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LI B RA R Y
Michigan State
University

.2“ . “*3?!”- is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A STUDY OF- THEHREIATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION IN CAREER CENTERS
AND STUDENT CAREER MATURITY
presented by

Daniel Russell Seik

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Doctor of Philosogh! degreein Secondary Education and
Curriculum

' r professor

Date October 6, 1977

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

@ 1977

DANIEL RUSSELL SEI K

 

 

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A STUDY or- TNE RELATIONSHIP BETNEEN STUDENT
" .~;. votUNTARv PARTICIPATION IN CAREER CENTERS
‘ AND STUDENT CAREER MATURITY

By

Daniel R. Seik

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

that ,0 rs ‘ DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
lrriflepartment of Secondary Education and Curriculum

‘53,". Lr._ A5 t'- 1"?977‘
.Hhturity Inventory.
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ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION IN CAREER CENTERS
AND STUDENT CAREER MATURITY
By
Daniel R. Seik

The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship
existed between voluntary participation in Career Center functions
and the level of the career maturity of students as measured by the
Attitude Scale and Competence Test of the Career Maturity Inventory.
Specifically, the study focused on the CMI scores of students that
(I) had not voluntarily visited the Career Center; (2) had voluntarily
visited the Career Center one to two times; and (3) had voluntarily
visited the Career Center three or more times. In addition, the
investigation attempted to determine if any relationship existed
between the CMI scores of these participant groups with regard to
the variables sex, grade level, and the students' program of studies
(academic, vocational, and general).

The population for the study consisted of tenth, eleventh, and
twelfth grade students in five high schools in the State of Michigan
that housed a Career Center.

Two instruments administered were the (1) Student Information
Questionnaire, and (2) the Attitude Scale and the Competence Test of

the Career Maturity Inventory.

 

 

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Daniel R. 511k

     
 

a ‘Ehnostatistieal procedure was univariate analysis of variance
‘fififi”A).offilov4-way analysis of variance procedures were conducted. In
iihhe firstpcase, student CMI Attitude Scale was regarded as the dependent
wannable.v In the second case, student CMI Competence Test scores were
regarded as the dependent variable. The Finn program was utilized to
test all the hypotheses.
The major findings of the study are presented herein:
l. The mean CMI scores of the non-participant group was signif-
icantly lower than the combined mean CMI scores of the low and
. 7 high participant groups.
' 2. The mean CMI scores of students enrolled in a college prepar-
,, atory program were significantly higher than the mean CMI scores

of students enrolled in a general program. However, while the

 

| students enrolled in a vocational program scored significantly
. higher on the Competence Test than students enrolled in a
. general program, there was no significant difference between

the scores of these two groups on the Attitude Scale.

3. While females scored significantly higher on the Competence I Ch
7’.
Test, there was no significant difference in the scores of .QA

 

these two groups on the Attitude Scale.
4. Hhile eleventh grade students scored significantly higher on .;. g

the Competence Test than tenth grade students, there was no v

significant difference between the mean scores of these two \p‘

groups on the Attitude Scale. There was no significant.dd£%»;ft

ference between the mean CMI scores of eleventh andg‘:

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Daniel R. Seik

grade students on both the Attitude Scale and Competence Test
of the CMI.
The results of this study suggest that: (l) there is a need
for a program of intervention to identify and assist students in their
career development, (2) Career Centers Should provide students with a
wide variety of exploration experiences that encourage the practical
application of their career planning skills, (3) a budget should be
established for the operation and improvement of the Career Center. E
The budget should include specific allocations for the continual
purchase of current career-related materials and paraprofessional
staffing, and (4) the need for Career Centers is apparent if schools
are to provide students with career development activities to enhance
their career development.
The major recommendations advanced related to ideas for further
research. It is concluded that:
1. Studies should be undertaken to determine the effectiveness
of various programs of study (college preparatory, vocational,
general, etc.) on student career maturity. Students should be
assessed both prior to and at the conclusion of the program.
2. Research should be conducted on the effects of specific career
development activities on the career maturity of students.
3. Research is needed on the effects of various Career Center
staffing patterns, services offered, career information systems

and funding methods on student career maturity.

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an other social contacts, both~ with and without participation

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ACKNOHLEDGHENTS

 

  

The writer would like to express his sincere thanks to the
fdllowing people for their guidance and their encouragement in making
the‘completion of this study possible:

° Richard E. Gardner, Committee Chairman, for his assistance
and advice throughout the entire doctoral program, and
especially for his time, energy, and counsel in this study.

0 J. Frank Bobbitt, Ben A. Bohnhorst, Casmer F. Heilman, and

J. Lee Taylor, members of the guidance committee, for their
assistance and encouragement during the writing of this study,

and to Marcia A. Carlyn for her timely suggestions.

The author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and assistance
of all who made this study possible. His sincere thanks goes to the
five Career Center Directors, Principals, and Guidance Counselors who
cooperated with the researcher in conducting this study.

A special thanks to my wife, Cindy, for her inspiration and

support throughout this endeavor.

 

   

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

   

. Page
LIST OF TABLES ..... . .................. . vi
LIF‘ Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...................... 1
Statement of the Problem ............... 3
Purpose of the Study ................. 4
Significance of the Study .............. 4
Statement of Hypothesis ............... 5
Limitations and Delimitations ............ 6
Limitations ................... 6
Delimitations .................. 7
Definition of Terms ................. 8
Overview ....................... 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................. l0
Background of Career Education ............ l0
Career Development Theory .............. 18
Trait-Factor ................... 21
Decision-Making ................. 22
Psychological .................. 23
Developmental .................. 26
Concept of Vocational Maturity ............ 36
Background . ................... 36
Related Research ................. 38
The Development of Career Centers .......... 43
Need for Career Centers ............. 43
Emergence of the Career Center Concept ...... 47
Smmmy .. .. ................... fl
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY .................. 54
Introduction ..................... 54
Sample Selection .............. . . . . . 54
Instrumentation .............. . . . . . 55

Data Collection ...... . .......... . .

 
  

Statistical Procedure ............. . .

      

 

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Appendix
A.

B
C.
D
E

F.

ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........

Introduction . . .t ............... . . . .
Presentation of Data ..................
Summary . . . . . ....... . ...........

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........ . ........

Summary of the Study ..................
Discussion of the Findings ...............
Question l--Level of Participation .........
Question 2--Program of Studies ...........
Question 3--Sex ..................
Question 4--Grade Level ..............
Suggestions for the Operation of Career Centers
Recommendations for Further Research ..........

PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS ..................

 

INVITATION LETTER ....................
FOLLOW-UP INVITATION LETTER ............... 103
CAREER CENTER QUESTIONNAIRE ............... 104
STUDENT INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE ............ 117
LIST OF CAREER CENTER DIRECTORS ............. 121

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... . .................... 122

 

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LIST OF TABLES

  
 

Responses of the Participant Groups on Their Ability
to Define Career Plans .................

4.2 Responses of the Participant Groups to the Number
of Teachers that Related Subject Matter to Careers

4.3 Responses of the Participant Groups to the Number
of Courses that Had Career-Related Activities ......

4.4 Responses of Low and High Participant Groups to
the Assistance Given by the Career Center Staff .....

4.5 Responses of Low and High Participant Groups to
the Helpfulness of the Career Center Staff .......

4.6 Mean Rating of the Responses of the Low and High
Participant Groups to the Usefulness of Career
Center Materials and Equipment .............

 

4.7 Mean Ratings of the Participant Groups to the
Usefulness of Various Resources in Making a

Career Choice . . .................... 68 .N

4.8 Mean Responses of the Career Centers on the Methods ,3

Utilized to Attract Students .............. 7T ifg

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. 4.9 Mean Responses of the Career Centers on the j ngfl
' Importance of Career Center Functions .......... 72 tnlt
I r,

. 4.10 Summary of Mean Scores on the Attitude Scale and
Competence Test of the Career Maturity Inventory . . . . 74

4.ll Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing
Hypotheses la and lb . . .

Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing
Hypotheses 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d . ........ . . .

 

 

  
  
   
   
 
     
   

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Hypotheses3aand3b.................. 81

“(Add Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing
Hypotheses4a,4b,4c,and4d.............. 83

 

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The tenm "Career Education“ was introduced nationally to the
educational community by Dr. Sidney Marland during his speech, "Career
Education Now," to the National Association of Secondary School Prin-
cipals at Houston in 1971. Dr. Marland went on record as saying that
career education was the top priority of his administration and the most
pressing need for the nation's schools. In a sweeping criticism of the
present curriculum he decried the fact that students were both dropping
out and graduating from our schools totally unprepared to find a place
in the world of work. He called for a reorientation of our education
goals and stated:

The first attitude we would change, I suggest, is our own.
We must purge ourselves of academic snobbery. For educa-
tion's most serious failing is its self-induced voluntary
fragmentation, the strong tendency of education‘s several
parts to separate from one another, to divide the enterprise
against itself.1

At present, career education may be all things to all people.
To vocational people it may be an opportunity to extend the areas they

are concerned about into the academic courses. To the teacher it may’

be an opportunity to make the curriculum more relevant to the student.

 

-= lSidney P. Marland, Jr. , “Career Education Now,“ Speech .
fflIConVention of the National Association of Secondary School
ineipals, Houston, Texas, January 23, l971. _ . ._~' ..

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‘ide their children with a salable skill. Each year nearly
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£39 marketable skills.’ This condition has caused many prominent

 

Educators to embark on reworking the goals of education.

, It is now commonly accepted that the educational years K-l2
must be geared to the acquisition of general academic skills and broad ‘-
occupational exploration. This has prompted the implementation of
programs such as experiential learning activities, computerized
occupational information systems, and greater involvement of the
community in the educational process. Corresponding with these

curricular innovations is the endeavor to gain a better understanding

 

of the dynamic rationale of career development and career maturity. 0f "3
pressing interest to this research is the development of Career Centers
in the State of Michigan and their possible impact on career development
of the students served by such centers.
In harmony with this effort, the basic foundation of this study
was to determine the effectiveness of disseminating career information
to students via a career center. In this study Career Centers were
viewed as information centers that contained career related materials l
to assist students in their career development and to aid counselors [5'

and q§her staff members in planning career development activities.
{
2U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of

Education, Career Education (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing
foice, August [9725, p. i.

       

  
 

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This A Statement of theProblem

   
   
   
        

cu __r.: _
- in::r:,LIf Career Centers are to be utilized as an educational tool for
,eggggljtating the career development of students, a thorough examination I
‘of their functions and relationship to students' career maturity is
important.
The development and implementation of Career Centers has been
hindered by a lack of understanding of the relationship of Career Center
functions to student career maturity. Most of the literature is limited
to an explanation of what Career Centers should be and what they should
accomplish. Very little information is available on Career Center
activities and programs that effectively promote student career
. development.
The increased development and implementation of Career Centers

in several secondary and post—secondary institutions, requires studies

that identify the relationships between student career maturity and

their level of voluntary participation in career center activities. l

a The problem then, was to identify students who had voluntarily par- a

ticipated in Career Center activities according to their level of E

involvement (low and high) and to examine their level of career maturity
' a; as measured by the Career Maturity Inventory. A group of students who K.‘{i
had not voluntarily participated in Career Center activities were also
adminifitered the Career Maturity Inventory for descriptive purposes.
‘f- ~;f§?1£l°"a“y’ the career maturity data was analyzed according to t§9u'

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. comprehensive Career Center facility.
' [71.11”

Purpose of the Study

 

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship
between voluntary participation in career center functions and the
career maturity of students as measured by the Career Maturity
Inventory (CMI). Specifically, the objectives of this study were:

1. To determine if student CMI scores are significantl
. different based upon non-participation (zero visits),
low participation (l-Z visits) and high participation
(3 or more visits) in career center activities and
programs.
2. To determine if significant differences in student CMI

scores are related to sex, grade level, and program of
studies (academic, vocational, general).

Significance of the Study |

On the basis of a review of literature, it was determined that
there was a need for research on the level of student participation 5 IV”
in Career Center functions. As a result of this investigation, local

school administrators, counselors, teachers, career center personnel, ”Q

 
 

along with parents and community members may be able to select and

 
 

plan for effective student participation in Career Center programs

      
  
 

.and activities that would most optimally enhance the career derels«

3; students. ‘This studijould alsO‘assist the schbols‘ihPui43
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Statement of Hypothesis

   
  

  
      
   
   
 

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' L The major question toward which this investigation was directed, f

1 i was whether there is a significant relationship between student career .VC“,
‘maturity as measured by the Attitude Scale and Competence Test of the r:

Career Maturity Inventory and the level of voluntary participation in

career center activities, and the student's program of studies, sex,

and grade levels. The subsidiary questions and related hypotheses

t t. .are listed below.

1. Are there significant differences between the CMI scores
of students in non, low, and high participant groups?

la. There are no significant differences between the mean
CMI scores of non-participating students and the mean
CMI scores of low and high participating students.

lb. There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of low participating students and the
i mean CMI scores of high participating students.

2. Are there significant difjerences between the CMI scores
of students enrolled in college preparatory, vocational,
and general programs?

2a. There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of students enrolled in a college pre-
paratory program and students enrolled in a general
! program.

2b. For each of the three participant groups (non, low,
and high), there is no significant difference between
the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in a college
preparatory program and students enrolled in a general ,
program. ”

2c. There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of students enrolled in a vocational
program and students enrolled in a general program.

 

2d. For each of the three participant groups (non. lay, ,.
‘ and high), there is no significant difference betweenu i
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~ on EnthOiMean CHI scores of students enrolled in a
. vocational program and students enrolled in a
reer matirgeneral program.

3 Xo'm83-~Are there significant differences between the CMI scores
‘x_: of males and females?
' asce' ‘
3a. There is no significant difference between the mean
‘Cui ‘ CMI scores of males and females.

 

3b. For each of the three participant groups (non, low,
and high), there is no significant difference between i,
the mean CMI scores of males and females. -»

4. Are there significant differences between the CMI scores
of tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students?

4a. There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of tenth grade students and the mean CMI
scores of eleventh grade students.

4b. For each of the three participant groups (non, low,
and high), there is no significant difference between

‘ the mean CMI scores of tenth grade students and the

‘ mean CMI scores of eleventh grade students.

 

4c. There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of eleventh grade students and the mean
CMI scores of twelfth grade students.

4d. For each of the three participant groups (non, low, N

and high), there is no significant difference between p
the mean CMI scores of eleventh grade students and ‘L
the mean CMI scores of twelfth grade students. g;
yfizi

Limitations and Delimitations ;¥C

_____________————————— ‘3‘. ;

   

Limitations
The recognized limitations of this study are conceded to be in

the confidence that can be placed upon the perceptions and opinions of

   
  

those students responding to the questionnaire.

  
      

 

 

 

, 4 _ Since the topic of career maturity is developmental in 1;
7‘th ms' responses may be suspect in that they myagg
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record an individual's true feelings and thoughts on the topic of
career maturity. In addition, the ability of the instrument utilized
to measure career maturity may be accurate in measuring the vocational
aspects of career maturity but somewhat limited in assessing the other
aspects of career maturity. While every effort to control for these
possible weaknesses was made, any conclusions drawn from the data

are obviously not above question.

Delimitations
This study was limited to five selected school districts that
housed Career Centers in Michigan. At the time of the study, the
Michigan State Department of Education identified these five Career
Centers as having been in operation for at least one year and therefore
did not necessarily include all the Career Centers in the State of
Michigan. A total of l0 to l5% of the population of students in
grades 10, ll, and 12 of each school system was randomly selected.
Although this study did not attempt to explain cause and effect
for the development of career maturity, it did attempt to determine the
relationship between participation in the career center function and
student career maturity. This study also attempted to identify and

refine conditions under which additional studies might be conducted.

 

   
     
  

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Definition of Terms

   

In the interest of clarity, the following tenns have been I

defined:

career center: an information center that contains career-related
materials and offers assistance to students, counselors, and
other staff members. Each center is unique and serves a
specific clientele with a cluster of services which expresses
that particular school's responsibility for the career
development of its students.

Career development: stages or processes which occur throughout one's
lifetime that involve experiences and decisions, resulting in
the formation of a self concept that is utilized in the
selection of both a vocation and avocation.

 

career planning: the process whereby a student examines his/her
interests and abilities in regards to certain careers and
their accompanying lifestyles.

 

career maturity: the maturity of an individual's vocational behavior
as indicated by the similarity between his behavior and that
of the oldest individuals in his vocational life stage (Crites,
196l, p. 259).

Grade level: the actual grade that the subject is in at the time he
or she will be tested for career maturity.

Program of studies: will be determined by the area in which the
student has done the majority of his/her elective coursework. \
The three areas are academic, vocational, and general.

5 voluntary participation: the number of free-willed or unforced visits

I the student initially makes to the career center. Compulsory
attendance is not included. Based on their number of visits,
the students will be assigned to the following groups: non-
participant group (zero visits); low-participant grou (1-2
visits); and high-participant group (3 or more visits).

Paraprofessional (career center aide): maintains and dispenses career
information to students and faculty and performs tasks that do
not require professional education and training.

 

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Overview

The organization of this study involves five major chapters.
Chapter I serves as the basis for identification of the problem and
a rationale for the purpose of the study.

Chapter II constitutes a selected review of the literature.
This review covers a number of areas which form the base from which
this study was conducted. Although career centers are relatively new
to secondary schools, rudiments of their services and activities have
occurred to some extent in most guidance and counseling centers.
Findings in the review of the literature provide the basis for the
hypothesis and research questions of this study.

Chapter 111, Design of the Study, identifies the source from
which the data were collected, the instruments used in gathering the
data and finally a description of the procedure used in an analysis of
the data obtained from the respondents.

Chapter IV, Analysis of the Data, describe the administration
of the Student Information Questionnaire and the Career Maturity
Inventory. A detailed analysis and summary of the data is presented.

Chapter V contains the summary and conclusions of the study
with recommendations for future research. A bibliography and appendix

are attached.

 

     

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1

CHAPTER II

roccuraf“

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
utt..z'
r» ' Career centers and the effect they may have on the career

development and maturity of high school students is the focus of this
review of literature. Relative to this focus, the literature reviewed
is organized under the following topics: (l) background of career
education; (2) theories of career development; (3) the concept of

career maturity; and (4) the development of career centers.

Background of Career Education

Although career education has received a great deal of attention
during the past five years, it is not a concept that originated in the
seventies but is actually as old as the history of man. One only has
to briefly scan history to realize that for many centuries knowledge
and skills were passed on from one generation to the next. In Coleman's
article, "How do the Young Become Adults?" he asserted that "the young
learned not only the whole variety of things that one commonly asso-
ciates with the family, they also learned their principal occupational‘
skills and functions--if not in the family, then structurally close to
as in an apprentice relation."1

‘James 5. Coleman. "How Do the Young Become Adults?“
‘;a chember 1972. Pp. 226-230.

 

 

 

 

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ll

This relationship and mode of learning began to change with the

Ihdustrial Revolution, when the father began to work in a profession

’ divorced from the home setting. To provide the young with academic and

docupational skills, men such as Benjamin Franklin saw the need for a
utilitarian education. In 1759, his publication, "Proposals Relating
to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," recommended the creation
of a new type of school known as the "academy."2 Franklin advocated
a practical and vocational curriculum that would include a study of
the English language, mathematics, art, social studies, classics,
natural science, and experiences in agriculture and technology. He
summed up this view in a plea for support of the English department:

Thus instructed, youth will come out of this school fitted

for learning any business, calling or profession, except

such wherein languages are required; and though unacquainted

with any account or foreign tongue, they will be masters of

their own, which is of more immediate and general use; and

withal will have attained many other valuable accomplishments;

the time usually spent in acquiring those languages, often

without success, being here employed in laying such a foun-

dation of knowledge and ability as, properly improved, may

qualify them to pass through and execute the several offices

of civil life, with advantage and reputation to themselves

and country.3
In short, the industrial revolution extensively altered the character

of American education.

2R. Freeman Butts and Lawrence A. Cremin, A Histor of Education
in American Culture (New York: Henry Holt and Company, I§£3l, p. 77.

 

3Thomas Woody, ed.. "Educational Views of Benjamin Franklin,”

in A Histor of Education in American Culture, ed. R. Freeman Butts
and7Lawrence A. Cremin lNew York: Henry Holt and Company, 1953),

 

 

   
  
  
  
     

 

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‘ ‘.{igllriogithe 1300s, when the rapid industrialization of the.
,'~fithD5uoaaurring. Congress saw the need for agricultural and l 'l
. JIiHSETial education and passed the Morril Act of l862 to give impetus i
‘;,‘ to agricultural education and expanded it in 1867 to include industrial
education.

In the early l9005, with industrialization escalating, the
Rational Association's Commission of the Reorganization of Secondary
Education identified seven "Cardinal Principles of Education," one of
which was vocational education.“

In the early 19005, Frank w. Parsons published his monumental
work, Choosing A Vocation. In this publication, Parsons outlined three

steps in the process of selecting a vocation. He considered these

 

procedures necessary for true reasoning or vocational guidance and
formulated the following steps:

First, a clear understanding of yourself, aptitude,
abilities, interests, resources, limitations and other
qualities. Second, a knowledge of the requirements and
conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages,
compensations, opportunities, and prospects in different --
lines of work. Third, true reasoning in the relations

 

of these two groups of facts.5 ‘ii
;
I'S. J. Knezevich, Administration of Public Education, 2nd ed. 'Iiii
.3"

(New York: Harper and Row, 1969). pp. 6-7. C
i

sFra nk w. Parsons, Choosing A Vocation (Boston: Houghton-
Hifflin Company, 1909), p.

 

 

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tfiilritiaifl) stated that these three points defined the parameters of
f whot‘has‘become known as an actuarial or trait-and-factor approach to
counseling for educational and/or vocational choice.6
In 1914 at the convention of the National Vocational Guidance
Association and the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial
Education, George Mead and John Dewey presented papers to the councils,
stressing that democratic education required no "'separation of voca-
tional training from academic training and that vocational training and
vocational guidance normally linked together.‘7 They each advocated a
unified system, rather than a dual system, of education."8
John Dewey's philosophy of unified education influenced the
development of "Life Adjustment“ education as a need for a universal
education in an industrial democracy. Stratemeyer conceived life
adjustment education as having the following two essential elements:
l. To help children and youth develop the skills, knowledge
and attitudes basic to dealing intelligently with
immediate situations of everyday living.
2. At the same time to help them understand the persistent

aspect: of those situations which recur throughout our
lives.

6Edwin L. Herr, Review and S nthesis of Foundations for Career
Education, Information Series No.61 (Columbus, Ohio: ERI Clearinghouse
on Vocational and Technical Education, The Center for Vocational and
Technical Education, Ohio State University, 1972), p.17.

7Richard N. Stephens, Social Reform and the 0ri in of Vocational
G idan (Washington, D. C: National Vocational Guidance Associafion,
1970), p.

“Herr, p. 19.

 

 

’F. B. Stratemeyer, “Education for Life Adjustment,“ Phi1:a
u ation, ed. Philip H. Phenix (New York. John Riley and 33T,

 

 

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.lfeiouchSmof the school and the community were to be utilized to 1 if
Jfli’tfide the learning experiences in real life situations. ‘ W
.(p. 1—. The outbreak of World War 11 created a demand for highly

trained men and women to serve in the military forces. The schools

were severely criticized for not providing the students with the

required skills. To overcome this lack of training, after the war

ended, five regional conferences were held that brought together

secondary school principals and superintendents, vocational educators,

state educational department representatives, professors of teacher

education institutions and officers of national professional asso-

ciations. The groups formulated the following issues:
1. Secondary education was "failing to provide adequately

and properly for the life adjustment of perhaps the
major fraction of the persons of secondary school age."

 

' 2. Functional experiences in the areas of practical arts,
home and family life, health and physical fitness and
civic competencies "are fundamental to any educational
program designed to meet the needs of youth."

3. A supervised program of work experience is essential
for most high school youngsters.

4. Those entrusted with the education of teachers need 1
"a broadenedo viewpoint and a genuine desire to serve ‘

all youth."
This movement continued in the 19505 with guidance and
vocational experts such as Donald Super, Edwin Herr, and Martin Katz, . ”V
emphasizing the need to make a student's learning more relevant to the i; .3

real world of work.

 

 

1“Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School (Nan ’
luflred A. Knopf, 1961), p. 355.

 

   

   
 
      
   

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“fif'InVlQSQ, James B. Conant, recommended a number of changes to

minnows the effectiveness of the schools. He stressed such things as

thé importance of each student having an ultimate vocational goal as a
result of his or her overall learning experiences in the comprehensive
high school. He advocated the physical integration of vocational and

adademic programs. He stressed the importance of guidance and coun-

 

seling services being provided for elementary school children, thus
providing a continuum of pupil services and enhancing the developmental
process. Conant recommended the removal of curriculum tracks and in
its place suggested that counselors should provide assistance for the
student in developing individualized programs, tailored to the needs
and interests of the individual student and emphasizing course sequences
that would lead to “higher education or marketable skills upon gradua-
tion."11 However, the "Sputnik" scare of the late 19505 prompted
American schools to de~emphasize vocational training and urged students
to concentrate on mathematics, the sciences, and college preparatory
courses.

This trend continued into the 19605 until it was recognized ‘
that the schools were not adjusting their curriculum to the rapidly .
changing technical society. President Kennedy directed the Secretary
of Health, Education and Welfare to appoint a panel of consultants on , 1
vocational education. The panel of consultants conducted its review

and evaluation of vocational education from November 1961 through '5i

 

'3’ 11James B. Conant, The American High School Today (New York: V ,~3:€.j,
"Caron-Hill, l959),p p. ,f*. -~

   

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f fii‘uenher.l962. The report of this panel stated that (1) vocational

:3 .
. gflpeation lacked sensitivity to the changes in the labor market and

la} it lacked sensitivity to the needs of various segments of the
population.12

In 1963, Congress passed a broad Vocational Education Act, the

 

purpose of which was to stimulate interest in career development and to

focus attention on preparing students for job entrance and performance.
The reports of a second panel of consultants to examine the

impact of the Vocational Education Act of 1963 indicated that vocational

education was still inadequate for women and out-of—school youth, and

 

contained very few meaningful courses and programs available for adults.
Their recommendations were reflected in the Education Act Amendments of
1968. The major impetus of this Act provided for occupational awareness
and preparation in the elementary schools, economic orientation and
continued occupational awareness in the junior high schools, more
specific occupational preparation in the high schools and post-secondary
programs for improvement and preparation of adults, programs for special
| helps and needs, upgrading of facilities and equipment by research and

I innovation, as well as better preparation of the instructional staff.13

Some of the early theoretical underpinnings of career education were

 

‘2U.S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of
Education, Education for a Chan in World of Work, Report of the Panel
of Consultants on Vocational Education (Washington, D.C.: Government

Printing Office, 1964). pp. 180—205. (ED 019 502)

     
 
     
   
 

13Advisory Council on Vocational Education, The Brid Between .
Man and His Work (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Council on Vocational _ 1“

Education, l968), p. 248. (ED 028 267)

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' initiated as a result of these acts and subsequent legislation. As

noted by High, “a great deal of time-consuming background work had
already been done on various elements which could be combined into I
a career education concept."1“ These projects emphasized the occu-
pational cluster concept, techniques for increasing student awareness
of career options, the provision of realistic, hands-on exploratory
experiences, "the career-ladder" concept, carefully designed career
preparation programs, as well as fresh approaches to the delivery of
career guidance services.

The theoretical basis for career education was analyzed by
Herr, in his review of the writings of some noted scholars between
1951-1971. A comprehensive analysis of the precedents for career is
summarized in the following five statements:

1. Virtually every concept which is presently embodied in
career education has been advocated at some point in
American education. This is not to suggest that such
concepts have either been operationalized or tested in
practice. Nevertheless, philosophical support for the V/
major elements of career education has historical
construct, if not evaluative validity.

2. Most of the elements of career education have their
roots in early efforts to embody industrial education
and, somewhat later, vocational guidance in the public
schools. Both vocational education and vocational
guidance were direct responses to the needs for dis-
tribution, classification, and preparation of manpower
occasioned by the rising industrial character of the
U.S. in the late 1880's and 90's as well as the first
two decades of the twentieth century.

I 1. .
' 3. Advocacy of vocational education and vocational guidance i‘

has largely been precipitated by economic and industrial ‘. 1
: needs, although there have been social reform and social “‘

‘“Sidney C. High, Jr., "A National Perspective on Career

f7“ Education," ournal of Research and Develo nt in Educ tion 7
179241): 3-16. - . _ .

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welfare trends running through advocacy of these services.
It is apparent that at the present time, as was true in
the last decade, this situation has largely reversed with
individual needs being considered the major base from
which educational programming must begin.

Until approximately l960, concern for the vocational needs
of individuals was reflected principally in providing dif-
ferent categories of vocational training that were defined
by occupational or industrial needs or, in some cases,
inertia. Thus, persons needed to be fitted to programs
rather than programs fitted to persons. Since l960, how-
ever, increased attention has been focused on the needs of
special groups of persons--i.e., the disadvantaged, the
handicapped, the academically retarded--as well as the
affective dimensions of employability as reflected in terms
such as vocational identity, vocational maturity, and
vocational decision-making.

Although there were antecedents in life adjustment and
progressive education positions prior to l960, since then
increased emphasis has been focused on the prevocational
elements of decision-making and preparation to be found in
the elementary, middle or junior high school educational
levels.15

Thus, the social and economic conditions that arose during

the industrial development of the United States have led to the re-

examination and realignment of educational process in the form of

career education.

mous throughout this study.

Career Development Theory

 

Although the terms career development and vocational development

have often been used interchangeably, they are not regarded as synony-

more than vocational development, though the latter is an important

component of the career development process.

———-—.__.______

15Herr, pp. 29-30.

 

Instead, career development is viewed as

Hoyt and others listed

  
 

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'ihfi following basic understandings of the career development
process:

1. Career development is essentially a lifelong process,
beginning early in the preschool years and continuing
for most individuals, through retirement.

2. Personal choices involved in career development are
taking place on a continuing basis throughout the
life of the individual. Choices involving personal
life-styles, personal values, and leisure time pref-
erences are as much a part of career development as
are occupational choices.

3. Occupational choices made as part of career development
are expressed in many forms and with many degrees of
firmness and insight at various times in the life of
the individual.

 

4. Choices are, in various stages of career development,
made on the basis of what the individual would enjoy
doing, on the basis of what appears possible for him
to do, given his personal and societal limitations and
strengths, on the basis of what seems most important
for the individual to do, and, when made in what we
call a "mature" way, on the basis of the interaction
of all these kinds of factors.

5. In terms of career choices, the prime goal of career
development lies in its process, not in its end result.

6. The wisdom of career choice lies in the extent to which
and the basis which it is a reasoned choice, not in the
degree to which it seems reasonable to others.16
Although vocational counseling had its beginning in the early
l8005, with Frank Parsons' book entitled, Choosing a Vocation, the
l concept of career development emerged with the Industrial Revolution.
l According to Armour (1969), the need for career counseling theories

was paramount during Parsons' time. Before the Industrial Revolution,

16Kenneth B. Hoyt and others, Career Education: What It Is and

How to Do It, 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Publishing C§.,
, pp. 36—138.

 

 

 

  
  

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‘ggnbfunction of occupational allocation was centered in the family,

 

as,were most socialization functions. The new pressures of occupational {i1
choice brought about the need for expertise in understanding the ways , _,!
in which these choices might be ideally optimized for both the needs V
of society and the satisfaction of the individual.17 Thus, it was in
this kind of setting that vocational and career development theorists
began to publish their research.

Barry points out that "the ground work for modern theories
was explored in the early l930's in Austria and Germany by Charlotte
Buehler and Paul Lazarsfeld.“18 0f the two, Buehler's influence was
more profound. She suggested that individuals 90 through the following

developmental stages: Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance,

 

and Decline; and theorized that an individual's vocational development,
as well as other aspects of his life, fits into this same pattern. Not
until l95l, did American vocational theorists begin to use Buehler's
work.

Although several theories or approaches to career development
have appeared since the early 19505, they are not, according to Herr ‘
and Cramer (l972), "mutually exclusive or independent but attempt to
explain the pattern of human existence which results in differential

17D. J. Armour, The American School Counselor: A Case Stud in
the iociology of Professions (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, {959), ;

p

 

    

18Ruth Barry and Beverly Wolf, An E ita h for Vocational
Guidance: M ths, Actualities Im lications lNew York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 19625, p. 10.

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, n-T Tenal’behavior and choices."” The principles of many theories
lhave:5erved as a foundation for later, more comprehensive theories.
Descriptions of the trait factor approach, decision-making
theory, psychological theory, and developmental approaches will be
presented herein. However, the developmental approaches to vocational
development will be emphasized because they are more inclusive, more
concerned with longitudinal expressions of behavior and are more

inclined to focus on the individual self-concept.2°

Trait-Factor

The trait-factor or actuarial approach to vocational development
is the oldest and most direct approach. It is based on the following
suppositions: (1) that individual differences can be observed and
classified in terms of certain variables such as values, interests,
and abilities; (2) that the distinctive characteristics and requirements
of an occupation can be classified in a like manner; and (3) that an
individual can be matched with an occupation.21

The major criticism of this approach is that it does not
consider the continuously changing nature of the individual or the
environmental situations which an individual encounters and must adapt
to throughout his life. A recent modified trait-factor approach rejects

this classification position as too simplistic.

 

1’Herr and Cramer, p. 47.
2°Ibid., p. 30.

1; —j. “Edwin L. Herr, Decision-Makin- andrVocationa‘l, Bevel“
”Ii "Career Informat one '_': e ”t, ufi. :- ..
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It enphasizes, instead. the identification of factors
which influence the sequence of vocational decisions

or chOices and it recognizes that what has often been
called occupational choice is actually the product of
a succession of choices; each decision being the result
of positive and negative influencing factors. These
factors represent a combination of social, economic,
and psychological forces which result in a choice.22

 

However, the trait-factor approach has provided both the means
for appraising various traits found to be of relevance in occupational
satisfaction as well as the impetus for more recent theories of career

development.

Decision-Making

Implicit derivatives of the trait-factor approach are the
attempts to theorize about vocational development through the decision-
making process. These approaches are based upon economic theory: an
individual will choose from among his alternatives a career or occu-
pational goal that will maximize his gain and minimize his loss. This
infers that an individual has several vocational alternatives and that
he will choose a career or occupational goal that will provide greater
prestige, financial benefits, security or social mobility. In these
approaches it is assumed that an individual can be assisted in his
prediction of the outcome of various alternatives and that he will
choose the one that promises the most reward for his investment and

and the least probability of failure. Herr cited the following inputs

  

to this approach:

 

, 22Donald E. Super and P. B. Bachrach, Scientific Careers and

V .tional Develo nt Theor (New York: BurEEG—ET—FESTTEEETEEE:"' __{_5.*:"
FeacFErs College, Columbia University, l957), p. lOl. >-;‘, :

 
    

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‘Choice occurs under conditions of uncertainty or risk.

(Brayfield and Crites, l964)

A choice between the various possible courses of action
can be conceptualized as motivated by two interrelated
sets of factors: the individual valuation of different
alternatives and his appraisal of his chances of being
abl§)to realize each of the alternatives. (Blou et al.,
95

 

3. The process of making a decision between uncertain out-
comes requires reconciliation of several general factors:
the relative valuing of the outcomes, the cost of attain-
ing the outcomes, and the probability that each outcome
may occur. (Davidson et al., l957)

4. Decision-making includes the identifying and defining
of one's values; what they are and what they are not,
where they appear and where they do not.23
While the decision-making approach has made some significant

contributions to vocational development theory, it assumes a rational
and logical vocational development with little regard for an indi-
vidual's cultural and social environment in which he is exposed to

the alternatives he can pursue.

Psychological

The emphasis of psychological approaches to career development
centers on the intrinsic motivation of an individual. The major assump-
tion is that differences in personality structure reflect different need
predispositions, the satisfaction of which is sought through certain
career choices, thus, one can postulate that various career areas

attract individuals of certain personality types.

 

 

 

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24

Roe, who began her research in the l9505, applied Maslow’s
theory of needs to vocational behavior and examined the relationship
between early home environments, personality manifestations, and r
occupational choice. According to Osipow, Roe also cited the importance
of genetic factors as they interact with need hierarchies to determine
vocational behavior and choice. "In other words, given 'equal' endow-
ments genetically, differences in occupational achievement between two
individuals may be inferred to be the result of motivational differences

which, theoretically, are likely to be the outcome of different kinds

of childhood experiences."2“

Among the constructs she suggested are:

1. Personality differences, evolving from different child-
rearing practices, exist and are related to the kinds of
interaction that persons establish with other persons--
toward or away from--and with things.

2. Securing opportunities to express individual style of
behavior is inherent in choices made and in vocational
behavior. In this sense, occupational choices are
processes of self-categorization.

3. One can describe the occupational structure in terms
of fields--service, business contact, organizations,
technology, outdoor, science, general cultural, arts
and entertainment--which describe more or less an
orientation to or away from people or things as well
as levels of activity--professional and managerial,
semiprofessional, skilled, semiskilled, unskilled--
which represent complexity, responsibility, education,
and to some degree genetic heritage reflected in career
mobility. At a psychological level, such a theoretical
position validates the increased concern for dealing
with occupational clusters.25

2"Samuel H. Osipow, Theories of Career Develo ent, 2nd ed.
(New York: Meredith Corporation, {9735, p. i5.

25Herr, Review and Synthesis of Foundations for Career Education,
pp. 62-63.

 

 

 

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25

Holland's approach to vocational development, stressed the
personality type or behavioral style, as the major influence in
vocational choice. He identified major life styles or behavioral
orientations from which predictions could be made concerning career
decisions, with respect to specific choices as well as some of the
dynamic features that underlie the decision—making process.

Holland further identified six basic personality types, each
associated with an environmental model against which an individual
could be measured. These models identified various life styles or
ways in which an individual solved problems and interacted with his
particular environment. The six styles are:

Realistic. Individuals of this orientation select activ—
ities that require physical, mechanical and psychomotor
skills, lack verbal and interpersonal skills, and prefer
well-defined activities. Occupational preferences include
aviation, engineering, mechanical trades and agriculture.

Intellectual. Individuals of this orientation are task-
oriented, possess high scientific, verbal and math ability,
have a need to understand and organize the world, avoid
interpersonal activities and prefer abstract, highly-
unstructured problems. Occupational preferences include
various scientific areas such as an inventor, scientist,
mathematician and anthropologist.

Social. Individuals of this orientation reflect a desire
for attention and socialization in a structured, safe set-
ting, are socially oriented, humanistic and religious,
possess well-developed verbal and interpersonal skills and
avoid problem—solving or highly ordered activities. Occu-
pational preferences include teaching, social work and the
ministry.

 

Conventional. Individuals of this orientation prefer
structured and subordinate roles, are dependent and con-
forming, value hard work and achievement, are effective in
well-structured tasks and identify with power and status.
Preferred occupations are accounting, clerical,
statistician and bookkeeper.

 

  
   

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26

<152§grgrising. Individuals of this orientation are dominant,
persuasive and adventurous, possess high verbal and leadership
ability, and value power, status and leadership. Representative
occupations are lawyer, salesman, businessman and promoter.
Artistic. Individuals of this orientation prefer indirect
relationships with others, are introverted, expressive and
very artistic and avoid situations that require interpersonal
interaction. Occupations representing this type are poet,
sculptor, composer and actor.26

Holland's theories have been rendered operational and the
instruments he has developed, the Vocational Preference Inventory27
and the Self-Directed Search,26 have been widely utilized.

In summary, Holland's approach to vocational development and

choice emphasizes the interaction between one's personality and the
environment. Thus, individuals pursue occupations and settings that

will permit the expression of their personality styles.

 

Developmental

As noted in the previous theories, the career development
process progresses through an ordered sequence of life stages in which
there is an accumulation of learning experiences and the mastery of
various coping techniques. The relating of developmental tasks to the
vocational life stages has, according to Herr and Cramer (1972),

"received the most continuous attention, stimulated the most research,

26John L. Holland, Makin Vocational Choices: A Theor of
Careers (Englewood Cliffs, N.3.: Prentice-Hail, Inc., I973}, pp. l3-l8;
an o n L. Holland, "A Theory of Vocational Choice," Journal of
Counseling Psychology 6 (January 1959): 35-44.

27Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers, . ,
pp. 108-109. . . _.

?°Ibid.. Pp. 119-131.

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27

   

   
 

.f7unncéappérvasively the field of vocational psychology and is the '
'lmf‘t'canprehensivefl” The developmental approach emphasizes the
influence'of personal and environmental variables on an individual's
vocational behavior.

V One of the earliest approaches concerning the vocational life
stages was formulated by Ginzberg (often considered the founder of
vocational development theory) and his associates. Their basic
assumption was that an individual reaches his ultimate decision,
through a series of decisions over a period of years. ‘The three
elements of this theory are:

1. Occupational choice is a developmental process which
occurs over a period of years.

2. The process is largely reversible.

3. The process of occupational choice ends in a compromise
between interests, capacities, values and opportunities.

30

In analyzing the occupational decision making process, Ginzberg
cited three periods or phases. The first of these three phases is the
period of fantasy choice (age 6 to ll), during which time the child 3
believes he/she can become whatever he/she wants to become. In the ‘ ix;
second or tentative period (age ll to 17), choices are determined A
largely by subjective factors such as interests, capacities and values.

The third period, termed realistic (age l7 and on), is characterized by

stages of exploration, crystallization and specification."

 

29Herr and Cramer, p. 49.

 

 

         

  
    
    
     
   

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28

   
 

Super's initial approach to a theory of vocational development
began as a critique of the efforts of Ginzberg. He either confirmed,
refined, or rejected Ginzberg's speculations about career development
theory. Basically his criticism centered around the inadequacy of
Ginzberg's position in terms of distinctiveness of life stages and
of a need for further clarification of concepts.

The work of Super and his colleagues has become the most
comprehensive of the theoretical approaches currently available.
Herr condensed these constructs into the following components:

I. There is a stress on the essential interdependence of
personality and vocational development.

 

2. The primary construct in career developments is the
development and implementation of the self-concept.
The individual chooses occupational or educational
alternatives which will allow him to function in a
role consistent with his self-concept.

 

3. The self—concept is a function of one's developmental
history.

4. Career development proceeds through a series of
increasingly complex vocational developmental tasks
at different life stages.

5. Life stages can be defined in gross terms as growth,
exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline.
Each of these is susceptible to being subdivided into
further tasks and demands.

6. Factors existing internally and externally to the
individual influence the choices made. These factors '
continue to narrow the options the individual will
consider. Development describes a process of con-
vergence, synthesis and increasing specificity.

 
  
  

7. The concept of vocational maturity is amenable to
definition at different ages.

8. There is importance to acquiring vocational maturity
of occupational information (educational, psychological

 
 

 

 
 

 

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and economic) as well as planning, independence,
cnystallization of interests, and specifications
, and implementations of preferences.32

 

According to Barry, Super and his colleagues were "pattern"
theorists. They "offered a pattern theory as a hypothesis and then,
on the basis of some of the generalizations in this hypothesis,
attempted to formulate further generalizations about individual
development and choices. Thus, out of pattern theories came
individual theories.33

As pointed out by Osipow (1972), Super appears to have been
deeply influenced by the self—concept theory, illustrated in the
writings of Rogers (1942 and 1951), Carter (1940), and Bordin (1943),
as well as Buehler's writings on life stages.3“ Super inferred that
an individual tries to implement his self-concept by entering a pro-
fession that allows him self-expression. In turn, the behavior uti-
lized by the individual to implement his self—concept reflects his
stage of development. Central to this theory is the distinction
between the psychology of occupations and the psychology of careers:

The psychology of occupations is based primarily on differ-
ential psychology and on the assumption that once an individual
and a career are matched they will "live happily ever after."
The psychology of careers on the other hand, stemming from
developmental psychology, rests on the assumption that career

development conforms with the general principles of human
development, which is fundamentally evolutionary in nature.

 

32Herr, Review and Synthesis of Foundations for Career Education,

pp. 59-60.
33Barry and Half, pp. 9—10.
3"Osipow, p. 131.

 

 

  
  

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o““§o¢itional psychology is the term Super chose to represent
. the field of study resulting from the fusion of the two
evn str6ams of thought. Since the methods and tools of voca-
tional counseling are currently more suitable to the study
Iof the psychology of occupations than the psychology of
careers, Super asserts that the latter has been neglected
in favor of the former.35

‘."\ ,

Thus, the career pattern approach implies that individuals
encounter different vocational tasks as they proceed through their
life cycle. To fully understand an individual's vocational life, the
entire life cycle must be examined.

Super's approach to career development seems to be well-
organized and comprehensive. However, according to Osipow, "Super
still must devise a way to include economic and social factors which

may influence career decisions in a more direct way than the events

 

described by the theory currently do, as well as to continue the
development of specific and rigorous formulations about aspects of
career decisions and ways to bring about appropriate behavioral changes
which will facilitate vocational maturity."36
A plethora of research has been published since Super's

original work, some of the most notable being done by Tiedeman. He ‘
conducted research based upon the development of mathematical models. 4
He surveyed many of the vocational theories and viewed vocational “3

choice in a manner similar to Super. Tiedeman defined vocational ‘

   
  
   
   

development as "self-development viewed in relation with choice, entry

and progress in educational and vocational pursuits. It is a process

 

#51b1d., pp. 132-133.
I”Ibid., p. 168.

 

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occurring over time in man who is capable of anticipation, experience,
evolution and memory." He continued, "vocational development not only
occurs within the context of a single decision; vocational development
ordinarily occurs within the context of several decisions."37 Thus,
according to Tiedeman and O'Hara, the decision-making process is
central to vocational development.38 They explained the decision-
making process as:

When one chooses on a rational basis, he has the opportunity

to lay out alternatives, to assess both wishes and risks, to

examine favored alternatives, to construct a definition of

himself in the situation which guides his pursuit of the

elected course.39

Tiedeman and his associates proposed several constructs

 

concerning career development. Herr listed them in the following

manner:

1. The evolution of vocational identity is dependent upon
early childhood experiences with the family unit, the
psychological crises . . . as defined in terms of
Erickson's (1963) constructs . . . encountered at
various developmental stages and the agreement between
the society's meaning system and the individual meaning 1
system.

2. The intimacy of the self-concept and career concept is
to be considered.

3. Individual personality is shaped by perceptions of
career choices and to some degree by the individual's
conformance to the norms and values of those persons
already established within the vocational setting.

    
 
   

37David V. Tiedeman, "Decision and Vocational Development: A
Paradigm and Its Implications," Personnel and Guidance Journal 40

(September l9Gl): l8.

a°David V. Tiedeman and Robert P. O'Hara, Career Develo nt:
College Entrance Examination Eon I

Choice and Ad'ustment (New York:
[963). P. 31~

”Ibid.

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32

-A view of career development life stages can include

two gross substages: anticipation of preoccupation with
career goals and implementation or adjustment. Each of
these has substages. The substages of the former include
exploration, crystallization, choice and clarification.
The substages of the latter include social induction,
refonnation and integration.

Career development is a continuing process of differentiating
ego identity.

The school system or guidance methods can order the stages
of career development and personal trends can be given new
directions or reversed.

The individual's perceptual structure of work is the
gyroscope directing his career.

The power of an individual's purpose to shape choice
and action must be realized.

Careers are apparent by grade nine, the rudiments of
them earlier.

It is possible to choose educational and vocational
pursuits on a rational basis . . . when one chooses
on a rational basis he has the opportunity to lay
out alternatives, to assess both wishes and risks,
to examine favored alternatives, and to construct a
definition of himself in situations which guide his
pursuit of the elected course.“°

Corresponding to Tideman's decision-making process of career

development are the developmental tasks that enhance an individual's
vocational growth. In his book Human Development and Education,
Havighurst published material about developmental tasks for children,
adolescents and adults. He emphasized that the developmental task

concept determines either vocational success or failure:

 

“°Herr, Review and Synthesis of Foundations for Career Education.
pp. 60-61.

 

 

 

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33

A developmental task is a task which arises at or about a

certain period in the life of the individual, successful

zlzIachievement of which leads to his happiness and to success
with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with
later tasks.“‘

In addition, Havighurst described developmental tasks that are
characteristic of different periods within the life span: infancy and
early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle
age, and later maturity. Some of the tasks of middle childhood are
developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, calculating, and
developing a conscience, morality, and a set of values. Some of the
tasks of adolescence, according to Havighurst's formulations, are
selecting and preparing for an occupation, developing intellectual
skills and concepts necessary for civic competence, and preparing for
marriage and family life. Some of the tasks of early adulthood and
middle age as described by Havighurst are managing a home, getting
started in an occupation, taking on civic responsibility, and developing
adult leisure-time activities. Havighurst further asserts that "there
is no development task of children or adolescents which the school can
completely ignore, for the reason that the tasks are so closely inter-
related that difficulty in one task, which may show in school, is often
tied up with difficulty in another task for which the school has little

direct responsibility.“2

“lRobert J. Havighurst, Human Develo nt and Education
(New York: Longmans, Green and Co., |§537, p. 2.

“21bid., pp. 29-30.

 

 

  

 

   
 

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34

   
 

A number of other theorists have linked specific developmental
tasks with stages of increasing vocational maturity. Zaccaria asserted
that those who formulate developmental tasks generally agree with
the following statements about human development and the role of
developmental tasks.

l. Individual growth and development is continuous.

2. Individual growth can be divided into periods or
life stages for descriptive purposes.

3. Individuals in each life stage can be characterized
by certain general characteristics that they have
in common.

4. Most individuals in a given culture pass through
similar development stages.

 

5. The society makes certain demands upon individuals.

6. These demands are relatively uniform for all members
of the society.

 

7. The demands differ from stage to stage as the individual
goes through the developmental process.

8. Developmental crises occur when the individual perceives
the demand to alter his present behavior and master new |

learnings.

9. In meeting and mastering developmental crises, the }
individual moves from one developmental stage of ;f:
maturity to another developmental stage of maturity. 1 l

l0. The task appears in its purest form at one stage. it

ll. Preparation for meeting the developmental crises or
developmental tasks occurs in the life stage prior
to the stage in which it must be mastered.

 
  
 
  
   

12. The developmental task or crises may arise again
during a later phase in somewhat different form.

l3. The crises or task must be mastered before the
individual can successfully move on to a sub-
sequent developmental stage.

 
     
   
 

  

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35

    
 

14. Meeting the crises successfully by learning the

required task leads to societal approval, happiness,
and success with later crises and their cumulative
i tasks.

15. Failing in meeting a task or crises leads to
disapproval by society.“3

' Gribbons and Lohnes'ten-yearlongitudinal study, "Readiness for
Vocational Planning" (RVP),““ added some theoretical validity to the
work of Super and Tiedeman. It indicated the existence of differing
patterns of career development in different students. These patterns
denoted the following varying levels or types of vocational maturity:

l. Constant Maturity: Consistent, persistent, realistic
pursuit of the first stated goal.

2. Emerging Maturity: Passage through the stages and task
of Super's developmental model.

 

3. Degeneration: Progressive deterioration of aspirations
and achievements, accompanied by frustration and loss
of status.

4. Constant Immaturity: Persistent fixation on fantastic
unrealistic goals with no advances in achieved level."5

In addition, Gribbons and Lohnes asserted that "vocational ‘p
maturity is a most meaningful developmental concept, that is emergent
with the passage of time, that is persistent over time and that it is f
differentiated into a multidimensional syndrome of traits, the kernel

of which is informed planfulness.“6 Ii

 

  
  
   
   
   

“’Joseph S. Zaccaria, "Developmental Tasks: Implications for the
33315 of Guidance," Personnel and Guidance Journal 44 (December l965):

““Harren D. Gribbons and Paul R. Lohnes, Emer in Careers (New
York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, i93g). PP. lfléhiflle.
*‘Ibidu p. 104. '
_~“‘1bia.. p. 103.

   

 

36

Concept of Vocational Maturity

Background

The concept of vocational maturity was first referred to by

Ginzberg and his associates:

The way in which a young person deals with his occupational
choice is indicative of his general maturity and, conversely,
in assessing the latter, consideration must be given to the
way in which he is handling his occupational choice pattern.“7

Super extended this concept by delineating the following

dimensions of vocational maturity:

l.

Orientation to Vocational Choice. This focused on the
individual's concern with the eventual need for a
choice and the awareness of factors and resources

to be considered in making decisions.

Information and Planning. This encompassed the real-
istic information an individual had about a preferred
occupation and the extent and specificity of planning
for that preferred occupation.

Consistency of Vocational Preferences. This dimension
involved the consistency of vocational preferences that
was verified by an individual consistently indicating

preferences in the same field or level over a period
of time.

Crystallization of Traits. This element concerned
the stabilization of psychological characteristics
and increasing vocational independence.

wisdom of Vocational Preferences. This dimension
pertained to the level of agreement between an
individual's interests, abilities and the socioeconomic
accessibility of their vocational preferences."8

 

“7Eli Ginzberg and others, Occupational Choice: An Approach to

a General Theory_(New York: Columbia University Press, l95l), p. 60.

work for Research (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia

“°Donald E. Super and others, Vocational Development: A Frame-

University, l957), pp. 59-63.

 

 

37

Super further asserted that an individual's degree of vocational
maturity is determined by his position among these dimensions in regard
to either his chronological age and expected life stage or the behavior
displayed by others in coping with the same deveTOpmental tasks.

In l961, Crites further refined the concept of vocational
maturity by attempting to consolidate the various definitions of
vocational maturity, which he asserted were "highly metaphorical and
convey many surplus meanings which confuse rather than clarify the
development of measurement procedures."“9 He suggested that the
first two definitions referred to an absolute degree of vocational

develOpment while the latter three referred to a relative degree of
vocational development. The five definitions of vocational maturity
included:

l. the place reached on a continuum of vocational
develOpment from exploration to decline;

2. the identification of an individual's life stage by
the developmental tasks with which the individual is
dealing;

3. the ratio of the vocational life stage to the chronological
age;

4. the ratio of the vocational life stage to expected life
stage; and

5. the ratio of the vocational life stage to the behaviors
of others.5°

 

“9John 0. Crites, "A Model for the Measurement of Vocational
Maturity," Journal of Counseling Psychology 8 (l96l): 255.

 

5°Ibid., p. 256.

 

 

38

Crites criticized these definitions for two reasons. First,
he noted that by using one definition a person could be identified as
immature. Second, there was not an appropriate model to measure
vocational maturity. Consequently, Crites proposed a more precise
definition of vocational maturity. His construct stated that:

l. The degree of vocational development refers to the
maturity of an individual's vocational behavior as
indicated by the similarity between his behavior and
that of the oldest individuals in his vocational life
stage.

2. The rate of vocational develOpment refers to the maturity

of an individual's vocational behavior in comparison with
that of his age group.51

Related Research

The most relevant studies dealing with vocational maturity are
the Career Pattern Study (CPS) conducted by Super and associates and
the Project on Readiness for Vocational Planning (RVP) carried out by
Gribbons and Lohnes.

The Career Pattern Study is a 20-year longitudinal study that
focused primarily upon the exploratory and establishment steps of
vocational development. The initial findings reported by Super and
Dverstreet concluded that vocational maturity in ninth grade boys
consisted of two factors: (1) orientation to choice tasks and (2)
the use of resources. In addition, the authors also noted that the

factors of consistent or realistic preferences, well defined interests

 

51Ibid., p. 259.

 

39

or work values and former independent work experience, were unrelated

to the vocational maturity of ninth grade boys.52

Super and Overstreet classified the correlates of vocational

maturity in five categories:

1.

Biosocial factors. Intelligence was related to
vocational maturity.

Environmental factors. Vocational maturity correlated
positively with parental occupational level, the amount
of family cohesiveness and cultural stimulation, and
curriculum choice. There was no significant relation-
ship between vocational maturity and place of residence
(rural versus urban) or religious affiliation (Protestant
versus Catholic).

Vocational factors. The vocational aspirations of the
boys and the degree of congruence between levels of
aspiration and expectation were closely related to
vocational maturity.

Personality factors. Psychological adjustment, measured
by the Thematic Appreception Test and the Incomplete
Sentence Blank, did not have any relation to vocational
maturity.

Achievement factors. Positively correlated to vocational
maturity were grades, achievement, independence and
extra-curricular activities.53

The RVP study by Gribbons and Lohnes was viewed as a measure

of vocational maturity. This investigation was modeled after the

Career Pattern Study and revealed eight variables which in combination

correlated to a high degree with readiness for vocational planning.

The variables were:

 

52Donald E. Super and Phoebe L. Overstreet, The Vocational

 

Maturity of Ninth-Grade Boys (New York: Bureau of Publications,

 

Teachers Cdllege, Columbia University, 1960), p. 60.

531bid.. pp. 76-103, l46-l47.

 

40

l. Factors in curriculum choice;
Factors in occupational choice;
Verbalized strengths and weaknesses;
Accuracy of self appraisal;

Evidence for self rating;

Interests;

flame-mm

Values; and

8. Independence of choice.5“

Gribbons and Lohnes concluded that RVP scores were not
significantly related to socioeconomic level but were significantly
related to level of occupational choice. A comparison of college
preparatory, business, industrial arts and general students revealed
that the college preparatory attained the highest RVP scores.55

Dilley (1965) compared three known correlates of vocational
maturity (intelligence, achievement, and participation in extracur-
ricular activities) with an instrument designed to measure decision-
making ability (DMI). The DMI was administered to a random selection
of 174 high school seniors. Dilley concluded that decision-making

ability was correlated with high intelligence, high achievement and

5“Warren D. Gribbons and Paul R. Lohnes, "Relationships Among
Measures of Readiness for Vocational Planning," Journal of Counseling

Psychology 11 (1964): 15.

55Warren D. Gribbons and Paul R. Lohnes, "Validation of
Vocational Planning Interview Scales," Journal of Counseling Psychology
11 (1964): 23-24.

 

 

 

 

41

high participation in extracurricular activities. Thus, he reasoned
that decision-making ability and vocational maturity were related.56

Cover (1968), using Crites' Attitude Scale of the CMI, sought
to determine the relationship between the vocational maturity of male
high school seniors and the following: alienation from society, school
achievement, scholastic ability, socioeconomic level, decision-making,
and previous work experience. The results indicated that the best
predictors of vocational maturity were school ability, the belief that
events have meaning, the ability to make a post-high-school decision,
the absence of social isolation, the possession of previous work
experience and the feeling that events can be controlled.57

Another investigation that examined the influences on the
vocational development of secondary school students was done by Mintzer
(1967). The results indicated that vocational maturity was a develop-
mental process, and that there were sex differences in that development.
Girls scored higher than boys at every grade level. The variables of
self-concept, sex role identification, and intelligence were tested as
predictors of vocational maturity, their degree of correlation and as
components in the development. The findings revealed that self-concept
was a predictor of vocational maturity, was weakly correlated with

vocational maturity, and was not developmental. Sex role identification

 

56Josiah S. Dilley, "Decision-Making Ability and Vocational
Maturity," Personnel and Guidance Journal 44 (December 1965): 423-427.

 

57John A. Cover, "The Relationship of Alienation from Society
and Selected Variables to Vocational Maturity in Male High School
Seniors," Dissertation Abstracts 29 (1968): 3414-A.

 

 

 

 

 

42

was not shown to be a predictor of vocational maturity, had a low
correlation with vocational maturity, and was not developmental.
Intelligence was also shown to be a poor predictor of vocational
maturity, was weakly correlated with vocational maturity, and was
not developmental.58

In a related study, English (1974) measured the effects of
two occupational information systems on the vocational maturity of
high school seniors. The two systems were the VIEW system and the
Guidance Information System, a computerized guidance system. The
results indicated that: (1) both occupational information systems
significantly increased certain aspects of the vocational maturity
scores of the students; (2) increased exposure to both experimental
conditions did not significantly increase the vocational maturity
scores of the students; (3) increased exposure to either experimental
condition did not significantly increase the vocational maturity scores
of the students; (4) there was no difference between male and female
responses to the experimental conditions in terms of gains in vocational

maturity.59

 

58Rhoda Greenberg Mintzer, "Vocational Maturity and Its Relation-
ship to Intelligence, Self-Concept, Sex Role Identification, and Grade
Level," Dissertation Abstracts 37 (1976): 2643-A.

59Thomas N. English, "A Comparison of the Effects of Two Methods
on Disseminating Occupational Information on the Vocational Maturity of
Senior High School Students," Dissertation Abstracts 35 (1974): 1976-A-
l977-A.

 

 

 

 

43

The Development of Career Centers

 

Throughout their education, students both past and present
have always had to deal with questions such as: Do I have the ability
to pursue a college education? What skills do I possess or can I
develop skills that will enable me to attain success and enjoyment
in a particular occupation? How can I learn about the type of work
I find more interesting, plus the qualifications needed for selected
professions?

To satisfy their inquiries, students often viewed the school
as the agency that could provide the answers to these and other ques-
tions. In order to adequately respond to this challenge the schools
had to not only provide the students with the career information they
needed, but also to motivate them to participate in career development

activities.

Need for Career Centers

 

In his analysis of guidance services in the United States,
Ginzberg (1971) emphasized that students need to be provided with
information about themselves and the world of work. He stressed the
need for counselors to utilize this information to help students
increase their awareness to available options, to demonstrate and
encourage them to explore their alternatives, and to assist them in

interpreting the information to which they have access.60

 

6°Eli Ginzberg, Career Guidance: Who Needs It; Who Provides It;
Who Can Improve It? (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971), p. 187.

 

 

 

 

 

regards

l.

44

Clark, Gelatt and Levine proposed the following assumptions in
to the relationship of information to career decision-making.

The possession of relevant information is a necessary
condition for good education-vocational decision-making.
Although the use of relevant information by no means
guarantees the ”right" decision, "good“ decision-making
cannot occur without it.

The greater the degree of relevant information possessed
by the student, the greater will be his potential for
engaging in "good" decision-making.

The information important to a broad range of educational—
vocational decisions can be reduced to a few basic classes.
It is possible to analyze most situations accordingly and
to determine much of the specific information that would

be relevant.61

Based on these assumptions, the following proposal for the

improvement of high school guidance services was recommended:

Greater efforts should be made to determine what specific
information is relevant to the educational-vocational deci-
sions faced by high school students, to gather and organize
that information, and to help students learn to use it

effectively.62

In the same study, Clarke, Gelatt, and Levine suggested that

. the greater the knowledge a student has concerning possible

sequences of experiences that lead from his present situation, the

more likely he will be able to direct his develOpment toward the

outcomes he desires."63

 

61Robert Clarke, H. B. Gelatt, and Louis Levine, "A Decision-

Making Paradigm for Local Guidance Research," Personnel and Guidance
Journal 44 (September 1965): 41.

62mm, p. 41.
63Ibid., p. 46.

 

 

45

In a nationwide study by Perrone, in which high school guidance
counselors evaluated two types of occupational information (descriptive
and outlook) for students that (l) planned to attend college, (2)
planned to pursue vocational or technical training, and (3) planned
no further educational training, the following disclosures were
suggested:

Descriptive Information: Consisted of a total description
of a particular job in terms of what must be done, with

what tools, in what surroundings, by what kinds of people
and the rewards for executing these activities. In addition,
it included the requirements for obtaining a job and infor-
mation on training and educational opportunities.

Outlook Information: Consisted primarily of data on future
employment prospects for certain occupations. It also
included information on current demands of certain occu-
pational fields from which one could project to the future
and more general facts about the labor market and employment
trends.6“

Perrone noted that less than half (42%) of the high school
graduates enter college or junior college. He continued:

The remainder enter work or a work preparatory program
right out of high school. These student groups must make
definite vocational decisions sometime in their senior year.
Accurate and comprehensive information are essential ingre-
dients of intelligent vocational decision-making by these
students. Yet, counselors cited this group as the one for
which available information is poorest.65

In a related study by Predeger, Roth and Noeth (1973) it was

noted that junior and senior high school students desired more help in

 

°“Phi1ip A. Perrone, A National School Counselor Evaluation of
Occupational Information, Research Report (Madison: Center for Studies

in Vocational and TechniCal Education, University of Wisconsin, April
1968 , p. 8.

651bid., p. 29.

 

 

46

making career decisions. Many of them revealed that they were unable
to secure the help they desired and felt the guidance services of the
school were of little assistance.66

Daley (1973) suggested that schools should provide walk-in
centers to stimulate the career development of students, parents, and
others. These centers, depending on their extensiveness could be
staffed by counselors or merely containing a collection of career
information and materials.67

The need for a facility to deliver career information to
students was further validated by Grow (1976). He surveyed 40 career
educators and architects and had them rate educational facilities in
terms of importance, plausibility, and desirability for accommodating
career education program. The participants ranked a career information
resource center as one of the most important facilities for the delivery

of career education programs and activities.68

 

66D. J. Predinger, J. D. Roth, and R. J. Noeth, “Career
Development of Youth: A Nationwide Study," How Career Choices
Are Made, ed. Stephen G. Neinrach (New York: MSS Information
Corporation, 1975), pp. 208-214.

 

67Thelma T. Daley, "Career Development: A Cooperative Thrust
of the School and Its Community," Essays on Career Education, eds.
L. McClure and C. Baun (Portland, Ore.: Northwest Regional Edu-
cational Laboratory, 1973), p. 90.

68Bruce A. Grow, "Guidelines for the Planning for Career
Education Facilities by Career Education Planning District Councils
in Michigan" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University 1976), pp. 235-236.

 

 

47

Emergence of the Career Center Concept

According to Meerbach, the following four factors led to the

emergence of the Career Center as an important factor in the school
guidance program.

1. Concern with the capacity of existing guidance programs
to affect career planning and choice significantly and
positively.

2. The emergence of career education as a vital thrust in
education placed new demands on guidance.

3. Individualized instruction and other innovative edu-
cational techniques offered new ways of accomplishing
old tasks.

4.

Media and technology use in school has increased at a

dramatic rate, impelled to a great extent by the career
education movement.69

Before the establishment of Career Centers and because of

insufficient space for materials in the counseling offices, most of
the educational, career and vocational information needed by students

was stored in a variety of places, such as libraries, old storerooms,

and reception room alcoves. With the advent of the Career Center,

this information can be centralized for greater student access and
utilization.

Dittenhafer and Lewis (1973) stated that the purpose of a

Career Center is to provide career information to students, staff,
parents, and others.

 

In addition, the center should determine the

69John Meerbach, The Career Resource Center (Ann Arbor: ERIC
Counseling and Personnel Services, Information Center, University of
Michigan, 1975), pp. 2-3.

 

 

48

information needs of its clientele and provide a range of materials
to meet the needs.70

The following objectives were listed by Dittenhafer and Lewis
as inherent in the operation of any center.

I. To collect, evaluate and disseminate accurate and
relevant career information.

2. To provide assistance to the center's clientele in
locating, evaluating and using career information.

3. To help students integrate self-knowledge with relevant
career information by providing counseling services.

4. To assist the faculty in integrating information into
their instructional activities to support the student's
career develOpment.

5. To assist parents in becoming active, concerned and
understanding participants in the career development
of their children.

6.

To utilize community resources in fostering a better
understanding of the relationship of education to work.’1

These objectives focus on the needs of the potential users of
the Career Center and stress the importance of the information dis—

semination in the career development process.

Jacobson views Career Centers as a means of increasing student

awareness by providing them with assistance and information when they

are preparing for careers.72 In his report on Career Centers in four

 

70C. A. Dittenhafer and J. P. Lewis, Guidelines for Establishing
Career Resource Centers (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of
Education, 19737: p. 1.

71Ibid.

72Thomas J. Jacobson, "Career Guidance Centers," Personnel and
Guidance Journal 50 (March l972): 599.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

49

high schools, Jacobson noted that each had brought together all the
career guidance functions of the school in one location because it

seemed that students did not accurately perceive the relationship

between their work experience-and the guidance program. He further

noted that the most striking differences between the operation of a
Career Center and a traditional high school guidance program was that

the easy accessibility of the centers attracted more students and the

counselors experienced increased effectiveness.73

Vocational and work experience students, who previously did

not find the typical guidance program meeting their needs, made greater

use of the centers' activities and programs. It was also noted that

college preparatory students increasingly utilized the facilities for

research on colleges and other college-related information.

Increased counselor effectivenss was attained through the use

of paraprofessional assistance in the center. The needs of many stu-

dents were met through referrals by the paraprofessionals to various

information and materials.

0f the counselors surveyed by Jacobson, the following sugges-

tions were made for the implementation and operation of a center.
l. Provide for full-time paraprofessional help. The
paraprofessional, by providing basic information to
students, enables the counselor to spend more time
with students in individual and group activities.

Get away from school look. The center should be an

interesting, warm and comfortable room to promote
student participation.

 

73Ibid., p. 602.

SO

3. Provided needed materials and equipment. The equipment
and materials in the center should be organized for easy
access by the students.

4. Establish an adequate budget to supplement and resupply

the necessary materials. In order to be effective,

materials must be constantly updated.’“

0f the studies done on Career Centers in secondary schools, the
most extensive evaluation was carried out by Ellis and his associates
on 182 career centers throughout the State of California. The four
major objectives of the study were to (I) describe the current state
of the art in California Career Centers; (2) determine from the stu-
dent's point of view the effectiveness of Career Center materials,
equipment and programs; (3) determine the effectiveness of Career
Centers on students who use them; and (4) synthesize the findings
of the study and make recommendations.75 Although all of the objectives
were accomplished and recommendations were submitted, only the findings
of the second and third objectives pertain to this study and
consequently will be cited.

The results of the second objective, the materials and programs
the students found most helpful, revealed that all the materials and
equipment were rated highly by the students. However, only 33% of the
students utilized the equipment, while 55% of the students utilized the

printed sources of information. The data also revealed that the

 

7“Ibid., pp. 603-604.

75Stephen H. Ellis and others, A Study of Career Resource
Centers in the State of California (Sacramento: RésearCh’Coordinating

Unit, California State Department of Education, 1975), p. 3.

 

51

"exploratory work experience programs“ received the highest
effectiveness rating and speakers programs reached the largest number
of students. Additional findings revealed that many Career Center
personnel, career counselors in particular, devoted much of their time
to tasks that underutilized their skills.

The results of the third objective, the effect of the Career
Centers on students, revealed that the students who frequently attended
the Career Centers, showed an increase in career exploration activities,
a small but significant increase in career planning activities, but no
increase in decision-making skills.76

These findings suggests that Career Centers are a viable method
of delivery career information and activities, but an improvement of

services is needed in several areas.

Summary

As this review of literature has indicated the concepts of
Career Education, Career Development, and Career Maturity are neither
recent nor revolutionary concepts. Their emergence can be traced to
the early l9SDs, when guidance and vocational leaders began to theorize
about the need to make the learning experiences of students more
relevant to their future life roles.

Career education, as stated by Marland (l972), should help

every student find and prepare for a rewarding occupation, whether he

 

76Ibid., pp. 110-111.

52

leaves high school without a diploma or graduates from college.77
Though practical in its approach, career education does not track
students into certain career fields, but rather according to Goldhammer,
it does the opposite. As he views it,

the great strength of Career Education lies in the degree

in which the future is open-ended for each student. Every

effort should be made to help each student realistically

determine how he can maximize his potentialities to achieve

the highest career level consistent with his aspirations.

Career Education has the objective of helping him make his

own decisions of how he fits in. Hopefully, through this

new educational plan, the past rhetoric of democratic

educational opportunities can be made into realities

of the educational system.78

Most of the theories of career development assume the existence
of both internal and external traits. Internal factors (aptitudes,
interests, intelligence, needs, and level of desired achievement)
appear to have a very definite relationship to vocational development.
The external factors (socioeconomic status, parents and the environment)
also seem to exert a great deal of influence upon an individual's
career development.
Each of these factors in turn have served as a basis for

various theories designed to interpret career development. However,
none of the constructs are totally separate entities, capable of

adequately explaining career develOpment. It is when these constructs

77Sidney P. Marland, "The School's Role in Career DevelOpment,"
Educational Leadership 30 (December l972): 205.

 

7eKeith Goldhammer and Robert E. Taylor, Career Education:
Perspective and Promise (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing
Co., 19727, p. 292.

 

 

53

are used in combination that the theories of career development are
best understood.

The concept of vocational development has many important
implications for career education. Career decisions are not only made
while an individual is attending high school, but also throughout life.
In school, the individual must decide among different curricula, such
as college preparatory, vocational, or general. The decisions made
during this period influence the individual's subsequent life roles.

Super (1960) stated that young people should be prepared to
make vocational decisions as they progress through school that will
insure appropriate career choices conducive to their personal satis-
faction and to their success as preoductive members of society.79 To
attain this goal, more research is needed on the career development
process and the activities that enhance career maturity.

Although much has been published on the delivery of career
information and the career development of students, very little has
been written on Career Centers as an educational tool for facilitating
the career development of students. The present study is an effort to

investigate this phenomenon.

 

79Super and Overstreet, pp. 150-158.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Introduction

 

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the
relationship between student voluntary participation in Career Center
functions and their level of career maturity as measured by the Attitude
Scale and Competence Test of Career Maturity Inventory. The particular
focus was on the CMI scores of students that (1) had not voluntarily
visited the Career Center; (2) had voluntarily visited the center one
to two times; and (3) had voluntarily visited the career center three
or more times. In addition, the investigation attempted to determine
if any relationship existed between the CMI scores of these participant
groups with regard to sex, grade level, and the student's program of
studies (academic, vocational, general). The statistical technique

used to analyze the data was analysis of variance.

Sample Selection

 

The population for the study consisted of tenth, eleventh, and
twelfth grade students in five high schools in the State of Michigan
that housed a Career Center. These schools were identified by the

Office of Career Education of the Michigan Department of Education.

54

55

The participating schools were all located in an suburban
geographical area, offered similar educational programs and served
a cross-section of socioeconomic and ethnic populations. Appendix A
lists the schools that participated in the study.

After securing the approval of each building principal and the
personnel associated with the operation of each Career Center, a sample
size that consisted approximately of 10-15% of the total population of
each grade level was obtained from the most recent enrollment list of
each school. The subjects were randomly selected. Each participant's
program of studies was then obtained from their permanent record file.

The selected students were then sent a letter (Appendix B)
inviting them to participate in the study. The letter included the
date, time, and location of the testing session. A second letter
(Appendix C), announcing the time, date, and location of a second
testing session, was sent to the students that were absent from the
initial session. Participation by the students was voluntary.

Thus, after having each student indicate the number of times
they voluntarily visited the Career Center (Question 12, Student
Information Questionnaire) there were three attendance groupings,

three types of program of studies, three grade levels and two sexes.

Instrumentation

 

The Career Center Questionnaire (Appendix D), designed to

gather general information about the five participating career centers,

was a modified version of a questionnaire utilized by Ellis and others

56

in their study of 182 career centers in the State of California.1
It was 13 pages in length and contained questions about all aspects
of the career center facilities, staffing, operations, financing,
and problems encountered in the establishment of the center. This
questionnaire was completed by the director of each career center.

The Student Information Questionnaire (Appendix F) was
developed to obtain background information about the students and
the students' utilization and opinion of the effectiveness of the
materials, equipment, and staffing of the Career Center. It contained
26 questions, the last one being an Open-ended question designed to
solicit student opinion for the improvement of the Career Center. The
questionnaire was pilot tested at a local secondary school to determine
readability and clarity. Directions for completing the questionnaire
were re-written based upon the reactions and suggestions of the
students and professional research experts.

The Career Maturity Inventory was selected as the most
objective instrument to measure career maturity. In the foreword

to the Career Maturity_1nventory Administration and Use Manual, Crites

 

reported that the Career Maturity Inventory formerly was entitled the
Vocational Development Inventory. The change in name was made for
several reasons. First, it reflects the current emphasis on career
education that is a parallel process to career development. The inter-

face between the two is a common focus upon youth's emerging readiness

 

1Stephen A. Ellis and others, A Study of Career Resource
Centers in the State of California (Sacramento: Research Coordinating
Unit, California State Department of Education, 1975), pp. 122-135.

 

S7

and competence to enter and compete in the world of work. Second,
"career" does not have some specialized meanings that are associated
with "vocational"; it symbolizes a new point of departure and value
system in preparing everyone to lead a meaningful and productive life.
Third, "maturity" captures and conveys the concept of progressive
change which underlies emerging career awareness, exploration and
decision making, the variables which the Career Maturity Inventory
has been constructed to measure. Thus, the Career Maturity Inventory
has been conceived and constructed to measure the maturity of attitudes
and competencies that are critical in realistic decision making. In
the past, it was assumed that an individual's vocation was largely a
matter of chance and that there were few, if any, decisions leading
up to this choice. However, this view of career choice has been
challenged and proven erroneous. It is now postulated that the
selection of an occupation is a process that begins in late childhood
and continues into adulthood. Crites has analyzed this process and
views it as unfolding along several distinct but interrelated dimen-
sions, which include: (1) consistency of career choice over time,
(2) realism of career choice in relation to personal capabilities and
employment opportunities, (3) career choice attitudes, and (4) career
choice competencies. The Career Maturity Inventory was designed to
measure the latter two dimensions.

The Attitude Scale elicits the feelings, the subjective
reactions and the dispositions that the individual has toward making

a career choice and entering the world of work. The five attitudinal

58

clusters surveyed are: (l) involvement in the career choice process,
(2) orientation toward work, (3) independence in decision making,

(4) preference for career choice factors, and (5) conceptions of the
career choice process.

The Competence Test measures the more cognitive variables
involved in choosing an occupation. These include: how well the
individual can appraise his/her job-related capabilities; how much
he/she knows about the world of work; how adept he/she is in matching
personal characteristics with occupational reguirements; how fore-
sightful he/she is in planning for a career; and how effectively
he/she can cope with the problems which arise in the course of
career development.

Crites (1973b) asserted that the Career Maturity Inventory
is a reliable and valid assessment instrument that can be utilized
in several settings. The reliability and validity of the Attitude
Scale has been supported by accumulated research.2 The Competence
Test, a more recent aspect of the CMI, is currently being validated
through research. The findings indicate that all five parts of the
Competence Test are relatively homogenous sets of items and it is
assumed that within a subtest the items measure the same variable.3

Taken together, the Attitude Scale and Competence Test provide
both an extensive and intensive inventory of the critical behaviors in

mature career decision-making and career development.

 

2John 0. Crites, Career Maturity Inventory: Theogy and Research
Handbook Monterey, Calif.: CTB/McGraw-HiTl,‘1nc., 1973), pp. 11-21.

3Ibid., pp. 23-35.

59

Data Collection

 

The administration of the instruments, the Student Information
Questionnaire and the Career Maturity Inventory, was completed in one
session. However, because of absenteeism a make-up session was neces—
sary in four of the participating schools. The information for each
questionnaire was entered on two respective answer sheets in response
to the directions read by the researcher. The testing session was
conducted in each school during the morning immediately after the
homeroom period. The directors of the career centers and members of
the local school counseling staff coordinated the scheduling of the
testing sessions in their respective schools. Appendix G lists the

cooperating personnel from each school system.

Statistical Procedure

 

The major dimensions of this study were the level of voluntary
participation in Career Center activities and career maturity. Career
maturity was represented by students' total scores on the CMI.

The statistical procedure was univariate analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The four independent variables which served as a basis for
grouping students were: (1) number of voluntary visits to the Career
Center, (2) program of studies, (3) sex, and (4) grade level.

Two 4-way analysis of variance procedures were conducted. In
the first case, student CMI Attitude Scale score was regarded as the

dependent variable. In the second case, student CMI Competence Test

 

 

60

scores were regarded as the dependent variable. The Finn program was
chosen to test all hypotheses because of the program‘s ability to deal

with unequal cell sizes.“

 

1’Jeremy D. Finn, Multivariance: Univariate and Multivariate
Analysis of Variance, Covariance, and Regression (Ann Arbor: Michigan
National Educational Resources, Inc., 1972).

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

 

This study was designed to examine the relationship of career
maturity of students as measured by the CMI and the level of partic-
ipation in Career Center activities. The sample consisted of 578
students in grades ten, eleven, and twelve, from five high schools in
Michigan that had implemented Career Centers within the past two years.

The data about students were obtained from the Student Informa-
tion Questionnaire. In response to the question, ”How well do you feel
you can define your career plans?" a higher percentage of the students
in the low (66.4%) and high (74.2%) participant groups indicated that
they had a "good idea of the general area" or were "pretty sure" of
their career plans than in the non-participant group (56.7%). Whereas,
the percentage of students disclosing that they “haven’t decided at all"
or had a "vague idea" of their career plans was greater for the non-
participant group (45.3%) than for the low (33.6%) and high (25.2%)
participant groups (Table 4.1).

In response to the question, ”How many of your teachers have
discussed the importance of their subject matter to possible careers?"

a higher percentage of the respondents in the high (64.4%) and low

61

62

Table 4.1

Responses of the Participant Groups on Their
Ability to Define Career Plans

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Non Low High
Responses N % N % N %
1. Haven't decided at all 33 14.7 16 7.5 5 3.5
2. Vague idea 64 28.6 55 26.1 31 21.7
3. Good idea of general area 70 31.3 67 31.8 45 31.5
4. Pretty sure 57 25.4 73 34.6 61 42.7
Mean 2.67 2.93 3.15
5.0. 1.01 0.954 0.891—

 

 

 

 

(51.1%) participant groups reported that two or more teachers had
discussed the relationship of their subject matter to possible careers
than the non-participant group (48.7%). Whereas, the percentage of
students who indicated that "none" or "one teacher" related their
subject matter to possible careers was greater for the non-participant
group (51.3%) than for the low (47.9%) and high (35.7%) participant
groups (Table 4.2). ‘

In response to the question, "In how many of your courses have
you participated in career-related activities?” a higher percentage of
the reSpondents in the high (43.4%) and low (31.3%) participant groups

indicated that they had participated in career-related activities in

63

Table 4.2

Responses of the Participant Groups to the Number of Teachers
That Related Subject Matter to Careers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Non Low High
Responses N % N % N %

1. None 57 25.4 36 17.1 24 16.8
2. One teacher 58 25.9 65 30.8 27 18.9
3. Two teachers 53 23.7 58 27.5 44 30.8
'4. Three teachers 28 12.5 27 12.8 28 19.6
5. Four or more teachers 28 12.5 25 11.8 20 14.0

Mean 2.61 2.72 2.95

S.D. 1.32 1.23 1.27

 

 

 

two or more courses than the non—participant group (29.1%). Whereas,
the percentage of the students that indicated that they "participated"
in career-related activities in one course or less was greater for the
non-participant group (70.9%) than for the low (68.5%) and high (56.7%)
participant groups (Table 4.3).

The responses of the students that had voluntarily visited the
Career Center revealed that the assistance given by the staff was
widely utilized and very helpful. In response to the question, “While
in the Career Center, how often have you been assisted by the Career

Center staff?" the majority of the students in both the low (61.6%) and

 

 

64

Table 4.3

Responses of the Participant Groups to the Number
of Courses that Had Career-Related Activities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Non Low High
Responses N % N % N %
1. None 82 36.8 61 29.0 34 23.8
2. One Course 76 34.1 83 39.5 47 32.9
3. Two courses 50 22.4 40 19.0 32 22.4
4. Three courses 9 4.0 19 9.0 21 14.7
5. Four or more courses 6 2.7 7 3.3 9 6.3
Mean 2.02 2.18 2.47
S.D. 0.999 1.06 1.19

 

 

 

high (65.5%) participant groups indicated that the staff assisted them
"sometimes" or "often." Whereas, only 20.9% of the low participant
group and 12.6% of the high participant group disclosed that the staff
had assisted them "almost never" or "not at all“ (Table 4.4).

In response to the question "How would you rate the staff in
the Career Center?" the majority of the students in both the low (87.3%)
and high (90.2%) participant groups rated the staff either "helpful“ or
"extremely helpful." The percentage of the students that rated the
staff as "so-so" or "not much help" was 11.7% of the low and 9.1% of

the high participant group (Table 4.5).

65

Table 4.4

Responses of Low and High Participant Groups to the
Assistance Given by the Career Center Staff

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Low High

Response N % N %
1. Not at all 26 12.6 7 4.9
2. Almost never 17 8.3 11 7.7
3. Sometimes 66 32.0 50 35.2
4. Often 61 29.6 43 30.3
5. Very frequently 36 17.5 31 21.8

Mean 3.31 3.5

5.0. 1.22 1.07

 

 

 

In order to determine the usefulness of Career Center materials
and equipment, the responses of the students who visited the center on
the usefulness of materials and equipment were based on a Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 (very useful) to 5 (not used at all). As shown
in Table 4.6 the use of equipment and material increased with increased
visits to the Career Center. However, the reSponses do not vary sig-
nificantly according to the number of visits. In addition, interest
surveys and other inventories were perceived as less useful by both

the low and high participant groups . Responses of these five questions

66

Table 4.5

Responses of Low and High Participant Groups to the
Helpfulness of the Career Center Staff

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Low High
Response N % N %
1. Extremely helpful 63 30.7 65 45.8
2. Helpful 116 56.6 63 44.4
3. 50-50 21 10.2 8 5.6
4. Not much help 3 1.5 5 3.5
5. No staff 2 1.0 1 0.7
Mean 1.85 1.69
3.0. 0.733 0.792
Sum of qu. 109.61 88.37

 

 

 

suggest that Career Centers are successfully dispensing career
infomation to students but there is a need for a more thorough
examination of the effectiveness of interest surveys and inventories
on student career planning and development.

To obtain information on the usefulness of various resources
that were useful in making a career choice, responses to various items
were solicited (Table 4.7). Students who visited the Career Center

rated work experience, Speakers and field trips as more useful than

67

Table 4.6

Mean Rating of the Responses of the Low and High Participant Groups to

the Usefulness of Career Center Materials and Equipment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary
Participation
Question Low High
Pamphlets, magazines, or M 2.05 1.73
books about careers (Q 17) SD 1.19 0.81
College, community college or M 2.17 1.80
trade school catalogs (Q 18) SD 1.40 1.15
Loose files containing career M 2.36 2.23
information (Q 19) SD 1.31 1.21
Student interest surveys and M 2.80 2.73
other inventories (Q 20) SD 1.39 1.27
Audio-visual equipment M 2.20 1.93
(Q 21) SD 1.48 1.40

 

 

68

Table 4.7

Mean Ratings of the Participant Groups to the Usefulness of
Various Resources in Making a Career Choice

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Voluntary Participation
Question Non Low High
Work experience M 2.26 2.07 2.05
(0 22) SD 1.35 1.30 1.21
M 2.83 2.70 2.44
Speakers (Q 23) 50 1.35 1.40 1.27
- . M 2.77 2.84 2.85
F‘e‘d tr‘ps (Q 24) 50 1.53 1.44 1.57
Parents relatives
. ’ ’ M 1.97 2.11 2 04
friends, etc. '
(Q 25) SD 1.07 1.12 ( 1.08

 

 

the students who had not visited the center. Whereas, the non-
participatory students rated "parents, relatives, friends, etc." as
more useful than students in both the low and high participatory group.
Responses to these questions suggest that students who do not partici-
pate in Career Center activities rely more on their experiences with
family and social contacts in making a career choice.

In response to question 26 concerning suggestions as to how
the Career Center could better serve the students, there was no dis-
cernible trend among the responses. However, the most frequent sug-
testions were the need for more operating hours during the school day

and the need for additional personnel to assist the students.

69

The responses to the Career Center Questionnaire indicated that
each of the centers was basically created for the purpose of central-
izing career education materials and services. In turn, the Career
Centers have become a clearinghouse for assisting faculty members in
developing career related instructional materials and providing students
with a wide variety of career information. Further, there was little
difference between the services and materials offered by each of the
centers. This was due to the sharing of ideas and practices between
the various centers.

All of the Career Centers have been in operation for approx-
imately 1% to 2 years and were physically located near the Guidance and
Counseling Offices. Each center was easily accessible to the general
student population. Among the activities that were common to the five
Career Centers were:

0 Counseling;

0 Assisting students in locating information;
. Administering Interest Surveys;

° Interpreting Interest Surveys;

0 Conducting student orientations;

‘ Maintaining bulletin boards;

- Updating student files;

0 Keeping career information current;

- Attracting students to the center;

Conducting inservice training programs for counselors and
teachers;

° Providing resource assistance to teachers and counselors;

7O

. Contacting and coordinating business community activities; and
"Working with vocational coordinators.
In addition, two of the centers performed job placement tasks.

A variety of methods were utilized to attract students to the
Career Center. As illustrated in Table 4.8, group orientations, career
newsletters, and the distribution of test scores and applications were
considered very important in attracting students.

Among the most important Career Center functions (Table 4.9)
were the dispensing of career information, teaching of decision-making
skills, and providing students with counseling and test and survey
interpretation services.

Although the programs and activities offered by the centers
were very similar, there were variations in their staffing patterns,
operating budgets, and evaluation procedures.

The staffing patterns of the Career Center were somewhat varied.
Each of the centers had a Director. Three centers had a full-time
paraprofessional assistant. Of the two remaining centers, one employed
a paraprofessional on a part-time basis, while the other utilized
counselors on a rotating basis.

The variation in the Operating costs among the centers was due
primarily to different administrative budgeting. The budgets range
from a high of $7,000 to a low of $1,000. The need for additional
personnel and materials were cited as the items necessary for

improvement of services.

71

Table 4.8

Mean Responses of the Career Centers on the
Methods Utilized to Attract Students

 

 

 

Method Mean S.D.
Teacher referrals 1.40 0.55
Publications in the school bulletin 1.60 0.89
Class visits by Career Center personnel 2.00 1.00
Career days of fairs 2.00a 0.82
Referrals from other students 1.20 0.45
Use of center to distribute test scores,

applications, etc. 1.00 0
Group orientations to the Career Center 1.00 0
Career newsletter 1.00a 1.50

 

 

 

aBased on the responses from four Career Centers.

Because all of the centers are still in the early developmental
stages, no formalized evaluation programs have been implemented.
However, two of the centers had conducted student surveys and were
actively developing additional instruments and methods of measurement
to provide feedback on the various programs and services offered. A

description of the functions and facilities of the participating Career

Centers are shown in Appendix D.

72

Table 4.9

Mean Responses of the Career Centers on the
Importance of Career Center Functions

 

 

Function Mean S.D.

 

To provide a wide range of career
information 1.00 0

To teach decision-making skills 1.00 0

To give each student the Opportunity
to acquire a marketable skill 2.80 1.64

To provide counseling and test and
survey interpretation 1.00 0

To provide the student with work
experience 2.80 1.64

 

 

fi

 

Career maturity of the students was measured by Crites‘ Career
Maturity Inventory. This instrument consisted of an Attitude Scale and
a Competence Test, yielding a separate score for each of these two sec-
tions. The Student Information Questionnaire was utilized to determine
the student's participation, sex, and grade level. Each participant's
program of studies was obtained from his permanent record file.

Four sets of hypotheses were formulated in order to test
whether significant relationships existed between student voluntary
participation in Career Center activities and their scores on the
Career Maturity Inventory. The students' level of voluntary partic-
ipation, program of studies, sex, and grade level were regarded as the

independent variables. All hypotheses were tested twice with four-way

73

analysis of variance, first with the dependent variable being the
Attitude Scale of the CMI, and then with the dependent variable being
the Competence Test of the CMI. All means of the two independent
variables are presented in Table 4.10. An alpha level of .01 was

set for testing each of the 12 individual hypotheses.

Presentation of Data

 

The study produced a number of significant findings. The
subsidiary questions (in italics) and results of the related hypotheses
are listed below.

1. Are there significant differences between the CMI scores
of students in non, low, and high participant groups?

Hypothesis la:

 

There are no significant differences between the mean

CMI scores of non-participating students and the mean

CMI scores of low and high participating students.

Hypothesis la was tested by comparing the differences between
the mean CMI scores of non-participating students and the mean CMI
scores of low and high participating students. Analysis of variance
results are shown in Table 4.11 and indicate that students in low and
high participant groups scored significantly higher on both the Attitude
Scale and Competence Test of the Career Maturity Inventory than students

in the non-participant group. Therefore, the null hypothesis was

rejected.

 

74

Table 4.10

Summary of Mean Scores on the Attitude Scale and Competence Test
of the Career Maturity Inventory

 

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

 

Level of

Student‘s

Voluntary
Participation

Student's
Program
of Studies Sex

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

 

Mean CMI Scores

Attitude

Competence
Scale Test

 

N
Participation

Male
College

74.38
64.30

 

Preparatory
Female

 

Male
Vocational

 

Female

 

Male
General

 

Female

 

Low
Participation

Male
College

 

 

Preparatory

 

 

 

 

Female

 

 

Male
Vocational

 

 

 

 

 

 

Female

 

 

Male
General

Female

 

 

High
Participation

 

College
Preparatory
Female

 

 

 

| Male
Vocational

1
1
1

1 1

1 m1

1 1

We. (

    

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Male [

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General A
I Female ‘

 

 

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76

Hypothesis 1b:

There is no significant difference between the mean CMI
scores of low participating students and the mean CMI
scores of high participating students.

 

Hypothesis 1b was tested by comparing the differences between
the mean CMI scores of low participating students and the mean CMI
scores of high participating students. Analysis of variance results
are shown in Table 4.11 and indicate that both the Attitude Scale and
Competence Test scores of the low participating students were not
significantly different from the scores of the high participating
students. Consequently, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

2. Are there significant differences between the CMI
scores of students enrolled in college preparatory,

vocational, and general programs?

Hypothesis 2a:

There are no significant differences between the mean
CMI scores of students enrolled in a college preparatory
program and students enrolled in a general program.

 

Hypothesis 2a was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in the college preparatory
program and students enrolled in a general program. Analysis of
variance results are shown in Table 4.12 and indicate that students
enrolled in a college preparatory program scored significantly higher
on both the Attitude Scale and the Competence Test of the Career

Maturity Inventory than students enrolled in the general program.

Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected.

77

Table 4.12

Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing Hypotheses 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d

 

 

 

 

Degrees
Source of of

Hypothesis Variation Freedom F Probability
2a. There is no significant difference between

the mean CMI Attitude Scale scores of Bl vs. 83

students enrolled in a college preparatory (CMI Attitude 1 27.111 .001**

program and students enrolled in a general score)

program.

There is no significant difference between

the mean CMI Competence Test scores of 81 vs. 83

students enrolled in a college preparatory (CMI Competence 1 80.457 .001**

program and students enrolled in a general score)

program.
2b. For non-participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean 81 vs. 83 for A1

CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude 1 18.912 .0001**

enrolled in a college preparatory program score)

and students enrolled in a general program.

For non-participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean 81 vs. 83 for A1

CMI Competence Test scores of students (CMI Competence 1 39.683 .001**

enrolled in a college preparatory program score)

and students enrolled in a general program.

For low participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean 81 vs. 83 for A2

CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude 1 7.583 .0067**

enrolled in a college preparatory program score)

and students enrolled in a general program.

For low participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean 81 vs. 83 for A2

CMI Competence Test scores of students (CMI Competence 1 20.092 .001**

enrolled in a college preparatory program score)

and students enrolled in a general program.

For high participant groups there is no

significant difference between the mean 81 vs. 83 for A3

CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude 1 5.812 .0163

enrolled in a college preparatory program score)

and students enrolled in a general program.

For high participant groups there is no 81 83 f A3

an vs. or
significant difference between the me 1 30.21] .000]**

CMI Competence Test scores of students
enrolled in a college preparatory program

and students enrolled in a general program.

(CMI Competence
score)

 

 

78

Table 4.12--Continued

 

 

 

 

Degrees
Source of of
Hypothesis Variation Freedom F Probability
2c. There are no significant differences
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale 82 vs. 83
scores of students enrolled in a (CMI Attitude l .1997 .6552
vocational program and students score)
enrolled in a general program.
There are no significant differences
between the mean CMI Competence Test 82 vs. 83
scores of students enrolled in a (CMI Competence 1 9.266 .0025**
vocational program and students score)
enrolled in a general program.
2d. For non-participant groups, there is no
significant difference between the mean 82 vs. 83 for A1
CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude 1 3.652 .0566
enrolled in a vocational program and score)
students enrolled in a general program.
For non-participant groups there is no
significant difference between the mean 82 vs. 83 for A1
CMI Competence Test scores of students (CMI Competence 1 3.916 .0484
enrolled in a vocational program and score)
students enrolled in a general program.
For low participant groups there is no
significant difference between the mean 82 vs. 83 for A2
CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude l .4131 .5207
enrolled in a vocational program and score)
students enrolled in a general program.
For low participant groups. there is no
significant difference between the mean 82 vs. 83 for A2
CMI Competence Test scores of students (CMI Competence 1 2.295 .1304
enrolled in a vocational program and score)
students enrolled in a general program.
For high participant groups there is no
significant difference between the mean 82 vs. 83 for A3
CMI Attitude Scale scores of students (CMI Attitude 1 .7466 .3880
enrolled in a vocational program and score)
students enrolled in a general program.
For high participant groups there is no
significant difference between the mean 32 V5. 33 for A3
CMI Competence Test scores of students (CMI Competence 1 2.790 .0955

enrolled in a vocational program and
students enrolled in a general program.

score)

 

**Significant at the .01 level.

79

Hypothesis 2b:

 

For non, low, and high participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean CMI scores of

students enrolled in a college preparatory program and

students enrolled in a general program.

Hypothesis 2b was tested by comparing the differences between
the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in the college preparatory
program and the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in the general
program for each of the participant groups. Analysis of variance
results are shown in Table 4.12 and indicate that for both the non
and low participant groups, students enrolled in a college preparatory
program scored significantly higher on both the Attitude Scale and the
Competence Test of the Career Maturity Inventory than students enrolled
in the general program. However, for the high participant group, stu-
dents enrolled in a college preparatory program scored significantly
higher on the Competence Test but did not score significantly different
on the Attitude Scale than students enrolled in a general program.
Consequently, the null hypothesis was rejected for the non and low
participant groups, but was not totally rejected for the high
participant group.

Hyppthesis 2c:

 

There is no significant difference between the mean

CMI scores of students enrolled in a vocational program

and students enrolled in a general program.

Hypothesis 2c was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in a vocational program and

students enrolled in a general program. Analysis of variance results

are shown in Table 4.12 and indicate that students enrolled in a

80

vocational program scored significantly higher on the Competence Test
but did not score significantly different on the Attitude Scale than
students enrolled in a general program. Consequently, the null
hypothesis was rejected for the Competence Test but was not rejected
for the Attitude Scale.

Hypothesis 2d:

 

For non, low, and high participant groups, there is no
significant difference between the mean CMI scores of
students enrolled in a vocational program and students
enrolled in a general program.

Hypothesis 2d was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in the college preparatory
program and the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in the general
program for each of the participant groups. Analysis of variance
results are shown in Table 4.12 and indicate that the non, low, and
high participant groups, both the Attitude Scale and Competence Test
scores of students enrolled in a vocational program were not signif-
icantly different from the scores of students enrolled in a general

program. Consequently, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

3. Are there significant differences between the CMI
scores of males and females.

Hypothesis 3a:

 

There are no significant differences between the mean
CMI scores of males and females.

Hypothesis 3a was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of males and females that participated in the
study. Analysis of variance results are shown in Table 4.13 and

indicate that females scored significantly higher on the Competence

81

Table 4.13

Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing Hypotheses 3a and 3b

 

 

 

 

Degrees
Source of of

Hypothesis Variation Freedom F Probability

3a. There is no significant difference C1 vs C2
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale . ' 1 3.101 .0789
scores of males and females (CMI AttItUde score)
There is no significant difference Cl vs C2
between the mean CMI Competence ' 1 14.305 .0002**
Test scores of males and females. (CMI Competence score)

3b. For non-participant groups, there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A1 1 2045 6513
between the mean CMI Attitude (CMI Attitude score) ' ‘
Scale scores of males and females.
For non-participant groups, there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A1 1 3 796 0520
between the mean CMI Competence (CMI Competence score) ' '
Test scores of males and females.
For low participant groups there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A2 1 4 449 0355
between the mean CMI Attitude (CMI Attitude score) ' '
Scale scores of males and females.
For low participant groups, there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A2 1 4 058 0445
between the mean CHI Competence (CMI Competence score) ' '
Test scores of males and females.
For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A3 1 2 435 1193
between the mean CMI Attitude (CMI Attitude score) ' '
Scale scores of males and females.
For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference C1 vs. C2 for A3 1 7 751 0056**
between the mean CMI Competence (CMI Competence score) ' '

Test scores of males and females.

 

**Significant at the .01 level.

82

Test but did not score significantly different on the Attitude Scale
than males. Consequently, the null hypothesis was rejected for the
Attitude Scale but was not rejected for the Competence Test.

Hypothesis 3b:

For each of the three participant groups, there is no
significant difference between the mean CMI scores of
males and females.

 

Hypothesis 3b was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of males and females in each of the participant
groups. Analysis of variance results are shown in Table 4.13 and
indicate that for non and low participant groups, both the Attitude
Scale and Competence Test scores of females were not significantly
different from the scores of males. However, for the high participant
group, females scored significantly higher on the Competence Test but
did not score significantly different on the Attitude Scale than males.
Consequently, the null hypothesis was not rejected for the non and low
participant groups and produced conflicting results for the high
participant group.

4. Are there significant differences between the CMI scores
of tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students?

Hypothesis 4a:

There are no significant differences between the mean
Career Maturity Inventory scores of tenth grade students
and the mean Career Maturity Inventory scores of eleventh
grade students.

 

Hypothesis 4a was tested by comparing the differences between
the mean CMI scores of the tenth and eleventh grade students that
participated in the study. Analysis of variance results are shown

in Table 4.14 and indicate that eleventh grade students scored

83

Table 4.14

Results of Analysis of Variance for Testing Hypotheses 4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d

 

 

Hypothesis

Source of
Variation

Degrees
of
Freedom

F Probability

 

4a.

There is no significant difference

between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of tenth grade students and

the mean CMI Attitude Scale scores

of eleventh grade students.

There is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of tenth grade students
and the mean CMI Competence Test
scores of eleventh grade students.

01 vs. 02
(CMI Attitude score)

01 vs. 02
(CMI Competence score)

4.063 .0444

14.303 .0002**

 

4b.

For non-participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CHI Attitude Scale
scores of tenth grade students and
the mean CMI Attitude Scale scores
of eleventh grade students.

For non-participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of tenth grade students
and the mean CMI Competence Test
scores of eleventh grade students.

For low participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of tenth grade students and
the mean CMI Attitude Scale scores
of eleventh grade students.

For low participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of tenth grade students
and the mean CMI Competence Test
scores of eleventh grade students.

For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of tenth grade students and
the mean CMI Attitude Scale scores
of eleventh grade students.

For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of tenth grade students
and the mean CMI Competence Test
scores of eleventh grade students.

01 vs. DZ for A1
(CMI Attitude score)

01 VS. D2 for Al
(CMI Competence score)

01 vs. 02 for A2
(CMI Attitude score)

01 VS. 02 for A2
(CMI Competence score)

01 vs. 02 for A3
(CMI Attitude score)

01 vs. DZ for A3
(CMI Competence score)

2.537 .1119

5.597 .0184

2.306 .1295

10.102 .002**

.1247 .7242

.8857 .3471

 

84

Table 4.14--Continued

 

 

Hypothesis

Source of
Variation

Degrees
of
Freedom

F

Probability

 

4c.

4d.

There is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of eleventh grade students
and the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of twelfth grade students.

There is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of eleventh grade
students and the mean CMI
Competence Test scores of

twelfth grade students.

For non-participating groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of eleventh grade students
and the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of twelfth grade students.

For non-participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of eleventh grade
students and the mean CMI
Competence Test scores of

twelfth grade students.

For low participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of eleventh grade students
and the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of twelfth grade students.

For low participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of eleventh grade
students and the mean CMI
Competence Test scores of
twelfth grade students.

For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of eleventh grade students
and the mean CMI Attitude Scale
scores of twelfth grade students.

For high participant groups, there
is no significant difference
between the mean CMI Competence
Test scores of eleventh grade
students and the mean CMI
Competence Test scores of

twelfth grade students.

**Significant at the .01 level.

02 vs. 03
(CMI Attitude score)

02 VS. 03
(CMI Competence score)

02 vs. 03 for A1
(CMI Attitude score)

02 vs. 03 for Al
(CMI Competence score)

DZ vs. 03 for A2
(CMI Attitude score)

02 vs. 03 for A2
(CMI Competence score)

02 vs. 03 for A3
(CMI Attitude score)

02 vs. 03 for A3
(CMI Competence score)

9.162

.4243

4.112

.5481

4.957

.1194

.1382

.0861

.0026

.5151

.0431

.4595

.0265

.7298

.7102

.7694

85

significantly higher on the Competence Test but did not score
significantly different on the Attitude Scale than tenth grade
students. Consequently, the null hypothesis was rejected for the
Competence Test but was not rejected for the Attitude Scale.

Hypothesis 4b:

 

For each of the participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean CMI scores

of tenth grade students and the mean CMI scores of

eleventh grade students.

Hypothesis 4b was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of tenth grade students with the mean CMI scores
of eleventh grade students for each of the participant groups. The
results of this analysis are shown in Table 4.14 and indicate that
for the non and high participant groups, both the Attitude Scale and
Competence Test scores of tenth grade students were not significantly
different from the scores of eleventh grade students. However, for
the low participant group, eleventh grade students scored significantly
higher on the Competence Test but did not score significantly different
on the Attitude Scale than tenth grade students. Consequently, the

null hypothesis was not rejected for the non and high participant

groups and produced conflicting results for the low participant group.

Hypothesis 4c:

There is no significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of eleventh grade students and the mean
CMI scores of twelfth grade students.

Hypothesis 4c was tested by comparing the differences between
the mean CMI scores of the eleventh and twelfth grade students that

participated in the study. Analysis of variance results are shown in

 

86

Table 4.14 and indicate that both the Attitude Scale and Competence
Test scores of eleventh grade students were not significantly different
from the scores of twelfth grade students. Consequently, the null
hypothesis was not rejected.

Hypothesis 4d:

 

For each of the participant groups, there is no

significant difference between the mean CMI scores

of eleventh grade students and the mean CMI scores

of twelfth grade students.

Hypothesis 4d was tested by comparing the difference between
the mean CMI scores of eleventh grade students with the mean CMI scores
of twelfth grade students for each of the participant groups. Analysis
of variance results are shown in Table 4.14 and indicate that for the
non, low, and high participant groups, both the Attitude Scale and
Competence Test scores of eleventh grade students were not significantly

different from the scores of twelfth grade students. Consequently, the

null hypothesis was not rejected.

Summary

In order to examine the effect of Career Centers on the
enhancement ofstudent career maturity, the CMI scores of 578 students
in five high schools were examined and compared using four classifica-
tion categories. The four classification categories were: (1) level
of student voluntary participation in Career Center activities, (2)
student's program of studies, (3) sex, and (4) grade level.

Twelve directional hypotheses were tested and the results were

reported in the present chapter. An alpha level of .01 was set for

 

 

 

87

testing each of the 12 hypotheses. As a result of these tests, two
hypotheses were rejected (la and 2a), four hypotheses were not rejected
(lb, 2d, 4c, and 4d), and six hypotheses produced conflicting results
(2b, 2c, 3a, 3b, 4a, and 4b). The results of hypotheses groups 2, 3,
and 4 are more interesting because they both support and conflict

with other findings regarding career education and career maturity.

A fuller discussion of the findings is included in the following

chapter.

 

 

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The major problem of the present study was to determine whether
voluntary participation in Career Center activities enhanced student

career maturity.

Summary of the Study

 

The level of student career maturity was measured by the Career
Maturity Inventory. It consisted of an Attitude Scale and a Competence
Test. The Attitude Scale elicited the feelings, subjective reactions
and the diSpositions that an individual had toward making a career
choice. The Competence Test measured the cognitive variables involved
in the selection of an occupation.

The sample (N==578) was drawn from a population of students
in five high schools in Michigan that housed Career Centers. The
participants consisted of tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students.
The students' level of voluntary participation, program of studies,
sex, and grade level were regarded as the independent variables. Four
major questions, or 12 individual related hypotheses were formulated
in order to test whether significant relationships existed between the
four classification categories for each student and their level of

career maturity as measured by the CMI. The hypotheses were tested

88

 

 

twice with four-way analysis of variance, first with the dependent
variable being the Attitude Scale of the CMI, and then with the
dependent variable being the Competence Test of the CMI. The sta-
tistical procedure utilized to interpret the data was univariate
analysis of variance. An alpha level of .01 was set for testing

each of the hypotheses. The following results were obtained:

1. Are there significant 1 jjbrenccs rctwecn the mean \
CMI scores of students in non, low, and high participant ‘
g rou [2:1 ,7 '

Hypothesis 1a:

 

There are significant differences between the mean CMI
scores and non-participating students and the mean CMI
scores of low and high participating students.

Hypothesis lb:

 

There is no evidence of significant differences between
the mean CMI scores of low participating students and
the mean CMI scores of high participating students.

2. Are there uifinificant l3fferences between the mean 33f
scores of students enrolled in college {reguratorgg
vocational, ruu1;1enera5 :avrnwrmt?

Hypothesis 2a:

 

There are significant differences between the mean CMI
scores of students enrolled in a college preparatory
program and students enrolled in a general program.

Hypothesis 2b:

 

For the non and low participant groups, there is a
significant difference between the mean CMI scores of
students enrolled in a college preparatory program and
students enrolled in a general program. For the high
participant group, there is a significant difference
between the mean Competence Test scores, but there is

no evidence of a significant difference between the mean
Attitude Scale scores of students enrolled in a college
preparatory program and students enrolled in a general
program.

 

 

 

9O

Hypothesis 2c:

 

There is a significant difference between the mean
Competence Test scores, but there is no evidence of
a significant difference between the mean Attitude
Scale scores of students enrolled in a vocational
program and students enrolled in a general program.

Hypothesis 2d:

 

For non, low, and high participant groups, there is no
evidence of a significant difference between the mean
CMI scores of students enrolled in a vocational program
and students enrolled in a general program.

Are there significant difjerences between the mean 68f
scores of males and females?

Hypothesis 3a:

 

There is a significant difference between the mean

Competence Test scores, but there is no evidence of
a significant difference between the mean Attitude

Scale scores of males and females.

Hypothesis 36:

 

For the non and low participant groups, there is a
significant difference between the mean CMI scores of
males and females. For the high participant group, there
is a significant difference between the mean Competence
Test scores, but there is no evidence of a significant
difference between the mean Attitude Scale scores of
males and females.

Are there significant difyerences between the mean CMI
scores of’tenth, elementh, and twelfth grade students?

Hypothesis 4a:

 

There is a significant difference between the mean
Competence Test scores, but there is no evidence of a
significant difference between the mean Attitude Scale
scores of tenth and eleventh grade students.

Hypothesis 4b:

 

For the non and high participant groups, there is a
significant difference between the mean CMI scores of
tenth grade students and the mean CMI scores of eleventh
grade students. For the low participant group, there is
a significant difference between the mean Competence Test

 

 

 

91

scores, but there is no evidence of a significant
difference between the mean Attitude Scale scores
of tenth and eleventh grade students.

Hypothesis 4c:

 

There is no evidence of a significant difference between
the mean CMI scores of eleventh grade students and the
mean CMI scores of twelfth grade students.

Hypothesis 4d:

 

For the non, low, and high participant groups, there

is no evidence of a significant difference between the
mean CMI scores of eleventh grade students and the mean
CMI scores of twelfth grade students.

Discussion of the Findings

 

The study produced a number of significant results. A
discussion of the findings and recommendations for future research

is presented below.

Question l--Leve1 of Participation

 

The first set of hypotheses (la and lb) postulated that the
students' level of participation in Career Center activities would not
cause a significant difference in their level of career maturity as
measured by the CMI. Results indicated that the mean CMI scores of
the non-participant group was significantly lower than the combined
mean CMI scores of the low and high participant groups. Subsequently,
the null hypothesis 1a, which predicted no significant difference
between the mean CMI scores of non-participating students and the
combined mean CMI scores of low and high participating students was

rejected. This finding, along with the result of hypothesis lb, in

 

 

92

which there was no evidence of a significant difference between the
mean CMI scores of low and high participating students, suggests that
the lower scores of the non-participating group may be attributed to
their lower level of participation in Career Center activities. This
finding was consistent with the finding by Ellis and others in their
survey of career centers in the state of California. According to
Ellis, there was a positive relationship between the number of times
students visited a Career Center and their level of career exploration
and planning.1 In regards to this finding, the challenge that must be
met by the schools is not only the establishment of a Career Center but
also the development and implementation of programs that will encourage

students to utilize the services of the Career Center.

Question 2--Program of Studies

The second set of hypotheses (2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d) postulated
that student enrollment in a particular program of studies would not
cause a significant difference in their level of career maturity as
measured by the CMI. Results indicated that the mean CMI scores of
students enrolled in a college preparatory were significantly higher
than the mean CMI scores of students enrolled in a general program.
However, while the students enrolled in a vocational program signif-
icantly higher on the Competence Test than students enrolled in a
general program, there was no evidence of a significant difference

between the scores of these two groups on the Attitude Scale. Thus,

 

1Ellis and others, "A Study of Career Resource Centers," p. 89.

 

 

93

the null hypothesis 2a, relating to enrollment in a college preparatory
program and a general program was rejected, whereas, the null hypothesis
2c, relating to enrollment in a vocational program and a general program
was rejected for the Competence Test but not rejected for the Attitude
Scale. These findings were consistent with the investigation of
Gribbons and Lohnes, and Super and Overstreet.

Gribbons and Lohnes concluded that college-bound students,
compared to business, industrial arts and general students, consistently
demonstrated a higher readiness for vocational planning,2 while Super
and Overstreet also concluded that curriculum selection was related to
vocational maturity.3 On the basis of the foregoing studies, signifi-
cant differences of vocational maturity among students enrolled in the
three major programs of study: college preparatory, vocational, and
general, were expected. The findings of this investigation support
the conclusions of the two aforementioned studies.

When the level of participation was considered along with
enrollment in a particular program of studies, the only significant
difference was at the high level of participation, where students
enrolled in a college preparatory program scored significantly higher
on the Competence Test than students enrolled in a general program.
However, there was no evidence of a significant difference between

the scores of these two groups on the Attitude Scale. Thus, the

 

2Gribbons and Lohnes, "Validation of Vocational Planning
Interview Scales," pp. 23-24.

3Super and Overstreet, "The Vocational Maturity of Ninth
Grade Boys," p. 60.

 

 

94

null hypothesis 2b, relating to level of participation and enrollment
in a college preparatory program and in a general program was rejected
for the high participant group on the Competence Test but not rejected
for the Attitude Scale. The null hypothesis 2d, relating to level of
participation and enrollment in a vocational program and in a general
program, was not rejected.

Based on these findings it appears that while an increased level
of participation seems to have a positive relationship with a higher
score on the Competence Test, there is no evidence that participation
had any relationship with the Attitude Scale. Perhaps the attitudes of
students are predetermined and are the results of past experiences. Or,
perhaps the instrument used was not refined enough to measure the atti-
tude correlation. Not only is there a need for additional research to
identify these factors, but also there is a need to determine if the
activities provided by Career Centers have any effect upon the attitude

of students towards their career development.

Qpestion 3--Sex

 

The third set of hypotheses (3a and 3b) postulated that the
sex of the students would not cause a significant difference in their
CMI scores. Results indicated that while females scored significantly
higher on the Competence Test than males, there was no evidence of a
significant difference in the scores of these two groups on the Attitude
Scale. Thus, the null hypothesis 3a, relating to the sex of the par-
ticipants, was rejected for the Competence Test but not rejected for

the Attitude Scale. This finding is consistent with the research by

 

95

Mintzer, in which he indicated that vocational maturity was a
development process and that sex was a factor in that development.“

When the level of participation was considered along with the
sex of the participants, the only significant difference was at the
high level of participation, where females scored significantly higher
on the Competence Test than males. However, there was no evidence of
a significant difference between the scores of these two groups on the
Attitude Scale. Thus, the null hypothesis 3b, relating to level of
participation and sex, was rejected for the Competence Test but was
not rejected for the Attitude Scale.

Based on these findings, it appears that while there seems to
be a positive relationship between females and higher scores on the
Competence Test, there does not appear to be any relationship between
sex and score on the Attitude Scale. These findings indicate that in
general females seem to possess a wider knowledge of careers and the
factors involved in career planning than males. In part, this may be
attributed to the recent emphasis and publicity being focused on the
career development of females in our society. Overall, the mean CMI
scores of males and females increased with a higher level of partic-

ipation and at the same rate.

Question 4--Grade Level

 

The four sets of hypotheses (4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d) postulated

that student grade level would not cause a significant difference in

 

“Mintzer, “Vocational Maturity and Its Relationship,” p. 2643-A.

 

 

96

their level of career maturity as measured by the CMI. Results indicate
that while eleventh grade students scored significantly higher on the
Competence Test than tenth grade students, there was no evidence of a
significant difference between the mean scores of these two groups on
the Attitude Scale. Moreover, there was no significant difference
between the mean CMI scores of eleventh and twelfth grade students
on either the Attitude Scale or the Competence Test of the CMI. Thus,
the null hypothesis 4a, relating to the mean CMI scores of eleventh and
tenth grade students was rejected for the Competence Test but was not
rejected for the Attitude Scale. The null hypothesis 2c, relating to
the mean CMI scores of eleventh and twelfth grade students, was not
rejected for either the Attitude Scale or the Competence Test of the
CMI. These findings were consistent with the combined mean scores of
the Attitude Scale and Competence Test from six states by Crites in the
"Administration and Use Manual" for the Career Maturity Inventory.5
Crites indicated that as grade level increases, so also the mean CMI
scores increase. His results also indicate that a smaller difference
exists between the mean CMI scores of eleventh and twelfth grade stu-
dents. The findings of this investigation support the conclusions of
Crites‘ research.

When the level of participation was considered along with grade
level, the only significant difference was at the low level of partici-
pation where students in the eleventh grade scored significantly higher

on the Competence Test than students in the tenth grade. However, there

 

sCrites, "Administration and Use Manual," pp. 39-52.

 

97

was no evidence Of a significant difference between the scores of
these two on the Attitude Scale. For eleventh and twelfth grade
students there was no evidence Of a significant difference between
the non, low, and high participant levels on both the Attitude Scale
and the Competence Test of the CMI. Thus, the null hypothesis 2b
relating to level Of participation and tenth and elventh grade students
was rejected for the low participant group on the Competence Test, but
not rejected for the Attitude Scale. The null hypothesis 2d, relating
to the level of participation and eleventh and twelfth grade students
was not rejected.

Based on these findings it appears while a higher grade
level seems to have a positive relationship with a higher score on
the Competence Test, this relationship is not apparent for the Attitude
Scale. It can therefore be concluded that the students' knowledge of
careers and their ability to make career decisions, increases with
their grade level. However, continual studies and evaluations on
student career choices should be conducted on students both before
and after the termination of their secondary careers.

Suggestions for the Operation
of Career Centers

 

 

The information gained through the rational assessment of the
data, readings, and personal observations has several implications
for the implementation and Operation of Career Centers. First, the
difference in the mean CMI scores of non, low, and high participating

students has implications for both the guidance program and the

 

98

curricular program of the school. The difference in the mean CMI

scores of these groups, in which the low and high participating students
attained higher scores on the CMI than the non-participating students,
suggest the need for a program of intervention to encourage students to
utilize the Career Center facilities. At the present time there appears
to be few programs designed to accomplish this task. Thus, the schools
and the state departments of education should Officially recognize this
need and implement programs to assist students in their career
development.

Second, it is apparent from the data that the activities
provided by the Career Center seem to have little relationship between
the Attitude Scale scores of students on the Career Maturity Inventory.
Although there is a need for research to identify additional factors,
the activities provided by Career Centers should not be solely directed
towards the enhancement of student attitudes. Instead, the activities
of the Career Centers should also provide students with a wide variety
Of exploration experiences that encourage the practical application of
their career planning skills.

Third, the administrative staff of the schools and state
departments of education should establish a budget specifically for
the Operation and improvement of the Career Centers. The budget should
include specific allocations for the continual purchase of current
career-related materials and paraprofessional staffing. The assistance
of a paraprofessional is essential for the effective and efficient

delivery Of career information to students and faculty. In addition,

 

 

99

the support of a paraprofessional relieves the Career Center Directors
and counselors of tasks that underutilize their skills.

Finally, the need for Career Centers is apparent if schools
adhere to the rationale espoused by many career educators that the
providing of career develOpment activities is necessary to enhance
student career maturity. However, because Career Centers have only
recently emerged as one viable means of delivering career information
to students, there is a need to familiarize administrative and guidance
personnel with the various functions and activities to insure effective
student career develOpment. The following statement by Herr stresses
this need:

Guidance strategies related to decision-making and vocational
develOpment must be seen not just as an Opportunity for the
expression Of certain personal characteristics which make up
career develOpment but rather as devoted to developing these
characteristics. As Bysbers (1969) has observed, "Career
exploration programs should not be seen as strictly a mining
Operation in which only those with certain talents are chosen,
but as more of a farming approach in which all individuals
are provided with Opportunities to grow and to develop.”
Although this distinction may be subtle, it represents the

difference between purposeful, sequential development and
development by chance and happenstance.6

Recommendations for Further Research

 

The primary purpose of the present investigation was to inquire
whether differences exist in the career maturity level Of non, low, and
high participating students in Career Center activities. The resultant

data has provided some additions to our knowledge and understanding Of

 

6Herr, "Decision-Making and Vocational Development," p. 54.

 

100

career maturity, but, as is Often the case, it has also raised

additional questions that should be thoroughly examined. In this

context, the following areas are suggested for further research:

1.

Studies should be undertaken to determine the effectiveness
Of various programs of study (college preparatory, vocational,
general, etc.) on student career maturity. Students should be
assessed both prior to and at the conclusion of the program.

Research should be conducted on the effects of specific career
development activities on the career maturity Of students.

Further research is needed on the effects Of various Career
Center staffing patterns, services Offered, career information
systems, and funding methods on student career maturity.

Additional research should be conducted to determine the
relationship between intelligence level, socioeconomic status,
family background, and work experience on student career
maturity.

Research should be conducted to determine the effects Of parents
and other social contacts, both with and without participation
in Career Center activities, on student career develOpment

and maturity.

Long-range studies should be conducted to determine the
relationship between participation in Career Center activities
and the career maturity of students as measured by the Career
Maturity Inventory.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS

East Lansing High School
509 Burcham Drive
East Lansing, Michigan 48823

Godwin Heights High School
3529 S. Division Avenue
Wyoming, Michigan 49508

Grand Haven High School
734 Park Street
Grand Haven, Michigan 49417

Harry Hill High School
5815 Wise Road
Lansing, Michigan 48910

Troy High School
3179 Livernois Road
Troy, Michigan 48084

101

APPENDIX B

INVITATION LETTER

Dear Student:

I am a doctoral student at Michigan State University in education. In

cooperation with your Guidance Department and Career Center staff, I

am conducting a survey to gather information about the services Offered

by the Career Center. You have been selected to participate in this

study and are requested to report to the (room) on (date) at
(time) . At that time you will be asked to complete a questionnaire

related to the functions Of the Career Center, for which there are no

wrong answers.

 

Approximately two to three weeks after the completion of the survey,

you will receive an individual profile of your responses. These results
will indicate your feelings and ideas about the choice of a career and
the services offered by the center. Your c00peration in this matter is

appreciated.

Thank you.

Daniel R. Seik
Michigan State University

102

 

 

APPENDIX D

CAREER CENTER QUESTIONNAIRE

The purpose Of this questionnaire is to provide an accurate
characterization of five Career Centers in the State Of Michigan. Each
section relates to a different part of the Career Center Operation. At
the end of the questionnaire, a section has been set aside for remarks
and any informal discussion of your Career Center you think would be
useful in this study. If you feel that there are important parts of
your Career Center's Operation which have been under-emphasized or
omitted from this questionnaire, please note them in that place.

Career Center Director and others associated with the Operation
of the center should complete this questionnaire. The more attention
you are able to give to your responses, the more useful will be the
results of the study.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PART I
General Information
Name of person
completing form Position
School District
Number of students Grade levels represented
Percentage of graduates continuing on tO 2 to 4-year colleges %

How long has the Career Center been in Operation?

 

Career Center hours: Opens Closes

 

 

Is the Center Open for night school adults? Yes No Hours

Please describe the Career Center location in reference to the rest of
the school:

 

 

Is this location easily accessible to the general student population?
Yes NO

——._— ...-~-

104

105

Please indicate the title of the Career Center staff member who usually
performs each of the following functions (if more than one, indicate
both) and the number of hours each week the staff member spends
performing each function:

 

Number of Hours Each Week

 

Title Of Person
Function Performing the Task 0-5 6-10 11-25 25-40

 

 

 

Counseling

 

Assist students in
locating information

 

 

Administering
Interest Surveys

 

 

Interpreting Interest
Surveys

 

 

Conducting student
orientations

 

 

Maintaining bulletin
board

 

 

Up-dating student
files

 

 

Keeping career’informa-
tion current (catalogs,
etc.)

 

 

Attracting students to
the Center (PR)

 

N—JN—lN—JN—IN—lN—lN—lN—JN—l

 

Placement:

Exploratory work expe-
rience plus supervision I.
(jr. high and high
school) 2.
General work experience
plus supervision 1.
(Paid, with related
instruction)

College or other
education or vocational
training

 

 

 

 

 

 

Job placement
(full or part-time)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

N—‘NdN

 

 

 

 

106

 

Number Of Hours Each Week
Title of Person

 

Function Performing the Task 0—5 6-10 11-25 25-40

 

Inservice training pro-
grams for counselors

 

and teachers

 

Resource assistance to

 

teachers and counselors

 

Contacting the
business community

 

 

 

..aN—JN—lN-J

Organizing Career Days
or Fairs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Operations

 

1. Please circle the number that corresponds to the importance Of each
of the following methods your Career Center employs to attract

students:
4..)
C r—
+-’ +4 f’U r—JJ
C +3: +3 (C
(U IONS C L— (U
+2 .C-H 0 L0 444—:
$- 3$~ -.- we. «as. +4
>50 (DO E SE 0 ~QJ
LC). ED. -r-' P-r- 440. C)
CUE OE 0:1 to: OE OM
>H (AH 20 0(2) ZH C33:

 

 

 

 

Teacher referrals
Publications in the school

_a
N
(A)
J)
U'1

bulletin l 2 3 4 5 ____
Class visits by Career Center

personnel 1 _____
Career Days or Fairs l 2 _____
Referrals from other students 1 2

Use of Center to distribute
test scores, applications,

etc. 1 2 3 4 5
Group orientation to Career
Center 1

Career newsletter l 2 3 4 5

107

2. Do you keep updated files on students who use the Career Center?
Yes No If no, please indicate the reasons:

3. What filing system do you use for the unbound career information?

4. Are the A-V materials and printed information displayed so that
the students can serve themselves?
Yes NO

5. DO you involve the student's parents in the Career planning process?
Yes NO

6. Please circle the number that corresponds tO the importance of the
following Career Center functions:

4..)
C +4: 44 (C
('0 (On) C S— ‘0
+3 _C+—’ 0 L0 40-5-3
$- ZL -r— (DD. (OS...
>50 0.10 C :5 0
Lo. Ea -.— +J-r— +10.
(DE OE CD. to: CE
>H Wed 20 a: ZH
To provide a wide range of career
information 1 2 3 4 5
To teach decision-making skills
to enable the best use of
career information. 1 2 3 4 5
To give each student the Opportunity
to acquire a marketable skill. 1 2 3 4 5
TO provide individual counseling as
well as test and interest survey
interpretation 1 2 3 4 5
To give the student work experience:
”hands on" contact with the world
Of work. 1 2 3 4 5

7. Which would you say that your Career Center emphasized most strongly?
a. job placement, work exploration and work experience programs
or
b. counseling, general career orientation, awareness of one's
own aptitudes and interests, and teaching decision-making
skills.

“—

108

8. Which interest inventories or tests do you administer?

Are they administered on an individual basis or classwide?
Individual Classwide

9. How often are the following activities recommended to students after
their interest survey results are interpreted?

Occa- Vg[y_
Never sionally‘ Often Frequently Always

 

Obtain part-time work

experience 1 2 3 4 5
Participate in exploratory

work experience 1 2 3 4 5
A change in the program of

studies 1 2 3 4 5
Enrolling in an area

vocational school 1 2 3 4 5

Obtaining private
instruction 1 2 3 4 5
Other (please specify):

10. What are your plans for next year?

Interdependence With Other School Functions Yes No

 

1. DO any teachers incorporate career education
into their classrooms?
If “yes," about how many?

 

2. 00 Career Center representatives speak to classes
in the school?

3. Does the Career Center feed back information to
the school counselors?

4. Are any faculty members staffing the Career Center
part—time?

109

Please rate from 1 (excellent) to 5 (poor) the kind of COOperation

you have had from:

Excellent
Counselors 1 2
Faculty 1 2
Administration 1 2
Vocational teachers 1 2

00000090

bb-D-D

What attempts are made to encourage teachers to infuse career
education in their disciplines (i.e., inservice programs, development

of mini-units)?

Business Community Relations

1.

Placement Service (neglect this section if your Career Center does

will volunteer equipment, time to ta

Do you have contacts in the business community who

will employ students?

If ”yes,” about how many?

 

Do you have contacts in the business community who

or other services?
If "yes," about how many?

 

 

perform placement functions)

1.

Do you maintain a current file on jobs in the
community?

00 you continually and systematically seek out jobs
in the community as part of your placement program?

Do you share job Openings that you find with other
schools in your district, and v1ce versa?

DO you seek feedback from employers of stucents who
are placed in jobs?

1k with students,

Yes

Yes

Poor

 

NO

 

not

NO

 

110

Evaluation

 

1.

Please rate from 1 (indicative) to 5 (no relationship) the degree
to which the following measures are indicative of Career Center
performance:

 

 

 

 

Indi- NO Rela-

cative tionship
Student traffic through Career
Center 1 2 3 4 5
Number Of students placed in
jobs 1 2 3 4 5
Enrollment increases in voca-
tional education classes 1 2 3 4 5
Degree of faculty cooperation
in introducing career oriented
material into their regular
curriculum 1 2 3 4 5
Some measure Of increased
student career awareness 1 2 3 4 5
Other (please specify):
DO you have a reasonably Objective means of Yes _JH;_
rating the effectiveness of your Career

Center?
If "yes," please elaborate.

DO you poll students and staff with regard to
Career Center impact and functions?

00 you Obtain follow-up data on students who
have graduated?

Have you attended a Career Center workshOp
this year? . ____.
If "yes," who sponsored 1t?

 

111

Financial (Please refer this section to the person best able to complete
it

1. What was the initial source Of funding for the Career Center?

2. How were those funds allocated for:

Personnel S
Equipment 5
Materials 5

 

 

 

3. What Career Center staff, equipment, materials, furnishing, etc.,
were transferred from other already-existing school programs or
resources without additional expenditure?

Personnel: Equipment:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.
Materials: Other:

1. l.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. What are your yearly Operating costs?

 

5. What are your present and potential funding sources?

(DQOU’OJ

6. DO you anticipate the same, a larger, or a smaller budget, next
year?
Same Larger Smaller

7. If you had more money for your Career Center, where would you spend
it for greatest impact?

8.

112

If your budget was cut for next year, what part of the Career Center
program would you eliminate or reduce?

Difficulties Encountered Along the Way

 

1.

Who or what (an individual or some available money) was responsible
for getting the Career Center off the ground?

What were the biggest Obstacles the Career Center faced at the
beginning of its Operation?

What are your biggest problems now?

What problems do you anticipate in the future?

113

Please use this space for any additional comments, information, or
qualifications to any Of the preceding resources.

114

PART II

Materials and Equipment Inventory

For each of the following categories, please indicate numerically your
present inventory, what you intend to Obtain in the near future, and

what you would like to but at present are unable to Obtain.

 

Present Intend
Career Information: Inventory to Obtain

Would Like
to Obtain

 

Occupational Outlook Handbook

 

VIEW Decks

 

Career Kits

 

Career Service Subscriptions

 

Reference books on career, voca-
tional and specialized schools

 

Career books

 

Handouts (pamphlets, brochures,
reprints)

 

Files of unbound materials

 

 

 

 

Titles Of most helpful sources Of career information:

1.

 

 

2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Materials and Equipment Inventopy

 

College Information:
College guides, handbooks, and
dictionaries

Guides to college majors cur-
ricula and Specialized programs

Financial aid references

Miscellaneous

115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Titles of most helpful sources of college information:

 

 

 

 

1.
2.
3.
4.

 

AudO-Visual Materials and
Equipment:

Tape players
Tape recorder/players
Blank cassettes
Slide projectors
Recorded cassettes.
Super-8 projectors
Super-8 film loops
Soundstrip players (cassettes)
Soundstrip programs
Microfilm readers
Headphones
Other (please specify):

1.

2.

3.

 

Present Intend Would Like
Inventory to Obtain to Obtain
Present Intend Would Like
Inventory to Obtain to Obtain

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

116

Names of most useful hardware:

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

Titles of most helpful software materials:

1.

 

2.

 

3.

 

 

 

 

Which self-appraisal instruments do you use (JOB-O, OVIS, COPS,
DIES, etc.)?

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX E

STUDENT INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE

This is a survey designed to measure the effectiveness Of the services
Offered by the Career Center. Hopefully, your responses will help in
the improvement of the center.

First, read each question carefully. Then mark with a #2 pencil

the number on the answer sheet that corresponds to the response you
selected. If you have any questions, please raise your hand and the
monitor will assist you.

1. What is your grade level?

1. 9th grade
2. 10th grade
3. 11th grade
4. 12th grade

2. What is your sex?

1. Male
2. Female

3. How well do you feel you can define your career plan?

You haven't decided at all.

You have a vague idea of what you want to do.
You have a good idea of the general area, but not the exact job.
You feel pretty sure about the career you want.

bum—a

4. Have you been through a formal orientation concerning the services
Offered by the Career Center?

1. Yes
2. NO
5. How Often have you visited the Career Center as part Of a class
assignment?
1. Never
2. 1-2 times

3. 3 or more times

117

10.

11.

118

How many times have you voluntarily_visited the Career Center to
find out about colleges, community colleges, or trade schools?
(”Voluntary" means free-willed or unforced visits.)

1. Never
2. 1-2 times
3. 3 or more times

 

How many times have you voluntarily visited the Career Center to
learn more about your own individual interests?

1. Never
2. 1-2 times
3. 3 or more times

How many times have you voluntarily visited the Career Center to
learn more about certain careers?

1. Never
2. 1-2 times
3. 3 or more times

How many times have you voluntarily visited the Career Center for
non-career-related activities (eat lunch, study hall, etc.)?

1. Never
2. 1-2 times
3. 3 or more times

How many of your teachers have discussed the importance of their
subject matter to possible careers (for example, which jobs use
Math, English, etc.)?

None

One teacher

Two teachers

Three teachers

Four or more teachers

U'i-lth—I
o o o a o

In how many of your courses have you participated in career-related
activities (for example, talking about different careers, career
opportunities, etc.)?

None

One course

Two courses

Three courses

Four or more courses

U'l-bWN-J

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

119

What is the total number of times you have voluntarily visited the
Career Center this year? DO not count formal orientation or class
a551gnments that forced you to visit the center.

1. None
2. l-2 times
3. 3 or more times

 

If your answer to the above question (#12) was "none,“
please proceed to question #22.

 

 

 

Do you feel the Career Center has been Open enough hours during
the school day?

1 It has definitely not been Open Often enough.

2. Sometimes it has been Open enough.

3. It has definitely been Open enough.

4 I am not sure Of the hours when the center has been open
during the day.

While in the Career Center, have you had difficulty finding
materials?

1. I have frequently had difficulty.
2. Sometimes I have had difficulty.
3. I have never had difficulty.

While in the Career Center, how Often have you been assisted by
the Career Center staff (career aide, counselor, etc.)?

1. Not at all

2. Almost never

3. Sometimes

4. Often

5. Very frequently

How would you rate the staff in the Career Center?

Extremely helpful

Helpful

SO-so

Not much help

The Center did not have any staff

U'I-wa-H
o o o o e

Various materials available in the Career Center are listed below.

120

each item on how useful it has been to you.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.
24.

25.

26.

Pamphlets, magazines or books
about careers

College, community college or
trade school catalogs

Loose files containing career
information

Student interest surveys and
other inventories

Audio-visual equipment (film-
strip projectors, VIEW machines,
CIVS or MOIS computers)

Work experience (both paid and
unpaid)

Speakers you have heard

Field trips to place where
people work

Parents, relatives, friends, etc.

Other (specify):

 

 

 

Very
Useful

Somewhat
Useful

 

2

NM

2
2
2
2
2

 

 

Rate
>5r-
v—S
>5 QJH— 13
S- 440) 0)
(Dr— 'r-m (nu-—
>3 CD 34"
‘4— 'r- <
+90) “—4-, +3
Om (DO O-i—P
Z: DZ 20
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4
3 4
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5
3 4 5

Do you have any suggestions as to how the Career Center could better

serve you in selecting a career?

APPENDIX F

LIST OF CAREER CENTER DIRECTORS

East Lansing High School

 

Mrs. Joan Oxender, Director Career Information Center

Godwin Heights High School

 

Mr. Ron Shoemaker, Director Guidance and Special Services
Ms. Virginia Gates, Counselor

Mrs. Sheila Liner, Career Information Specialist

Grand Haven High School

 

Mr. Gene Rothi, Director Guidance and Student Services
Mr. Robert Foutz

Mr. Calvin Brondyke

Harry Hill High School

 

Mr. James Stiles, Director of Guidance

Troy High School

Miss Earla Smith, Director of Guidance

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Armour, David J. The American School Counselor: A Case Study_in the
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Barry, Ruth, and Wolf, Beverly. An Epitaph for Vocational Guidance:
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Borow, Henry, ed. Man in a World at Work. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin
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Butts, Freeman R., and Cremin, Lawrence A. A History of Education in
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Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and Quasi-
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Clarke, Robert; Gelatt, H. 8.; and Levine, Louis. "A Decision—Making
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Cover, John A. “The Relationship of Alienation from Society and
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Cremin, Lawrence A. The Transformation of the School. New York:
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122

123

_M. "A Model for the Measurement of Vocational Maturity."
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......_---..

 

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DIFFERENT METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE