ADOLESCENT DRUG USE IN MIDDLE AMERICA: SOCEAL - PSYCHOLOGFCAL CURRELATES Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNEVERSITY DAVID Lz HAGER 1970 LIBRARY 4 Michigan State ‘ ' University \ ‘ C THEL.‘ y 7,. This is to certifg that the thesis entitled ADOLESCENT DRUG USE IN MIDDLE AMERICA: SOCIAL - PSYCHOLOGICAL ' COBBELATES ' presented by David L. Huger has been accepted towards fulfillment" of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in ' Counseling. i Personnel Services and Educational Psychology flanW Major professor Dme June 10, 1970 _ N ’23?“ MN? ‘20 2000 a! iv- 17 3- mg g”. JUL 03 2002 . ~ 2 a t , «filr‘v’ O .1“ * l. ABSTRACT ADOLESCENT DRUG USE IN MIDDLE AMERICA: SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES By David Lz Hager The literature has shown soft drug use (marijuana, hallucinogens, and amphetamines) as increasingly becoming a white, middle-class phenomenon. One purpose of this study was to determine differences in drug use by age, sex, and school system among three different socio-economic levels of middle-class youth in non-metropolitan, white, midwestern communities. A second purpose was to provide an analysis of differential drug use in relation to the following four classes of variables: 1. Participation in other forms of deviant behavior such as smoking, drinking, and heterosexual activity. Knowl- edge of drug argot and perception of availability of drugs was included as measures of symbolic deviance. 2. Traditional value orientations—-authoritarianism, college plans, ability to defer gratification, family orientation, school grades, peer orientation, political views, religious orthodoxy, and status aspirations. David Lz Hager 3. Socializing agencies of family, religion, and school, as well as an important element of social structure—-the socio-economic status of the individual. u. Ego strains of alienation, affectional depriva— tion, depression, relative deprivation, and lack of peer involvement. Twenty-three indexes and several single items were developed to measure the above variables. Three schools were selected for study: School A, located in an upper-middle class community of business and professional people; School B, situated in a common-man town composed mainly of lower-middle class families; and School C, located in a stable working-class community. Special consideration was given to the development of a procedure for gaining community acceptance of the research project, which involved the sensitive areas of sexual and drug behavior. A number of conferences were held with influential educational, religious, and other community leaders to gain a foundation of support for the project. Grades 8 through 12 in each school were given a pre—tested self-administered opinionnaire in the fall of 1969, resulting in data from N230 students (81 per cent of the total enrollment of the schools). Statistical pro— cedures used included.chi-square tests and correlational analysis. David Lz Hager The main epidemiological findings showed marijuana, hallucinogen, and amphetamine use to be: (1) positively related to higher socio-economic school system milieu, (2) higher among males at Schools A and B, and (3) higher among older adolescents at Schools A and B. Hard drug use was not related to school system or age, and males were higher only at School B. The affluent system, School A, had soft drug use rates nearly double those of either Schools B or C. Soft drug use sharply increased at age 15 to 16, indicating a critical period in the initiation of many young people into drug abuse. It was also found that the general social class level of the school system, rather than the individual's particular social class membership, accounted for the greater variance in soft drug use. The main etiological findings showed: (1) evidence for the existence of a general deviant subculture where participation in soft drug use was found to be positively related to drug sales, hard drug use, smoking, drinking, heterosexual behavior, knowledge of drug argot, and greater perception of easy drug availability; (2) negative orienta- tions toward traditional values were related to the use of drugs-~substantiating the existence of a "hang-loose" ethic; (3) measures of parental congeniality, church attendance, and participation in school organizations generally showed significant but low inverse associations with drug use, while the effect of the individual's socio-economic class David Lz Hager status as related to drug use was very low and inconsistent in direction; and (A) ego strains of depression and affec- tional deprivation also showed significant but low to very low inverse relationships with drug use, while alienation, relative deprivation, and lack of peer involvement were not significantly associated with ‘rug use. Implications of the study for the establishment of educational programs, counseling practice, and future research were presented. ADOLESCENT DRUG USE IN MIDDLE AMERICA: SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES By David Lz Hager A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1970 [”7 / 7"“ ’x ’“‘ K-j’ ((2:9- L/a’j /— sm- 7/ ii) Copyright DAVID LZ HAGER l 971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincere gratitude is expressed to the many persons who have contributed to the completion of this study. Special thanks to Dr. James w. Costar for providing a foundation of encouragement and inspiration throughout the years in his capacity as chairman of my Doctoral Guidance Committee. A particular word of appreciation is also extended to Dr. Arthur M. Vener, director of the dissertation, and to Dr. Cyrus 8. Stewart for their unfailing enthusiasm, guidance, and support, and for their untold hours of assistance in designing and implementing the study. I greatly appreciate the unique Opportunity to be working with these researchers as a colleague in the West Shore Project. I would also like to thank Dr. Willa Norris and Dr. Guy Timmons for their willingness to serve on the Doctoral Committee. A pledge of anonymity precludes naming those administrators, staff, and community leaders who made this study a reality. My thanks to these unsung leaders 1hr their interest, financial support, and excellent cooperation in all phases of the project. -A debt of Special gratitude is owed to the superintendent of School B, iii who along with the late Mrs. Cyrus Stewart Sr, were most instrumental in the initiation of this study. Words alone are inadequate to express my deepest appreciation to my wife, Mary, for her forbearance, understanding, and personal sacrifices, and to my children, Douglas, Laura, and Rosemary, for sharing their father with the pursuit of knowledge. DLH iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the General Problem . . 1 Focus and Justification for This Study 7 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 9 Overview of the Thesis . . . . . . . . 10 II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT . 12 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 12 Review of the Literature . . . . . . . 1A Detailed Reviews . . . . . . . 26 Summary of the Literature Review . . . . . 39 Theoretical Foundation and Hypothesis Development . . . . . . . . . . . A2 III. THE METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . 5A Groundwork for the Study . . . . . . . 5“ Sample . . . . . . . . . . 58 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . 61 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . 67 Analysis Design . . . . . . . . . . 99 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 IV. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 103 Introduction . . 103 Developmental and Epidemiological Analysis . 104 Discussion and Conclusions of the DeveIOp- mental and Epidemiological Section . . . 117 Etiological Analysis . 12A Discussion and Conclusions of the Etiological Section . . . . . . . . . 137 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . 1A8 Chapter V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS Summary . Implications BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES of the Study vi Page 151 151 161 168 174 Table Page “.16 Correlational matrix for measures of ego strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 “.17 Pearson product-moment correlations describing drug use related to measures of traditional value orientations . . . . . . . . . 132 “.18 Correlational matrix for measures of tradi- tional value orientations . . . . . . . 13“ “.19 Pearson product-moment correlations describing drug use related to measures of behavioral and symbolic deviance . . . . . . . . . . 135 “.20 Correlational matrix for measures of behavioral and symbolic deviance . .' . . . . . . 138 “.21 Summary of drug use relationships to all variables of the study . . . . . . . . 139 “.22 Summary‘of significance levels of sex and school system differences for drug use related to all variables . . . . . . . 1“O viii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. SELECTED 1960 CENSUS FIGURES FOR SCHOOLS A AND B . . . . . . . . . 175 8. INSTRUCTIONS READ TO THE STUDENTS . . . 177 C. STUDENT OPINIONNAIRE . . . . . . . 179 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the General Problem School personnel and other community leaders are becoming increasingly concerned about the dramatic rise in drug use among adolescents. In the eighteen months prior to December, 1968, marijuana us§>is reported to have tripled among youth in California.1 A commonly quoted conservative figure is that at least 15 per cent of all college students smoke marijuana before graduating and among high school students it is reported that between 8 and 15 per cent have tried this drug.2 Less conservative 3 figures are given by Blum who indicates that as many as 70 per cent of the students at one West Coast college and 55 per cent of students at one high school have tried marijuana. lRichard Blum, "The Drug Generation: Growing Younger," Newsweek (April 21, 1969), p. 107. 2Erich Goode, Marijuana (New York: Atherton Press, 1969), P. 109. West Coast figures are much higher in certain areas. See R. Goldstein, l in 7: Drugs on Campus (New York: Walker, 1966). 3Richard Blum, Students and Drugs (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1969), pp. 191, 3“5. Concomitant with this increase is a shift in the socio—economic status of drug users. A study done in California shows the increase in marijuana use between 1962 and 1966 to be concentrated among the young and among middle-class whites.“ White arrests for marijuana use increased 118 per cent, while Negro arrests for the same 5 offense increased only “1 per cent. Goode found marijuana smoking to be increasing more among students with middle- class backgrounds than among those from lower-class background. Further evidence implicating marijuana use as a middle-class phenomenon is found in a study by Mauss in which he found that drug use was linked to high school boys who perceived marijuana use as a part of the collegiate "style of life."6 Thus, there is increasing evidence that marijuana use is no longer confined to the stereotypes of 7 the ghetto "cat" as portrayed by Finestone, the jazz musician as noted by Becker,8 or the retreatist from society. “James Carey, The College Drug Scene (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. ““. 5Goode, op. cit., p. 111. 6Armand Mauss, "Anticipatory Socialization Toward College as a Factor in Adolescent Marijuana Use," Social Problems, Vol. 16 (Winter , 1969), p. 357. 7Harold Finestone, "Cats, Kicks, and Color," Social 352% Vol. 5 (July, 1957), p. 12. —— 8Howard 8. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1963), D. “6. Accurate analysis of adolescent drug abuse is hampered by the lack of systematic empirical studies, coupled with a proliferation of unfounded Opinion, beliefs, and stereotypes promulgated by the mass media. For example, the popular magazines and even some of the professional journals exhibit a full range Of Opinion concerning the effects of marijuana use, extending from those who extol the mind-expanding virtues of the drug,9 to those who indict it as a cause of insanity.10 There are also widely divergent statements regarding the extent of use. In July 1967, Life Magazine11 estimated that 10 million Americans have tried marijuana. Three weeks later Newsweek,l2 not to be outdone, raised the figure to 20 million. Such disparities in the reporting of effects and prevalence cause one to wonder if these authors are writing about the same substance. The need for definitive empirical data is clear. 9Timothy Leary, "The Politics, Ethics and Meaning of Marijuana," in The Marijuana Papers, ed. by David Solomon (Indianapolis: -Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), pp. 83-89. See also Allen Ginsberg, "The Great Marijuana Hoax: First Manifesto to End the Bringdown," Atlantic (November, 1966), pp. lO“—112. 10Robert DeRopp, Drugs and the Mind (New York: Grove Press, 1961), pp.461-ll“. llAlbert Rosenfeld, "Marijuana: Millions of Turned- On Users," Life (July 7, 1967), pp. 16-23. ’ l2"Marijuana Problem: A symposium," NEEEKEEE (July 2“, 1967), pp. “6-50. A review of the literature also demonstrates the need for additional knowledge of the relative influences of the socializing agencies of family, religion, school, and peer groups on patterns of drug use. Traditional social— izing forces appear to be losing their impact upon the lives of many adolescents today. Patterns Of socialization have been rapidly changing and what seems to be emerging is a trend toward anti-conventional, anti-traditional, and anti- establishment modes. Current data is needed concerning the relationships of the adolescent with his primary socializing influences. Several studies suggest that deviance, including drug use, is highly associated with such relationships. Ausubell3 has found that the marijuana smoker tends to come from a home marked by greater emotional conflict. Louriall4 suggests lack of communica— tion with parents, rejection of family, and inabilityto respect himself, as reasons for the adolescent to turn to drugs. Allen and Sandhu15 found strength of religious feeling to be a significant factor, but that church attendance did not relate significantly to delinquency. 13David P. Ausubel, "The Psychology of the Marijuana Smoker," in Marijuana, ed. by Erich Goode (New York: Atherton Press, 1969), p. 18. 1”Donald B. Louria, The Drug Scene (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1968), p. 29. r 1)Donald Allen and Harjit Sandhu, "A Comparative Study of Delinquents and Non Delinquents: Family Affect, Religion, and Personal Income," Social Forces, Vol. “6 (December, 1967), pp. 263-268. Vossl6 found significant relationships supporting the hypOthesis that 7th grade boys whose associations with delinquent friends is fairly extensive engage in more delinquent behavior than those whose contact with delinquent friends is minimal. Goldl7 reports evidence that the delinquent depends on the influence of peers in order to be delinquent, and that this is his attempt to deveIOp a sense of self worth not previously gained in family inter- action. Brotman and associates18 infer that low family, school, and church involvement are leading factors in drug use. As Reckless indicates, "individual behavior is viewed as a function of the articulation of society and self and the question of delinquency becomes a research problem in socialization processes."19 Turning to another aspect of the problem, there is lack of reliable data concerning the causative factors in adolescent drug use. Both psychological and sociological theorists implicate strain as a major etiological factor. l6Harwin L. Voss, "Differential Association and Reported Delinquent Behavior: A Replication," Social Problems, Vol. 12 (Summer, 196“), pp. 78-85. l7Martin Gold, "Juvenile Delinquency as a Symptom of Alienation," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 25 (Spring, 1969), pp. 121-135. l8Richard Brotman, Irving Silverman and Fred Suffet, "Drug Use Among Affluent High School Youth," in Marijuana, ed.by Erich Goode (New York: Atherton Press, 1969), p. 129. 19W. C. Reckless, Simon Dinitz, and Ellen Murray, "Self-Concept as an Insulator Against Delinquency," American Sociological Review, Vol. 21 (1956), pp. 7““-7“6. Stressful interactions within the socializing agencies discussed in the preceding section can lead to strain within the self-system. However, the sources Of such strain impinging upon the adolescent have not been clearly indicated. Typical psychological literature reveals strain as conflict, frustration, or anxiety acting upon a relatively weak, immature ego unable to meet the demands Of reality, which then turns to drugs in the attempt to cope.20 Some sociological theorists tend to see strain as alienation arising from interactions within the social system, especially with the family and its traditional values. This then leads to associations within deviant subcultures, which in turn leads to a progressive series of steps involving initiation into and subsequent com- mitment to a deviant pattern.21 Such theories can be useful in framing a search for causes of drug use by generating hypotheses related to the identification of specific sources of strain that are Operating within the adolescent in his relationship to drug use. In summary, there are three main aspects to the general problem under consideration. There is first, a 2OAusubel, Op. cit., p. 18. 21William McCord, "The Personality of Social Deviants," in The Study of Personality: An Interdisciplinagy Aggraisal, ed. by Norbeck, Price-Williams, and McCord (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), pp. 311—32“. See also Howard S. Becker, The Other Side (New York: The Free Press, 196“), pp. 1-6. need for empirical data to replace the unsubstantiated Opinion concerning the extent and effects of drug use; secondly, a need to gain understanding of the impact of the socializing agencies upon the adolescent in his rela— tionships with drug use; and thirdly, a need to eXplore the strains which predispose one toward such drug use. Focus and Justification for This Study Several factors have been especially influential in determining the direction for this study. First, the rapidly changing drug scene reveals a need for more current appraisal of the profile of the adolescent drug user.22 Secondly, most studies of drug use have centered 23 and West2)4 on the large metropolitan areas of the East and have neglected the smaller cities of the Midwest. A" third factor emerges from the Observation that many theoretical problems related to drug use still remain unanswered. That is, can predictive variables be delineated that indicate a proneness to drug use? Is drug use a function of orientation to a deviant subculture? Does a close orientation toward or involvement with any of 22Marijuana is by far the most prevalent illicit drug used among adolescents. The generic term "drug use" as found in this study combines marijuana, amphetamines, and hallucinogens--those usually referred to as "soft" drugs. 23Charles Winick, "Marijuana Use by Young PeOple," in Q: g Addiction in Youth, ed. by Ernest Harms (New York: Permagon Press, 1965), pp. 19-35. 2”Blum, loc. cit.; Mauss, loc. cit.; and Goode, loc. Cit. * the agencies of socialization tend to insulate one from susceptibility to drug use? What patterns of drug use seem to appear at various ages? The popular literature abounds with suggestions for the solution of the drug abuse problem. Unfortunately, many of these stem from unfounded Opinion rather than from empirical study. The impact of unsubstantiated information contributes to a state Of near hysteria, as eXpressed in the titles of many current newspaper and magazine articles.25 The present study is intended to provide a critical, systematic look at certain variables believed to be associated with drug use. Data from this study could be used to assist concerned groups such as school personnel, parents, rehabilitation agencies, courts, and others in dealing more effectively with drug abuse. For example, a developmental approach focusing on age differences in drug use, or perhaps more importantly, an assessment of the relative impact that different socializing agencies have in inhibiting drug use, would provide the counselor with a sound basis for establishment Of group or individual counseling programs aimed at the prevention or correction (pf drug abuse. Current knowledge of the variables found to be related to drug use would also have implications for _— 25"Thrill-Pill Menace," Saturday Evenin Post, Vol. 238 (December “, 1965), pp. 23-27. See also Marijuana Warning," Time, Vol. 91 (June 28, 1968), p. 61, and "Great Marijuana Problem," National Review, Vol. 20 (January 30, 1968), pp. 7“—80. curriculum innovation in health, biology, and social studies courses. In summary, the rationale for this study is based on the need for: (l) accurate current data concerning a rapidly changing drug scene, (2) study of smaller cities of the Midwest, (3) answers to theoretical problems such as the types of variables that might predict drug use, (“) a developmental approach to the study of adolescent drug use, and (5) an investigation of factors which insulate the adolescent from potential use of drugs. A prime focus of the study design is to provide school per- sonnel and others with reliable data which could be employed in deveIOping preventive and corrective programs for dealing with adolescent drug use. Purpose of the Study This study consists of two main sections. The first is concerned with a developmental approach. The purpose of this part is to lay the foundation for effective programs of treatment and prevention of drug use by providing systematic knowledge regarding its epidemiology (rate of incidence and pattern of distribution) among adolescents; that is, to provide a descriptive analysis of the developing adolescent and his associations with drug use as related to age, sex, and school system milieu. Relationships between drug use and these three variables will be 10 hypothesized and tested, with emphasis on the association of drug use and age. The second section is etiological in nature. The purpose of this part is predictive; that is, to hypothesize and test relationships between adolescent drug use and: 1. The socializing agencies of the family, religion, and school, as well as an important element of social structure--the sociO-economic status of the individual. 2. The ego-strains of alienation, affectional deprivation, depression, relative deprivation, and lack of peer involvement. 3. Traditional value orientations, associated with authoritarianism, college plans, ability to defer gratification, family orientation, school grades, peer orientation, political views, religious beliefs, and status aspirations. “. Participation in other forms of deviant behavior such as the use of tobacco and alcohol, and involvement in sexual behavior. Knowledge of drug argot and availability of drugs are included as measures of symbolic deviance. A prime focus of this section will include an investigation Of which the above-mentioned variables act upon and predict adolescent use of drugs. Overview Of the Thesis This chapter has included a presentation of the Coneral problem of drug use, with delineation of the rationale, focus, and purpose of the present study. Chapter II is divided into two main areas; first, a review Of research relevant to the purposes of the study, ll and secondly, the development of hypotheses suggested by the theoretical foundation upon which this study is based. Chapter III consists of the methodology used in the study, including the selection of the sample, instrumenta- tion, data collection, and the statistical model with related computational procedures. Chapter IV contains the analysis of data, divided into two main sections. First, a descriptive, developmental analysis of drug use among the adolescent population under study is presented, and secondly, a predictive analysis is made to determine those variables which act upon and pre— dict adolescent use Of drugs. Chapter V includes a summary of the findings and con- clusions of the present study, as well as the implications of these for future implementation and research. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT Introduction This chapter is composed of two main sections. The first is a review of the relevant drugl literature and includes descriptions of clinical observations, case studies, small-sample studies, and broad-sample surveys. The adolescent's interactions with socializing influences, development of psycho-sociological strains, and relation- ships to traditional value orientations as related to drug use, serve as focal points around which the review is centered. Four studies have been selected for more detailed presentation by virtue of their recency and similarity to some of the variables of the present investigation. 1The present study primarily concerns marijuana use. However, studies related to other illicit drugs are included in the review, inasmuch as many variables are found in common among users of marijuana and users of other drugs, and also because of the strong associations of marijuana use with the use of other drugs. For further reference see: Jon G. Udell and Robert S. Smith, "Attitudes and the Usage of Other Drugs Among Users and Non-Users of Marijuana in a High School POpulation," Wisconsin Project Lem, Vol. u (October, 1969), and Erich Goode, ed., Mé£113a2a_(New York: Atherton Press, 1969), p. 6“. 12 13 The second section consists Of the derivation of the theoretical foundation for the present study, followed by the development of the hypotheses to be investigated. Drug users are generally characterized as inadequate personalities, unable to meet the demands Of reality, and rejecting prevalent traditional American values. More specifically, the literature reveals certain character- istics, indicative of strain, to be frequently associated with habitual drug users: l. 2. 10. ll. 12. A weak, immature ego lacking ego-strength Depression (chronic, low—grade, reactive types) and boredom Inability to tolerate frustration, deprivation, or discipline A high stress level, indicated by nightmares, enuresis, and use of fantasy A hedonistic outlook, especially the inability to postpone immediate gratification in favor of long—term goals High alienation, disaffiliation, aloofness, and strong feelings of loneliness A low level of self-confidence, with feelings of futility and hopelessness Anti-establishment attitudes and rejection of the conventional Lack of motivation, low aspirations, low academic achievement Inability to enter prolonged, close, friendly relations with peers and adults Identity problems, especially in males, resulting in constant search for identity and meaning An introverted, inward—turning, intuitive personality. 1“ Personality characteristics do not develop in a vacuum, but rather emerge from interactions with signifi- cant others. Therefore the present study is concerned with the relationships between the adolescent and his socializing agencies of family, religion, school, and peer groups, as these are related to the development of strain and drug use. Review of the Literature Charen and Perelman2 did intensive clinical case studies of 60 marijuana "addicts" hospitalized at Fort McClellan, Alabama, in the middle 19“O's. All were males, 55 Negroes and 5 whites. Of these 85 per cent had the roots of their personality in broken home situations, usually involving either death, desertion, or divorce. Sixty—five per cent of the sample reported drunken and promiscuous fathers, whereas 60 per cent of the mothers were reported as being very strict with high ideals of morality. This incongruence resulted in parental strife and disagreeable scenes which laid the foundation for conflict in the sons. Early childhood memories were of definite emotional strain as revealed by frequent night- inares, enuresis, sleep disturbance, and dizzy spells. Marijuana use was seen by these clinicians as an attempt 2Sol Charen and Luis Perelman, "Personality Studies of Marijuana Addicts," American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 102 (19“6), p. 675. 15 to restore confidence and to dispel feelings of anxiety resulting from the conflicts in the home. 3 Chain studied 30 male juvenile heroin addicts and their families and compared them with 30 controls and their families, matched on the basis of age, sex, ethnic group status, and occupational position of the chief wage earner. He found inua existence among the juvenile addicts of what appeared to be symptoms termed by various clinicians as: l. Dysphoria: that is, a typical mood verging on depression and including feelings of futility and expectations of failure 2. Problems of sexual identification evidenced by manifest sexual psychOpathology and/or difficulties in assuming the masculine role 3. Disturbances in interpersonal relations, characterized by an inability to enter prolonged, close relationships. Chein also found that 97 per cent of the addicts came from families with strained relationships between the parents, as indicated by separation, divorce, Open hostility, or lack of warmth and mutual interest. Parent—child relation- ships were described as weak, often involving cool or hostile attitudes toward the child. He concluded that "the pathological personality characteristics of the addict are consistent outgrowths of the disturbed pattern of family , 3Isidore Chein, "Narcotics Use Among Juveniles," Social Work, Vol. 1 (April, 1956), p, 57, l6 relationships to which he has been exposed."u Although these findings relate to heroin use in the 1950's, later studies are presented which link marijuana use to some of these same characteristics in the 1960's. In another study by Chein,5 200 16—20 year Old males were interviewed, all of whom were matched for age, neighborhood characteristics, and ethnic groups. Of these, 59 were institutionalized drug users (heroin) who were not otherwise delinquent; “l were institutionalized drug users who were also delinquent; 50 were institutionalized delinquents who were not drug users; and 52 were controls who were neither delinquent nor drug users. The controls were somewhat self-selected, in that “25 letters of invita- tion to participate in the study were sent out, 90 responded positively, and of these, 52 were selected as controls. On an index of family cohesiveness, the users scored significantly lower than the non—users. This was interpreted as indicating personal stress or family environmental stress in the lives Of the drug users. Opiate use was interpreted as a defense to inhibit the perception of such inner anxiety and outer strain. The families of the non—delinquent non-users were the most churchgoing, with over 60 per cent reporting regular attendance, and only 2 per cent reporting that they seldom ulbid., p. 57. 5Isidore Chein, Donald Gerard, and Eva Rosenfeld, The 5939 to H: Narcotics, Delinquengy and Social Policy (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 196“): p. 111. 17 or never attended. Only “0—50 per cent of families of the drug users reported regular church attendance, with 33 per cent reporting seldom or never attending church. Similar patterns were seen in the church attendance of the boys. Chein6 further found that boys from high drug use areas who do not become delinquent or drug users tend to stay in school longer, are more likely to participate in activities such as student government and school newspapers or magazines, and tend to appreciate the importance of learn- ing new skills and improving their minds. 7 Bloomquist provides more recent clinical data describing the Cannab138 user as hedonistic, coming from a broken, poverty—stricken home, or one in which there is a continual domestic crisis. He reports there is fre- quently a morally lax father with a mother who has high, exacting standards. Frequent nightmares, enuresis, and other symptoms indicate that the child is under severe emotional stress. Bloomquist sees the habitual marijuana user as resembling the Opiate user with the main difference being that the marijuana user comes from a home having 6Ibid., p. 13. 7E. R. Bloomquist, Marijuana (Beverly Hills: Glencoe Press, 1968), p. 192. 8The botanical name for the plant serving as the source of marijuana is Cannabis sativa, which indicates genus and species. In addition, subspecies designations of indica, mexicana, and americana are frequently given in the literature. 18 greater emotional conflict. Drug use is viewed as a com— pulsive need to relieve intolerable tension and depression. Ausubel,9 a psychologist, characterizes the habitual f '17? ’- marijuana”user'as‘immature,‘emotiOnally‘Unstable,iunable to meetthe demands of reality or to endure deprivation, frustration,‘or discipline. He also implicates other elements such as a poverty-stricken home, a broken home, or a home torn by domestic strife, as important factors in marijuana use. He reports that motivational immaturity is _seenviniirregular school attendance and below average academic achievement. Symptoms of emotional tension and disturbed interpersonal relationships are frequent in his early childhood. Marijuana use is depicted as having adjustive value for these individuals by providing a sense of well-being and adequacy and by restoring damaged feelings‘Ofiself-confidence. IO “”fiwlLouria, winmhis'm‘edical practice, has found family discord and lack of communication with parents to be characteristic of the alienated student. He further describes the alienated student as one who hates society, rejects his family, distrusts everyone, is torn by eanxieties, has a chronic identity crisis, has an inability 9David P. Ausubel, Drug Addiction: Physiological Ps cholo ical and Sociolo ical As ects (New York: Random House, 19585, pp. 98-101 and 156. 10Donald B. Louria, The Drug_Scene (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968), pp. 28-29. 19 to respect himself, and is incapable of giving or accepting love. Louria views this type of alienated student as one who turns to drug use in an attempt to invest life with meaning. The home situation is the most important aspect of drug-abuse prevention, according to Sidney Cohen.ll Based on clinical observations, he found that young peOple using LSD have strong feelings of loneliness, problems closely identifying with other peOple and causes, and have a sense Of hopelessness about themselves and life. Brotman, Silverman, and Suffet,l2 in a small study of 13 drug users and 26 non—users, found non-users to exhibit more conventionality as church-goers. Users were low in church, family, and school involvements, whereas non—users showed a more positive attitude toward school, were more active in school organizations, and were more oriented toward sports activities with their peers. These authors interpret drug use as a means of visible dissent against the values of the older "establishment" generation. llSidney Cohen, The Drgngilemma (New York: McGraw— Hill Book Company, 1969), p. 37. 12Richard Brotman, Irving Silverman, and Fred Suffet, "Drug Use Among Affluent High School Youth" in Marijuana, ed. by Erich Goode (New York: Atherton Press, 1969), PD- 128—129. 2O 3/ Maussl3 administered a questionnaire to “59 senior high school students and found a positive relationship between marijuana use and orientation toward college. He found support for his hypothesis that "high school students with strong aspiratiOns and expectations of going to cellege_are morelikely to have used marijuana than those without such strong expectations." Mauss inter- preted his findings as evidence for the middle-class boys' anticipation of socialization into a college style of life which includes the use of marijuana. / // McGlothlin and West,lu as a result of clinical / _/ Observations, conclude that regular use of marijuana may contribute to the development Of passive, inward-turning, amotivational personality characteristics. For many ‘- middleeclass students, a progressive change from conform- ing, achievement oriented behaviorto a state of relaxed and careless drifting has followed their use of substantial amounts offlmarijuana. These authors see such individuals “M N. w—v ‘ "nub-J as becoming introverted and so totally involved with th drug mystique that they lose future goal orientation and withdraw from the challenge of the frustrations of life. l3Armand L. Mauss, "Anticipatory Socialization Toward College as a Factor in Adolescent Marijuana Use," Social Problems, Vol. 16 (Winter, 1969), p. 363. 1“William McGlothlin and Jerry West, "The Marihuana Problem: An Overview," American Journal of Psychiatgy, Vol. 125 (1968), p. 372. 21 McGlothlin and Cohen15 studied personality variables related to student attitudes toward experimenting with LSD. The authors advertised for paid experimental subjects, resulting in 121 male respondents who were interviewed and given the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and Aas' test for hypnotic susceptibility. Students were then told that LSD would be one of the drugs they might receive. They were placed into groups according to whether positive toward (N=15), neutral (N=58), or against (N=26) the use of LSD in the experiment. Those who desired the LSD experience scored higher (P <.01) on the test of hypnotic susceptibility and on the Myers—Briggs intuition and perception scales. There was little difference between positive and negative LSD orientations in age, under- graduate grade point average, field of study, income of the father, or MMPI scores. The authors concluded that the pro—LSD subjects perceived the world as being more heavily influenced by unconscious and intuitive processes and were also more open-minded. Goodel6 did an interview study of 200 marijuana users and suggests subcultural association as a determinant 15William McGlothlin and Sidney Cohen, "The Use of Hallucinogenic Drugs Among College Students," American Journal of Psychiatgy, Vol. 122 (1965), pp. 572-57“. l6Erich Goode, Marijuana (New York: Atherton Press, 1969), p. 6“. 22 in the progression to LSD. He points to the existence of a subgroup in which, by learning one behavior and attitude, a person becomes more likely to learn another behavior. Of those who smoked marijuana daily, 82 per -cent had taken LSD at least once, while only 22 per cent of those who smoked pot once a month has taken LSD. Two- thirds of the respondents who listed most of their friends as marijuana smokers had also used LSD, whereas only one-fourth of those with fay marijuana smoking friends had taken LSD. Goode further suggests that sub- cultural use of marijuana often takes on an almOst - ritualistic natuPe, as seen in symbolic "jOint—passing" .which apparently completes the circle of friendship,“ unity, and sharing. Allan Cohenl7 examined the psychedelic subculture in two separate interview studies. First, he interviewed “0 male undergraduates in a Harvard summer session. Responses were coded into a scale of "identity problems" and at the end of the interview the respondents were asked to participate in an LSD experiment. Twenty-three agreed and 17 refused. Those who agreed to participate showed the greatest identity problems (P <.OOl). Cohen's interpretation is that LSD users try to gain a meaningful l7Allan Cohen, "Who Takes LSD and Why?" New Society, Vol. 8 (August 11, 1966), pp. 226—228. 23 identity through the formation of a reference group. This psychedelic subculture regards traditional social inter- action in terms of "games" and develops an anti-games attitude, lessening interest in, and satisfaction with, other people, which in turn results in frustrations with ordinary life and a more negative attitude toward social institutions. Cohen's second study18 consisted of interviews with 33 people who had each used LSD at least four times. They, too, showed strong subcultural reference group ties which seemed to contribute to a greater sense of belonging and meaningfulness. The self—esteem of this group of LSD users appeared to be bolstered by their image as part of the innovating vanguard of social change. 19 Messer asked students to give the names of their peers who were thought to be of these types: (1) most likely to succeed, (2) hippie types, and (3) political activists. Those students classified as any one type by three or more persons were selected, resulting in 3““ students from whom data was obtained. Of these, 95 were "succeeders," 70 were "activists," and 9A were "hippies." Also included were 85 students who were not typed as any 18Ibid., p. 228. 19Mark Messer, "The Predictive Value of Marijuana Use: A Note to Researchers of Student Culture," Sociology of Education, Vol. U2 (Winter, 1969), pp. 91-97. 2A of the above. Of those typed by their peers as hippies, 61 per cent reported the use of marijuana over five times during the last month, whereas 23 per cent of the activists, 15 per cent of those not typed, and only 4.2 per cent of the succeeders reported such use. Messer concludes that. ._/' ' ‘" " * --._ . It seems plausible that use of drugs such as u" normative system which has taken on the proportions of~a~social movement in attracting many studentszo to what may be a radically redefined world View, ‘J s連é£21 conducted 50 interviews with recreational marijuana users, mostly from his associations within the musical world. He found that one has to "learn" to become a marijuana user and that this is accomplished through a series of steps, each of which requires participation in groups where the drug is used. The sequence of steps is: (l) to learn to smoke the drug in a way to get the real “ effects; (2) to learn to recognize these effects and connect them to the us e of the drug; and (3) to learn to perceive these effects as enjoyable. This sequence is not likely to be completed without the subcultural group setting where more eXperienced users teach the novice the proper technique, the proper referents of the term "high, and a favorable definition of the experience. 2OIbid., p. 96. 21Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1963), pp. 431—58. 25 There is an apparent link between drug use and reaction to the traditional American values as embodied in the socializing influences under discussion. Keniston22 concluded from his clinical experience that traditional avenues to meaning and significance have dried up, causing students to turn away from academic pursuits toward a private quest for identity and meaning. Certain students, the disaffiliates or alienated, reject prevalent American values and rebel against middle-class standards. Such young, searching, uncommitted and anti—conventional students appear to use drugs primarily as a way of search- ing for meaning by intensifying personal experience. Keniston sees drug use almost always as a legitimate, but misguided, search for ultimate meaning. Philip23 relied on his clinical experience with chronic student drug users to conclude that habitual use of psychedelic drugs is not in the service of traditional American values. He believes drug use is a passive protest and renunciation of ordinary values and social institutions. These habitual drug users become narrowly preOCCUpied with the drug mystique, insulated from the 22Kenneth Keniston, "Drug Use and Student Values," Paper presented to the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators Drug Education Project, Washington, D.C., November 7-8, 1966. 23Anthony Philip, "The 'Personality' of the Psyche- delic Drug User," Paper presented to the Symposium on Psychedelic Drugs, American Medical Association Meetings, New York City, July 17, 1969. 26 ordinary problems of men. Philip notes that drug use is dynamically a chronic compulsive defense against intolerable depression and boredom. Detailed Reviews The review of literature yielded four studies which merit closer examination. They are all of recent origin, being completed since 1966. They involve variables similar to some of those included in the present study, and three of them are large-sample surveys resembling the present study in some respects. The methodology, findings, and conclusions of each of these studies are now pre- sented. The SuchmangStudy Edward Suchman24 did a sample survey of drug use on a West Coast college campus. He hypothesized that drug use would be associated with other expressions of "anti— establishment" behaviors collectively called the "hang- loose" ethic. Simmons and Winograd describe this ethic: One of the fundamental characteristics of the hang-loose ethic is that it is irreverent. It repudiates, or at least questions, such corner- stones of conventional society as Christianity, "my country right or wrong," the sanctity of marriage and pre-marital chastity, civil dis- obedience, the accumulation of wealth, the right and even competence of parents, the schools, and 2"Edward A. Suchman, "The 'Hang-Loose' Ethic and the Spirit of Drug Use," Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 9 (June, 1966), pp. 1A6-155. 27 the government to head and make decisions for everyone—-in sum, the Establishment.25 Suchman obtained a random selection of 600 students from student body of 12,200 graduates and undergraduates. A questionnaire was devised on the basis of detailed inter- views with students, especially "hippies," and through observations of student "happenings." Items on the questionnaire dealt with drug use, various aspects of college life, educational and political values, and current social issues. The questionnaire was administered in two parts, a personal interview followed by a section on sensitive topics such as sex and drug behavior. This latter part was filled out by the respondent and placed in a sealed envelope without identification. The completion rate for interviews was 81 per cent. Drug use was found among 21.8 per cent of the student body, and was largely confined to marijuana. The hang— loose ethic was assessed by a series of questions related to: (l) behavior patterns, (2) attitudes and values, and (3) self-image and personality. Behavior patterns included such things as taking part in "happenings" and mass protests, and reading under- ground newspapers. 25Jerry L. Simmons and Barry Winograd, It's Happening: A Portrait of The Youth Scene Today(Santa Barbara, Calif.: Marc—Laird Publications, 1966). 28 Findings concerning_behavior patterns.-- 1. Among those who participated in happenings frequently, 3A.2 per cent were drug users 2. Among those who read underground newspapers frequently, 42 per cent were drug users 3. Of those who had participated in more than two mass protests, 45.9 per cent were drug users A. Among students with a grade point average of 3.0 or higher, only 15.3 per cent reported the use of drugs, whereas among those with GPA's lower than 2.5, drug use was reported by 31 per cent. Attitudes and values were drawn from the educational, political, and social areas. Findings concerning educational attitudes.-— 1. Drug use was more likely to be reported by students who were antagonistic to the educational system and dissatisfied with the education they were receiving 2. Of those who often felt what they were learning was a waste of time, 30.2 per cent smoked marijuana, while only 12.9 per cent of those who didn't feel this way smoked pot 3. Among those who wanted students to have a more active role in making decisions about student life, 28.“ per cent were marijuana smokers. Findings concerning political attitudes.-- 1. Drug use was found to occur among 37.5 per cent of those favoring immediate withdrawal from Viet Nam and among President Johnson's policy supporters, only 3 per cent were drug users 2. Of those opposed to the draft, 35.2 per cent used drugs compared with 15.0 per cent use among those not opposed. 29 Findings concegning social attitudes.-— 1. Among students with expectations of getting the most satisfaction out of life through leisure time activities, “5.2 per cent were marijuana users. Only 17 per cent of those reporting such expectations from family relations used pot 2. A high proportion, 29.2 per cent, of drug users was found among those who felt that their parents didn't respect their opinions, indicating possible family conflict. An alienation index did not show any significant relationships to marijuana smoking. Self—image and personality correlates were derived from the student's own protrait of himself in terms of the established social order. Findings concepning self-image.-— 1. Positive associations were found between marijuana smoking and rebellious, cynical, anti-establishment, "hippie" and apathetic self-images 2. The more a student described himself as conformist, well-behaved, moral, and "square," the less marijuana use. Demographic comparisons (based on the use of drugs at least once a week).-— ;, l. Males were almost three times as likely as females to use drugs (13.9 per cent vs. 4.6 per cent) 2. Twice as many students from upper income groups as compared with lower income groups smoked marijuana (14.1 per cent vs. 7.3 per cent) 3. Single students were four times as likely as married students to smoke pot (8.9 per cent vs. 2.1 per cent) 3O “. Atheists and those stating "other" religious affiliations reported more drug use (25 per cent of the total drug use group) than Protestants (“.9 per cent), Catholics (“.8 per cent) and Jews (“.0 Per cent of the total drug use group) 5. For females it was noted that only 1.5 per cent of students from families of less than $12,000 income used marijuana, compared with 13.1 per cent from families earning over $20,000. Suchman concluded that the data support the major hypothesis thattflmamore a student embraces the hang—loose ethic, the more he is likely to make use of marijuana. The study also supports the interpretation of drug use as part of an anti-conventional subcultural way of life, expressed in such ways as attending "happenings," engaging in mass protests, and reading underground newspapers. The Warner Rgport Representative Dale Warner of the Michigan Legislature chaired a House Special Committee on Narcotics in 1968 which sponsored a study on drug dependence in Michigan. The study was carried out by Bogg, Smith, and Russell26 and is hereafter called the Warner Report. The objectives of the study included determination of marijuana use rates for high school seniors and establish- ment of demographic, sociological, and psychological corre- lates of such drug use. A "shot-gun" approach of using a 26Richard A. Bogg, Roy G. Smith, and Susan D. Russell, Drugs and Michigan High School Students (Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Department of Public Health, April, 1969). 31 variety of personal and professional contacts, to reduce the refusal rate for participation, resulted in a non— random selection of 11 schools for the study. Five of these were later excluded from the analysis of data due to low marijuana use rates, and two of the schools were 'combined into a single category called "Urban Community." Data for each of the schools in the study was analyzed separately. A pre-tested questionnaire was administered to 1379 seniors in the 11 schools during the Spring of 1968. The administration procedures used were questionable in some instances. For example, in five schools the instrument was administered amid practice sessions for graduation ceremonies, which may have interfered with concentration or seriousness. In another case, the questionnaire was given in a study hall during four consecutive periods, allowing discussion among students before some were tested. Anonymity was assured before the students took the question- naire, in an attempt to improve the truthfulness of answers. Several fictitious drug names were put in the drug list along with the commonly known illicit drugs and no students reported taking the fake drugs, perhaps indicating a basic honesty in the self-report of drug use. Descrippive findings of the Warner Rpport.-- 1. From 25-57 per cent of all high school seniors used tobacco 32 2. From “9—81 per cent of the seniors reported drinking, the highest proportion found in a private school 3. From 0—33 per cent reported having tried marijuana, the highest per cent in the private school and the lowest per cent in two rural schools “. Use of other drugs was found to be low. The highest use rate for LSD was 2.8 per cent at the suburban school. Amphetamine use was also highest in this school, with 5.3 per cent reporting use. Only two students out of the total 1,379, both at the suburban school, reported the use of heroin. Statistical analysis was undertaken to ascertain the relationships between marijuana use and certain demographic, sociological, and psychological variables. The results are presented in Table 2.1. One can see that the strongest relationships existed between alcohol and marijuana use, and between tobacco and marijuana use. Virtually all marijuana smokers were also drinkers and were more likely to be tobacco users. Marijuana smokers were somewhat less likely to participate in community, religious, and school activities and somewhat more likely to participate in political activities. Dating began earlier for marijuana smokers and they also more frequently reported going "steady" than did non-marijuana smokers. Pot users were somewhat more likely to be against the Viet Nam war, although the tendency was for all students to be pro—war. No significant relationships were found between marijuana use and college plans, and school Bflwnies were little different from those of non-smokers. 33 .Ho>oa mocmofiMchmm+ Ho. moo. Hoo. mo. moo. coaoassmsoo Hoeooao .sH Ho. Hoo. Hoo. m2 moo. wcfixosm ooosooo .mH mz mo. m2 m2 m2 msapso sosmpm .NH mo. moo. mmo. mo. Hoo. sumo passe pm om< .HH mz m2 m2 mz mz mamas mmmaaoo .oH m2 m2 m2 Hoo. mz moossm mmssoo .o mz mmo. m2 mmo. m2 mmaossfioos Hooaomaoo CH CompmoHOHupmm .w m2 me mz mz Ho. mmaofi>aooo soassssoo as coupsaHOHBLsm .s mz m2 mz mz mo. mmsossfioos Hoosom CH coapmomomppmm .m m2 me mz mo. m2 msflofisfipoo mosamfiams ca coupsaHOHpssa .m mz moo. V m2 m2 m2 mossocmpom nossso .3 oz Hoe. Hoo. mz mz mosmsmomso msofimfiaom .m mz m2 mz mz moo. sosooosom m.smsoos .m me me Ho. mz +Hoo. xsm .H Ammuzo Aofimuzo Aofimuzo Amouzo Aosauzo opm>apm cmnmsozm mpHCBEEoo m mpmo < homo smog: Hmhpcoo ngucmo oaomfigm> Hoonom mm omD mcmsnfismz .mHoozom ppooom Lospmz esp CH mmaomamm> oopooaom pom om: acmSmHmmu awesome moHQmCOfipmHom Hmoflpmapmpm do mngEsmnn.H.m mamda 3“ The Wisconsin Study Udell and Smith27 directed a survey of drug use among 790 SOphomore, junior, and senior high school students selected on a stratified random sampling basis from five Wisconsin high schools. The research instrument consisted of multiple-choice questions. Students were not identified in any way in order to encourage unbiased responses. The content of the questionnaire dealt with marijuana use and attitudes toward such use, as well as with demographic / /’variables. \o/ Analysis of the data was based on comparisons of responses of those who had never used marijuana (N=60“) with those who had used the drug over two times (N=87). Students who had tried marijuana once or twice were not included in the analysis. Findings.—- 1. Eighty-five per cent of the users as compared to only 16 per cent of the non-users said they were able to obtain marijuana with no difficulty 2. Forty-five per cent of the users are attracted to peOple who use marijuana, whereas only nine per cent of the non-users gave such a response. Not one user would avoid another user, but “9 per cent of non—users would avoid the marijuana user 37Jon G. Udell and Robert s. Smith, "Attitudes and the Usage of Drugs Among Users and Non—Users of Marijuana in a High School Population," Wisconsin Project Reports, Vol. “ (October, 1969). 35 3. Frequent use of alcohol was reported by 39 per cent of marijuana users, but by only 1“ per cent of non—users. Fifty per cent of pot users compared with one per cent of non—users reported experience with hashish. Forty—two per cent of the marijuana users, compared with .l per cent of non-users reported they had used LSD. Speed, dex, heroin, cocaine, opium, and glue were all used to a higher degree by marijuana users. “. Eight per cent of the users listed "problems at home with parents" and nine per cent listed "to get away from pressures at school" as reasons for drug use 5. Seniors comprised 35 per cent of the sample, but had “6 per cent of the total drug use; juniors were 32 per cent of the sample and had 3“ per cent of the drug use; and sophomores made up 33 per cent of the sample and had 20 per cent of the drug use 6. Children of professional people showed the highest rates of drug use. Children of teachers and professors had the highest disproportionate use of marijuana in that they comprised 10 per cent of the total sample, but made up 22 per cent of the use group. The opposite trend was found among the children of skilled laborers and craftsmen, who constituted 21 per cent of the sample but had only 10 per cent of total pot use. The authors conclude that the data gives support to the concept of a drug subculture in which a high degree of association is found between the use of marijuana and other. drugs, implying that marijuana use may contribute to the use of more dangerous drugs. Older students compared with younger students were more likely to be using drugs. Generally, marijuana use was higher among children of upper socio—economic levels, and lower among the working- class children. 36 The Blum Studies A series of drug studies was done by Blum and Associates28 on several college campuses. In one study, random Samples totaling 131“ undergraduates from five colleges were interviewed with a questionnaire of 215 items during the 1966-1967 academic year. In comparing illicit— exotic drug users with non-users, Blum found the following characteristics to be associated with users (P <.05).29 Illicit-exotic drug users were: older, upper classmen; from wealthy families; arts and humanities or social science majors; in Opposition to parental stands; politically active and left-wing; irreligious; dissatisfied; more likely to have had school drOp-out eXperience; pessimistic; heavy users of mild stimulants; users of drugs for a variety of personal and interpersonal purposes; alcohol drinkers; tobatco smokers; and users of prescriptive psychoactive ,3fiugs~as3well as a variety of illicit ones. 28Richard H. Blum, Students and Drugs (San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, Inc., 1969), p. l“2. 29Illicit drugs may be of two types: those such as marijuana, LSD, and heroin, whose acquisition, sale and (sometimes) possession are prohibited by law, and those unlawful to use except by medical prescription, such as barbiturates and amphetamines. Exotic drugs are those so newly developed or discovered that they are not covered by existing laws. These include STP, MDA, and many natural plant substances such as morning glory seeds and catnip. 37 30 In another study, Blum selected four ideological positions to contrast in relation to drug use. Samples were obtained by asking students to nominate other students whom they thought would fall into the classifications of: (l) illicit-exotic drug users, (2) religious students, (3) left-political students, and (“) right-political students. Campus ministers and the membership lists of political and religious organizations were consulted in obtaining such students. A questionnaire was given and the data analyzed for these groups, involving a total of 105 students. Major findings.-— 1. Drug users were much less interested in religion (P < .001)3l 2. Students without a religion fell more frequently into the drug-using and left— political ideological groups (P < .001) 3. "No religion" students were more frequently drug users, while Protestants, Catholics, and Jews were more often non-users (P < .001) “. Drug users Said their parents did not emphasize religion as a life orientation, whereas non- users reported their parents did emphasize religion (P < .001) 5. Drug users as compared with non-users said their parents did not value tradition or the status-quo (P < .001) 6. Drug users were politically more left, whereas non-users were more right-wing (P < .001) 7. Drug users compared with non-users showed less involvement in formal clubs, associations, and teams (P < .001) \ _. 30 , . 31Rounded to the nearest standard statistical sig— nlflfiance level. Blum, 0p. cit., pp. 205-226. 38 8, Drug users more than non—users reported that more of their friends were also drug~users (P < .01) 9. Whole-family congruence on politics was found for non—drug students, while drug users appeared set against the politics of mother and father (P < .01) 10. Drug users scored lower on family homogeneity (P < .05)32 11. Drug users more than non—users reported perceiving crises in family relationships as having influenced their lives (P < .05) 12. For non-users, goals seemed clear and parents approved of them, whereas for users, uncertainty and parental disapproval obtained (P < .05) 13. On the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Scale of Values, the users as compared with non—users ranked lower on political and religious values (P < .05) 1“. Drug users as compared with non-users indicated lower satisfaction with school (P < .05) 15. On the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale the non-users revealed higher dogmatism than users (P < .05). There were no significant differences shown between drug users and non—users on McCloskey's Alienation Scale. 33 On the basis of these studies, Blum concludes that “Pug users are typically: artistic, tolerant, spontaneous, irduerested in insights of the mind, less interested in —‘\ 32Students were asked to rate their parents and themselves on a list of 20 specific issues, as to pro or 90“ Emosition. Examples of items included pacifism, Viet "9m, sexual freedom, religion, birth control, and the llke.. Congruence between scores of student and parents was (lalled "family homogeneity." 33Blum, op. cit., p. 2“l. 39 convention and reality, superficially sympathetic, unable to withstand tension, opposed to order or structure, flambuoyant, untrustworthy, and in possession of feelings of inadequacy. He further concludes that the drug user feels distance from his parents and most of his peers, is pessimistic and dissatisfied, and lacks close ties to others—-all of which imply distress or at least frustration and disappointment. Turning to psychoactive drugs is viewed as an attempt to alleviate such distress. Summary of the Literature Review A psychological picture of the drug user gained from the clinical studies cited reveals a personality typically including the characteristics of: a weak, immature ego, depression, inadequate identification, inability to enter close relationships requiring the giving and accepting of love, an amotivational syndrome, and an intuitive, inward- turning orientation. Dynamically, drug use is generally aeen.by clinicians as a means of coping with stress; that is, as a defense to (l) inhibit inner anxiety, (2) relieve intolerable tension, depression and boredom, (3) restore dzimaged feelings of self—confidence and esteem, and (“) gair1 a sense of identity and belonging. Sociologically, the drug user is typically a middle— CiaS£3 male with anti-conventional, anti-conServative, and "ntj=~establishment value orientations. Drug users appear '1“ be in rebellion against the traditional Protestant Ethic “0 of the middle-class and are turning to an emergent "hang- loose" ethic comprised of protest toward the traditional as well asfla search for identity and new meaning. The family atmosphere is implicated as a predisposing ~‘aCt‘or in drug use. Homes broken phySically by death, “desertion, or divorce--and to a greater extent, those crippled by parental strife, conflict, and crises are associated with greater drug use. Lack of family con- gruence in such areas as politics, success values, and goals . ,_._..._..., 'is found more frequently among drug users, and they more often come from less cohesive homes where they feel as outsiders. A more distant relationship to traditional religious values is seen among drug users, as evidenced by less fre— quent affiliation with formal religion, less frequent church attendance, and less participation in religious activities. A similar trend is seen in relationship to tradi- tional school orientation, where drug users show less ITequent participation in organized, sanctioned school aCtiVities such as clubs, athletics, and student govern— ment.. Low achievement and irregular attendance are viewed as Eflirt of an amotivational syndrome associated with drug use. Less satisfaction with school was noted among users, as “K311 as a higher drOp-out rate. Drug use has also been fOUFKi among middle-class students who are oriented toward “1 college and are not apathetic toward school, but who would like to see changes made in the traditional educational system. Peer group associations among drug users are selective, showing an orientation toward subcultural reference group ties which seem to provide a source of identification, complete with unique rituals and symbolism. Thus, drug use is viewed both as a protest against the establishment and also as a quest for meaning and identity. Strains of affectional deprivation, parental strife, feelings of low self-esteem, and depression have all been well documented in the literature review. Research con- cerning the strain of alienation yielded conflicting data. Sample surveys have found no relationship between drug use and alienation, yet several clinicians appear to see alienation as the very emblem of drug use. Messer found three of Srole's alienation items positively related, and two items negatively related to drug use. In addition to the above psychological and socio- lOgical correlates of drug use, the studies have clearly Shown that users tend to engage in certain other forms of deviarm;behavior such as the use of alcohol and tobacco. AlthOugh not deviant in themselves, earlier dating pattkerns and more frequent "going steady" are also evident in tr11S group, perhaps leading to promiscuous sexual behaV ior . “2 The studies cited in the review of the literature have arisen from a variety of theoretical foundations. Regardless of theory used, however, the common eXplanatory thread that appears to be interwoven throughout is the existence of strained or distant relationships with the basic traditional influences of socialization. This recurrent theme serves as the nucleus around which the theory for the present study is developed. Theoretical Foundation and Hypothesis Development Theoretical Foundation The literature reveals no single comprehensive theory encompassing the whole of deviant behavior. All behavior, including that labeled as "deviant"3u is largely a product of social relationships. The developing self with its drives and need patterns interacts with significant others within the social structure of the environment, resulting in a set of value orientations which guide the person toward 35 certain kinds of behavior. Thus, explanations for deviant 3"For purposes of this study, deviant behavior is viewed as that which violates normative (institutionalized) expectations in a social system and in interpreted by a social audience as deviant. 35See Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck, Varia— tions in Value Orientations (Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson and Company, 1961), p. “1 for a more complete description of value orientations. Basically, three elements--the cognitive, the affective, and the directive--give order to human acts and thoughts as they relate to the solution of common human problems. “3 behavior must include both psychological and sociological theoretical formulations. Several such theories have con- tributed to the framework for the present study and are now briefly presented. Sullivan36 depicts the organism as a tension system which theoretically can vary between states of absolute euphoria and absolute tension. Euphoria is equated with total equilibrium, never actually obtained, but approached when tension is at a minimum. There are two main sources of tensions; those grounded in the physiochemical require— ments for life, and those that arise from anxiety con- nected with threats to one's security. Anxiety is the consequence of faulty interpersonal relationships with those persons deemed "significant others." According to Sullivan, the objective of all behavior is either to reduce the intensity of physiological needs or to avoid anxiety. Deviant behavior can be acquired in an effort to mitigate, control, or eliminate the effects of anxiety. This is accomplished as the organism learns to discriminate between increasing and decreasing interpersonal tension situations and guides his activity in the direction of the latter. For example, if interactions within the conven- tional or traditional social structure fail to decrease tensions, the value orientations toward these influences 36Harry S. Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry (New York: Norton, 1953). ““ may become negative, and the search for psychological need fulfillment may be directed toward deviant peer group associations where significant others offer a measure of status and tension reduction, resulting in further positive orientation toward the deviant subculture. That is, rela- tionships within conventional society may engender feelings of alienation, deprivation, or depression which then pre- dispose one toward the deviant subculture. The concept of need serves as a focus for another relevant psychological theory. Kluckhohn and Murray37 prOpose that when a need is aroused, the person is in a state of tension which can be reduced only when the need becomes satisfied. The developing organism learns to attend to those objects and persons, and to perform those acts, which have been found in the past to successfully reduce tension. If implementation of past patterns proves inadequate, the need persists, giving rise to other courses of behavior which may include deviance, in an effort to appease or satisfy the organism and reduce the tension. Conversely, if needs of love, affiliation, and status are satisfied by conventional socializing agencies such as family, church, school, and peer groups--these then act as insulators against orientation toward a deviant peer subculture. 37Clyde Kluckhohn and Henry A. Murray, Personality: 1n Nature, Society, and Culture (New York: Alfred A. KnOpf, l9“9), pp. 12-32. Turning to sociological foundations for the present study, Merton,38 in his theory of Social Structure and Anomie, considers deviance as a reaction to a social situation of strain, conflict, or disequilibrium resulting from the discrepancy between culturally induced goals and the legitimate institutionalized means of achieving them. However, one shortcoming of anomie theory is that it neglects to view behavior as a process of continuous adjustment of actors to one another. Cohen39 modified Merton's theory by emphasizing the role of subcultural reference groups as evidence of reaction formation to socially induced stresses. EriksonLl0 views deviance as a "normal" social response to "abnormal" social circumstances, and contends that every act of deviance results from some imbalance within the social structure--a condition of strain, anomie, or alienation. Sutherland,"l in his theory of Differential Associa- "'--.._.... -....-__.__ ........ ._....———.._ ... , _ tion, suggests that deviant behavior is learned in a """ _-. - M- l, "' vfl ,1._*7-.-, 38Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957), pp. 131-160. 39Albert Cohen, "The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie and Beyond," American Sociological Review, Vol. 30 (February, 1965), pp. 5-1“. uoKai Erikson, "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance," in The Other Side, ed. by Howard Becker (New York: The Free Press, 196“), p. 10. ulEdwin H. Sutherland, "The Theory of Differential Association," in Juvenile Delinquency, ed. by Rose Giallombardo (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966), p. 81. “6 pattern of communication involving subcultures. Deviants learn deviant behavior from interactions with other deviants. The more a person differentially associates with 3deviants, the more likely he is to learn the techniques and rewards of such behavior. Lerman"2 shows evidence that knowledge of argot is an indication of participation in a subculture. He further considers deviant argot itself to be a mode of deviance-—symbolic deviance that is related to both official and unofficial measures of deviant behavior. Lerman suggests that the three variables of deviant values, argot, and illegal behavior, when appearing simultaneously, can be taken as evidence of the existence “3 of a deviant subculture. Becker describes an approach to the phenomenon of deviance, based on Sutherland's theory, but focusing on deviance as an interactive process involving pppp deviants and non-deviants. This approach views deviance as a process of interaction between those who commit (or are Said to have committed) a deviant act, and the rest of society;( There is a complementary relationship between the two and one cannot exist without the other; That is, the "pull" of a deviant subculture is not sufficient to enmesh one with the drug use world without the "push" of "2Paul Lerman, "Argot, Symbolic Deviance and Sub- cultural Delinquency," American Sociological Review, Vol. 32 (April, 1967), pp. 209-22“. "3Howard S. Becker, The Other Side (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, l96“3, p. 2. “7 negative orientations to conventional values learned in strained interactions with "straight" society. Recklessuu proposes a "containment" theory which .i n v... ~- u—- --.-—...—r explains the regulation of conduct as a consequence of . ._ _. ,_.._ _—.—.- w—o—m... - w MMM innerfandfouter'contrOls- thereby combining theories of self with theories of social structural factors. Inner ”containment is comprised mainlyof self-components such as self-control, good self-concept, ego strength, a well- - develOped super-ego, a high frustration tolerance, and other inner regulators. Outer containment consists of “W..." those social structural inhibitors whiCh are able to hold the person within bounds, and includes societal eXpecta— ,, v... -.~. _ LL _..—_-.— ,r- ~— . _._-- ~ w...— ‘mtions, a consistent moral front presented to the person, -—*a effective supervision and discipline, institutional reinforcement of his norms, goals and expectations, and opportunities within the sOcial structure for a reasonable range of activities which can result in acceptance,- identity formation, and belongingness. These would include, for example, the structures Of family, church and school. These inner and outer containments mediate the pressures and pulls of the external environment and the inner drives or pushes. Environmental pressures include conflict and discord, deprivation, external restraint, and limited access to success in the Opportunity structure. ""Walter C. Reckless, "A New Theory of Delinquency and Crime," Federal Probation, Vol. 25 (December, 1961), pp. “2-u6. “8 Pulls of the environment may be such things as distractions, attractions, temptations, mass media advertising, and deviant subcultures. The inner pushes include drives, needs, motives, frustrations, hostility, inferiority feelings and so forth. These pushes and pulls have to be mediated by the inner control system whenever there is weak outer containment and vice versa. Deviant behavior develops in situations where the inner and/or outer con- tainment is inadequate. For example, the pressures Of3 conflict in the home, plus the pull of attraction to a deviant subculture can result in deviant behavior if nOt‘ contained by inner regulators such as self-control or outer buffers such as participation in family, church, and school activities. ’7 'To summarize the theoretical foundation for the present study: The personality of the develOping adoles— cent is viewed largely as a product of his interactions within the basic socializing structures of family, religion, school, and peer group. When these social interactions satisfy his basic psychological needs for love, esteem, affiliation and so forth, there is relative dynamic equilibrium within the self-system, and he becomes positively oriented toward traditional values of these socializing agencies. Strain or tension develops when interactions consistently occur which fail to meet these needs, with resultant psychological disequilibrium. The “9 organism is pushed by these inner demands to seek other sources of need gratification within the social structure. 1f the inner and outer containment systems are inadequate to the task of maintaining a homeostatic balance between such inner pushes and outer pulls and pressures of the environment, tension continues and the stage is set for the appearance of deviant behavior. That is, the develOp- ing personality then invokes certain defenses in the attempt to cope with these emergent strains. One such method Of coping is to turn toward the pull of a deviant subculture which holds out a promise of need fulfillment. Hypothesis Development Hypothesis I: Drug use is related to the social structure. Hla: There is a positive relationship between drug use and the socio—economic milieu of the school system. Hlb: There is a positive relationship between drug use and being a male. ch: There is a positive relationship between drug use and age. Hld: There is an inverse relationship between drug use and orientation toward family, religion, and school. Hle: There is a positive relationship between drug use and grade level, and socio— economic status of the individual. Structural factors believed to be positively related to drug use are tested in Hypotheses la, b, c and e, which were derived from both theory and the review of the literature. Studies in other parts of the country implicate socio—economic status of both the individual and his school as important factors in drug use, generating the inclusion of those variables in the present midwest study. Age and sex of the adolescent are also considered to be structural variables, with higher drug use expected to be associated with increasing age, and with being a male. The social structure of the adolescent's environment can either inhibit or foster the use of drugs. It is anticipated, following the theory presented, that negative relationships within family, church, and school impel the search for need gratification through other sources such as a deviant subculture. Such negative associations within these structures provide the "push," which if combined with positive reinforcement or "pull" of a deviant subculture, are expected to lead to adolescent use of drugs. To test Hypothesis Id, a measure of church attendance will be used to indicate orientation toward religion. A measure of parental congeniality will be used to assess the family atmosphere, and participation in school organizations will measure the degree of orientation toward the school. Hypothesis II: There is a positive relationship between drug use and ego strain. The psychological theory presented implicates disequilibrium within the ego system as motivating a search for need satisfaction or tension reduction. It is 51 suggested that strains arise from interactions within the conventional socializing agencies and tend to turn one toward a deviant subculture which may be seen as a hOpe for need—fulfillment. The position is therefore taken that those adolescents exhibiting higher levels of strain are more likely to be involved in the use of drugs, in an attempt to cope with tensions. That is, it seems plausible that affectional deprivation, relative deprivation, alienation, depression, and the feeling of being left out Of peer activities are all strains which impinge upon the adolescent and predispose him toward drug use in an attempt to reduce tension and to restore equilibrium. Hypothesis III: There is an inverse relationship between drug use and traditional value orientations. The theory states that the developing ego orients itS€1f toward those elements within the social system which satisfy needs, and avoids those situations which are ineffective in tension reduction. It is these interactions between self and social structure which produce the person's value orientations. Positive relationships within the traditional, conventional socializing agencies are expected to act as inhibitors against drug use. It is therefore anticipated that adolescent drug users are those who reject traditional values and are likely to be oriented toward the vanguard of social change, espousing anti- conventional values. More specifically, persons who value 52 traditional peer, family, religious, authoritarian, con- servative viewpoints are not eXpected to use drugs. Further, those who value high grades in school, those who can defer gratification, those who aspire to "estab- lishment" status positions, and those who are oriented toward college are anticipated not to be involved with drugs. Conversely, drug users will tend to be those who Show negative relationships with the above values. Hypothesis IV: Drug use is related to other forms of deviance. HIVa: There is a positive relationship between drug use and other forms of deviance. HIVb: There is a positive relationship between drug use and symbolic deviance. The theoretical formulations presented have strongly implicated that deviant behavior is learned in interactions with members of deviant subcultures. It is therefore postulated that drug use will be directly associated with ‘other forms of deviant behavior found within these reference groups. Use of alcohol and tobacco have long been a part of deviant peer group activities and are included in this speculation. Measures of sexual behavior are to be examined and are expected to show positive relationships to drug use on the basis of both subcultural association with other deviants, and as an attempt to satisfy needs not fulfilled in conventional societal activities. Lerman has suggested relationships between symbolic deviance and deviant behavior. Following this theory, it is hypothesized in IVb that knowledge of drug argot will be positively associated with drug use, indicating the existence of a subculture. It is further anticipated that contacts within such a subculture make drugs more readily available to those within the group, resulting in a positive relationship between perception of drug availability and drug use. CHAPTER III THE METHODOLOGY Groundwork for the Study School and community support for the present study had to be carefully develOped over a period of time, due to the nature of the data desired. Evidence of the sound- ness of the methodological approach taken was confirmed by the fact that three school systems were invited to partici- pate and all three accepted the challenge of a study involving sensitive and potentially explosive areas of human behavior. Because of this apparent methodological strength, the groundwork established for this study is described in some detail. The emphasis is on the proce- dures used with School B, which was the first of the three schools to become involved and was the school upon which much of the project development rested. The initial impetus for the study came from School B where unsubstantiated reports of high rates of drug use caused much alarm and prompted concern for the establishment of more factual data. The superintendent of School B con- tacted the research team at Michigan State University to consider exploration of the situation. 5“ )3 A meeting was held in January of 1969. Several members of the School B administrative staff met with the research team and discussed the areas of concern, type of study desired, possible methods for structuring such a study, and the potential usefulness of the data. Valuable suggestions were provided and the research team was given the charge to draft a tentative instrument for further consideration and evaluation by the total high school administrative staff. The second conference took place in May after the tentative opinionnaire had been designed. Fourteen School B administrators and staff were present as the research team explained the nature of the instrument. Those present included the superintendent, assistant superintendents, junior and senior high school principals and assistant principals, as well as counselors. After some discussion the superintendent asked his staff if they felt the data that could be obtained from the instru— ment would be of use to them, and if they desired to con- tinue with the project. The staff gave solid support to continue, eXpressing the sentiment that they were willing to defend the study against any community reaction that might occur. Further discussion resulted in an exchange of thoughts leading to revision of certain items in the instrument. It was thus possible to incorporate several more ideas Offered by the School B administrative staff, 56 further consolidating their involvement in and enthusiasm for the project. It was agreed among those present that the third phase would be to present the revised instrument to representatives Of the total community at a later date for their information, evaluation, and support. A third meeting was held in June of 1969. More than twenty community leaders, including three school board members, the circuit court judge, a juvenile probation officer, the chief of police, two representatives from the local ministerial association, and the president of the Parent-Teacher Council were in attendance, in addition to the administrative staff who had been present at the previous meetings. The research team presented the revised instrument for discussion. Support from all those present was Obtained through further clarification and minor revisions suggested by some of the community leaders. The need to avoid any publicity regarding the project was emphasized and cooperation secured. The fourth and final planning meeting was called in September by the superintendent for the purpose of giving the entire school board an opportunity to review the final revision of the opinionnaire. Parent-Teacher Council representatives and junior and senior high school principals were also present. The final decision to administer the instrument was made and plans to implement this decision were arranged. It was agreed not to notify 57 the general public of the nature of the study in order to avoid publicity which might bias the results of the study. The same basic approach of wide community involvement was used in securing the COOperation of Schools A and C, with three main differences. First, whereas School B officials made the initial contact for their involvement, the research team actively initiated involvement of Schools A and C by contacting their superintendents. Secondly, the same form of the Opinionnaire was used in each school, thereby excluding Schools A and C from participating in the develOpment of the instrument, which had already been completed by the time of their entrance Into the project. Thirdly, the meetings with representatives from Communities A and C took place over a shorter time span. All planning was done within three months, as compared with about nine months for School B. A particularly unique strength of this study was the procedure used to return and interpret the study data to each of the communities involved. After analysis of the data, follow-up conferences were held with the original community committees who had assisted in planning the study. Provisions were established for presentation of the results to student, faculty, and parent groups. A commitment was made by the research team to provide each school system with all manuscripts emerging from the study. 58 Sample Description of the Communities The study was conducted in three small, typically white, mid-western communities located within a larger area sometimes referred to as the "West Shore" region. The communities are located within a triangle, none being over 38 miles from another. These communities were selected for three main reasons: (1) the need for a study of this type in smaller, midwestern communities as noted previously, (2) a request from the administration of one of the schools for such a study, and (3) to study three different socio—economic levels of white middle-America, an often neglected research area comprising the bulk of the nation's peOple. The three schools are referred to individually as Schools A, B, and C. A brief description of each community is given in order Of descending socio— economic level.l School A is located within a community of approxi- mately 15,000 pOpulation and is primarily upper-middle class. The 1960 census figures show a median family income of almost $12,000, with an estimated 1969 income figure of $18,500. Eighty per cent of the employed males are classified as white collar workers primarily found in 1Appendix A contains selected 1960 census figures for Communities A and B, providing a more complete demo— graphic picture. Census figures for Community C were not” available. 59 professional, managerial, and executive positions. Community A is located adjacent to a city of about 200,000 population and is within a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) of about 363,000 persons. High educational attainment is indicated by the high proportion (82 per pent) of persons over 25 who have completed high school, by the median number of years of school completed (13.9 years in 1960), and by the percentage of students going on for higher education (9“ per cent in 1969). Figures for father's education Show 87 per cent had some college and 72 per cent graduated from college. The average Opera- tional eXpenditure per pupil at School A was $705 in the 1969-1970 school year. School B is located within a school district of approximatly 25,000 people. This community is best depicted as a common—man town predominantly composed of lower-middle class families earning a living in skilled and semi-skilled jobs, with about “0 per cent classified as white collar workers. Census figures Show that in 1960 the median income was $6371, little more than half that of Community A. The estimated median income for 1969 was $9500. Community B is not within a Standard IMetrOpOlitan Statistical Area, but is within 10 miles (of an SMSA of approximately 150,000 pOpulation, and is ‘within 30 miles Of the SMSA of Community A. Only half as many persons in Community B (“2 per cent) had completed 60 four years of high school as compared with Community A, and the median number of years of school completed was 10.9. Approximately 60 per cent of graduates of School B went on to higher education in 1969. Figures for father's education Show 30 per cent had some college and 20 per cent graduated from college. The average amount of money spent by School B per pupil for operations in 1969 was $692. School C is located within a small community of about 8,000 population, with the school district also encompassing a large rural area which brings the total school district population to about 15,000 persons. Over two-thirds of those living in the Community 0 school district commute to work in other neighboring cities. A high prOportion of these jobs are found in the manu— facturing occupations. Over “0 per cent of the workers are classified as laborers, with smaller percentages of skilled tradesmen and even smaller proportions of managers and professional workers. Community 0 is considered a working-class rural fringe area, predominantly composed of upper-lower class families. The estimated median family income in 1969 was $8500, somewhat lower than that of Community B and much lower than Community A. A follow-up survey showed 39 per cent of 1969 high school graduates pursuing some form of further education. Figures for father's education show that 18 per cent had some college, and 10 per cent had graduated from college. The average Operational expenditure per pupil in 1969 was $535. 61 Collection of Data The same data collection procedures were used in all three schools with only minor variations. Again, the model for School B is presented and any differences in procedures at the other two schools are noted. Teachers were informed before the date of administra— tion that there would be a "special project" during an extended homeroom period on November 6th. They were not told the nature of the project in order to avoid sensi- tizing the students to the study. Teachers were asked to stop at the school office before homeroom period to pick up a packet of materials they would need for the project. All students at School B in grades 8 through 12, who were present on November 6th, 1969 were given the opinionnaire. Attendance figures at both junior and senior high schools showed normal or slightly above normalxattendance. Inasmuch as the validity of the study was highly dependent upon student honesty, precautions were taken to enhance truthfulness in answering. .Each student was given a large envelope which contained the Opinionnaire, an IBM answer sheet, and a pencil. Students were given directions over the intercom system while their regular homeroom teachers aided in the administration of the instrument. Students were instructed to put no identifying information 62 on either the answer sheet or the opinionnaire. They were also informed that they would place all materials in the envelope after the session and would seal the envelope which would then be collected and taken directly to a central collecting station where all the opinionnaires would be picked up immediately by the MSU research team. Anonymity was also stressed by emphasizing that "no one, not even your teachers, will ever know what you have written." This information was read over the intercom system and also appeared on the cover page of each Opinion- naire.2 The administration required an average of 55 minutes for the senior high students and 70 minutes for the junior high students. The MSU researchers visited most class- rooms in an effort to ensure the visibility of the research team. A sample of student and teacher reaction following the administration of the instrument was obtained. Teachers reported substantial interest on the part of students throughout the entire session. Students generally reported the experience to be highly interesting with a low level of boredom. They were not embarrassed by the questions and they wanted to know the results as soon as possible. ") ’See Appendix H which shows the oral and written instructions which were given. 63 Overt community feedback to the school officials concerning the administration of the instrument consisted of ten telephone calls: six at the junior high, three at the senior high, and one call to the superintendent's office. These calls were reported by the school administra- tive staff as inform"tion-seeking queries. The one telephone call to the superintendent was from a local news— paper reporter who desired more information. He was informed of the "confidential nature of the material at this time" and that he would be notified by the superin- tendent when any information might be released to the news media. Administration procedures for Schools A and C were similar, with these notable differences. First, at School C there was no intercom system so the printed instructions were read by individual teachers, resulting in some loss of standardization. Secondly, at School C all 8th graders were administered the instrument at the same time in a large auditorium. A contagion of restlessness was apparent near the end of the session as rapid readers completed the opinionnaire, perhaps adversely influencing the slower students. A final difference was that the instrument was administered at School A on December “th, 1969 and at School C on December 19, 1969. All answer sheets were screened for any visible gross irregularities which might indicate questionable validity 6“ of the responses. It was felt that the total number of respondents was large enough to allow exclusion of any questionable answer sheets based on the following a priori judgment criteria: 1. Failure to complete the answer sheet. The reasons for incomplete answer sheets could not be ascertained; that is, it was not known if this represented lack of seriousness in taking the opinionnaire or if it was due to insufficient time allowance for slow readers, or to some other factor. 2. Answer sheets showing a pattern or "set"; for example, a pattern of using mainly one response category such as the middle answer, or a pattern of answers showing atypical shapes or designs such as a cluster of answers in a diamond formation. Such extreme patterns were thought to indicate a lack of seriousness in responding to the items. This screening procedure resulted in a very small percentage of unusable answer sheets which were excluded from data analysis. A total of 89 answer sheets (approxi— mately two per cent of the total sample) was rejected on the basis of the two criteria. Males submitted 68 per cent (if the answer sheets that were rejected. Grades 8 and 9 combined had a greater proportion of rejected answer sheets than did grades 10, 11, and 12 combined. Sixty—two per ‘fent of the rejections came from the younger group, which 65 comprised only A2 per cent of the total sample of the study. Analysis of the criteria for rejection shows the greatest proportion of the total rejected was due to failure to complete the answer sheet rather than because of a pattern or set (76 per cent vs. 24 per cent). A comparison of individual schools reveals a rejection rate of approximately 3.2 per cent at School C, 2.0 per cent at School A and only 1.2 per cent at School B. Random errors in coding and processing for computer analysis also accounted for a loss of 137 answer sheets. Table 3.1 shows enrollment and attendance figures as well as rejected and useable answer sheet information. It is observed that 73 per cent of the total enrollment at School A was included in the final analysis of data. The 27 per cent not represented in the study includes four per cent absentees, three per cent rejection due to screening procedures and coding errors in assigning identifying numbers to answer sheets, and 20 per cent loss of data in the keypunching and tabulating operation. There is no reason to believe this latter loss not to be random, inasmuch as the answer sheets were returned, coded, (ind keypunched randomly. Essentially, then, the number ()f useable answer sheets represents a 73 per cent sample (of the School A population. This was the lowest sample Figure in the study and still represents the best that a .pcoEaaoaco amuo» co comma mpomzw Lozmcx caomomsmo pcoo poo on» pcommpoop mmmocucohmo Canvas mpoofisc one *** =.pom: so :uoppmd m moazonm omonp so wpoonm Lozmcm ouoaoEoocH mo coapoonom ** .Ampooasc opoaoEooca so opmoaaose ..m.ov mpoxrw sozmcm ou mucoasc m2acwammm Ca mLOLmo wcaeoo on one coapomwom * Aamv 0mm: mm sma mmw: wmam a¢eoe 35 mmaa a: mm mmma mmza o % 38 mama mm mm mmom mmam m Amt mmaa mm am mmma mama ¢ **mocseooopm *mpoppm acacoopom wcaooo Eoecmm pcomopm psoEaaogcm ***mpoosm . , amooe ampoe aoocom Lozmc< .am eopoonom muoonm po3m2< mammomb mpma poonm swamc¢ one .oocmocmpu< .pcmEaaopsm .Eopmzm aoonom mo muse poocm Losmcm oaowmm: ecm ompoowop one “cosmocmppm .pcosaaomcml|.~.m MQQQB 67 recent comparable study attained.3 There was very little loss of data at School B, and that lost from School C represents mostly absentees, screening rejections, and random coding loss. A total of “,230 students or 81 per cent of the total enrollment were included in the analysis of data. Instrumentation General Index Construction Technique The instrument used was an opinionnaire consisting of 1 a series of questions, indexes, and control items.” The present study is concerned primarily with four types of information derived from the instrument: (1) measures of orientation toward aspects of the social structure, (2) assessment of several forms of ego strain that affect the adolescent, (3) measures of orientation toward traditional values, and (A) selected measures of deviant behavior, primarily drug use. There were two main reasons for constructing special indexes for this study. First, few scales were available 3Richard H. Blum, Students and Drugs (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1969), p. 333. ‘ ”The opinionnaire was developed by two sociologists-- Dr. Arthur M. Vener and Dr. Cyrus 8. Stewart, of the Department of Social Science at Michigan State University, and the author, Counselor and Instructor of Psychology, Grand Rapids Junior College--as part of a larger study. 'The complete instrument including all indexes and items is found in Appendix C. 68 that would tap the information needed for testing the hypotheses of the study, and secondly, those scales which might have been useful were too lengthy and time-consuming for use with the age range selected for the study. A decision had to be made whether to use longer scales and gain depth or use shorter indexes and gain breadth. Hirschi and Selvin pose the problem in these terms: .,,If the social researcher were to use a small number of long scales, like the psychometrician, he would have to forego a large number of single items that he might otherwise study and this might well be more costly than the reduction in reliability.5 The path chosen for the present study represents a com- promise between longer scales and the use of single items by utilizing a procedure of index construction, patterned after Waisanen and Durlak, who list several assumptions underlying the use of this technique: 1. Several questions designed to measure a variable are better for the purpose than a single question 2. The degree to which these questions correlate with one another provides some tentative evidence that there may be such a variable "at work in the social world" 3. The summed values of these inter—related items can function as the measurement of that variable. L” . )Travis Hirschi and Hanan Selvin, Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytic Techniques (New York: The Free Press, 19673, p. 211. 69 A. The degree to which these measurements related to other measurements--beyond the reasonable limits of chance--provides further basis for confidence that a variable has been identified and that it has some interpretive value.6 Several indexes were constructed, using the procedures discussed in the following sections, which show how validity and reliability were built into the instrument. "Face validity" was the initial criterion for the construction and retention of index items. That is, only items that appeared to measure the desired dimension were included. Intensive interviews with over 50 students from ages 12-17 were employed as an aid in the qualitative evaluation and revision of the wording, understanding, and intended meaning of each item. These students assisted in the reorganization of some items, suggested alternate items and were instrumental in adjusting the time factor to a reasonable limit by helping to reduce the number of items from 300 in the first pre- test to 190 in the final instrument. Only those items that elicited rich response data were included in the final instrument. "Content validity" was concurrently established by subjecting each potential item to a panel of judges_composed 6F. B. Waisanen and Jerome T. Durlak, A Survey of lAttitudes Related to Costa Rican Population Dynamics (San Jose, Costa Rica: Americah International Association .for Economic and Social Development, 1966), pp. 101-115. 70 A u 7 To be of three professional behavioral scientists. included in an index, all three judges had to agree that the item measured the dimension stated. In this manner five to ten potential items were constructed for each index desired. The tentative indexes compiled in the above manner were then subjected to a ch-LESt composed of a non-random sample of 565 undergraduate students attending summer school at Michigan State University in 1969. This pre-test provided a quantitative cneck for the distribution of cases along a five—point response continuum from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." The discriminating power of each potential item was assessed and adjusted where possible to maximize the power of the item to discriminate among respondents. Low discriminating items were dis- carded. The pre—test also included opportunities for open-ended reactions from respondents. These comments were used to further modify and clarify some items, and served as a limited empirical assessment of the original validity judgments. The final and most stringent validity check was gained from the process of index correlation based on the consistency of reSponses by the “,230 students in the ‘ I“ d. 7The members of the research team served as judges. See footnoteau pageLQZDfor the names and qualifications of these researchers. 71 study.8 The product—moment correlation of each item to the total sum of all potential items in each index was computed, resulting in item—total index correlations.9 The selection of an apprOpriate correlational criterion value is arbitrary, with no standardized limits. For purposes of this study, a rigorous a priori standard was established that only those items showing a corrected item—total correlation between .20 and .70 were to be included in any index. This resulted in the rejection of some items even though they were statistically sig- nificant. The lower limit of .20 (hereafter called the "minimal criterion value") was established to insure the strength of each index. The upper limit of .70 was established because any item reaching such a high cor- relation with the total index is essentially measuring the same thing and inclusion of it would be redundant, and would increase the probability of a skewed distribu— tion. This process of index correlation assures that the 8The index correlation technique used was adapted from Waisanen and Durlak, loc. cit. 9The actual statistical procedure used correlated each item with the total sum of all items in the index. This necessitated the application of a correctional formula to eliminate the spurious overlap introduced by including the perfect correlation of the item with itself (+1.00) in the total correlation sum. This was corrected by taking 1/JH where n is equal to the total number of items in the index, and subtracting this value from the summated correlation. For further information regarding this technique see J. P. Guilford, Psychometric Methods (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., l95fl), p. H39. items in the index are measuring in the same direction along a dimension, and at the same time gives an indication of the strength of the index. Summary of Validity and Reliability The validity of the opinionnaire rested upon three methods of insuring that the instrument measured what it purported to measure. First, the items were constructed or selected on the basis of face validity. That is, did the item appear to measure the dimension desired? Pre- tests and depth interviews with students assisted in this process. Secondly, content validity was established by competent professional behavioral scientists who had to agree that the item measured the factor being considered. The third validity check consisted of subjecting all items to the process of item-total index correlation, which required all items in an index to measure along the same dimension. Reliability is a measure of the internal consistency of the instrument. Again, index correlation was used-- in this case the strength of the inter-item correlations gave evidence that the indexes were measuring consistently in the same direction. These inter—item correlations were based on results of the administration of the opinionnaire to three different schools on three different dates, further insuring consistent reliable measurement. These 73 inter-item correlations are reported for each index. They were not, however, restricted to the criterion range of .20 to .70 as were the item-total correlations. Specific Index and Item Descriptions 8 Application of the above method of index construction resulted in the emergence of several indexes, most of which contain between 3 and 8 items. It is acknowledged that those indexes comprised of less than 5 items are somewhat weak, due to restriction of the score range. Specifically, the indexes of Peer Orientation and Alienation are con- sidered less than powerful and should be interpreted in that light. However, they were included following the assumption of Waisanen that several questions are better than a single question in the measurement of a variable. Certain other variables consist of single items, which along with the various indexes, are described in the following sections under four broad categories. Most index items require the respondent to select his answer from among the following five responses:10 l. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Uncertain A. Agree 5. Strongly Agree 10 These same response categories were used in ten of the indexes and will not be repeated in the descriptions Of those specific indexes. However, other response cate- gories were used in eight of the indexes and will be included in the text wherever apprOpriate. 7A The number to the left of the response represents a respondent's score for that item. Scores for each item in any given index are summed to give a total score for that index. For example the Affectional Deprivation Index consists of seven items. Possible scores range from 7 (for respondents who strongly disagree with all 7 items) to 35 (for those who strongly agree with all 7 items). Indexes and Items Related to the Social Structure The following indexes and items were develOped to measure the respondent's relationships to family, religion, and school. Age and sex are also included as variables of social structure. It is acknowledged that not all socializing influences are included in this study. For example, the mass media exert tremendous socializing influences but are omitted in order to give a more stringent framework to the present study. Church Attendanceltem (CA).-—This item assesses frequency of church attendance, the score being the number at the left of the item chosen. The possible score range was one to five. 9.11 How often do you attend church or synagogue? (1) Never, (2) About twice a year, (3) About once a month, (A) Nearly every week, (5) Every week. 11 The number preceding each item refers to the hummer of this item as it was somewhat randomly dispersed in the actual Opinionnaire. See Appendix C. 75 Father's Education Item (FE),_-This single item is used to measure the individual's socio-economic class level. Both Coleman and Armor12 used this method of assessing class level and found it satisfactory in study- ing racial isolation in the public schools. The possible score range was from one to five with higher scores indicating higher socio-economic level. A. How much formal education does your father have? (1) Some high school or less, (2) Graduated from high school, (3) Some college, (A) Graduated from college, (5) Attended graduate or professional school. Parental Congeniality Index (PC).-—This index measures the respondent's perception of the parent's marital relationship. Seven of eight items well exceeded the minimal criterion value, having a correlational range from .361 to .A50.13 The range of inter-item correlations was between .452 and .700. The possible score range of the resulting index was between seven and 35, with higher scores indicating greater parental warmth, consideration, and affection for each other as perceived by the child 120. 8. Commission on Civil Rights, Racial Isolation in the Public Schools (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Govern- ment—Printing Office), pp. 40, 66 and lMS. 13It will be recalled that the minimum item-total correlation for acceptance of an item was established at .20. . 76 and assessed by his responses to the following items 1A comprising this index: *72. *15A. *156. *157. *159. 161. *165. *168. My parents enjoy being with each other. (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Uncertain, (A) Agree, (5) Strongly agree. My parents do nice things for each other. (1) Very seldom, (2) Seldom, (3) Sometimes, (A) Frequently, (5) Very frequently. My parents show affection for each other. (1) Very seldom, (2) Seldom, (3) Sometimes, (A) Frequently, (5) Very frequently. How easy is it for your parents to talk to each other. (1) Very difficult, (2) Somewhat difficult, (3) Fairly easy, (A) Easy, (5) Very easy. My parents agree on important matters. (1) Very seldom, (2) Seldom, (3) Sometimes, (A) Frequently, (5) Very frequently. Most of the time, what is the general atmosphere in your family? (1) Very strained, (2) Strained, (3) Somewhat strained, (A) Warm, (5) Very warm. My parents are considerate of each other's feelings. (1) Very seldom, (2) Seldom, (3) Sometimes, (A) Frequently, (5) Very frequently. Rate your parents general relationship to each other. (1) Very unhappy, (2) Unhappy, (3) Fairly happy, (A) Happy, (5) Very happy. School Class Item (SC).--This single item indicates the grade or class in school to which the respondent belongs. This category was included because it puts an emphasis on peer grouping rather than age alone. The ¥ 1A The asterisk preceding an item indicates those included in the final index. 77 possible score range was from one to five for the following item: 1. Your grade is (1) 8th, (2) 9th, (3) 10th, (A) 11th, (5) 12th. School Organizational Activities Index (SO).--This index is based on the number of organized clubs, athletics, and leadership positions in which the student is engaged at school. The two items below comprise this index. The number at the left of each possible response for item 12 was the score for that item. However, for item 13, a "no" response was assigned a score value of one and a response of "yes" was given a weighted score of five. This weighting procedure made a leadership position equivalent to member- ship in four or more organizations. The rationale for ascribing such a weight to this response is that leader- ship positions are usually attained only by greater involvement in the conventional peer culture and are indicative of greater expenditure of energy in such activities. The scores for the two items were added to give a possible index score range from two to 10, with higher scores indicating a greater involvement in school organizational activities. *12. How many school clubs, organizations and/ or athletic teams were you a member of last year? (1) None, (2) One, (3) Two, (A) Three, (5) Four or more. *13. Have you ever been an officer in any school club or organization? (1) No, (2) Yes. 78 School System Item (SS).—-This structural item indicates the respondent's school system. The item did not appear on the opinionnaire but was later coded on the answer sheet by the research team. As previously reported, School A is primarily an upper-middle class school, B is predominantly a lower-middle class school and C is composed of mainly upper-lower class families. Indexes and Items of Ego Strain "Ego strain" is a term used broadly to refer to the concept variously described in the literature by such terms as tension, anxiety, and/or conflict; that is, a condition of stress acting upon the self-system. More specifically, five measures of such strain were operationalized for use in the present study. Affectional Deprivation Index (AD).--This index assesses perceived feeling related to love, caring, affection, understanding, and attention. Seven of eight items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item—total correlations from .212 to .335. The range of inter-item correlations was between .189 and .A56. The possible score range of the resulting index was between seven and 35, with higher scores indicating greater agree- ment with the following items comprising this index: 79 *26. I need more affection from someone who cares about me. *Al. I desperately need someone to talk to but no one will listen. 62. Most people don't care what happens to me. *6A. I have frequently felt unloved. *78. I need to find someone who will really love me. *82. Sometimes I feel like crying out for love and understanding. *109. Few people care how I feel about things. *137. I wish people would pay more attention to me. Alienation Index (AL).-—This index measures strain related to hostile social distance toward people in general. Only three of eight items met the minimal criterion value, resulting in a relatively weak index. The corrected item- total correlations were from .219 to .25A. The range of inter-item correlations was between .193 and .A37. The possible score range of the resulting index was from three to 15, with higher scores indicating agreement with the 15 following items comprising this index: *29. These days a person doesn't really know who he can count on. *A7. It's hardly fair to bring children into the world with the way things look for the future. 73. There's little use in writing to public officials because they aren't interested in the problems of the average man. 15Items 29, A7, and 73 were adopted from Leo Srole, "Social Integration and Certain Corollaries: An Exploratory Study," American Sociological Review, Vol. 21 (1956), pp. 709-716. 95. 129. 131. *135. 139. 80 It is difficult for honest men to be successful. One should be cautious of close personal ties with people. There is little hope for man's future survival. It's hard to figure out who can really be trusted. Most peOple are too concerned with themselves to worry about what happens to others. Depression Index (DP).--This index assesses strain related to feelings of boredom, hOpelessness, emptiness, and aimlessness. Six of nine potential items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item—total correlations between .225 and .3A3. The range of inter- item correlations was between .210 and .507. The possible score range of the resulting index extended from six to 30, with higher scores indicating greater agreement with the following items comprising this index: *27. *30. 33. *AS. 75. 79. *107. I am bored most of the time. I often feel low. I see few bright spots in my future. Sometimes I don't care what happens to me. At times, I find it difficult to "get going." Few things in life really excite me. At times, I feel my life is really empty. 81 *138. At times, I feel I am not worth very much. *lAl. Up to now, my life has been rather discouraging. Peer Involvement Item (PI).--The following item is included as a measure of strain in that status within one's peer group is considered an element in emotional health.16 The score range for this item is from one to five, with a high score indicating the least strain. 172. Suppose the circle below represents social activities with others of your age. How far out from the center of things are you? (Choose the number closest to where you think you are). Relative Deprivation Index (RD).—-This index measures the strain involved in the unfavorable comparison of oneself with one's peers in terms of possessions, status, and personal qualities. Five of eight items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item-total cor— relations between .213 and .277. The range of inter—item correlations was between .201 and .A61. The possible score range of the resulting index was between five and 25, with higher scores indicating greater relative 16This item was adapted from James Coleman, The Adolescent Society (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), p. 138. 82 deprivation as measured by the following items comprising this index: *151. *152. 153. 162. *16A. *171. *17A. 167. Compared to others of Possible responses for my age, my popularity all‘itéms except 167 is: ‘ ‘ (1) Among the best Compared to others of (2) Above average my age, my looks are: (3) Average (A) Below average Compared to others of (5) Among the poorest my age, my grades are: Compared to others of my age, my neighborhood is: Compared to others of my age, my personality is: Compared to others of my age, my clothes are: Compared to others of my age, my physical health is: Compared to others of my age, the money I have to spend is: (1) Well above average, (2) Above average, (3) Average, (A) Below average, (5) Well below average. Indexes and Items of Traditional Value Orientations Traditional values have been Operationalized in this study as those that are conventional and characterized as part of the "establishment," as seen, for example, in the "hard work-success" value of the Protestant Ethic. Ten measures were designed to assess the respondent's orientation toward such values. 83 Authoritarianism Index (AU).-—Traditional orientation is here measured by an index which assesses values related to the teaching and encouragement of obedience and respect for authority such as that invested in parents and the law. Six of eight items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item-total correlations from .209 to .292. The range of inter-item correlations was between .211 and .A67. The possible score range of the resulting index extended from six to 30, with higher scores indicating greater agreement with the following items comprising this index:17 *28. There is hardly anyone lower than a person who does not feel a great love, gratitude and respect for his parents. *AO. What youth needs most is strict discipline, rugged determination and the will to fight for family and nation. *53. Obedience and respect for authority should be the very first requirements of a good citizen. *69. People should have more respect for authority. *83. Any good parent should be strict with his children in order to gain their respect. *101. It is important to teach children obedience to authority. 106. Children are born bad and have to be taught what's right. 17Items 28, A0, and 53 were adapted from the F Scale of Theodor W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harpers Brothers, 1950), pp. 222- 279. 8A 136. If parents give in to children, they will be spoiled. College Orientation Index (CO).—-This index is based on items assessing the probability of college attendance, as measured by the three items below. The possible scores for responses to items 18 and 21 are represented by the number at the left of each response. Possible scores for item 20 are as follows: "no" equals 1; "undecided" equals 2; and "yes" equals 5. The "yes" response was weighted to bring definite plans for attending college up to the same level of import as the strongest responses of the other two items. The possible score range of the resulting index was from 3 to 15, with higher scores indicating stronger orientation toward college as assessed by the following items: *18. How many of your friends plan to go to college? (1) None, (2) A few, (3) Some, (A) Most, (5) All. *20. Are you planning to go to college after high school? (1) No, (2) Undecided, (3) Yes. *21. Do you think you have the ability to complete four years of college? (1) No, (2) Probably not, (3) Uncertain, (A) Yes, probably, (5) Yes, definitely. Deferred Gratification Itemf(DG).--This single item assesses the respondent's value regarding the desirability of immediate or deferred gratification.18 The possible 18Coleman (1961), op. cit., p. 3 of the appendix. 85 score range was from one to five, with higher scores associated with greater desire to postpone gratification. 10. If you were given $100 and were completely free to do with it whatever you wanted, what would you do? (1) Spend it all, (2)Spend most of it, (3) Spend half and save half, (A) Save most of it, (5) Save it all. Family Orientation Index (FO).--This index consists of items measuring one's psychological closeness to his family.+ Seven of eight items met the minimal criterion value, and were included in the index, giving a corrected item-total correlational range from .215 to .360. The range of inter— item correlations was between .203 and .577. The possible score range of the resulting index was from 7 to 35, with higher scores indicating greater agreement with the follow— ing;items comprising this index: *36. No one understands you as well as members of your own family *AA. Parents usually respect their children *55. Parents usually treat their children fairly and sensibly *68. In spite of the ups and downs of family life, one usually has the happiest times at home. 77. Parents don't mind giving up their personal pleasures to provide for their family. *87. The best of friendships cannot take the place of close family ties. *105. One can always count on members of his family for guidance. *110. When the going gets rough, one can always depend on members of his own family. —~__g_ h +Adapted from Elmer L. Struening and Arthur H. Richard- ‘°OI1, "A Factor Analytic Exploration of the Alienation, f'NDUda, and Authoritarianism Domain," American Sociological W, Vol. 30 (October, 1965), p. 772. 86 Grades Item (GR).--This single item gives a measure of the value the respondent places on school achievement. The possible score range was from one to five, with higher scores representing greater value placed on achieve- ment, as measured by grades. 3. Most of your grades have been (1) F's, (2) D's, (3) 0'3, (A) B's, (5) A's. Peer Orientation Index (PO).-—This index measures one's psychological closeness to the peer culture in general. Three of six items met the minimal criterion value, having item-total correlations from .200 to .219. The range of inter-item correlations was between .2A5 and .3A6. The possible score range of the resulting index was from three to 15, with higher scores indicating greater agreement with the following three items com- prising this index: A2. Breaking with a friend of the same sex gguég be about the hardest thing for me *52. I enjoy wearing clothes that my friends like. *76. Being accepted and liked by other students is important to me. *111. When I'm undecided about what really is in style, I ask a friend. 1A0. When I am about to do something different, I consider what my friends would think. 170. Let's say you had always wanted to belong to a particular crowd and were finally asked to join. But then, you found that your parents didn't approve of the group. 87 What would you do? (1) Definitely not join, (2) Probably not join, (3) I'm not sure, (A) Probably join, (5) Definitely join. Political Description Item (PD).--This single item assesses the respondent's political views along a con- servative to left continuum. The possible score range was one to five, with higher scores indicating greater orientation toward left values. 23. Which comes closest to describing your political views? (1) Strongly conservative, (2) Moderately conservative, (3) Middle- of the-road, (A) Liberal, (5) Left. Religious Orthodoxy Index (RO).--This index assesses the extent of belief in fundamental religious dogma. All eight items analyzed exceeded the minimal criterion value and were included in the index, giving a corrected item- ‘total correlational range from .220 to .A29. The range of‘inter-item correlations was between .202 and .6A3. The {Dossible score range of the resulting index extended from EBight to A0, with higher scores indicating greater agree- Inent with the following items comprising this index:19 *32. To me, the most important work of the church is saving sinners. *A6. I believe there is life after death. *63. I believe there is a Divine plan and purpose for every living person and thing. 19Items 32, A6, 63, 9A, and 103 were adapted from E311e11 Putney and Russell Middleton, "Rebellion, Conformity, Eufid Parental Religious Ideologies," Sociometry, Vol. 2A (éTune, 1961), pp. 125—135. ' V 88 *8A. God is a heavenly Father who watches over and protects us. *9A. I believe there is a hell where men are punished for their sins. *103. I believe there is a Devil who tries to lead men into sin. *132. With the second coming of Christ, the dead will live again. *13A. The Bible is God's word and what it says is true. Right Extremism Index (RE).--Traditional orientation is here measured by assessing values related to ethnic and racial prejudice, the communist "threat," the sex education "menace," and loyalty to the "American way of life." Five of ten items reached the minimal criterion value, having corrected item-total correlations from .209 to .292. The range of inter-item correlations was between .1A7 and .256. The possible score range of the resulting index was from five to 25, with higher scores indicating greater agreement, and hence a more traditional ultra-conservative position, with regard to the following items comprising this index: 39. Jewish strategy is to use colleges as springboards to world domination. 51. Sex education in public schools undermines the moral character of young peOple. *65. Jewish leaders have worked to destroy the Christian faith. *67. A loyal American will fight for his country without hestiation. 89 71. People don't read enough books that support the American way of life. *96. Sex education in public schools weakens our ability to resist the communist threat. 98. Our government should keep tabs on communists and pro-communists in our country. *10A. Intermarriage between the races threatens the purity of the American way of life. *108. Riots in our cities are a direct result of the failure to maintain law and order. 133. Black leaders are pushing too hard and trying to move too fast. Status Aspirations Index (SA).—-Traditiona1 orienta— tion is here measured in an index which assesses the degree of aspiration toward such conventional goals as earning a large income, owning an expensive home, or gaining a position of importance and respect. Five of eight items met the minimal criterion value, having a corrected item-total correlational range from .265 to .315. The range of inter-item correlations was between .217 and .506. The possible score range of the resulting index was from five to 25, wpih higher scores indicating greater agreement with the following items comprising this index: 2A. I WOULD LIKE to accomplish something of great importance in my life. 3A. Someday I WOULD LIKE to be a recognized authority in some field. *37. I WOULD LIKE to become or marry someone at least as important as an engineer or dentist. *A8. I WOULD LIKE to become or marry someone who has as much respect in the community as a doctor or lawyer. 90 *80. I WOULD LIKE to achieve a position in life high enough to allow me to live like the "country-club" set. *85. I WOULD LIKE to become or marry someone who earns as much money as a president of a large bank. *99. Sometime in my life, I WOULD LIKE to own the kind of house an executive of a large corporation lives in. 178. When I finish school, I WOULD LIKE to be the kind of person to whom others look for advice. Indexes and Items of Deviant Behavior Seven measures of deviant behavior were designed for use as the primary dependent variables of the larger West Shore study. Emphasis in the present study is upon the variable of drug use, with secOndary attention given to the other deviant variables in their relationships to drug use. The two variables of drug argot knowledge and perception of drug availability are also included here, after Lerman20 who states that such symbolic deviance is highly related to measures of deviant behavior and can even be thought of as deviant in themselves. 21 Drug Use Index-General (DG).-- This index is based on the number of times the respondent has used drugs and 2OPaul Lerman, "Argot, Symbolic Deviance and Sub- cultural Delinquency," American Sociological Review. Vol. 32 (April, 1967), pp. 209-22Ai 21The original intent was to have one drug index composed of both "soft" and "hard" drug items. However, the hard drug items did not meet the minimal criterion 91 has been high on these drugs. Six of eight items well exceeded the minimal criterion value, having corrected item-total correlations from .A1A to .A90. The range of inter-item correlations was between .A80 and .910. The possible score range of the resulting index was from six to 30, with higher scores indicating greater use of drugs as revealed by responses to the following items comprising this index: *112. On how many different occasions Possible have you used marijuana? Responses *113. On how many different occasions (1) None have you been high on marijuana? (2) Once (3) 2-A times *116. On how many different occasions (A) 5-7 times have you used hallucinogenic or (5) 8 or more psychedelic drugs (such as LSD, times STP, and mescaline)? *117. On how many different occasions have you been high on hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs? *120. On how many different occasions have you used amphetamines or methamphetamines (such as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and Methedrine)? *121. On how many different occasions have you been high on amphetamines or methamphetamines? 12A. On how many different occasions have you used "hard" drugs (heroin, cocaine and morphine)? 125. On how many different occasions have you been high on "hard" drugs? value and were thus excluded from the general drug index and placed within their own two—item index of "hard" drug use. In the analysis of data the term "drug use" refers to the general drug use index except where otherwise noted. 92 Hapd DrugUse Index (HD).--This index is based on the number of times the respondent has used hard drugs and has been high on such drugs. The two items comprising this index did not meet the minimal criterion value necessary for inclusion with the general drug index, but were made into this separate "hard" drug index because of their high correlation with each other (.76). The possible score range of the resulting index was from two to 10, with higher scores indicating greater use of hard drugs as revealed by responses to the following items: *12A. On how many different Possible Responses occasions have you used (1) None "hard" drugs (heroin, co- (2) Once caine, morphine)? (3) 2-A times (A) 5-7 times 125. On how many different (5) 8 or more occasions have you been times high on "hard" drugs? Drug Sales Index (DS).-—This index is based on the number of times the respondent has sold various types of drugs. Four of four items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item-total correlations from .201 to .3A9. The range of inter—item correlations was between .3A5 and .618. The possible score range of the resulting index was from four to 20, with higher scores indicating greater involvement with the sale of drugs as revealed by responses to the following items comprising this index: 93 *llA. On how many different occasions Possible have you sold marijuana? Responses *118. On how many different occasions (1 have you sold hallucinogenic or (2) Once psychedelic drugs (such as LSD, (3) 2-A times STP, and Mescaline)? (A) 5-7 times (5) 8 or more *122. On how many different occasions times have you sold Amphetamines or Methamphetamines (such as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and Methedrine)? *126. On how many different occasions have you sold "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, and Morphine?) Drinking Index (DR).--This index is based on the number of times within the past month the respondent has used and has been high on alcoholic beverages. Six of six items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item—total correlations ranging from .2AO to .396. The range of inter-item correlations was between .332 and .689. The possible score range of the resulting index was from six to 30, with higher scores indicating a greater amount of drinking as revealed by responses to the following items comprising this index: Oh how many occasions during the past month have you: *88. Had beer to drink? Possible Responses (1) None *89. Been high on beer? (2) One (3) 2-A times *90. Had wine to drink? (A) 5-7 times (5) 8 or more times *91. Been high on wine? *92. Had whiskey to drink? *93. Been high on whiskey? 9A Hetprosexual Behavior Index (SX).--This index is based on the respondent's reported frequency of various behaviors with the opposite sex. Four of eight items could be classified as deviant and were used as a sub—index. The corrected item—total correlations were available only for the original eight-item index and ranged between .200 and .5A7. The range of inter-item correlations was between .A79 and .8A3 for the four deviant sex items included in the sub-index. The resulting possible score range extended from A to 20, with higher scores indicating greater involvement in heterosexual behavior as revealed by responses to the following starred items comprising this sub—index:22 1A2. Have you held hands with Possible , someone of the opposite sex ResponSes for (not including relatives)? Items 1A2-1A7 (1) Never 1A3. Have you held your arm around (2) Seldom or been held by someone of the (3) Sometimes opposite sex (not including (A) Frequently relatives)? (5) Very frequently 1AA. Have you kissed or been kissed by someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)? 1A5. Have you necked (prolonged hugging and kissing) with someone of the opposite sex? 22For purposes of this study, deviant behavior is viewed as that which violates normative (institutionalized) expectations in a social system and is interpreted by a social audience as deviant. For this reason, items 1A2 through 1A5 were not included in this index. 95 *1A6. Have you been involved in light petting (feeling above the waist) with someone of the opposite sex. *1A7. Have you been involved in heavy petting (feeling below the waist) with someone of the opposite sex? *1A8. Have you gone all the way with someone of the opposite sex? (1) Never, (2) Once, (3) 2—5 times, (A) 6-12 times, (5) More than 12 times. *1A9. With how many different people of the opposite sex have you gone all the way? (1) None, (2) One, (3) Two to three, (A) Four to six, (5) Seven or more. Homosexual Behavior Item (HX).--This item is based on the respondent's reported frequency of sexual relations with the same sex. The possible score range was from one to five, with higher scores indicating greater homosexual involvement. 150. How often have you had sexual relations with someone of the SAME sex? (1) Never, (2) Once, (3) Twice, (A) Three times, (5) Four or more times. Tobacco Smoking Index (TB).--This index is based on the respondent's depth of involvement with tobacco. Three of four items reached the minimal criterion value, having corrected item—total correlations from .336 to .A27. The range of inter-item correlations was between .778 and .90A. The possible score range of the resulting index was from three to 15, with higher scores indicating greater tobacco involvement as revealed by responses to the following items comprising this index: 96 *58. On the average, how many packs of cigarettes do you smoke in a typical day? (l) I don't smoke, (2) Less than 1/2 pack, (3) Between 1/2 and one pack, (A) Between one and two packs, (5) Over two packs. *59. I inhale when I smoke. (l) I don't smoke, (2) Never, (3) Sometimes, (A) Frequently, (5) Very frequently. *60. I enjoy smoking cigarettes. (l) I don't smoke, (2) Strongly disagree, (3) Disagree, (A) Agree, (5) Strongly agree. 61. Have your parents ever smoked? (1) No, (2) Yes, father only, (3) Yes, mother only, (A) Yes, both parents. Drug_Argot Index (DA).--This index assesses knowledge of vocabulary items pertaining to drugs and their use, thus giving a measure of orientation toward a peer drug subculture. Five items were selected for the final index, each being weighted according to difficulty level, based on the percentage of correct answers given by the A,230 respondents in the study. The most difficult item (answered correctly by 6.0 per cent of all respondents) was given a weight of five; the next most difficult item (answered correctly by 11.9 per cent of all respondents) was given a weight of four; and so forth, with the least difficult item (answered correctly by 5A.2 per cent of all respondents) ascribed a weight of one. This resulted in a drug argot index having a possible score range from 0 (no item answered correctly) to 15 (all five items answered correctly, resulting in 5 + A + 3 + 2 + l = 15). 97 The items with their respective weights are given 23 below: *169. *173. *158. *160. *175. 155. 163. 166. (Weight of five) A person with a cap or deck has: (1) Approximately one ounce of marijuana, (2) A_packet of heroin, (3) Taken an overdose of LSD, (A)‘A‘supp1y of impure pot, (5) I don't know. (Weight of four) John has scored. He has: (1) Mainlined "H", (2) Freaked out, (3) Taken the monkey off his back, (A) Obtained drugs, (5) I don't know. (Weight of three) Judy has given Mary wings. She has: (1) Introduced her to a pusher, (2) Helped her kick the habit, (3) Taught her how to inject heroin, (A) Given her a pearly gate, (5) I don't know. (Weight of two) A Nickel-bag is: (1) Five dollars worth of drugs, (2) A secret sack where money for drugs is kept, (3) A con- tainer in which drugs are stored, (A) A cheap girl who takes drugs, (5) I don't know. (Weight of one) A bummer is a: (1) Speed freak, (2) Bombita, (3) Shooting gallery, (A) Bad trip, (5) I don't know. Bill asks for Maryjane. What he is NOT asking for is: (l) A cooker, (2) Tea (3) A stick, (A) A joint,'(5) I don't know. A roach is: (1) A gadget in which drugs are heated before use, (2) A yellow jacket, (3) A packet of heroin, (A) A marijuana butt, (5) I don't know. 7 A joy-pOpper is someone who: (1) Is a drug addict, (2) Takes drugs by mouth, (3) Is an occasional user of heroin, (A) Gets kicks by using LSD, (5)7I don't know. 23 For the convenience of the reader, the correct answer for each item has been underlined. 98 Drug Availability Index£DV).—-This index is based on the respondent's assessment of how easy or difficult it would be to obtain various drugs. Four of four items met the minimal criterion value, having corrected item- total correlations from .331 to .A36. The range of inter- item correlations was between .607 and .807. The possible score range of the resulting index was from four to 20, with higher scores indicating the respondent's greater belief in the easy availability of drugs as revealed by responses to the following items comprising this index: *115. If you wanted to obtain Possible Responses marijuana, how difficult (1) Very difficult would it be? (2) Somewhat difficult *119. If you wanted to obtain (3) Fairly easy hallucinogenic or psyche- (A) Easy delic drugs (such as LSD, (5) Very easy STP, and Mescaline), how difficult would it be? *123. If you wanted to obtain Amphetamines or Methampheta- mines (such as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and Methedrine), how difficult would it be? *127. If you wanted to obtain "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, and Morphine), how difficult would it be? Attempted Indexes That Failed The design of the study called for the measure- ment of left political orientation and an additional ego measurement of social confidence, or self-esteem. The 99 indexes designed to measure these variables did not, in the final analysis, meet the necessary requirements to be called indexes. The items of the Left Extremism Index2l4 did not meet the minimal correlational criterion value. However, it is noted that two other measures in the study can give an indication of left political orientation. That is, the Opposite end of the Right Extremism Index can be used, as well as the item on political self- description. The second index, Social Confidencezs was intended to measure self-esteem, but again, several items fell short of the criterion value, resulting in exclusion from analysis. Analysis Desigp In considering the choice of prOper techniques for data analysis, the researcher must consider practicality in terms of time and money, as well as appropriateness in terms of the nature of his data. The purposes of the present study appear to best be met by the use of chi- square contingency procedures and correlational analysis. That is, these techniques provide measures of statistical 2”See Appendix C for a description of items com— prising this index (Items 31, A3, 50, 5A, 57, 7A, and 176). 25See Appendix C (Items 56, 66, 70, 97, 102, 130, and 177). 100 significance as well as strength of association, both of which are essential to the analysis of the study data. Contingency Analysis Contingency analysis will be used for testing relationships between four types of drug use and the factors of age, sex and school system. Chi-square pro- cedures will be used as a test of the existence of asso- ciation and the coefficient of contingency C as a measure of the degree of association. Both measures are necessary inasmuch as the chi-square test itself can give only the level at which the null hypothesis may be rejected, and the coefficient of contingency must then be used to reveal the strength of any significant relationships between variables. However, it is to be noted that the degree of relationship expressed by C is not directly comparable to the Pearson r. Two assumptions necessary for use of the chi—square test are: (1) random sampling to assure the absence of systematic bias, and (2) independence of observations, to assure that position on one variable does not constrict the position on a second. Correlapional Analysis The Pearson product-moment correlational technique will be used to find the degree of association between drug use and the variables of social structure, ego lOl strain, traditional value orientations, and related forms of deviance. These relationships will be controlled for sex and school system differences. Significance levels for these differences will be determined by use of Fisher's Z transformation statistic, followed by tests of the differences between Z's. Product-moment correlational analysis is predicated on the belief that certain assumptions are satisfied by the data. It is assumed that: (1) a linear relationship exists between the variables, (2) the variables are bivariate normal in distribution, and (3) the variables are at the interval level of measurement. A fourth assumption, of homoscedasticity or equal variances, is required when tests of the significance of r are computed. These assumptions are unnecessary for describing sample data, but required when predicting beyond the sample.26 It is cautioned that correlation does not necessarily imply causation, and that logic, not statistical method, must be invoked to determine whether a causal relation- ship exists. Summary The background of the study and procedures for gaining support from all quarters of the communities 26William L. Hayes, Statistics (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), p. 510. 102 involved was presented in some detail to assist other researchers who might be planning similar studies con- cerning sensitive topics such as drug use and sexual behavior. The sample, including a brief description of each community, was described. Three schools representing different social class levels comprised the sample--a total of A,230 students in grades eight through twelve. Specific procedures used in collecting the data and pre- paring for computer analysis were explained. The process of index construction, used for develOping measures of the variables, as well as descriptions of each index and item were given. Thirty such measures, under the four broad categories of social structure, ego—strain, traditional value orientations, and related deviant behavior, were Operationally defined. The final section consisted of a discussion of the statistical procedures used, chi-square analysis and Pearson product—moment correlational methods, including reasons for their selection and necessary assumptions for their use. The analysis of data and conclusions of the study are next presented in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS Iptroduction The analysis of data is presented in two main parts. The first is a developmental and epidemiological treatment focusing onAdrug use relationships withrage.l Two other variables, sex and school system milieu, are considered to have substantial impact upon the distribution and evolve- ment of drug use, and are thus included in this section.2 Three hypotheses are used to test these structural relationships. The second part is an etiological analysis concerned with testing hypotheses between drug use and certain additional variables of social structure, ego strain, traditional value orientations, and other forms of deviant behavior. lEpidemiology, as used in this study, refers to the pattern of distribution and the rate of incidence of drug use. Etiology refers to the underlying variables associated with drug use, and believed to be predictive of, drug use. 2A potential fourth variable, individual socio- economic status, was found to have a very low relationship to drug use (see Table A.2l) and hence is not included as a control in this section. 103 10A Develppmental and Epidemiological Analysis This part of the analysis is concerned with the distribution of drug use by age, sex, and school system, with primary attention given to developmental age relationships. These associations are considered for each of four categories of drugs, analyzed by chi-square method to test the significance of relationships between the variables and by the coefficient of contingency C, to assess the degree of relationship. Contingency tables showing drug use relationships to age and school system are included, as well as summary tables of chi-squares which show how drug use is related to age and sex at each school. To avoid repetition, the three hypotheses being tested are listed only at the beginning of this section. .Each of these hypotheses is actually being tested for esach class of drugs: marijuana, hallucinogens, 51mphetamines and hard drugs.3 Piypothesis I: Drug use is related to social structure. HIa: There is a positive relationship between drug use and the socio-economic milieu of the school system. 3Statistically, the null hypothesis is being tested it) each case; however, the operational hypothesis including sDecified direction, is being employed for clarity bf tlieoretical implications. “Hypothesis I, dealing with structural components, 1“121s five sub-hypotheses, three of which are considered in 'tllis section and two in the section to follow. 105 HIb: There is a positive relationship between drug use and being male. HIc: There is a positive relationship between drug use and age. Marijuana Use / . / Tableoa ozam> ao>ma czam> cosmoa me o ohmsom cocooa me o ohmsom -oaowam -aeo -oaomam naeo aoocom magmapm> aoozom pom ooaaoppcoo ooaaoppcoocb om: meanwapmz .Eoummm aoozom new .xom .omm an on: mcmdwapmzsl.m.: mamo mom mm om N: am omo ooo sa Ao.ooav Ao.sv As.av Am.mv As.mv Am.awv o4 now am ma mm as mos .. Ao.ooav Ao.sv Ao.av Am.mv Ao.mv As.mwv ma mam mm m ma mm amp Ao.ooav Ao.mv Ao.ov Am.av Ao.mv Am.mav sa mom ma m ma am mam no.ooav Ao.av Ao.ov Aa.av Am.mv *Ao.mmv coooo mam m m a ma was one ma moEaB moEaB moEaB WMOM N on m 2 Op N moCO mCOZ amuoe oma [ om: «emanate: .omm mo om: womanammzll.m.: mamoa oxam> ao>oa osam> mocmoa an o opmsom cosmoa me o cheddm ncaomam naeo uoaomam naso aoogom r oaooato> aoonom pom poaaoppcoo U@aa0hp§00£b om: mono cacomOCaosaamm )Il Eopmmm aoocom new .xom .omm mo ow: wspe cacomOCaosaammln.m.: mamo sow ea oa mm am ams ooo ea Ao.ooav Am.mv As.ov Ao.mv Am.mv As.oav oa wow am 0 mm om mm: Ao.ooav Am.ov Am.av Am.ov Am.mv Ao.smv ma smm a ma s mm m: 8.003 Amav 3.3 8.3 2.3 3&3 :a som ma m m am ass Ao.ooav A:.ov Am.ov Am.ov Am.av *Ao.sav soon: mam m s s OH ass oco ma moEaB moEaB moEaB who: ou m on coco ocoz adpoe so m n z m owd om: moan oacowOCaoSaamm .omm mo om: mote cacomocaosaammll 11A .momocpcoLMQ Caspaz economondon one mommpcoopom * mo. u o aoo. v a o u to mo.am u we Ao.ooav as.av As.mv A:.mv Am.mmv some ms maa ooa mmmm gases Ao.ooav Aa.av Aa.av Am.av Am.mmv o mmaa ma ma ea mwoa Ao.ooav as.av Am.mv Am.mv Aa.mmv m oama mm mm a: mesa Ao.ooav Am.mv Am.mv As.mv Ao.oov a asaa om ms mm * aooa moEaB mosae who: to w 5 Op m coco ocoz aaooe , aoooom om: ocasmposos< .Eoomzm aoocom he ems mcaemuocdeoa czao> ao>oa czam> mocmoa me o meadow oocmoa we 0 meadow -aaowam Iago -caomam Iago aoozom , aoogom pom emaaonpcoo ooaaOLQCOoc: magmasm> om: oeaEmpozoE< .Eopmzm aoogom new axom .omm he om: moasmposoeo sow mm aa am am was ooo sa Ao.ooav Am.mv Ao.ov Am.mv Ao.mv As.omv ea sow ma m om om ems Ao.ooav Ao.av Am.ov Ao.av Ao.mv Am.smv ma mmm ma m ma oa sea Ao.ooav Ao.av Am.ov Am.av Ao.mv Am.mmv :a mom a m ea ma New Ao.ooav Am.ov Aa.ov Ao.ov As.av *As.oav soon: was a a m sa ass ooo ma moEaB moEaE moEaB who: on m on m ooco ocoz amoos to m a s owe om: ocasmuogoe< .omm mo om: osasmpman<||.©.q mamQH 117 occasional to regular users have become immersed in amphetamine use and are reluctant to give it up as their drug of choice. Hard Drug Use As seen in Table H.10 there was no Significant rela- tionship between the school system variable and hard drug use. The total percentage of use at each school was below three. Table “.11 discloses no significant relationships between age and use of hard drugs. Without controlling for school system, the relationship between sex and hard drugs appears generally significant. However, in the controlled situation it is seen that the relationship reaches significance only at School B, where males are more prone to use hard drugs. Hard drug use combined for all schools by age, as shown in Table “.12, reveals no significant trends. Discussion and Conclusions of the Developmental and Epidemiological Section A summary of the statistically significant relation- Ships supporting the three hypotheses showed: 1. Marijuana, hallucinogen, and amphetamine use was positively related to higher socio- economic school system milieu. 2. Marijuana, hallucinogen and amphetamine use was associated with sex at Schools A and B only, with males showing greater use. Hard drug use was related to sex only at School B, where males had greater use. 118 .mmmonpcopma cfinpfiz popcmmmpaop mum wmwmpcoopom* mo. u o mz mu m o u so we.: u mx Ao.ooav “0.0V Ao.Hv AN.HV Am.smv mom: mm mm mm was: geese Ao.ooHv Am.ov As.ov Ao.Hv Am.smv o smfia m m Ha mmOH 0.00HV A:.ov AH.HV . Am.Hv Ao.smv m oamfi m cm mm mmma AQ.OOHV As.ov Am.ov AH.HV *Am.smv < mafia m HH ma osfifl moEHB mmEHB moco msoz whoa no m w ow m Hmpoe Hoogom mmb mapm whom .Empmmm Hoogom mo oms wasp opmmn|.oa.: mqm<9 119 .mmHMEmm swap mm: Lopmmpw 305m moamz * 1" m2 OH OH. H©.oa smHHuz o *Hoo.vm m OH. mm.om camanz *Hoo.vm : so. m:.mm xmm m mg m mo. mH.m msaauz a m2 mm ma. o:.mm smflauz 0 m2 om mo. mo.sa camanz mz ma so. H:.:H mm< m mz om :H. so.mm msfiauz < H®>®A ®3Hw> Hm>mq mSHm> mocmow mo 0 mpmsom ooCMOH no u maMSUm uuflcwfim Iago -oficmfim Iago HOO£om , mHQthm> Hoosom Low omaaopucoo omaaoppcoocz mm: mane osmm .Empmzm Hoogom now .xmm .omm mo mm: mzpo Upmmln.aa.: mqm<9 .mmmonpcmmma cfigpfiz Umpcmmmpamh mam mowmpcmopom * so. u o mz ma m 0H u we H:.:H u mx Ao.ooav Am.ov Am.ov Am.ov Am.Hv Am.smv mmm: am ma mm mm MOH: oo mow m m m 3 2K ocm S AQ.OOHV Aw.ov Am.ov As.ov Ao.HV Ao.smv 0a Sm s a o m Sm . Ao.QOHV A:.ov Am.ov Am.ov AN.HV Ao.smv ma mmw m z s S was Ao.ooav Ao.Hv Am.ov AH.OV Am.Hv Am.smv 3H .26 m m H 3 Sm Ao.ooav As.ov Am.ov Ao.Hv Ao.HV *A:.smv pmamn m m m m was new “a mwmw% mmEHB mmefle mono mcoz to m 5 Op m q 0s m , Hopoe mum mmD mzso opmm mmS AU ) ’\ new nammuu.mfi.a ‘ I] 0 I1. hpmqb 121 3. Marijuana, hallucinogen and amphetamine use was positively related to age at Schools A and B only. Those relationships failing to support the three hypotheses center around hard drug use, which was not found to be related to sex at Schools A and C, age at A, B, or C, or to school system milieu. School A, the most affluent system, showed sig- nificantly higher rates of drug use across all age categories for marijuana, hallucinogens, and amphetamines. In fact, the rates were almost double those of Schools B and C for these three classes of drugs. This finding that soft drug use is primarily an upper-middle class phenomenon corroborates the conclusions of Blum, Goode, Warner, and others. In Schools A and B, males were more predisposed than females to use marijuana, hallucinogens and ampheta— mines. Hard drug use was found related to males only at School B. These results verify for the midwest similar findings for large metropolitan areas in other parts of the country as reported by Suchman and Blum.7 In general, it was shown that age was related to soft drug use at Schools A and B. Inspection of the 6 See review of literature section. 7Ibid. 122 combined school system data for various age categories related to marijuana, hallucinogen, and amphetamine use revealed a disproportionate increase in drug use between ages 15 and 16. This runs parallel to the findings of other researchers who also note a typical rise in other forms of deviance among youth in this age bracket. For example, Cohen8 found the mean age of juvenile delinquents to be 15.9 years, and the largest proportion of these offenders to be from 15 to 17 years old. This is finterpreted as evidence of a greater need at this age for affiliation with an identity source--a subcultural reference group. Percentages of marijuana and amphetamine use con- tinued to show increases from age 16 to 17 and over but at reduced rates. Hallucinogen use leveled off between .ages 16 and 17 and over, perhaps indicating greater dis— cretion in choice of drugs once the identity crisis of age 15—16 was passed. The percentage of drug use at age 13 and under was shown to be at least three for each class of drugs, indicating that even lower ages should be included in further studies. 8Bernard Cohen, "The Delinquency of Gangs and Spontaneous Groups," in Delinquency: Selected Studies, ed. by Thorsten Sellin and Marvin Wolfgang (New YorkEr John Wiley and Sons, 1969), p. 82. 123 t‘ Marijuana use was the most popular method of "turning on" at all schools, with 12 per cent of all students having at least used this drug once. Hallucinogens and amphetamines were secondary sources of drug abuse, both showing use distributions of less than seven per cent for the combined schools. Hard drug use was below three per cent at each school, suggesting perhaps that such use is not as severe a problem in middle, white America as is 9 and others. reported for ghetto areas by Chein At least two explanations are possible for the lack of significant relationships between hard drug use and the variables of school system, sex, and age. First, the total number of users is small, restricting the range and vari- ance. A second possibility is the existence of a level of pathology different from that of the soft drug user. That is, perhaps hard drug use is a symptom of more serious psycho—pathology which is not associated with differences in school systems, sex, or age. The age and sex differences related to drug use were/\\/ ’““‘——_—-*~**-—-aiiigg_ not significant at School C. wSome evidence of reading M‘- "~ ‘~'. . . __.--— ___’._v- difficulty or carelessness in answering the Opinionnaire was indicated, as it is recalled that School C showed the greatest percentage of answer sheets rejected for patterned set or incompleteness. An alternate possibility is seen in the following section which suggests evidence of a different 9 See review of literature section. 12“ level of pathology at School C where involvement in soft drug use is highly related to hard drug use and to drug sales, yet lowly related to drug argot, a measure of sub— cultural association. This phenomenon perhaps transcends age and sex at School C, and suggests that drug use has a different meaning at School C than at Schools A and B. ngzca; ,>‘4" g- / Etiological Analysis Correlational analysis was used to assess the relationships between drug use and the independent variables of social structure, ego strain, traditional value orientations, and other forms of deviant behavior. With an N of 4,230, a very low correlation can be sta- tistically significant and yet reveal little useful information.10 The emphasis in interpretation should therefore be placed on the strength of the correlations as they relate to the amount of variance that can be explained by each variable in its association with drug .11 The statistical significance level of each use relationship can be determined by use of the legend below each table presented. 10The terms used to describe the numerical correla— tions: Very strong correlations are those above .50; » Strong correlations are between .40 and .H9; Moderate between .30 and .39; Moderately low between .20 and .29; ESE between .10 and .19; and Very low are those correlations .09 or below. 11The amount of variation in one variable explained by another is indicated by the square of the correlation coefficient (r2). 125 Hypothesis I: Drug use is related to social structure. HId: There is an inverse relationship between drug use and orientation toward family, religion, and school. HIe: There is a positive relationship between drug use and grade level, and the socio- economic status of the individual. Table “.13 shows significant but low to very low inverse relationships of drug use with measures of parental congeniality, church attendance, and participation in school organizations, providing minimal support for Hypothesis Id. That is, even the highest correlation, —.22 for parental congeniality at School A, accounts for less than five per cent of the variance in drug use. Observation of sex differences (Tables “.21 and “.22) reveals females more than males to be less involvedfink MI .I/ drug use when there is greater church attendan§ELiE//// ’fdflflggiii. . School system differences show significantly higher inverse associations of drug use with parental congeniality and participation in school organizations at School A when A and B are compared. Differences between A and C also show drug use to be more negatively related to school Organizational activity at School A. No significant dif- ferences are noted between Schools B and C. 12Table “.21 gives a summary of all significant relationships of this section of the study. Table “.22 lists significance levels for sex and school system dif- ferences for all variables as they relate to drug use. RerePPal to these tables will assist the reader in fOllowing the presentation of results. .Hoo. v m Ucommn unmoamficwflm mam mCOHpmHospoo pmzpo HH< Ho. v m + mo.vm * Hmo. A av semOHeHemHmucoz mz "cocoofiwficwfim Hmoapmfipmpm 126 mz mz mH.- m2 mz m2 m20HsmNHcmwso Hoocom +wo. m2 +mo.u OH. +00. mo. COHpmosem w . .Hmzpmm +mo.u mo.- 2H.. 3H.. *mo.. 00.- mocmncmppa gasses mH.- OH.- mm.n AH.- MH.- :H.u spHHchmmcoo Hmpcohmm mz MH. mm. mH. NH. 0H. mmmHo Hoonom NMHHuz mHman mmHHuz HOHmnz mmHmuz ommsuz o m a mHmEmm mHmz Hopscoo - oz mHanem> Empmmm Hoocom xmm oLSpoSme . r . Hmfloom hm mm: wSpQ .mLSpoSme Hmfioom mo mmLSmmmE op ompmfios mm: wasp mcfipflpomoo mCOHpmHomsoo pcmEoEIposooso compmomnl.ma.: mqmHsamO m>flpmaom mz m2 m2 m2 +OO. mz OOOEO>HO>OH Loom HO. +sO. NH. OO. OH. OO. soHpm>HsOmO * HOOOHOOOOOO OH. OH. NH. +sO. MH. OO. OOHmmmsOmO NMHHuz OHOHuz mOHHuz HOHmuz OmHmuz Ommsuz o m < onEmm mam: Hopwcoo maomfism> s z eHmsOm Emum m Hoonom owm mm mm: mzpm .cflmppm owo mo mmLSmmmE op ompmHos mm: wasp mcHoHsommo mcofiumamppoo pomsoslposoosd comammmun.mfi.n mqm .0“0 VI P < .001 1r r .052 131 hypothesis III: There is an inverse relationship between drug use and traditional value orientations. Table “.17 contains the correlations and significance levels of drug use with ten variables of traditional values, which show the general hypothesis to be supported. Those value orientations accounting for the most variance in drug use include negative tendencies toward authoritarianism, family orientation, religious orthodoxy, peer orientation, and conservative political views. Values of high grades, deferred gratification, and status aspirations have low inverse correlations with drug use, while college orienta- tion shows very low negative correlations, except for School A, where the relationship is moderately low. Notable differences between the sexes in relation- ships of drug use with values occur in authoritarianism and grades, with male drug users showing slightly more negative values. Male drug users were also more oriented toward the political left than were female users. Table “.22 shows several significant differences between the school systems in drug use associations with values. The greatest differences occurred consistently between Schools A and C, the extremes of social class differences in this study. There were significantly higher inverse correlations at School A between drug use and authoritarianism, peer orientation, right political descrip- tion, grades, status aspirations, and college orientation. 132 .Hoo. v m UCO%on pCNoamacmfim ohm mCOOumHmhmoo hospo HH< Ho. v m + mo.vm * HmO. A NO pcmOHeHemeucoz mz ”cosmofimficwfim Havapmfipmpm mH.I m2 mm.| mz +mo.a +zo.l coauMpcmHLo mmmaaoo mz wo.n :H.I +wo.u mo.| mo.| mQOHmeHQm< maumpm *AO.- NH.- OH.- OO.- OH.n HH.u :OHmeHHstsO cospmmmo :H.I mH.| mm.| mo.l mH.I ma.| mmowsw +mo. mH. ON. HH. NH. mH. COHpaHsommo HMOHuHHom NH.- MH.- HH.- OH.- OH.- mH.- smHsmspxm pnNHm ma.| mH.n mm.| mH.I mfi.u mH.I COHpmpsmwho Loom mH.- :H.- OH.- OH.- NH.- OH.- sxoeogpso OSOHNHHmm mH.- NN.- ON.- OH.- mN.u ON.: OOHsmpcmeo sHHsmm HN.- ON.- ON.- mN.u Hm.- ON.u EmHemHsmpHHonpsa NmHHuz OHmHuz NmHHuz HOHNuz ONHNuz omNzuz o m ¢ mHmEmm mam: Hoppcoo F . . O Eopmmm Hoonom xom z coamwmmwmmw mm mm: mayo osHm> o» oopmfios mm: .mQOHHNUCmeo msfim> HmcoHpfiomsp mo mopsmmms wasp mcHoHpommo macapmaopsoo pcososnuozoopd Cowpmmmll.sa.: mange 133 Differences between Schools A and B were not as numerous, with A showing significantly higher inverse associations between drug use and peer orientation, grades, and college orientation. Schools B and C were quite similar in values, C having greater associations only between drug use and negative orientation toward college. Table “.18 shows the interrelationships of these traditional value orientations. High associations are noted between authoritarianism, religious orthodoxy, right extremism, and family orientation, all of which are also inversely associated with drug use. Hypothesis IV: Drug use is related to behavioral and symbolic deviance. HIVa: There is a positive relationship between drug use and other forms of deviant behavior. HIVb: There is a positive relationship between drug use and symbolic deviance. Table “.19 displays strong support for the relation- ship of drug use to other deviant behavior. Very strong associations are noted for drug use with drug sales. Strong relationships are observed for drug use and the variables of hard drug use, smoking, and drinking. Hetero- sexual behavior was moderately to strongly related to drug use, and homosexual behavior showed a low correlation to drug use except at School A where a moderate trend was noted. 13“ mmo. A h MH Hoo. v m 0:0. A h MO Ho. v m HOO. M s OH OO. v N ”HOONOuzO mOeOOHNHOOHm HOOHOOHBNOO OO.H OOOHOOHHOOO OOOOOO .OH OO. OO.H stsmspxm OOOHO .O OO. NO. OO.H sxoeonsso mOoHOHHOO .O OO.- OH.- OH.- OO.H OOHOOHOOOOO HOOHOHHON .O ON. OH. OH. OO.- OO.H OOHOOOQOHOO smmm .O OH. ON.- m2 m2 OO. OO.H OOOOOO .O OH. ON. ON. NH.- NH. Oz OO.H OOHOOOOOHHO OHHEOO .: Oz OO. OH. OO.- Oz OO. OH. OO.H coHOOOHOHOOtO OOOOOOOO .O ON. HO.- OO.- O2 O2 OO. Oz HH. OO.H OOHOOOcmHsO OOOHHOO .N OH. NO. as. HN.- ON. Oz HO. OH. Oz OO.H EchmHsmsHOOOOOO .H I L, , 11, OHOOHOO> OH O O N O O O O N H OOHOOOOOHOO mSHm> .mcoflumeOHso msfim> Hmcofipfiomsp mo OOLSOOOE pom xfispme HmcofipmHmLLOOIn.mH.: mqmde 135 .Hoo. v m UCOOoQ unmofimficwflm mam mcoaumamspoo Lo£po HH< Ho. v m + mo. v m * AOO. A OO OOOOHOHOOHmueoz Oz ”cosmofimwcwfim HMOOumOpmpm OO. OO. OO. OO. HO. OO. OOHHHOOHHmsa wage ma. O:. :m. NO. m2. m2. pows< mapm OH. +OO. ON. OO. OH. OH. LOH>OgOm stxmmoEom OO. OO. HO. OO. OO. OO. OOH>Onmm HmsxmmOmemm OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OcchHso OO. OO. OO. OO. HO. OO. OOHOosm OO. OO. OO. HO. OO. OO. OOO OOOO Osmm HO. . OO. HO. NO. HO. OO. OOHOO OOLO NOHHuz OHOHuz NOHan HOHan ONHNuz OONOuz OHOOHOO> O O O OHOEOO mHOz HOOOOOO mosmH>mO oz OHHOOEOO Eopmmm Hoosom xmm so HOLOH>m£om "Om mm: wage .mocma>oo OOHopEOm cam HOLOH>m£oQ mo mmLSOOOE on ooumams om: msso pOom wcflofisommo OCOOpmHmssoo pcosoelposwopd cowsmmmnn.mH.O mqmw£om Hmsxmmoeom .m m:. OH. OO.H aoO>mLom Hmsxomoamcom .O HO. OH. OO. OO.H OOOOOHLO .O ON. OH. ON. OO. OO.H OOHOO OOOO .O OH. OH. HN. ON. NO. OO.H HOOOOO mm: OOHO .O OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H HOOOOO OOO OOOO .O OO. OO. NO. OO. ON. OH. OO. OO.H OOHHHOOHHO>O OOOO .N OO. OO. ON. OO. ON. NH. OO. OO. OO.H soOsO OOOO .H OHOOHOOO O O A O O O O N H OHmemmw>mm Hmaofl>mmom .mocmfl>mo OOHooEOm UGO Hmp0H>m£op mo mopSmmmE pom xflppme HOQOOpmHmppooll.om.O mamqe 139 .Hoo. v m ccommn pCMOHMchHm mmemQOHumHmapoo pmnpo HH< ”HO. v O + MOO. v O O “HOO. A OV OOOOHOchHmucoz Oz "moCMOHMchHm HmoHpmempm mz mz mz mz +Oo. mz psoEm>Ho>cH Hmmm +00. mz mz 02 m2 mz COHpm>HLQmQ m>HpmHmm 02 m2 +00. mz m2 mz COHpmcmHH< mz 00.: :H.I +00.I 00.: 00.1 mcoHpmpHQm< mdpmpm O2 O2 OH.- Oz O2 O2 OOOHOONHOOOOO Hoonom mH.| mz mm.| mz +mo.| +Oo.l COHpmuCloo mmeHoo +00. 02 +mo.l 0H. +00. 00. COHumosom m.monpmm +mo.l 00.: mH.I HH.: *mo.l 00.: consummpp< £09320 *Oo. +O0. NH. 00. OH. 00. COHpm>HmeQ HmcoHpoomm¢ 0H. 0H. NH. +O0. mH. mo. COHOOmLQmQ *Oo.l mH.I :H.| OO.: OH.I HH.I coHpmoHMHpmpc oospmmmo OH. +00. mm. mo. OH. mH. LOH>m£om Hmsxmmosom :H.I NH.: mm.| 00.I mH.I MH.I mmowhw OH.. OH.- NN.- OH.- OH.- OH.- OOHHOHsmmsoo Hmpcmpma NH.I MH.| HH.: 0H.I 0H.| mH.I EmHEoppxm.p£me +OO. OH. ON. HH. OH. OH. OOHOOHHOOOO HOOHOHHOO mz mH. mm. OH. OH. OH. mmmHo Hoonom OH.- OH.- OH.- OH.- OH.- OH.- Oxouonsso mOoHOHHmO MH.I mH.| mm.| 0H.| 0H.I 0H.I COHpMpcoHao poem OH.u NN.- ON.- OH.- ON.- ON.- OOHpmpcmHHo OHHEOO HN.: Om.» mm.| mm.| Hm.| mm.n , EchmHampHaonps< OO. OO. OO. OO. HO. OO. OOHHHOOHHN>O OOOO Om. mm. Hm. om. mm. Om. s0H>mnmm Hmsxmmommpmm OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OOHOOHOO mm. mm. mm. mm. HO. 0:. wconEm OO. OO. OO. HO. OO. OO. mm: Onto Osmm OH. OO. OO. NO. OO. OO. OOOOO OOHO HO. OO. HO. NO. HO. OO. OOHOO OOOO NMHHuz OHmHuz mmHan Honnz mmHmuz ommOuz o m < mHmEom mHmz Hoaucoo OHomHHm> Empmmm Hoonom . xmn .mospm one mo OOHQOHHO> HHm op mQHQOCOHpmHmH mm: mapc mo mamsssmuu.Hm.O mqmf this literature is based on unsubstantiated opinion, ..-—~._ s... .. Irather thanjupon empirical study. Those scientific ,3 _______._.—~""’/ sstudies that have been completed have dealt largely with ZLower socio-economic areas of the larger cities of the fiast and West. Many of these have neglected consideration CJF the impact of socializing influences and the variables (31‘ strain which might be useful in predicting drug use. [\rl emergent trend implicates drug use, especially marijuana Smoking, as increasingly becoming a middle-class phenomenon. T1lus, the three communities selected for this study are pre- dominantly smaller, white, communities comprised mainly of 'tlilree middle ranges of socio-economic class levels. \ 1See Chapter III for a description of each community. 151 A two-fold purpose 152 was established for the study. First, an epidemiological approach was designed to provide a descriptive analysis of the developing adolescent in his associations with different forms of drug use as related to age, sex, and school system milieu. The second purpose was to hypothesize and test relationships between adolescent drug use and the following four classes of variables: 1. The socializing agencies of the family, religion, and school, as well as an important element of social structure—-the socio- economic status of the individual 2. The ego strains of alienation, affectional deprivation, depression, relative deprivation, and lack of peer involvement 3. Traditional value orientations, associated with authoritarianism, college plans, ability to defer gratification, family orientation, school grades, peer orientation, political views, religious beliefs, and status aspirations “. Participation in other forms of deviant behavior such as the use of alcohol and tobacco, and involvement in drug argot and as measures of 'Ifiais purpose included an IDIredictive value of each USe. liéigerature Review sexual behavior. Knowledge of availability of drugs are included symbolic deviance. investigation of the differential of the above variables with drug Psychologically, the review of clinical literature C1'E?scribed the drug user typically as a personality ‘3}Iaracterized by: 10. 11. 12. 153 A weak, immature ego, lacking in ego strength Depression and boredom Inability to tolerate frustration, deprivation, or discipline A high level of stress, as indicated by night- mares, enuresis, and excessive use of fantasy High alienation, disaffiliation, and feelings of loneliness A hedonistic outlook, favoring immediate gratification A low level of self-confidence and self-esteem Anti-establishment attitudes Lack of motivation, low aspirations, and low academic achievement Inability to enter into prolonged, close, personal relationships Identity problems, resulting in a constant search for personal identity and meaning An introverted, inward-turning, intuitive personality. Dynamically, drug use was generally reported by clinicians ‘tCD be a means of coping with strain; that is, as a defense to: Inhibit inner anxiety Relieve intolerable tension, depression, and boredom Restore feelings of self—confidence and self- esteem Gain a sense of identity and belonging. 15“ Sociologically, the drug user was typically described as a single, middle-class male in protest against many of the attitudes, values, and behaviors of the conservative middle—class Protestant Ethic, leaning toward an emergent "hang—loose" ethic. Anti-establishment orientations were seen in his relationships within the more traditional socializing agencies of family, religion, school, and conventional peer group. More specifically, the review of literature has shown the sociological characteristics associated with the drug user to include: 1. A home marked by death, desertion, or divorce 2. Family strife, conflict, and crisis 3. Lack of family congruence in values, lack of cohesiveness “. Less frequent church affiliation, attendance, and participation in religious activities 5. Less frequent participation in organized school activities such as clubs, athletics, and school government 6. Irregular school attendance, low achievement, and less satisfaction with school 7. Closer orientation to deviant peer subcultures 8. Greater involvement with other forms of deviant behavior such as use of tobacco and alcohol, and sexual involvement 9. Political leanings toward the "new student left." Sociologically, drug use was typically seen both as a means Of visible protest against the institutions of the "estab- lishment," and as an attempt to carve out meaning and 155 identity in life through orientation toward a deviant sub- culture. Development of the Hypotheses The theoretical foundation upon which the study was built views perSonality development as largely a product of interactions with significant others within the basic socializing agencies of family, religion, school and peer group. These social interactions either satisfy or frustrate basic psychological needs such as those for love, esteem, and affiliation. Stressful relationships within these conventional socializing agencies produce strains which result in orientations toward anti- conventional values and predispose the adolescent toward deviant subcultural groups in an attempt to reduce tension. This is most likely to occur when the inner and outer containment systems are unable to maintain a balance between the inner pushes (needs, for example) and the outer pulls and pressures of the environment (e.g., the attrac— tion of the deviant subculture). Tension continues, and the stage is set for the appearance of deviant behavior, as the personality attempts to cope by turning in the direction of a deviant subculture which holds out a promise of need fulfillment. The following major hypotheses emerged from the theory: Hypothesis 1: Hla: HIb: HIc: Iild: HIe: Hypothesis II: Hypothesis III: Hypothesis IV: IIIVBJ HIVb: 156 Drug use is related to the social structure There is a positive relationship between drug use and the socio—economic milieu of the school system. There is a positive relationship between drug use and being of the male sex. There is a positive relationship between drug use and age There is an inverse relationship between drug use and orientation toward family, religion, and school. There is a positive relationship between drug use and grade level, and with socio-economic status of the individual. There is a positive relationship between drug use and ego strain. There is an inverse relationship between drug use and traditional value orienta- tions. Drug use is related to other forms of deviance. There is a positive relationship between drug use and other forms of deviance. There is a positive relationship between drug use and symbolic deviance. 2There are two sections of the study: (1) a develOp- Inental and epidemiological analysis addressed to Hypotheses Ia, b, and c; and (2) an etiological analysis testing ‘Hypotheses Id and e, II, III, and IVa and b. 157 Methodology The populations under study consisted of all students present on the day of the opinionnaire administration, grades 8 through 12, in three typical, small, white, midwestern communities. Respondents at School A, an upper-middle class system, numbered 1182, School B, primarily lower-middle class, numbered 1916, and School C, predominantly upper-lower class had 1132 respondents, giving a total of “230 persons in the study. Data necessary for testing the hypotheses of the study was collected by means of an opinionnaire consisting of several indexes and items as follows: 3 Social Structure: 1. School Class (grade level) Item 2. Parental Congeniality (atmosphere) Index 3. Church Attendance Item “. Father's Education (individual social class) Item 5. Participation in School Organizations Index 6. School System attended Item 7. Age Item 8. Sex Item Ego Strain: 1. Depression Index 2. Affectional Deprivation Index 3. Peer Involvement Index “. Relative Deprivation Index 5. Alienation Index 3See Chapter III for detailed descriptions of items sand indexes. The complete instrument is found in Appendix C. Traditional Value Orientations: Authoritarianism Index Family Orientation Index Religious Orthodoxy Index Peer Orientation Index Right Extremism Index Self Political Description Item Grades Item Deferred Gratification Item Status Aspirations Index College Orientation Index 0 . OKDCDNONU'TJI'UUNH i—J Behavioral and Symbolic Deviance: Drug Use (soft) Index Drug Use (hard) Index Drug Sales Index Knowledge of Drug Argot (symbolic deviance) Index . Perception of Drug Availability (symbolic deviance) Index . Tobacco Smoking Index Drinking Index . Heterosexual Behavior Index Homosexual Behavior Item tLJUMi-J \OCDNO U1 The techniques used to develop the above indexes and items were described, including measures of validity and reliability. Data Analysis and Findings The data was analyzed using contingency coefficients and Pearson product-moment correlational techniques. In the first analytical section the chi—square test was used to ascertain drug use differences by age, sex, and school System. The major findings were: 1. There is definitely a high correlation between drug use and school system milieu, with the higher socio-economic system (School A) exhibit- ing greater use of marijuana, hallucinogens, and amphetamines. This relationship did not exist for use of hard drugs. 159 [‘0 Sex differences were found at Schools A and B where males were more predisposed than females to use of marijuana, hallucinogens, and amphetamines. At School B only males were also more likely to use hard drugs. 3. Age differences were also found at Schools A and B, where older adolescents were more prone to use all drugs except those designated as hard. At School C, no type of drug use was , found related to age or sex. Since a very low correlation between an individual's social class membership and drug use was evident, this variable was not used as a control in the analysis of the data in this first section. In the second section, correlational analysis was used to test hypotheses relating drug use to independent variables of social structure, ego strain, traditional value orientations, and other forms of deviant behavior. The summary of major findings is presented in two ways: first, by descending order of importance of the four general types of variables associated with the major hypotheses, and secondly, by descending order of the relative strength of the association of each individual variable to drug use. Of the four major hypotheses explored in this study, participation in other forms of deviance--both behavioral and symbolic--emerged as the most powerful predictor or soft drug use among adolescents. Traditional value orientations accounted for less variance and acted as a class of underate inhibitors against the use of drugs. 160 The social structural variables as a group showed dif- ferential predictive value-~with age, sex, and school system exhibiting an impact at least as strong as certain value orientations. Finally, the indexes of ego strain accounted for the least amount of variance in drug use. Both positive and negative associations were demonstrated for the variables, independent of their associations with the major hypotheses. Those variables found to be positively_related to—- and perhaps predictive of——drug use, in descending order of strength were: 1. Involvement in drug sales 2. Knowledge of drug argot 3. Use of hard drugs “. Smoking 5. Drinking 6. Engaging in heterosexual behavior 7. Perception of drugs as easily available *8. Higher age 9. Higher grade level in school *10. Membership in a higher socio-economic school system 11. Experience with homosexual behavior *Starred items were ranked on the basis of contin- gency coefficients, which typically underestimate the relationship. It is therefore probable that those items have greater impact than actually shown. 161 *12. Being of the male sex 13. Depression 1“. Affectional deprivation. Those factors found to be negative1y_related to-- and perhaps acting as inhibitors against-—drug use, in descending order of strength were: 1. Authoritarian values 2. Orientation toward one's family 3. Orientation toward conventional peers “. Belief in basic religious tenets Conservative political values A congenial parental atmosphere N Desire for high grades in school (I) Ability to defer gratification 9. Frequent church attendance 10. Orientation toward college 11. Aspirations for status Implications of the Study Implications for School and Community Studies of this nature are useful to the extent they provide practical suggestions for implementing behavioral change. A unique strength of the West Shore project is the feedback to the communities of all manuscript data derived from the study. Follow-up conferences were held with representatives of each community to discuss the 162 findings of the study. They were also advised that the research team would be available for further consultation. The study shows drug users to be negative toward conventional peer values. The implication is for the school and community to assess their recreational, religious, and social programs for young people and insure that the range of possible activities is broad enough to encompass all types of students. Special efforts must be addressed to the anti-conventional, academically unmotivated, alienated student to foster a greater involvement with conventional peers, thereby meeting his needs for status and affiliation in a legitimate peer group setting, where he can learn more acceptable values of conventional youth. The use of LSD seems to be decreasing in recent years.“ Much of the reason for this decline appears to be the result of a strong educational approach to the physiological and psychological effects of this drug. The implication here is two—fold. Educators must develop strong, sound programs aimed at communicating the effects of other types of drug use, and before they can do this, more research needs to be done on the physiological effects of drugs such as marijuana in order to give them correct current information. “Richard H. Blum, Students and Drugs (San Francisco: Jossey—Bass Inc., Publishers, 1969), pp. 301—302, 339. 163 There is a wealth of data from the study that can be used to stimulate discussion in social studies classes such as psychology and sociology. For example, considera- tion of the values related to drug use and the strains and social structure that produce them would give beneficial insight to the student. The study results offer several implications for the counselor. First, through sociometric or other devices, the counselor can identify the type of alienated students mentioned above or the students who seem to be involved in deviant subcultures. Students so identified could be encouraged to become involved in group counseling sessions, not so much to discuss drug use, but rather to work on underlying feelings of depression, alienation, and lack of affection seen in the strain syndrome of Table “.16. The feelings of status and affiliation gained through member- ship in the counseling group would hopefully transfer to relationships in other school groups and the need for affiliation with the deviant peer subculture would dissipate. Inasmuch as drug users have been shown to be typically non-joiners in conventional peer activities, the counselor could take more initiative in encouraging membership in legitimate peer activities where status could be gained. A related implication is for the counselor to become more familiar with the operational dynamics of the deviant subculture as related to drug use. 16“ Another implication for the counselor is to become more knowledgeable with the drug scene. This and other studies have shown the use of drugs to be substantial. As the member of the school team most closely associated with the student's emotional health, it behooves the counselor to become informed. Counselor workshops, such as proposed by Peters,5 newly elected President (1970—71) of the American School Counselor Association, are recommended to acquaint counselors with their role in the area of drug abuse. By virtue of this knowledge gained, a third implication would be for the counselor to take the initiative in establishing meaningful in-service training with teachers for the purpose of developing and implementing drug education programs. A final suggestion for the counselor is to consider working with parents of drug users. The present study has shown several areas such as lack of parental con- geniality, orientation away from the family, affectional deprivation, and depression to be factors related to drug use. These parents should be encouraged to come in for group counseling aimed at finding solutions to their problems, which seem to have a bearing on their children's drug use. 5Don Peters, American School Counselor Association Newsletter, April 22, 1970, p. 8. 165 Implications for Further Research The results shown in this study suggest several lines of research that could be pursued by additional analySes of the West Shore data.6 For example, the apparent strain syndrome shown in the correlational matrix of Table “.16 is worthy of further exploration by the clinician. Both the interrelationships of strain and their associations with other forms of deviance such as smoking, drinking, and sexual behavior could profitably be explored. The only controls used in the present study were age, sex, and school system. A refinement of the study data might call for further controls using any of the independent variables thought to be of significance as confounding factors. For example, one might hold family orientation constant in observing the relationships between drug use and heterosexual behavior or affectional deprivation. One might also be interested in studying the downwardly mobile youngster with low goal aspirations, whose father is high in the social class structure. The number of possible relationships that might be examined in this manner is legion. Therefore, the researcher must be careful to employ a theoretical frame- work in postulating relationships for study. 6Several monographs by the research team are already in progress. 166 The present study focused mainly on a drug index composed of a combination of three different classes of drugs. Further investigation is suggested with each of these drugs separately to test relationships between drugs as they relate to the independent variables of the study. Finally, any one of the independent variables of the study could function as a dependent variable in future research. For example, school principals and counselors may be interested in relationships between school grades and such variables as depression, alienation, and partici- pation in school organizations, or ministers in the community might desire to know the significant factors that foster religious orthodoxy or church attendance. Going beyond the West Shore data, there are impli- cations for other researchers. The emergence of value orientations as salient in the present study suggests inclusion of additional anti—conventional value dimensions in future research. The present study was limited in the number of deviant behaviors analyzed. The strong case for the existence of a general deviant subculture could be expanded by exploration of still other forms of deviance in the attempt to give further support to such a concept. That is, such areas as truancy, theft, and assault could be assessed to ascertain if they fit in to this pattern of a general deviant subculture. 167 Finally, the present research included only grades 8 through 12. Some consideration was given to administering the instrument to lower grades but it was felt that these youngsters would have difficulty with some of the vocabulary items. The findings for 8th grade indicate that this type of study with a modified instrument would be profitable at lower grades, perhaps 6th and 7th. This, coupled with study of those beyond 12th grade would fill in the complete profile of the youthful drug scene. BIBLIOGRAPHY 168 BIBLIOGRAPHY Adorno, Theodor; Frenkel-Brunswik, Else; Levinson, Daniel; and Sanford, R. Nevitt. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper Brothers, 1950. Allen, Donald, and Sandhu, Harjit. "A Comparative Study of Delinquents and Non Delinquents: Family Affect, Religion, and Personal Income," Social Forces, Vol. “6 (December, 1967), pp. 263:268. Ausubel, David P. Drug Addiction: Physiological, Psychological, and Sociological Aspects. New York: Random House, 1958. . "The Psychology of the Marijuana Smoker." Marijuana. Edited by Erich Goode. New York: Atherton Press, 1969. Becker, Howard S. The Other Side. New York: The Free Press, 196“. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: The Free Press, 1963. Bloomquist, E. R. Marijuana. Beverly Hills: Glencoe Press, 1968. Blum, Richard H. ”The Drug Generation: Growing Younger." Newsweek, April 21, 1969), p. 107. Students and Drugs. San Francisco: Jossey— Bass, Inc., 1969. Bogg, Richard A.; Smith, Roy 0.; and Russell, Susan D. Drugs and Michigan High School Students. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Department of Public Health, April, 1969. Brotman, Richard; Silverman, Irving; and Suffet, Fred. "Drug Use Among Affluent High School Youth." Marijuana. Edited by Erich Goode. New York: Atherton Press, 1969. Carey, James. The College Drungcene. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1968. 169 170 Charen, Sol, and Perelman, Luis. "Personality Studies of Marijuana Addicts." American Journal of Psychiatgy, Vol. 102 (19“6), p. 675. Chein, Isidore. "Narcotics Use Among Juveniles." Social Work, Vol. 1 (April, 1956), p. 57. Chein, Isidore; Gerard, Donald; and Rosenfeld, Eva. The Road to H: Narcotics, Delinquency and Social PoliCy. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 196“: Cohen, Albert. "The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie and Beyond." American Sociological Review, Vol. 30 (February, 1965), pp. 5-1“. Cohen, Allan. "Who Takes LSD and Why?" New Society, Vol. 8 (August 11, 1966), pp. 226—228. Cohen, Bernard. "The Delinquency of Gangs and Spontaneous Groups." Delinquency: Selected Studies. Edited by Thorsten Sellin and Marvin Wolfgang. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1969. Cohen, Sidney. The Drug Dilemma. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1969. Coleman, James. The Adolescent Society. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961. DeRopp, Robert. Drugs and the Mind. New York: Grove Press, 1961. Erikson, Kai. "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance." The Other Side. Edited by Howard Becker. New York: The Free Press, 196“. Finestone, Harold. "Cats, Kicks, and Color." Social Problems, Vol. 5 (July, 1957), p. 12. Ginsberg, Allen. "The Great Marijuana Hoax: First Manifesto to End the Bringdown." Atlantic, November, 1966, pp. 10“-112. Gold, Martin. "Juvenile Delinquency as a Symptom of Alienation." Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 25 (Spring. 1969), pp- 121-135. Goldstein, R. 1 in 7: Drugs on Campus. New York: Walker, 1966. Goode, Erich. Marijuana. New York: Atherton Press, 1969. 171 "Great Marijuana Problem." National Review, Vol. 20 (January 30, 1968), pp. 7“-78. I Guilford, J. P. Psychometric Methods. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., 195“. Hayes, William L. Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. Hirschi, Travis and Selvin, Hanan. Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytic Techniques. New York: The Free Press, 1967. Keniston, Kenneth. "Drug Use and Student Values." Paper presented to The National Association of Student Personnel Administrators Drug Education Project, Washington, D.C., November 7-8, 1966. Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Murray, Henry A. Personality: In Nature, Society, and Culture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 19“9. Kluckhohn, Florence R., and Strodtbeck, Fred L. Variations in Value Orientations. Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson and Company, 1961. Leary, Timothy. "The Politics, Ethics, and Meaning of Marijuana." The Marijuana Papers. Edited by David Soloman. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. Lerman, Paul. ”Argot, Symbolic Deviance and Subcultural Delinquency." American Sociological Review, Vol. 32 (Apri1,41967), pp. 209-22“. Louria, Donald B. The Drug Scene. New York: McGraw— Hill Book Company, 1968. "Marijuana Problem: A Symposium." Newsweek, July 2“, 1967, pp. “6—50. "Marijuana Warning." Time, June 28, 1968, p. 61. Mauss, Armand L. "Anticipatory Socialization Toward College as a Factor in Adolescent_Marijuana Use." Social Problems, Vol. 16 (Winter, 1969), pp. 357- 36“. IWcCord, William. "The Personality of Social Deviants." The Study of Personality: An Inter-disciplinary Appraisal. Edited by Norbeck, Price-Williams, and McCord. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968. 172 McGlothlin, William and Cohen, Sidney. "The Use of Hallucinogenic Drugs Among College Students." American Journal of ngchiatry, Vol. 122 (1965), pp. 572-57“. McGlothlin, William, and West, Jerry. "The Marijuana Problem: An Overview." American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 125 (1968), p. 372. Merton, Robert K. Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957. Messer, Mark. "The Predictive Value of Marijuana Use: A Note to Researchers of Student Culture." Sociology of Education, Vol. “2 (Winter, 1969), pp. 91-97. Peters, Don. "Comments." American School Counselor Association Newsletter. April 22, 1970, p. 8. Philip, Anthony. "The 'Personality' of the Psychedelic Drug User." Paper presented to the Symposium on Psychedelic Drugs, American Medical Association Meetings, New York, July 17, 1969. Putney, Snell, and Middleton, Russell. "Rebellion, Conformity, and Parental Religious Ideologies." Sociometry, Vol. 2“ (June, 1961), pp. 125-135. Racial Isolation in the Public Schools. U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., pp. “0, 66, l“5. Reckless, Walter C. "A New Theory of Delinquency and Crime." Federal Probation, Vol. 25 (December, 1961), pp. “2L“6. Reckless, Walter C.; Dinitz, Simon; and Murray, Ellen. "Self—Concept As An Insulator Against Delinquency." American Sociological Review, Vol. 21 (1956), pp. 7AH—7A6. ‘ Rosenfeld, Albert. "Marijuana: Millions of Turned—On Users." Life, July 7, 1967, pp. 16-23. Simmons, Jerry L. and Winograd, Barry. It's ngpenigg: A Portrait of the Youth Scene Today. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Marc—Laird Publications, 1966. Srole, Leo. "Social Integration and Certain Corollaries: An Exploratory Study." American Sociological Review, Vol. 21 (1956), pp. 709-716. 173 Suchman, Edward A. "The 'Hang-Loose' Ethic and the Spirit of Drug Use." Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 9 (June, 1966), pp. 1“6—155. Sullivan, Harry S. The Interpersonal Theogy of Psychiatry. New York: Norton, 1963. Sutherland, Edwin H. "The Theory of Differential Association." Juvenile Delinquency. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966. "Thrill-Pill Menace." Saturday Evening Post, December “, 1965, pp. 23-27. Udell, Jon 0., and Smith, Robert S. "Attitudes and the Usage of Other Drugs Among Users and Non-Users of Marijuana in a High School Population." Wisconsin Project Reports, Vol. “ (October, 1969). Voss, Harwin L. "Differential Association and Reported Delinquent Behavior: A Replication." Social Problems, Vol. 12 (Summer, 196“), pp. 78-85. Waisenan, F. B., and Durlak, Jerome T. A Survey of Attitudes Related to Costa Rican Population Dynamics. San Jose, Costa Rica: American Inter- national Association for Economic and Social Development, 1966. Winick, Charles. "Marijuana Use by Young People." Drug Addiction in Youth. Edited by Ernest Harms. New York: Permagon Press, 1965. APPENDICES 17“ APPENDIX A SELECTED 1960 CENSUS FIGURES FOR SCHOOLS A AND B 175 176 .oomm cusp mmOH no COHpmHsaoa on map 0 OpHcssEoo pom mHanHm>m uo: mmastm mamcm .mOHmm new HOOHLOHO .Asamm uaooxmv HmHnmwmcms .HOCOHmmomoaQ moosHocH .OHOOHHO>O no: moastm mamcmo+ O++ _ # OOO.HH ONO.OH OOH.OOO OOO.OOH OOO.ONO.O coHumHOOoO .OH O.HO 0.00 H.NO N.OO H.NO OOHHO so mumpm :H wcHOHmOn coHumHsaoq O>Humc no name pom .mH m.: 0.0 0.0 H.m 0.0 anon cwHosom mum on; COHpmHsaoa HOp0p mo ucOo nmm .mH 0.0 m.H 0.0 H.0 0.0 OOOOHQEOcz moaom Loan COHHH>HO no name mom .HH 0.0H N.ON O.HN 0.0N O.HN OOOH 909mm mason ucommpa oucH OO>oE on: COHOOHSQOQ HOOOp on» no pcmo mom .OH OO.H OO.H OO.H NO.H OO.H oHpms pmxsoz op smxsozucoz .O 0.0: 0.0m m.0m 0.0: 0.00 mcoHmeSOOO wcHn3pomm5cwE CH mcompoq OOOOHQEO no ucoo amm .0 O.OO 0.00 O.OO H.OO H.OO .mcoHpmosooo HOHHooumanz CH mcompma OOOOHQEO Mo pcmo ppm .O N.OH N.OO O.OH O.NH O.OH OOO.OHO so>o OeoocH zqu mmHHHEmm mo pcoo pmm .0 O.OH O.O .O.NH 0.0H 0.0H OOO.OO can» OOOH OsoocH 59H: mmHHHEOO mo ucoo aom .0 HOO.O OOO.HH ONO.O OOO.O OON.O msmHHoO cH oEoocH OHHamO :mHooz .O O.HO O.HO O.NO O.OO ++ msoe so Hoocom OOH: mo mamoz O OOOOHOEOO on: name pom .m 0.0H 0.0H H.HH O.OH 0.0H ON po>o meomsoa pom OOOOHQEOO mamoz Hoonom.cmeOz .m H.HO 0.00 0.00 0.00 H.OO Hoonom cH OHaOH mcomnoo so pcmo pom .H m a < Hoonom‘ m Hoonom Hoozom Hoonom wchsHocH ummamoz madam COHpQHAomOQ EOpH amzm «mam +.m Q2< < mmHBHZDESOO Qz< ¢mzm Ome« m E S 2 E z 0 or: I'll 0 <2 Ill Fl] 0: CO 0 a: E-' H E U (I) Q < (1) (2) (3) (4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 v 01 m 6? STRONGLY AGREE UIUIUIUI U'UIUIUI OI Use the following key for Questions 112-114. KEY: 1. None 2. Once 3. 2-4 times 4. 5-7 times 5. 8 or more times 2112. On how many different occasions have you used marijuana? 113. On how many different occasions have you been high on marijuana? 114. On how many different occasions have you sold marijuana? * t t t * t 115. If you wanted to obtain marijuana, how 121. On how many different occasions have you difficult would it he? been high on Amphetamines or Methampheta- mines (such as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and 1. Very difficult Methedrine)? 2. Somewhat difficult 3. Fairly easy 1. None 4. Easy 2. Once 5. Very easy 3. 2-4 times 4 5-7 times .116. On how many different occasions have you 5 8 or more times used hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs (such as LSD, STP, and Mescaline)? 122. On how many different occasions have you sold Amphetamines or Methamphetamines 1. None (sold as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and 2. Once Methedrine)? 3. 2-4 times 4. 5-7 times 1. None 5. 8 or more times 2. Once 3. 2-4 times 2117. On how many different occasions have you 4. 5-7 times been high on hallucinogenic or psychedelic 5. 8 or more times drugs (such as LSD, STP, and Mescaline)? 123. If you wanted to obtain Amphetamines or 1. None Methamphetamines (such as Benzedrine, 2. Once Dexedrine, and Methedrine) how difficult 3. 2-4 times would it be? 4. 5-7 times 5. 8 or more times 1. Very difficult 2. Somewhat difficult 1118. On how many different occasions have you 3. Fairly easy sold hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs 4. Easy (such as LSD, STP, and Mescaline)? 5. Very easy 1. None 124. On how many different occasions have you 2. Once used "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, and 3. 2-4 times Morphine)? 4. 5-7 times 5. 8 or more times 1. None 2. Once 1119. If you wanted to obtain hallucinogenic 3. 2-4 times or psychedelic drugs (such as LSD, STP, 4. 5-7 times and Mescaline), how difficult would it 5. 8 or more times be? 125. On how many different occasions have you 1. Very difficult been high on "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, 2. Somewhat difficult and Morphine)? 3. Fairly easy 4. Easy 1. None 5. Very easy 2. Once 3. 2-4 times 1120. On how many different occasions have 4. 5-7 times you used Amphetamines or Methamphetamines 5. 8 or more times (such as Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and Methedrine)? 1. None 2. Once 3. 2-4 times 4. 5-7 times 5. 8 or more times PLEASE GO ON TO THE FOLLOWING PAGE. -7- 126. On how many different occasions have you sold "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, and Morphine)? 1. None 2. Once 3. 2-4 times 4. 5-7 times 5. 8 or more times 127. If you wanted to obtain "hard" drugs (Heroin, Cocaine, and Morphine), how difficult would it be? 1. Very difficult Somewhat difficult Fairly easy Easy Very easy 01th 128. How many of your friends have you actual— ly seen taking drugs of any kind? 1. None 2. One m 3. Two a 4. Three 0 5. Four or more g S t t * * t S % (DO NOT MARK OPINIONNAIRE BOOKLET.) g m (1 129. One should be cautious of close personal ties with people......... 1 130. I don't mind being the center of attention........................ 131. There is little hope for man's future survival.... ..... ........... 1 132. With the second coming of Christ, the dead will live again.. ...... 1 133. Black leaders are pushing too hard and trying to move too fast.... 1 134. The Bible is God's word and what it says is true.................. 1 135. It's hard to figure out who can really be trusted ..... ............ 1 136. If parents give in to children, they will be spoiled.............. 1 137. I wish people would pay more attention to me...................... 1 138. At times I feel I'm not worth very much........................... 1 139. Most people are too concerned with themselves to worry about what happens to OthersOOOOOO.0.000.000...OIOO....OO....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 1 140. When I am about to do something different, I consider what my friends WOUId thinkIOOOOOOIO0.000IOOIOOIOOOOIO ......... 0.00.0.0... 141. Up to now, my life has been rather discouraging................... 1 * * t * * PLEASE TURN TO THE FOLLOWING PAGE. -8- to N N N N M to N N N :3 D1 SAGREE w w u w to to to w w w a UNCERTA IN a- as as as A A w- as A a 3 AGREE OI on on on 01 at at or on maSTRONGLYAGREE For Questions 142-147 use the following key. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151 o 152. KEY: 1. Never 2. Seldom 3. Sometimes 4. Frequently 5. Very frequently Have you held hands with someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)? Have you held your arm around or been held by someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)? Have you kissed or been kissed by some- one of the opposite sex (not including relatives)? Have you necked (prolonged kissing and hugging) with someone of the opposite sex? Have you been involved in light petting (feeling above the waist) with someone of the opposite sex? Have you been involved in heavy petting (feeling below the waist) with someone of the opposite sex? * t a * Have you gone all the way with someone of the opposite sex? . Never . Once . 2-5 times . 6-12 times . More than 12 times (”IbOJND-l With how many different people of the opposite sex have you gone all the way? . None . One . Two to three . Four to six . Seven or more How often have you had sexual relations with someone of the SAME sex? 1. Never 2. Once 3. Twice 4. Three times . Four or more times Compared to others of my age, my popular- ity is 1. among the best. 2. above average. 3. average. 4. below average. 5. among the poorest. Compared to others of my age, my looks are among the best. above average. average. below average. among the poorest. UnbwtOH -9- 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. Compared to others of my age, my grades are My . among the best. above average. . average. . below average. . among the poorest. UHhOJMra parents do nice things for each other 1. very seldom. 2. seldom. 3. sometimes. 4. frequently. 5. very frequently. Bill asks for Maryjane. What he is NOT asking for is My 1. a cooker. 2. tea. 3. a stick. 4. a joint. 5. I don't know. parents show affection for each other very seldom. seldom. sometimes. frequently. 1 2 3 4 5 very frequently. 0 O O O I How easy is it for your parents to talk to each other? . Very difficult . Somewhat difficult . Fairly easy . Easy . Very easy UlnhOONI-d Judy has given Mary wings. She has MY 1. introduced her to a pusher. . helped her kick the habit. . taught her how to inject heroin. . given her a pearly gate. . I don't know. (”$0.3M parents agree on important matters very seldom. seldom. sometimes. frequently. . very frequently. UHbCONI-I A nickel-bag is 1. five dollars worth of drugs. 2. a secret sack where money for drugs is kept. 3. a container in which drugs are stored. 4. a cheap girl who takes drugs. 5. I don't know. Most of the time, what is the general atmosphere in your family? . Very warm ' . Warm . Somewhat strained . Strained . Very strained UHhODIOv-l 162. Compared to others of my age, my neigh- 170. borhood is . among the best. . above average. . average. . below average. . among the poorest. UHbOONrH 163. A roach is l. a gadget in which drugs are heat- ed before use. . a yellow jacket. 3. a packet of heroin. 4. a marijuana butt. 5. I don't know. 171. 164. Compared to others of my age, my per- sonality is . among the best. 172. . above average. . average. . below average. . among the poorest. 165. My parents are considerate of each other's feelings . very seldom. . seldom. . sometimes. . frequently very frequently. UHhCDhDH 166. A joy popper is someone who 1. is a drug addict. . takes drugs by mouth. . is an occasional user of heroin. . gets kicks by using LSD. . I don't know. Uhhtflhb 167. Compared to others of my age, I have to spend is the money . well above average. 173- . above average. . average. . below average. . well below average. UHbOQNPd 168. Rate your parents general relationship to each other. 174 Very happy HfiPPY Fairly happy Unhappy Very unhappy 169. A person with a cap or deck has 1. approximately one ounce of marijuana. 2. a packet of heroin. 3. taken an overdose of LSD. 4. a supply of impure pot. 5. I don't know. -10- 175. Let's say you had always wanted to belong to a particular crowd and were finally asked to join. But then, you found that your parents didn't approve of the group. What would you do? 1. Definitely not join 2. Probably not Join . I'm not sure. . Probably join . Definitely join Compared to others of my age, my clothes are . among the best. . above average. . average. . below average. . among the poorest. UHdehDH Suppose the circle below represents social activities WITH OTHERS OF YOUR AGE. How far out from the center of things are you? (Choose the number closest to where you think you are.) (5)... John has scored. He has . mainlined "H." . freaked out. . taken the monkey off his back. . obtained drugs. I don't know. UHhOfiNrH Compared to others of my age, my physical health is 1. among the best. 2. above average. 3. average. 4. below average. 5. among the poorest. A Bummer is a 1. Speed freak. 2. Bombita. 3. shooting gallery. 4. bad trip. 5. I don't know. PLEASE TURN TO THE FOLLOWING PAGE. m m m o m < m m m H O Q < 2 V m H y A m < A o m a o a 2 as a: 5 (DO NOT MARK OPINIONNAIRE BOOKLET.) [05 a 0 g E to o s < co (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 176. Persons who really need help are those who do everything they're told without asking any queStionS........................... ..... .. 1 2 3 4 5 177. I don't feel self-conscious at a party where there are lots of peOple........OOIOCCOCOOOOOOOOO......0.000.000.0000......OIOOOOIOI. 1 2 3 4 5 178. When I finish school, I WOULD LIKE to be the kind of person to whom others look for advice............................................. 1 2 3 4 5 179. When I finish school, I EXPECT to be the kind of person to whom others look for advice... ......... . .......... . ..................... 1 2 3 4 5 * t t * * * BELOW IS A LIST OF 10 VALUES. YOUR TASK IS TO RATE THEIR IMPORTANCE TO YOU, AS GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN YOUR LIFE. m o .2: - 52 'z‘ E 0 <2 a e a B a: z E D: o < H 9 O m e z a E m m < 2 z O O H H (Do NOT MARK OPINIONNAIRE BOOKLET.) : % § E? E H E} g g 2 m > < H > (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 180. KMBITTON (hard working, aspiring)................................... 1 2 3 4 5 181. AN EXCITING LIFE (a stimulating, active life)....................... 1 2 3 4 5 182. A WORLD AT PEACE (free of war and conflict)... ............. ......... 1 2 3 4 5 183- EQUALITY (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all)................... 1 2 3 4 5 184. FAMILY SECURITY (taking care of loved ones)......................... 1 2 3 4 5 185. INNER HARMONY (freedom from inner conflict)......................... 1 2 3 4 5 186- MATWKE LOWE (sexual and spiritual intimacy)......................... 1 2 3 4 5 187. NATIONAL SECURITY (protection from attack).......................... 1 2 3 4 5 188. SALVATIm (saved, eternal life)oooononoa...ooooooooooooooooooooooooo 1 2 3 4 5 189~SEI‘F‘RESPECT (self-esteem).......................... ..... 1 2 3 4 5 190.TRUE FRIENDSHIP (close companionship)............................... 1 2 3 4 5 Please place your booklet, answer sheet, and pencil back in your envelope. -11- J. I h; .... MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES mIIHWIWIIHIIIIMIHMIDHIIMIIIIHIWIINHINHI 31293100657158