THE EFFECTS OF OVERSEAS STUDY ON WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OTHER SELECTED VARIABLES 0F LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS Thesis for the Degree of PhD. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ERIC PHILIP KAFKA 1968 5 - g. x“- . . ’ \ \I\\\\\\II\I \\\\\\\\I\293 @665 2262 UmvcrsitY IIIIII $3353.. This is to certify that the. thesis entitled THE EFFECTS OF OVERSEAS STUDY ON WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OTHER SELECTED VARIABLES OF LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS presented bg Eric Philip Kafka has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ph D degree in Education Major professor Date February 7, 1968 0-169 77,”: *‘w 5...”.-. .wfi... W ”Mr ILL/$32??? “If” I n ‘r I ,‘ ‘p'II .I III “ ”n: :.I A i ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF OVERSEAS STUDY ON WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OTHER SELECTED VARIABLES OF LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS h H by Eric Philip Kafka J Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of an intensive overseas educational experience on the attitude of worldmindedness. The interrelation— ships among other selected attitudes regarding self, national image, and cultural immersion were also studied. The Assumptions The study was based on two assumptions. first was that attitudes can be influenced by overseas exposure. And the second was that personality type was related to cultural receptivity and adjustment; if a student adjusted and immersed himself into a foreign culture his attitudes were more likely to change. Research Design The students were tested and questioned two weeks before summer term. Students remaining in the United States became the control group, while partici- pants in the Overseas Study Programs became the Eric Philip Kafka Early in the fall term students experimental group. Also, were retested and attitude change was determined. the program or outcome variables were measured. Population and sample.—-The initial class of Justin Morrill College was tested at the end of their Of students re-enrolled in the fall 208 freshman year. The ex- (89%) completed all segments of the research. perimental sample consisted of 81 students (93%), and 127 (86%) were control sample. Because the relatively large sample was drawn from a single source many vari— ables were uniform. However, due to lack of randomi— zation the control and experimental group initially differed. Instruments.——Prior to summer a Pre—sojourn Questionnaire (background data), the Pre—sojourn World- mindedness Scale, the Dogmatism Scale, and the Differen- tial Values Inventory were administered. Upon return to college the Post-sojourn Questionnaire (treatment vari- ables), and the Post—sojourn Worldmindedness Scale were given. The administration of these instruments included steps to deliberately shroud the purpose of the study thereby minimizing test reaction. Hypotheses.--The major hypotheses predicted variables related to change in the attitude of world- mindedness. It was hypothesized that open-mindedness and other-directedness as well as the sex of the "/-*sv *‘ '3 i -: \ Eric Philip Kafka student and whether or not they studied abroad were re— In addition to the lated to change in worldmindedness. only aforementioned variables certain factors applicable to those studying abroad were predicted to differentiate between those who changed in worldmindedness and those who did not. These experimental factors consisted of academic grades, language skill, residential involvement, number of close foreign friends, description of nationals, and variables related to national image. Subsidiary hypotheses were also implied by the research assumptions. Conclusions Using one-way analysis of covariance it was found that no variables were related to change in the worldmindedness attitude. But the subsidiary hypotheses implied in the research assumptions were partially sup— ported by background, test, and outcome variables found to be interrelated by the Mann—Whitney U non—parametric test. Out of the eighteen sets of interrelated vari— ables clusters emerged. These clusters were useful in theory-building and prediction. Concerning national image it was found that exposure to a foreign culture reinforced appreciation for the homeland at the expense of the nation visited. Also a cluster of interrelated variables was defined: Eric Philip Kafka Students with high family income, had inner- directed value systems, rated the homeland as initially superior and this impression was re- inforced by studying abroad, they disagreed with nationals as to relative national status, had less residential involvement, described nationals less positively, and earned higher fall grades. Two clusters were also identified for those who achieved cross—cultural immersion: 1. They described nationals more positively, spent more free—time with nationals, con— sidered themselves as more friendly, agreed with hosts on relative national status, and their rating of the hostland improved at the expense of the United States. 2. They were residentially involved, had close foreign friends, had confidence in language fluency, and attributed more status to the hostland. Discussion Lack of significant findings in the study may be attributed to the deficiency of sensitive instruments for detecting attitude change. Another contributory factor may have been the inflated expectations for brief class— room study programs overseas. Although personality and national image vari- ables were related to adjustment and immersion, no evi- dence was found to associate cross—cultural interaction attitude change. with fundamental fi THE EFFECTS OF OVERSEAS STUDY ON WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OTHER SELECTED VARIABLES OF LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS By Eric Philip Kafka A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology 1968 I I ’. Gurqasl "I- 540-49 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS encouraged me° But this project is primarily a tribute to I the women in my life. J My gratitude to Dr. Farquhar for living up to recom— mendations, and for helping me to work things out. Most graduate students are not as fortunate as I in working in Justin Morrill College. The cooperation from the admin— istration through to the office staff immeasurably enhanced my efforts. To these people I extend my appreciation. E. K. 11 fi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST or APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . ,, .viii I} I Chapter I I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . A Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 5 Definition of Terms . . 7 Research Assumptions . . . 9 Overview . . . . . . 10 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . 12 Most Relevant Research . , . . . . . l2 Attitudes: Formation and Change . . . . 22 General Attitude Concepts . . . . . . 22 The Authoritarian Personality . . . . . 26 The Authoritarian and Cross-Cultural Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . 29 The Attitudes of American College Youth . 33 Cross—Cultural Adjustment . . . . . . . 38 Personality Types . . . . . . . . . A3 Skill and Knowledge . . . . . . . . AA National Status . . . . . . . . . A7 The Process of Adjustment . . . A9 Attitude Change from Overseas Study. . 51 Discussion of Previous Research . . . . . 53 Suggested Research Design Features . . . 56 iii ‘ DESIGN OF THE STUDY . C O 0. g I‘, {I Population and Sample . . Administration . . . . . .~ . Instrumentation . . .y . . . . . Prince's Differential Values : Inventory (DVI) . . . . . . . . . ’75 T Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E (D Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . 77‘ Sampson's Worldmindedness Scale (w Scale) . 79 Pre—sojourn Questionnaire . . . . . . 8A Post-sojourn Questionnaire . . . . . . 85 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Summary of the Limitations of the Design . . 9A Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS . . . . . . . . 100 Worldmindedness . . . . . . . . . . 100 Interrelated Variables . . . . . . . . 101 Background Variables . . . . . . . 10A Fall Term Grades . . . . . . . .~ . 10A 3 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . 10A I Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Psychological Test Scores . . . . . . 106 Pre—Worldmindedness Scale . . . . . 106 Differential Values Inventory . . . . . 109 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Outcome Variables . . . . . . . . 109 Ego—involvement with the United States . . 109 Positive Description of Host Countrymen. . 110 Residential Involvement . . . . . . . 110 Close Foreign Friends . . . o . . . 111 National Image . . . . . . . . . . 111 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND DISCUSSION . . . . 114 a Purpose of the Project Research Assumptions Research Design . . . Population and Sample 9 u a o o o 0 o a n o o a n o a a u u a o o o u o o o a o a a o o a c a I e u o o o o o o a o a 9 o o o a a a Instruments . . . Administration . . Hypotheses . . .' . Analysis . . . . . fi Chapter Page Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Major Hypotheses on Worldmindedness . . . 118 Background, Test, and Outcome Variables Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 118 Clusters of Interrelated Treatment Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Worldmindedness . . . . . . . . . 122 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . 123 National Image . . . . . . . . . . 12A Cross—Cultural Immersion . . . . . . 129 Implications for Future Research . . . . 131 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lAO V v LIST or TABLES :Charaeteristics of the Population and sample of Justin Morrill College (JMC) Students-- Fall, 1966 . . . Comparison of Mean Scores of the Control and Experimental Groups on Uncoded or Interval Personal and Background Variables . . . . 65 Comparison of Mean Scores of the Control and Experimental Groups on Coded or Ordinal Personal and Background Variables . . . . 66 A.l Analysis of Covariance of Hypotheses Predicting Increases in Score on the Worldmindedness Scale . . . . . . . . 102 A.2 Factors Related to Background Variables within the Experimental Group . . . . . . . . 105 A.3 Factors Related to Psychological Test Scores within the Experimental Group . . . . . 107 A.A Interrelated Variables from the Post-sojourn Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . 108 A.5 Shift in the Before-After National Ratings . . 112 V? -.-r"—— A.6 Variables Associated with the National Images of the Experimental Group . . . . . . . 113 LIST OF FIGURES ’i‘I - Spiral Leading to Adjustment and Attitude Change 0 I l O I O l O O J I I I I CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM In an increasingly interdependent world education is faced with the challenge of dissolving the bonds of cultural The responsibility inevitably falls on institutions bias. In the colleges and universities the of higher education. best method of teaching for cultural understanding is an unresolved issue. But two assumptions appear to pervade most programs. One is that intensive exposure to language develops proficiency faster than brief exposures distributed over long periods of time. The other is that living within a culture, where speaking the language and interacting with hosts is expected, has a more positive effect than merely taking courses and reading about cultures. On the campus of Michigan State University a unique opportunity emerged for evaluating a program based on the above assumptions when the doors of Justin Morrill College were opened in 1965. A major goal of the experimental college was to pursue the liberal arts via a cross- cultural theme. It was hoped that in the course of his education a student would arrive at some fundamental truths common to all societies and that this learnin III' Nettie” i, ,V.‘ ‘ . IIdfiuldLEervade both his individual philosophy and his InHDEIUBHI The theme was translated into the curriculum in* “ in; number of ways. I ‘ ‘ a I”), Fluency in a foreign language was regarded as a 'vital tool in appreciating how another culture defined the human situation. Therefore all students were required to take eight hours of French, Russian, or Spanish each term of their freshman year. The intensive program attempted I to build a language fluency equivalent to two or three I years of college study. I Students were encouraged to converse in French, Russian, or Spanish outside of the classroom. Housing assignments were based on the language studied, so most ' roommates were learning the same tongue. In the dining rooms special "language tables" were often reserved and occasionally international menus were arranged. Also, because faculty offices were contained within the "living- learning" residence complex and the college policy promoted student-faculty dining, there was constant informal inter- I action among the freshmen and instructors. Much of the interchange was in a foreign tongue. In addition to the language requirement, each student —-—e_.... . _ was to take Justin Morrill College electives in the first ‘These electives in the Humanities and the Social in year. Also foreign dignitaries were invited to visit with, the students to further enhance the international cast of the college. And one renowned English educator canducted b a two-week seminar with a voluntary group of student / leaders. All these means were but a prelude to the ultimate ‘~ opportunity offered by the college--the chance to visit the nation which they had studied. In the summer of 1966 over one—third of the Justin Morrill College students partici- pated in Overseas Study Programs in Lausanne, Moscow, and Madrid. Each of the ten-week programs built upon the fundamental studies of the previous year by providing appropriate classes in the language and contemporary culture of the respective nation. Thus various attempts were made to infuse the college with an international air. The language and the electives were compulsory and the guests and living atmosphere were accessible to most. Unfortunately, although the Overseas Study Programs were offered to nearly all students, only a select population could afford the expense. The experience abroad was more than an extension of the formal curriculum; it was the only segment of a student's college experience that brought him into direct contact with an alien culture. To a limited extent the participants- lived among their hosts and observed first-hand the culture 8? they had chosen to study. What effects did the_e fiititudes changed, did the participants differ in degree“ . Aer direction from those remaining at home? Were the college program objectives realized to any extent? From these questions emerged the reason for the research: the need to know what happens when students live briefly in a foreign culture. Overseas educational programs are predicated on the belief that contact with another culture accelerates change. Although research consistently indicates development in language competency, information, and skills due to cross- cultural exposure, the effects on less easily operationalized concepts are unsubstantiated. There is a need to focus on the concomitant attitudinal changes that accompany less complex types of learning. If skills and information increase concurrently with personal growth then the possi- bility of attitude change is a logically expected byproduct. Despite the lack of support from contemporary research (see Chapter II, REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE), the intuitive belief that exposure abroad alters attitudes as well as political and social maturation has led to the growth of overseas educational programs. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effecfiQT ‘appreciation for the similarities of mankind. A sufidhdiui II; purpose was to explore the background, personal, and program variables related to the development of world- mindedness. Research Hypotheses The hypotheses were based upon variables associated with change in the attitude of worldmindedness. Certain factors were shared by the total Justin Morrill College population as well as the experimental group that went Other variables were applicable to only the abroad. These hypotheses suggested personal I I I I experimental group. or situational variables related to the degree of recep— tivity to attitude-changing influences. I I A. The following hypotheses were applied to the total Justin Morrill College sample: 1. Participants in the Overseas Study Programs increase in worldmindedness more than those who remained at home. “’V“.-- Females increase in worldmindedness more than males. I 3. More open-minded students increase in worldmindedness more than the less open- minded students. Other—directed students increase in world- mindedness more than inner-directed studenfig,‘ Justin Morrill sample. The following hypotheses incorporated the can! ‘ I, I‘ll! Q's variables that had been examined in the total They were then applied to the experimental group alone: 6. 7. The Among those who study abroad females increase in worldmindedness more than males. Among those who study abroad the more open— minded students increase in worldmindedness more than the less open—minded students. Among those who study abroad the other- directed students increase in worldminded- ness more than the inner-directed students. Among those who study abroad those students who were initially less worldminded increase in worldmindedness more than students initially high in worldmindedness. following hypotheses were appropriate only to those who studied abroad and therefore, were applied only to the participants: 10. ll 12 0 Those participating in programs where more involvement with families was built in increase more in worldmindedness than those not in such programs. Those participants who spend proportionally more free time with other than Americans increase in worldmindedness more than those who spent less free time with other than Americans. Those participants who make a close foreign friend increase in worldmindedness more than those who do not make a close foreign friend. Those participants who consider themselves to a. H,. be more friendly increase in worldmindedness Those who participate for personal~ ness more than those with educational- vocational-professional motives. Those participants who are more confident in their language fluency increase in worldmind- edness more than the less able or confident. Those participants who change their relative national images increase in worldmindedness more than those whose images remain rela— tively stable. I 17. Those participants who agree with their hosts as to the relative national status increase in worldmindedness more than those who disagree. 18. Those participants who attribute more national status to the host country increase in world- mindedness more than those who feel the United States has more status. 19. Those participants who are less ego-involved increase in worldmind- with the United States edness more than those more ego—involved. 20. Those participants who describe the people of the host country more positively increase in worldmindedness more than those whose descriptions are less positive. 21. Those participants who had previously trav- eled abroad less increase in worldmindedness more than those who had previously traveled more . Definitions of Terme I I 1. Attitudes --As the individual develops, his cognitions, feelings, and action tendencies with respect to various objects of the world become organized into enduring systems. IDavid Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and ' ”hey, Individual in Society (New York: _ any: - ‘ - interpersonal motives increase in worldminded-w-f I I _-_ Nate and act on relevant information receivedéiramu'f‘ the outside on its own merits unencumbered by irrele’ vant factors in the situation arising from within the person or from the outside. For the open-minded person the cognitive need to know is predominant over the need to ward off threat. Closed Mind.—-A closed minded person cannot receive, Us.) :1: evaluate and act on relevant information received from the outside on its own merits unencumbered by irrelevant factors bathe situation arising from within the person or from the outside.3 In these cases the need to ward off threat is predominant over the cognitive need to know. A. Worldmindedness.--Sampson and Smith define worldmind- edness as: . . .purely a value orientation, or frame of reference, apart from knowledge about, or interest in, international relations. A worldminded person favors a worldview of the problems of humanity, his primary reference group is mankind. Such a person may or may not have a heightened interest %n and knowledge about international affairs. 2Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960), p° 57- 3Ibid. ”Ibid., p. 67. 5Dona1d Sampson, and Howard P. Smith, "A sW e World-Minded Attitudes," The Journal 0 A5 99-106,1957 Rt, Research Assumptions I fit Ipihp" ‘gvfi,,;,,,rno assumptions have been basic to intercultural “ ggagnams of education. I Assumption I.--Attitudes have been changed as a retult of cross—cultural exposure. In prior research NelSon, Plant, Webster, Lehmann and Dressel found that fundamental values and attitudes were altered as a youth approached adulthood, and that college acted as a catalyst I to the process. Intercultural experiences provided a I potential arena for change of student attitudes and values. I I Exposure to a new way of life supplied new information with which to refine one's basic philosophical points of I reference. The motivation and openness encountered through the social and physical shock of immersion into another culture was sufficiently disturbing to one's value system I I to lead to re-evaluation. Such questioning provided a I , catalyst to learning and the formulation of new ideas. Assumption II.—-Prior "readiness" determined the extent of attitude change. Research by Havighurst, Sanford and Rokeach supported the fact that learning followed a state of readiness. Readiness to change was reflected in .One's degree of open-mindedness; the current study assumed Cf?! ‘ “ R- J . . A CT ' Ithan an open—minded person tended to sensitively interact . ianalysis. lo messy which bind all persons. This commonality‘lwii fitfiiisary in. developing the constructive outlook essential tarfloarning. The resultant learning of information led to the development of new attitudes which could affect values and behavior. Increased development and inte- gration of these new perspectives into the life—style of the participant created a cultural understanding or empathy which facilitated intercultural communications. The increased communication and empathy led to more immersion into the host culture. Thus a spiral was created that fed itself: open-mindedness--positive outlook--communication—- interaction--learning-—change--open—mindedness--communica- tion—-change. An effective educational program abroad could be interpreted as one which best harnessed this spiral to promote desired change. Overview In Chapter II, pertinent research is presented con— cerning attitude changes in college youth, and the atti- tudinal effects of cross—cultural experiences. The research design is explained in the third chapter; included are descriptions of the sample, instrumentation, and-hypotheses,: as well as elaboration upon the approach and the methods qges!‘ In Chapter IV results of the analysis are " 11 ,]§ycultural exposure are‘explored in Chapter V. Also '“Ffiéccmmendations for future research are offered. - m: “ “ CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Chapter II is developed through four interrelated sections. In the first section the methods and findings of the few studies directly relevant to this research are, analyzed. Section 2 is devoted to research on formation and change of attitudes. The third and fourth sections serve to link attitudes and values to cross—cultural adjustment. Finally, Section 5 is used to interpolate the research reviewed and to focus it upon the proposed research design. 1. Most Relevant Research In Section 1 the five studies most pertinent to this research study are reviewed. Both research design and appropriateness of findings were used to determine rele- vancy. The study that pioneered the recent interest in the effects of American overseas study programs abroad was an evaluation of the 1950 Summer European Study Tour of the Association of International Relations Clubs.1 Taba ‘stePEOtypes and an opinionnaire on international -Béfore and after the program abroad. Forty-five college- ' aged coeds of a possible sixty—two group members finished all segments of the project and were included in the analysis. The author noted renewed appreciation among the students for the laudable features of the United States and a more objective view of American culture. Most commonly participants used experience and ideas selectively to j extend their ideas and to modify their attitudes. Thus ’ E they avoided sweeping changes in ideas. Dr. Taba felt that a more time was necessary for changes in fundamental values, ? but that new information would revise opinions. Thus a sequential process was begun which may have deep ramifica— tions. Too often the role of emotional factors was under- estimated. Taba developed the concept that interplay the formation of cultural judgments. Thus the extent of L k \ E ; between emotional and intellective factors was crucial in t fixation attached to viewpoints, ideas, and values defined three models of individual cross—cultural orientation. Type one integrated and internalized and learned, and thereby Changed feelings. Characteristics common to all cultureslu If helped these students to develop broad perspectives. 1H gpyard irrational development. Type three was distfiufigflr ;: by intense ethnocentrism which inhibited learning by.a 3,.“ selective intake limited by the narrow standards-of his own nation. The ability of some mature students to penetrate below the surface and to view things in broad perspective seemed to promote independence from national stereotypes to increase the control over ethnocentric tendencies, and to aid objectivity and freedom to learn. Emotional fixations limited learning in these ways: insensitivity, selectivity, and inability to generalize rationally. Focus on specifics can only lead to piecemeal reality corrections which cannot produce appreciable change in cultural orientation.2 This early study was a quality model for a field that needed the trail blazed toward evaluation of overseas study programs. The longitudinal approach, the isolation of per- tinent factors, the design of the research, and the careful use of social science techniques in the analyses were essential guides for research to follow. The addition of control groups has improved more recent studies. Also, advances in statistical techniques have helped considerably to sharpen the results of more contemporary research. How- ever, most of Dr. Taba's conclusions have been supported by those following her lead. "" Cupérlences by Henry Reicken also helped to develop high” sfidhdards for current studies.3 He worked for The American Friends Service Committee to determine the extent of- attitude change as a result of working closely with those of a different culture and/or class stratification in Mexican and United States work camps. Most of his data were gathered by three extensive mailing campaigns-- before, Just after, and one year following the work camp experience. The basic instrument was The Sentiments Inventory which consisted of open-ended questions con— ' cerning goals in life, the meaning of happiness, summer expectations and changes, and the adjustment process. f ? Included were seventy-five attitude statements which divided i I into six scales: Ethnocentrism, Authoritarianism, Political- ‘ Economic Conservatism, Non-Violence, Democracy and Social Class Axiom (to differentiate between lower and middle class orientations). Although the total sample completing all L phases of the research project was only 27%, Riecken used all responses for each segment. He also did a commendable, Job of defending the representativeness of these sixty- three out of two hundred and twenty—eight upon whom data were complete. Although participants were liberal, 3Henry W. Riecken, The Volunteer Work Camo:‘ ”01o; ical Evaluation amor oge: .,. so ’ Itéftheir cross-cultural exposure, campers still became 8139 " " nificantly less authoritarian, less ethnocentric and mare. democratic at the end of program. These changes were maintained one year later. Vocational plans and college activities became more oriented toward the needs of society. Increased maturity was indicated by self- confidence and by internalized morality based upon relations With others. Campers became significantly less anxious and less aggressive. "Favorable" change was directly correlated with the value attributed to the experience. And the duration of the changes depended upon the accep- tability of new ideas by the camper's home social environ- ment. Riecken's results encouraged those establishing educas tional programs of a cross—cultural nature. The action- participation of each camper, the responsibility of each student for self-education, and the closeness to "reality" were prime factors in causing attitude change over a summer's duration. The generalizability of the results Of the study were increased by the inclusion of a control group in its design. Although Riecken JuStified his small sample, researchers in the future must attempt to attract 17 -,. The Taba and Riecken models were used to study the effects of exposure to new cultures upon American students.“ In his dissertation Howard P. Smith applied the Worldmindedness Scale to various groups of students going to France, England, or Germany for a summer—~participants in Experiment in International Living Programs, members of Quaker Work Camps, National Student Association Travel Groups, and individual tourists. Students who did not go abroad, and others who went overseas but took no pretests were used as control groups. A battery consisting of the Worldmindedness Scale, the Ethnocentrism Scale, the Demo- cratic Scale, the Friendliness Scale, and the Political- Economic Conservatism Scale was administered before the groups went to Europe and upon their return home. The results of Smith's research did not support changes in I» worldmindedness as the attitude related to decrease in Ethnocentrism, the Racial Subscale, nor the Friendliness , Score. In fact Smith concluded that although relatively specific attitudes like language skills and national images changed, more general deeply-rooted attitudes such as worldmindedness and ethnocentrism showed negligible change 1‘Howard P. Smith, "Changes in Attitude Resulting From Experiences in Foreign Countries" (unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, 1954). These results are also reported in "Do Intercultural Experiences Affect Attitudes?" Journal of Abnormal and §3§___-___—-___'_—_'_—- Social Psychology, 6:469-N77s 1 - her most people. Smith analyzed the.seventeen "changers” whoemost increased in worldmindedness and decreased in ethnocentricism and found that initially they were rela- tively (but not extremely) conservative, ethnocentric, authoritarian, and patriotic. His findings implied that those students with high Worldmindedness Scores on the pretest placed a great deal more emphasis on personal relations with Europeans, according to open—ended questions administered by Smith, but they did not register signifi— f cant change in Worldmindedness or Ethnocentricism Scores. ; On the other hand, those who scored extremely low tended to confirm or reinforce their nationalistic biases. Smith suggested that a person's attitudes before an overseas experience were a greater determinant of attitude change than what happened while he was abroad. Smith was the first researcher to relate worldminded- ness with authoritarianism. His study was methodologically . well-based and precise. The author stated that a weakness of the study was the lack of a control group. And another \ flaw, common to most research on cross-cultural exchange, E was the starkness of the purposes underlying the test bat- teries. Students know what the projects seek. Because Smith used a diversity of programs his findings were broadly gener— alizable. But the diversity also made it difficult to isos’ late relevant variables or to arrive at common concluSi 19 . ,‘i' th1958 research concerning attitude changejafio. , ‘".If . ' hfitiiisé College undergraduate females was reported.5*%y iwlégj’ 'hcauigan carefully tested the students prior to departure, during the program abroad, immediately following the experience, and then sixteen months later during the senior year. His sample consisted of A9 girls who spent one year in Europe, and 104 students in the same class who had not participated in the Rollins Abroad Program. Twenty-four personality characteristics were measured using standard- ized tests. The results of McGuigan's research suggested that modifications of the personality as a result of inter- cultural experiences are rare. But between the second and last year of undergraduate work many significant psychol— ogical changes were shared by both the experimental and ! control groups.. Living abroad led to only two personality modifications that did not occur as a result of living at ‘ home--the development of higher social values, and the l development of more submissive social adjustment.6 There was great overall change among the students abroad, and j these personality modifications occurred mostly during the first four months. 5F. J. McGuigan, "Psychological Changes Related to_ _ :2 Intercultural Experiences," Psychological Reports, ' »q.5.5_50’1955. . ‘gfififih.the batteries were administered. "The girls became tespfiweary from struggling with too many questionnaires.” ycGRigan's study was carefully planned and direly needed because of its longitudinal approach, and his use of a control group. However, if he had measured a lesser number of personality characteristics, more likely to be affected by overseas exposure, the statistical signifi- cance of his results would be less subject to chance. Large batteries of tests when repeated four times must lead to some reaction to the tests themselves and it would be extremely difficult to cope with regression effects. In the article McGuigan interpreted his results on the basis of long-term effects. Thus he reported not only the influence of the year in Europe but, more importantly, the effects of readjustment to the pressures and mores of J the home culture. Since the Justin Morrill College study was confined to the effects of the study abroad period, McGuigan's findings must be used cautiously. What Rollins received when the participants who went abroad were first injected into the student body was the major concern, not the atmostphere of the college nor what Rollins did with 7John A. Garraty, and Walter Adams, From Main Street to the Left Bank (East Lansing: The Michigan ta 9 ‘* ersity Press, 1959), p. 1A7. ‘Hflndicnperimental groups were not significantly different 21 ifififibnlng students. The article assumed that the control ‘ deem the start. McGuigan's results could have been clar- ified if a pro-sojourn comparison had been made. Once again it was difficult to disguise the purpose of the test batteries. The lack of subtlety, "test weariness," and regression effects made significant changes in attitude difficult to detect. Eighty-five Adelphi College juniors and seniors went abroad for seven to eight months.8 Prior to departure these students were given the Lentz C-R Opinionnaire and one year later it was repeated. The results of the study point out the main flaw: "The attitudes of more conservative students changed most, and those of the more liberal students least, after the period of foreign study and travel. Further, the students' scores tended to converge after return from abroad." The article did not refer to regression effects which could explain the convergence. Therefore, the conclusion that in less than one year those who went over— seas "liberalized" more than other students change from the freshman through the senior year is open to doubt. Again there was no attempt to camouflage the purpose of the tests, so that students not only responded to the items but also 8Elizabeth W. Leonard, "Attitude Change in a Cells -rProgram of Foreign Study and Travel, " The Educationa;_» ?§£ 45:173-1 1, Spring, 196“. J ,I J“. I 22 to their feelings regarding the research project. The inclusion of a control group in the research design would have given a stronger basis for conclusions. 2. Attitudes: Formption and Chppgg The relevant research on attitudes is covered in Section 2. After reviewing some general concepts regarding attitudes, both the authoritarian personality and college students' attitudes are studied. 1 General Attitude Concepts The nature and measurement, as well as the formation and change, of attitudes are discussed by Krech, Crutch— fl field, and Ballachey.9 it As an individual develops, his cognitions, feelings, and action tendencies with respect to various objects of the world become organized into enduring systems called . attitudes. The direction or degree of intensity of an i. .. _A,g_‘;‘ attitude is referred to as its valence. The valence is measured on the basis of a person's overt action and verbal statements of belief, or feeling and disposition to act with respect to the object. Also scales are used to numerically place attitudes along a valence continuum. The 4’" _— .—. —.. - techniques of attitude measurement are limited: 9David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egerton L. Ballachey, Individual in Society (New York: MeGraWe Hill Book Company, 1§E§), Chapters V-VII, pp. 130626? » 23* “about which they had no awareness. .' Attitude Scales only measure the valence or, " the cognitive and feeling components of an ”i attitude. 3. The action tendency, what a person would actually do, is neglected. A. There are measurement effects whereby the scales actually change or develop attitudes. .;n& 5. There is difficulty in analyzing multi- E dimensional man through uni-dimensional scales. 5 Attitudes towards objects and people are developed in response to problem situations where one attempts to satisfy specific desires. The information to which one is exposed, when viewed in the context of other ideas which influence the individual, shape attitudes. The direction and degree of attitude change induced by addi- tional information is a function of situational factors and of the source, medium, and content of the information. Usually new information is used to form ideas which are consonant with pre-existing related attitudes; it is easier to produce change in the same direction than to effect incongruent change where the change is in the Opposite direction from original attitudes. If an indi- vidual has a strong need to develop appropriate attitudes he often resorts to any information he can find, even to t I I ; i ‘ :l»\ f . i values; and norms of the groups to which the indiygggfla‘sfl - ‘ r.n Ld’ is affiliated. ( “j, The modifiability of an attitude depends upon the _ j characteristics of the pre-existing attitude system, of the, group loyalties and personality of the individual. When attempts are made to influence and measure attitude change one must be wary of "boomerang" effects where changes are in the opposite direction from those expected, and "ceiling" effects where there is little room to move to a more positive attitude. One must consider the following attitudinal characteristics when predicting the likelihood of attitude changes: 1. Extreme attitudes are more resistant to change. 2. A simple attitude is more susceptible to incon- gruent change, but a highly complex attitude is easier to move in a congruent irection. 3. An inconsistent attitude, which is unstable due to contradiction among its components, may be more easily changed in the direction of increased consistency. h. The amount and nature of interconnectedness of an attitude with other attitudes is impor- tant in determining how easily the attitude can be modified. 5. If an attitude within a cluster is consonant with other attitudes in the cluster then it is_ easier to change congruently; if it is dissonant then it is easier to change in an incongruent direction. If an attitude serves to fill man stron ' psychological needs it will be relatively ivy to incongruent change. ”I. ;~ 7. A central, basic attitude supported by society “.mt is‘fificfi_fiore susceptible to congruent than to ad ' ‘H 1 3 incongruent change. _ Llii3 Two aspects of group membership which affect attitude H change are the degree of support which the attitude has among the group, and the valuecfi‘group membership to the individual. Personality factors which affect the modi- fiability of attitudes include sex, self-defensiveness, and cognitive needs and styles. Janis and Fieldlo worked with a characteristic called general persuasibility, a ‘ readiness to accept social influence regardless of the communicator and the topic, content, medium, and circum— stances of the communication. They found that females were more persuasible than males. The conclusion was supported by Lehmann and Dressel, who found males were more stereo— typic in their beliefs, more dogmatic, and less receptive to new ideas than females.11 Self-defensive people clung tenaciously to attitudes that bolstered their self-esteem. And persons who were high in need for "cognitive clarity" reacted strongly to new information which challenged their i existing attitudes. They were discomforted by the incon- gruity produced by such a situation. The reaction of those ' 10I. L. Janis, and P. B. Field, "Sex Differences and 1 Personality Factors Related to Persuasibility." In I. L.' ,~ 7}. Janis gt al., Personality and Persuasibility (New Haven: “‘7‘“; ‘. Yale University Press, 1959). ' 7 *,-. .r‘ .4...- , J l iteristic "cognitive style. "12 Personality factors related .zw MI H". v to attitude change are discussed in the following section , .1 v' '6‘ on the authoritarian personality. The Authoritarian Personality During World War II intensive studies of anti~ semitism were conducted at the Berkeley Institute of Social Research.13 These studies of social prejudice were expanded to include the ethnocentric personality and its positive relationship to politico-economic conservatism which led to the measurement of implicit anti-democratic trends. Many attitude scales were developed from the study: the Anti-Semitism (A-S) Scale, the Ethnocentrism (E) Scale, the Political—Economic Conservatism (PEC) Scale, and the Facism (F) Scale. From the Berkeley studies there also emerged a definition of an authoritarian personality pattern which is consistently expressed in a variety of situations. It was not what a person thought but his way of thinking that distinguished him as either high or low on scales that measured authoritarian personality. A high 12H. C. Kelman, and J. Cohler, "Reactions to Persuasive Communications as a Function of Cognitive Needs and Styles," Paper read at Eastern Psychological Asso- ciation, 1959. Cited in H. C. Kelman, "Processes of Opinion Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, 1961, 25: 57-78. 13'I'. w. Adorno, et al., The Authoritarian 'ersc"“ w York: Harper and Row, 1950 . "dfitégrcups" and placed these groups along a power sits: sassy.“ All persons or groups were characterized by dominant—submissive relationships. Every group was Stereo— typed usually by subjective manipulation of the restricted information which was selectively perceived to support the subject's original fears. The out-groups were blamed for all the failures and weaknesses of the high scorer, who, because he could not cope with his own feelings or charac— teristics projected his hate and insecurities to external .{ groups. The inability to look within himself and the constant repression of feelings led to a compartmentalized, segregated, inconsistent personality. The goals of an authoritarian personality were for superficial material and power gains; sensuality and interpersonal relation- ships were impossible. External support was needed for all values; therefore flexibility was sacrificed by the need to ‘ conform. The approaches of the authoritarian were conven- \ tional and non—creative because elaborate defenses were E constantly repressing all self-expression and emotional K release. Fear of his own weakness and the lack of a con- , cept of equality inhibited the development of pity for the weak. And rigid adherence to conventional values prevented understanding for deviates from one's own cult;ri norm. As expected, persons who scored high_1n73thflw uncritical, conforming attachment and rejectionieffétherI“-J‘ naticns as out-groups. The readiness to include, accept, ‘ and even love differences, as contrasted with the need to set clear lines of demarcation to ascertain superiorities and inferiorities, was the main distinction between low and thigh scorers. Feeling that the Berkeley studies addressed them- selves mainly to ethnic forms of intolerance, Rokeach developed a more comprehensive approach to the authori- tarian personality.lu He related much of man's social behavior to the EEEEl belief system; thus changes of attitudes or values entailed alteration of the entire belief system. Two powerful and conflicting sets of motives were served by all belief-disbelief systems at the same time: the need for a cognitive framework to know and understand, and the need to ward off threatening aspects of reality. When the cognitive need to know predominated the system was ppgp, but if the fear of threat was overpowering a closed mipd resulted. Both personality types could be influenced to change; however, the changes were diametric- ally oppposed, especially as far as personality integration was concerned. From his theory Rokeach designed the ll'Milton Rokeach, The 0 en and Closed Mind_ (New Basic Books, 1960. thinness.of closedness of belief systems and gener513qug fifitelcrance and authoriatrianism. V‘y The Authoritarian and Cross- EuItural Adjustment Social Science research has linked the closed— mindedness of the authoriatrian personality with cross- cultural adjustment. Barriers to adjustment in a new culture included preconceptions and motivation as well as Lundstedt related. u‘ psychological resistance to change.15 1 these barriers to the practical problems: i Attitudes in the traveler which reflect a closed and the ethnocentric tendencies described a v mind, in the authoritarian personality studies . . may be such as not to allow the individual to ' cope effectively with the stress of6new social norms, values, and language forms. Further defining how the character of the visitor affected adjustment, Cook and Selltizl7 focused on two determinants: The nature and intensity of initial attitudes 1. towards the object-group (foreigners). Aspects of personality or character structure which may predispose one to hostile reactions to members of out-groups. 2. Hr‘. , 15Herbert G. Kelman, "Changing Attitudes Through International Activities," The Journal of Social Issues, 18: 7B, 1962. l6Sven LUndstedt, "An Introduction to Some Evolving Problems in Cross-Cultural Research, " The Journal of Social Issues, 19:“, July, 1963. ,;7Stuart W. Cook and Claire_Selltiz, ”Q” LInfluence the Attitudinal Outcome; of , 30 Some people have displayed a general tendency to see the entire world as either threatening or benign, regardless of the specific focus. Christiansen found a positive relationship between a person's characteristic way of responding to the conflicts of daily life and his inter— national attitudes. He concluded that adherence to a nationalistic ideology was an important channel for personal aggression.19 Discussing the "global positive-negative dimension," Coelho stated that it was nothing more than a symptom of the student's general state of adjustment "Evaluation of a country is a matter of projection to life: ”20 and has little to do with the country itself. Besides having been disposed to either like or dislike foreign countries in general, people have had a tendency to see and judge external occurrences according to their particular ethnic or national identification—- "ethnocentric perception." The process involved selecting 18B Christiansen, Attitudes Toward Foreign Affairs as a Function of Personality (Oslo: University of Oslo Press, 19597. Later cited in Herbert C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965?, Chapter III written by Walter A. Scott, p 73. 19Herbert C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior Holt, Rinehart and Winston, l9057, Chapter VI, (New York: by Irving L. Janis and M. Brewster Smith, p. 210. 0George V. Coelho, Changing Images of America (Glencoe: The Free Press, 19585, pp. ll-lg. 21Otto Klineberg, The Human Dimension in International Bglations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 196H), Do 95. 31 and often "over—choosing" objects and events on the basis of the proximity to those valued or similarity to those more The foreign visitor was functionally selective familiar. He in that he organized things into his cognitive field. was not merely a passive spectator.22 Explanations con- cerning these patterns of behavior drew heavily upon the concept of the authoritarian personality. Objective perception and internalization of reality seemed to have been a function of the degree of openness or Janis and Field,23 in discussing the closedness of mind. "external— personality functions of attitudes spoke about ization," where reaction to outside events or communications was but a reflection of one’s inner struggles. The rela— tively irrational function of externalization particu- larly influenced thought in the sphere of international attitudes. To support their contention the authors point out the converse relationship between authoritarianism and worldmindedness found by Smith and Rosen. A closed mind limited the subjective intake of information and L Changing Images of America 2George V. Coelho, lS—lb. (Glencoe: The Free Press, l958), pp. 3Herbert C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), Chapter VI, by Irving L. Janis and M. Brewster Smith, pp. 204-209. Katz also defines this function but calls it the "ego-defense" function. 2MB. P. Smith, Ellen W. Rosen, "Some Psychological Correlates of Worldmindedness and Authoritarianism," qurnal of Personnel, 26:170-183, 1958. 32 information regarding threatening "out—groups" was used only when it substantiated fears, Scott clarified the relation- ship between information and the nature of international images: minimum information about the world was most conducive to an ethnocentric attitude of maximum psychol- ogical distance from things foreign; additional information increased the complexity and counteracted dislike of the foreign as images became more differentaited and less stereotypicc Generalized xenophobic attitudes tended to be associated with feelings of threat from the inter— such people advocated competitive national environment; New cultural policies instead of COOperative ones, situations provoked acute anxiety when they were perceived as in some way threatening to the visitor's valued habits, his sense of belongingness, and self-esteem, Perceptual defenses then came into play, Coelho applied psycho- ego-defenses analytic theory to cross-cultural learning: retarded new learning in devious ways of which the per— ceiver was usually unconscious, The defenses not merely protected but overprotected the valued self-image and thus narrowed the scope of the visitor's perception of new features in the environment and new possibilities of responding to them,27 —‘ 25Kelman (ed), Scott, op, cite, pc 870 26Ibid), p0 1000 27Coelho, Op, cite, po 17, 33 The Attitudes of American College Youth To better understand the effects of cross-cultural exposure on students, a brief review of the research concerning the attitudes and values of American college youth is appropriate: The section is heavily based on Nevitt Sanford's coverage of student characteristics in The American College, and Lehmann and Dressel's intensive studies concerning the effects of the college experience on students at Michigan State University: Sanford, who was a major author of The Authoritarian Personality, described the effects of the college exper- The ience by contrasting entering freshmen with seniors. freshman stage of development was characterized by stereotyped thinking, intolerance of ambiguity, punitive submissiveness toward the powerful and dominance morality, toward the weak, conventionality, anti-intellectualism, hostility toward people perceived to be different from oneself, perfectionism, hatred of hypocrisy, rigid cate- gories of thought, no internalization of values, need for external support, unstable self—esteem, and general Seniors, in contrast, were pSyChological vulnerability: clearly more flexible and non-compulsive, more tolerant and impunitive, more rebellious and critical of authority, 28Nevitt Sanford, (edu), The American College (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 19625, pp: 261-2611° 34 less orthodox in religious outlook, more rejecting of traditional feminine roles, more unconventional and non- conforming, and more liberal in their views on inter— personal relationshipsu29 Sanford went on to relate current research to his description: Nelson, in a study carried out in the 1930's, found freshmen to be more homogeneous and more conservative than 0 . . . upperclassmen:3 Except for minor discrepanCies, the differences observed-~more liberal attitudes on social issues and a more tolerant attitude towards others-—would be supported today: In 19Al Kuhlen concluded that inter- ests had broadened during college, especially in the case research on attitudes and values I of women:3 In summary, carried out prior to the end of World War II showed that college students generally changed in the direction of greater liberalism and sophistication in their political, social, and religious outlooks: There was also evidence of broadening interests during college years: Undoubtedly the most prominent work in recent years on the tOpic of changes in attitudes and values during the 29Ibid:, p: 276: 30E: Nelson, "Radicalism-Conservatism in Student Attitudes," Psychological Monographs, 50:1-32, 1938, 31R0 Kuhlen, "Changes in Attitudes of Students and Relations of Test Responses to Judgments of Associates," §ghool and Society, 53:5lU-519, 19141° 35 college years has been Jacob's 1957 survey of recent and 32 ongoing investigations. Seventy—five to eighty per cent of all United States college students fit a profile of characteristic values. They were "gloriously contented" in their present activity and in their outlook for the future; they were self-centered and had material aspir- ations; they had an easy tolerance of diversity" and were ready to live in a society without racial, ethnic, or income barriers: The traditional moral virtues, such as sincerity, honesty, and loyalty, were highly valued, but there was little inclination to censor laxity: Daily decisions were socially determined: College was valued mainly for its vocational preparation and its social skills: Jacob concluded that there were few significant changes in values during college years; generally change tended to conform with the above profile° Later studies disagreed with Jacob's static description of college—student devel— Opment: In l958 Webster found that students had become more heterogeneous in attitude during attendance at 33 college: Using the E-Scale, Plant found that those remaining in college became significantly less ethnocentric:3M _* 32P. E: Jacob, Changing Values in College (New York: Harper Bros:, 1957)- 33H. Webster, "Changes in Attitudes During College," lgurnal of Educational Psychology, “91109-117, 19580 . 3uw, T: Plant, "Changes in Ethnocentricism Associated Wlth a Two—Year College Experience," Journal of Genetic Egychology, 92 189—197, 1958: 36 And both Plant and Webster reported that seniors tended to be significantly less ethnocentric than they had been as freshmen. Many of these trends were reaffirmed by the longitudinal studies of the effects of the college exper— 35 ience at Michigan State University. Since the study involves the same institution of higher education and the use of common psychological instruments, it is appropriate to examine closely the work of Lehmann and Dressel. In the 1962 report the authors concluded that students generally became more flexible and less authoritarian from the freshman to the senior year; changed their attitudes towards people of different races, creeds, and religions; altered their Views and Opinions about standards of behavior; became more aware of their own goals in life; developed a better understanding of other people; had greater confidence in their ability to deal with new problems; had a more realistic outlook towards the future; and began to question the moral absolutes in life. The data inferred that the major changes took place sometime during the first two years of college. Lehmann and Dressel suggested that most 35Irving J. Lehmann and Paul L. Dressel, "Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values in Higher Education," Final ngort of the COQperative Research Project No. 590 (East—‘— Lansing: Michigan State University, l962l. Irving J. Lehmann and Paul L. Dressel, "Changes in Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values Associated with College Attendance," Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No, l6fl6 (East Lansing: Michigan State Univer— Sity, 1963). 37 "change" was in the form of reinforcement of the character— istics brought to college. In other words if a student was initially open-minded or inner-directed he would be more so upon graduation. It was also found that males were signifi- cantly more stereotypic in their beliefs, and more dogmatic and unreceptive to new ideas than were females. Whereas females as a group tended to be more emergent-value ("other- directed") oriented, males were more traditional-value ("inner-directed") oriented. The 1963 study by Lehmann and Dressel assumed that student values changed. They then tried to determine whether the formal aspects of education resulted in actual behavioral changes or whether these changes could have been attributed to the general college environment, age (maturational effects), cultural factors, or the times in which they live. The general college atmosphere was credited as a potent factor in shaping the attitudes, values, interests, and beliefs of college students from the freshman to the senior year. College seemed to accelerate the process of change already in operation in society at large. Although females underwent a more marked change, all groups regard— less of sex or length of college attendance became less stereotypic and dogmatic in their beliefs, more receptive to new ideas, and in most cases more traditional—value oriented. 38 The research concerning college student attitude change showed that the influence of a college experience tended to accentuate changes already occurring during that stage of maturation. It was the contention of the current study that an educational program abroad acted as a more potent catalyst in provoking attitude changes. 3. Cross—cultural Adjustment The effects of foreign experience upon student attitudes is put into perspective by reviewing the closely associated factors which contribute to cross-cultural adjustment. Morris used four interrelated indices to measure adjustment: 1. Favorableness to the United States. (Cultural) 2. Personal satisfaction with the experience. (Personal) 3. Satisfaction with the educational facilities. (Educational) A. Amount and kind of social contact with hosts. (Social)36 When the personality type,sfldjjjsand knowledge, goals and eXpectations, and national status of the visitor con— fronted the actual situation, then adjustments were 36Richard T. Morris, The Two—Way Mirror-National §tatus in Foreign Students' Adjustment (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1360), p. 8. 39 necessary. Personality factors determined how a student perceived, defined, and evaluated the realities of the program and the environment. The trauma of finding himself in an alien land where symbols, cues, and relationships have foreign meanings called for emergency ego-reactions. Du Bois stated that a healthy self—esteem, characterized by positive feeling towards host, objectivity, and expansion of goals, was necessary to achieve positive adjustment. Note the simi- larity to Morris' components of adjustment. Unhealthy defensive reactions such as depression, withdrawal, obsessional perseverance, hostility, defensiveness, or over-identification indicated a lack of self-esteem. A successful program abroad should have enhanced one's 37 self—concept. While studying Indian students in the United States, Lambert and Bressler identified three types of ego—reaction to the foreign experience: minimum ego assault, high initial ego assault with gradual diminution, 38 and continued high ego assault. Under the seige of foreign influences self—image was maintained or altered. The attributes of self-image subjected to manipulation were g . 37Cora Du Bois, Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States (Washington: American Council on Education, 1955), pp. 39-40. 38Richard D. Lambert and Marvin Bressler, Indian Students on an American Campus (Minneapolis: University Of Minnesota Press, 1956), pp. 81-88. AD the internal structure—-attitudes and beliefs and their interrelations; or social anchorage——relationships to relevant reference persons or groups. Four patterns of ego—reaction were derived by combining these variables: I. Internalization-—changes in self-perception by reorganizing internal structure. 2. Identification—~changes in self-perception by reshaping the relationships which comprise its social anchorage. 3. Confirmation-—focuses on internal structure but maintains self—perception. A. Resistance—~focuses on social anchorage but maintains self—perception. Usually more than one reaction was taken toward each event and very rarely could one individual always have reacted the same way to all occurrences. However, the analysis did help to explain the alternatives available to an indi~ vidual when adjustment was hampered by insecurity. Activi- ties designed to promote change stimulated each of these reactions. Thus, the process of cross—cultural adjustment could be viewed as a function of one's self-concept as it teetered under the threat of foreign stimuli. Positive adjustment was generally reflected in a high quality of intimate interaction,“O objective openness to change,“1 —_ 39Lotte Bailyn and Herbert C. Kelman, "The Effects of a Year's Experience in America on the Self-Image of Scanda- navians: A Preliminary Analysis of Reactions to a New Environment," The Journal of Social Issues, 18:33—3A, 1962, uoCora Du Bois, Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States (Washington, American Council on _— Education, 1956), p. 93; Sverre Lysgaard, "Adjustment in a Al and a favorable feeling towards the experience.“2 Poor adjustment could be traced to situations that disparaged a person's self—image. Basically a visitor's self-esteem suffered when he did not feel accepted. A program that catered to the students' need for personal involvement by promoting par- ticipation and interaction with the hosts increased the chances for positive adjustment. Besides facilitating adjustment, more interaction led to more close friendships with hosts.“3 And forming close friendships was an even more potent influence on positive adjustment than was a high amount of interaction.M Participation in the foreign culture was a prime requisite for all effective programs, Foreign Society: Norwegian Fulbright Grantees Visiting the United States," International Social Science Bulletin, l7:A7, 1955. ulMorris, op. cit , pp. 66—67. ugStuart W. Cook and Claire Selltiz, "Some Factors Which Influence the Attitudinal Outcomes of Personal Contact," International Social Science Bulletin 7:53, 1955; Richard T. Morris, The Two-Way Mirror (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1960), pp. 74-75; Franklin D. Scott, The American Experience of Swedish Students (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956), p. 122. u3Richard T. Morris, The Two-Way Mirror: National §§atus in Foreign Students' Adjustment (Minneapolis: — University of Minnesota Press, 1960), p. 77. uuSelltiz, et al., Attitudes and Social Relationships of Foreign Students in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1953), p. 294. A2 including the purely "academic." A study of ways of learning and attitude change during an overseas program concluded that participation was superior to both obser— vation and Classroom lectures. Changes of attitude were more durable and teaching was more effective when the program stressed participation.“S Certain program or living environments were conducive to interaction. "Interaction Potential," the extent to which the environment provided occasions for a person to have been with others under circumstances that encouraged communication and getting to know each other, was defined in a study that probed influential environmental factors. The authors indentified the following conditions that affected the development of personal association: 1. Distance between residence and social areas. 2. Community norms of racial or national interaction. 3. Common interests: age and occupations. A. Extent of opportunity for contact with hosts.l47 These program conditions were not the only determinants of interaction potential; pre—arrival factors also related to participation and adjustment. *— 2“iErling O. Shild, "The Foreign Student, as Stranger Learning the Norms of the Host Culture," The Journal of Social Issues, 19:53, 1962. A 6Selltiz, et al., op. cit., p. 88. uYIbid., pp. 6—7. A3 A visitor did not come to a foreign nation with a blank or even an unbiased mind. He brought with him certain preconceptions or cognitive sets, certain emotional needs, and certain more or less realistic expectations. It was from these components of the person that the self— esteem was derived. Most of these personal adjustment factors could be discussed under the categories of person- ality type, skills and knowledge, goals and expectations, and national status. Personality Types Personality types were previously covered in our discussion of the authoritarian personality. But the importance of personal flexibility, security, and freedom from defensiveness needed to be underscored. The Gulla- horns“8 used a familiar Riesman analogy, "an other- directed radar system attuned to the feedback of the group in which one is interacting would have functional survival value when one shifts from one cultural system to another." One's ability to overcome the difficulties of adjustment depended upon the power, stability, and flexibility of certain psychological Operations which probed the foreign _— uaJohn T. Gullahorn and Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis," The Journal of §9cial Issues, 19:38, July, 1963; William H. Sewell and Oluf M. Davidsen, Scandanavian Students on an American Campus (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961). pp. 72-73. AA situation and realistically readjusted goals and means.49 Personality patterns that worked against adjustment also warded off influences of attitude change. Skill and Knowledge The skills and attitudes which facilitated adjustment were acquired through experience. If the host culture was similar to that in which the foreigner was bred then less skill was needed to adjust. Studies of Scandanavian students in the United States indicated little defensiveness 50 or cultural shock to impede the adjustment process. By the same reasoning, those visitors with prior North Amer- ican contact, be it here or in their homeland, adapted more 51 readily to the United States. In fact any amount or type of previous cross—cultural eXperience eased student 52 adjustment in a foreign setting. And this included orientation prior to the sojourn as well as guidance while 53 in the host country. 2(9Leonard Goodwin, American Professors in Asia, prepared for the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Dgpartment of State, Washington, D. C., June 196A, pp. 29, 3 Al The author develOped a Psychological Feedback System which called for sensitive probing and flexible adjustment. 50Franklin D. Scott, The American Experience of Swedish Students (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956), pp. 53, 67, Selltiz, et al., op. cit., pp. 7, 223. El 52Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1963, op. cit. , p. A0; and Selltiz, et a1. op cit., pp 76,155 53Sewell and Davidsen, op. cit., p. 58-60; and Scott, op. cit., p. 5A. Sewell and Davidsen, op. cit., pp. 58-60, 70-71. A5 Subjective evaluation of language skills correlated with interaction with nationals, and more involvement 5“ Language proficiency further developed language skills. allowed for richer and more satisfying cultural contacts and communication with people, thereby leading to a real understanding of the host country. If the local idiom was not spoken with reasonable fluency a student found himself completely excluded from any society but his .55 own Ability to communicate with host countrymen and to understand the workings of the foreign society and its individuals helped a student to feel involved with and accepted by the hosts. This participation bolstered self- esteem and thus aided adjustment. The goals and expectations of a visitor reflected his needs and priorities; a student's statement of goals indicated the means he would use to attain them. Many factors were related to patterns of expectation—-age or educational status, major field of study, type of program, and the foreign situation encountered. A younger traveler, or one less committed to scholarly achievement in a limited 56 area of knowledge, generally interacted more. Those with .__i 5“Jeanne E. Gullahorn and John T. Gullahorn, "American Students Abroad: Professional vs. Personal Development,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, "Americans Abroad,” Richard D. Lambert (Special Editor), 368:A7, A9, November, 1966. 55Stephen A. Freeman, ”Undergraduate Study Abroad," A jgport of the Consultive Service on United States Under- — graduate Study Abroad, Institute of International Education, 196A, pp. 26, 38. A6 interests in professional, technical, or special studies like natural science did not usually involve themselves in the culture as did the more gregarious students inter— ested in general and liberal education such as the 57 humanities or social sciences. A duality existed whereby a student chose between mutually exclusive goals-- 58 academic or interactive. The "cost" of interaction varied with the goals. Students who did not travel for specific occupational or academic objectives but for social- cultural reasons (seeing the country and meeting the people) were actually more likely to have had contacts and established relationships with members of the host 59 country. These persons were also more likely to change attitudes due to the experience abroad.6O However, both the 56Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1966, op. cit., p. A7; Scott, op. cit., pp. 55-57. 57Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1966, Ibid; Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "A Factorial Study of International Communication and Professional Consequences Reported by the Fulbright and Smith-Mundt Grantees, l9A7—l957," (Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 196“), pp. 10A, 108; Sewell and Davidsen, op. cit., pp. 8-9; Morris, op. cit., p. 105. 58 59Herbert C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 19653, Chapter XV by Anita L. Mishler, p. 558; Selltiz, et al., op. cit., pp. AO—Al, 77, 78, 107, 267. 60Ralph L. Beals and Norman D. Humphrey, No Frontier §g_Learning--The Mexican Student in the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957), p. 59. Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1966, op. cit., p. A3. A7 "adjustment" and the favor with which the experience was viewed were relative terms and must be considered in the light of expectations. How a person defined his objec— tives prior to the sojourn led to cultural shock, frus- tration, despondency, and poor adjustment when, in the light of reality, these goals could not be adjusted or attained. National Status The national status of a visitor was hardly an issue until, by arriving in a foreign culture, he became a member of a very small minority. At that point the status feeling of all foreign students underwent a degree of shock because they now had to handle a new criterion of status, nationality. Du Bois61 expressed the process well: What the foreign student conceives as the status of his nation, particularly in comparison to his host country, is usefully designated as felt national status. Reciprocally, what individuals in the host country conceive to be the status of the student's country is usefully designated as accorded national status. If the foreign student's felt national status ranks considerably higher than the status accorded his country in the host nation, then the adjustment he makes may diminish his self-esteem. EVidence suggested strongly that a primary determinant Of student perception of the host country was how he saw ¥ 61Du Bois, op. cit., p. A2. This analysis was supported and elaborated upon by the work of Richard T. Morris, The Two-Way Mirror. A8 his own culture.62 It was not the relative position but the discrepancy that the visitor perceived between his own and the host's view of his homeland that resulted in 63 strong feelings. Those who placed their own country high were more satisfied and less involved with their homeland, while those who placed it low were less satis— fied and more involved.614 The influence of the factor of national status on the self-image and on attitudes and behavior was condi- tioned by the strength of the student's involvement with 65 Thus the "Ambassador" role was not his home country. evolved in a vacuum, it was a response to the image which the host country held of his homeland. The defensive reaction that stemmed from the threat to felt national status was a barrier to open-minded understanding.66 The analysis of a Mexican student in the United States with low felt national status was interesting: 2 . Lambert and Bressler, op. Cit., p. 55; and Sewell and Davisden, op. cit., pp. 5— 63 6A Morris, op- cit., p. 1A. Ibid., p. 69. 65Ibid , p. 13. 6Lambert and Bressler, op. cit., p. 71. This view of the "Ambassador” role is generally held by researchers of cross-cultural adjustment. See: Freeman, op. cit., p. 15; and Kelman (ed.), Mishler, Op. cit., pp. 556—557. “9 He became more sensitive to the less desirable aspects of Mexican life, although at the same time he may resent criticism by North Americans even more than before . . he became both more and less nationalistic.67 The Process of Adjustment Researchers have labeled, charted, and divided into stages the overall process of cross-cultural adjustment. The Social Science Research Council's Committee on Cross- Cultural Education at the suggestion of M. Brewster Smith adopted the following phases of adjustment: the spec- tator, the adaptive, the "coming to terms," and the 68 predeparture. These phases were explained in the following description of the adjustment process: Initially the sojourners report feelings of elation and optimism associated with positive expectations regarding interaction with their hosts. As they actually become involved in role relationships and encounter frustrations in trying to achieve certain goals when the proper means are either unclear or unacceptable, they become confused and depressed and express nega— tive attitudes regarding the host culture. If they are able to resolve the difficulties encoun- tered during this crucial phase of the accultur— ation process then they achieve a modus vivendi enabling them to work effectivelggand to inter— act positively with their hosts. A graph of the adjustment process dropped from its initial peak as problems and frustrations were encountered. If goals could be modified and self-esteem recovered, then a 67Beals and Humphrey, op. cit., p. 105. 68Cu Bois, op. cit., p. 67. rn and Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "An 69 John T“ Gullaho " The Journal of Social Extension of the U—Curve Hypothesis, Issues, 19:3A. 5O visitor could resolve his difficulties and the line of adjustment would turn up, forming the familiar U-Curve of adjustment. The Gullahorns suggested that the total exchange experience be referred to as a W-Curve rather than a U-shaped curve to better "characterize the temporal patterning in individual reactions to foreign settings and subsequently to their home cultures."70 The student's feelings toward his homeland corresponded to his judgments concerning the host culture. Initially he was uncritical toward both home and host; soon a period of disillusionment followed that led to a stage during which he was highly critical of both cultures. At this "crisis of criticism" the student was painfully unlearning his idealism so that he might objectively learn. The critical feeling about one's homeland remained even during the resolution of difficulties in the host culture. Therefore, anxiety about the return home haunted most visitors until they had adjusted to the situation back home.71 Using Coelho's categories one could present a tentative timetable of adjustment. First came Idealism-Disillusionment-New Per- spectives (18-36 months), where increased differentiation allowed one to appreciate the host culture while still being critical. This was followed by Alienation (after 70Ibid., p. 3A. 71Coe1ho, op. cit., pp. 37, A0. 51 A years), where one identified more strongly with host 72 culture than with homeland. A summer abroad seemed to leave students in the process of disillusionment with both their homeland and the country visited. The educational process of "coming to terms" with the foreign culture was not part of the brief experience. A. Attitude Change from Overseas Study A cross-cultural experience did not assure increased tolerance. It may have so disturbed certain personalities that it served only to have made them defensively reinforce 73 the boundaries of their familiar world. Whatever broadening of mind and personality resulted from a foreign experience could never be defined closely or measured with 7A precision. The "broadening" was often referred to by students, parents, and administrators, but scientific methods of substantiation were scarce. Problems of defi- nition, instrumentation, and control of variables have plagued researchers in the field; however, some limited successes have been achieved. 72 73 7A Ibid., pp. 37, AO. Du Bois, op. cit , pp. 52-53. Scott, op. cit., p. 67. 52 Using the Social Distance Scale, Pace found students who had participated in programs abroad were more personally tolerant of persons different from themselves, and more inclined to endorse policies which promoted the freer exchange of ideas, goods, and people among nations.75 Beals and Humphrey noted a breaking down of stereotypes and increased powers of differentiation which led to important changes toward greater egalitarianism, increased cooper— ativeness, greater open—mindedness, and more feelings of social responsibility. Also national feelings changed to more worldly understanding. Scott used an "opinion- reflector" (or program analyzer) with Swedes and determined that those who returned from the United States not only knew more about the United States but also had fewer 77 prejudices and greater worldmindedness. Later, the author concluded the following: The foreign study experience does not subtract from life, it adds. It gives one choices, but these are not either-or choices; they are rather the choices of ingredients to be blended into a larger totality. He who has these a ditions and these choices is a richer freer man. Thus, the eXperience of discovering how a strange culture 75Robert C. Pace, The Junior Year in France (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1959), pp. 33, 65, 76 77 78 Beals and Humphrey, op. cit., pp. 105,109. Scott, 0p. cit., p. Al. Ibid., p. 102. 53 approached the fulfillment of basic human needs expanded the visitor's perception. The development of sophistication manifested itself in many ways generally too subtle for detection by scientists. 5. Discussion of Previous Research Discussion in the fifth section attempts to summarize the research pertinent to the current study and to intro- duce the next chapter on research design. Measuring changes in attitude was a difficult research task. Of the main studies reviewed Taba, Smith, and McGuigan stated that deeply-rooted attitudes did not change readily. Riecken's psychological evaluation of cross— cultural summer work camps showed that during a brief season of intense involvement participants became signif— icantly less authoritarian and ethnocentric, and more democratic. Also trends toward less anxiety and aggression and a more social orientation were noted. McGuigan found that the experimental group differed from the control group after treatment in that they had higher social values and more submissive social adjustment. Analyzing the high "changers" in his study of the attitude of worldmindedness, Smith stated that they came mostly from'mnathird quartile of the Worldmindedness Scale pretest. This was attributed to the "ceiling" effects at the first quartile and the tendency for the lowest quartile to merely reinforce 54 previous attitudes. In their discussions of psychological censorship Taba, Coelho, and Klineberg helped to emphasize the importance of pre-sojourn attitudes. There were psychological states of readiness when a person was more open to change. Both the "readiness" or "Openness" of the student and the nature of the stimulus contributed to the probability of change. Change was more probable when it reinforced previous attitudes. Since change could only be derived through the intake of new imformation, and the ability to perceive was influenced by the psychological patterns of the individual, pretests indicating a person's psychological receptivity were essential to predict change. A dogmatic (closed-minded) person who closely fits the authoritarian personality pattern was not psychologically ready for change. Foreigners or any form of "out-group" were threatening to him; thus he had desperately to defend and compete against them. Being preoccupied with protecting his tenuous self-image, he became relatively insensitive to the needs of others. He could not empathize. Because emotion was repressed, the range of response to stimuli was very narrow. The repres- sion was expressed as hostility and competition which were reflected in low Worldmindedness scores. In a foreign culture he found conflict between his ethnocentric attitudes and his dependency upon an external value system. 55 Maintenance of his psychological system depended upon drastically distorted or selective perception and insulation from the threat of cultural differences (e.g. withdrawal, or emphasis on a narrow academic field which minimized interaction). The college experience was purported to accomplish the same changes as was exposure to a foreign culture. Both experiences liberalized ideas, increased tolerance of dif- ferences, broke down stereotypes, learned to differentiate, sharpened critical judgment, and developed independence. Both flexibility and sensitivity were developed by the college experience. And adjustment to a cross—cultural situation necessitated flexibility and sensitivity. Any variable associated with a visitor's acceptance by his hosts affected self-esteem. The reaction of a person who did not feel respect or acceptance from others was antagonism, resistance, defensiveness, and insecurity. Lan— guage fluency allowed one to become involved in the culture. Also a loss or gain of felt national status was an important determinant of self-esteem. Over—involvement with one's homeland, as manifested in the "Ambassador" role, was inter- preted as a defensive response to low felt national status. Thus insecurity could be traced from low self-esteem to lack of involvement, to poor adjustment, to little change in attitude. Expectations also played a primary role in 56 how much immersion took place. The "cost" of interaction for those with academic—professional goals was higher than those motivated for social-cultural reasons. Also, evidence suggested that often "other—directed" peOple adjusted more easily to a new culture because of their sensitive and conforming character. Research that substantiated increases in tolerance and worldmindedness was sparce. A review of the literature suggested that future efforts consider the following features in the research design: I. The use of a sample population in which the number of personal and program variables are limited and subject to control and in which the size of the sample permits manipulation of the research design, generalizability of findings, and confident interpretation. 2. Ideally the sample should be randomly selected. However, the nature of the treatment attracts a self—selected population based upon financial means, grades, interests, or other factors. The difficulty in selecting randomly is reflected in the use of "control" groups which are not equiva— lent to the "experimental" group. 3. A control group is necessary for the identifica— tion of significant change. Also, use of a non— treatment group helps to control the effects of 57 many variables. The validity of the total design, however, is dependent upon the degree of similarity between the control and the experimental groups. Attempts should be made to subtly disguise the purpose of questions, tests, batteries, and the total project. These efforts minimize reactions to tests and to the research situation. When randomization is impossible pertinent pre-sojourn attitudes should be measured so that they might later be related to adjustment and attitude change. These pre-tests and question- naires must be independent of the post-sojourn instruments. A limited number of relevant variables should be chosen so that test fatigue and low statistical power can be avoided. This makes it easier to cloud the purposes of the project. Recently computerization has paved the way for more efficient statistical treatment of the data. And advanced statistical techniques such as the multiple uses of analyses of variance or covariance and non-parametric statistics should allow for more productive use of data and research Opportunities. 58 8. To best measure the effects of an experience abroad it is recommended that pre—tests and post-tests be arranged as near 39 the actual experience as possible. Thus the intrusion of confounding variables such as mortality or maturation are prevented. 9. Although interviews are difficult to quantify they can be used to sense feelings too subtle for psychologicalinstrumentsto detect. There— fore, whenever possible formal interviews should supplement other methods of data collection. lO. Whenever possible many approaches should be used to measure the same dimension. Too often the only source available is the subjective statement of the subject on a paper and pencil instrument. ll. Various opportunities for follow-up studies should not be lost after the initial data collection. The following chapter describes how many of these features are implemented in the research design of the current study. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Chapter III begins with descriptions of the population and sample, after which the nature of the instruments and the process of administration are discussed. The presen— tation of the hypotheses and statistical models used and a discussion of the limitations of the study complete the chapter. The purpose of the study was to explore how selected variables related to changes in the attitude of worldminded— ness and how these personal and situational variables related to each other in the context of an intensive eXperience in another culture. A background questionnaire and a battery of three tests were given to the total freshmen class of Justin Morrill College prior to the summer Overseas Study Program in which approximately one—third of the students participated. Upon their return to college the same class retook the Worldmindedness Scale. Those who had participated in the Overseas Study Program (the experimental group) filled out a questionnaire regarding the experience abroad. 59 6O Pppulation and Sample Justin Morrill College, a small, experimental school dedicated to the liberal arts, first opened its doors in the Fall of 1965. Located within the campus of Michigan State personal nature of a small institution. From the formative faculty committees the college inherited a cross-cultural theme which was reflected in its curriculum. Each student was required to take a year of intensive training in French, Russian, or Spanish with a goal of approaching fluency comparable to that of a college junior studying the language. Through language fluency potential exists for deeply understanding another culture. Also, at the end of their freshman year students were encouraged to enroll for a twelve—credit Overseas Study Program. In the spring of 1966 Justin Morrill College had enrolled 287 students, 235 of whom returned the following fall. Using the number who returned as the total possible sample, 89%, or 208 students, completed all phases of the pPOject. Of the ninety-one participants in the experimental group four transferred to other schools prior to fall of 1956. Of the eighty—seven remaining six failed to complete all sections of the research: three missed the pre-sojourn battery, one would not complete the Post-sojourn Question- naire, another did not identify himself on the Differential 61 Values Inventory, and the last did not take the Post- soyMHWIWorldmindedness Scale. Therefore, 93% of the experimental group, and 86% of the control group (127 out of 1A8) were represented in the tabulations. The students not completing all phases of the project were examined as to their representativeness. TABLE 3.1 Characteristics of the Population and Sample of Justin Morrill College (JMC) Students-—Fall, 1966 JMC Sophomores Sample Experimental Control Registered Fall, Percent- 1966 age 2 c C o o o -H 0H S 4-) $3 3 .‘3 2 3 .53 £1 5 o. 3 o. d o a E a a a a 8 (g n. U) m m Male 36 32 71 52 107 8A 79% Female 51 “9 77 75 128 12“ 97% Total 87 81 1A8 127 235 208 Sample Percent— age 93% 86% 89% In Table 3.1 an interesting dichotemy was indicated between the high proportion of females (97%) and the relatively low 62 proportion of males (79%) completing the project. A plaus- ible explanation was that the females were more conscientious than their male counterparts in responding to the question- naires and batteries. Perhaps they were more apt to attend the classes in which the pre-test and post-tests were given. Also they could have been more responsive to followup requests. Maybe the more individualistic, aggressive image of the college male could have been developed into an expla— nation for relatively less male cooperation. One could have conjectured that a followup note (in many cases later followed by a telephone call) was more intriguing when the name Lientified. a member of the opposite sex. Although the sampling weakness was most evident in the male control group, it also manifested itself in the groupcfl‘male students who participated in study abroad. The 1966 spring grade point average of the total Justin Morrill College male population was exactly the same as that of the males included in our sample; therefore those students not completing the project could not have deviated significantly. Also, the language prOportions of our sample accurately reflected that of the total population, indicating that those not included in our tabulations were scattered randomly among the languages offered. Table 3.1 also reflected higher response from the experimental (93%) than from the control group (86%). Besides the fact that those going abroad were probably more 63 conscientious about attending language class (as inferred by their grades), the researcher admits to concentrating more effort on securing response from the crucial experi- mental group. Of the six participants from the Overseas Study Programs not sampled, five were from the French group, one fromtflw Russian program, and none from among those in Madrid. The numbers were proportional to the size of the total Justin Morrill College contingent in each country. When the pre-sojourn academic averages of the missing sample were compared to that of the experimental sample, not only is there no overall deviation, but the Russian student and the average of the five French partici- pants were not different from their respective national grouping. Therefore, scrutiny of the population not included presented no misgivings regarding pre-sojourn grade point or language distribution. But the disproportionate male response caused concern. There were major advantages to be gained in studying the particular population and sample. Compared to other studies of American students abroad the experimental and control groups were large, and the variations among programs were relatively distinct. In addition to the size of the groups, the commonalities of the population were appreciated. Each student was accepted by Michigan State University and chose the new liberal arts school, Justin Morrill College. To 61: some degree their choice denoted interests mainly in the humanities and social sciences and, in general, a verbal and socially—oriented population. Many of these students entered college with strong inclinations toward the languages. Throughout the year heavy language requirements weeded out those students not capable of meeting them. Because the population consisted of all freshmen, age was a relatively controlled factor. Also the basic courses did not allow for much curricular difference. All students took eight hours of language along with college or uni— versity electives, usually in the Humanities-Social Science fields. Justin Morrill and Michigan State regulations assured that a vast majority of the population resided in Snyder-Phillips Halls. Thus the college community and the residential environment supplemented each other to insulate the population from developmental variation. Due to the personal similarities and the commonalities of their college experience one could have inferred that there was a narrow range of other pertinent variables. For instance social mores, academic objectives, and occupational plans are but a few of the areas in which relative consensus might have been predicted. Such homogeniety within a population was uncommon and helped in the identification of factors influential in attitude change. Despite these commonal- ities, later analysis indicated some fundamental differences between the control and experimental sample groups. 65 TABLE 3.2 Comparison of Mean Scores of the Control and Experimental Groups on Uncoded or Interval Personal and Background Variables Easing? start... as 3:22p Pre—Worldmindedness 119.32 116.30 117.45 Post—Worldmindedness 121.20 116.82 118.A9 Dogmatism 1H0.u3 191.58 141.1“ Differential Values Inventory 31.88 30.37 30.96 *Spring Grade Point Average 2.985 2.769 2.851 Fall Term Grades 2.651 2.679 2.668 *Language Grades 2.957 2-8114 2.869 *Significant at the .05 level on the Mann-Whitney U Test. In Tables 3.2 and 3.3 the means are given for each variable for the experimental, control, and total group. The Mann-Whitney U test distinguished between those who went overseas and those who did not in language grades, spring G.P.A., spring-fall grade discrepancy, and father's education. The experimental and control groups differed in their grades as follows: 66 TABLE 3.3 Comparison of Mean Scores of the Control and Experimental Groups on Coded or Ordinal Personal and Background Variables Modal Control Variable Response gxpeiimfintal Sample ?g::% EPOUp Category amp e ean Mean ean *Father's Two Year Education College- 3.93 3.52 3.67 B.A.or B.S. Family Income $10-15,000 3.72 3.52 3.60 Number of States Visited 5-10 states 3.20 2.95 3.05 Months out of U. S. 1-3 months 1.17 1.55 1.A0 Months in Non- English 0-3 months 0.83 1.23 1.07 Cultures *Significant at the .05 level on the Mann-Whitney U test. The Total group correlation between spring G.P.A. and fall grades was relatively low (.58). The total group correlation between spring G.P.A. and first year language grades was . relatively high (.89) and even higher Within the E-group alone (E.93, C.87). The language grades of the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group. The distribution, especially for the experimental group, was distinctly bi-modal with many in the E—group very high in language grades. The different A. The differences between were mainly in the realm of grades. was a large determinant of t 67 The spring G.P.A. was significantly higher for the experimental group than the control group. Both distributions were distinctly bi-modal. The discrepancy between spring G.P.A. and fall term grades significantly reflected the relatively severe drop of the eXperimental group when compared to the control group. The C-group actually had higher grades than the E~group fall term, 1967. The fall grades of the E-group also extended their spread (Standard Deviation) much more than the C- group. And the distribution of grade discrepancy of the E-group was distinctly bi-modal while the C-group distribution was erratic. Close examination of the experimental group shift in grades showed that eleven persons fell more than 1.0 from spring G.P.A. to fall grades, while only one student in the E-group increased his grade 1.0 or more. The control group, although half again as large, had nine students drop more than 1.0 while four gained 1.0 or more over their Spring G.P.A.'s. level of father's education was found to be for the two groups as follows: The educational level achieved by the fathers of the experimental students was significantly higher than that achieved by the fathers of those students who remained in the United States. (X2 = .001 level of significance). The correlation between level of father's education and family income was relatively low (.23), as was the correlation between father's education and Spring G.P.A. (.09). the control and experimental groups Ability in language he spring G.P.A. because half Of the first year curriculum was intensive language study. 68 Thus those with high spring G.P.A. would have been inter— ested in and had ability in language. Language training was probably an attractive feature to those who chose Justin Morrill College. And those among the freshmen who did well in language would have seriously considered a program abroad that was designed to teach language. Con— versely, when language dragged a student's grades down throughout his first year then he would not have been likely to devote his summer to a language study program abroad. Also, a student with good language grades would have had a good selling point in dealing with the family who subsidized his sojourn. A more educated man would probably have married a woman with relatively equal educational achievement. Together they may have created a family environment that encouraged eXploration and travel. The student bred in such an environment was more ready to invest himself in a program abroad even though the returns were not tangible or practical. The parents of such a student might also have been more receptive to the idea of participation. The student spent the summer in Europe and returned to college in the fall. During that term his grades decreased substantially and he dropped or deferred many more courses than his roommate who had remained in America. Students attributed their decrease in grade point average to many factors:1 69 1. They had attended school for five consecutive terms and needed a break. 2. They were no longer taking proportionately as much language as they had the freshman and that had been their "grade booster". 3. Coursework had lost some of its relevance. They just could not seem to "get started". A. Since the students and administration of Justin Morrill College had placed high values on going abroad, the participants had to c0pe with the prestige of having done the "in" thing. 5. They were still readjusting to their return to America. They had yet to reconcile the new ideas and perspectives provoked by the exposure to a foreign culture. The dramatic lowering of grades among the experimental sample was, in large part, the function of a few students whose grades fell extremely. Administration Any discussion of the administration of the instru- ments must stress attempts to disguise the actual purpose of the project, and the sequential process of gathering the data. If students were able to determine the reasons under- 1Ying a scale, then their responses might not have been to l d b a sam 1e of The decrease in grades was discusse y p the 1966 participants during a video-tape of the Ovegfieagmc Study Programs in winter, 1967, and at a meetinghof i : Faculty-Student Committee on Overseas Study in t e wtn er term of 1967. The summer 1967 returnees discussed a l t d length the difficulty in readjusting to seemingly unre6a e coursework at a JMC Overseas Followup Weekend, fallllg 7. Also a preliminary study of the fall grades of the 9d? JMC returnees revealed the same sharp decrease in gra es. 70 the individual items, but to their feelings about what the test and the project were seeking. Either they would have given the researcher what they felt he wanted, or they would have rebelled and reacted negatively. If one was subtle in planning the administration of a battery, test reaction would be minimized. In the following presenta- tion steps were taken that helped to hide the real reasons for both the tests and the total project. The pre-sojourn test battery consisted of three tests and took less than forty minutes to complete. The D-Scale and the W—Scale were intertwined with no apparent pattern, and a common answer coding and answer sheet was used for both tests. The D.V.I. was given separately and required a different answer sheet. The forced-choice format of the latter instrument elicited feelings of hostility and many intentional omissions and extra answers and remarks made follow—up necessary. Also, a relatively common error was to neglect to mark a student number on the D.V.I. answer sheet; in the final tabulations eight sample— members had to be dropped for this omission. The pre— sojourn battery was administered to all Justin Morrill College students during regularly scheduled language classes by the normal class instructors less than two weeks prior to spring term finals. Uniform instructions given to each language teacher included the explanation for the battery: to help define the unique characteristics of the 71 Justin Morrill College population. The same statement of purpose also introduced each battery distributed to the students. Because the students were in a new experimental college psychological tests were not novel. And the use of the language classes was natural since that was the only class meeting which all students attended daily. The fact that all classes gave the battery with no announcement on the Monday or Tuesday of that week minimized planned reaction or the forming of preconceptions. Later that week, after all the class—batteries had been collected, the instructors dispersed the Pre—sojourn Questionnaire. The students seemed to accept the explanation offered by a cover letter signed by the College Dean: to analyze the appeal of, and the population participating in, the Over— seas Study Programs. The ten-minute questionnaire did not have to be completed in class but was to be handed in to the instructor. In the last weeks before the summer term exodus the researcher reviewed each answer sheet and checked off the battery and questionnaire for all students enrolled in the College. Each person whose data were not complete was sent a brief personal note asking them to Visit my office and leaving much room for curiosity. The note was complemented by nightly attempts to set up appointments over the phone. In the office students were asked if they would mind correcting an error on the answer sheet or if they could reconsider a blank answer in the 72 light of a more comprehensive research picture. Others came to take the whole battery or portions of it. For— tunately the nature of the questionnaire was such that those not responding to follow—up requests in the spring were able to give the needed background information in the fall. These questionnaires were extensively spot- checked and supplemented by college data and personal student files. The summer began. Ninety—one students went to Europe and most of the controlgmmnn>went to summer jobs through~ out Michigan and the United States. The 69 students in Lausanne and the eight in Madrid had similar programs: they arrived in Europe in early July; they took two five- week academic sessions at A.M.L.E.C. Centers, delving into language, humanities, and social science with European instructors; they lived in private homes or pensions as boarders; the Justin Morrill Language Directors served as program administrators and taught some classes; and they returned home in mid—September. Besides the more obvious language and cultural variations, there were major program differences. The size of the Justin Morrill College American student contingent was such that the Lausanne students were more cohesive but also more insulated from assimilation into the local culture. When one considers the relative character of the two cities differences emerge. The size of Madrid, as well as its urban variety, offers 73 multi-faceted opportunities, while the tourist industry of Lausanne camouflages the local culture. Another factor limiting the large Lausanne group from depth—immersion was the location and reputation of Switzerland as the travel hub of Europe. These students traveled nearly every weekend; in seeing "everything" they missed much. Students in Spain traveled some, but both the cultural mores restricting females and geographic factors kept them within Spain. The Russian program was different. The students left in mid-June and returned in late August. They were housed and taught at the University of Moscow. Coursework was a technical study of the language and it was condensed into a full six—day week. The fourteen Justin Morrill students lived in dormitories with other Americans but were free to explore Moscow. After the six weeks of schooling the itinerary included group travel within the U.S.S.R. Two weeks were Spent in a Kiev Youth Camp closely interacting with Russian students. A Michigan State University professor and his knowledgeable wife directed the Michigan State group and two Justin Morrill Russian graduate assistants were called upon for occasional help. Fall term classes began at the end of September. Since Justin Morrill s0phomores are required to take a sequence of Natural Science, fifteen minutes of this class were used to administer the second Worldmindedness Scale 7A to all students early in the first week of classes. The 32- item test was given unannounced by the regular instructor during a normal class period. Prior instructions were brief and uniform and no reference was made to the total nature of the project. The explanation centered around comparing Justin Morrill College students to their univer- sity counterparts. Once more confidentiality was assured and only student numbers were requested. Independent of the scale, all those who had studied abroad were notified by the Justin Morrill College Office of Overseas Study Programs of a meeting for an evening later in the week. At the meeting, as Assistant Director of Overseas Study, the researcher made some brief announcements, then requested each of the 65 students present to fill out the Post-sojourn Questionnaire. Followup through October in the form of notes, telephone calls, and mailed scales and questionnaires led to many office appointments and the relatively high percentage of the population who were included in the final analysis. In conclusion, many steps were taken to shroud the central purpose of the project: 1. All students were included; no undue attention was drawn to the eXperimental group. 2. The scales were given without announcement during regular classes. 3. A variety of familiar people administered the instruments. The variety helped to disassociate the project segments; and the familiar faces toned down students' test- reaction. 75 A. The uniform explanations given to students were logical, and the Dean and faculty lent credence to it. 5. Overseas Programs were linked only to the questionnaires. Here the association was obvious and not something to which students would object or react negatively. 6. The tests were administered separately from the questionnaires; thus the instruments were not linked. 7. Individual scales were mixed together without pattern so that each helped cloud the purpose of the other. It was felt that incorporation of these precautions was more valuable than the price exacted. Involving many instructors added classroom and personal variables. And separating the segments chronologically made follow-up more harried and tended to reduce sample. After completion of instruments the data were analyzed using a Control Data 3600 Computer. Four programs were run: Correlation, Chi Square, Mann-Whitney U, and Analysis of Covariance. Instrumentation2 Three instruments were given to both the control and experimental groups prior to summer term. The pre-sojourn battery was designed to determine what portion of student values was influenced by outside forces, how receptive each individual was to change, and how the student defined ‘ 2 COpies of all instruments used and how they were Scored are found in Appendix A. 76 his country in the world context. Upon return in the fall each student repeated the Worldmindedness Scale so that any change influenced by the summer eXperiences might be measured. The three scales used were the Differential Values Inventory, the Dogmatism Scale, and the Worldminded— ness Scale. 1. Prince's Differential Values Inventory»(D.V.l.) The scale consists of 64 pairs of items. In each question the subject had to choose either an emergent or a traditional answer. A score was determined by adding up all the traditional answers. The average score for 2,7A6 Michigan State University freshmen was 3A.15, with the males averaging 1.08 higher than the females. The range of possible scores was from O-6A. Low scores indicated an emergent value-orientation in accord with the sub-scales concerning sociability, relativism, present-time orienta- tion, and conformity. High scores implied a traditional value-orientation with emphases on the Puritan morality, future-time orientation, individualism, and work-success ethic sub-scales. The Riesman terms of "other-directed" and "inner-directed" were used to classify emergent and traditional values respectively. According to Lehmann and Dressel the reliability of the traditional value score 77 was .75, and the test-retest reliability is .70.3 The Kuder-Richardson internal reliability was .82 using formula #20. The Differential Values Inventory was used because it delved into the question of what type of influences the particular student was receptive to. These influences helped to determine the pattern of attitude formation. Research has indicated that "other-directed" persons were more sensitive to their surroundings. Sensitivity should lead to better adjustment, which would be reflected in a greater capacity for new perspec- tives to change attitudes. 2. Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Form E (D. Scale) The D. Scale consists of AO statements with which subjects were asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement along a six-point continuum. The score obtained was a measure of general authoritarianism and differed from the California F-Scale which, according to Rokeach, relies too heavily on prejudice in defining authoritarianism. The score was calculated by adding 160 to the algebraic sum of the plus and minus responses; scores could range from +40 to +280. High scores were * 3Irving J. Lehmann, and Paul L. Dressel, "Changes in Critical Thinking Ability, Attitudes, and Values Associated with College Attendance," Final Report of Cooperative Egsearch Project No. 16A6 (East Lansing, Michigan State University, 1963), pp. 28-29. 78 considered dogmatic and unreceptive to new ideas; low scores were considered flexible, adaptive, and receptive to new ideas. In the Lehmann and Dressel study testing 2,7U6 Michigan State University freshmen, the mean score was 165.98, with females scoring A.63 lower than the male subjects. The validity of the instrument was substantiated by Rokeach, using the "Known Groups" method.l1L Reliability for the samples of this study was .67 based on the Kuder— Richardson formula #20. The Dogmatism Scale conveyed the mental set of a person to any experiences that might have influenced attitudes and values. Exposure to foreign culture was viewed as an Opportunity to objectively perceive new styles of life and to use these insights as points of reference for new developments in feeling and behavior. Or one could have seen the alien social and physical environs as a threat to the equilibrium of the complex interrelated struc— ture upon which their very ego depended. In the latter case unconscious processes censored and distorted any information that could have upset the "comfort" of the insecure present. A researcher studying attitude change would have profited by knowing to what degree a subject was defensed against the unfamiliar. An understanding of the "price" of change was helpful in predicting change in attitudes or values. g ulbid., p. 28. 79 3. Sampson's Worldmindedness Scale (W-Scale) The scale was comprised of 32 items--l6 world- oriented and 16 nationally-oriented. The subject was asked to indicate his degree of agreement or disagreement on a six-point continuum. Items were scored on a 0, +1, +2, +A, +5 and+6 basis and then added algebraically; therefore, the possible range extended from 0 to 192. Previous work by the author indicated that unselected 5 student groups scored within a 123-128 range. Since the score averaged a weight of approximately four per item it revealed that students tended to be mildly worldminded. A high score implied a worldminded subject, with a broad View of humanity who identified with mankind beyond national and political boundaries. He stressed the commonalities of all peOple and saw the future evolving through world-wide cooperation. A low score inferred a nationally-minded subject for whom patriotism was a leading force. He tended to be concerned with domestic plights and saw outside influences as causes of aggravation. He was generally competitive and pessimistic about past and future coopera- tion among nations. To him divisions in accord with differences were basic and natural. 5Donald L. Sampson, and Howard P. Smith, "A Scale to Measure World-Minded Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology, A5z99-106, 1957. 80 The Worldmindedness Scores were correlated with other instruments and the high and low scores were further defined. When correlated with the ll-item Ethnocentricism Scale of the California Public Opinion Scale the Pearson coefficient was -.71 which indicated a high negative association between worldmindedness and ethnocentricism. Also a negative correlation of -.A6 was found with the ll-item Facism Scale of the California Scale. Further application of correlation coefficients showed significant negative associations with political—economic conservatism and with authoritarian attitudes. There was a positive correlation with belief in democratic group processes. Practical use of the Worldmindedness Scale gave this researcher further insights. Previous applications of the instrument gave cause to question the sensitivity of the scale. Feeble directions were revealed but the solid support of statistical significance was lacking. Doubts were also raised about the validity of the instrument. A high score could be arrived at through many motives: l. Hostility—-a hate of one's homeland. 2. Alienation--lack of identification with and/ or feelings of rejection of one's homeland. 3. Idealism--a "rosy" view of reality. A. Ignorance--little practical knowledge about economic ramifications. Thus the meaning of a high score was debatable. 81 There was much confusion as to the point of reference to use in answering the items. Should one have used a "status quo" or short-term approach, keeping the reality of current inequities in mind, or was the stance of the reformer looking to the long-range, the ideal, more appropriate? The author evenly divided the 32 items into eight sub-categories: religion, immigration, government, eco- nomics, patriotism, races, education, and war. However, these concepts would then be mixed into a single question, leaving a sense of frustration when a subject agreed strongly with one concept but not with the other. For example: Question l--Our country should have the right to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to live. The question combined the concepts of race, religion, and immigration. Also, when devising the four questions for each sub-category, some were merely repetitious while others were scattered over a much broader conceptual range. The reliability of the Worldmindedness Scale by use of a Product-Moment Correlation between odd and even questions was .93.6 Also a test-retest correlation with a small sample of 33 students over a 28 day period was .93. Sub—scales have not been tested for reliability. In the current Justin Morrill College study the Kuder—Richardson g 6Ibid. 82 #20 test of internal reliability was .68 on the pre-test and .67 on the post-test scale. These reliability coeffi— cients are lower than previous claims had indicated. However, the correlation between Pre-sojourn Worldminded— ness and Post-sojourn Worldmindedness scores in this study was a respectable .81. Therefore, the lack of high reliability for the criterion factor could have contributed substantially to a lack of significance. The authors claimed validity on two counts~~internal consistency and the "Known Group" technique. Because the format of the test consisted of 32 items divided into 16 Nation-minded and 16 World-minded items and these were further divided into eight sub—scales of four questions each, content validity was attributed to the scale. Even the positive and negative wording was cautiously alternated among the items. Another argument to establish test validity came through the "Known—Group" technique. One- hundred ninety-two students going to Europe and 25 members of the Quaker International Voluntary Service, a group widely recognized as highly selective and world-minded, were given the Worldmindedness Scale prior to the summer sojourns: mean score of students--123.65; mean score of Quaker group__ 155.82. The wide disparity was statistically significant and supported the claim of test validity. Therefore, the Worldmindedness Scale was backed by some evidence of substantial reliability and validity when 83 it was selected for use in the current study. But the fact that it had not detected attitude change in the past, when such change was highly probable, had cast doubt upon the sensitivity of the scale. Because it was the only instrument of its type and had showed initial promise, the current study attempted to apply the instrument again, using a superior sample population and a more controlled research design. The Worldmindedness Scale was given before and after the summer experience and was considered the dependent variable in the study. An overseas experience conceivably could have changed a person's view of his nation and his feelings about inter-cultural cooperation. Besides indi- cating to some degree the attitude change of an individual, the Worldmindedness Scale served to contribute to our pre— sojourn estimate of a student's receptivity. An ethno- centric person who favored divisions into like groups might extend this characteristic into his social and intellec— tual self. Therefore, anything different would have been avoided. Only information reinforcing current attitudes would have been perceived, and only supportive relation— ships allowed to reach him. This mental set would have drastically limited the potential for change through cross- cultural eXposure. 8A A. Pre-sojourn Questionnaire Each student received the Pre-sojourn Questionnaire which inquired into environmental and familial background data as well as collegiate or intercultural experiences. Students were also asked why they were or were not par- ticipating in the Justin Morrill College Overseas Study Programs. Categories of motivation were constructed after reviewing a variety of research sources concerning 7 Also a brief objectives of cross—cultural participants. pre—study was randomly distributed to Michigan State University students residing in a specific living complex. About 50%, or 60 copies, were returned. The pre-study questionnaire elicited student motivations and expectations, 7John Brademas (Chairman), Internatonal Education: Past, Present, Problems and Prospects. Selected Readings to supplement H. R. 15633 prepared by the Task Force on Inter- national Education of The Committee of Education and Labor. House of Representatives, October, 1966. United States Government Printing Office, Washington. "The Students Abroad," Irwin Abrams, pp. 379-380. Also in Samuel Baskin (ed.), Higher Education: Some Newer Developments (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 92; George V. Coelho, "Personal Growth on Educational Development Through Working Abroad," The Journal of Social Issues, 18:55-67, 1962; Committee on Educational Interchange Policy, Institute of International Education, The Goals of Student Exchange, January, 1955; Stephen A. Freeman, Undergraduate Study Abroad, Institute of International Education, 196A, pp. 15-15; John A. Garraty, and Walter Adams, From Main Street to the Left Bank (East Lansing: The Michigan State University Press, 1959); John T. Gullahorn and Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "American Objectives in Study Abroad," Journal of Higher Education, 29:369—37A, October, 1958; Robert C. Pace, Tpe Junior Year in France (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1959), pp. 26-27; John E. Visher, Study Abroad We (October. 1963). pp. 5-8. 85 given the Justin Morrill College curricular background and impending participation in the Overseas Study Programs. Data from the Pre-sojourn Questionnaire were used to provide background variables to check whether any personal exper- iences could have predicted receptivity or attitude change. Also, comparing the experimental and control groups on background variables helped to establish whether or not the groups were significantly different from the start. 5. Post—sojourn Questionnaire Only those participating in the Overseas Study Programs (the experimental group) were given the instrument. The sections pertained to student feelings regarding objectives, language fluency, the residential situation, association with host countrymen, roles-relationships as well as events observed, descriptions of host countrymen, ego-involvement with the United States, and comparisons of the United States with the host country from both a visitor—guest vantage and before-after view. The instrument was con- structed after perusal of many cross-cultural studies. Two works, The Two-Way Mirror: National Status in Foreign Students' Adjustment, by Richard T. Morris, and Inter— gational Behavior, edited by Herbert C. Kelman, exerted much influence, But the major contributor to the content and format of the questionnaire was Attitudes and Social Rela- Eions of Foreign Students in the United States by Selltiz, Christ, Havel, and Cook. The model index in the publication 86 explicitly described the content and method of interviews dealing with the adjustment of foreign students, and the format and materials of many of the items appear in the Post—sojourn Questionnaire. The instrument was essential to the study in that it supplies all the program variables that related to potential adjustment and change of attitudes. Hypotheses A. The following hypotheses are applied to the total Justin Morrill sample: 1. HO: No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those who participate in the Overseas Study Programs and those who remain at home. H1: Participants in the Overseas Study Programs will increase in worldmindedness more than those who remain at home. 2. H : No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between females and males. H : Females will increase in worldmindedness more than males. 3. H : No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between more Open- minded and less open-minded students. H : The more open-minded will increase in worldmindedness more than the less open- minded students. B. 87 No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between other-directed and inner-directed students. Other—directed students will increase in worldmindedness more than inner-directed students. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those who initially score less in worldmindedness and those who initially score higher. Those who initially score lower in world- mindedness will increase in worldmindedness more than those who initially score higher. The following hypotheses incorporated the same variables as were examined in the total Justin Morrill population. group alone: 6. H O 0 They were then applied to the experimental No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between those partici- pants who were females and those who were males. Female participants will increase in worldmindedness more than male participants. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between participants who are more open-minded and those who are less Open—minded. 8. H H 9. H H 88 Open-minded participants will increase more in worldmindedness than those who are less open—minded. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between participants who are other-directed and those who are inner- directed. Other-directed participants will increase more in worldmindedness than those who are inner-directed. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those who initially score high and those who score low in worldmindedness. Those participants who initially score lower in worldmindedness will increase more in worldmindedness than those who initially score higher. C. The following hypotheses are appropriate only to those who studied abroad (the experimental group) and, therefore, are applied only to the participants: 10. 11. 12. 89 No difference in the change of worldminded— ness will be found between those partici- pating in programs in which involvement with families was built in and those not on such programs. No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between those partici- pants who proportionally spend more of their free time with the host countrymen and those who spend less time with other than North Americans. Those participants who spend proportionally more time with the host countrymen will increase more in worldmindedness than those who spend less time with other than North Americans. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those partici- pants who make a close foreign friend and those who do not make a close foreign friend. Those participants who make a close foreign friend will increase in worldmindedness more than those who do not make a close foreign friend. 13. 14. 15. 90 No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those partici- pants who consider themselves to be more friendly and those who rate themselves as less friendly. Those participants who consider themselves to be more friendly will increase in world- mindedness more than those who rate them— selves as less friendly. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between those partici— pants with personal-interpersonal motives and those with educational—vocational- professional motives. Those participants with personal- interpersonal motives will increase in worldmindedness more than those with educational—vocational-professional motives. No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between those particim pants who are more confident in their language fluency and those who are less confident. l6. 17. 91 Those participants who are more confident in their language fluency will increase in worldmindedness more than those who are less confident. No difference in the change in worldminded— ness will be found between participants who reverse their relative national images and those who reinforce their image. Those participants who reverse their relative national image will increase in worldmindedness more than those who reinforce their image. No difference in the change in worldminded- ness will be found between participants who feel that they agree with their hosts as to relative national status and those who feel that they do not agree. Those participants who feel that they agree with their hosts as to relative national status will increase in world— mindedness more than those who feel that they do not agree. 18. 19. 20. 92 No difference in change in worldminded- ness will be found between participants who attribute more national status to the host country and those who attribute more status to the United States. Those participants who attribute more national status to the host country will increase in worldmindedness more than those who attribute more national status to the United States. No difference in change in worldminded— ness will be found between those partici- pants who are more ego—involved in the United States and those who are less ego-involved. Those participants who are less ego-involved with the United States will increase in worldmindedness more than those who are more ego-involved. No difference in change in worldminded- ness will be found between those participants who describe the host countrymen more and those who describe them less positively. 93 H1: Those participants who describe the host countrymen more positively will increase in worldmindedness more than those who describe them less positively. 21. H : No difference in change in worldminded- ness will be found between those participants who had previously traveled abroad more and those who had traveled less. H : Those participants who had previously traveled abroad less will increase in worldmindedness more than those who had traveled more. Analysis All sets of variables were inter-correlated. The program yielded relationships between variables, as well as standard deviations and means for all factors. Chi square was used to compare the experimental and control groups on all background variables, and although inspection on language grades and spring grade point averages showed bimodal distributions, no differences were detected. The abnormal distributions led to the selection of non- parametric statistics which do not assume normal distribu- tion. The Mann Whitney U was chosen because it is the most powerful non—parametric test and the power increases to 95.5% as the sample gets larger. In fact the Mann-Whitney U test is often more powerfultflmnlthe t-test because it 94 considers the rank of each observation rather than simply its location with respect to the combined median, and thus uses more of the information in the data.8 All test and questionnaire data were dichotemized and tested for signifi- cance in each population segment-—total (experimental and control groups), control group only, and experimental group only. The Mann-Whitney U test was useful in identifying differences between the control and experimental groups. Also, interesting relationships among variables were revealed. An analysis of covariance program was used to examine the worldmindedness hypotheses because Smith had noted uneven change in which those scoring in the third quartile on the pre—test increased most in worldmindedness. So analysis of covariance equalized the effect of the initial score. If a variable did not satisfy the essential assumption of linearity of regression that was incorporated into the covariance program then its analysis was termi- nated. Summary of Limitations of the Design The limitations of the design became evident when the PPOject was compared to the list of suggested features pre— sented at the end of Chapter II. Non-Parametric Statistics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., l956), pp. 95 The sample was relatively large and common membership in the initial class of Justin Morrill College led to a degree of uniformity among some variables such as age, curriculum, college environment, and even aspirations and attitudes. Therefore, treatment variables were easier to isolate. Random selection was not used either in choosing the sample population or in selecting those to undergo the treatment of overseas exposure. Justin Morrill College was chosen by the researcher because of the program that it offered. And students enrolled in the college because it seemed to better meet their particular educational needs. The student population was not a typical pOpulation when compared to other segments at Michigan State University. The economic and summer study aSpects of the Overseas Study Program made randomization of the treatment (or experimental) SPOUp impractical. Since the experimental group was self- selected the factors that made a student able to participate also made him different from his counterpart in the control group who chose not to go abroad. Therefore, although the study used a non—treatment group it did not use a control group. The lack of randomization implied self-selection based upon factors that should differentiate between those who went abroad and those remaining at home. So it was 96 necessary to compare the "experimental" and "control" groups on all variables to determine initial differences.9 The purpose of the study was shrouded through many devices, including faculty administration during class time, cover letters, and separate administration, all of which served to disjoint the total project in the eyes of the student sample. Although pre-sojourn personality attitudes were measured, many other pre-sojourn attitudes were tapped only in the Post—sojourn Questionnaire. Responding on how he felt before the experience after he has returned from abroad a student would tend to strongly reflect what he con- sidered to be the changes that have occurred. Due to the bimodal distribution of grades, and because power was not lost, the Mann-Whitney U Test was used to analyze the data. The statistical treatment of the hypotheses regarding worldmindedness attempted to com- pensate for the fact that most change had been found among the group that initially scored in the third quartile. Thus the Pre-sojourn Worldmindedness Score was covaried out in the analysis of the data. These statistical tools have perhaps eliminated some impediments that have plagued researchers in the past. E 9For convenience the terms experimental and control were applied to the treatment and non-treatment groups throughout the study, although, as explained above, these labels are not strictly appropriate. 97 The instruments were applied as close to departure from college and as soon after registration as was prac— tically possible. However, ideally each student should have been tested just days before departure from America and immediately upon return. Then the overseas experience would be more clearly defined and confounding variables reduced. Interviews were not used formally in the project. Insights from such a source would have added another depth dimension to the study. However, where possible more than one approach (e.g. records, subjective judgment, psycho- logical tests) was used to measure the same variable. Questioning of European families, of grOUp leaders, or even of other students would have lent more validity to measure— ments, especially when students were asked to subjectively rate themselves. Also, actual behavior often differs from attitudes implied by a check on an answer sheet; if a behavior rating had been incorporated it could have supplemented other data. Summary The study of the Justin Morrill College 1966 Overseas Study programs focused on the effects of cross—cultural exposure on attitudes. The initial class of the new liberal arts college was used as the sample population. Of the 235 potential subjects, 208 or 89% participated in all segments 98 of the project. The response of the female population in the college was more complete than that of the males. Of the overseas participants 81 out of 87, or 93% of the population, completed all portions of the study. One week prior to spring term final examinations an attitude test battery consisting of Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, Prince's Differential Values Inventory, and Sampson's Worldmindedness Scale was administered in language classes. Later that week the Pre-sojourn Questionnaire was distributed and collected. After fall registration a repeat of the Worldmindedness Scale was administered during fifteen minutes of class time. Also those who participated in the Overseas Study Programs were asked to complete a Post—sojourn Ques- tionnaire at a special meeting of returnees. During these procedures many steps were taken to obscure the purpose of the tests from the student population. The hypotheses were designed to identify personal and situational factors that affected changes in worldminded- ness. Those who went abroad (the experimental group) and those who remained at home (the control group) were com- pared as to initial differences and changes in worldminded- ness. Then the effects of the overseas experience were examined within the experimental group. The chi square test was used to analyze the sample as to initial differ- ences and to make the distributions more visible. Since normality of distribution could not be assumed, the most 99 powerful of the non-parametric tests, the Mann-Whitney U test, was used to test for group differences and to analyze variables within the group that went abroad. Because of the regression effects and ceiling effects inherent in before-after test administrations, a covariance statistic Following the presentation of the research design the limitations of the study were discussed. The most funda- mental flaw in the design was the lack of randomization. Because those who received the exposure abroad were self- selected there were inherent factors differentiating the experimental group from the control group from the onset. The findings that result from the analysis of the data gathered are presented in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS In this chapter the results of statistical analysis are presented. First the major hypotheses concerning changes in worldmindedness are analyzed. Thereafter, the personal and outcome variables of those who went abroad are studied and the relevant relationships among these factors are presented. Following these presentations the results of analysis are discussed. Worldmindedness The twenty-one hypotheses regarding change in the attitude of worldmindedness were examined by one—way analysis of co—variance. The change was determined by observing the increase of scores from the Pre-sojourn to the Post-sojourn Worldmindedness Scale. Because the amount Of change was linked to the initial ranking of the Pre— SOjourn Worldmindedness score, this score became the covariate, thereby equalizing the influence of the initial score upon the total change. As stated in Table 4.1 no Significant relationship was found between any variable and the change in Worldmindedness within either the total group or the experimental group. Because statistical analysis 100 101 did not support rejection of the null hypotheses, there were no grounds for acceptance of the research hypotheses which predicted change in worldmindedness. Interrelated Variables Many of the measured variables were interrelated. The presentation of these relationships is accomplished by briefly posing the distinctions among the total (experi— ment and control) group and then looking at the background, test, motivations, and outcome variables within the group who went abroad. Using the Mann-Whitney U test distinctions were found within the total group on background and test variables. The experimental and control groups differed in that those going overseas had higher language grades (MWU p = .OABA, 2 p = < .05), and higher spring grade point average (G.P.A.) (MWU p = .0059, p = < .01) than those who remained in the United States. However, the eXperimental group suffered a dramatic grade decrease upon return to college, while the fall term grades of the control group were relatively lSmith found that those who increased most in worldmindedness were from the third quartile on the pre- test. ghout the chapter in place of probability; p = .05 means ted at the .05 level of 2MWU p is used throu Mann-Whitney U test approximate that this probability was accep Significance. 102 nmhaacco«unv:a ch30nonlumom om NNo.mmN :ma.mmmma HapOb 0:» 90 ma coaummsov .cvfihhucsoo ms Hwo.oom mos.mmmma gonna upao: cud: oEau.nme ucoau moo. Hma. a Ham.mm Ham.mm pcmepmwpe on: emozu cmzu mmocuouc«soapox ad once emaohucfi cmEauucsooupnon cud: mean whoa ocean on: chock .HH .Azoowozv mEdquLQ om osd.mmm =MH.mammH Hmuoe 202m :0 uoc omocp can» mmucuvucae on moh.oom mm~.oomma Louhm IUHLoz :« ouoe whamhucfi “encamsaq zoo. wma. 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Within the sample that studied abroad many variables were found to be significantly interrelated.“ The inter- relationships were illustrated in Tables A.2, A.3, and A.A. Background Variables The demographic data about the students was obtained mostly from the Pre—sojourn Questionnaire with supple- mentary information from the college files. Fall Term Grades Higher fall term grades were achieved by students who attributed more national status to the United States than to the host country, while those who attributed more status to the host country than to the United States achieved lower fall term grades (mwu p = .ou58, p < .05). Income Students from higher-income families attributed more national status to the United States than the host country, —-— 3Elaboration on the variables differentiating between control and experimental groups is found early in Chapter III in the Population and Sample section. “The one-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was used when directions were implied by the basic research assumptions in Chapter I; when no directions were suggested two-tailed tests were applied. 105 TABLE 4.2 Factors Related to Background Variables within the Experimental Group . e E3 Q ur\ now u p "—1 60m bi) bi) c n c c . m (I) C: DU) ~r-‘l ° w-iCof 4-) U) E 60 m4) LJJC? L+s m -H (1) -r-l (DU) (DCU (DCU O D > m cso utc 4szo m H . S4 :3: (0-4 ° (4—4 C 0 DU): 0 (D div—{C om mm >m le lmH m CD! 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National Direction Frequency Neither country decreased 9 Neither country increased 25 U.S. increased-~Host1and decreased 23 Hostland increased--U.S. decreased ii TOTAL 78 ¥ . 35-36 Post- ) C. Relative National Status (sojgurn Questionnaire) Frequency k Hosts agree--U.S. best 85 Hosts disagree--U.S. best Host agree--Hostland best 1% Hosts disagree-—Hostland best __ TOTAL 80 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND DISCUSSION The influence of cross-cultural exposure on student attitudes is difficult to measure. Problems of vaguely defined objectives, inadequate measuring devices, limited research design, and the variety of program types plague attempts to measure attitude change. The current study constitutes another attempt to evaluate an overseas program in accord with operational definitions of attitude change; it, too, had its limitations. Purpose of the Project The purpose of the project was to evaluate the effects of an intensive overseas educational experience on toler- ation for diversity, and appreciation for the similarities of mankind. The predictive hypotheses were based on the attitude of worldmindedness. This attitude was assumed to be both representative of other attitudes that would be affected, and appropriate to the goals of the particular program studied. ResearchfiAssumptions The shock of sudden exposure to a foreign culture has the potential to increase a student's receptivity to new information. The psychological disturbance leads to 114 115 re-evaluation hiwhich values and philos0phies evident in the host culture are used during the process of personal reconstruction. Learning and receptivity to change are dependent upon prior psychological readiness. The readiness is reflected in professed motivation, open-mindedness, and sensitivity to the ideas of others. Thus a spiral leading to attitude change is initiated as illustrated in Figure 5.1. Research Design Students were questioned and tested at the end of their first year in college. Most of the students remained in the United States during the summer and they were used as a control group, while one-third of the students partic- ipated in Overseas Study Programs and were referred to as the experimental or treatment group. When school resumed in the fall all students were retested and attitude change was determined. Also the variables concerning the exper— ience abroad were measured and interrelated. Population Sample.--In May of 1966 the initial class of Justin Morrill College was tested at the end of their freshman year. Of those re—enrolled in fall term 89%, or 208 students, completed all phases of the project and were included as sample. The experimental sample con- Sisted of 81 students (93%), and 127 students (86%) were 116 Open-Mindedness Positive Outlook Communications Information Interaction Immersion Learning Re-Evaluation Change Adjustment Figure 5.1--Spiral Leading to Adjustment and Attitude Change 116a control-group sample. Thus the sample was relatively large as compared to other studies of this type. And because both the experimental and control groups were drawn from the initial Justin Morrill College class many variables were uniform. However, differences were revealed by the Mann-Whitney U test between the control and experimental groups due to lack of randomization. Therefore pre-tests were necessary, and comparisons between the two groups were dubious. Instruments.--Prior to final examinations and subse- quent departure from school all students were asked to complete a questionnaire and a test battery. The Pre- sojourn Questionaire was used to gather background, or demographic data. The pre—sojourn test battery consisted of three tests that measure the following attitudes: 1. Worldmindedness Scale--nationalism vs. worldmindedness. 2. Dogmatism Scale—-closed-mindedness vs. open-mindedness. 3. Differential Values Inventory--inner- directedness vs. other-directedness. Upon return to school those who participated in the Over- seas Study Programs completed a Post-sojourn Questionnaire which probed outcome or program variables. The Post- sojourn Worldmindedness Scale was administered to detect 117 changes in the dependent variable. Although the Worldmind- edness Scale had not successfully detected change in the past, the large and uniform sample as well as the methods of analysis were counted upon to reduce confounding variables. Administration.--The batteries and questionnaires were administered within two weeks of departure from and return to college. The test reaction was minimized through the cooperation of the instructors who administered the instruments during regular class time. Also, steps were taken to deliberately shroud the purpose of the study. Hypotheses.-—The major hypotheses were designed to identify personal and situational factors relating to change in the attitude of worldmindedness both in the total group and in the experimental group. Secondary hypotheses were implied by the research assumptions and therefore outcome variables among the experimental group were studied. Analysis.—-The major hypotheses predicting change in worldmindedness were analyzed by one—way analysis of covariance so that the rank of the pre-sojourn score would not disproportionately influence the measurement of attitude change. Interrelationships among the treatment variables were determined by the Mann—Whitney U test. A non- parametric test was used becasue the variables involving 118 grades were markedly non-normally distributed. The Mann— Whitney U test was useful in identifying clusters of variables that related to the secondary hypotheses implied in the research assumptions. Conclusions The current study generated conclusions in support of the theoretical assumptions and secondary hypotheses. These conclusions must be interpreted within the limits of the research design. Major Hypotheses on Worldmindedness No variable was related to significant change in worldmindedness. Therefore the null hypotheses could not be rejected in favor of the research hypotheses. Four hypotheses could not be analyzed by analysis of covariance because they did not meet the assumption of linearity of regression: Pre-sojourn Worldmindedness Scores (total and eXperimental groups), subjective rating of language skill (experimental group), and close foreign friends (experimental group). Eackground,_Test,4and Outcome Variable Hypotheses l. EXposure to a foreign culture usually reinforced a student's appreciation for his homeland while the image of the host country was often lowered. Rarely did a student reverse his original image in favor of the nation which he had visited. 2. Fall term grades were higher for students attrib- uting more national status to the United States than for those attributing more status to the hostland. 3. Students from higher-income families attributed more national status to the United States than those from lower-income families. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 119 Students from higher-income families perceived disagreement from the nationals on which nation had more status, while students from lower- income families sensed agreement. Students who had previously traveled out of the United States were less ego-involved in the United States than those with less previous travel abroad. Students who had previously traveled more in non-English speaking cultures were less ego— involved in the United States than those with less travel in non-English speaking cultures. Students initially more worldminded were less ego-involved in the United States than those who were initially less worldminded. The more inner—directed students described their hosts more positively than the more other—directed students. More other-directed students were more likely to reverse their before-after national ratings than the more inner—directed students. Students more ego-involved in the United States rated themselves as less friendly persons than those less ego-involved. Students with educational-vocational—professional motivations rated themselves as more friendly persons than those with personal—interpersonal motivations. Students who claimed at least one close foreign friend were more confident in their language fluency than those claiming no close foreign friends. Students who claimed at least one close foreign friend were more involved in their residences than students with no close foreign friends. Students involved in their residence tended to change their before—after relative national rating in the direction of the United States down, hostland up; those less involved in their residences changed in favor of the United States at the eXpense of the hostland. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 120 Students involved in their residence attributed more national status to the hostland than those less involved in their residence. Students who described the nationals more posi- tively spend proportionally more free time with the nationals than those who described the host countrymen less positively. Students less ego-involved in the United States described the nationals more positively than those more ego-involved in their homeland. Students who described the nationals positively changed their before-after national ratings in the direction of United States:down, hostland: up; students describing their hosts less posi— tively changed in favor of the United States. Students who described the nationals positively felt agreement with the hosts on the relative national status of the United States and the host country; students describing the hosts less positively sensed disagreement with the nationals. Clusters of Interrelated Treatment Variables 1. 2. National Image Cluster: Above-the-mean family income, inner—directed value system, United States rated initially superior, United States superiority reinforced, disagreement felt from hosts on relative national status, less involved in their residences, nationals described less positively, and higher fall term grades. Cross-cultural Immersion Clusters: a. Described nationals more positively, spent more free time with nationals, less ego- involvement in the United States, more friendly self—rating, agreement felt with hosts on relative national status, and United Stateszdown, hostland:up in before- after national ratings. b. Involved in their residences, one or more close foreign friend(s), more confidence in language fluency, and more status to host country. 121 Discussion In studying attitude change through cross-cultural programs many compromises are made which haunt the researcher. There is relative consensus about the research assumptions that attitudes are influenced by overseas eXposure and that personality type is related to the change. But the agreement among researchers and practitioners has created a theoretical bias toward overseas study programs although research confirmation is lacking. The researcher is faced with insecurity at every step. As he selects his population he realizes that his generalizability is limited and the treatment group differs from the non-treatment group. While seeking appropriate instrumentation in the vague field of attitude change the researcher has to choose between standardized tests which are of proven quality but have not yet detected change from cross—cultural exposure, or locally~devised tests in which the reliability and validity are questionable. Because of the non—randomized nature of the population the design must include pre—tests and post—tests. These before and after observations create statistical problems as well as psychological reactions which make analysis difficult and often unproductive. Finally the interpretation is qualified by the limited Perspective of the researcher. 122 Worldmindedness As in past research, the current study reflects the frustrations of using the Worldmindedness Scale to measure changes in attitude through overseas eXposure. Once more the scores point feebly in the predicted direction but the insignificant differences must be attributed to chance. The statistical approach using one-way analysis of covar- iance was not an obstacle in the quest for significant difference because an initial check on one-way analysis of variance also proved abortive. Results of no difference leave few alternatives. If one is satisfied with the population and sample, and the research design including the instruments used, then the conclusion must be that the treatment was insufficient to provide attitude change. Given the vast difficulties of randomizing the treatment group, and granting the unreliability of asking for "before" ratings after the experience, the major recommendation would be to re-evaluate the instrument representing the dependent variable (e.g., the Worldmindedness Scale) and to question the opportunities for immersion in another culture for a group of programs which focused upon language study for a summer. Change in attitudes and values is probably too much to expect from overseas study programs of brief duration. And unless the period of time is extended, the immersion deepened, or the instruments made more sensi— tive, proof of attitude change will continue to be elusive. 123 Motivation The motivation variable, because of the small and disproportionate samples, was precarious. The conclusion that students motivated mainly by educational-vocational- professional values considered themselves as more friendly persons than those with personal-interpersonal motives was questionable. Due to the pressures of final examina- tions and the end-of—the—school—year exodus only 70% of the experimental group submitted the Pre-sojourn Question- naire prior to departure. Upon return to college in the fall collection of background data was resumed; however, questions on motivation had to be omitted. Partial blame for the small numbers must also be attributed to the methods used to dichotomize the students. Each member of the experimental group was asked to choose his primary motive as well as the least appropriate motivation from the following categories: A. Cultural Values B. Educational-Vocational-Professional Values C. Interpersonal Values D. Personal Values E. Political-International Values 1See the Pre—sojourn Questionnaire (question D-17) in Appendix A for the specific definitions of each category. 124 To have been placed in the educational-vocational-professional category a student not only had to choose A, B, or E above as his major motivation, but he must also have chosen personal or interpersonal values as least motivating. Only five students met these criteria. To have been categorized as personally or interpersonally motivated a student must have chosen categories C or D as first choice and placed Cultural, Educational-Vocational—Professional, or Political values as least important. Twenty participants were thus categorized as socially oriented. Therefore the limited and uneven sample curtails the generalizability of findings related to motivation so the conclusions in this study should be viewed with caution. National Image The importance of national image and national status in the adjustment to a foreign culture has been estab- 2 lished. The current study differs with Morris, who claims that it is not the relative national status but the discrep— ancy between the hosts' views and his own that upsets the 3 visitor. This study shows both factors to be significant. 2Cora Du Bois, Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States (Washington: American Council of Education, 1956), and Richard T. Morris, The Two-Way Mirror: National Status in Foreign Students' Adjustment (Minne- apolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1960). 3 Morris, op. cit., p. 14. Agreement about relative national status is associated with a positive description of the nationals, and students who attributed more national status to the hostland were deeply involved in their residences. Morris also found that those who attributed more national status to their homeland were more satisfied with the eXperience abroad, and less ego—involved with their homeland.L4 The current study shows that a student attributing more status to the United States felt disagreement from his EurOpean hosts and was less involved with his residence. Also, upon return to school his grades were higher, which might imply a readjustment eased by the limited immersion into the foreign culture. Many factors may explain the dis- crepancies between the present study and Morris' compre- hensive inquiry. Due to the fact that Morris studied Asians from an underdeveloped nation, the populations were different and the relative national status was less debatable. Also Morris' sample was exposed to the United States over a much longer period than one summer. Another explanation might be that the current study used the subjective opinion of the participants to estimate the Opinions of the nationals while Morris also surveyed the host population. —‘ ulbid., p. 69. 126 One can only conjecture on the dynamics involved in the before—after national ratings and the questions involving national status. The national image cluster may be interpreted liberally to suggest answers to two funda— mental questions: 1. How does exposure to a foreign culture affect the national images of the participants? Initially most of the Justin Morrill College students abroad rated the United States higher than the host country. Also they tended to attribute more national status to the United States and, as would be expected, on that judgment they sensed disagreement from the nationals. The image of the United States was in most cases increased positively by the exposure abroad while the overall image of the nation visited tended to decrease. EXplanation could be found in 5 which inferred that a Coelho's time—table of adjustment, summer overseas would leave a student disillusioned in the hostland and would be insufficient time for the "coming to terms" stage. Nevertheless two-thirds of the participants had their initial images reinforced, while only one—third actually reversed their initial national ratings. Of these reversals 76% were in what might be considered a more socially—acceptable direction in which the hostland was 5George V. Coelho, Changing Images of America (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958), p. iv (Introduction). H 1‘0 \1 initially rated first but the United States was rated superior upon their return home. Therefore the changes tended to be in a direction away fromtflmeculture to which they had been recently exposed. Or perhaps more was seen of the virtues of the United States while viewing a foreign country. Because the majority of the students felt that the United States was superior, and because a basic conflict was reflected in the issue of relative national status, it was appropriate to ask a second funda- mental question: 2. Is there a relationship between national image and immersion into the foreign culture? The national image clusters of variables related national image to cultural immersion. Interpreting these relation- ships loosely one may hypothesize the profile of a student who involved himself as a participant in a foreign culture. An other-directed student from the below-the-mean family income group wants something from Europe. He may not be satisfied with the materialism that is attributed to the United States. Perhaps he is ready for a change and is less threatened by antagonism to the "American way of life." So Europe may be viewed as an "escape" where human, moral, and cultural fulfillment can be achieved by all Classes. European culture is embraced warmly; immersion is thus facilitated. More often they consider the hostland to 128 be superior, and a feeling of rapport is felt with their hosts. Involvement in their residences is natural. The description of their host countrymen is positive. They are more receptive to host mores which might improve the United States. The student often reverses his initial national rating. These reverses often favor the home- land, for immersion leads to disillusionment when Europe does not solve all his problems, when he realizes that people are more similar than different, and that inequi— ties are universal. The immersion eXperience leaves him confused. Changes in identification and problems of readjustment make academic pressures difficult. But the student is primarily distracted by his need to weave in the cross-cultural eXperience to strengthen and expand his philosophy of life. As a result of his distraction his fall term grades suffer. The above profile of the immersed student shows a decrease in grades, as does the group that went abroad when compared to those remaining in the United States. Perhaps those who involved themselves more during the summer had a difficult time readjusting to the collegiate 7 demands. The research of Mishler6 and the Gullahorns 6H. C. Kelman (ed.), International Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965), Chapter XV by Anita L. Mishler, p. 558. 129 dichotomizes the purposes and personalities of students going abroad into academic versus social. A student usually pre-determines the effects of an overseas exper- ience by his initial motivation. And the "price" of interaction varies with a student's objectives. There- fore it could be that the grade decline for those who immersed themselves more into the foreign culture might be eXpected, while those who were academically motivated did not have a readjustment problem because they were relatively untouched by the experience abroad. Cross-cultural Immersion When the variables that are associated with immer— sion are examined two clusters emerge which are theoret- ically related despite the lack of statistical linkage. These clusters may suggest the profile of a student who is receptive to another culture and who therefore par— ticipates in a foreign way of life. A student returning from abroad who describes his host countrymen positively was not preoccupied or ego- involved with the United States. Those not ego—involved with their homeland considered themselves to be relatively friendly persons. And those describing the nationals positively spent high portions of their free time with k 7Jeanne E. Gullahorn and John T. Gullahorn, "American Students Abroad: Professional vs. Personal Development," Th3 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,_"Americans Abroad," Richard D. Lambert (ed.), Vol. 368, November, 1966. 130 their hosts during the overseas program. Perhaps these students felt little ideological threat or conflict as implied by their perceived agreement with the host country— men as to the relative national status of the two countries. After the foreign exposure these students were likely to credit the host culture with qualities from which the United States could benefit; therefore in the before-after national ratings the host country was viewed more posi— tively while the United States was viewed less positively. It could be that these students were less threatened by the implication that their homeland could be improved because they were not so dependent upon an unrealistic perfection of the United States. Because there was no statistical relationship between ego-involvement with the United States or positive description of hosts and involve— ment in residence or close foreign friend a theoretical assumption had to be made: students who were less ego- involved with their homeland, who considered themselves to be more friendly persons, who spent more free time with nationals, who felt less conflict and more influence to change their relative national images in favor of the host country, and who described the nationals more positively must have something in common with those who were more involved in their residences and who claimed at least one close foreign friend. Students with close foreign friends 131 also had more confidence in their language fluency and probably these related variables reinforced one another. In addition, those more involved in their residences attributed more national status to the host country, while less involved students credited the United States with more status. Therefore, although the major hypotheses regarding the specific attitude of worldmindedness were not signifi- cantly related to any research variable, the factors inter— related with the outcome variables did support the basic research assumptions of the study and provide suggestions for future research. Implications for Future Research Within the current research an attempt was made to Operationalize the objectives of study abroad programs and to evaluate programs in terms of these goals. Future studies should attempt in various ways to evaluate both long— and short—term effects of overseas programs. The process of adjustment to a foreign culture and the attitude changes resulting from cross-cultural immersion must be understood if educational programs are to be designed,- administered, and financed effectively. Upon development Of a theory of attitude change significant variables must be operationally defined, scientifically controlled, and observed. Future studies must strive to eliminate present impediments to accurate research. 7...; LU I Q If ever opportunities arise where randomized treat- ment groups can be studied, the basic discrepancies between the experimental and control groups could be nullified. In such cases pre-testing is unnecessary; therefore test- retest complications do not confound the research. Besides this basic condition of research design, more sensitive psychological instruments must be developed to detect change- Given randomization even more complex true research designs could be constructed. Appropriate testing instruments are dependent upon lucid and Operational objectives for programs of study abroad. However, the current study used three instruments that theoretically relate to the experience of overseas study. Although the sensitivity of the Worldmindedness Scale is dubious it is the only instrument designed to fill the gap of attitude change through cross-cultural exposure. Further work could be done regarding the eight sub-scales, :r item-analysis could be used to identify those items which are associated with evidence of desirable attitude change. Since open—mindedness is expanded during late adolescence the Dogmatism Scale could be applied to parti- Cipants of a program abroad to see whether or not the eXperience acts as a catalyst. Perhaps limited segments of the authoritarian personality are challenged by an exper— ience in a foreign land. If the Dogmatism Scale was l—l v.) U0 administered before and after a cross-cultural experience, only those items that reflected change could be analyzed. Another instrument related to diverse variables was the Differential Values Inventory. Analysis of the items and sub—scales of the instrument could shed light on the change dynamics provoked by study abroad. Scrutiny of these and other relevant instruments could eXpand under- standing of the cross-cultural eXperience and also con- tribute to the development of a comprehensive instrument to evaluate educational programs abroad. A further area of potential research suggested by the current study is the use of pre-sojourn motivation to pre— dict outcome variables. Background and personal factors would suggest certain need patterns whereby students with different motivations would be affected differently by essentially similar experiences. Insights into motivation has implications both for the development of institutional programs and student selection of programs. The effect of the experience abroad on curricular achievement and direction is a worthy topic for research. The tendency for initial grade decline among Justin Morrill College returnees could be studied to plot the long—term trend. Which type of student was harmed and which was bolstered academically by study abroad? How can the college combat the decline? 13A Knowledge of the variables that determine changes in national image could help in the development of overseas educational programsa Is national image a form of bias that can be studied through the authoritarian personality patterns? How does involvement in the foreign culture affect the images of both the homeland and the hostland? Even when group study yields no significant change in attitudes, those "changers" who make dramatic increases and decreases can be studied intensivelya A comparison of those changing in opposite directions may reveal personal or program variables influencing attitude changeo Research is needed to further define the clusters of variables that relate to adjustment, immersion, or attitude change" Refinement of these clusters leads to solid theoretical bases for the many practical decisions encountered in the development of overseas programs“ BIBLIOGRAPHY Hooks Adorno, et al: The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1950: Beals, Ralph L., and Norman D. Humphrey. No Frontier to Learning—~The Mexican Student in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957° Christiansen, Bi Attitudes Towards Foreign Affairs as a Function of Personality: Oslo: Oslo University Press, 1959° Coelho, George V: Changing_Images of America: Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958? Du Bois, Cora: Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States: Washington D: Co: American Council on Education, 1956: Pp: 28-130a Garraty, John A:, and Walter Adams: From Main Street to the Left Bank: East Lansing: The Michigan State— University Press, 1959: Hovland, C: Is, and U, L, Janis (eds.): Personality and Persuasibility: New Haven: Yale University Press, l959, pp, 225-254, Jacob, P: E: Changing Values in College: New York: Harper Brothers, 1957: Kelman, Herbert C: (ed.), International Behavior-~A Social Psychological Analysis: New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965: Klineberg, Otto: The Human Dimension in International Relations, New York: Holt, {hinehart and Winston, l96A, Krech, David, Richard S, Crutchfield, and Egerton L: Ballachey: Individual in Society, New York: NcGraw-Hill Book Co:, 1962: Pp: 130-262: 135 136 Lambert, Richard D., and Marvin Bressler. Indian Students on an American Campus. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955. Morris, Richard T. The Two-Way Mirror: National Status in_Foreign Students' Adjustment. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1960. Pace, C. Robert. The Junior Year in France. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1959. Riecken, Henry W. The Volunteer Work Camp: A Psychol- ogical Evaluation. Cambridge: Wesley Press, 1952. Rokeach, Milton. The Open and Closed Mind. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Sanford, Nevitt (ed.). The American College. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962. Scott, Franklin D. The American Experience of Swedish Students. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956. Selltiz, Claire, June R. Christ, Joan Havel, and Stuart W. Cook. Attitudes and Social Relations of Foreign Students in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963. Sewell, William H., and Oluf M. Davidsen. Scandinavian Students on an American Campus. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961. gel, Sidney. Nonparametric Statisticsfifor the_ Behavioral Sciences. New York; MCUFaW—filll Book Co., 1956. fj l .31 (I) Visher, John E. Study Abroad Programs. October, 1903. Articles and Periodicals Bailyn, Lotte, and Herbert C. Kelman. "The Effects offa Year's Experience in America on the Self—Image o Scandanavians: A Preliminary AnalySis of Reactions to a New Environment," The Journal of Soc1al Issues, 18:30-40, 1962. Coelho, George V. "Personal Growth and Educational gfigel- Opment Through Working and Studying Abgoad," Journal of Social Issues, 18:55-67, 19 2. 137 Cook Stuart W., and Claire Selltiz. "Some Factors Which Influence the Attitudinal Outcomes of Personal Contact," International Social Science Bulletin, 7:51-58, 1955. Gullahorn, Jeanne E., and John T. Gullahorn. "American Students Abroad: Professional vs. Personal Development," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 368, November, 1966. Gullahorn, John T., and Jeanne E. Gullahorn. "American Objectives in Study Abroad," The Journal of Higher Education, 29:369-37A, October, 1958? Gullahorn, John T., and Jeanne E. Gullahorn. "An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis," The Journal of Social Issues, 19:34-U2, July, 1963. Kelman, Herbert C. "Processes of Opinion Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, 25:57—78, 1961. "Changing Attitudes Through International Activities," The Journal of Social Issues, 18: 68—87, 1962. Kuhlen, R. "Changes in Attitudes of Students and Relations of Test Responses to Judgments of . Associates," School and Society, 53:514-519, 19A1. Leonard, Elizabeth W. "Attitude Change in a College Program of Foreign Study and Travel," The Educational Record, A5:l73—181, Spring, 196A. Linpitt, Ronald and Jeanne Watson. "Some S!ecial Problems of Learning and Teaching Process in Cross—Cultural Education," International Social SCience Bulletin, 7:62—65. Lundstedt, Sven. "An Introduction to Some Evolving Problems in Cross-Cultural Research," The Journal of Social Issues, 19:1—10, July, 1963. ' ° ' Society: LElsgaard Sverre. "AdJustment in a Foreign . _ Norwegian Fulbright Grantees Visiting the United States," International Social SCience Bulletin, 7:45-50, 1955. Changes Related to Inter- . . 0 "Ps ChOlOEical McGuigan, F. J y ychological Reports, 0 H cultural Experiences, ES Uz55-60, 1958. 138 "Radicalism-Conservatism in Student Attitudes," Nelson, E. 50:1032, 1938. Psychological Monographs, Plant, W. T. "Changes in Ethnocentricism Associated with a Two-Year College Experience," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 92:189-197, 1958. "Residual Effects of Exchange—of—Persons," Riegel, o. w. 17:319—327, Fall, 1953. Public Opinion Quarterly, Sampson, Donald L., and Howard P. Smith. "A Scale to Measure World—Minded Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology, A5z99-106, 1957. Selltiz, Claire, and Stuart Cook. "Impacts of Studying Abroad," The Journal of Social Issues, 18:A—22, 1962. Shild, Erling O. "The Foreign Student as Stranger, Learning the Norms of the Host Culture," Journal of Social Issues, 18:“1—5A, 1962° Smith, Howard Persifor. "Do Intercultural Experiences Affect Attitudes?" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51:469—577, 1955. Smith, H. P., and Ellen W, Rosen. "Some Psychological Correlates of Worldmindedness and Authoritarianism,” Journal of Personnel, 26:170-183, 1958. Webster, H. "Changes in Attitudes During College," Journal of Educational Psychology, “9:109—117, 1958. "Evaluating Exchange Wilson, Elmo C., and Frank Bonilla. 19: of Persons Programs," Public Opinion Quarterly, 20-30, Spring, 1955. Reports ”Undergraduate Study Abroad," Report Service on United States Under— Institute of Inter- Freeman, Stephen A. of the Consultive graduate Study Abroad, pp. l-AO. national Education, 196“. Goodwin, Leonard. American Professors in Asia. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, United States Department of State. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1964. 139 Lehmann, Irving J” and Paul L. Dressel. ”Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values in Higher Education," Final Report of The Cooperative Research Project No. 590, flichigan State University, East Lansing, 1962. Lehmann, Irving J., and Paul L. Dressel. "Changes in Critical Thinking, Attitudes, and Values Associated with College Attendance," Final Report of Cooper— ative Research Project No. 1656, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1963. Taba, Hilda. Cultural Attitudes and International Understanding: An Evaluation of an International Study Tour. Occasional Paper Number 5, Institute of International Education, June, 1953. United States Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor. International Education: Past,_Present, Problems and Prospects-- Selected Readings to Supplement H. R. ID6H3. Prepared by the Task Force on International Education, Chairman John Brademas. Washington: Government Printing Office, October, 1966. Unpublished Materials Gullahorn, Jeanne E. "A Factorial Study of International Communication and Professional Consequences Reported by the Fulbright and Smith-Mundt Grantees, 1947- 1957," (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 196“). Smith, Howard P. "Changes in Attitude Resulting from Experiences in Foreign Countries" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, 195M). APPENDICES 1140 APPENDIX A INSTRUMENTS AND SCORING PROCEDURES 142 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY . East Lansing Justin Morrill College, 135 Snyder Hall May 18, 1966 M E M O R A N D U M TO: FROM: SUBJECT: Purpose: All Language Instructors in JMC Eric Kafka Test Battery and Student Questionnaire The purpose of my study is to assess the change in attitudes and values engendered by the JMC Overseas Program. To do this I hope to sample all members of JMC (experimental group-going abroad, control group—the "left outs") before and after the summer. Instruments and Implementation: I intend to apply two instruments: 1. Battery of attitude and value scales--about 50 minutes time. 2. Student Questionnaire--about 10 minutes. a. Not necessary to be taken in class b. Can be distributed--collected (and checked off) in class. *It is essential that the students do not realize the connection between the battery and the questionnaire. They must not be told of the purpose or the association between the battery and the Overseas Program. a. For the battery the reason can be stated as "a test for all of JMC--can only be given during language class (accessibility)." 1A3 b. For the questionnaire, the reason can be stated as "to analyze the appeal of and the population participating in, the Overseas Program." Time: The French and Spanish departments have agreed to give the battery during the morning session of Monday, May 23, 1966. The Russian classes are yet to determine the time, but will most likely give the battery early in the week. The questionnaire should be distributed later in the week. I suggest leaving sufficient time to collect the bulk of them on Thursday or Friday of that week. The remainder could be handed in from Tuesday to Friday of the last week of school. a. I would appreciate a list of those who did not cooperate. b. Please do all you can to encourage completion; especially by the partici— pants of the program. Instructions: 1. Sufficient materials (battery and pencils) can be picked up from Doreen Schafer either Friday afternoon, or Monday morning. 2. Questionnaires can be procured from Mrs. Schafer at any time. 3. It is essential that each person complete the battery; thus, I recommend that you. get started very early in the class period. A. Emphasize the necessity of the student number on both instruments. 5. Please leave the completed materials off at Mrs. Schafer's desk. a. Also include the section. b. Include a list of those who were not present. I am very grateful for your COOperation. If there is any— thing I can do to help or clarify, don't hestitate to con- tact me through Dr. Stimson, Mrs. Schafer, or phone 355—0723. 1AA MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY — East Lansing, Michigan Justin S. Morrill College — Office of the Dean May 25, 1966 TO: JMC Language Instructors FROM: Eric Kafka RE: RESEARCH PROJECT I appreciate very much your cooperation thus far in this project. If you could extend your aid in the following areas it would extremely enhance the validity of the re- search: A. Battery 1. Encourage all absentees to see Mrs. Schafer at 2. any time this week to take the battery (total time AG minutes). Some students filled the sheets out completely except for their student numbers; thus we have no way of checking which test is theirs. If a student suspects that this applies to him or her, please have them see Mrs. Schafer to identify which answer sheet is theirs. B. Questionnaires 1. Give yourself time to follow up. 2. Don't reveal the connection of common pur- pose between the questionnaire and the battery. *3. Please keep a list of all those who don't hand in the questionnaires (extras are available from Mrs. Schafer). **A. Encourage in all ways to ensure return. If the questionnaire is not returned, the battery is useless. 5. Hand in everything (questionnaires and lists) to Mrs. Schafer early next week if it appears feasible. 1A5 Page 2 I will follow up with the students, as well, regarding both phases of the research. Your help is deeply appreciated and is imperative to the success of the project. If I can be of any assistance please call me at 355—0723, or leave a message with Mrs. Schafer. I'll be at JMC Thursday afternoon, Friday morning, and Monday morning. Thank you. 1U6 PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE ON MOTIVATION [Not actually labeled] Objectives of an Educational Exchange Program I am trying to identify a large number of responses re— garding the expectations of a group going abroad this summer. I would appreciate your cooperation by project- ing yourself into the following situation and responding accordingly. You are a student who has concentrated heavily in modern languages during your first year at college. Your plans include continuing the development of this language skill while branching off into Liberal Arts--Humanities, or into the Social Sci~ ences. After this freshman orientation, you are afforded the opportunity to travel with several of your classmates to a nation where your new language is spoken. The trip will be of twelve weeks dur- ation, including about two weeks of independent travel. The nature of the experience will be educative; twelve credits will be earned for courses in the language and culture of the European country which you visit. Given this situation, what impact or changes would you eXpect to derive from the experience? What would your ijectives be at his point? Try to list these goals in approximate order of importance. Please try to extend the list to cover all of your expec- tations. I would appreciate your writing a sentence or two to clarify any vagueness that an ambiguous phrase could entail. EXPECTATIONS: 1. (space allowed) Would there be any difference in the expectations if the groups were visiting another country in- stead? (e.g., France, Russia, Spain)? Eric Kafka, Bryan Hall, PRE-SOJOURN QUESTIONNAIRE [Not labeled on actual form] Dear Justin Morrill Students: We are attempting to identify the characteristics of stu— dents participating in the Justin Morrill College Overseas Program this summer and to compare this description with those not enrolling in the program. Your cooperation in filling out this brief questionnaire would be very much appreciated. Some of the questions relate to individual background data (college, family and experience), others to why you are, or are not participating in the program. The answers will be used to perform group research. All replies will be treated in strict confidence. The find— ings will be used to improve the quality of our Overseas Program. Sincerely yours, D. Gordon Rohman Dean Questionnaire A. College 1. Student Number 2. Sex: Male Female 3. Are you enrolled in Justin Morrill College? Yes No 4. Are you participating in the JMC Overseas Program? Yes No 5. Which language have you studied this year: French Russian Spanish 6. What were your grades in foreign language? Fall Winter What is your cumulative Winter grade point *3 average? 1A8 Family Background 8. 10. ll. 12. RV LJ Most of my life has been spent in which state (or country)? I would classify the area in which I grew up as basically: Rural Suburban Urban Which of the following social classes would you place your family: The working class The middle class The professional The upper class The highest level of education which your father attained was: Elementary School High School Technical School (2 years or less) College (BA or BS) Above The approximate annual income of my family is: Below $5,000 Between $5,000—10,0UO Between $10,000-l5,006 Between $15,000—25,000 Above $25,000 Confidential Are there close ethnic ties or nationality factors that have influenced your development? Yes No If "YES” please explain [space allowed] “perience 1A. 15. 16. Approximately how many states have you been in for at least three days? Have you ever left the United States? Yes No If so, approximately how many months have you been abroad? a. Months abroad in English-speaking culture(s)? b. Months abroad in non-English-speaking culture(s)? 1A9 For those not going abroad: 17. 18. What is your primary reason for not participating in the Overseas Program? [Space allowed] What are your plans for this summer? [Space allowed] For participants in the Justin Morrill College Over- seas Program. 17. Read through the five categories of general values and the underlying specific objectives. Then choose the category that is most parallel to your primary reasons for participating in the program. Put the number one besides the category that you choose. Then, look through the categories re— maining and choose the one that you think is least important; put the number five besides that category. A. Cultural Values Exposure to other ways of life——Gaining an appreciation for alternative values and attitudes—~U.S. culture would fall into per— spective——A sense of cultural continuity and heritage would be developed-—The spirit of the society-—The literature and arts-— Museums and galleries—~Comparison and con— trast of different cultural styles and stages. B. Educational, Vocational and Professional Values Improved skill in language: ability to think confortably in that language-—Improved study skills-—Specific vocational or career benefits —-New areas of interest—-Course work (12 credits)-—Foundation for advanced study—- Formulation of future academic plans. C. Interpersonal Values Heightened awareness of social similarities and differences——Increased regard for others—— Increased tolerance for those with differ- ences-—Benefits derived from living with others and forming friendships—-Seeing other points of view——Appreciation for diversity-— Deep, personal interaction with foreigners—- Broaden view of humanity and mankind. Personal Values Greater self-awareness—-Independence and maturity gained through freedom to make decisions——Broader values and perspectives-— Sophistication and social poise--Prestige, recognition and status——Growth through modification of habits while adapting——Self— discovery, formulation of personal objectives, clarity of self-expectations——Enjoyment, adventure, curiosity. Political-—International Values Better understanding of the role of the individual powers in world affairs-—Better understanding of alternative political be— liefs and attitudes--Greater loyalty to, and critical perception of, the role of the United States——More direct sense of personal political responsibility, increased international understanding and the ability to generalize this appreciation to all cul- tures-—To act as an Ambassador abroad in correcting erroneous stereo-types of America- Political and geographic influences on world affairs. Question #4 ll. 12. IA. 15. 151 SPECIAL SCORING PROCEDURES FOR MAJOR PRE-SOJOURN QUESTIONNAIRE VARIABLES ‘ather's Education--Coded into five categories in quantitative order. Family Income--Coded into six categories in quantitative order. Category six: confidential also included ”unknown" and was omitted in analyses. States Traveled in--Coded into six categories in quantitative order. Months in Other Countries—-Coded into seven cage- gories in quantitative order. Speaking Cultures-~coded Months in Non—English in quantitative order. into seven categories Motivation——Used only for experimental group. Those who choose C or D as their primary moti- vation and A, B, or E as their least important motive were classified as ”Personal-Inter— personal" (N = 20). Those who choose A, B, or E as their primary reason and C or D as their least important were classified as ”Educational- Vocational-Professional” oriented students (N = 5). Other combinations were discarded in the analyses. PRE—SOJOURN BATTERY: DOGMATISM SCALE (D-SCALE) PRE—WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE (W-SCALE) (Scales not labeled on actual tests) The following battery of tests is being administered to help us in defining the unique characteristics of the Justin Morrill College student population. Through identi— fying the personality characteristics of the student body we can better develop programs to meet their needs. The results of these tests will remain confidential. We appeal for your sincere cooperation. The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important political, social, and personal questions. The best answer to each statement below is ypur personal opinion. We have tried to cover many different and Opposing points of view; you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing just as strongly with others, and perhaps un— certain about others; whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many other people feel the same as you do. Please put all answers to this set of questions on to the red answer sheet using only the first six answers. Please mark every item. F disagree very much. disagree on the whole. disagree a little. agree a little. agree on the whole. 0\ U1 .1: L0 R) i—J l I H H i—| H {—4 H agree very much. C? N w \J 1A. 15.. BE SURE TO FILL IN YOUR STUDENT NUMBER! A person who thinks primarily of his own happiness is beneath contempt. The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. Our country should have the right to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to live. In a discussion I often find it necessary to \// . \ repeat myself several times to make sure I am - being understood. Immigrants should not be permitted to come into V/, our country if they compete with our own workers. It would be a dangerous procedure if every person in the world had equal rights which were guaranteed by an international charter. / Most people just don't know what's good for thenh \/ In times like these a person must be pretty selfish if he considers primarily his own happiness. All prices for exported food and manufactured goods should be set by an international trade committee. A man who does not believe in some cause has not V/" really lived. Our country is probably no better than many others. Race prejudice may be a good thing for us because it keeps many undesirable foreigners from coming into this country. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. Of all the different philosophies which exist in this world there is probably only one which is correct. It would be a mistake for us to encourage certain racial groups to become more educated because they might use their knowledge against us. 4. I U 3' .4 Li W W W l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. R) R) {\J LA) {\j I: O [\J kW R) ON 15'! It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or a cause that life becomes meaningful. We should be willing to fight for our country without questioning whether it is right or wrong. In this complicated world of ours the only way we can know what is going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. 2 I There are a number of persons I have come to hate (1 because of the things they stand for. Foreigners are particularly obnoxious because of their religious beliefs. There is so much to be done and so little time to do it in. It is better to be a dead hero than a live coward. Immigration should be controlled by an inter— U/z national organization rather than by each country on its own. We ought to have a world government to guarantee the welfare of all nations irrespective of the rights of any one. A group which tolerates too much differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. .n I It is only natural that a person should have a l// much better acquaintance with ideas he believes in than with ideas he Opposes. Our country should not cooperate in any inter— national trade agreements which attempt to better world economic conditions at our expense. While I don't like to admit this even to myself, 1’ my secret ambition is to become a great man, like b/ Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. It would be better to be a citizen of the world than of any particular country. Our responsibility to people of other races ought b// to be as great as our responsibility to people of our own race. Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. W D W 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. DJ 0;) (N \L) 140.. Al, “3. AA. 45. 155 If a man is to accomplish his mission in life \/f“‘ it is sometimes necessary to gamble "all or nothing at all." Most people just don't give a "damn" for others.‘V’ A person who gets enthusiastic about too many causes is likely to be a pretty "wishy-washy" \{ sort of a person. An international committee on education should v/ have full control over what is taught in all countries about history and politics. Our country should refuse to COOperate in a a total disarmament program even if some other ‘1 nations agreed to it. To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. If given the chance I would do something of great benefit to the world. It would be dangerous for our country to make international agreements with nations whose religious beliefs are antagonistic to ours. In times like these it is often necessary to be more on guard against ideas put out by peOple or groups in one's own camp than by those in the opposing camp. j Any healthy individual, regardless if race or D// religion, should be allowed to live wherever he wants to in the world. Our country should not participate in any inter- national organization which requires that we give up any of our national rights or freedom of action. In a heated discussion I generally become so V! absorbed in what I am going to say that I forget to listen to what the others are saying. Once I get wound up in a heated discussion I L/j/ just can't stop. If necessary, we ought to be willing to lower our standard of living to cooperate with other countries in getting an equal standard for every person in the world. W W W W A6. A7. A8. A9. 50. 55. 56. 58. 59. 60. 1.56 There are two kinds of people in the world: \f/ those who are for the truth and those who are against it. We should strive for loyalty to our country before we can afford to consider world brotherhood. Some races ought to be considered naturally less intelligent than ours. :3 12‘ ‘4 Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. The United States and Russia have just about ; nothing in common. v Our schools should teach the history of the whole world rather than of our own country. In the history of mankind there have probably been just a handful of really great thinkers. An international police force ought to be the only group in the world allowed to have armaments. It would be dangerous for us to guarantee by «f! international agreement that every person in the world should have complete religious freedom. I The highest form of government is a democracy and // the highest form of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. The present is all too often full of unhappiness.,;f It is only the future that counts. ' Our country should permit the immigration of foreign peoples even if it lowers our standard of living. Unfortunately, a good many people with whom I /5 have discussed important social and moral problems don't really understand what's going on. All national governments should be abolished and replaced by one central world government. It would not be wise for us to agree that working' V/j conditions in all countries should be subject to international control. Fundamentally, the world we live in is a pretty lonesome place. W W W 62. 6A. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 157 It is often desirable to reserve judgment about what's going on until one has had a chance tO hear the opinions Of those one respects. Patriotism should be a primary aim Of education so our children will believe our country is the best in the world. The worst crime a person could commit is to 1' attack publicly the people who believe in the ‘V/ same thing he does. It would be a good idea if all the races were to intermarry until there was only one race in the world. We should teach our children to uphold the welfare of all people everywhere although it may be against the best interests Of our country. In the long run the best way is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the same as one's own. Most of the ideas which get printed nowadays ///I aren't worth the paper they are printed on. War should never be justifiable even if it is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. It is only natural for a person to be rather /f fearful Of the future. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. When it comes to differences of Opinion in religion we must be careful not to compromise with those who believe differently from the way we do. :5“ _ r PRE-SOJOURN BATTERY DIFFERENTIAL VALUES INVENTORY (Scale not labeled on actual test) This inventory consists Of a number of statements about things which you may think you ought or ought not do and feel. These statements are arranged in pairs as in the example below. 1. A. Be reliable. B. Be friendly. You are to choose between A or B. Depending on your choice, you will mark the appropriate column on the second answer sheet (purple). Here is another example: 2. A. Work on a project with Others. B. Work on a project alone. To help you make the required choice, when reading the item to yourself, precede each statement with the phrase, "I OUght to . . . ." That is, in the example given, you choose the item which is most desirable for you. Tgis is not a test. There are no right or wrong answers. Your Choices should be descriptive of how you think you ought to act or ieel. It is important that you PESDOHd to every one Of the items. Do not skip any items. Choose A or B. Mark your choice for each statement in the Egank column to the left of each question. Precede each Statement with the phrase, "I ought to . . . .” l- A. Work harder than most of those in my class. B. Work at least as hard as most of those in my class. 2 A. Do things which most other people do. B. DO things which are out—Of—the~ordinary. 3. A. Have my own ideas about politics and religion. B. Try to agree with others on these matters. 5- g. Enjoy myself doing things with others. Enjoy myself doing many things alone. ON 10. ll. l6. B. 159 Attain a higher position than my father or mother attained. Enjoy more of the good things of life than my father and mother enjoyed. Feel that the future is uncertain and unpredictable. Feel that the future is full of opportunities for me. Feel that happiness is the most important thing in life to me. Feel that enduring suffering and pain is important for me in the long run. Rely on the advice of others in making decisions. Be independent of others in making decisions. Feel it is my duty to save as much money as I can. Feel that saving is good but not to the extent that I must deprive myself of all present enjoyment. Put ten dollars in the bank. Spend five of the ten dollars enjoying myself with my friends. Spend enough on clothes to dress as well as my friends. Spend less on clothes in order to save for future needs. Put in long hours of work without distraction. Feel that I can't work long hours without dis- traction but I'll get the job done anyway. Feel that it is most important to live for the future. Feel that today is important and I should live each day to the fullest. Feel that "right" and "wrong” are relative terms. Feel that I should have strong convictions about what is right or wrong. Work hard to do most things better than others. Work hard at some things and leave others to those who are more qualified than I. Feel that everybody misbehaves once in a while but the important thing is not to make the same mis- take over again. Feel that the most important thing in life is to strive for peace with God. 17. 18. 19. 20. El. 23. 24. I‘m U1 26. 27. 1 C3\ 0 Feel that work is important, fun is not important. Feel that all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. Feel that what others think about right and wrong should influence my thinking. Feel that my convictions about right and wrong are most important. Defend my ideas about right and wrong. Be willing to be convinced on matters of right and wrong because ”right" and "wrong" have different meanings for different people. Make as many social contacts as possible. Be willing to sacrifice myself for the sake of a better world. Get all my work done on my own. Get my work done with the help of others if I am allowed to and this saves time. Wear clothes similar to those of my friends. Dress modestly even though this makes me different than my friends. Work hard only if I am paid accordingly. Work hard at doing something original regardless of pay. Get a job which will allow me to enjoy some of the luxuries of life. Get a job which will make me a success in life. Be able to solve difficult problems and puzzles. Feel that difficult problems and puzzles are good for some people but are not for everybody. Feel that style is more important than quality in clothes. Feel that quality is more important than style in clothes. Say what I think is right about things. Think of the effect on others before I speak. Feel comfortable getting the same grades as most of the people in my class. Feel comfortable near the head of the class. Have my own firm ideas about correct behavior. Look to others for the kind of behavior which is approved by the group. 30. 31. 32. 33. UK) L, \ LU ~\] 0 161 Feel that discipline in the modern school is not as strict as it should be. Feel that the change from strict discipline in the modern school is a good one. Feel that the most important thing in school is to gain knowledge useful to me in the future. Feel that the most important thing in school is to learn to get along well with people. Do things without regard to what others may think. Do things which allow me to have fun and be happy. Register for a course which is very interesting to me, whether or not it will do me some good later on. Register for a course which is uninteresting to me but which will do me some good later on. Go to a school affair to enjoy myself being with people. Go to a school affair because it is my duty to be loyal to my school. Feel it is right to spend less for clothes in order to save for the future. Feel that whether one wants to spend more for clothes and save less or vice versa is a matter of opinion. Do things which very few others can do. Do things cooperatively with others. Use the same expressions my friends use so that they won't think I'm odd. Speak in the most proper way. Feel that it is right to save for the future. Feel that whether or not it is right to save for the future is up to the indiVidual. Choose a job with plenty of opportunities for advancement even though the pay isn't as high as I would like it to be. Choose a job in which I can interesting people. work with many Mix in a little pleasure with my work so that I don't get bored. Keep at a job until it is finished. Al. A2. A3, AA. A6. A7. A9. 51. 52. 162 Get as much pleasure as I can out of life now. Stand by my convictions. Feel that everybody misbehaves once in a while but the important thing is not to make the same mistake over again. Feel guilty when I misbehave and expeCt to be punished. Have less freedom in the classroom. Have more freedom in the classroom. Be very ambitious. Be very sociable. Choose a job in which I'll earn as much as most of my friends. Choose a job with plenty of opportunities for advancement even though the pay isn't as high as my friends receive. Get the kind of job which will bring me in con— tact with many interesting people. Get the kind of job which will make me a success in life. Feel that whether or not it is right to plan and save for the future is a matter of opinion. Feel it is important to behave like most other people do. Deny myself enjoyment for the present for better things in the future. Have fun attending parties and being with people. Be satisfied to do as well in life as my father did. Attain a higher position in life than my father attained. Feel that it will be good for me later if I endure some unpleasant things now. Feel that whether or not I should be willing to endure unpleasant things now because it will be good for me later is a matter of opinion. Be able to have most of the things my friends have. Be able to have enough money to lay away for future needs. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 59. 60. 61. C\ [\3 6A. END Bib ID i6 ? .4 Feel that happiness is the most important thing in life. Feel that being respected is the most important thing in life. Feel that more "old-fashioned whippings” are needed today. Feel that "old—fashioned whippings" do the child more harm than good. Exert every effort to be more successful this year than I was last year. Be content with a reasonable amount of success and live longer. Try very hard to overcome my emotions. Get as much pleasure as I can out of life now. Feel it is important to be more successful than I was last year. Feel it is important to get along well with others. Feel that children are born good. Feel that children are born sinful. Spend as much time as I can in working independently. Spend as much time as I can in having fun. Deny myself enjoyment for the present for better things in the future. Be able to have as much enjoyment as my friends have. Feel that it is right to be very ambitious. Feel that it may or may not be right to be very ambitious depending on the individual. Choose to work with people I like in a job I don't like. Choose to work with people I don't like in a job which I like. Work as hard as I can in order to be successful. Work as hard as I can in order to enjoy some of the luxuries of life. Strive to be an expert in something. Do many things quite well but not be an expert in anything. l6A POST-SOJOURN QUESTIONNAIRE This battery is designed to review the Justin Morrill College Overseas Study Program of 1966, so that next year's program can be modified to include the most positive fea- tures. The value of the evaluation will depend on the thought and care that you put into this questionnaire. Please work independently, and make your answers compre— hensive and lucid. Some of the questions are designed to evaluate pro- grams extending for well over a year, so that you could not be expected in just one season to approach the depths im- plied by the questions. Your honesty will help us to determine realistic expectations upon which the objectives of a summer program might be based. No individual will be personally identified with any question or response; the data will be used exclusively for program evaluation and group research. Besides influencing next summer's program your comments will serve to direct the integration of your experience into the Justin Morrill College curriculum. If you feel that Elaboration is in order use the back of the sheets, attach separate paper, or feel welcome to stop by the Overseas Programs Office to talk. Encircle apprOpriate Student Number country visited Summer 1966: Switzerland Russia Spain Part I--Interaction 1. Will you rank this list of statements according to what you feel is most important experience to have overseas, what is the second most, etc., by putting a number in the blank before the letter. Your first number will be (l) and your last (8). Be sure to rank all statements. a. Getting to know the people there. b. Getting fundamental training for your vocation. 0. Seeing different parts of Europe. d. Finding out how other people live. e. Learning about other forms of government. f. Having a chance to live with people from another country. g. Earning of academic credit. h. Meeting the different kinds of people. I Directions: Read each item through then choose the answer that you feel is most appropriate and indicate your choice by blacking in the slash mark below the letter of your answer. 2. Before leaving for Europe how many (Swiss; Russians; Spanish) did you expect to get to know well? (A) None, (B) a few, (C) Several, (D) Many 3. If you had it to do over again how many other Americans would you prefer in your school or center? (A) None, (B) A few, (C) Several, (D) Many A. Suppose that 10 represents the kind of people who make friends very easily; suppose that 1 represents the people who do not make friends easily. Compared with other Americans your age where would you place your self? 5. How much difficulty did you have in understanding (Swiss; Russian; Spanish) when they spoke? (A) A great deal of difficulty, (B) Some difficulty, (C) Very little difficulty, (D) No difficulty at all 6. How much difficulty did the (Swiss; Russian; Spanish) people seem to have in understanding you when you spoke their language? (A) A great deal of difficulty, (B) Some difficulty, (C) Very little difficulty, (D) No difficulty 7. Did you sometimes hesitate to talk to (Swiss; Russians, Spanish) or to ask them questions because you thought you would not be understood? (A) Often, (B) Sometimes, (C) Once-in—a—while, (D) Never 8. At which level do you rate your foreign language skill? (A) Very little depth, (B) Limited depth, (C) Sufficient for most purposes, (D) Sufficient for all situations which I encountered A B C // // // A B C // // // A B C // // /l/ A B C // // // A B C // // // A B C // // // // // // D / // l66 9. To what degree did you think in the (French; Russian; Spanish) language? little; (A) Never, (C) Sometimes, (B) Very (D) Often 10. How proficient were you at catching jokes in (French; Russian; Spanish)? (A) Very poor, (C) Sometimes, (B) Occasionally, (D) Nearly always ll. Was your health similar to its normal condition in America? (A) Sick more often, (C) Better than usual the same, (B) About A B C D // // // // A B C // // // 12. Check the box that describes best the promixity of the following conveniences to your residence: Close By Inconvenient But Accessible Inaccessible or Unavailable Center or School Downtown Social ”gather— ing” place Cultural Events ___. Transpor— tation Recreational Areas k I67 13. Did your residence have a phone? A B C (A) Yes, (B) Inconvenient, but could be used, (C) No // // // lA. How many (Swiss; Russians, Spanish) of similar age and interests to your own were located near by? A B C D (A) None, (B) Very Few, (C) Some, // // // // (D) Many 15. Was the household where you lived A B C a relatively active one? (A) No, (B) Moderately, (C) Yes // // // 16. How would you describe your in- volvement in your residence? A B C (A) Observer, (B) Occasionally involved, (C) An active participant // // // 17. How many people within your age group lived with you in your residence? Read each nationality line across from left to right; answer by checking the column which in- cludes the number of peOple in each nationality category whom you consider as "within your age group" that lived in your residence at any time this summer. 5 and O l-2 2—5 Above Americans -- (Swiss (Russians) (Spanish) Other Nationalities IEB 18. With whom did you spend your free time (when not in school or dOing homework)? Read each nationality line across from left to right, then try to estimate the per- centage of time you spent with each nationality type. Show your response by checking the column which best describes the portion of time you spent with each category. Almost More Less Almost All All Than Half Than No None Half Half “8 Americans (Swiss) (Russians) (Spanish) Other Nation— alities 19. Here is a list of things people do together. Would you estimate how often you did them with nationals (Swiss; Russians; Spanish) when you visited that country? Read each line across from left to right and check the column indicating the approximate frequency that you performed these activities with the people from your host culture. Two or Several , v Never O§°eti Three Times Times a Eggry on A Month Week J Talk about lan— guage & courses Visit other's rooms or houses in each Talk about lit— erature, music & art Talk about your families & life in your respec- tive home lands Talk about the things that you would discuss only with your best friends at home _;._.4 (3“. \O Directions: Read each item through then choose the answer you feel is most appropriate and indicate your choice by blacking in the slash mark below the letter of your answer. 20. Where did you meet most of your A B C acquaintances among the nation— als (Swiss; Russians; Spanish)? // // // (A) Local cafes, (B) Classrooms, (C) Residency, (D) Travelling, (E) Recreational—cultural events. Try to estimate the nature of your ”dating" (formal or formal) habits during your summer abroad. 2l. How was your dating pattern as compared to your American social life? (A) Dated less frequently than at home, (B) Dated as fre— A B C quently as at home, (C) Dated more frequently than at home // // // 22. Estimate the quantity of your dating: (formal or D E // // in- in- ormal "dating") Read across each nationality line and check the column which best indicates the number times you ”dated" persons from these categories. of In the last column indicate the total number of different persons you dated from each category regardless of whether it was one time or on numerous occasions. Americans . _ How many different C Above . . None l—A J—lO IO people did you date 1 i from each category? I I! l l 1, . (SWISS) % 1 (Russian) (Spanish) ‘ j Other [ I National- ities 1 23. Most of your dating was of which A B type? (A) Single, (B) Double- ’ dating, (C) Group // // 2A. 25. 26. 27. l7O Check off the occupational type(s) which you person— ally interacted with during your EurOpean experience. Swiss, Russian, or Spanish: Teachers Businessmen Doctors Factory Workers Lawyers hegrocs Engineers Farmers Very Wealthy Very Poor PeOple People Artists Military Men Check off which of the following (Swiss; Russian; Spanish) family relationships you saw enough of to get an idea of how they act toward each other: Parent-children Grandparent-grandchildren Husbands—wives Brothers-sisters Uncles or aunts-nieces or nephews Did you eat at a (Swiss; Russian; Spanish) home other than your A B C residence? (A) No, (B) Once, (C) More than once // // // Check off those events or places which you attended in Europe: Political meeting National festivals or celebrations Local parties or carnivals Art Museum Movies Historical Museum Farm Opera Factory Ballet Church Athletic event Government chambers Play Historical Shrine Speech Concerts lllllllll Other [space allowed] l7l 28. Please try to numberically estimate the extent of your relations with various nationalities while in Europe. Read across each nationality line and put the approximate number of persons that you related to in the manner that the column indicates. Those who you Know well know less well enough to "Close discuss books talk to when Friends" current events,you meet—- as de— go to movies, not counting fined in etc., but not those already America close friends mentioned Americans (Swiss) (Russians) (Spanish) Other National- ities 29. Rate the terms as they best describe the general characteristics of the people of (Switzerland; Russia; Spain) by putting the number of your answer in the blank provided to the right of each term. 1. Does not describe them 2 Somewhat describes them 3. Describes them well Abrupt Friendly Aloof Money-oriented Considerate Prejudice Curious Sincere Enthusiastic Understanding Formal Unfriendly Directions: Read each item through then choose the answer that you feel is most appropriate and indicate your choice by blacking in the slash mark below the letter of your answer. 30. There are many "sensitive” points that cannot easily be discussed with (Swiss; Russians; Spanish). (B) Sometimes this is true, (A) Agree, (C) Disagree A B // // // 31. 32. 3A. 35. 17? Did you feel that you were an American "Ambassador" or repre— sentative? (A) Always, (B) Some— times, (C) Very little, (D) Never While in EurOpe to what extent did you try to keep informed about what was happening in America? (A) Strong effort to keep informed; (B) Some effort to keep informed, (C) Very little effort to keep in— formed, (D) No effort to keep in- formed. Suppose that someone praises some- thing about America--would you feel as if you yourself were per— sonally praised? (A) Very much, (B) Somewhat, (C) Not at all If someone criticized something about America—~would you feel as if you yourself were personally criticized? (A) Very much, (B) Somewhat, (C) Not at all A B // // A B // // A B // // A B // // C D H" // C D // // C // C // Rate both countries by placing 1 (lowest in world)-- to 10 (highest in world) in each category: 1 Standard ‘ of Living Cultural \ Political Standards Standards United States ——1 (Switzerland) (Russia) (Spain) _____ .._.——._.__.———— .— p—‘—r——-——'—'-_ ,_.,.._._.—.——»‘u-—-—_“ 173 36. How do you think the (Swiss; Russians; Spanish) would rate these countries in the same areas? Standard Cultural of Living Standards Standards Political United States (Switzerland) (Russia) (Spain) 37. Rate both the United States and your host country by putting a number from 1 (highest in world) for each factor. (lowest in world) to 10 First rate your impressions before the summer in column A (to the left), then rate the nations on your perspective since the experience abroad (column B—-to the right) A. BEFORE your trip to Europe (Switzerland) U. S. (Russia) (Spain) was AFTER your trip to Europe I(Switzerland) (Russia) (Spain l. Extent of freedom of speech 2. Obligation to family 3. Extent of democracy A. Extent of participation in Civic affairs 5. Equality of opportunity for all groups 6. Standard of living 7. Treatment of each other as equals BEFORE your trip to Europe FACTORS (Switzerland) (Russia) (Spain) AFTER your trip to Europe '(Switzerland) (Russia) (Spain U) 8. Optimism of outlook on life 9. Friendliness of people 10. Individual happiness ll. Sanitation 12. Quality and variety of food 13. Educational system SPECIAL SCORING PROCEDURES FOR MAJOR POST-SOJOURN QUESTIONNAIRE VARIABLES Question A. l6. l8. 29. Friendliness-—The number stated was used. The mean was established at 6.7, therefore, 7 and above was considered to be "more" friendly (N = 5i) and 6 and below was considered to be "less" friendly (N = 31). Language Skill-—The number stated was used. Re— sponses A and B were considered as "less" skilled (N = 67), and C and D were defined as "more" skilled (N = 15). Residence Involvement--Students on the Russian Program (N = 13) were omitted because they were housed with Americans in dormitories. Responses A and B were considered to be ”less” involved (N = A8), and C was defined to be ”more" involved (N 21). The mean was 2.08. Free-time—-Only the middle row referring to host countrymen was used in this item. The mean was 3.07, therefore, those who claimed to spend half of their free—time (A) or more were considered to be "more" (N = 23), and those spending less than half (3 or below) were categorized as spending "less” free—time with nationals (N = 59). Close Foreign Friends——Only the first column ("close friEnds .") and the second and third rows (Swiss; Russian, Spanish, and Other national— ities) were used. Those with at least one close foreign friend were in one category (N = 60), and those with none (N = 22) were in the other. The mean number of close foreign friends was 2-23. lpr .L‘~-\j_l. Positive Description of Hosts—-The numer answers of only the six positive charaCteristics: Considerate, Curious, Enthusiastic, Friendly, Sincere, and Understanding were totalled. The possible range was from 6—l8 and the mean was 11.85. Those with 12 and above described their hosts "more" positively, (N = A0) and those with ll and below described their hosts "less” posi- tively (N = A2). 31—3A. 35-36. 37. 176 Ego-involvement in U. S.—-The letter reSponses were given numerical weights; A - l, B - 2, C - 3, D - A. The four responses were totalled. The possible range was from A—lA, and the mean was at 7.8 Those with 8 and above (N = A5) were considered to be "less" ego—involved, and those with 7 and below (N = 37) were considered to be "more" ego-involved in the U. S. Relative National Status-— A. United States (N = 65) vs. Host Country (N = lS)--question 35 was totalled across the row for U. S. and hostland. The nation with the highest total was considered to have the most status. B. Agree (N = A6) vs. Disagree (N : 3A) with Hosts--The direction shown in question 35 was compared to the student's perception of his host's opinion. If there was concensus then they "agree," if not they "disagree" as to relative national status. Before-After National Rating—-The Before columns were totalled and compared to the tctals of the After columns. A. Reaction 1. Reverse rankings changed. 2. Reinforce (N = 5A)—-lf the relative national rankings remained the same. B. Direction II (\1 Co I. U. 8. up, host down (N 2. Host up, U. S. down (N = ll). 3. Other answers excluded. (N — 25)--If the relative national p._J ‘4 ~\J POST-SOJOURN WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE (Actual scale was not labeled). This test is being administered to help us to define the unique characteristics of the Justin Morrill College student population. The major purpose of this research is to identify group trends, thus we will assure confidentiality of individual scores. The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important economic, political, and social issues. The best answer to each statement below is your personal opinion. We have tried to cover a variety of different and Opposing views; you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing just as strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others; whether you agree or dis— agree with any statement, you can be sure that many other people feel the same as you do. *EVERY QUESTION MUST BE MARKED WITH ONE ANSWER FOR EACH ITEM OR THE ENTIRE TEST IS INVALID. *BE SURE TO PUT YOUR STUDENT NUMBER ON THE ANSWER SHEET! Please put all answers to this set of questions on to the red answer sheet using only the first gix answers. disagree very much- disagree on the whole. disagree a little. agree a little. agree on the whole. agree very much. (On the actual scale this key was on each page) mmtoorot—I HHHHHH 1. Our country should have the right to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to live. 2. Immigrants should not be permitted to come into our country if they compete with our own workers. 3. It would be a dengerous procedure if every person in the world had equal rights which were guaranteed by an international charter. A. All prices for exported food and manufactured goods should be set by an international trade committee. 10. ll. 12. 13. IA. 15. l6. l7. l8. 19. 178 Our country is probably no better than many others. Race prejudice may be a good thing for us because it keeps many undesirable foreigners from coming into this country. It would be a mistake for us to encourage certain racial groups to become more educated because they might use their knowledge against us. We should be willing to fight for our country without questioning whether it is right or wrong. Foreigners are particularly obnoxious because of their religious beliefs. Immigration should be controlled by an international organization rather than by each country on its own. We ought to have a world government to guarantee the welfare of all nations irrespective of the rights of any one. Our country should not cooperate in any international trade agreements which attempt to better world economic conditions at our expense. It would be better to be a citizen of the world than of any particular country. Our responsibility to people of other races ought to be as great as our responsibility to people of our own race. An international committee on education should have full control over what is taught in all countries about history and politics. Our country should refuse to cooperate in a total disarmament prOgram even if some other nations agreed to it. It would be dangerous for our country to make inter— national agreements with nations whose religious beliefs are antagonistic to ours. Any healthy individual, regardless of race or religion, should be allowed to live wherever he wants to in the world. - Our country should not participate in any inter- national organization which requires that we give up any of our national rights or freedom of action, 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 179 If necessary, we ought to be willing to lower our standard of living to cooperate with other countries in getting an equal standard for every person in the world. We should strive for loyalty to our country before we can afford to consider world brotherhood. Some races ought to be considered naturally less intelligent than ours. Our schools should teach the history of the whole world rather than of our own country. An international police force ought to be the only group in the world allowed to have armaments. It would be dangerous for us to guarantee by inter— national agreement that every person in the world should have complete religious freedom. Our country should permit the immigration of foreign peoples even if it lowers our standard of living. All national governments should be abolished and replaced by one central world government. It would not be wise for us to agree that working conditions in all countries should be subject to international control. Patriotism should be a primary aim of education so our children will believe our country is the best in the world. It would be a good idea if all the races were to intermarry until there was only one race in the world. We should teach our children to uphold the welfare of all people everywhere although it may be against the best interests of our country. War should never be justifiable even if it is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. BE SURE YOU HAVE MARKED EACH QUESTION WITH ONE ANSWER. HAVE YOU CHECKED YOUR STUDENT NUMBER ON THE ANSWER SHEET? APPENDIX B DESCRIPTION OF JUSTIN MORRILL COLLEGE OVERSEAS SUMMER STUDY PROGRAM 1966 1.80 FOREIGN STUDY PROGRAM July I - September 17 FRENCH AND SPANISH PROGRAMS SUMMARY OF EXPENSES Enrollment Fee Overseas Credit Fee MSU Tuition (l2 Credits) Room and Board: 10 weeks at $20 per week, including housing and two meals: breakfast and dinner Round trip Air Fare to Luxembourg Transportation to Lausanne or Madrid: one way. Students will be responsible for the fare to Luxembourg for the return trip Total Added Expenses: Books (estimated) Additional expenses for miscel— laneous: one meal per day, laundry, haircuts, weekend excursions, etc. (ll weeks at $20 per week) Post—Program Travel or Stay: 1 week (estimated) Overnight Stay and Meals in Luxembourg (estimated) N. B. Naturally, the student will be responsible for their own travel arrangements and expenses from their home to New York and from New York to their home. $ 25 50 156 200 260 I8 .90 $719. l._J \II 22C 100 10 Lausanne 90 Madrid $ 25 50 156 200 260 $699. 15 220 100 10 l82 READ CAREFULLY THE AMLEC BROCHURE for further details on general and miscellaneous expenses: passport, pictures, group flight to New York from Detroit, etc. OPTIONAL PROGRAM: Choose one or both or none NOW. Acculuration Program in Lausanne Center only (See attached description) 25 Three—Day Trip to Paris (bus) 55 July 1 July 2 July 3 July A August 5 September September September to 16 September September 9 IO IO l7 18 183 FOREIGN STUDY PROGRAM FRENCH PROGRAM July I — September 17, 1966 Time Schedule Leave New York on Chartered Plane Arrival in Luxembourg Overnight Stay in Luxembourg Leave Luxembourg for Lausanne by Train Beginning of Housing Arrangements in Lausanne; including Sunday Evening Dinner Classes Begin End of First Five—Week Session End of lO-Week Academic Program——Examinations Housing in Lausanne has to be Relinquished by Noon (Unless Arrangements Have Been Made With Lausanne Center Director, Very Early in July) Free Travel Time Departure From Luxembourg Arrival in New York 18A FOREIGN STUDY PROGRAM Lausanne Acculturation Program Students wishing to enroll in the "Acculturation Program" will be asked to pay a $25 fee which will entitle them to participate in a series of 8 excursions and/or special events. 1. Trip by train and boat to Geneva: 1 day. 2. Boat ride on Petit Lac and visit of the Chillon castle. 3. Excursion Romane: Some of the cornerstones of Switzerland: bus, 1 day. A. Excursion in the Mountain and the 3 Passes: bus, 1 day at the sources of Swiss history. 5. Excursion to Bern, the Capital: train, 1 day. 6. Excursion to Guyere and the NESTLE Chocolate Factory: 1/2 day, bus. 7. Dancing on a boat on the Lake of Geneva: Saturday night. 8. Farewell Party and Dinner in a well—known Lausanne Restaurant. Excursions 1 through 6 will be offered on 2 or 3 occasions during the lO—week stay in Lausanne, to allow the students for greater flexibility in arranging their stay in Lau— sanne. Furthermore, since these excursions are available to all the foreign students enrolled in Lausanne, they will allow for greater intermingling of MSU students with European students. 185 FOREIGN STUDY PROGRAM JMC French and Spanish Programs July 1 - September l7 General Information 1. Notice change of dates: Departure: July 1 (from New York to Luxembourg) Return: September 17 (from Luxembourg to New York) The accompanying material includes: a. Summary of expenses b. Time schedule for program c. Language recommendation form to be filled by language teacher. d. Two other recommendation forms to be filled by a teacher (other than the language teacher) and by the College Counselor (Dr. Stimson) N. B. These recommendation forms should be given to the appropriate teachers immediately so that they can return them to the Central Office of Justin Morrill College before March lst. By March 5, the final list of participants will be established and no refund will be made after that date. Students intending to participate in the Foreign Study Program are reminded that they must attend the Orientation Program (weekly lectures on Thursdays) and enroll in H.P.R. 108, International Sports (Wednesdays). (11" ii I." III III I I'll .li 1" III! I 186 JUSTIN S. MORRILL COLLEGE Effective April 12, 1966 EurOpean Itinerary for U.S.S.R. Program Wednesday, June 15: A.M. Thursday, June 16: Friday, June 17: Until August 19: Friday, August 19: 16.5A 23.50 LUXEMBOURG ARRIVAL/BRUSSELS Arrival Luxembourg airport. Re- ception by C.S.T. Tour Leader. Depart by chartered bus to Brussels. Dinner en route with packed meals. Arrival Brussels and installation at Hotel. Night at Hotel. BRUSSELS Breakfast at Hotel Free morning Lunch with pocket money allowance In the afternoon, orientation Session (exact time and place to be communi— cated later) Dinner at the Hotel Night at the Hotel BRUSSELS/MOSCOW Breakfast at the Hotel Transfer to the airport by chartered bus with C.S.T. Representative Travel to Moxcow by air Lunch on the plane (?) Arrival Moscow. Reception by Sputnik Representatives Russian Language study at Moscow University followed by travel in the USSR KlEV/BREST Leave Kiev Arrive Sarny Night on the train with couchettes | I)! lull ‘1 I n Saturday, August 20: 05.20 07.20 09.57 August 21, Sunday: 11.A5 12.A0 21.A0 Monday, August 22: Tuesday, August 23: 187 BREST/WARSAW Arrive Brest. Customs formalities Breakfast Leave Brest Arrive Warsaw (Gdanska station) Transfer to Hotel Meet until lunch Lunch Afternoon sightseeing tour or Warsaw Dinner and night at Hotel WARSAW/BERLIN (EAST) Breakfast at Hotel Free morning Transfer to the station (Gdanska) Leave Warsaw by train with seat reservations Packed lunch on the train Dinner in the dining car with meal vouchers Arrival Berlin East Transfer to Hotel Night EAST BERLIN Breakfast at Hotel Free morning for rest Lunch at Hotel Afternoon guided sightseeing tour by bus Dinner and night at Hotel EAST BERLIN/WEST BERLIN Breakfast Transfer by bus to West Berlin Installation at Hotel or Student House Lunch at restaurant Afternoon guided sightseeing tour of West Berlin Dinner at restaurant Night lilllll I "1 III Wednesday, August 2A: 08.30 09.30 10.26 20. A2 Thursday, August 25: Friday, August 26: r" H _ .. oaturday O7. 08 08. 12 1A. /- 16 2 30 .15 A0 .05 O9 .59 August 27: 188 WEST BERLIN/COLOGNE Breakfast Transfer to the station Depart by train to Cologne Packed lunch on the train Arrival Cologne Transfer to Hotel Dinner at Hotel Night COLOGNE Breakfast at Hotel Free morning for rest Independent lunch with pocket money allowance Afternoon visit of the Cathedral Dinner at Hotel Night COLOGNE/LUXEMBOURG Breakfast at Hotel Transfer to the station Depart Cologne by train to Liege Arrive Liege Lunch Leave Liege Arrive Luxembourg Transfer to the Hotel Free time Dinner at Hotel Night LUXEMBOURG/DEPARTURE Breakfast Transfer to airport Departure of flight to U.S.A. lllil‘lll‘llll'llll 189 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JUSTIN S. MORRILL COLLEGE RUSSIAN PROGRAM Intensive Russian Language Study at Moscow State University Sponsored in Collaboration with the Council on Student Travel General Announcement* Justin Morrill College and the College of Arts and Letters will offer a summer session of nine weeks duration for qualified students of Russian from Justin Morrill College and other colleges of Michigan State University in 1966. The Russian Summer Session has been planned and will be executed with the collaboration of the Council on Student Travel. The program will consist of three parts: —— the six-weeks academic session in Moscow; -- a one—week sojourn in Leningrad and Kiev with visits to theaters and museums; -- a two—weeks stay in a Youth Camp. The Russian Summer Session is an academic, not a tourist project. Decisions concerning the courses offered, the credit granted, and the appointment of the Director are made by the Faculty of Michigan State University, while administrative details such as admission and registration of students, financial aid, recording of grades, issuing of transcripts, collection of fees, and payment of bills are executed by the apprOpriate officers of the University. Admission A student will be considered on recommendation of his college or department. The selection of students will be made by the Justin Morrill College or the College of Arts and Letters. Personal adaptability of each applicant to the cir— cumstances of residence abroad will be an important criterion for selection. *All arrangements herein described are subject to change or cancellation. The Academic Program The Russian Summer Session is designed for students who have had the equivalent of two years of college courses in Russian. Students who have had only one year of Russian in Justin Morrill College will, however, be admitted upon their successful completion of the first year. . During the stay in Moscow, classes will be held Monday through Saturday for a total of 30 hours of language instruction per week. Classes will be limited in size from 7 to 10 students. The instruction will consist of the following type of courses: 1. Phonetics and Conversation. Practice in the sounds of Russian and in the intonation of various types of sentences. Application of the material practiced in oral reports, and conversation based on everyday subjects. Classes in small sections two hours daily Monday through Saturday. 2. Grammar and Composition. Exercises on lexical and stylistic problems. Reading of contemporary material. Written compositions. Classes in small sections two hours daily Monday through Saturday. 3. In addition to the two courses described above, each student will attend Expository Lectures on subjects directly related to the language courses and on topics of more general linguistic interest. There will be three two—hour lectures each week. Attendance of all students will be required. The courses of the first two groups will be divided into sections of seven to ten students each. Students will be assigned to sections according to their previous preparation and their ability. Only Russian will be spoken at all sessions. Attendance at both lectures and classes will be compulsory. Examinations will be given on the final day of classes at Moscow State University. Credit Justin Morrill College grants 12 term hours of credit for the Russian Summer Session. The amount of credit for students of other colleges will be determined by the College of Arts and Letters. 191 Living in the U.S.S.R. . In Moscow students will live at the Moscow State University. The rooms will be for two persons. Each student will be housed with a Russian roommate, if possible. Meals will be provided in the University dining rooms. Cultural opportunities in Moscow are numerous; most of them are within a half-hour's subway ride from the University. Movies are shown at the Uni- versity. A large municipal pool affords opportunity for swimming. There will be group excursions to points of interest in and near Moscow. On the week—end excur- sions to Leningrad and Kiev hostels maintained by the universities or by Sputnik (Organization for Cultural Exchange), will be used. . During the two weeks at the Youth Camp students will live in tents. If possible, each American student will be placed singly in a tent with Russians. Time Schedule June lA Leave New York on Chartered Plane for Brussels (Belgium). June 15 Arrive in Brussels. CST provides meals and rooms in Brussels from June 15 until departure. June 16 Morning-—free; Afternoon--general orien- tation. Charter Aeroflot plane to Moscow; arrive in the afternoon. Participants will be assigned to their rooms in the dormitories at Moscow State University Campus. Titvo~ Q o June lo Free June 19 Classes begin. July 31 Classes end Two weeks in Youth Camp and one week travel in the Soviet Union. August 1—20 August 20 Leave Soviet Union for Warsaw (Poland) August 21 Arrive in Warsaw August 22 Stay in Warsaw August August August August August August 23 23 25 26 27 28 192 Leave Warsaw for Berlin (Germany) Arrive in Berlin Leave Berlin for Brussels (Belgium) Arrive Brussels (PM) Leave Brussels for New York Arrive in New York Summary of Expenses* I. i. MSU Tuition (12 credits) $156.00 2. Round trip air fare 390.00 3. Council on Student Travel 8£QLQQ Total $1386.00 II' Added Expenses: Minimum Maximum 1. Personal expenses abroad $250 $500 2. Round trip to and from New York 3. Passport, pictures, etc. *The cost of the program is estimated as close as the college could possibly do. All quoted prices, except for MSU tuition, are, however, subject to changes without any notice. APPENDIX C CHI SQUARE DISTRIBUTION TABLES OF BACKGROUND DATA TABLE C-l.--Frequcncy 194 distribution tables and chi education. square: for background data--father's I)"; " A I I‘Y‘l ‘ 5 . , Ils'b‘l'<)-‘{ear 15./Kl. {JI. 0 A..L‘]:UAJ .1{§...11u (.11(_i(.)l (7.)!" .,’l]fli()r‘ 8.:2. At‘OV{f [Pot/al- oth grade nraouate C011,,Q. chrep. ‘ (JAIL) A .1 1 . ,5 Control Group 5 33 2 38 37 135 Experimental Group 2 10 1A 22 3A 8? Total 7 A3 3A 6? /l 215 2 , n = 7.357 TABLE C-2.-—Frequency distribution talles and chi squares for background data--family income. 0— $ 5,000- $10,000- $15,000- 325,000 ggkgzgf Total $5,000 10,000 15,000 25,000 i Abore fidential Control Group 3 3' 36 27 8 23 133 Experimental Group A 15 2A 1A 7 13 82 Total 7 51 60 A1 15 A1 215 x2 = u.123 TABLE C-3.--Frequency distribution tables and chi of states visited (over squares 3 days). for background data-—numher . ,. .k . V m . i,:§e, 5-5 6-10 11-20 :1-30 A38 9 iotai Control Group 9 78 “9 £8 5 A 133 Experimental Group 5 80 30 1A 6 7 83 Total in 58 7:) A: 11 11 215 x2 = 5.062 195 TABLE C-A.--Frequency distribution tables and chi squares for background data-—months in foreign Countries. - /‘ 'v . 0 1 2-3 i-t 7—12 13-2) 35-.0 Hgtve m tii mos. JD Control Group 67 “A 13 0 3 h 3 13 133 Experimental Group A3 18 7 5 3 2 1 3 32 Total 110 “7 25 r 6 7 A 16 215 2 X = 13.109 TABLE C-5.--Frequency dist itution tables and c 1 squares for background data-—months in non-English speaking countries. I - - x . , Above m J l 3-3 ”-c /-12 li--A .u-‘b .. .otal mos . 3L, Control Group 93 6 l3 0 3 2 3 13 133 Experimental Group '9 8 5 i 3 l l 3 L2 Total 1:; 1% 18 3 , 4 A it ‘1. X = 10.736 - HICHIGRN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES 1N1|"MlHAWAII"MANIAllWlHlWlHll 31293100692262