the East
Lansing area and it is doing so outside the presently established
hierarchy for decision making. Similar structural opposition to
changes in the direction of wider public participation has been
noticed elsewhere (Wetmore and Dwyer, 1976; Shrobe, 1978:4).
Chapter VII contains further discussion of the socio-political
problems in soft path conversions.

Meaning for Soft Path Solutions
to the Energy_Crisis

From the kinds and intensity of opposition to Urban
Options and other projects that emphasize and achieve a high level
of participation, it is possible to look more clearly at the kinds
of changes which will need to accompany wide conversion to appropri-
ate technologies in the United States. Details of an alternative
system of planning emerge as programs are implemented in opposition
to a standard system of planning.

Success stories, such as those recounted in Chapter III
may be more the exception than the rule. In Davis, success

followed extraordinary persistence by Mike and Judy Corbett in

61

their development of Village Homes (Fridgen, 1979). This project
was in turn supported by a long involvement of Davis in the ecology
movement. The University of California Davis, permits no cars on
campus and has for a long time emphasized biological controls in

its agriculture programs and education. This history led eventually
to an imaginative and open program stemming in part from the City
Government itself.

In the case of Seattle, a publically and hotly debated
referendum, deciding in favor of a soft path approach was followed by
the hiring of Peter Henault. Seattle City Light took seriously
public responsibility as a city owned utility, and encouraged the
extraordinary and open leadership of Henault (Henault, 1978;
Ridgeway, 1979:20). Within an atmosphere of encouragement from
the top, conservation and solar programs are flourishing.

Careful details and strategies in the conversion process
to appropriate technologies may need to be developed only if the
opposition to them is strong. The process that people in Urban
Options have identified as a result of active opposition follows

in Chapter V and VI.

CHAPTER V

TRANSITION IN PLANNING METHODS: PRESENT
METHODS TO SOFT PATH METHODS

Energy has not been a traditional part of the professional
planners preserve. Energy planning in an era of unlimited and
cheap fossil fuel supply has been accomplished primarily by utility
companies and the automobile industry. The utility companies
planned electrical use and carved out territories among themselves
for natural gas and oil delivery for space heating, water heating,
cooking and industrial uses. The automobile companies have planned
the transportation system in the United States using professional
planners to assist them in that task.

In this era of limited and expensive energy supplies, plan-
ning practice must include active energy planning. In order to
arrive at any practical and conceivable future this planning must
be accomplished from a premise of conservation with plans for
matching the work that needs to be done with the cheapest, safest
and most energy efficient way of doing it.

Such conversion is best accomplished locally where there is
knowledge of local needs, materials and skills, at single house,
neighborhood and city levels. Local planners can look at energy
planning as a new and basic part of their obligations. Instead of

reacting to the automobile industry by constructing roads, parking
62

63

ramps and land use patterns to accommodate that industry, planners
are mandated by the energy crisis to look at transportation needs of
their constituents and match those needs with the most appropriate
means of accomplishing them.

Instead of writing codes and regulations to facilitate the
use of electricity or minimize the blight of power lines, planners
need to look into the appropriate uses of electricity and more
energy efficient ways of delivering it. Instead of relying on
old codes which waste gas and oil in buildings, planners will need
to facilitate the best use of local renewable fuels in well
weatherized buildings.

Planners must delve into new areas of decision-making and
new areas of knowledge because of the energy crisis. One new area
of knowledge and understanding is the data base from which planning
proceeds. In order to determine and advocate suggested programs
and priorities, end-use data must be analyzed in sufficient detail
for the area under transformation or study. Analysis of end use
data here is for the specific purpose of developing programs which
will meet human needs, conserve energy and supply increasing
amounts of needed energy through appropriate technologies. The first
necessary step is for planners to argue and explain explicit assump-
tions, as in Chapter II. The second step is development of a data

base that facilitates those aims.

64

Existing Data

The data sources that energy planning are based upon,
become central to the kinds of programs which these planners
propose. Energy data can quickly become bewildering, a maze of
British Thermal Units (BTUS, see Appendix I).

In a thorough discussion of the energy data base some paths
through this maze can be charted. Energy end-use data purports
to Show the amount of energy consumed at the point at which it is
used. Varying definitions of the end point result in various kinds
of data presentations.

The data sequence presented below is relevant to the
specific study area under discussion, East Lansing, Michigan. The
data illustrate one method to understand, criticize, and arrange
data so that it can be useful in making recommendations that will
facilitate the use of appropriate technologies.

Part of the information that is useful for appropriate
technologies planning is presented in Figure 10 below. It indicates
the mismatch between what we use and how we use it. Michigan
imports 95% of the energy it uses and wastes more than 50% of that
energy.

Usually only the total BTU figures as presented in Figure 11
are considered relevant. But this level of data broken down only
by sector and total BTUS and kinds of fuels can only suggest pro-
grams which emphasize the need for increasing supply. Programs

which match kinds of supplies with the kinds of work that need

65

mam~.=amaeuaz ”ocazu gape eo.pas=meou ss.a=m--uo~ “asset

Amnmfi.mpmo.chmcm mo acmEucmamo .m.:v

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

..oéx 35‘: uCIt-9u hots: an: . our 83.03
I‘II\ D.'paa H ”1.:
IIIIhIIlII IIIIIHvIIIVI .02 05. ...0 I
IllI o. 3o 1 coon}.
II I n. II‘IIII‘II . I
- -l . ...uoo I IIIIIITI I... .- : ..I I \ -
/ 20.30823... 1111 I
n a
to p o 3 84:03
.3
’ n n .......nnn.nononu.o..n nonnn n..n oo.nnnononnn n n n on .
........... a...» .. . . u. ...n.... .. .. ...." .... . .....
.. ...................... ......«w. 334...... ......nmnwn... .
( .oxh .................. n .E... ------------ nononnnnooo WWWWWW o onoooo. nooonnooooooon oo.on
2.239.. ..... J
. . r.I. - I. - -
... .
.o fiOoO LOn“.
. a .u was;
0601 I . .
.53... on... o. ........
3a .. . ...“qu ......
. 9¢ ..nnn ...... y n w .100 3032:
o a ...... .Wo
nnnnnnn t
..... .1.
. 0.0.
9.3.» ....... u- 3‘ p a}.
3.2.30.9! n
a o .
Mn . o.»
\ ..\ ofi‘ -
K . 9
perv...“ duo. ..
//H/HRWWWV/, 2633359 I
o. ...... 80. .2: 9:. 6.9.2.3 .
/////////////////Il/l/l/I/ 3.0.503. .03 .umq—IIIIA
>2 .5 =02...

 

«.mmmmnum2:mcou xmcmcm Pouch
m.mm~ "cmozuoca xmcmcm Pouch
H.mmo~ ”cmusonEH amcmcm.umz
mahm mo mcoeppwc» ”mama:
ooo.~m4.m neocoapzaoa

mum: HZ<0_T_u:2

66

MiCHIGAN= 1975

Units: Trilliqns of BTQS

COdL
COLE
lol-COflL

HU'GIS

.59 '93.!
N4’OL
turn

”15‘

1.1 .311!
fiSINfiL
HIhC “I"
'01-"1‘0

Ll-GAS
Ndl'hés
"In “A!
Out-uaS

'RUCLIAR
"1080

£136

UIMCR

YOIAL

FIGURE

 

 

 

. j £LCCYR1C
AGRlcuL. 1NDUST. TRANSP. 3:510. GENtRfiIION TOTAL

0.0 247.9 0.0 0.0 409.4 737.3
0.0 32.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 32.7
0.0 200.6 0.0 0.0 409.4 710.0
0.0 “CT 30.4 PC? 0.0 TC[ 0.0 PC! 43.‘ PC? 2’.‘ ft?
10.7 23.3 554.3 0.0 0.0 500.3
0.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 1.7
0.0 0.0 10.9 0.0 0.0 10.9
0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 0.0 9.1
7.9 21.0 05.6 159.4 20.0 214.0
0.0 29.1 2. 0.0 64.2 95.?
0.0 20.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.1
.5 25.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.6
1.0 107 12.2 PCT 61.7 FCY 14.2 *0! 0.1 P0? 40.0 [cf
2.: 2.: ... 2... ... 25.:
.4 207.0 11.2 5.5 39.0 24.2
0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 2.4 1.9
-.J 291.0 3’02 406.1 .30: 7.620:
0’ 1'0! 3.07 11;! 30: "C! “.0 ‘CI 5.5 0'01 :00, 11:1
00° 0.0 00° 0.0 5.2 4.:
0.0 PC? 0.0 PC! 0.0 '01 0.0 TC! 100.0 FBI .2 PC!
‘ ... 0.. ..o 0.. 3.. 3..
0.0 PC? 0.0 107 0.0 P01 0.0 PCT 100.0 PC! .1 PC!
3.: ,‘0‘ 0: 72.3 '209.7 .J9.:5
0.0 71.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 71.0
0.0 PC? 100.0 '0! 0.0 P01 0.0 90' 0.0 FCT 2.0 PC!
22.7 046.5 054.3 ‘44., 414.3 2404.9

.9 '07 33.3 PCT 25.1 PCT 24.. FCY 15.9 70!

11:--Energy Consumption by Sector:Michigan,1975

(U.S. Department of Energy. 1975)

 

 

 

100.0 PC!

67

to be accomplished can only be approached when data are analyzed
further. In Figure 12, percentage of total in each sector is
divided into particular kinds of uses to which people put the
energy supply.

It is interesting to note that figures, as presented in

Figure l2 do not include electricity generation as an end use.
Rather the uses are defined in terms of the kinds of specific work
to which they are now put.

End uses can also be described in terms of the kinds or

quality of energy that are needed for the work. Lovins (1976)
does this as summarized in Chapter II (p.23 ). A pie showing
this data (Figure l3) for the United States as a whole can be
shown together with a chart of the end uses by sector and work as
in Figure 14. Taken together a match can be made between the
kinds of work that need to be done and apporpriate ways of doing
that work.

If one looks at the data with an eye to appropriate
technologies, the primary consideration is the match of the job
that needs doing with the way the job is done. One instance, the
match between energy used for the generation of electricity and
the end uses which need electricity, stands out. Sixteen percent
of all energy is used to generate electricity, yet only 8% of the
end uses need electricity. Two problems are inherent in this mis-
match. One problem is that the methods of generating electricity
are not appropriate and the other is that electricity is often

used inappropriately.

68

MICHIGAN 1975

RESIDENTIAL

Water Heating . 12.7%

/ Lighting and Appliances 3.3%

Cooking 3.5%

;<EEEEEE Clothes Drying 1.2%
Refrigeration 2.4%

pace Cooling .9%

Space Heating 76.1%

TRANSPORTATION

Passenger Local 67.0%

Freight 26.6%

Passenger Intercity 6.4%

\
INDUSTRIAL

Other ' 63.5%

‘ eating .1%
$\\\\~ oke Process 1.4%

\ Machine Drive 1.6%
Electric Generation 1.9%

Construction Vehicles 2.3%

Raw Materials 18.4%
Direct Process Steam 10.8%

(U.S. Department of Energy, 1975)

FIGURE 12:--End Use Energy Consumption by Percentage of Sectors:
Michigan 1975

69

U.S. E N D—USES

 

 

  
  

-2|2°F.
29%
”EA 2996 +2I2°F.
MECHANIC .
MOT!“
3.95 ELECTRICITY
INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRIC MOTORS
VEH'CLES PIPELINES

(Lovins,1977:39)
FIGURE 13:-- End-Uses in the U.S. by Quality

70

U.S. END-USES

 
     
      
 

  

Process
Steam
16.5%

  
 
 

Electric
Drive

Feedstoc
.5%
llillgllllflgllllll"' .
. ~ Transportation
Refrigera- 70 M
tion..-m @37/ (Fuel & Raw Mats
Cooking——- / " Water
$;\ Heating Space 25’0% AE‘
4.0% Heating (3
7; Q
/ 18.0% @
<2 e-
< Qy
é“ ' ‘K
C13A1A4
ERC I AL

(U.S.Department of EnerQY.1977:8)
FIGURE 14:--End Uses in the U.S. by Sector and Work

71

As Figures l0 and ll show 72% of the amount of energy that
goes into the generation of electricity is lost out the stacks or
in transmission. In addition, as Lovins points out 6l% of the uses
to which we now put electircity, most notably space heating and
commercial overlighting are in themselves inappropriate. Electrical
generation and use are areas which can benefit from appropriate
technologies programs.

Figure l4 also indicates that large portions of our energy

needs go for transportation and space heating, to which appropriate
technologies and conservation can be readily applied. These too
suggest themselves for emphasis in design of appropriate technologies
programs.

With implementation of appropriate technologies programs
designed initially to conserve energy in the areas of electricity
generation, residential space heating and local transportation,
realistic reductions in Michigan l975 end-use figures could be
calculated in the way shown in Figure 15.

An initial dramatic 40% reduction as is shown in this chart
(Figure 15) would provide energy planners with goals. Significant
goals are sought in the design of conservation programs which
"correct" the areas of greatest energy waste and mismatch. Such a
"correction" is not far fetched.

The United States can use 30 or 40 percent less energy
than it does with virtually no penalty for the way
Americans live--save that billions of dollars will be
spared, save that the environment will be less strained,

the air less polluted, to dollar under less pressure
(Parisi, 1979:50).

72

POSSIBLE FIRST REDUCTIONS

In Trillions of BTUs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Michigan Use :1975 Possible Use With Reductions:
Conservation andggppropriate
f~ ~ Technologies
Electric Generation 624 ll3.4 (1/3 of Present Use)
Residential
Space Heating 492.1
Space Cooling , 5.5
Water Heating 82.3
Total 579.9 290 (l/2 of Present Use)
Transportation
Local Passenger 438.3 43.83 (l/lO of Present Use)
Total Total With Reductions
(Other Categories (All Categories)?
I"CI“d9d) 2604'8 Electric Generation 113.4
Residential 356.9
Transportation 259.8
Industrial(no change) 866.5
Agricultural " 22.7
16197?

(Department of Energy,1975)
FIGURE 15:--Michigan End Uses and Possible Reductions in Use '

73

This approach is quite different from the one which states
that supplies must meet projected increases in gross demand levels.
The differences in approach are reflected in the different presen-
tations of data from Figure 11 to combinations of Figures 13 and
14.

Although rough priorities for programs can be mapped out
from Figures 13 and 14 and goals set as in Figure 15, actual
implementation of programs would require further refinement of the
data base.

Modifications in Data Collection
andiPresentation

 

 

In the process of implementing and specifying energy con-
servation and appropriate energy programs, the necessity for new
kinds of data and data collection emerges. For example, many
governments of different jurisdictions use data as presented in
Figure 11. The implicit assumption inherent in Figure 11 data is
that any new energy program must supply the amount and kind of
energy now used. It tells nothing of what should be done differently
because of inherent mismatches.

A further example of the kind of data collection now used
by many planners, which confuses rather than clarifies solutions to
the energy crisis is the chart below drawn from a proposal by the
American Institute of Planners (AIP) in their Energy the Cities

testimony before Congress.

74

Community Energy

 

(Energy Use Profiles
(Demand)

 

Energy Distribution
Profiles (Supply)

 

Primary Energy Profiles
(Existing Tech) Supply

 

Primary Energ Profiles
(Alternatives) Supply

 

 

Institutional Factors Environmental Factors

JAffggting Energy Sue Affecting Energy Use

 

 

 

 

FIGURE l6.--Matrix Proposed by A.I.P. (A.I.P., 1977)

If planners try to fill out such a chart, the work becomes unclear
if not impossible. "Institution" and "environment," for instance,
remain undefined and assumptions about supply and demand, "distribu-
tion" and "profiles" are certainly confusing if not confused.
Alternative charts are proposed below. These start from end-use
needs and work through reasonable or even present demands to various
ways and stages of achieving supplies.

What is needed are data presented in an understandable and
workable way. Planners can employ charts which show end uses.
These would be filled out by percentage of total energy used, by
tota1 BTUs and by kinds of supply. One chart would be filled out

according to known human needs as follows:

75

Human and Use Needs

Supply Alternatives

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Present Transitional Future
5-10 yrs. " 15-20 yrs.
Heating/Shelter
Food
Hater
Light/Clothing
Transportation

 

 

FIGURE 17: Human End Use Needs and Supply Alternatives

Another chart could be drawn from the end uses now existing
in U.S. society with assignment of BTU total and percentage of use
and kind of supply changing along with methods of supply and kinds
of fuels used for supply (Figure 18).

Sequence of Planning Considerations
In order to proceed away from a reliance on non-renewable
or dangerous hard technologies, the kinds of data employed and what
they lead to should be carefully understood. Planning methods which
attempt to make apprOpriate technologies conversions should take
into account a general sequence of considerations such as the

following:

76

 

End Uses
Supply Alternatives in BTUS, % of
Total and Kind of Supply
Present Transitional Future
Transportation (M

 

Space Heating

 

Process Steam

 

Direct Heat

 

Electric Drive

 

Feedstock

 

Water Heating

 

Cooking

 

 

 

 

 

Refrigeration

 

 

FIGURE 18.--Present End Uses
Transitional and Future Alternatives

77
1. Establish explicit assumptions about the nature of the
problem and possible so1utions.

2. Determination of End Use Needs of people at the point
of end use.

3. Conservation of Non-Renewable Resources through programs
having significant effect on energy use.

4. Determine combinations of renewable, locally available
energy supplies.

5. Match supplies in quality and scale to end-use needs.

6. Energy supplies and planning would be locally applied
- and therefore also locally managed.

7. Planning with appropriate technologies must be tailored
to a specific place.

While this general sequence is important and needs emphasis
it needs to be further refined. However, energy planning will not
proceed with an impact upon the energy crisis unless the kind of
planning sequence presented above is considered basic to and not
separate from conventional planning practice and is specified to

a particular place.

 

1In this thesis solutions to the energy crisis are assumed
to be most possible and workable using appropriate technologies.
But assumptions are always made and should always be an explicit
part of a plan.

CHAPTER VI

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS IN CONVERSION TO
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES IN DOWNTOWN
EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN

The planning sequence explored in this and subsequent

chapters in further depth follows from an assumption that appropriate

technologies offer sustainable solutions to the energy crisis. The
method proceeds with analyses of data available and needed to apply
apprOpriate technologies to a specific geographic area. Once the
data are collected the process of technological conversion can be
postulated. Then the costs and savings can be studied.

Actual implementation and conversion is a socio-political
process, studied in Chapter VII. The process of conversion will be
facilitated with a data base, technical conversion and costs analy-

sis concomitant with culture change along the soft path.

Data Base
End Use Energy Needs
For purposes of transition, end use needs can be described
in terms of existing uses (Figures 17 and 18). Figures 12-15 in
Chapter V present a general but sufficiently accurate figures for

the develOpment priorities of soft path programs.

78

79

The Michigan equivalent to the U.S. figures (Figures l3-l4)
is presented below. Program direction toward significant savings
in energy use can be dtermined from such general figures. In East
Lansing, where no industries are directly involved priorities should
be given to transportation, residential and commercial buildings,

particularly Space heating and electrical use.

MICHIGAN END USES 1978
ON}NTIAL\\\

 
    

mm:
AUTO

 

(Michigan Energy Administration,1978)

FIGURE 19:--Michigan End Uses by Percentage

If the major purpose of the planning process proposed here
is to implement appropriate technologies, then the existing data

base will need further specification to the area being studied.

80

In many conventional planning rationales, data collection
purports to have no explicit programs in mind. For instance, in
reviewing the community energy history for the Argonne Proposal.
mentioned in Chapter IV, the city of East Lansing synthesized the
following data.

85% (rf the residence in East Lansing are heated and
cooled with natural gas. The average single-family home
consumes 180 mcf of gas per year and an apartment consumes
100 mcf. Applying these figures to the City's housing
stock indicates that l.3 trillion cubic feet of natural
gas is consumed in the City by residential uses. The
Board of Water and Light provides electricity to 9800
customers who consume 9 million kilowatt hours of electri-
city per year. . . . At the rate of 325,000 vehicle miles
driven daily within the City and 15 miles per gallon of
gasoline consumed indicates that approximately 8 million
allons of gasoline are consumed yearly with the City
%at 80¢ per gallon an expenditure of $6,400,000 annually
within a radius of 2 miles) (East Lansing, May, 1978:2).

No conclusions about programs,priorities or possible effective
solutions to a defined crisis were proposed. As such the data
remained random and meaningless at best and calculated to provide
non-solutions at worst.

Summary of Relevant Existing
Planning Data

 

Until recently energy data had not been included in planning
considerations. Here the existing data are organized by general
demographic, transportation, buildings and weather. Only kinds of
information relevant to the problem of conversion to appropriate

technologies are cited.

81

General Demographic Data

 

General demographic data relevant to a soft path conversion
process include numbers, age, employment and income. Some data
are available through the city, most from the United States Bureau
of the Census. Of particular relevance here are the numbers of

people, the proximity to the work place, and the amount of income.

Transportation Data

 

The census data also include numbers of cars and numbers of
pe0ple who drive to work. The Michigan Department of Transporation
and Tri-County Regional Planning Commission have Origin and Destina-
tion Data and vehicle count figures.

The City of East Lansing has comissioned two studies
relating the traffic in downtown East Lansing. The Villican Leman
Study (1978) recommends a peripheral route around the downtown
area and the Burke study (1977) calls for additional parking ramps
in the Central Business District. Both are based on an assumption
of exclusive use of the car for transportation and on vehicle counts
and projections without regard for origin, destination or distance.

In addition, another study, (Horvath, 1974) analyzes the
amount of space occupied by the car in East Lansing in terms of

land use and death rates.

Buildings Data

 

The census figures show numbers and ages of residential

structures, kind of heating number of units, and value. City data

\

82

include zoning, rental - ownership, comprehensive plan maps and a
partially completed neighborhood housing condition survey (see
Appendices A - E).

The State Energy Administration conducted a Project Conserve
which audits residences and has been summarized for East Lansing
(Zuidies, 1970; Harris, 1979). Utilities do not now reveal informa-
tion on individual buildings, the kind of general information avail-
able is quoted above. In addition, the Tenants Resource Center

has detailed rental housing information.

Weather Data

 

In order to tailor various forms of renewable energy supplies
to a locale, information such as that presented in Appendix F should
be known and is available from the United States Weather Bureau.

In the case of wind availability, site specific information is neces-
sary, just as available southern exposure of individual structures
should be ascertained for solar applications.

These kind of data are available to planners and others
everywhere. Cataloguing has often been a major job of planners.

But planners should do more than that, they should not only create

new data but organize existing data in new ways.

Modification of Existing Data
Data are presently collected in a relative haphazard way.
The Census tracts, Neighborhoods and Traffic Zones are all different.

(See Appendices A and B and Figures 24 and 25.) As a result drawing

83

of consistent compilations of data for some specific purpose as is
desired here becomes difficult.

A specific data recommendation for implementing appropriate
technologies then would be to set the collection zones in a uniform
manner. Such zones should be defined according to neighborhood
for a number of reasons that become more obvious in Chapter VII as
the argument progress. The main reason is that while much of the
conversion of cities to appropriate technologies will need to occur
on a single house level, the neighborhood is an essential organiza-
tional level for implementing appropriate technologies. It is the
level where concerted action by people can occur.

Additional data will be required as outlined below. But
the Neighborhood movement has already required the Census Bureau
to provide census data for neighborhoods (U.S. Department of

Commerce, 1975; NAN Bulletin, June/July 1978:11).

Collection of Additional Data

 

In order to demonstrate a study and a planning process and
to indicate more specifically what kinds of additional data are
needed for energy conversion, a study zone has been created for
this thesis.

The study area consists of 29 downtown East Lansing blocks
as indicated in Figures 20-21. For purposes of residential and
commercial mix portions of Neighborhoods 9 and 10 are used (see
Appendix B). For purposes of housing and income mix portions of

census tracts 41 and 31.01 (Appendix A) are studied.

84

Aucwsaopm>mo zpw::EEou

vcm mcwccm—m .mcwmzoz

we ucwsucmnmo mcwmch ummmv
*4 mcwmcmg “mom czcuczoo

 

 

  

a85—
>3:-

 

 

 

 

 

                 

mcwm:MA ammm mmc< auzumnluom mzawfiu

  

 

 

    

 

 

 

.2 ..

.l I ll...

huntn .5;

Our-...“ “2.2
I. II. I

n35. - a Pro

 

 

 

 

“”1

 

 

3318 7ND

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«$9.533

 

85

as. 3am 8: 353:": $58“.

 

9:23 33. :zouczoo
E? 825%

 

 

 

       

  

1

3'21 é‘bnm meg ..

 

 

‘1.

l
' 05M

ammonia

 

 

 

       

 

 

  

J

m<m

 

n32 m

86

Specific data for this area can be generalized from the
census and city data. Additional data are required for a conversion
to apprOpriate technologies. Some needed additional data are
indicated on the block chart (Figure 22) including southern exposure,
collector surface, land surface and numbers of houses and buildings,
numbers of cars and people.

These kinds of data should be included in the census and
should be made available on a neighborhood level. In addition
individual building audit data are already available from a variety
of sources and additional information from the utilities companies
will soon be mandated (Veenstra, 1979).

From a basic data base plans for technological conversion
can begin. A sequence for dealing with the technological conversion

in the study area follows.

Technological Change

 

Step 1: A Transportation Plan

 

Transportation.--The Department of Energy Data on Michigan

 

Transportation indicates three different types of trips (Figure 12),
67% of the travel is for local passenger trips of unspecified length,
6.4% of the trips are intercity passenger trips and 26.6% of trans-
portation is freight trips.

In East Lansing it is useful to divide trips more speci-
fically into categories such as: (1) Passenger; (a) local, (b) to
town, (c) through town; and (2) Freight. While the exact percen-

tages of end use in each of these categories was not known, it was

Cf)
,1>
E:
'13
1*“

g:

h

BLOCK

87

ANALYSIS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ES
g a
:< E“
'— —G
815‘ 33.4 no:
. 2% 2'53 £33.: =5;
0 °e. as: s; ”:2“ g:
s :33 :8: e: 5:35 g;
: ::v as: as egg: 2:
l F19.250 All 8 P. 3.000 36
5 1,406 G 14.800
2 S 7,400 All H 18 P 7,200 --84 -
6.27.000
3 5 4.500 H 12 H 16 P 32.000 73
G All G 7 G 45.000
4 5 2.000 H 8 H 15 G 52.000 75
G 10
5 S 3.400 H 8 H 17 G 20.000 77
G 15
6 5 4.300 H 19 H 26 G 24.000 118
G 14
7 S 2.600 All H 13 G 20.000 42
G 12
8 Off S None H 14 G 10.000
2.100 C 7
9 F14,800 Hone H 8 G 15.000 36
G 1
10 F31.800 H 3 P 39.000 13
C S G 5.600
11 F 2,400 H 8 H 15 G 40,500 104
G 6
12 F 4,000 H 6 H 14 G 30.000 107 F: Flat Roof
A 1 5: South Facing or
Sloped Roof
13 S 150 H.12 2 I; G 15.000 ‘54 H: House
a G: Garage
14 5 1.500 None H 19 G 40.000 47 P: Parking
G 9 G: Green Space
C: Commercial
15 5 2,000 All 2 I; G 15.000 38 A: Apartment
16 S 150 All H 16 G 16.000 75 Persons Per Dwelling Unit
G 8 ST, . 44.,
ingle Family
17 5 2,700 All H 12 6 10.000 38 Owner Occupied 3.13
G 3 Rental 4.46
18 5 1,000 All’ H 12 ‘6 151000 41 Duplex 3.33
G 5 Apartment 2.86
19 s 150 m u 16 a 22.500 49 5"“ 3°
G 9 —
20 S 150 H 2 H 2 P 30.000 9
21 F 5,000 H 6 H 10 G 15.000 70
S 800 ' C 1
22 F 7,000 H 14 H 14 G 25.000 73
S 400 A 2' ‘
23 5 2.100 H 3 H 17 G 30.000 77
24 5 2.100 H 6 g 1: G 30.000 76
25 5 4.000 H 6 H 16 G 25.000 73
AG 10. j
25 ’r 72.000 cc 5 c 16 P 40.000 120
A 56
27 FSC.OOO C 5 C B P 30.000 0
28 F3S.‘OO C 7 C88 P 20.000 4
H l
29 F24.000 C 7 C 7 P 21.000 56
5 2,000 H 10
a 21? H 351 P230.000 17015
TOTALS 310.756 CC 25 G591.600

FIGURE 22:--Study Area Block Analysis

88

assumed that local passenger travel is a very major transportation
factor in East Lansing. In part this assumption comes from local
demographic data which indicate that 75% of the workforce (U.S.
Census, 1970), who live in the City of East Lansing work within its
borders. Most of their daily passenger trips then are within a

2 mile radius which encompasses all of the University and the City
of East Lansing (see Figure 23). In addition, 70% of people in
census tract 41 and 46% of the people in tract 39.02 are in schools
within a 2 mile radius of their homes.

Most of the trips to the City of East Lansing are made to
the University or downtown East Lansing. Many of the trips through
town are to specific places or at specific times. Easterly trips
through town are primarily for shopping at the major shopping
center east of town. Westerly trips through town are made to the
Capitol or one of the large industrial plants from settlements to
the East. '

As Figure 23 shows major arteries exist for all these pas-
senger trips. Figure 23 also indicates the throughway which accom-
modates most intercity passenger and freight traffic.

Planners have in recent years sought solutions for all
categories of trips in road going motorized vehicles that consume
large amounts of cheap petroleum: But petroleum is no longer cheap
nor unlimited in its availability. And in terms of capital expendi-
ture, the car is the most expensive form of transportation

(Mitchell, 1979; Living Systems, 1977:51; Clark, 1975:154).

89

MA JOR APTEBJES EAST LANSING AREA

 

 

 

 

M: mu» M

C: Mwmmfi

an zmw NM“ “”5
”0:11:qu

m‘ L;
wawm'

44a: .
‘ \L

 

 

\

(Guins, 1979)‘
FIGURE 23:--Major Arteries: East Lansing Area

90

In Lansing area planning agencies, transportation is defined
exclusively as a problem of roads and automobiles. Solutions to
perceived traffic problems are confined to further road or parking
ramp construction. These are based on one kind of data, vehicle
counts, projected by various methods.

In planning appropriate transportation systems, one that
match the job that needs doing with the most appropriate means of
doing it, a more subtle approach is necessary. Vehicle counts
alone are not a sufficient basis for planning this more subtle

transportation system.

More refined transporation data.--The first step taken at
Urban Options in the Transportation Task Force, was to analyze the
existing origin and destination data available at Tri-County
Regional Planning. This had never been done because it is time
consuming. Several results of the analysis compiled by John
Mitchell and Peter Guins are illustrated in Figure 24 and 25. They
indicate that at least 2400 round trips per day are made within a
2 mile radius of the CBD.

A half-mile is thought even by the most conservative plan-
ners to be an appropriate distance for walking, (Spreiregen, 1965:
166). Two miles is a simple distance for bicycling (Living Systems,
1977:50-60). Yet the proposed solution to the downtown parking
problem is to build another parking ramp for $2.4 million to house
428 cars. Alternative plans will be proposed here for encouraging

people to walk in the Central Business District by making it safe,

pleasant and convenient (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1979).

91

uaoov0vd

Aco_mmwesou mcwccmpa
chowmmm xgcaouupcpv
ppmzouwz czow

2

map

NAVF

I

mmw

 

 

.Lum

 

Nu;

mmCON ewgpwz match Lao »_Peo--nem “mauHL

n—p

flwmm

 

 

s. (IUcDO

 

mszN oszz<4 Hm<m zmzhmz

mwNN

.Vo

NOSIIUVH

 

ma. 3 . m3

>.:<Q

92

mm=0N newcoa;m_mz 00 one soc» match Lao »_Pma-- mm mezwaa

Amcwccm—a pmcopmmm xucaooumcp

7 :28; .22.

nmN

 

amp

asp

 

 

ho—

   

;mto. 0:... «2

«ON

OOOMDNIHO)

 

hmu

 

 

1 50.

~32: v

Ob) s.
c 2'
.0

wow

LIOIIV

 

 

:2 :03 .23

mmzo~ wszomszmz o» emu zomu

mnzm; m<u \SEQ

93

The second step the Urban Options Transportation Task
Force took in the data collection procedure was to study origin and
destination of trips taken on a cross town artery Grand River Avenue.
On the major through town artery, Grand River Avenue, the data show
that 33.3% of the trips taken on that artery or 11,322 trips per day
are trips within a two mile radius. Most of these are far more
appropriately taken by bicycle.

The major pr0posal on the drawing boards for Grand River is
to build a through campus highway at the cost of $35 million.
According to the Urban Options Grand River study only 11.5% of the
trips now taken on Grand River could possibly use the proposed
cross campus route.

In addition to the 11,322 cars (33.3% of 34,000) which
could be removed from Grand River by facilitating bicycling and
walking, many trips on this road are taken to common destinations,
Meijers to the East (4.56%) and the Capitol and Oldsmobile to the
West (12.43%) and could be greatly reduced by regular buses, car
pools or jitneys (Guins, 1979).

An appropriate transportation plan.--If it can be assumed
that car traffic on Grand River Avenue can be cut in half by
encouraging bicycle, pedestrian trips and mass tranSportation,
alternative transportation plans can be drawn (Figure 26).

Half of present Grand River Avenue would be reserved for
bikes, local buses and expanded store front pedestrian area. The

major arteries, served by bus or car pool are mapped by a double

94

 

 

mcwmcog pmmm czoaczoa
"cap; cowumucoamcmch mumycaocaa<u-uo~ mmawfid

 

 

 

1

 

 

 

 

/
‘0
/

 

 

‘ ~ 3.- inn---”—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

95

line. These connect with the major arteries shown in Figure 23,
which run across or around town. The main bicycle routes designated
in dotted lines coincide with the single line mini-bus, jitney or
taxi service.

Such a transportation system creates super blocks within
which transportation is mainly pedestrian and bicycle. The right
of way also allows for emergency access. These three different
kinds of trips, intercity or through town, two mile radius and 1/2
mile radius are serviced by three different sized rights of way,
60', 30' and 26' respectively.

For much of this, perhaps all, it is possible to use
existing vehicles. Cars could be commonly owned or sold to the
University or city and with them a very effective short run local
transport system could be devised, as has been done in many parts
of the third world. This will be possible if infrastructures sup-
porting walking and bicycling such as tree planting for shade and
wind shielding are built. The amounts of money required for such
programs would certainly not be larger than the amounts now
normally used for road maintenance (Figure 31). In addition large
amounts of land now occupied by the car in places such as this '
study area would be freed for productive uses.

The old and suggested ways of looking at transportation
planning are illustrated in Figures 27 and 28 below. In the
Existing streetmap, Figure 27, which is far less dramatic than
the Machine Space Map illustrated in Appendix G, streets and park-

ing are central to the plan and often unnecessarily wide.

96

           

COLLIIGIOOD

Spa-(n.40

 

an: uwmcgm mcwamwxm--unw mmstm

2 :28; 5.2.:
mcwmch “mam czopczoo

AAOII'

wflja oz< wEmEm 07:53AM.

ILIIAII'I

PROPOSED NARROWEP STREETS

 

97

COLLIIC'OOD

 

   

  
  

" We.” vvutfi . w!
y,,..-~,_«3~H;~

       

 

U)

4.)

Q)

OJ

5.

4.)

(n

L

(D

3

U7 0

c t
'0-

0.? cu

E Z
1‘5

_.II- '0

1'— Q)

440) m

(11.: C

MD D.

LU“ 8

av "-

uoe g: of

O: I

4.0;: ..

:0 co

n.3- Lu

0:

D

(D

H

Ll.

98

Figure 28 illustrates the suggested way of looking at the same
place where streets are reduced to sizes suggested in Figure 26 and
available green space is emphasized. This reversal in view is
essential to appropriate technologies planning.

A planning process which emphasizes conversion to appropriate
technologies should aim for significant savings. In East Lansing a
transportation plan such as that outlined in Figure 26 should be
coupled with plans which conserve significantly in the amount of

fuel used for space heating and the production of electricity.

Step 2: A Buildings Plan

 

Weatherization.--About half the space heating needs now
reflected in the pies (Figures 14 and 19) can be supplied by tighten-
ing the shell of buildings. This includes insulation, weatherstrip-
ping, caulking and storm windows or shutters. Insulation materials
and quantities are calculated according to thermal resistance of
materials (R Value) and climate. Good literature is available for
calculation of proper insulation quantities and kinds (National
Solar Heating and Cooling Information Center; D.O.E., 1977; Lechie,
et al., 1975:77ff; Anderson, 1976).

In addition local agencies such as the Ingham County Energy
Office provide free auditing services and other agencies such as
Capitol Area Community Service and Urbans Options provide weatheriza-
tion services or hands-on weatherization workshops for teaching or

performing the task of weatherization.

99

The cost of full weatherization of an average house in the
study area is based on calculation done by the Ingham County
Energy Office on the Urban Options Energy House. Total cost for
complete weatherization of that house at 135 Linden,was estimated
at $1,811. Savings from such weatherization procedures for the
first year are estimated at $1,623 (Appendices H and I). The pay}
back period with electric heat is less than 2 years. From then on
the cost of running the house actually decreases as energy prices
increase. Obviously weatherization is the first step and people are
making such a step (Zuiches, 1978).

In addition to basic conservation in prevention of heat
loss, many devices are now available for capturing significant
amounts of the sun's heat for space heating purposes. Among these
are the attached solar greenhouse, the trombe wall and the solar

window box.

Solar greenhouse.--In addition to minimizing heat loss

 

through weatherization, heat can be captured through a number of
passive solar devices that are effective in Michigan. A solar
greenhouse attached to the south wall of a house acts as a passive
solar collector. Without moving parts such a system not only
supplies energy to the house for space heating, it also increases
the living space and provides an atmosphere for growing a portion
of a familyfis fruit and vegetable needs (Yanda, 1976; McCullugh,
1976).

100

Greenhouse design calculations are made according to sun-
shine hours per month or useful sun hours, tilt angle of the collec-
tor, amount of storage, usually in water, concrete or stone mass
and insulation or shuttering system preventing heat loss.

Much work is now being done in this area. Calcu1ations on
the proposed greenhouse at the Energy House indicate that at a cost
of $2,100, 27% to 40% of heat for the house could be supplied. In
addition the additional 242 square footage added to the house will
produce roughly 484 lbs. of fruits and vegetables per year (Urban
Options, 1978).

At least 3/4 of the space heating needs can be supplied by
a combination of weatherization and solar greenhouse. A due south
facing wall exposed to the low angle of the winter sun is necessary

for solar additions.

Trombe wall. In cases where the extra space is not avail-

 

able or not desired another direct gain system called a trombe wall
is also available. In this a layer of glazing is added in front of
and parallel to a south masonry wall. The heat which is captured

by the glazing is either stored in the wall or vented directly into

a building (Daniels, 1964).

The solar window box.--A smaller device called a solar window

 

box heats air in a box that sits under a south facing window and
vents the warm air by convection into a room. Such a system can
easily be constructed by a home owner and can add 20%-30% of the

heat to a south facing room (Mother Earth News, 1977:101).

101

Step 3: Electricity

 

Appropriate uses.--Much of the energy used for generation

 

of electricity could be saved in two ways, by appropriate use and
on- site generation. Because electricity is a specilized form of
energy converted from fossil fuels or still expensive solar cells,
it should be used appropriately for lighting and electric motors,
for instance,and not in cases where low temperature heat is required.
Electricity should not be used, for instance,for space
heating or cooling where temperatures need only reach 70 degrees.
In census tracts 41 and 39.02 of which the study area under consider-
ation here are parts, 337 houses are heated by electricity and 1444
are cooled by air conditioning units run by electricity.
Space heating can be more appropriately accomplished in
ways outlined above and space cooling is more appropriately
accomplished by planting and shading techniques as used in Davis
(Ridgeway, 1979:50).
In addition, electric hot water heating is inappropriate,
and all electric hot water heaters should now be replaced or by

solar hot water heaters.

Solar hot water heating.--East Lansing is at 42°47: North
Latitude. According to Stoudt and Myers (Nov. 1977:b) (Appendix I)
Michigan has enough sunshine to supply about 70% of the hot water
needs. This is calculated by amount used, temperature of the water
'and the air, insolution or the amount of solar energy available,

and collector orientation.

102

The detailed calculations (see Appendix I) indicate that
50 square feet of collector can provide a family of four with 70%
of their hot water needs. The cost of such systmes is estimated
by the Ingham County Energy Office to be $1,500 - $2,000.

The United States and Michigan Solar Tax Credit acts make
this opportunity financially possible. A person who makes a $2,000
investment in a solar hot water heating system, in 1980 receives
a 55% refund using both federal and state tax credits. Many com-
mercial solar hot water heaters and do-it-yourself designs are

available (National Heating and Cooling Information Center, 1977).

Commercial and city lighting.--In the study area under con-

 

sideration here, are a great many commercial buildings. Lovins
claims that reduction in commercial overlighting alone would amount
to 3% of the total energy use in the United States. Reduction in

city overlighting can also account for considerable savings.

On-site generation with solar cells and wind.--In order to

 

save on the considerable amount of fuel wasted in transmission
(see Figures 10-11), on- site generation of electricity should be
encouraged. While solar cells are not at the moment cost effective,
with sufficient government incentive they could be (Commoner, 1979:
34-8).

In anticipation of this and in order to calculate available

space for solar hot water heating, planners should begin surveying

103

the amount of flat roof or southern sloped roof available in their
areas of concern. Roof areas are not considered conventional parts
of planners “open space" but should now be considered such (Figure
22).

In addition, wind systems are possible even in urban areas,
as the project at 517 S. 11th Street has shown. More importantly
wind and solar generation systems, point up the necessity for
matching one's use to the amount of renewable supply (Energy Task
Force, 1978).

Centralized fossil fuel generation facilities are now
producing more than 23% more than their peak loads. Peak loads can
be evened out mainly by eliminating electric airconditioning systems
and the slack now available especially with concerted conservation
programs such as in Davis and Seattle, can make in unnecessary to
build any new centralized facilities.

In the meantime much more money should be invested in
decentralized, on-site methods of electrical production matched to
appropriate uses of electricity in conserved amounts.

Step 4: Integrating Suggested
Technologies

When all the additions suggested above are drawn into the
land use of the study area, possibilities for planning are greatly
expanded. The land use is no longer dominated by the car as in
Figure 27 but is opened to a range of possibilities both for housing,

food growing, local production and distribution. Some possibilities

104

for the study area are shown on Figure 29 below. This process could
be staged as shown in Figure 30 which also indicates areas where

labor is needed and jobs created.

Economics.--Money now available for instituting the kinds
of changes proposed in Figure 29 could come from both public and
private sources.

The total cost of weatherization of each house in the study
area would be roughly equivalent to the Urban Options Energy House,
$1,909. Such as process would save 50% of the fuel now used for
space heating. With a gas heating system, the average payback of
all steps in the process is 6.6 years. With electric heating the
average payback is 1.3 years (see Appendices H and I).

There is no doubt that the average consumer with timed
payback periods supported by various financial systems would be
able to adequately weatherize and insulate his or her home.

Commercial and larger city buildings operate with far
more complicated heating and cooling systems and some audit
procedures or systematic mechanical fixes for increasing efficiency
are now being pursued. It is probably safe to assume that most
large buildings could be much improved in terms of energy perform-
ance within reasonable costs.

The amount of flat roof space and southern exposed space
available in the study area, as indicated in Figure 22 shows that
at least 70% of the hot water needs of the area could be met by

solar hot water systems. The homeowners, renters and shop owners

TECHNOLOGIES

Downtown East Lansing

APPROPRIATE

105

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mr W91
W‘WE TWNOLOQIE‘I

mmmmue
wmq w

\ .
\\ .. ' .
Cnx. -: . r . “
4. . 0 . A I v
\\:, \ _ - _ g. I '
s ... .
u n x . V'. v .I
. _ «. 3. ,1 . . ‘- 4
,' ~ 2} , '4 I It
‘ 1 ‘ 34 1 v
I ‘ u / \
p Q \

  

 
   
  

FIGURE 29:-—Downtown East Lansing

Using Appropriate Technologies

106

mmwmopocgum» mum

wcaocan< o» mmmooca

cowuwmcmghuanom mmawHu

 

acmxmz cowmwumo m>wum
-cmaoou mmcwzcmm momnm
:oseou mo mm: :oEEou

xcoz
mcwowuco can mcvcwmsh

mocmcmpcpmz

maogmxcoz cam mcwcwmch:
cowuuchmcou

maogmxcoz use uawcmmc»
:oPHMchmcummz

mcouwvzm epoch

momgm coco
coseou co :oHumwcu

mcmxcoz we mammp

mumam ammo xuopm
comcmucH mm:
Loxucm :o upwzm

mcmucmw Hemp;

 

mwxon
soucp: .mcmumm;
swam: Ho; .mmmao;
-cmmcm cm—Om vppzm
mmcHuHHan
Hpm mwvcmgummz
mmeHuHHza

HHE HHu=<

 

mcmwcammumg
can mman
com mumoc mNHm
mszp< m>oemm

mommcmw m>osom

 

 

 

 

 

mcwcmmch

 

 

mcowmmomqwcowum~mcmmco

mpmwcopmz

 

mama 2,2:
* xuogm

mxmmp

N amHm

H amHm
mm: ocmH

 

N amHm.

H ampm
mmeHuHHzm

N amHm

H amHm
comumucomwcmch

FmflIw. VEOZ mgazqw

107

taking advantage of the tax credit acts and the kinds of financing
offered in weatherization programs could readily afford such systems
(Ingham County Energy Office, 1979).

Similar arguments are true of solar greenhouses. While the
cost and solar access will vary, a very large greenhouse such as the
one being added to the Urban Options House for a mterials cost of
$2,000 is a worthwhile investment both in terms of direct gain for
space heat and growing space for a year round food supply (Todd,
1977).

Families with an average income of above $13,000, such as is
the norm in the study area, invest and saves annually $1,770
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in Morrison, 1977:20). Such an
amount available on an annual basis could completely weatherize a
house, build a solar greenhouse and a solar hot water heater in
under 4 years.

Figure 31 below indicates the amount of monies now spent or
anticipated using non-renewable energy sources. While some public
investments in the form of bonds would be necessary to construct
such parts of the plan (Figure 29) as the overground-underground
or a large bus station, these are certainly genuine alternatives
to the proposed $2.4 million parking ramp and the $35 million cross
campus highway.

The problems in the process of conversion to appropriate
technologies and hence the planning methods which need to be

employed to facilitate them, are not centered in either the

108

LOCAL PRIVATE AND PUBLIC FUNDS

..... ..3» Conventional A ro riate
Expenditures lechnologies
Expenditures
PRIVATE FUNDS : Study Area
(Study Area Population:1, 709)

Automobiles 1978 )
1. 035 x 350, 000 x 28¢/mile) $1,251,950

Investments, Insurance 3

Savin s 1978) Z.
111. 8; x 546 x $15, 000) 966,420

Housin (1978)
4. 3 x 546 x $15,000) 2,022,930

Weatherization of 351 Houses
in Study Area (351 x $2,000) S 702,000

Solar Greenhouses for 219 Houses

in Study Are5’(219 x 52000) 438.000

TOTALS $4,241,300 3 1.140.,000

PUBLIC FUNDS: East Lansing
ty 0 ast Lansing 1978-79 Budget)

Trans ortation
Police $1,248,551

 

 

Parking Enforcement 27,431
Sidewalk Construction 30,000
Street Tree Plantin 43,000
Street Maintenance (Major) 104,807
General Major Street Expense 50,000
Traffic Control (Major) 71,450
Street Maintenance (Local) 192.310
General Local Street Expense 52,130
Traffic Control (Local) 23,420
Parking System Operating 291, 755
Additional Parking 97 745
52'231,5§9
Housing and Buildings
’Bddeing Maintenance 123,371
Building and Zoning 115,928
Housing Rehabilitation 125, 000
Neighborhood Strategy Area 103 000
S 467, 349
Education/Outreach
Planning, Housing and 0.0. 214,196
Public Service 1,061,951
Planning/Management Development 65,000
Provision for Public Service 40 350
3 1,531,391
Bond Re uests
[at 9 Ramp ‘SZ,400,000
Cross Campus Route . 35,000,000

CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT
lfififififififlfiTfiET_——
kCBD Report, PTEn 2)

 

 

Trees and Landscaping 90,000

Concrete Planters and Wooden Benches 27,200

Street Lighting 60,000

‘aPaued Brick Pedestrian Area (MAC) 285,000

Overground MAC to Campus 1 000 000
Tmms : 4 4 44 {IZEZEET

J

FIGURE 31:--Funds Available for Appropriate Technology Conversions

109

technology or the economics of present United States culture (Solar
Lobby, 1979). Technologically and economically a high level of
energy efficiency approaching self-sufficiency could be achieved
within a relatively short time using appropriate technologies in
ways outlined above.

These technologies are rested in fundamental principles of
conservation, respect for the eco-system and self-reliance. They
will result not only in a different complex of data and technology
and allocation of money but also in a fundamentally different
social system. Attempts to plug them into an existing social
system will demonstrate their supposed failure not facilitate
their use.

Many solar advocates including Denis Hayes and Amory Lovins
claim that reductions on the order of 40 ot 50% in our overall
energy use can be achieved "without altering our lives" (Frank,
1978). The more detailed planning processes shown here demonstrate
to the contrary. Acceptance of appropriate technologies will
involve partly an admission that lives in the United States will
change. It is partly for this reason that these changes are in

some places such as East Lansing, not occurring easily.

CHAPTER VII

THE SOCIO-POLITICAL LEVEL OF CONVERSION
STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE ALONG THE
SOFT PATH

Technical and economic changes postulated in Chapter VI can-
not occur in a vacuum. Parallel changes in the decision-making
processes and social structure will emerge in this society. This
chapter explores some details of the kinds of socio-political
changes essential in the process of adoption of appropriate
technologies.

Appropriate or soft technologies will not simply be imposed,
nor will they magically appear. The necessary changes, particularly
socio-political changes, are being met with resistance. Reasons

for this resistance can lead to a more refined discussion of

strategies for change.

Decentralization
Callsfor decentralization in social structure and decision-
making processes as a necessary component of a culture based on
appropriate technolgies are frequent. Some of these stem from
technological necessity or end-use efficiency, others consider
the solar technology a useful addition to an already urgent cry for

the distribution of wealth and power in the United States.

110

111

Decentralization as a Technical
Necessity

Some solar advocates use social decentralization as an

 

offshoot of the technology. Often their definition is merely
technological:

Unlike conventional fuels, solar energy is inherently

decentralized. Consequently in many situations it is

most appropriate to utilize on-site facilities for the

collection and storage and use of the sun's energy

(Solar Lobby, 1978:212).
Other recent reports extend recommendations somewhat further:

To provide the kind of stimulus solar needs, the

federal bureaucracy itself needs to decentralize its

planning and thinking. It needs to be more conscious

of the role that local and state governments must

play in developing a national solar policy (Citizen's

Energy Project, l978:9).
Some discussions of decentralization in piecemeal recommendations
or in technological terms are meant to make the idea of solar
energy more palatable. Technology is usually considered an accept-
able topic of debate, discussions of ranges in wealth and power
distribution are considered radical and taboo.

But recent failures in adoption of these technologies and

future frustrations among those who see their obvious benefits but

cannot get them implemented point to deeper analyses.

Decentralization as a Cultural
Necessity

Commoner (1976:2) and Lovins (1976:55ff) give hints at a
necessary package, including a total reorganization of society,

with emphasis on neighborhoods and old-fashioned values. These

112

are not new assertions but reminiscent of most of the social-reform
movements of this century.

In one sense the appropriate technologies movement is the
technological arm of the civil rights, human rights and neighborhood
movements to mention a few. In attempting to implement small scale,
decentralized solar technologies, groups will run into problems and
mistakes similar to those encountered by these poor peoples movements.
Soft Path advocates need to heed the failures of the black power
movement or neighborhood movement and coordinate with their successes
otherwise they will miss the depth of the culture changes that need
to occur in order to deal with the energy crisis in the long run.

Solar advocates seek as did black power movements to
"involve people in their own destiny with greater competence,
skills and resources" (Riesmann and Gartner, 1970:53). In order
to accomplish these ideas and policies and specific technologies
emerge from groups working to implement these changes.

As Ced Currin, Chairperson of the Michigan Solar Resource
Advisory Panel (1979) said, "Solar technologies are simply the
kind of thing that originate from the bottom." A propos of the
Iblack power movements Riesman and Gartner concur: "The new ethos
is suggesting that generating new techniques, new administrative
practices, curricula from the bottom up would be more productive
than the traditional "trickle down" approach (Riesman and Gartner,

1970:53).

113

In an article on community control and the neighborhood
movement the effects of the present appropriate technologies move-
ment are reflected as they challenge:

the preogatives of the centralized bureaucracies to make
basic policy determinations affecting local areas and
represent a step in an on-going struggle to wrest power
from bureaucratic and hierarchical institutions of govern-
ment and industry. It attempts to redefine the democratic
process by rejecting the efficacy of representative insti-
tutions such as the national and local legislative bodies
to reflect popular aspirations. . . . This analysis
implies the need for a generalized concept of popular
control of all public institutions and the economy which
can appeal not only to black and poor but also to working
class and middle class people--to all who are deprived of
a significant voice in the institutions which determine
our lives (Arnowitz, 1970:48-51).

Two Approaches to Change

A more specific discussion of strategies possible or
relevant to implementation of appropriate technologies can be
approached from two directions. One is academic and to some
degree abstract. It draws experience from the political reform
movements, the poor peoples movements. Lessons from such an
approach have to do with a basic understanding of the social
forces at work in this country, a set of generalizations and
admonitions.

The other approach to a discussion of strategy has to do
with the practical, the lessons of on the job experience such as
that garnered by Urban Options and with Specific step by step plans

of action tailored to a specific place and time.

114

Decentralization as a Logical
Direction: Lessons From
Political Reform

Movements

 

In the process of challenges and debates, lessons of other
decentralization movements should be learned. Power cannot be
defined narrowly, objectives should not be limited to the techno-
logical sector alone, nor to garnering a larger piece of the pie,
nor to developing a group of skilled conversion experts.

As pe0ple organize around appropriate technologies they
need to understand a broad view and at the same time keep an eye to
particulars. Inherent dangers in moves for decentralization are
summarized by Riesman and Gartner as follows:

1. While community control is seen as a major lever
for changing, redesigning and improving the human services,
unfreezing the system by its demands for accountability to
to the consumer and increased relevance of the service, the
danger is that accountability may be achieved with no
increase, or even a decrease in productivity or efficiency.

2. While community control is seen as a way of involv-
ing people in their own destiny, giving them greater
resources and competency, the danger is that involvement
may become socio-therapy--participation in participation
or participation for its own sake . . .

3. There is a danger for localism and infighting among
local cliques and competitive groups for some "piece of
the action" and control of part of the "turf.“I The attend-
ant danger is participation for its own sake, that is,
participation without power and without economic redistri-
bution.

4. While community control is seen as an important
innovation in public administration, particularly through
its concern with decentralization, the danger is that the
groups involved in decentralization may have no influence
on central power where the decisions on funds, resources and
basic policy continue to be made . . . (Riesman and Gartner,
1970:54).

115

Such lessons need to be understood because, by the time the
energy crisis becomes severe enough to involve the middle class,
long term organizing will need to be well understood and short-
cutted. Many incremental changes will need to have already occurred.
Americans, in general, must be eased away from their life of
dependence--a measure of self-reliance needs to be established very
soon. The wrenching nature of such a major transition can be
softened with adequate lead time.

Alinsky's (1972) theory of change involving only confronta-
tion has reached its limitations in effecting broad scale change
in the United States. AS Pliven and Cloward document in their
account of the Poor Peoples Movements of this century in the
United States, disruption and protest when taken as the only strategies
has always resulted in restructuring of protestors. Those involved
are:

rooted in some institutional context, who are in regular
relationships with others in similar straits who are best
able to redefine their travails as the fault of their
rulers and not of themselves and join together in collec-
tive protest (Piven and Cloward, 1977, 19).

Unfortunately the definition of the protest has not been
broad enough and protestors have been worked back into the system,
without substantial change in the systemic problems which caused
the protest.

Government makes efforts to reintegrate disaffected
groups and to guide them into less politically disturb-
ing forms of behavior. It also moves to isolate them

from potential supporters and by doing so diminishes
the morale of the movement (Piven and Cloward, 1977, 36).

116

Changes in the socio-political system concomitant with
appropriate technologies will include some combination of the

small group, the neighborhood and the task group.

Small groups.--Kotler, Benello and Roussopoulus approach

 

participation from the individual as he/she forms into small groups.
They consider the psychology of group participation to be important,
the well being of the person can be the beginning point in restruc-
turing.

Significant relationships are built most naturally on

joint involvement in significant common purposes; to the

extent that local associations no longer have this power

the relationships they engender are trivial . . .

For the self to develop fully out of the dialectic of

the individual and the social order the possibility of

reconciling individual need with social purpose must

exist... . . The value of a face-to-face group lies

in its ability to nurture and integrate individual needs

rather than, as in the case of bureaucratic schools and

factories, reshaping the individual to meet the needs of

the institution (Benello and Roussopoulus, 1971:40).

In the case of appropriate technologies conversion this
becomes very important. If we are to reach beyond the depletion
of fossil fuels, the participation of the individual in the conver-
sion processes becomes essential.

If however, the decisions about kinds and combinations of
conversions are made at a level well above the individual that
person cannot be expected to participate in the process nor under-
stand its workings or its meaning. Kotler explains this point in

terms of the structure of neighborhood politics:

 

117

If a man shares in the deliberative authority of public
life, he will commit his own power to defend the corporate
body, even though he may be in the minority on many
decisions. He will defend the corporation for the sake

of his own deliberative right, but he is not apt to defend
it if all decisions is left to one executive or to an
elected council (Kotler, 1960:85).

The two functions of groups, "prudent decisions and force-
ful actions" (Kotler, 1968:87) become legislative and executive
functions. The questions of how these groups would be interlocked
at higher levels in order to make broad scale decisions is answered
by Benello and Roussopoulus:

If groups were represented at a system of national and
regional assemblies such representatives would be really
delegates inasmuch as their mandate would clearly be
determined by the groups they represented. Rather than
pursuing politics as a system of trade-offs with each
other, they would be forced to report to their respec-
tive group constituents. This follows from the fact
that the locus of decisions would be in the groups
themselves and not in their delegates (Benello and
Roussopoulus, 1971:50).

In present energy discussions the necessity for conservation
by concensus emerges as a top priority. Conservation is imperative,
but processes are not established to make conservation attempts
significant in terms of energy saved. People know that turning off
lights or turning down the thermostat in themselves make no signifi-
cant difference. At present, we have no means to establish more
effective particular recommendations and people see no reason to
comply with those with little or no effect.

Significant savings on energy can occur with active,
individual and block level efforts as explained in Chapters IV and

VI. While small groups can effectively and democraticatly operate,

118

many parts of logical significant programs such as cooperative use
of interior blocks or redone city wide transportation systems
require cooperation between groups.

In order to maintain local control and control in a series
of deliverative bodies effective checks on delegated power need to
exist in the kinds and importance of the decisions made by the
deliberative bodies themselves.

Kotler expands on this as follows:

Only two principles can contain the natural tendency of
unified executive power to become tyrannical through
manipulation of administration: first, the equality

of the people themselves and their power to make law;
and second, the division of executive power in an
elected council (Kotler,'l968:86).

The use of appropriate technologies, with the Focus on
single house and block level applications reinforces the importance
of the small group.

Groups on a higher level than the block develop around
essentially two different modes. One is territory, or the neighbor-
hood, the other is the task group. In this case both are postulated
to exist with appropriate technologies, the neighborhood becoming

a central decision-making body, the task groups more informational

and goods and service delivery oriented.

Neighborhoods.--A neighborhood is defined by Perry as:

 

a self-contained area embracing all the public facilities
and conditions required by the average family for its
comfort and proper development within the vicinity of
the dwelling (Schmandt, 1972:574).

119

In light of the discussion above, it is instructive to
look at Schmandt's arguments for neighborhoods. He divides them
into four categories: administrative, psychological, sociological
and political:

The first regards the device as a means of improving the
delivery of services; the second stresses the psychic bene-
fits which flow to the clients or consumers from its use;
the third emphasizes its value in adapting policies and
practices to locality differences in life styles, prefer-
ences and priorities; and the last views it as a mechanism
for mobilizing power (Schmandt, 1972:576).

Since the energy efficiency of systems close to the point
of delivery is now well demonstrated, the impetus toward develop-
ment of neighborhood systems is given technological: imperatives.
Only psychological, social and political imperatives have up until
now been the basis for neighborhood advocacy. ”

The neighborhood finally, becomes the forum for discussion
of "local public issues" such as housing and job discrimination
welfare rights. For this reason too a decision-making body organized
in territorial terms becomes important.

In a few cases, cited in Chapter III, neighborhood organiz-
ing has related to energy concerns. West Garfield,the greenhouse
project,developed from work of the Health Action Committee. The
Committee formed only one active element in the Christian Action
Ministry.

In lower Manhattan, another poor inner city neighborhood,

neighborhood organizing resulted from occupation and conversion

of 517 11th Street. "No Heat! No Rent!" was the song of success.

120

Ownership through sweat equity of a delapidated apartment building
provided organizing momentum (Energy Task Force, 1977).

Eastown, another example, a"transitiona1" Grand Rapids
neighborhood, formed the Eastown Community Association (E.C.S.)
in 1974. Only now are they considering energy-related projects.
Four years of political growth and organization have resulted in a
strong long-lasting example of neighborhood organization in the
United States.

The essentials of a participatory organization emerged from
growth through trial and error, through argument and action. Linda
Easley summarizes Specifics of the structure reached to this point:

1. Specific authority should be delegated to Specific
individuals for Specific tasks by democratic procedures.
All those to whom authority has been delegated should
be accountable to those who selected them.

Distribution of authority among as many people as

possible.

Rotation of tasks among individuals.

Ability, interest and responsibility Should be major

concerns for selection of people for tasks.

Diffusion of information to everyone as frequently as

possible.

Equal access to resources needed by the group.

Formalized structure to resolve internal conflict has

been created with development of a Planning Committee.

It serves as a forum for any ideas, conflicts and dissen-

tion which may be occurring.

9. The majority of people on the staff are those who have
spent many hours in volunteer work for the Association
and who live in Eastown and have a long term commitment
to improving the quality of life in the area.

10. The Eastown Community Association develOps reciprocal
relationships with residents. In exchange for services
such as repair work on a resident's house, the resident
volunteers a given number of hours in Association work
(Easley, 1978:70-71).

(Du Ch 01-h 0.) N

121

The development of these principles and their use in day
to day operations of the Eastown Community Association has been a
major factor in keeping the ECA a grass roots, participatory and
politically effective organization.

Rising energy prices, increasing unemployment may in the
near future product more neighborhood movements in middle class
neighborhoods. The Bailey Neighborhood Association, the neighbor-
hood where the study area is located has a newsletter but no pressing
concerns. Primarily groups in such neighborhoods are organized
around the workplace or task. These task groups Operate by concen-
sus as in Urban Options or through hierarchies in City, University
or other institution bureaucracy.

Frequently task groups are thought to be unworkable or
inefficient if run through assembly and participation. Since such
participatory systems will develop concurrently with apprOpriate
technologies, it is important to understand how these task groups

can be organized.

Task grogps.--While a portion of the time of pe0ple in an

 

apprOpriate technologies society will be Spent in meaningful
neighborhood activity, another portion of the time will be spent
in task groups. Worker owner and controlled factories and work
places in the United States are generally a solution to plant
closedowns and abandonments. They are illustrative of task group
organizations that fit with a participatory system with grass

roots control.

122

In Puget Sound Washington Plywood Inc., a $25 million 1

operation,
workers elect a nine-person board of directors from among
fellow workers in the plant. The board in turn, hires a
general manager, who is not a Shareholder in the co-op, to
run the business from day to day (Zwerdling, 1978:22).

The workers, not the general manager make crucial policy
decisions. Paycuts, for instance, are preferable to layoffs if
times are bad. With worker control decisions that benefit the
workers as well as the owners will be made.

In the Salinas Valley, the Cooperative Central ranch is
now a co-op owned by its farm laborers once poorly paid migrants.
The ranch, bought by

Federally funded community organizers with a Bank of

America loan . . . is a thriving model of worker

democracy. The farmworkers e1 ectaboard of directors

from among the membership. But most of the really

important decisions are made by all the members of

the co-0p at their monthly meetings (Zwerdling, 1978:23).
The decisions include those about where to put their profits and
how to prioritize the needs of the members.

Another example, the Consumers United Group, an insurance
company with 400 workers in Washington, D.C. where

an elaborate system of autonomous worker teams and
committees of worker elected representatives . .
formulate corporate policies and make the fundamental
decisions at every level (Zwerdling, 1978: 21).

These decisions include those on wage levels, profit shares,
workload, hiring and severance pay. The committee of executives
does make decisions about marketing insurance packages and corporate

investments and these people are hired by the corporate board.

123

Half the corporate board is elected by the workers and their control
though not total is growing.

People learn to participate and prefer the process of work-
ing in a place where they have some say. This is illustrated by
the examples of corporations bought by local elites when national
or multinational corporations have abandoned them.

In Vermont, the South Bend Lathe, workers are part owners
of a factory where Shares were sold to save the factory's existence.
But workers have no more say in the running of the factory than
they did in the old system. The workers however, expected a change
with the change in ownership and are now demanding it.

The National Center for Economic Alternatives is doing a
study funded by HUD for the Lykes Corporation of Youngstown. They
are recommending a worker ownership and control of a factory of
5000 employees, "not to advance socialism, but to save jobs"
(Zwerdling, 1978:24).

The practicalities of survival in economic terms are linked
with the energy survival issues. And the experience in worker
takeovers will be invaluable to the alternative energies movement.
Other examples, with documented details of worker controlled task

groups exist in places such as Yugoslavia (Pateman, 1970:95ff).

National restructuring.--Chile, an example of attempted
reform at the national level, provides many lessons for possible

national solutions to the energy crisis in the United States.

124

In discussions of distributions of solar systems in the United
States, the experience of Chile is revealing.

The main problem in redistribution of land and organization

of peasant cooperatives in Chile was that:
they tried to carry out a capitalist transformation
and modernization of traditional farming society with
some vaguely socialist elements, without altering
fundamentally the structure of the society (Chanchol,
1976:357).

The solarization of United States society as it is now
proceeding has similar problems. Appropriate technologies as
described above in Chapter II and VI are essentially distributive
and equalizing and lend themselves to participatory systems. The
nature of the crisis where capital and materials are running out,
lends itself to long-lasting high quality products, distributed
across the board. Slogans of "Buy Solar! and Commercialize Solar"
(Munson, 1979:12) reflect lack of perception about the changes that
need to occur.

As utilities dream up schemes to sell people who have money
short-lived hot water collectors, and make a profit besides the
solar conversion business backfires: Short-lived systems cannot
be replaced once capital and fuels and materials are depleted
sufficiently (Lovins, 1979:60). Restructuring national priorities
and reallignment of regional or national governments with people in
general rather than with corporations, will require imaginative inter-

linkages between small groups, neighborhoods and task groups. These

linkages rest their meaning and strength in the grass roots.

\

125

The sort of conversion to appropriate technologies postulated
in Chapter V1 is based on grass roots action, crucial decision-making
on a local neighborhood level, and distribution of useful information

and capital at higher levels.

Grass Roots Change Through
Decentralized Energy_

Systems

Downtown East Lansing study area socio-political changes.--
A look at the map of downtown East Lansing as shown in Figure 29
(p. 105) reveals quite a different technological system than the
map of the existing system (Figure 21). Such technological changes
occur only with changes in other aspects of the culture.

By drawing these maps and speculating upon those drawn for
Winons (Figures 8 and 9) and by reading the statements of the other
experiments such as Cerro Gordo or the New Alchemy, one is led to a
kind of archeology of the future. The determination of what kinds
of socio-political changes need to take place is a partly specula-
tive process based, as in "new archeology“ on knowledge of the
present system and knowledge of the physical layout.

It is apparent that much of the subsistence of the people
who would live in a place such as that illustrated in Figure 29,
would be supplied with their own labor very near to their own
residences. These include "any of the food products and much of
the energy supply needed for warmth and lighting.

This means that many people who now Spend their time away

from their homes or neighborhoods earning money to purchase

126

fruits, vegetables, protein, heating fuel and cars, would spend at
least a very much larger portion of their time than at the present
tending gardens, greenhouses, fish farms, fruit trees, and walking
or bicycling to nearby destinations. They would also have technical
knowledge of the construction and maintenance of the weatherization
process and solar systems, such as greenhouses and hot water heaters,
which are part of the decentralized technology.

While some of this would be accomplished in family groups or
single house groups, much of the work and organization and education
would occur at a block and neighborhood level. In fact determination
of the pedistrian, bike and motorized vehicle pattern and the use of
the interior block space would have to be made in deliberative bodies
such as those described by Kotler (1978:85).

These groups would have to be concensus oriented, cooperative
in nature as the level of physical participation required in the
technological systems will be much greater than exists today. In
these senses, the decentralized political decision-making system
takes on special and crucial importance in the implementation of
these technologies.

Referring to a chart devised by William Bunge (1973),
additions can now be made to those decisions described based on
local control of transportation, food and heat and light supply
systems. The kinds of organizing that needs to occur can be
illustrated in the energy additions to Figure 32. The places

Bailey Primary School,Baily Community Center and Urban Options

127

 

   

88.88: 88.8.08: .8 mHm>mH-- mm H¢=8HL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

c232: 5388

co.u80.paa< Loxvce xpaaam we mace;
muHuoHozzuuh mp<H¢ao¢aa<

 

 

 

 

wauN . . . . .
8a....H...1
f- .mp—QxUm ngfipcmoccwv 19:5“. .32. gee—250: no: :0... no: .
revive. gouacu uu—ou—Os. ...: 7- 1 . 72.32093 .5330 woo... «2.359: a e333
Lyon-um Q SvfiuakumSU . 0 "ac—mucha mon<..-O. ANNION .ncoquoo—o ..eeuuuue‘u. ass-slew :76:
252888 .3233: .32... 5.85028 .8 8.53.. 88.5mm” husfidfifififiu
.cozogocoou on: 3:95 c050). .mo—nou 9.3 0): v03 .3... 603.6 5 unwuuonwwmawu.nflgunmeun
..8 a .38 .8; :25 £888. -88.; -8888 :8: :8. s....nun....w8..u.a.=.. .2....a...u....r. s. .8:
mL—0 m . . a v 66:03" .633:qu
d Swuuzhumccu . . Egg :8“ >Hulouuue . a ...-:0 003““
5 9:58: .8828 ..88 . .wu....u.r.fim.uufiu gammy”...
.mswam>m 9.3000 ppgm SL5 333009 .3023... :09 >09 30:09.3. gooso-uoun 0:; 98425.23...
nucvucn—Q ”shown: MQDOLQ Jack :.mmou vase ...-ll.- 053-05 ““Muuwmwn “dun“
xuo—m .813:— vcu «33.1.32 mos—.5 . 00 x :23 . -3ng it... ......232... .uHooa 95......-
.mxc:wfim .w 3:2. “can 095ch a ..Eouu few—on 2 2. om...“ .Hfluwn ..HNHHUMHHJuuRmHME“uuucwbnnwfl
coo m a: L06 1&6 u .a
H H H z. u e. H z .883 82. ...... 38.. .1... auxin“......mufiunfiuuau
.8mm< WOO... .vcvx isoncmpwz Ox—m isonzmmmz 515% .2533. on: Jot-2:.— oo... hug—5'60
ILOA; '02 wan . .2538.“ 35:00:00 026: ”Icon
28 8,33 .35... 2:23 ...“.uum ....”xnxnfihfinsufiu
“Layaway-h ha —.U ICUmOanc Och “mom ..ou .32.:- ueuea £03.99... hue—3.00.0 23.: can: «.03
0 Q, h
MDSOLQ xmflh “Maw.“ 00L< .95nag-.....«nfiawwnmnuoacwuflnmfi wwwunww
P—G*UCU‘°‘WC‘LF Ws'QUIL¢C.EU "—0053 In.«h00ul lulvudwuo; 9:. ‘U—IHE - 00 80. O
. 333m 389:5 9:231. 523:...- Hx: coca: 3.28 3:. ... 3o 8. H H
shuaowbumva dwa—gmm1 l C $003 m—OOQLDU a .ocounOuo .nuuaoo 3.60 .0904—00 sown
co_.um—=LO&:~ no. U>vuau . a . .9553... 23350 ...-a ‘23:» 3:05.:-
00530m0x pace—00¢ Icovame .MELU... mCVQLP cm 2.0:. .n>ea:eunwe .eualfle. cauueuuanceuu ceu . . a
_ 3:038. mung 5.5m -2883»... .2: H33... .832. .308. .8 o8 a 2330 new"?
, __ a; _ _u u — .2630:- ..3» «an.
$.09530mmz Papa—bu: 0>¢fi60 2:95P ave. .2360! no nevus—l .930qu was...» .
_ town—u .2338:— -:mmmcawm .m.= -... .o 5:38.... .038 H23»... ...—... 88.88 8 8:...
cad—U COquu 00L< 2.0.005; eat-an season-.00; 1.3g.—
mccpuucau Q—EQXw mnaOLQ i—LHUQ—w DOD..— Uflflz ILOQWCQLH 0ngdxm . . «IUHtuuaucua

m4m>m3

 

128

already exist for the kind of education and distribution centers
that might be necessary as well as for neighborhood level delibera-
tion.

A step by step planning process begins to take shape in ways
outlined in Figure 30 (p. 106). It must be carefully coupled with
the political deliberative considerations implied in the expanded
Bunge chart in order to be successful. The skills needed in group
political decision-making and successful interpersonal group
activity are just as real and important as the technical skills

which give the more tangible rationale.

Urbanngtions Experience

While Specific paper plans as outlined above are important
to keep in mind, they often remain far removed from the day to day
workings of a group seeking to implement change. In part the
analysis presented here encompasses as much as it does because of
the experiences of Urban Options.

Urban Options encountered frequent and consistent opposition
from City Government. In Davis and Seattle where the City Government
and the Utility respectively, moved easily to significant work in
the areas of conservation and appropriate technologies, the necessity
for decentralization of the decision-making and links with other
essentially decentralizing movements, is not yet central. The
Opposition encountered by Urban Options made it obvious that
strong block and neighborhood level groups offers the major chance

of success.

129

In the long run, as the experience in Village Homes in
Davis and in Seattle suggest success of conservation and appropriate
technologies movements rests on political decentralization and parti-
cipation. The appropriate technologies movement brings to the
neighborhood and political reform movements a technological leverage
and legitimacy. The energy crisis itself will produce enough
economic pressure on individuals and cities to require genuine
participation on the neighborhood level and lower. The practical
hands on nature of the apprOpriate technology movement provides
organizing opportunities which have basis in practical and reachable
experience (Hess, l979z95ff).
Opportunities for defiance are not created by analyses of
power structure. If there is a genius in organzing it is
the capacity to sense what is possible for people to do
under given conditions and then help them do it (Piven
and Cloward,1977:22).
Structural Change
Not only technological change but also structural change
is possible for pe0ple to reach. Illustrated in Figure 33 below
are two parallel decision-making structures which now exist in the
solar movements in the United States. The decision-making structure
on the right is dominant today and will lead to hard path decisions
whether in the name of nuclear power or solar satellites.
The other decision-making system illustrated on the left
represents the emerging social system and it is part of the appro-
priate technologies movements. That structure is in its beginning

stages in the energy movement and need only be deepened and linked

130

mgauuagum suma=ugm2=
zmhm>m hzmmmma

.. L .n .
' -
u
Ill

“mowed... Ems

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_
u =1 L d 2 J - .xzflu _
_ F8882 be $382 .133 .. . éwé . . _
_l a NI—(l—Q U _ _ \_ _
.888... 8 88.88 _ . _ x x
- - - - _ A \ x _ .\ _
I—vfl _ _ \\ x \ _\\
. .IIrI.IJXMI . . 1\.\\ \. \\ b\x\ _
figmfi. . - \ 2054.882 wwumzm _
- = Efio \. \ O38 72 :32
Waldo View \ \ _
Bum; .8 .Ewm . \ \ ,_
Bewafizéz AIIII\F.VII...I-_I.II lllllll
\ \ -
\ \

magmqg a- J $420. w l _ -
x 29 Ill
... -- , \ \ «Myfizefiw fidfi Ill
oe>§m7fi \ \ £3ng 4.3.13?qu balsa H
§Y\\ mioufiiawuowzoupo Ill.
«wflng $5 933qu $233.24wuo 42w? WWW.

 

 

 

mco

meomo LMFom ”comum~w:mmgo we msmumzm --umm mmade

mgzpuzuum can; =umom=
zmhm>m wzmwmmzm

- ...... -
-QOEO 2§MDHWL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

22235 938 ...ZOC.<N.Z<O¢O LOT mEMHm>m

131

to the politically oriented groups to form a basis for a new social-
structure that can deal positively with the future.

There is no doubt that such a process would be facilitated
'be a favorable climate on the tOp levels of the present structure.
PeOple in the tap layers of the present decision-making structure
are often not immediately threatened, though decentralization and
distribution are antithetical to a strict hierarchical system.
People in more middle layers of the structure such as planners and
policy makers for whom practicing planners often work are immediately
threatened. "What is engendered by large bureaucratic organizations
that permeate our social system is an inflexibility of purpose and
a vested interest in the status quo" (Benello, l97l:40). This is

one major reason for the opposition to Urban Options work in the

City Government of East Lansing.

Role of the Professional Planner

A New Planning Process

 

A new planning process emerges from the form suggested in
the line of argument of this thesis. The process in this thesis has
gone from explicitly argued assumptions, through study of extant
examples, to kinds of data which allow for broad thinking about
planning alternatives, to wide political participation of people
with whom planners plan. The process can occur the other way around
from the participation to explicit assumptions.

Planners from Mannhein (194) through Friedman (l978) to

Grabow and Heskin (l973) have aruged in theory for some such process

132

with political participation as a central component. But these
arguments have often been taken for irrelevant academic thinking

that is unnecessary or unrealistic to translate into specific
planning professional practices. In fact such processes as suggested
here are revealed because of the energy crisis, to be intensely
practical and consistent with the wont of professional planners
precisely because they can lead to success in the short as well as
the long term.

To be caught in a series of failures is not only debilitating
personally and‘professionally, in the case of the energy crisis, it
could well be catastrophic. Failure to deal with the depth of the
problem by accepting obsolete premises and moving along old unsuccess-
ful paths, could put professional planning in the paradoxical position

of planning for a future that is not sustainable in human terms.

A New Planner

The social and political and moral imperatives of the 605
produced only a few practicing professional planners who operated
by the Needleman (1974) school and were aware of the meaning of
Sherry Arnstein's (l969) typology.

The energy crisis and the ecological crisis add to these
others a technical and economic imperative which make possible
solutions more urgent.

In terms of planners, the most lucid present discussion of
a new planner whose major focus is participation comes from the

neighborhood movement. Rick Cohen's work is based on his study of

133

the Pennsylvania Neighborhood Preservation System (PNPS). He goes
well beyond Anthony Downs (1970), Sherry Arnstein (1975) the
Needlemans (l974) in an understanding of the politics of the

neighborhood planning process.

Cohen concludes:

Planners must now begin to see themselves not as manipula-
tors of resources to be allocated to target neighborhoods,
but architects of new political forms which match the types
of problems and neighborhoods they must face. . . . This
is a different and probably difficult challenge to the con-
ventional thinking of planners. The neighborhood unit is
no longer a physical territory or a housing market, but a
political entity. Neighborhood planning is a political
process whose decisions have physical, economic and social
implications. Planners in PNPS have been compelled to turn
their conceptual world on its head, with results that may
be significant advances over technical fixes of traditional
neighborhood projects (Cohen, 1979:361-362).

The kinds of energy problem solutions presented in this
thesis have as their foundation the neighborhood made up of strong,
responsible and trained individuals doing work in their own houses
and with their neighbors. As a consequence the conversion process
must be in part a political process. Because this process is
participatory and not directive in nature, planners who facilitate
it will need different training, a different outlook than they now
have. By using the kinds of planning processes suggested in this
thesis we can arrive at energy solutions by beginning from where

we HOW are .

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSIONS

Professional planning process and practice which has
devloped in the United States needs basic revamping in response to
the energy crisis. While the general sequence of that planning
process which proceeds from assumptions and background to alterna-
tives and choice, through implementation, can be argued as a logical
basic system, in practice it has become pat and reactive.
The seriousness of the energy crisis mandates planners to
think in creative terms about possible and sustainable futures.
Frequently planners have simply reacted to isolated patterns as
they unfolded. But the energy crisis reaches deeply into every
aspect of culture in the United States.
In responding to this crisis planners have two choices.
One response is characterized by Heilbroner:
The planning that will emerge from the present crisis will
be of a different nature. Its essential prupose will be
not to remedy the various failures that capitalist growth
has brought but to direct and at the bottom to protect the
very possibility of that growth as long as that can be
(Heilbroner, l978z7l).

The planning methods and processes that follow from this choice

is one way, from implicit assumptions through implementation,

initiated and carried through from the top levels of social

I34

I35

hierarchy. It has become so narrow as to preclude any discussion
of genuine alternatives.

Planners can and are responding to the energy crisis in
another way, through changes in practice and methods as discussed
in this thesis. This second choiCe involves changing the content
of the planning process as it now most frequently exists in cities
in the United States. It also involves changing the nature of the
flow of the planning process. Instead of the planning process
proceeding from often implicit assumptions, through alternatives,
to implementation, planners could as is demonstrated in this thesis
begin at any point.

In this thesis the beginning is, conventionally with
assumptions. Unconventionally, the discussion of assumptions is
explicit and reaches to the core of the present energy debate,
between the "hard" and the "soft" paths. The contention in this
thesis, is that if this debate proceeds with a view of the depth
of the energy crisis in terms of the whole culture of the United
States, the choice for solutions which planners and others will
advocate is long the "soft" path. This involves not following
directives as planners are too frequently trained to do, but
advocacy. Such aulevel of discussion raises genuine alternatives.
These alternatives can suggest tacks in implementation along the
soft path. Some of these are summarized in view of a model of
culture in Chapter III.

In Chapter IV, the conventional planning process has been

reversed. The discussion of soft path planning proceeds in

136

Chapter IV from ongoing implementation at Urban Options. The
process of implementation of appropriate technologies in the Urban
Options example demonstrated that a unilineal method of planning
will not be sufficient in finding positive solutions to the energy
crisis.

In Chapter V the inadequacy and narrowness of the commonly
used energy data base becomes very apparent as energy planning
enters the concerns of local planners. If assumptions are explicit,
then a sequence of planning considerations can be developed in
detail and can be effectively argued from any point in the planning
process.

In addition the data upon which planners and others justify
their choices, can be collected for a specific and defined purpose.
In the case of the argument for the appropriate technologies solu-
tions to the energy crisis, data must be applicable to a local level
and usable and controlled by people in whose houses and lives
adaptation will occur.

Local planners are then thrust into a new level of
responsibility and complexity. A one tiered parking ramp is no
(longer an alternative to a three tiered parking ramp. Rather the
need for parking is discussed in the context of transportation
needs of the peOple within a planner jurisdiction. If conservation
and use of appropriate, renewable resources is a basis for planning,
transporation planning becomes a complex interweaving of pedestrians,

bicyclists and people and goods traveling by motorized vehicle

137

matched in their emphasis with the needs for local and intercity
passenger travel and freight carrying.

The technological planning process which can facilitate
the use of appropriate technologies and the amount of money avail-
able for such conversion are new specific provinces for local
planners. But the technology is learnable and interesting and the
money is still available as discussed in Chapter VI.

The most difficult part of the changes required of the
planner in response to the energy crisis has to do with the socio-
political role of the planners. As discussed in Chapter VII, the
planning profession as it is practiced today puts planners squarely
in a strict hierarchical decision-making system. If planners depend,
professionally or personally, upon this strict hierarchy, they can
become impediments to the kinds of socio-political changes which
seem essential to conversion to appropriate technologies.

Nith explicit discussion of the root issues brought forth
by the energy crisis, professional planners will become not merely
querrillas in, or advocates of, an existing top down view of their
professional practice where the content is narrow and reactive.
Rather planners will be participants, organizers and facilitators
of basic localized change with at once more subtle and in many ways
more complicated data, alternatives and syntheses, and a more

flexable view of the process of their professional practice.

APPENDICES

138

APPENDIX A

CENSUS TRACTS CITY OF
EAST LANSING

139

 

 

140

 
 
 
 
 
 

CITY OF

EAST LANSING
Michigan

1977
CENSUS TRACTS

..........

    
  

J‘fi—‘H‘tdh--I O 0

  

.—

“age

(City of East Lansing, 1979)

 
 

o
_-. _m

APPENDIX B

EAST LANSING NEIGHBORHOODS

141

OM‘flN-l

CHANDLER
WEST PINECREST
EAST PINECREST
WHITEHILLS
GLENCAIRN
WEST ALTON

5 i '
EAST LANSING NEIGHBORHOODS

142

    
     
   

EAST LANSING
Michigan

can or T—
197.?

7 EAST ALTON* 13 SOUTH CAHILL

8 WALNUT HILLS 14 WEST KENSINGTON
9 CITY CENTER 15 EAST KENSINGTON
10 WEST BAILEY 16 ROGUE

11 EAST BAILEY 17 RED CEDAR

12 NORTH CAHILL 18 SPARTAN VILLAGE

(City of East Lansing,1978)

APPENDIX C

EAST LANSING ZONING

143

144

U)NII\

 

 

 

 

 

u

    

u nu u

l.'. _1

   
  

96.3 i m

hsup a
t—23E'Gr‘ov I u :—

n.n

 

.J¢uu2mw
632.com - NM

m

 

 

 

       

 

.. . .
3. .. “..., V.

1.. .—

  

- .27.! : .—

                

.m.m..m=.m=8. a... L0 ...U.

wzHZON

 

ILOIEVV

 

 

    

 

 

......a- at

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

STUDY AREA: RENTAL LICENSE

145

146

  

gfl‘

, I
. u
. 5‘ \ .L
. "' 3 .
., "q:
i I
s ,9 ' . “‘1"
/ ' ‘ i 5%
" I3
5‘; e-"u. h
- -' ' .' . H
u . a 1‘ .
\ u 1
. .4 - '<~ .- v
. . '3‘ | 2014., o
1 ' - -
Z

a
in
‘4

u 6

  
  
   
  

  
  

z
u!
v
'3

    
  
  

 

., ”[15:37
. gny
mfi'fi? Ev

’ w

3.1!?
I ‘f .‘
29': I ‘
- “uh
I ' _‘3
, ‘q‘

aaaéarzaama pg

  
  

          

.- = "T “S?”
M : aaamaaaaamgaf
.. a! a: Wig-.8

RENTAL LICENSES

(City of East Lansing, 1979)

APPENDIX E

STUDY AREA: COMPREHENSIVE
PLAN 1980

147

148

——.

   
    
  
  
    

| a
WEE?”

‘ D-JH H

. I‘D/AC-

_ W“?
[mill—u
_-
«ya—anua

8a

5am N

5 5?

FVSLM_4

funUWflflll
— W»

m mgr—m.

- mm:—

L

E

'83) »
: amiEEE
‘W ‘
"rém
IQ
m;

w
.4 GI"
": Tau .
W .
71'
£5
1
4,4
4::

 

 

L;
v:
V.»
m“.

a" 5.;-
f: I

~v.‘ ..
~‘ cur.

'-

-
..—

. i", M’ Hiya“: ...:al Adv
‘4” 2 WE ‘"W:‘ ' 6 2:51

m : gm;§§aéflJgfifiisaaa
.hgg.

$319!:
. [1"

    
   
  

~

     
   

 

 
 
 
  

a
9| '0
'

fa

[We a . ,
.--. m:_-;:‘L«"'! “ . .5 ”f” I
55555::sz
.- ._ 1-1,E““R;-Trj:1 %_~ ‘V w
* “ “ 555:: \ -
7 ,
l

5 52:54:25? , '5
a: 35%,: 497%
5 EEEEMV ,iésg

r __ m... 55
. é EwfififiW
:5“ ligaglgffifi

L l-J«-;l"( ‘ w
u «1g, 27‘}; ’2"J',§ Jr K‘" ‘flgifii’ ',
MPH“? . 5E

    

   

    
     
 
   

E?!
E?

’1.
l‘
q
1
1
.

 
  
  

  

 

STUDY AREA: COMPREHENSIVE PLAN 1980

(City of East Lansing,1979)

APPENDIX F
I

SOLAR ENERGY THAT CAN
BE COLLECTED

T49

150

 

Line 7-lt takes 1 BTU’ of energy to heat 1 lb of
water PF. and a gallon of water weighs a little
over 8 lb. Therefore. the energy required to
heat the water to 140'F each day would be the
number of gallons per day times the temper-
ature difference times 8.33 lb per gal.

Line 8—The hot water energy requirement each
month is the amount of energy required per
day times the number of days in the month.

Amount of Solar Energy
That Can Be Collected (Chart 2)

Line 3—lnsolation is the amount of solar energy
that reaches a surface and is measured in
BTUs per square foot. The insolation that
strikes a solar collector depends on latitude.
time of the year, and the collector orientation.
Michigan ranges from about 40' to 48' north
latitude (Figure 2). For all practical purposes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

the collector must be facing south. _____
W—mmwmnammummh
humane-e mzwwum
CHART 2
SelarEneroThatCanleCapbiradpequuareFeotolCollectorparfluth.
the Description Source Ileib Minimums) .
1 Month Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
2No.days Days 312831303130313130313031
permontli
3 Daily Seediscussion BTU per 1730 2100 2300 2300 2260 2210 2220 2250 2220 1970 1700 1530
insulation Tablel ft'
4 Hoursofusable TableZ Hour 9 9 9 11 11 11 11 11 9 9 9 8
sunshineperday
5 Hourly insulation Line3+ BTUpertt‘ 192 233 256 209 205 201 202 205 247 219 189 191
Line4 perhour
6 Desiredirater Line4 'F 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140
temperature Chartl
7Incomin¢waterLine5 ‘F 545454545454545454545454
temperature Chartl
8 Average collector (Une6 + 'F 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97
' water temperature Line 7) + 2
9 Averageoutdoor Table3 'F 25 25 34 48 59 72 75 74 64 53 39 29
temperature
10 Lossfactnr (Line8 - 'F-lf-hr . 0.38 0.31 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.20 0.31 0.36
' Line 9) + perBTlJ ‘
Line5
11 Collector Fun 6 0.42 0.48 0.52 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.63 0.63 70.62 056 0.48 0.44
ll‘ .
12 Feasible sunshine Table 3 0.36 0.44 0.49 0.52 0.64 0.68 0.71 0.69 0.60 0.55 0.31 0.30
13 Total rnonthly (U002 x 1.000 SW 8.1 124 18.2 19.4 26.0 28.0 30.8 30.3 24.8 188 7.6 6.3
h-collectable Uae3xline perlt'per
isolation per 11 x Line 12) mtli
WM ‘0' I,” a

 

(Stoudt and Myers, i977z6)

APPENDIX 6

AUTOMOBILE TERRITORY:
EAST LANSING

ISI

152

8: ":3 .5535

ducks: 515—52 van Jun—U 5.0—...153 Ewa— .._...ED TEE: ..0 02.3513 0.: its name:
Eu... :5: guano...”— ..::o .95. «:59.» E .059 $5....» .:uu_—_u_2 $52.3 :«m ..0 tan a E 2.5:?! £595.53 3am. 0:232 i . .6...—

 

vng .cnz . >w¢ .EOOwo

So... 8QO cacao. _||.|i_
08 So com o 8QO $282 I /
Z<UHEOHE wk
.025???“ Bm<fl 7: FmOhmeHB Hd~mOSOBD< /
EmEZz: 35w 25.0.5.2 .oMWfi
oaco>< .52: 95.0 09
a
\‘
.amfiooow

90.000
aw . m 87.35

 

 

 

APPENDIX H

ENERGY HOUSE AUDIT
WITH GAS HEAT

153

154

'°” 1” THE Bfiwv a: as THE CHIMNEY o...

4 CQMDUTEO fifiggqu T0 QHQLY:E
lERTdifi °¢CB=I~G THE 40mg

ranLt LIVING EDUCATION
iaueaeertwe EHTEHTIUN zachce
fICHIGHN 27ers univee3Irv

... '2T5ll.|'.k'1"4'5 ‘71”.[1 1.];QTHES'E'TDIF-DIr-{G [l.3-3;: Emit ..NIHQQ‘U

I. SQVINGEI¢RDM CRULKING D: *3 9H5 MINDQMB carve:
TDTQL INiTQCLQTIOH CGET = I re.
Par-SQCK 959105 ($75. I

I...

TUTQL INZTQLLRTIUN COST = fi 4 .
DRY-BREW QEQIQD (Y9?! = 0.6

roe STDDM MINDJM INETALLHTIDH 000

3. SQVINGE “GUM ETUWM MINDOM IszRLLQTIGN (art?)
TQTRL IHETRLLQTIDN EDIT = t 396.
PHY-BRCK bsexgn ($93) a 4,:

~00 QTTIC INEULRTIUH 0o.

4. SHVING? =90" INSULATING q UN‘INIEHED QTTIC

.
a'

.00

. sewING: coon meerwectreieetws aoaaz awn MINDGME (If?

TUTQL RODEO EDDITIGNQL INCTHLRTIDN “QTEQCK PEQUID

INCHEB INCHES 5%VIHGIIE CUZTffii YEH?E
8 a. E. 4. 3?. 13.2
10 4. '3 ?. 16'2. 306'
IE 6.0 9.‘ EZ~.V’ 14.?
14 8- '3 1'). 311. 1.590;.
~09 MHLL INSULATION 00¢
?. SQVINGZ FPUM INSULATING MéLLS ~I/Y91 = 123.
TUTHL INETJLLQTIGN COST 8 I 923.
‘ PAT-BRCK ”$9105 ($933 a 6 1

.Ngrg. -- q cguTeqcroa MILL ween TD on rat:

... CRRML seats. unnae FLDD°39 awn BeasnauT MALL:

a- sawtus: ream Inauenrlwe coaML soeca (t/vei .
. Tore; InsreLLquow COST . s 53.
PAY-BECK esexon :vvzi - 4.5

IHEULATIGH ...

to."sevInss teen INSULRTIHG eatenewr MQLLS (s/Ye) -

TDTHL INETQLLHTID” CD: 8 S 209.
fofiY-BQCK PERIOD (Y9?) I 5.1

ENERGY AUDIT WITH GAS HEAT: Urban Options
135 Linden

JD

10.

I)

BE.

‘3

APPENDIX I

ENERGY HOUSE AUDIT
WITH ELECTRIC HEAT

155

a" '

~09. I” THE ER“! 0? U9 THE CHIMNEY o...

: COMPUTEQ PPDG‘RM TD AHALTZE
EHTHEQ PC‘nC-2IH.3 TH": H:..fi_:

QMILY LIVING EDUCRTIDH

aUF'EF'FITWE EXTEHEIUH 3520162
ICHIGQN ETRTE UNIVE?:ITY

-oo CHULKING AND MEETHEPSTPIPPIHE 9909: QHB MINEJMfi 009

l. SRwIHGE $90M CRULKIHG HOSP: nun MIHDOME :1 f0? = - 31-
TDTAL INETHLLRTIDH caiT = 0 73-
pay—ERCK PERIOD chTI = 3~1
2. SEVIHgZ spam MERTHEP?TPIPDING name: any MIHECMT rexve; . 3-'
TOTE; INSTRLLHTIU“ 001T = 5 43-
FRY-BECK GEPIUD (V933 ' 0-1

'90 STDEN MINDSU IHETHLLRTIDH ...
3. SAVING: F900 STORM MINflDM IHTTH
TDTRL INSTALLRTIDN COST = 0 306.
PET—£00K PERIOD (Y9?) = 1.1
~00 ATTIC INSULRTIQH ...

4. SHVINEE FRO“ INSULETINB H UNEIHISHED HTTIC

‘STRL 90050 RDDITIDHAL waTfiLRTIDH PRYBGCK PEPGID
.NCHES INCHES SHVIHGI?) CGETfII $583?

2 2.0 193. 35. 0.3

4 4.0 £33. 73. 0.3

6 6.0 252. 103. 0.a

8 8.0 . 251. 133. 0.5

10 10.0 266. ' 171. 0.5

12 12.0 26?. £04. 0.3

14 14.0 872. 23?. 0.?
'90 MHLL IHfiULRTIDH 00¢
?. $001053 FPDM INEULQTIHG HELL: (05:5: = 555.

TOTAL IHLTHLLRTIDH 003T . 5 933.

PET-£00K PEPICD (YRS) s 1.5
’HUTE’ -- R CDHTPRCTD? MILL NEED TD 03 THIS J03

-00 CRHML SPECS: UNDER FLGGPS. END 3 :EmEHT MQLLSvIHEULHTIDH ...

3. sRQInss 5:95 INSULRTING cpemL specs (01$?) . as.
TDTRL INETRLLRTIQN cost . s 53.

PHY‘BfiCK PERIOD (YES) 3 1.2
.0. SEVIHGS FPO" INSULRTINE EESEMENT MFLLS (S/YP) I 125.
3

rTDTRL INSTRLLHTIDN COST 1 303.
thfiYfBRCV PEPIUD (YES) 3 1.6

ENERGY AUDIT' WITH ELECTRIC HEAT: Urban Options
135 Linden

BIBLIOGRAPHY

157

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, Richard. ”Man, Energy and Anthropology." American
Anthropologist 80 (1978).

Alinsky, Saul D. Rules For Radicals. New York: Vintage Books, 1972.

American Institute of Planners. "Community Energy Management Plan.“
Energy and the City. Hearing before U.S. House Subcommittee
on The City of the Committee on Building, Finance and Urban
Affairs, September, l977, USGPO 93-4520.

Anderson, Bruce. The Solar Home Book. Cheshire, New Hampshire, l976.

Arnowitz, Stanley. "The Dialection of Community Control." Social
Policy (May/June l970).

Arnstein, Sherry R. "A Ladder of Citizen Participation." Journal
of the American Institute of Planners 35 (July l9695.

Bainbridge, David; Corbett Judy; and Hofacre, John. Village Homes'
Solar House Designs. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press,
1979.

 

Baldwin, J. and Brand, Stewart. Soft Tech. Penguin, New York, 1978.

Baldwin, Deborah. "Off the Track--How America Lost a Sane Transporta-
tion System." Progressive, July l979, pp. lZ-l7.

Benello, George C. and Roussopoul us, Dimitrios. The Case for
Participatory Democracy. Grossman, New York, l97l.

Bernstein, Scott. "West Garfield Park." Talk to conference on
MetrOpolitan Agricultural Systems, Kellogg Center, Michigan
State University, l978.

Bessong, Ken. "Local/State Energy Efforts." Citizens Energy Project,
D.C. 1977.

Boggs, James and Grace, Lee. Revolution and Evolution in the Twentieth
Century;_ New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974.

Borsodi, Ralph. Flight From the City. School of Living, Suffern,
New York, 1947.

158

159

Brunner, Ronald. "Local Energy Policies." Summary report to the
U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Energy and
Power of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce,
95th Congress, l978.

Bunge, William. Urban Nationalism. Ministry for Urban Affairs,
Ottawa, April, 1973.

Burns, Scott. Home, Inc. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1975.

Burke, Ralph and Assoc. "A Study of Parking in City Center, East
Lansing, Michigan." Park Ridge, Illinois, July, l977.

Castells, Manuel. The Urban Question. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press, T9771

 

Chanchol, Jacques. "The Peasants and the Bureaucracy in Chilean
Agrarian Reform.“ Popular Participation in Social Change.
Editors Nash and Dandlet. Norton, Hague, l976.

 

Citizens Energy Project. "Solar Commercialization: A Citizens
Platform." Washington, D.C., June,l978.

Citizens Energy Project. Appropriate Technology Resources.
Washington, D.C., 1979

 

Clark, Wilson. Energy for Survival. New York: Anchor Books, 1975.

 

Coffman, Jerry B., and Benedict, Michael. "Information on the Energy
House Concept." Memo to the Mayor and City Council from the
City Manager, City Hall, East Lansing, Michigan, March 30,
1978.

Cohen, Rick. "Neighborhood Planning and Political Capacity."
Urban Affairs Quarterly, No. 3, l4 (March l979).

 

Collier, Clay. "The Christian Action Ministry." Talk to Conference
on Metropolitan Agricultural Systems, Kellogg Center, Michigan
State University, 1978.

Commoner, Barry. The Poverty of Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
l976.

 

Commoner, Barry. Center for Biology and Natural Systems. Manuscript.
St. Louis, Michigan. "The National Energy Program," May
1977.

Commoner, Barry. The Politics of Energy. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1979.

 

160

Daniels, Farrington. Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. New York:
Ballenting, 1969.

Dix, Samuel. Energy, S.M. Dix Asso., Grand Rapids, Michigan, Jan.
1979.

Downs, Anthony. Urban Problems and Prospects. Chicago: Markham,
1970.

Dwyer, David; Dwyer, Anabel; and Easley, Linda. "Culture, the
Unifying Concept of Social Science." Unpublished manuscript,
Michigan State University, 1979.

Easley, Linda; Edison, Thomas; and Williams, Michael. Eastown.
Kellogg Foundation, Aquinas College, Grand Rapids, 1978.

East Lansing, City of. "A Comprehensive Energy Management Pr0posa1."
Submitted to Argonne National Laboratory, May, 1978.

East Lansing, City of. "East Lansing Energy Conservations Team."
A pr0posal submitted to th80 Michigan Energy Administration,
August, 1979.

East Lansing, City of. "Resolution Supporting Energy House Concept."
City of East Lansing, Michigan, June 20, 1978.

Energy Task Force. "No Heat, No Rent." New York City, 1977

Frank, Ellen; "The Whiz Kid Energyeologist." New Times (August 21,
1978 .

Fridgen, Cynthia and Joseph. "The Village Homes Experience." Address
to Urban Options, May 1979.

Friedman, John. Retracking America. Garden City, New Jersey:
Anchor, 1973.

Grabow, Stephen and Heskin, Allan. "Foundations for a Radical

Concept of Planning." American Institute of Planning Journal
(March.l973).

Guins, Peter. "Transportation Task Force Report." Urban Options.
East Lansing, Michigan, October, 1979.

 

Hamrin, Daniel. "Energy Saving Homes: Don't Bet on Technology
Alone." Psychology Today, April 1979.

Hannerz, Ulf. "Language Variation and Social Relationships."
Studia Linguistica 24 (1970).

161

Harris, Craig. "Energy Conservation and East Lansing Families."
A summary of East Lansing portion of Project Conserve pre-
sented to City of East Lansing Energy Task Force, May 1979.

Harvey, David. Social Justice and the City. Baltimore, Maryland:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

Hayes, Earl T. "Energy Resources Available to the United States,
1985 to 2000." Science No. 4377 203 (January 1979).

Hayes, Denis. "The Solar Energy Timetable." Worldwatch Paper 19
(April 1978).

Heilbroner, Robert L. "Reflections (Economic Classes)." New Yorker,
August 28, 1978.

 

Henault, Peter B. "Energy 1990 After Two Years." Testimony to the
House Subcommittee on Energy and Power of the Committee on
Interstate and Foreign Commerce, June 5, 1978.

Hess, Karl. Community Technology. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.

 

Horvath, Ronald J. "Machine Space." The Geographical Review 64
(April 2, 1974).

Hubbert, M. King. "Energy Resources of the Earth." Energy and
Power, Scientific American. W. H. Freeman & Co., San
Francisco, 1971.

Hubbert M. King. "Survey of World Energy Resources." Canadian
Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin 66 (July 19735.

Ingham County Energy Office. "Financing Home Weatherization."
Mason, Michigan, April, 1979.

Kaplan, David and Manners, Robert A. Culture Theory. Prentice Hall,
1972.

Koenig, Herman E. "Executive Summary of the Conference for Energy
Alternatives for Michigan." Journal of the House of
Representatives 69 (June 1977).

 

Kotler, Milton. "The Radical Politics of Local Control." Christianity
and Crisis 29 (June 1969).

Kotler, Milton. Neighborhood Government. Indianapolis, Indiana:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1979.

Leckie, Jim et a1. Other Homes and Garbage. San Francisco,
California: Sierra Club, 1975

 

162
Living Systems, City of Davis. Davis Energy Conservation Report.
Davis, California, 1977.

Living Systems. A Strategy for Energy Conservation. Davis California,
1974.

Lovins, Amory. Soft Energy Paths. Friends of the Earth, San
Francisco, 1977.

 

Lovins, Amory. "Energy Strategy, The Road Not Taken." Foreign
Affairs, October 1976.

Mannheim, Karl. Man and His Society in An Age of Reconstruction.
New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1940.

McCullugh, James C., ed. The Solar Greenhouse Book. Emmaus: Rodale
Press, 1976.

Melcher, J.; Veenstra, J; and Dwyer, A. "A Conservation-Solar
Proposal to the Lansing Board of Water and Light." lug,
Michigan Solar Energy ASSOCiation, May, 1979.

Michigan Energy Administration. "Michigan Energy Consumption Data,"
Michigan Department of Commerce, Data 6 Modeling Division,
1978.

Mitchell, William J. "Fuel Pinch to Mean Car Trouble for World."
Detroit Free Press, September 30, 197.

 

Mobil Oil Co. "The Real Challenge: Increasing Energy Supply."
Mobil , New York, 1977.

Morrison, Denton. "Equity Impacts of Some Major Energy Alternatives."
Unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Michigan
State University, May 1977.

"Mother's Hegt Grabber." Mother Earth News 47 (September/October
1977 .

Munson, Richard. "Ripping Off The Sun." Progressive, No. 9 43
(September 1979).

National Association of Neighborhoods. "Neighborhood Information."
NAN Bulletin, June/July, 1978.

 

National Heating and Cooling Information Center. "Practical and
Do-It-Yourself Projects for Solar Utilization." Bibliography
Rockville, Maryland, October 1977.

1.63

Needleman, Martin and Carolyn. Guerillas in the Bureaucracy. New
York: John Wiley, 1974.

 

Pateman, Carole. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge:
University Press, 1970.

 

Piven, Frances F and Cloward, Richard. Poor Peoples Movements.
New York: Panthlon, 1977.

Odum, Howard T. "Energy. Ecology and Economics." Mother Earth
News, February 1974.

Parisi, Anthony J. "Creating the Energy Efficient Society."
New York Times, September 23, 1979.

 

Rappaport, Roy A. "Energy and Adaptive Structure in Social Systems."
Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
1977.

Ridgeway, James. Energy-Efficient Community Planning, The Elements,
J. G. Press, Inc., Washington D.C., 1979.

Ridgeway, James and Conner, Bettina. New Energy. Beacon Press, 1975.

Riesman, Frank and Gartner, Alan. "Community Control and Radical
Social Change." Social Policy, May, June 1970.

Schade, John, ed. Access. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: University of
Wisconsin, 1977.

Schmandt, Henry J. "Municipal Decentralization: An Overview."
Public Administration Review, special issue, 32 (October
1972) pp. 571-588.

Schumacher E. F. Small Is Beautiful. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

 

Seattle City Light. Energy 1990. Seattle, Washington, 1976.

 

Shrobe, Howard. "The Cambridge Clean Energy Plan." Anthropology
Resource Center Bulletin, March, 1978.

 

Skurka.Norma and Naar, Jon. Design for a Limited Planet. Ballantine,
New York: 1976.

Solar Lobby. "Potential for Renewable Resources, Barriers and
Strategies by State." Washington, D.C., December 1978.

'Solar Lobby. "The Solar Counter Budget." The Sun Times, May 1979.

 

Spreiregen, Paul P., AIA. Urban Design: The Architecture of Towns
and Cities. New York: McGraw Hi11,71965.

 

 

164

Stobaugh, Robert and Yergin, Daniel, eds. Energy Future. New York:
Random House, 1979.

Stoudt, Bill A. and Myers, Claudia A. "The Fossil Fuel Era-«A Blip
on the Scale of Time.“ Cooperative Extension Service,
Bulletin E-llOO, Michigan State University, 1977.

 

Stoudt, Bill A. and Myers, C1audia A. "Home Hot Water Heating with
Solar Energy." Cooperative Extension Service, Bulletin
E-1151, Michigan State University, November, 1977.

"Talk of the Town." New Yorker. APV11 16. 1979-

 

Todd, Nancy Jack, ed. The Book of the New Alchemists. New York:
Dutton, 1977

 

Town Forum, Inc. "The Cerro Gordo Community Base'Plan." Series 2,
No. 1, Cottage Grove Oregon, 1977.

University of Minnesota School of Architecture, Landscape Architecture,
Winona, Toward and Energy Conserving Community, Minneapolis,
1975.

U.S. Department of Commerce. Morton, Rogers, Secretary, Bureau of
the Census, "Census Data for Community Action," August 1975.

United States Department of Energy. Energy Conservation in the Home.
An Energy Education/Conservation Curriculum Crude.
Knoxville, Tennessee, October 1977.

 

United States Department of Energy (DOE). "Energy Consumption,
Michigan 1975." Data Division, 1975. .

United States Geological Survey Circular 725 (USGS:725). "Geological
Estimates of Undiscovered Reusable Oil and Gas Resources in
the U.S.," U.S. Department of Interior, 1975.

U.S. Department of Transportation. A Bikeway Criteria Digest.
Federal Highway Administration, April, 1979.

Urban Options. "Solar Greenhouse Demonstration Project." A proposal
submitted to the Department of Energy Midwest Appropriate
Energy Technology Program, October 21, 1978.

Urban Options. "Community Development Workshop Proejct." A proposal
to the City of East Lansing and HUD, May, 1979.

Veenstra, John. "Truth in Heating." Draft Legislation for the
Michigan House of Representatives, September 1979.

165

Villican and Leman,Assoc, Inc. and Reid, Cool and Michalski, Assoc,
Inc. "CBD and Grand River Corridor Study, East Lansing,
Michigan," April, 1978.

Vivelo, Frank Robert. Cultural Anthropology Handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1978.

Wetmore, Margory and Dwyer, Anabel. "An Independent Report Concerning
Married Housing Resident's Attempts at Organizing 1975-6,"
Michigan State University, manuscript, July 1976.

WNET, 13. The MacNeil/Lehrer Report, “Sweat Equity," NYC, January,
1977.

Yanda, Bill and Fisher, Rich. The Food and Heat Producin Solar
Greenhouse. Santa Fe: John Muir Publications, 1 76.

Zuiches, James, principal investigater. "Changing Family Energy
Behavior Through Infra red Heat Loss Evaluation: An
Experimental Approval." Final Report, Project EA-77-x-Ol-21l8
DOE, January 12, 1978.

Zwerdling, Daniel. "Workplace Democracy: A Strategy for Survival."
Progressive, August, 1978.