A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL SELF -CONCEPT BETWEEN LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC FIFTH-AND SIXTH-GRADE CHICANOS AND ANGLO AMERICANS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JOHN H. BRACCIO ' 1971 ii! IIII II IIIII IIII II IIII III II I I OO7__2 1749 Michigan Statc University IIII I IIIII III IIIIII II 3 1293 I I r This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL SELF—CONCEPT BETWEEN LOW SOCIO—ECONOMIC FIFTH- AND SIXTH—GRADE CHICANOS AND ANGLO' AMERICANS presented by John H. Braccio has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D . degree in Elementary and Special Education I I I Major professor ‘ Date November, 1971 0-7639 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL SELF-CONCEPT BETWEEN LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC FIFTH- AND SIXTH-GRADE CHICANOS AND ANGLO AMERICANS BY John H. Braccio The Problem At present, the academic achievement of the Chi- cano is one of the foremost concerns facing American edu- cators. The typical Chicano completes less years of schooling and drops out of school more frequently than his Anglo and Black counterpart. It is commonly assumed by many writers and researchers that the Chicano has a lower school self- concept than his Anglo counterpart. The rationale for this assumption is that due to the Chicano's language deficiencies and other cultural differences that set him apart from the dominant Anglo culture, he functions poorly in America's middle class oriented schools and this leads to his having a poorer image of himself in school than his Anglo peer. John H. Braccio Purpose of the Investigation The major purpose of this investigation is to determine if there is a difference between the school self-concept of ability of low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicano and Anglo students. Differences as to how the Chicano and Anglo perceive their own academic ability, and perceive their parents, teacher, and best friend perceiving their academic ability in comparison to others will be analyzed. It is generally hypothesized that the Chicano will have a lower school self-concept than the Anglo. Based on George Herbert Mead's inter- action theory of the self, these student perceptions of how significant others perceive his academic ability are considered to strongly influence his school self-concept of ability. In addition to determining differences in school self-concept of ability, the investigator has also included four open—ended and two multiple choice items to gather some qualitative school self-concept infor- mation about the following: (1) Education aspirational level; (2) Ability in reading and arithmetic; (3) Per- sonal model; (4) Future occupational choice; (5) Best- liked activity in school; and (6) Least-liked activity in school. John H. Braccio Sample The sample was composed of 120 low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicanos and Anglos from three schools in two urban Midwestern communities. The samp- ling was done in such a way that boys and girls, fifth and sixth graders, and Anglos and Chicanos were equally distributed. Methodology and Statistical Analysis Four scales, developed by Wilbur Brookover at Michigan State University, pertaining to school self- concept of ability and six items dealing with general school self-concept, developed specifically for this investigation, were administered to one classroom of students at a time. The investigator read each item out loud before the students responded with their answer. This was done since it was known that many of the students were reading substantially below grade level. The stu- dents were aided in spelling on the open-ended questions that required writing to complete them. The random samp- ling was done with those students who completed the questions asked and who qualified as low socio-economic. A three-way multivariate analysis, mixed model, was performed on the results from the four Brookover scales pertaining to self-concept of ability. Achievement was the covariable. Tables were used to measure and make judgments on the six qualitative school self-concept items. John H. Braccio Major Findings The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student does not have a lower self-concept of academic ability than his Anglo peer.! He did not perceive himself having less academic ability than his Anglo peer, nor did he perceive his parents, best friend, and teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. The trend was actually for the Chicano to have a stronger over— all school self-concept of academic ability. These results are consistent with Mead's inter- action theory of the self in that the student's perceptions of how "significant others" perceived his academic ability were consistent with his own perception of his academic ability. The low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade male Chicano and Anglo does not have a lower school self-concept of ability than his female peer. He did not perceive himself having less academic ability than his female peer, nor did he perceive his parents, best friend, and teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female peer., The trend actually indicates that the males have a stronger school self-concept of academic ability. 5These results are consistent John H. Braccio with Mead's interaction theory of the self in that the male and female students' perceptions of how "significant others" perceived their academic ability were consistent with their own per- ceptions of their own academic ability. The low socio-economic fifth— and sixth-grade Chicano does not perceive language related activ- ities in a more negative way than his Anglo peer. The trend was actually in the opposite direction. Education aspirational levels are high and simi- lar for low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicanos and Anglos; however, occupational choices are lower for the Chicano than the Anglo in that he more often chose unskilled or factory work as his choice of what he would do when he completed school. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL SELF-CONCEPT BETWEEN LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC FIFTH— AND SIXTH-GRADE CHICANOS AND ANGLO AMERICANS BY John H. Braccio A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1971 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Anthony and Maxine, who have always placed the needs of their children above their own needs. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All the members of my doctoral committee have aided me immensely during my doctoral studies at Michigan State University. Without their friendship and encourage- ment, my doctoral program could never have been completed. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Glen Cooper, my doctoral committee chairman, for his consistent encouragement, support, and guidance throughout all phases of my doctoral program. Dr. Louise Sause is thanked for all the time she so graciously spent with me during the preparation of my thesis. Dr. Perry Lanier is thanked for his guidance and availability during times when candid analysis was neces- sary. Dr. Robert Solo, my cognate advisor, is thanked for opening to me whole new vistas of knowledge in eco- nomics and management through his masterful lecture style. The public school systems of Lansing and Grand Rapids are thanked for allowing me to use schools in their systems to gather my data. All persons involved, including the students, were most courteous and helpful. Norma Brink is thanked for her aid in reading, typing, and being willing to discuss all phases of my thesis while I was writing it. iii Linda Allal and other members of the research department at Michigan State University are thanked for the aid given me in the preparation of the statistical sections of this thesis. Last, but by no means least, I owe much to my roommate and good friend, Richard Hamilton, who has been a great friend during my stay in East Lansing. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION The Problem and Need for the Study. Purpose Present Situation of the Chicano in the United States. Cultural Reasons for the Chicano's Lack of Success in Today's American Schools Plan and Content of the Thesis II. THEORETICAL ORIENTATION-~A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE SELF-CONCEPT Theoretical Orientation . . . Summary III. METHODOLOGY Introduction . . . . Population and Sites of Research Descr1ption of Instruments Used and A Definition of Terms. . . . Reliability of Instruments Data Collection Procedures . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . Statistical Procedures. . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction . . . . . Findings on the Brookover Self-Concept of Ability Scales . . . . . Perceived Evaluation of Student‘s Aca- demic Ability by His Parents. . . . Perceived Evaluation of Student‘s Aca- demic Ability by His Best Friend . . Perceived Evaluation of Student‘s Aca- demic Ability by His Teacher. 16 18 l9 19 31 32 32 35 40 45 48 49 53 53 55 55 S7 60 63 66 Chapter V. Findings on the Single Item School Concept Measures . . . . Summary . . . . . . . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. . Introduction . . . . . Results . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . Major Implications of This Inves Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research. . . . . . . tigation Final Comments by the Investigator . BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . APPENDICES Appendix A. General Self-Concept of Ability Scale . B. Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Ability by Others Scales . . . . . C. Single Item School Self-Concept Measures . D. Raw Means of Responses to the General Self- Concept of Ability Scale and Perceived Evalu ations of Student's Academic Ability by Others Scales and Raw Achievement Means E. Intercorrelations of the Four Brookover Self- Concept of Ability Scales and Achievement. F. Directions to the Student Before the Admin- istration of the Instruments Used in this Study 0 O O O O O O O 0 vi Page 68 84 86 86 87 9O 92 95 97 101 106 108 111 112 113 114 Table 3.1. LIST OF TABLES Categories, Sub-Categories and Number of Stu- dents in each Sub-Category Used in This Study. Numbers are representative of One-Third of the Total . . . . . . . Fifth and Sixth Grade Student Breakdown by School, Ethnic Number and Percentage of Total, and Sex for Chicanos and Anglos. . Ethnic Student Breakdown of the Schools by Numbers and Percentage. All Schools Are K-6 0 o o o o o o o o o o o Hoyt's Analysis of Variance Reliability Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . Design of the Investigation . . . . . . Analysis of Covariance--Self—Concept of Ability Scale (N = 120) . . . . . . Adjusted Means on the Self-Concept of Ability Scale. 0 O I O O O O I C O O 0 Analysis of Covariance--Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Ability by His Parents (N = 120). . . . . . . . . Adjusted Means on the Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Ability by His Parents Scale . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Covariance--Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability by His BeSt Friend. 0 O I O O O I O O 0 Adjusted Means on the Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability by H1s Best Friend Scale . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 36 37 38 48 53 58 59 61 62 64 65 Page Analysis of Covariance--Perceived Evalu- ation of Student's Academic Ability by His Teacher (N = 120) . . . . . . 67 Adjusted Means on the Perceived Evalu- ation of Student's Academic Ability by His Teacher . . . . . . . . . 68 Frequency and Percentage Results From Student Responses to the Following Question: "Do You do Better in Arith- metic or Reading?" . . . . . . . . 70 Frequency and Percentage Results from Stu— dent Responses to the Following Question: "How Far Would You Like to Go in School?" 71 Frequency and Percentage Results From Stu— dent Responses to the Following Question: "What Would You Like to Do When You Finish School?" . . . . . . . . . 74 Frequency and Percentage Results From Stu- dent Responses to the Following Question: "Of any Person You Know or Know of, Who Would You Most Want to be Like?" . . . 78 Frequency and Percentage Results From Stu- dent Responses to the Following Question: "During the School Week, What Do You Like to Do Best in School?". . . . . . . 81 Frequency and Percentage Results From Stu- dent Responses to the Following Question: "During the School Week, What Do You Like to Do Least in School?" . . . . . . 83 Raw Means of Responses to the General Self- Concept of Ability Scale and Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Ability by Others Scales and Raw Achievement Means . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Intercorrelations of the Four Brookover Self-Concept of Ability Scales and Achievement . . . . . . . . . . 113 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Much has been said about the higher self-concept of the Anglo American over his Black American peer, but little has been said about differences between the self- concept of the Chicano and his Anglo counterpart. This is particularly true in the Midwest, where up until recently there have been relatively few Chicano resi- dents. Since projections are for more and more Chicanos to be moving to the Midwest from the Southwest,1 the investigator feels it is important that we learn as much as we can about this cultural group in order to best meet their intellectual and psychological needs as they enter our educational system in greater and greater numbers. The Problem and Need for the Study At present, the academic achievement of the Chi- cano is one of the foremost concerns facing American 1Jesse M. Soriano and James McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers of the Midwest: They Are Americans Too," Forei n Langua e Annals, II (1969), 316-23. (Hereinafter referred to as Spanish Speakers.") educators. The typical Chicano completes less years of schooling and drops out of school more frequently than his Anglo and Black counterpart.2 The upcoming section of this chapter on the present situation of the Chicano in the United States will show how poorly he compares with the Anglo and Black in terms of such things as edu- cational and economical attainment. The above mentioned section will also present reasons set forth by various writers as to why the Chicano is performing so poorly in today's American schools; however, few research studies have been conducted to determine how his school self-concept compares with that of his Anglo peer. The investigator feels it is essential that we try to dis- tinguish differences in school self-concept of ability and general school self-concept between the Chicano and Anglo if we are to effectively make changes in the school structure and curriculum to meet his particular needs. Hopefully the results of this exploratory study will give some insight to later researchers doing curricular studies with this objective in mind. Prior research by Brookover and his associates over a period of years has established the importance of one's self-concept of academic ability to actual academic 2Joan W. Moore, Mexican-Americans: Problems and Pros ects (Madison: The University of WisconEIn Press, , pp. 105-06. (Hereinafter referred to as Mexican- Americans.) performance. The assumption is that one's self-concept of academic ability can be a limiting factor on one's academic performance. On a broader level, the assumption is that the way a person perceives the world and his place in it can set limits on his everyday performance. As in Brookover's many studies of self-concept of academic ability, George Herbert Mead's social interaction theory of the self will be the theoretical basis of this study. Brookover self-concept of ability scales, based on the above theory, will also be used as part of this investi- gation.3 Purpose The major purpose of this investigation is to determine if there is a difference between the school self-concept of ability of low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicano and Anglo students. Differences as to how the Chicano and Anglo perceive their parents, teacher, and best friend perceiving their academic ability in comparison to others will be analyzed; in this investigation these student perceptions are con- sidered to strongly influence the student's school self- concept of ability. 3Discussion of Brookover studies pertaining to this investigation; an explanation of George Herbert Mead's theory of the self; and a description of the Brook- over scales used as a part of this investigation will be presented in Chapters II and III. In addition to determining differences in school self-concept of ability, the investigator has also included four open-ended items and two multiple-choice items to gather some qualitative school self-concept information about the following: (1) Education aspirational level; (2) Better ability in reading or arithmetic; (3) Personal model; (4) Future occupational choice; (5) Best-liked activity in school; and (6) Least-liked activity in school. It is hoped that a qualitative observation of student responses to these items will aid in the overall goal of discriminating school self-concept differences between the Chicano and Anglo. Present Situation of the Chicano in the United States In a time when minority groups are receiving much attention from the legislatures of both state and federal government, the Chicano is only now beginning to receive the attention he needs to overcome his unique problems.4 / Although the Chicano shares much of the same culture that other Spanish-speaking persons do, the Chicano has dif- ferent problems that result from his Mexican background.5 4Jan Zobel, "The Mexican-American School Child," Illinois Schools Journal, L, No. 2 (Summer, 1970), 103. (Hereinafter referred—to as "Mexican-American School Child.") SIbid. Contrary to common belief, most Chicanos are native born in the United States.6 They are predominately located in the five Southwestern states of Arizona, Cali- fornia, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas; however, as will be noted later, at present many Chicanos have and are moving to the Midwestern states.7 This is eSpecially true in Michigan and Illinois.8 Even though the Black population in the United States is more numerous overall, this is not true in the Southwest. In addition, the Chicano's high birthrate and continuous immigration to the United States from Mexico means that the Chicano popu- lation is increasing much faster than either the Black or Anglo.9 The majority of these immigrants along with the indigenous Chicanos are entering the cities at a faster rate than either Anglos or Blacks.10 In 1960, roughly 61bid. 7Jessie Soriano and James McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers," p. 317. 8Steven V. Roberts, "5% in U.S. Cite Spanish Ori— gins," New York Times, CXX, Nos. 41 and 357, 62. (Herein- after referred to as "U.S. Cite Spanish Origins.") 9Moore, Mexican-Americans, pp. 2-10. 10Leo Grebler, Joan W. Moore, and Ralph C. Guzman, The Mexican-American Peo le: The Nation's Second Largest MinorIt (New YorK} T e Free Press, 1970). (Hereinafter re erre to as Nation's Second Largest Minority.) four-fifths of Anglos, Blacks, and Chicanos in the South- west were living in cities or towns. An interesting fact is that the occupations of the Chicano tend to be less urban and more rural considering that the majority live in cities. This shows the important influence of the Chicano's previous rural orientation.ll At present the Chicano is worse off economically than either the Anglo or Black. One-third of the Chicano families have an annual income of under $3,000.12 Only with the passing of the 1968 Bilingual Edu- cation Act has the Chicano become eligible for special federal educational help.l3 An indication of the great need for this type of aid are the following average number of years schooling for adults twenty-five and over, related by Moore from the 1967 federal hearing before the General Subcommittee of Education: 7.1 years for the Chicano; 9 years for the Black, and 12.1 years 14 for the Anglo. In California, the Chicano has the llIbid. lzIbid. 13 Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act on January 2, 1968. It became operative in September, 1969. Funds come from Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. 14Moore, Mexican-Americans, p. 22. largest school drop-out rate and receives two years less schooling than the Black and 3.5 years less than the Anglo.15 Since the Chicano student's teacher does not usually Speak Spanish or understand his culture, this leads to a situation that demands that he not speak Spanish in school and become "Anglicized" if he is not to fail. Fortunately, "no Spanish" rules that require that Spanish not be spoken at school are being challenged all over the Southwest. Ortego says that while the "no Spanish" rules are being eliminated, the Anglo school infrastructure is still "culturally emasculating" the Chicano by giving Chicano characteristics a low profile: "Jose becomes Joe; Jesus becomes Jesse." Chicano students are told, even if indirectly, that they must accept and join the Anglo culture if they are to expect to succeed in their future lives.16 This is certainly an effective way of letting the Chicano "know" that the Anglo culture is superior to his own Mexican background. His inability to function effectively in the Anglo culture only rein- forces his growing negative self-image. 15Grebler, Moore, and Guzman, Nation's Second Largest Minority. 16Philip D. Ortego, "Schools for Mexican-Americans: Between Two Cultures," Saturday_RevieW; LIV, N0. 16 (April 17, 1971), 64. (Hereinafter referred’to as "Schools for Mexican-Americans.") Ortego, speaking for Dr. Miquel Montes of the California State Board of Education, says that what is needed is a new type of teacher who understands and is concerned for the particular needs and problems of the Chicano.17 A major problem in sensitizing teachers to the needs of the Chicano is the fact that few if any Chicanos are members of schools of education in our colleges and universities. Considering the high school drop out rate, this is not very surprising.18 In terms of higher education, the following quote from Ortego shows the sorry state of the Chicano in yet another level of educational performance: Recent studies point out that only 2 per cent of the California State College population is Mexican- American, and of these, less than half of 1 per cent goes on to graduate. . . . At UCLA, there were only 300 Chicano students in 1968 out of a student popu- lation of 25,000. In New Mexico, despite the fact that Mexican-Americans comprise almost half the state's population, less than 8 per cent of them attend the state universities and colleges.19 Zobel feels the Chicano is doing poorly in school because the school systems, and therefore the community, have not provided equal educational opportunity for all students and also because of a lack of motivation for 17Ibid. lgIbid. lgIbid. continuing education on the part of the Chicano student.20 In conjunction with the former point and in agreement with many researchers on the Chicano, Soriano and McClafferty state the following as what they feel is the major reason for the low educational achievement of the Spanish- American child: There is little reason to doubt that the major cause of low educational achievement levels of the Spanish- American child lies with ethnocentric schools which treat him as a native speaker of English. This assures his failure. The crux of this failure is the school's inability to teach the language of instruction to sizable numbers of students. It is hardly surprising that the children fail. The wonder is that some succeed.2 The result of treating Chicanos as native English speakers is that they lag further and further behind their contemporary American peers. The result has been that Chicanos are often relegated to classes for the mentally retarded because teachers, school psychologists, and administrators have equated a poor capacity to function effectively in English with low intellectual capacity.22 Ortego reports that Chicanos are in special education classes for the mentally defective on a ratio of two and one-half to one over the general population. The state of California's mentally handicapped classes are 40 per 20Zobel, "Mexican-American School Child," 106. ZISoriano and McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers," 317-180 22Ortego, "Schools for Mexican-Americans," 63. 10 cent Chicano while Chicanos only make up 14 per cent of the total state school population.23 A committee was formed by the California State Board of Education to check into this situation after pressure was put on them by the Association of Mexican-American Educators. In addition to condemning the use of presently used 1.0. tests to determine placement in the special classes, they found that the mentally handicapped classes them- selves had a "retarding influence."24 Moore states that recent studies have shown such factors as the following as reasons why the Chicanos have such high dropout rates: (1) Language; (2) Lack of knowledge of educational oppor- tunities; (3) Poverty; and (4) A culture which emphasizes early maturation and thus makes the extended period of being a student very difficult on the matured Chicano child.25 In California, Chicanos are demanding that entrance requirements be dropped so that Chicanos will in fact be able to go to college. Demands are also made for Chicano studies programs that will be relevant to the Chicano.26 To allow barrio Chicanos to enter the middle-class Anglo- oriented universities and colleges without some kind of 23Ibid. 24Ibid., p. 64. 25 Moore, Mexican-Americans, p. 39. Ortego, ”Schools for Mexican-Americans,“ 80. 11 special orientation or special program could easily lead to failure and resulting frustration that would demean their own image adding to the possibility of their alien- ation toward the society as a whole. A major problem for the Chicano youngster is that his parents are often so alienated from the Anglo culture that they discourage their children from learning English. The result is obvious, the child is caught in the middle; he is punished in school for not speaking English and in the home for speaking English.27 As a result, he learns just enough English to exist but not at a level allowing him to succeed in the present American educational insti— tutions from elementary school to the university. Because the child does not learn formal or "good" Spanish in the home, the bilingual Chicano often does not speak either Spanish or English fluently and thus is a marginal man caught in the middle of two cultures.28 Professor Ralph Guzman, of the University of California at Santa Cruz, says that this poor capacity to speak English has led to the following situation: These people are penalized for speaking something other than English. They can't make an appeal to a welfare worker, or answer the questions of a traffic policeman, or even get a telephone operator in an emergency. And the bureaucracy refused to make any 272.0bel, "Mexican-American School Child," 106. 28 Ibid. 12 changes within itself to accommodate these people. They are permanent strangers within the society. The following quote from Farmer is descriptive of the background of the Chicano and the situation he finds himself in when he enters school: Many Mexican-American students are the descendents of an agrarian folk culture and, as such, have developed in a home where the parents have a reluctance to change. . Mexican-Americans are generally non- competitive. Competition is not in keeping with traditional folk values. The individual is all- important. . These students question not only their identity but also their adequacy, for they are relegated to the position of second-class citizens by many members of the dominant society. . . . The large number of Mexican-American students who are monolingual when they enter school are taught English by teachers who have no awareness of the student's native language or the principles involved in teaching them English as a second language. The teacher should not criti- cize or minimize, should not place value judgment[s] on these students' means of seeking status, whether they be language, dress, mannerisms . This quote shows that the teacher or any other school personnel must be cognizant of the Mexican Culture and the obvious effect it has on the child's values and his resulting approaches to seeking success and status. In a culture where competition is not a major objective or characteristic, it can readily be seen why the Chicano child is not competing like the Anglo child. Another factor that must be considered in dealing with the Chicano 29Roberts, "U.S. Cite Spanish Origins." S George L. Farmer, Education: . The Dilemma of the Ban1sh—Surname American (Los Angeles: Univeréity of Sout ern Ca 1 orn1a Press, 1968), pp. 49-51. 13 is the strong family unit and the emphasis on family loyalty.31 The man is head of the household and if any person or school organization is to be effective in work— ing with the Chicano, contact must first be made through the husband or oldest male.32 It is also important to note that the American pace of life is very fast compared to the agrarian folk culture most Chicanos are descendants. As a result, the lack of energy or the often publicized "siesta syndrome" is not the result of laziness, but rather the result of a peasant farm culture where speed and aggressiveness were not important factors. Senator Joseph M. Montoya, of New Mexico, in warning that an embittered Chicano minority may turn to violence if their condition is not changed, mentioned the following as the cause of this attitude and situation The Spanish-American jobless rate is nearly twice that of any other group, their illiteracy rate is five times higher than Anglo-Americans, they are the target of prejudiced law enforcers in the Southwest, and alone among the minorities their television image is a totally demeaning stereotype.33 31 Hector Farias, Jr., "Mexican-American Values and Attitudes Toward Education," Phi Delta Kappan, LII, No. 10 (June, 1971), 602. 32Zobel, "Mexican-American School Child,“ 108. 33"Spanish-Speaking Minority May Erupt, Says iggator," The Grand Rapids Press, LXXIX, No. 240 (May 7, l). 14 Midwest Situation Estimates place the Spanish-American population of the Midwest at 500,000 in contrast to the estimated five million in the Southwest. While the Spanish-American population of the Southwest is almost completely Chicano, the Spanish-American population of the Midwest, in addition to Chicanos, has large numbers of persons of Cuban and Puerto Rican extraction.34 Since problems of "poverty, cultural difference, and lack of special education programs are much the same in the Midwest as they are in other parts of the country, it is to be expected that the Spanish-American there has 35 fared no better." Speaking about the plight of the Spanish-American person in Michigan, Senator Robert P. Griffin, of Michigan, said the following: Based on what I have learned so far, the employment and job opportunities available to Spanish-speaking Americans in Michigan can't even be called tokenism . . . the President's 16-point program for equal opportunities for Spanish-speaking Americans with the federal government is being given little more than lip service by federal agencies in Michigan.36 When you consider that U.S. Census Bureau estimates place the Spanish-American population of Michigan to be between 34Soriano and McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers," 318. 35Robert Hoving, "Chicanos Face High Hurdles in State," The Grand Rapids Press, LXXIX, No. 249, 8-A. (Here1nafter referred to as "Chicanos Face High Hurdles.") 361bid. 15 150,000 and 180,000, one can see why Senator Griffin is concerned that only 178 persons out of 55,000 persons on the Federal payroll in Michigan are Spanish—Americans. And of these, 49 per cent are in the lowest paid category in the postal service.37 "In general, the Spanish—American community in the Midwest is faced with different educational problems than in the Southwest, where the numbers are larger."38 Since the number of Chicanos is relatively small and they are widely dispersed, a situation has occurred where little research has been done with them at the university level. As a result, much which is said about the Chicano is derived from data on the Chicano in the Southwest.39 In an environment with few Chicanos in the classroom and with Anglo teachers who know little of the Chicano cul- ture, these students are not understood and are often sent to special education classes or to reading and speech specialists; when what they really need is special help due to language and cultural differences that these ser- vices are not and were not geared to help. In terms of Michigan, the U.S. Census Bureau says the Spanish-Americans 37Ibid. 38Soriano and McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers," 316. 16 in Michigan are undergoing serious educational disadvantages when compared with the rest of the state population.40 The Chicano in the Midwest is also under the handicap of being the "second minority" since vast amounts of Blacks are settled there. As a result, Mid- west school districts have focalized their energies on 41 The Black's plight is also well helping the Blacks. documented with many Black and Anglo Spokesmen working to upgrade his educational, economic, and social position. In contrast, the Midwest Chicano has few Anglo, Black, or Chicano spokesmen to present his case. Cultural Reasons for the Chicano's Lack of Success in Todayjs AmerICan Schools Using what is said above as the basis, the investi- gator presents a number of assumptions made by many writers and researchers as to why the Chicano is doing so poorly in today's American schools: 1. The Chicano child has greater problems adjusting to the school situation because his cultural back- ground is different from that of the dominant Anglo group. oHoving, "Chicanos Face High Hurdles." 41Soriano and McClafferty, "Spanish Speakers," 318. 17 The Chicano child has a language problem that hinders his academic growth and performance in the classroom. The values of the Chicano's parents and the values of the schools (which reflect those of the domi- nant culture) are not in agreement and the child is caught in the middle. While the school pressures him to get good grades in school, he receives little support for scholastic achieve- ment from his family and friends. His teacher, usually Anglo or Black, does not appear to understand his cultural background and thus often views the Chicano child as a "nice" but "lazy" and "academically unmotivated" child. These attitudes, perceived by the child, persist and are internalized until he is nonachieving academically and eventually he drops out of school to complete the negative cycle of the "self-fulfilling prophecy." The Chicano family cohesion and importance to the individual is extremely strong. This strong cohesion of a family unit which has traditionally been agrarian and not oriented toward academic success in the school setting, produces individuals 18 successful in the Chicano culture, but not in the academic and achievement oriented Anglo culture. Plan and Content of the Thesis In this introductory chapter the problem, impor- tance of the problem, and the purpose of the thesis was presented. The present situation of the Chicano was set forth and cultural reasons for the Chicano's lack of success in today's American schools numbered and listed. In Chapter II the theoretical orientation is presented. Chapter III is the methodology chapter. The population and sites of research are described; the instruments and Operational definitions of the major concepts are speci- fied; the hypotheses are listed; and the procedures employed to test the hypotheses are presented. Chapter IV is the nexus of the investigation. Here the first two hypotheses are tested by statistical procedures and hypotheses 3-8 are analyzed through descriptive tables describing the student responses to the question related to each hypothesis. Chapter V is the concluding chapter of this investigation. The main emphasis of this chapter is to summarize the results of the investigation. Con- clusions are listed; implications of the findings are discussed; limitations and suggestions for further research are mentioned; and the chapter is concluded with final comments by the investigator on the thesis. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL ORIENTATION--A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE SELF-CONCEPT Theoretical Orientation The Meadean Interaction Theory of the Self George Herbert Mead's social interaction theory of the self will be the theoretical basis of this study. Mead believed self-awareness was born in social inter- action: "The self is something which has a development; it is not initially there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, that is, develops in the given individual as a result of his relations to that process as a whole and to other indi- viduals within that process."1 He felt the perceptions of the individual as to how others perceived him was the foundation from which concept of the self is formed. Mead also felt that in addition to the person's perceptions of . 1George Herbert Mead, MindygSelf, and Society (Ch1cago: University of Chicago Press, 1934), p.I135. 19 20 how others perceived him, further factors in the develop- ment of the self are the prevailing attitudes and values held by the social group(s) to which the individual belongs. The influence of the total social environment on the development of the self was considered by Mead to be the effect of the "generalized other."2 He further felt that our perception of ourself is heavily influenced by the “generalized other." While the self does change, there are dominant trends that remain somewhat constant over many years. Change is brought about in part by the fact that man's relations with others do change as do his perceptions of himself and his place in the universe. Mead also says that the self is multi-faceted and the many components of our self-awareness are derived from the following: (1) Perceived perceptions as to how others perceive us (2) Actual perceptions that others have of us (3) Perceptions of others as to how we perceive ourselves It is reasonable to assume, as Mead does, that among the persons that one interacts with, some persons and groups will have greater influence on us than others. As a result, the way these persons and groups perceive us will be more important to us than others. 21bid., p. 154. 21 In what is said above, we can pick out the "objective" and "subjective" components of the self used by Mead in his formulation of the self. The "self as object" becomes the perception the person has of how he is perceived by significant others in his life. The "self as subject" is how the person perceives himself. This perception is heavily influenced by the perceptions that the significant others in the "self as object" hold of the person. This paper assumes that the above formulations of Mead on the self to be valid and the instruments and results derived from them will support this point of view. While there are no doubt many significant others in the life of a fifth- and sixth-grade student, in this paper the three following referents will be considered particularly significant in the way a fifth or sixth grader perceives himself in the school setting. They will be the significant others of the "self as object": (1) Parents (2) Best Friend (3) Teacher The "self as subject" will be determined by the following: (4) Child's perception of self 22 Brookover3 found in a study of seventh graders that the three significant others mentioned above were the most frequent to occur in response to open—ended questions that were asked of the students. Brief Discussion of Combs and Synggjs Theory of the Self While Mead's symbolic interaction theory of the self will be the theoretical base of this study, the investigator has chosen two social psychologists who are felt to be closely akin to Mead in their beliefs on how people develop their self-concepts. The investi- gator includes them simply to give perspective and to mention two men who have had a great influence on inter- action theory. While they accept that others influence the way one perceives things, the "perceptual field" is how the person perceives things; this means that even if "everyone“ thinks you are a good person, if you perceive yourself as not being a good person, this will be your attitude regardless of what others may think of you. The following quote aptly describes the above: People do not behave according to the facts as others see them. They behave according to the facts as tHey see them. What governs behavior from the 3Wilbur B. Brookover, Ann Paterson, and Shailer Thomas, "Self Concept of Ability and School Achievement," U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project 845 (East Lansing: Office of ReseafEh and Publication, MichIgan State University, 1962)- 23 point of view of the individual himself are his unique perceptions of himself and the world in which he lives, the meanings things have for him. While Combs and Syngg accept the concept that the self is primarily the product of interaction, they also feel that one's view of self can be partially explained through individual isolation: The self is essentially a social product arising out of experience with people. Although some of the indi- vidual's experience of self may be achieved in iso- lation from other people, by far the greater portion of his self arises out of his relationship with others. Human personality is primarily a product of social interaction.5 They take the position that each man is always seeking adequacy through his behavior: "The need for adequacy provides the direction, the drive, and the organization for every behavior."6 This might be inferred from Mead, but Combs and Snygg strongly emphasize this point. The idea that a man's behavior is directed toward adequacy is also a major premise of such leading educators and psychologists as the late Abraham Maslow,7 Carl Rogers,8 and Arthur Jersild.9 4Arthur Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior (2nd ed.; New York: Harpers, 1959 , p. 17. SIbid., p. 134. 6Ibid., p. 58. 7Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.; New York: Harper and Row, 1970TT 8Carl R. Rogers, A Therapist's View of Personal Goals (Wallingford, Pa.: Pendle Hill, 1960). 9Arthur J. Jersild, Child Psychology (6th ed.; Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrentiEe HaII, 1968). 24 Recent and Current Research on the SeIf-Concept Ruth Wiley,10 in her 1961 review of the literature relating to the self-concept, states that the previous twenty years had seen many researchers studying the self from different theoretical orientations. A Myriad of instruments have been developed trying to see the effect of such things as achievement, sex differences, socio- economic status, and 1.0. on the self-concept. The past ten years have produced some studies dealing with the effect of ethnic background on the self-concept. Most such studies have dealt with differences in self-concept between Blacks and Anglos. Theorists such as Clark,11 12 and Deutsch13 have cited reasons Ausubel and Ausubel, why disadvantaged Black children see themselves poorly in school and achieve poorly. Research studies have 10Ruth C. Wiley, The Self-Concept (Lincoln: Uni- versity of Nebraska Press, 1961). 11Kenneth Clark, "Education Stimulation of Racially Disadvantaged Children," in Education in Depressed Areas, ed. by A. H. Passow (New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1963), pp. 142-62. 12David Ausubel and Pearl Ausubel, "Ego Development Among Segregated Negro Children," in Education in Depressed Areas, ed. by A. H. Passow (New York: Teadhers College ‘— Eureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1963), pp. 109- la l3Martin Deutsch, "The Disadvantaged Child and the Learning Process," in Education in Depressed Areas, ed. by A. H. Passow (New York: Teachers Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1963), pp. 163-79. 25 generally supported the idea that Blacks tend to see them- selves in a less favorable light than Anglos; however, some studies have found no significant differences and a few have found the Blacks to have a superior self- concept in relation to the Anglos. Lgterature Pertaining to the Self-Concept of the ChiEano As there have been so few studies done related to the Chicano, the writer has chosen not just school self- concept studies, but also some that relate to the general self-concept of the Chicano child. Research related to the self-concept of the Chi- cano is very scant and has for all practical purposes been done in the past few years. In 1969, Hishikil4 reported that no systematic studies had been done related to the self-concept of the Chicano. None have been done to present specifically using the Meadean theoretical framework used in this study. As in the case with the Black self-concept studies, results tend to show the Chicano having a lower self-concept than the Anglo, but some studies have shown little difference. However, the research is so scant as to only give indications and possible direction for further research. Studies by 14Patricia C. Hishiki, "Self-Concepts of Sixth- Grade Girls of Mexican Descent," California Journal of Educational Research, XX, No. 2 (Maréh, 19697, 56-62. (Hereinafter referred to as "Self-Concepts.") 26 16 Coleman,15 Hindeland, and Hishikil7 have shown a lower self-concept for the Chicano when compared to the Anglo, while studies by DeBlassie and Healy,18 Carter,19 and Anderson and Johnson20 have found no significant dif- ferences. None of these studies were done in the Mid- west. 15James S. Coleman, et a1., Egpality of Educational 0 ortunit (Washington, D.C.: Government Printifig Office, 1566). (Hereinafter referred to as Equality of Educational Opportunity.) 16Michael J. Hindelang, "Educational and Occu- pational Aspirations Among Working Class Negro, Mexican- American and White Elementary School Children," The Journal of Negro Education, XXXIX, No. 4 (Fall, 1970), 351-53. (Hereinafter referred to as "Educational and Occupational Aspirations.") 17Hishiki, "Self-Concepts," 56-62. 18Richard R. DeBlassie and Gary W. Healy, "Self- Concept: A Comparison of Spanish-American, Negro, and Anglo Adolescents Across Ethnic, Sex, and Socio-Economic Variables," ERIC-CRESS (March, 1970). (Hereinafter refer- red to as "Spanish-American, Negro, and Anglo Adolescents.") 19Thomas P. Carter, "Negative Self-Concept of Mexican-American Students," Sghool and Society, XCVI, No. 2,340 (March 2, 1968), 217-19. (Hereinafter referred to as "Negative Self-Concept.") 0James G. Anderson and William H. Johnson, “Sta— bility and Change Among Three Generations of Mexican- Americans: Factors Affecting Achievement,“ American Edu- cational Research Journal, VIII, No. 2 (March: l97l),‘_‘ -3 9. (Hereinafter referred to as "Factors Affecting Achievement.") 27 Coleman21 found Chicanos to have a lower self- concept and lower interest in school and learning than Anglos or Blacks. In a study of 187 fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade Chicanos, Blacks and Anglos, Hindelang22 found Chicanos to have lower educational and occu- pational aspirational levels than Anglos. The students came from a West Coast working-class community with a population of 95,000. Students were asked how far their parents and teachers wanted them to go in school and also how far they would like to go in school. To all questions, the Anglos answered more positively than the Chicanos. In terms of occupational aSpirations, when asked what they would like to do when they completed school, 60 per cent of the Anglos and 53 per cent of the Chicanos wanted jobs in which a college education would be useful. In a study dealing with sixth-grade Chicano girls from East Los Angeles and sixth-grade Anglo girls from Clark County, Georgia, Hishiki23 found Chicano girls to have a significantly lower self-concept than the Anglo girls. Even though it was noted that different achievement and intelligence measures were used in the two districts, Hishiki found the Anglo girls to have higher achievement 21Coleman, et a1., Equality of Educational Oppor- tunity. 22 ations." 23 Hindelang, "Educational and Occupational ASpir- Hishiki, "Self-Concepts." 28 and intelligence means. A positive relationship was shown between self-concept and academic achievement. Edu- cational aspirations for the two groups were similar: both groups indicated that they expected to go to col- lege. The self-concept scale used was developed by Bledsoe and Garrison24 and consisted of thirty adjec- tives, five of which signified negative qualities and twenty-five signified positive qualities. Answers were given on a three-point scale. 25 found no significant self- DeBlassie and Healy concept differences between Chicanos and Anglos. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale was administered to determine self-concept to 607 ninth-grade students in a south cen- tral New Mexico public school system in a community esti- mated at 30,000. There were no significant differences in self-concept between males and females. The study also showed that the Chicano was the most accepting of himself. 24Joseph C. Bledsoe and Karl C. Garrison, "The Self Concepts of Elementary School Children in Relation to Their Academic Achievement, Intelligence, Interests, and Manifest Anxiety," Copperative Research Project No. 1008 {Athens: The University of Georgia, College of Educatiah, 962). 25DeBlassie and Healy, "Spanish-American, Negro, and Anglo Adolescents." 29 Carter26 found no support for the belief that Chicanos see themselves more negatively than the Anglo. From September, 1964, to June, 1966, he conducted research in the secondary schools in one of California's agricul- tural valleys. The Chicanos came from low socio-economic backgrounds while the Anglo parents were occupationally more evenly distributed. Parents, students, teachers, and administrators were interviewed and three socio- psychological instruments were administered. What was found was that the Chicano did not have a lower self- concept, but that he was well aware of the fact that he was perceived in a lower regard by those around him. Teachers and administrators tended to see the Chicano as inferior to the Anglo and presumed that the Chicano went along with their interpretation of him. Anderson and Johnson27 studied 163 junior and senior high school Chicano and Anglo students in a Southwestern community of approximately 50,000. Chicano families made up approximately 50 per cent of the popu- lation. By using a 30-item questionnaire, it was found that there was little difference between Chicano and Anglo families with respect to the emphasis on education that the child experiences in the home. There also was 26Carter, "Negative Self-Concept." 27 ment." Anderson and Johnson, "Factors Affecting Achieve- 30 little difference in the family attitudes of three gener- ations of Chicano families. A significant finding of this study was the discovery that the Chicano appears to have less confidence in his school capacity to succeed when compared to the Anglo, even though he and his parents have high aspirational levels for him. Brook- over would interpret this poor self-concept of ability as the limiting factor in the child's chances for success. Although not dealing directly with students, a study by Anderson and Safar28 gives useful information on the home and school environment that the Chicano finds himself a part. The study was conducted in two South- western communities where Chicanos, Indians, and Anglos were in the school systems. One district was predominately Anglo and the other was a mixture of Chicano and Anglo, with Indian children coming from a nearby reservation. Results showed that school administrators, parents of all three groups, and teachers unanimously felt that Chicano children are less capable of achieving in school, meeting desirable goals, and eventually becoming produc- tive citizens, when compared with their Anglo peers. This was the case in both communities. The authors feel the Chicano parents have internalized a belief in their 28James G. Anderson and Dwight Safar, "The Influence on Differential Community Perceptions on the Provision of Equal Educational Opportunities," Sociology 9; Education, XL, No. 3 (Summer, 1967), 219-30. 31 inferiority which has unhappy consequences for their children. They see themselves as having less potential than the Anglo and as a result, their children fail in school to complete the vicious cycle of the "self— fulfilling prOphecy." Many Chicano families interviewed felt that Chicanos fail in school because their families fail to appreciate the values of a formal education and as a result do not encourage their children to succeed. Summary Chapter II began with the presentation and develop— ment of the theoretical orientation-~a review of the lit- erature pertaining to the self-concept, upon which the present investigation was based. This included a description of George Herbert Mead's theory of the self and a brief analysis of Combs and Syngg's theory of the self. Mead believed that the perceptions one has of himself are heavily influenced by how he perceives sig- nificant others perceiving him. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction This investigation was designed to study the dif- ferences in school self-concept between fifth- and sixth— grade Chicano and Anglo students of low socio-economic status. A combined total of 120 subjects from 3 schools in 2 urban Midwestern communities was selected for inclusion in this study. After administration of the instruments, groups were compared by ethnic group and sex. The following hypotheses were developed to analyze any differences in school self-concept between fifth- and sixth-grade Chicano and Anglo students of low socio- economic status: Hypothesis 1: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will have a lower school self- concept of ability, as measured by the 32 Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis 4: Hypothesis 5: 33 Brookover scales, than will his low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Anglo peer. The low socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student will have a lower school self-concept of ability, as measured by the Brookover scales, than will his female counterpart. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose arithmetic rather than reading as his better subject to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. The low socio—economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will have a lower education aspirational level than will his Anglo peer. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose factory or unskilled occupations to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer when asked what he would like to do when he finishes school. 34 Hypothesis 6: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose family members and friends as personal models to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. Hypothesis 7: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose non-language related activities and subjects as what he likes to do best in school to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. Hypothesis 8: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose language related activities as what he likes to do least in school to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. In this chapter, the population and sites of research are described; the instruments and the oper- ational definitions of the major concepts are specified; the hypotheses are listed in their detailed form; and the Procedures employed to test each of the hypotheses are presented. 35 Population and Sites of Research The population under analysis was a sample of fifth- and sixth-grade students from three elementary schools in two urban Midwestern communities. The popu- lation of Community I is approximately 150,000 while Community II is approximately 200,000. The sample that makes up the population of this investigation was chosen in the following manner: A11 fifth- and sixth-grade stu- dents in the three schools were given the instruments used in this study. This made for a total of 306 stu- dents. Blacks, Indians, and non-Chicano Spanish-Americans were deleted from the total. Thirty students were thus eliminated from the total number of students who took the instruments administered. A further reduction of thirty- three students was necessary due to the father's occu- Pation placing him not within low socio-economic status as defined by this investigation or because information given by the student and school data were not sufficient for accurate classification. The remain1ng students were then divided into four categories and eight sub-categor1es as shown in Table 3.1. A random sample of five stu- dents was taken from each sub-category in each of the three schools. This made for a total of 40 students from each school and 120 in total. For measurement Purposes, fifth and sixth graders were placed together. ' 1 The Sampling was done in such a way that boys and gir s, 36 TABLE 3.1.--Categories, sub-categories, and number of stu- dents in each sub-category used in this study. Numbers are representative of one school or one—third of the total. Categories Sub-Categories Number Sub-Categories Number 1. Anglo a. fifth b. sixth girls graders graders 5 2. Anglo a. fifth b. sixth boys graders graders 5 3. Chicano a. fifth b. sixth boys graders graders 5 4. Chicano a. fifth b. sixth girls graders graders 5 Total 20 20 and fifth and sixth graders were equally distributed in each sub-category. This can best be seen by observing Table 3.1 above. Table 3.2 breaks down the fifth- and sixth-grade students in the schools taking part in this study by school, ethnic number and percentage of total, and sex for Chicanos and Anglos. The following criteria had to be met before a school or the students in the school could be eligible for inclusion in this study: School 1. Predominately Anglo and Chicano in school popu- lation. A ratio of roughly two to two and one- half Anglos to one Chicano was considered an adequate ratio to have a representative Chicano 37 TABLE 3.2.--Fifth- and Sixth-grade student breakdown by school, ethnic number anui percentage of total, and sex for Chicanos and Anglos. ; Anglo Black Chicano Other Total Community I (6/71) School One 73 13 25 O 111 66% 12% 23% 0% School Two 63 8 27 0 98 63% 8% 27% 0% Community II (6/71) School Three 61 3 27 6 97 63% 3% 28% 6% Total 197 24 79 6 306 64% 8% 26% 2% Chicanos Anglos Boys Girls Boys Girls School One ll 14 32 41 School Two 11 16 36 27 School Three l4 13 36 25 Total 36 43 104 93 38 population. The following table gives an ethnic student breakdown of the student population of the schools in this investigation: TABLE 3.3.--Ethnic student breakdown of the schools by numbers and percentage. All schools are K-6. O .54 9 0 H ,—4 ,—4 U c: . H e (D (U m m m H C vs a u C .4 O. D E c u 0 4 m m m 14 o 8 Urban Midwestern Community I (As of 12/4/70) School One 302 53 129 2 1 487 62% 11% 26% 0% 0% School Two 244 32 92 l 0 369 66% 9% 25% 0% 0% Urban Midwestern Cpmmunity II (As of 10/2770) School Three 226 20 124 12 l 383 59% 5% 32% 3% 0% The schools must be low in socio-economic terms. Being eligible for classification as a Title I school was used as the criterion for this second requirement. This classification requires that the school include a high percentage of low income and welfare recipient families. In both school districts used in this investigation, 55 per cent is the average of low income and Student 1. 39 welfare recipient families within their Title I school boundaries. Consistent with this situation of low income families are the findings of the health departments of the two cities containing the schools, that the boundary areas of all three schools contain a much greater than average amount of substandard housing. Schools one and three are receiving Title I funds and school two is eligible but due to a lack of funding is not receiving aid. Each student must have completed the following sections of the Stanford Achievement Test: A. Total Reading B. Total Arithmetic C. Science D. Social Studies All students must be classified as low socio- economic on Brookover's adaptation of Duncan's occupational index of socio-economic status. Each student must have completed all scales and questions asked. Students must be Chicano or Anglo. Both parents must be of Mexican extraction in order to be classified as a Chicano. 40 Description of Instruments Used and a Defiriftion of Terms Brookover Self-Concept Scales General Self-Concept of Ability.l--General self- concept of academic ability is the evaluation a person makes of his ability to achieve at academic tasks in comparison to others. In this study, general self-concept of academic ability is operationally defined as the sum of scored responses on the Michigan State General Self-Concept of Ability Scale. The scale consists of eight five-choice items. It was developed with support of the U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project 845. A modi- fied version of this scale was used with the students in 2 It has simpler vocabulary and a choice of this study. three rather than five responses. Responses are coded from one to three. The larger the number, the more posi- tive self-concept of ability. Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability by Others Scales.3--In this study, perceived academic k lWilbur B. Brookover, Ann Paterson, and Shailer Thomas, "Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement," U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project 845 (East Lansing: Office of ReseafEh aid PuincatiSn, Michi: Ban State University, 1962). (Hereinafter referred to as ”Ability and School Achievement.") 2See Appendix A. 3Wilbur B. Brookover, et a1., "Improving Academic Achievement Through Students' SeIf-Concept Enhancement," 41 ability evaluations of significant others by the student are defined as the student's perception as to how signifi- cant others perceive his ability to perform academic tasks. These student perceptions are believed by the investigator to strongly influence the student's self-concept of ability. Three scales were developed by Brookover and his associates, with support of the Office of Education, Final Report on Cooperative Research Project No. 1636, to measure perceived evaluation of academic ability by the student of significant others in his life. The significant others used by Brookover and also used in this study are the following: (1) Parents; (2) Teacher; (3) Best Friend. Each scale consists of five five-choice items. As with the self-concept of ability scale mentioned above, a modified version of these scales were used in this study.4 The scales utilized simpler vocabulary and have a choice of three rather than five responses. Responses are scored from one to three. The larger the number, the more positive perceived evaluation of ability by signifi- cant others. ¥ U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project No. 1636 (East Lansing: Bureau of EducationaI Research, MiCHi- gan State University, 1965). (Hereinafter referred to as "Improving Academic Achievement.") 4See Appendix B. 42 Single Item School Self- Concgpt MeasuresE In addition to Brookover's self-concept of ability scales described above, the investigator included six single items to gather some qualitative self-concept information that hopefully will give some school self- concept data in addition to the results derived from Brookover's school self-concept of ability scales. Education Aspirational Leve1.--Education aspir- ational level is defined as the response to the question, "How far would you like to go in school"? Responses Coding a. quit now 1 b. finish junior high school 2 c. finish high school 3 d. finish college 4 Better Ability in Arithmetic or Reading.--An item was included to determine whether the student said he did better in arithmetic or reading. Reading was coded as one and arithmetic as two. Future Occppational Choice.--Future work options were determined by student responses to the following question: "What would you like to do when you finish school"? Responses were categorized and coded in the following manner: ¥ 5See Appendix C. 43 Responses Coding Factory or Unskilled Labor 1 Teacher 2 Nurse 3 Lawyer 4 Scientist 5 Astronaut 6 Artist 7 Go to College 8 Secretary 9 Policeman 10 Model 11 Stewardess 12 Armed Forces 13 Entertainment 14 Sports 15 Peace Corps 16 Get Married--Housewife 17 I don't know 18 Personal Model.--The response to the following question was considered the student's model: "Of any person you know 95 know of, who would you most want to be like"? Responses were categorized and coded in the fol- lowing manner: Response Coding Family 1 Friends 2 Sports Personalities 3 Entertainment Personalities 4 Self 5 Teacher 6 Unclassified or don't know 7 Activitnyiked Most and Least in School.--Two Open-ended items were included to determine what activity the student liked best and least in school. The following 44 classification and coding scheme was developed from the student responses: Responses Coding Language (reading, spelling) 1 Arithmetic 2 Social Studies 3 Science 4 Art 5 Gym 6 Recess 7 Other 8 Ethnic Classification Chicano: Person of Mexican extraction (both parents must be of Mexican extraction); Anglo: Person of Caucasian extraction; Black: Person of Negro extraction; Spanish-American: Person of Mexican, Cuban, or Puerto Rican extraction. (Some quotes in this investigation use the term as meaning Chicano only.) Student Socio-Economic Status Student socio-economic status was assessed by a classification scheme adapted from Otis Dudley Duncan's occupational index6 by Brookover.7 The occupation of the father, or person supporting the family, was assigned a value ranging from 1 (lowest) to 9 (highest). In this 6Otis D. Duncan, "A Socio-Economic Index for All Occupations," in Occupations and Social Status, ed. by A. J. Reiss (Glencoe, Illinois: THe Free Press, 1961), Pp. 263-750 7Brookover, et a1., "Ability and School Achieve- ment," p. 21. 45 study, occupations coded one through five8 on the scale below were considered indicative of low socio-economic status: Occppation Coding Professional, Big Business Semi-Professional, Small Business Clerical, Sales Skilled Labor Service Occupations Semi- and Unskilled Labor Housewife Retired, Unemployed Other (military, student) Hmwbmcwxlcouo Academic Achievement In this study, academic achievement is considered to be the mean grade equivalent of the four following section tests on the Stanford Achievement Test: Reading, Arithmetic, Science, and Social Studies. These test scores were obtained during the spring of 1971 and were used as the covariable in the analysis of covariance on the Brookover scales. This was done since achievement has been found to be significantly related to self-concept of academic ability.9 Reliability_of Instruments The Michigan State University General Self-Concept of Ability Scale was the major instrument used in the . 8Only the following service occupations were 1nc1uded under coding 5: Janitor, gas station attendant, truck driver, nurse's aide, bartender, cook. 9Brookover, et a1., "Ability and Self-Achievement," P. 72. In addition to this and other Brookover studies on self-concept of academic ability, this relationship has been found in many research studies. 46 Brookover self-concept of academic ability studies. Reliability data for elementary students is not available and the reliability data reported here is for junior and senior high school students. The scale is an eight-item Guttman type scale which has shown high reliability over time. Coefficients of reproducibility were .95 for males and .96 for females for 1,050 seventh-grade students. Random samples of 35 males and 35 females in the eighth and ninth grades indicated these items retained scale form with reproducibilities of .92 and .93 for females and .96 and .97 for males in the two years. A random sample of 150 male and 150 female tenth-grade students produced reproducibilities of .86 for males and .91 for females. Scale reliabilities calculated by Hoyt's Analysis of Variance indicated high internal consistency over four years. The reliabilities were .82, .91, .92, and .86 for males, and .77, .84, .84, and .84 for females.10 These scores were for the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades respectively. A modified version of this scale was used in this investigation. This form was developed by Joiner, Erick- son, and Brookoverll initially for students with impaired — 0Brookover, et a1., "Improving Academic Achieve- ment," pp. 51-52. 11Wilbur B. Brookover, Edsel L. Erickson, and Lee M. Joiner, "Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement 111:” onperative Research Reportnyo. 2831, U.S. Office 47 hearing. It has since been used with many elementary school students in various school districts. The Pearson (Product Moment) correlation coefficient between scores on the original scale and for normal students and for the hearing impaired students on this scale was .75. A separate analysis of forty-eight females and forty-nine males showed no difference in correlation for these groups. Stability via test-retest correlations was .84 and the reproducibility value was .941.12 Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability by Others Scales.--As with the General Self-Concept of Ability Scale mentioned above, no reliability data for elementary students is available. As a result, the fol- lowing table shows reliability data for perceived student evaluations of his academic ability by parents, teacher, and best friend for eighth through twelfth graders. Analysis of the table shows high reliability coefficients for these scales. One-Item Self-Concept Items.--No reliability data are available on the six items comprising a qualitative _ of Education (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1967), p. 61. (Hereinafter referred to as "Ability and School Achievement III.") 12Lee M. Joiner, "The Reliability and Construct Validity of the Self Concept of Academic Ability Scale-- Form D for Hearing Impaired Students“(unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966), p. 52. 48 TABLE 3.4.--Hoyt's analysis of variance reliability coefficients.l3 Perceived Perceived Perceived Grade Parent Best Friend Teacher Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation 8 .838 .755 .918 9 .846 .880 .927 10 .782 .869 .921 11 .828 .859 .921 12 .849 .871 .912 section in this investigation. They were developed and added by the investigator specifically for this investi- gation. Data Collection Procedures On June 2-4, 1971, the investigator administered the instruments to all fifth and sixth graders in the three schools taking part in this investigation. One school was done per day and one class at a time. The investigator read each item out loud before the children responded with their answer. The investigator always had an assistant come into the classroom during administration of the instruments to help any students having problems. The students were aided in spelling on the open-ended questions that required writing to complete them. Special attention was given to helping the students in filling h; 13Brookover, Erickson, and Joiner, "Ability and School Achievement III,“ p. 61. 49 in the spaces available for naming where their father worked and a brief description of his work. The investi- gator and his assistant would go from student to student to make sure this information was filled in, as this data was necessary in determining socio-economic status. Achievement results and other needed data on stu- dents were gathered, when available, from the schools involved and from the research and records departments of the two districts participating in this investigation. Hypotheses In this section of the thesis, the hypotheses to be tested are listed in their detailed form. Immediately following the presentation of each of the four parts of hypotheses l and 2, the Brookover scale used to gather data for its analysis will be presented in parentheses. School Self-Concept of Aca- demic Ability Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will have a lower school self- concept of ability, as measured by the Brookover scales, than will his low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Anglo peer. 50 He will perceive himself as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Self Concept of Ability Scale) He will perceive his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Ability by his Parents Scale) He will perceive his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Perceived Evaluation of Student's Aca- demic Ability by his Best Friend Scale) He will perceive his teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability by his Teacher Scale) Hypothesis 2: The low socio-economic male Chicano 2A: and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele- mentary school student will have a lower school self-concept of ability, as measured by the Brookover scales, than will his female counterpart. He will perceive himself as having less aca- demic ability than his female peer. (Self-Concept of Ability Scale) 51 2_: He will perceive his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female peer. (Perceived Evaluations of Student's Aca- demic Ability by his Parents Scale) 2_: He will perceive his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female peer. (Perceived Evaluation of Student's Aca- demic Ability by his Best Friend Scale) g_; He will perceive his teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female peer. (Perceived Evaluation of Student's Aca- demic Ability by his Teacher Scale) Qualitative Self-Concepg Hypotheses Hypothesis 3: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose arithmetic rather than reading as his better subject to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. Hypothesis 4: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will have a lower education aspirational level than will his Anglo peer. Hypgthesis 5: Hypothesis 6: Hypothesis 7: Hypothesis 8: 52 The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose factory or unskilled occupations to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer when asked what he would like to do when he finishes school. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose family members and friends as personal models to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose non-language related activities and subjects as what he likes to do best in school to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose language related activities as what he likes to do least in school to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. 53 Statistical Procedures Design The following table shows the design of this investigation: TABLE 3.5.--Design of the investigation. Ethnic Group Chicano Anglo Male Female Male Female School I 10 10 10 10 School II 10 10 10 10 School III 10 10 10 10 E TYpe of Analysis A three-way multivariate analysis of covariance, mixed model, will be performed in this investigation. Jeremy D. Finn'sl4 program on the CDC 3600 computer at Michigan State University will be utilized for the analy- sis. Summagy Procedures used in conducting this 1nvest1gat1on of the hypotheses were presented in Chapter III. _¥ 14David J Wright, "Jeremy D. Finn's Multivariance, ° ' ' and Univariance and Multivariance Analys1s of Viiiaggger No. 9. Covariance: A FORTRAN IV Program, Occas1o 54 The chapter began with a description of the population. The population consisted of a sample of 120 low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade students from three schools in two urban Midwestern communities. This sample included 60 Chicanos and 60 Anglos, equally represented by sex, school, and grade. Instruments were described along with a definition of terms used in this investigation. Requirements for students and schools to be included in this investigation were set forth along with a presentation of available reliability data on the instruments. Data collection procedures were presented and the chapter concluded with a listing of the hypothe- ses and a description of the statistical procedures used in this investigation. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction This chapter contains the results of this investigation. Therefore, the major part of the chapter deals with the tests of the two hypotheses related to self-concept of academic ability, and frequency counts and percentages to gather information on the six quali- tative hypotheses. All hypothesef are presented in almost the same order as presented in Chapter III. The only variation is that each part of Hypothesis 1 is pre- sented with the comparable part of Hypothesis 2. This is done since the four parts of both hypotheses relate to the four dependent variables analyzed in the ANCOVA tables. Relevant statistical data is presented for each hypothesis, or each part of the hypothesis in the case of Hypotheses 1 and 2, in various tables before their writ- ten presentation in the case of Hypotheses l and 2: and after their written presentation in the case of Hypo- theses 3-8. The chapter is concluded with a brief sum- mary of the research findings. The chapter is diV1ded 55 56 into the two following main sections: (1) Statistical data relevant to Hypotheses 1 and 2 and their parts; (2) Frequency and percentage data relevant to Hypo- theses 3-8. A three-way analysis of covariance, fixed effects model, was performed on each of the four dependent variables (i.e., the four Brookover scales) listed below: (1) Self-concept of academic ability (2) Parents' perception of student's academic ability (as perceived by the student) (3) Teacher's perception of the student's ability (as perceived by the student) (4) Best Friend's perception of student's academic ability (as perceived by the student) In each ANCOVA, the independent variables are Ethnic Group, Sex, and School. The covariable is stu- dent achievement. The level of significance was set at .01 for each ANCOVA. The results will be presented separately for each dependent variable in four ANCOVA tables. 57 Hindings on the Brookover Self-Concept pf Ability Scales Self-Concept of Abilipy A look at Table 4.1 shows that five of the seven null hypotheses are not rejected and two are rejected. The hypotheses regarding sex and school effects are significant at the of self-concept of Hypotheses Results Hypothesis 1A: Hypothesis 2A: .01 level on the dependent variable academic ability. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will perceive himself as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Disconfirmed) The low socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele- mentary school student will perceive himself as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. (Disconfirmed) Results in Table 4.1 show that research hypo- thesis 1A is not confirmed since the significance level Of .0935 does not reach the .01 level needed to reject the null hypothesis. There is no evidence that the low 58 vam.hma maa Hmuoa vmmm.m monH.HH boa Haoo cacuwz o m I pomflmm uoz oo . . . . . canoemacmflm uoz mmmm o mooo o oaoo o omoo o m 0 x m x m S o m I Domflmm uoz oo . . . . . unmeawflcmam uoz mmmm o maem o mmmo m wmeo o m o x m m o m I uumnmm poz oo . . . . . o I Demo 0 o ”snowmadmwmuumz o mmmo.o woma.o neoo.a nemo.a a m x w .v on I uowhmm . . . . oo o . ucmoamflcmfim mooo o nmhm m nmmm we ease mm N AOL a c m m on I Domnmm . . . . xm . ucmowwficmflm nmoo o vmmm m mmvn mm mmvn mm a m m o m I nomnmm uoz oa . . . . . undefinecmam uoz mmmo o «mom m veoo ma «woo ma a owcnum H coamwomo m m m2 mm mm mousom .Aoma u zv OHmom huflaanm mo DQOOCOOIMHomIIOOCMHHm>oo mo mHmMHmcdlI.H.v mqmca 59 TABLE 4.2.--Adjusted means on the self-concept of ability scale. Anglo Chicano School M F M F 1 14. 13.7 15.3 14.6 2 16.2 14.9 17. 15.3 3 14. 12.8 14.9 13.3 Mean 14.7 13.8 15.7 14.4 Ethnic Mean 14.3 15.1 socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student perceives himself as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. Adjusted means1 in Table 4.2 show that Chicanos, both male and female, have higher self-concepts of academic ability than their Anglo coun- terparts: contrary to the predicted results. Table 4.1 shows that there is a difference in sex responses on the self-concept of ability scale at a higher significance level than the needed .01 level: P < .0097. However, a look at Table 4.2 shows that Hypothesis 2A is strongly disconfirmed in that self- concept of ability means by sex show that it is the males that have the significantly stronger self-concepts Of academic ability. There is no evidence that the low 1ndjusted means are derived from theafzg mezgguzi- the four self-concept of academic ab1l1tyfs:he analysis of ment of these raw means is done as part 0 d’ustments are covariance: the covariable on which the a j ' endix D. based is achievement. The raw means are 1n APP 6O socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student perceives himself as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Abilitypby His Parents Results as presented in Table 4.3 show that six of the seven null hypotheses are not rejected while one is found to be significant. The school that one attends is significantly related to one's perception of how he perceives his parents perceiving his academic ability. Hypotheses Results Hypothesis 1B: Hypothesis 2B: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will perceive his parents per- ceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Dis- confirmed) The low socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele- mentary school student will perceive his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. (Disconfirmed) ’cp F. In P“ z4‘r‘sr‘ fin-.1 III K'l‘vo-r F. oFfI‘HUI UHEQUHUH H.3COUSUW W0 TCOHUNJHNPQ UT>H®UHQQII®UCHHHN>OU N0 mdmxfimcqllIMIV mqm<fi D D 61 emea.em maa Hmuoe mmma.m emom.e Roe aamo sashes omemowwmeMmpmmzoa meem.o mmem.a memo.e emmH.m N O x m x m .s omemowmmeMmpmwzoo mmm~.o eemm.a ommm.m ooam.e N O x w .e owemowwmmMMmummzoo amom.o eoo~.a mmme.m eoem.e m o x m .m omemomwmeMmumwzoo mmmm.o mmme.a enme.e emee.e a m x m .e ”memawmmmmm emoo.o mmae.e memm.o~ emme.oe N Lee Hoorom .m omcmowwwmmmmemwzoo eemm.o moaa.a maom.m maom.m a xem .N owemommmmmmmemwzoo maaa.o eaee.~ mmee.e amae.e a passes .a cofimflomo m m m: mm mm monsom .Aoma zv mucmumm man an Suwawnm OflEOUMOM m.#CQU9#m NO mCOflUQSHMKVm UNn/WQOHGQIIOUCMHHMKrOU MO mflWNHMC‘IIoM.V NQQANH. 62 Results in Table 4.3 show that Hypothesis 13 is not confirmed since the significance level, p < .1189, does not reach .01. There is no evidence that the low socio- economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student perceives his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. A look at Table 4.4 shows that the adjusted mean scale results are contrary to the predicted outcome in that the Chicano, to a slight degree, perceives his parents perceiving him as having greater academic ability in relation to others than the Anglo. TABLE 4.4.--Adjusted means on the perceived evaluations of student's academic ability by his parents scale. Anglo Chicano School M F M F 1 7.8 8.7 8.5 8.3 2 9.5 8.4 8.9 9.5 3 9.0 6.9 8.4 7.4 Mean 8.8 8.0 8.6 8.4 Ethnic Mean 8.4 8.5 Table 4.3 shows that Hypothesis 2B is also discon- firmed in that the significance level of .2944 does not reach the .01 level necessary for rejection of the sta- tistical null hypothesis. Table 4.4 shows that the adjusted mean scale results for perceived academic ability of their parents is actually higher for the 63 males than the females. There is no evidence that the low socio-economic male Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student will perceive his parents per- ceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic Ability_byHis Best Friend Results in Table 4.5 show that six of the seven null hypotheses are not rejected and one is rejected. The school that one attends is significantly related to one's perception of how he perceives his best friend perceiving his academic ability. Hypotheses Results Hypothesis 1C: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will perceive his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Dis- confirmed) Hypothesis 2C: The low socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele- mentary school student will perceive his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. (Disconfirmed) 64 Noom.es maa amuoe or I powflmm uoz oo . . useoamacmam uoz HeeN o mNom a omeo.m oema.oa N o x m x m .e or I pomflmm uoz oo . . unmoamacmam uoz ammo o emem N «NAN.m mmme.ma N o x m .e on I Doonmm uoz oo . . . usmoamasmam uoz meom o eooa o «Ham 0 mNme.o N o x m .m or I pomflmm poz on . . . . UCMUHWHCOHW UOZ vmmfi O HO®¢ O VOHm H VOHm H H m x m oV om I pummwm . ucmoawacmam meNo.o oeae.m Neme.ea eeem.mN N xoc Hoosom m or I Downer uoz on . Damoamacewm uoz omON.o noee.a memm.m memm.m a saw N or I appear poz oo . . magnum .H uceoamacmaw uoz emme.o meHH.o Ghee o ones 0 a . cowmwomo m m m: mm mm mousom .AONH u zc crease news has an Npaaeem anmomom m.ucmpsum mo cowumsHm>m pm>wmonmmIIoocmem>oo mo mammamchI.m.v mqmde 65 Results in Table 4.5 show that research Hypothesis 1C is not confirmed since the significance level of .7354 does not reach the .01 level needed to reject the null hypothesis. There is no evidence that the low socio- economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student perceives his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. Results in Table 4.6 show that the Chicano and Anglo perceive their best friends perceiving them as having comparable aca- demic ability. TABLE 4.6.--Adjusted means on the perceived evaluation of student's academic ability by his best friend scale. Anglo Chicano School M F M F l 7.8 8.7 8.5 8.3 2 9.5 8.4 8.9 9.5 3 9.0 6.9 8.4 7.4 Mean 8.8 8.0 8.6 8.4 Efihnlc 8.4 8.5 ean Observation of the results in Table 4.5 shows that Hypothesis 3C is also rejected since the significance level of .2030 does not reach the .01 level needed to reject the null hypothesis. Table 4.6 shows that the adjusted mean scale results for perceived academic ability of their best friends is actually higher for the males than the females. There is no evidence that the low socio-economic 66 male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student perceives his best friend perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counter- part. Perceived Evaluation of Student's Academic AbiIity_by His Teacher Results as presented in Table 4.7 show that all seven of the null hypotheses are not rejected. Hypotheses Results Hyppthesis 1D: Hypothesis 2D: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will perceive his teacher per- ceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Dis- confirmed) The low socio-economic male Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele- mentary school student will perceive his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. (Disconfirmed) Results in Table 4.7 show that research Hypo- thesis 1D is not confirmed since the significance level of .8448 does not reach the .01 level needed to reject 67 omkm.am Hmuo Nemm.m GNNN.N so a 0 scenes 602 on a same caress m l . o o o Leeuweaemam poz eomm 0 Name a mama e mamm.m N o x m x m .N o no 0 o m ' ”wow. NH U. z D o o o o ucmowwwcmwm uoz mnmm o ovum a mmav m wmmm OH m U x m .m o I no oz on . . . m pom. m u meN o oema . peeoaeaeeam eoz seen 0 a o omee a N e x m .m 0 ' hm “.02 0Q o o I o s new. m N o NeNN o neeN m eeeN N . unmoawasmam uoz oom H m x m e or I poehmm uoz on Ammo.o emNN.N eeee.m Nmam.ma N loo Hooeom .N ucmoHMHcmwm uoz or I Domnmm uoz oo ormm.o NONo.o eamo.o eamo.o N xwm .N ucmowmwcowm uoz . . owcnum .H or I nephew poz oo NeeN.o mmmo.o Rama 0 Rama 0 N ucmowmwcmwm uoz ”OHUOM b m2 mm ma cowmwooo m .AONH zv heroeme men an suaaapm 68 the null hypothesis. There is no evidence that the low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school student perceives his teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. Table 4.7 shows that Hypothesis 2D is also dis- confirmed since the significance level of .8860 does not reach the .01 level needed to reject the null hypothesis. There is no evidence that the low socio-economic Chicano and Anglo male perceive his parents perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female counterpart. TABLE 4.8.--Adjusted means on the perceived evaluation of student's academic ability by his teacher scale. Anglo Chicano School M F M F l 7.9 9.2 8.8 8.8 2 9.6 8.3 8.8 8.4 3 7.6 8.3 8.2 7.4 Mean 8.4 8.6 8.6 8.2 Ethnic Findings on the Single Item School Self-Concept Measures Results will be discussed first in comparing Chicanos and Anglos as groups and then in terms of any major sex differences that may show up in the data. When considered important or of interest, the 69 investigator will report other findings from the data not specifically based on the hypothesis under investi- gation. Hypothesis 3: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose arithmetic rather than reading as his better subject to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. (Disconfirmed) A look at Table 4.9 shows that student responses did not bear out the investigator's hunch, and as a result the hypothesis is rejected. A higher percentage of Anglos, when compared to Chicanos, chose arithmetic over reading as their better subject: 63 per cent Anglo and 53 per cent Chicano. Table 4.9 shows that Chicano males and females, and Anglo females responded the same to the two possible responses to question twenty-four, while Anglo males responded more frequently to their doing better in arithmetic than reading: 73 per cent of the Anglo males compared to 53 per cent of the three other groups chose arithmetic as their better subject. 70 TABLE 4.9.--Frequency and percentage results from student to the following question: "Do you do better responses in arithmetic or reading?" Arithmetic Reading Sex School Anglo Chicano Anglo Chicano One 7 8 3 2 Two 6 3 4 7 Three 9 5 l 5 Male Total 22 16 8 14 Percentage 73% 53% 27% 47% One 5 5 5 5 Two 7 6 3 4 Three 4 5 6 5 Female Total 16 16 l4 14 Percentage 53% 53% 47% 47% Combined Total 38 32 22 28 Percentage 63% 53% 37% 47% Hypothesis 4: confirmed. and Chicanos said they would like to finish college: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will have a lower education aspirational level than will his Anglo peer. (Disconfirmed) Table 4.10 shows that Hypothesis 4 is also dis- 65 per cent Anglo and 60 per cent Chicano. per cent of the Chicanos indicated they wished to finish Thirty-two Approximately the same percentage of Anglos 71 Noe Nmo NNm NNN Nm we mm mm mmmwmwmumm mm mm mH NH m a N H emaHaeoo m Nma Nmo NHH NNN NMH NM m- NM mmmwmwmu m mHmsmm NN mH m a a m o N H H o H manna m m H m o H o H Mme a N a N N o o o 0 was was was NON :: Na Na Na mmmwmwmumm N HH 0N VH o o N N mHmz v o m v o o H 0 mouse m o m N o H o H 039 m N v o o H H H mac osmoHnU onca osmoHnU oncd osmoHno onc< ocmownu onam . Hoonom xmm wmmHHou anaHm Hoonom zmHm cchHm nmwm Hoflcso 302 “H50 zmHoozom cw om cu mxHH so» UHsoz Hmm 302: IHom map on mmmcommmu ucmcsum Eoum muHSme wmmucmonmm new hocmdmeMII.cH.v mamas "cowummsv mnH3oH 72 high school as compared to 22 per cent of the Anglos. Small and similar percentages of Anglos and Chicanos indicated they would like to quit school now, or to finish junior high school as their highest educational objective. Percentages in both categories were 7 per cent for Anglos and 3 per cent and 5 per cent for Chicanos. A look at Table 4.10 shows that while Anglo male and female education aspirational levels were approxi- mately the same at the college and high school level, Chicano females had higher aspirational levels than their male counterparts in that 73 per cent of the Chicano females indicated they would like to finish college as compared to 47 per cent of the Chicano males. Of further interest here is that the former Chicano female per- centage was the highest of the four groups in terms of those who wanted to finish college while the latter Chi- cano male percentage was the lowest. Compared to these Chicano results, were the more constant Anglo scores, where 63 per cent of the females and 67 per cent of the males said they desired to finish college. Hypothesis 5: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose factory or unskilled occupations to a higher degree than si “U4 “U5 as as wi th Cd wh. to All: ma. 30 Ch; F11} fer Cor Cer 73 will his Anglo peer when asked what he would like to do when he finishes school. (Confirmed) Results Results in Table 4.11 lend support to Hypothesis 5 since Chicanos did choose factory or unskilled occu- pations to a higher degree than the Anglo. Twenty-five per cent of the Anglos chose factory or unskilled jobs as what they intended to do when they finished school as compared to 33 per cent of the Chicanos. Consistent with this result was the finding that 42 per cent of the Anglos chose professional careers for themselves when they finish school compared to 29 per cent of the Chi- canos. Chicano males chose factory or unskilled jobs as what they would like to do when they completed school to a much greater degree than the Anglo males, and the Anglo and Chicano females; 47 per cent of the Chicano males chose factory or unskilled jobs as compared to 30 per cent of the Anglo males and 20 per cent of the Chicano and Anglo females. Further Results Thirty-three per cent of the Chicano and Anglo females chose being a teacher as a future job choice as compared to only 7 per cent of the Anglo males and 3 per cent of the Chicano males. lgofidou QEU 0U momcoamvh UCGUJUW ECHM WUHUWQH OUQUCSUMEA 32m EUCOSUOHLIIoHHoV nqqu 74 NN NN NN NN NNH NN Nm NO NNH NON NNN NNN mmmwmwmuom HH NH ON NH N N N N N N N O omcHnsoo u n NNH NO NN n NOH NNH NNN NNN NON NON mmmwMMMumm H O O O N H O N O OH OH O O mHmsmm O O N H O O N H N O H H manna O O H H H O O O N O H N 039. O O H O O O H N N N O N mco Na NOH NN . NON NOH . I NN Na NNO NON mmmucmoumm N N H O O N O O H N OH O Hmuoe O O H O H N O O O N O N manna mHmz N N O O O H O O H O N O 039 O H O O H O O O O O N N one D D 3 D 3 U. W m. W. U. W U. W U. W U. W I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. .o I. 5 I. .n 3 T 3 T. o I o I 3 TI 3 I E O E O E O e O p. O E O u u u u U u o o o o o o Hoonom xwm omHHmeca mmouom mum QOmem . umnomm mmusz Honomme Ho cmeud muuomm huouomm gmHoonom :mHsHu so» c033 on ou mxHH so» pHSOB umn3= “coHummsv mcw IBOHHOM on» ou noncommmh unwosum Eouw muHsmmH mmmucmouom cam mocmsvwhmln.HH.v mqm. @163 0:3 .mo 5..on .Ho zocx so» common man No: "coflumwsv 9330394. map 0» mwmcommmu ucmcsum Eonm mqummH mmmucmonmm 0cm. hocmawmumll.m.n.v mqmdu. 79 frequently to family models. Twenty per cent of the Chicano and Anglo males chose a family member as a model while 30 per cent of the Anglo females and 27 per cent of the Chicano females chose family members. Further Results Other models that had many responses were sports and entertainment personalities: 20 per cent of the Chi- canos and 13 per cent of the Anglos chose the former as models while 17 per cent of the Anglos and 8 per cent of the Chicanos chose the latter as models. Of interest here is that in both the above categories, one sex tended t0 dominate in responses: males made all responses to Sports models while females made thirteen of fifteen responses to entertainment models. Another interesting result was that 30 per cent of the Anglo females chose an entertainment person as a model while only 13 per cent Of the Chicano females did. Anglos and Chicanos chose their teachers as models 12 per cent and 10 per cent respectively. No Chicano males chose their teacher as a model while six Persons, or 20 per cent of the female Chicanos did; this total was twice the Anglo female total of three, or 10 per cent. 8O Hypothesis 7: The low socio-economic Chicano fifth— and sixth-grade elementary school stu- dent will choose non-language related activities and subjects as what he likes to do best in school to a higher degree than will his Anglo peer. (Disconfirmed) Results A look at Table 4.13 gives little support for Hypothesis 7 and so it also is rejected. On the major language related choice of language, 20 per cent of the Chicanos chose it as what they like to do best in school compared to 13 per cent of the Anglos. Combined results on the three language areas of language, social studies, and science, showed that only 15 per cent of the Anglos chose them as the activity they liked to do best in school as opposed to 27 per cent of the Chicanos. On the major non-language choice of arithmetic, responses for both groups were very similar: 27 per cent for Anglos and 23 per cent for Chicanos. Combined results in the non-language areas of arithmetic, art, gym, and recess favored the Anglo: 79 per cent Anglo and 65 per cent Chicano. Again contrary to Hypothesis 7. Thirty-three per cent of the Anglo males chose recess as what they liked to do best in school as opposed to 7 per cent of the male Chicanos and 7 per cent 81 ommucmo NNH NO NO NO NON NOH NNH NOH NON NN u NO NN NNN NON NON numm m H6909 O O O NH OH O OH NH H O N H OH OH NH nmaHn IEOU mmmucmo NO NN NOH NO NON NOH NNH NON NN I NN NN NOH NNN NON NNN nuom m 0 N H N N O N O O H O H H O OH O O H n 9 mHms H O O O O N O N H O O O H O H H 0MH£9 :09 H O O O O O N N O O O O N N O O ”9 O H N N O O H H O O H H N N N N 0 o NOH NOH NO NNN NNH NNH NON NON a 1 NO : NON NON NNH NN 0mmwwmo N N N OH O O O O O O N O O O O H Hmuo9 N H H H N N H N O O O O N N H O mmun9 0Hmz O H H N N N N N O O O O N H H H 039 H H O O O O N H O O N O N N N O 000 D D u N u. N. O N O N O N N N O N O N T. 5 T. 5 T. 5 I. 5 I. .b T. 5 T. .b T. 5 o I o I o I. o I o I. o I o .L o I W O W O W O DU. 0 W O W O W O W O O O O O O O O O Hoonom xmm mumzuo mmmomm emu aha 00:0H0m mmHosum 0Hums momsm . HmHoom naan< ucmH OmHoocom CH anon on o“ mxHH so» on umcz .xmm3 Hoocom may mcHHs . . . o .cowummsv mcflsoHHom mnu ou mmmcommmn ucmcsum scum muHSmmH mmmucmommm can hwcmnvaMcl.MH.v mummy 82 and 10 per cent of the Anglo and Chicano females respec- tively. Higher percentages of Chicano and Anglo females chose language as the activity they liked best when com- pared to their male counterparts: 23 per cent and 27 per cent Of the Anglo and Chicano females respectively, and 3 per cent and 13 per cent of the Anglo and Chicano males respectively , fixpOtheSis_§‘ The low socio-economic Chicano fifth‘ stu- and sixth—grade elementary school dent will choose language related . . . . do act1Vities as what he likes to - e least in school to a higher degre a On— than will his Anglo peer. (D1SC firmed) 3% not StUdent responses as shown in Table 4.14 do . ' ' ed- lend suPport t0 HYPothesis 8 and thus it 15 dlsCODflrm . . - ost Language Was the language related act1Vity With the m of responses by both ethnic groups. Forth-seven per cent - the the A“9108 and 30 per cent of the Chicanos chose It as aetiVitY they liked least in school. On the three lan* guage related areas of language, social studies and SCience, 69 per cent of the Anglos chose them as com- d to 56 per cent of the Chicanos. Both these results pare The only language area that are contrary to Hypothesis 8. i NNH NOH NO NN I I NO I NN NNH NNN NOH NNH NON NON NOO manucmoumm ‘ O O N H O O N O N O OH O HH NH NH NN Hmuo9 OmaHnsoo NOH NN NN NN I I NO I NO NON NON NOH NON NON NNN NON mannamoumm N H H H O O N O N O O N O N O O Hmu09 H O O O O O O O H H H N N N N O 00HO9 0Hmsmm H H O O O O O O H H N N N N O O 039 H O H H O O N O O O N H H N N H 0:0 3 NNH NOH NO I I I NOH I I NN NOH NN NOH NNH NON NNO moancmouma 8 O O N O O O N O O H O H N O HH OH Hmu09 N O H O O O O O O O O O N H N O 00HO9 0Hmz O N H O O O H O O O N O N N N N 039 N H O O O O N O O H N H O H N N 0:0 .Hw u. N O N O N O N O N O N. O. N O N I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 I. 6 o T. o T. o T. o I o T. o T. o I o T. p. O p. 0 e O 9 o e O 9 O n. O P O U U U U U U U U 0 O O O O O O O 1 If II II II II II Hoocom xmm mmHOOOO 0Hums mumnuo mmmowm 850 one mocmwom Hmwoom Inuwfiw mmmnmcmq smHoocom cw “$02. on on 9H,: :0» on ”:23 $3.03 Hoocom map 93.35.. "cowumwnv mewsoHHom mcu Ou mmmCOQmmH ucmcsum EOHM muazmmh wmmucwohmm new hocwsvmhhll.v.n.v MAMHNB 84 the Chicano chose more frequently than the Anglo was social studies, where 23 per cent of the Chicanos chose it as the subject they liked least as compared to 10 per cent of the Anglos. On the major non-language choice of arithmetic, responses for both groups were very similar: 20 per cent for Anglos and 18 per cent for Chicanos. Combined responses to the non-language areas of arithmetic, art, gym, and recess favored the Chicano: 31 per cent Chicano and 22 per cent Anglo. An interesting result, and again contrary to Hypothesis 8 was that 8 per cent of the Chicanos chose art as the activity they liked to do least in school while 0 per cent of the Anglos chose it. The most striking sex difference is in language, where 63 per cent of the Anglo males chose language as the activity they disliked most in school as compared to 37 per cent of the Chicano males and 30 per cent and 23 per cent of the Anglo and Chicano females respec- tively. Summary The purpose of this chapter was to present the results of this investigation. Eight hypotheses were studied. The results of the first two hypotheses were tested statistically while Hypotheses 3-8 were presented graphically through the use of frequency counts and 85 percentages in tables. Only Hypothesis 5 was given sup- port by the data; the other seven hypotheses were dis— confirmed. The next, and final chapter summarizes the results of the investigation along with conclusions, implications, and recommendations for further studies. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Introduction The major purpose of this investigation was to determine if there is a difference between the school self-concept of ability of low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicano and Anglo students. Differences as to how the Chicano and Anglo perceive their own academic ability, and perceive their parents, teacher, and best friend perceiving their academic ability in comparison to others was analyzed. Based on George Herbert Mead's interaction theory of the self, these student perceptions of how significant others perceive his academic ability are considered to strongly influence his school self- concept of ability. In addition to determining differences in school self-concept of ability, the investigator also included four open-ended and two multiple-choice items to gather some qualitative school self-concept information about the following: (1) Education aspirational level; (2) Better ability in reading or arithmetic; 86 87 (3) Personal model; (4) Future occupational choice; (5) Best liked activity in school; and (6) Least liked activity in school. The results of the investigation are summarized in this final chapter; conclusions are listed; impli- cations of the findings are discussed; limitations and suggestions for further research are mentioned; and the chapter is concluded with final comments by the inves- tigator on the investigation. Results The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student does not have a lower self-concept of academic ability than his Anglo peer. He did not perceive himself having less academic ability than his Anglo peer, nor did he perceive his parents, best friend, and teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his Anglo peer. (Hypothesis lA-D) The low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade male Chicano and Anglo does not have a lower school self-concept of ability than his female peer. He did not perceive himself having less academic ability than his female peer, nor did he perceive his parents, best friend, and teacher perceiving him as having less academic ability than his female peer. (Hypothesis 2A-D) 88 The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student does not choose arithmetic rather than reading as his better subject to a higher degree than his Anglo peer. (Hypothesis 3) The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student does not have a lower education aspirational level than his Anglo peer. (Hypothesis 4) The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student chooses factory or unskilled occupations to a higher degree than his Anglo peer when asked what he would like to do when he finishes school. (Hypothesis 5) The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student will not choose family members and friends as personal models to a higher degree than his Anglo peer. A slight trend in both areas favored the Anglo. (Hypothe- sis 6) The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student will not choose non-language related activities and subjects as what he likes to do best in school to a higher degree than his Anglo peer. (Hypothesis 7) 89 8. The low socio-economic Chicano fifth- and sixth- grade elementary school student will not choose language-related activities as what he likes to do least in school to a higher degree than his Anglo peer. (Hypothesis 8) Further Results In addition to the results reported above that related to the hypotheses under investigation, the fol- lowing results were considered of enough importance and interest by the investigator to report them here: 1. The school that the low socio-economic Chicano and Anglo attends is significantly related to his perception of how he views his own self- concept of ability, and how he perceives his parents and best friend perceiving his academic ability. 2. For low socio-economic Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade elementary school students, achievement was found to have a negative relation- ship with all four Brookover scales, pertaining to self-concept of academic ability, used in this investigation. 3. In all the analyses of covariance, no significant interactions among any of the independent variables were found. 90 Conclusions The results of this investigation seem to warrant the following major conclusions: 1. The disconfirmation of all four parts of Hypothe- sis 1 indicates the low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicano does not have a lower school self-concept of academic ability than his Anglo peer. A look at the tables presented in Chap- ter IV shows the trend is actually for the Chi- cano to have a stronger overall school self— concept of academic ability. These results are consistent with Mead's interaction theory of the self in that the student's perceptions of how "significant others" perceived his academic ability were consistent with his own perception of his academic ability. 2. The disconfirmation of all four parts of Hypothe- sis 2 indicates that the low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade male Chicano and Anglo does not have a lower school self~concept of ability than his female peer. The trend actually indicates the males to have a higher school self-concept of academic ability. On Hypothesis 2A, results were significant in showing the males to have stronger 1As shown in Appendix E, the four Brookover scales Show intercorrelations of +.55 to +.67. 91 self-concepts of academic ability than their female counterparts. As in Hypothesis 1 above, these results are consistent with Mead's inter- action theory of the self in that the student's perceptions of how "significant others" perceived his academic ability were consistent with his own perception of his academic ability. The disconfirmation of Hypotheses 3, 7, and 8 indicates the low socio-economic fifth- and sixth- grade Chicano does not perceive language-related activities in a more negative way than his Anglo peer. He chose reading over arithmetic as his better subject more often than the Anglo; he chose language-related activities more often than the Anglo as what he liked to do most in school; and he chose non-language related activi— ties more often than the Anglo as what he liked to do least in school. Education aspirational levels are high and similar for low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicanos and Anglos; however, occupational choices are lower for the Chicano than the Anglo in that he more often chose unskilled or factory work as his choice of what he would do when he completed school. 92 Majpr Implications of This Investigation It has been assumed by many writers and researchers that the Chicano has a lower school self-concept of aca- demic ability than the Anglo. This research investigation with low socio-economic fifth- and sixth-grade Chicanos and Anglos found no proof that the Chicano perceives him- self or perceives significant others perceiving him to have less academic ability in relation to others than his Anglo counterpart. The trend was actually in the opposite direction. These results do not imply that educators should discontinue efforts to bring bilingual education and/or English as a Second Language programs into schools with low socio-economic Chicano students since they do not have a lower school self—concept of academic ability than their Anglo peers. To the contrary, these programs are strongly encouraged and needed to meet the particular needs of the Chicano. However, a major implication of these results is that too many educators have assumed because a student is Anglo, he has a higher self-concept of academic ability than various minority groups, and that his special educational needs are not as great as say the Chicano or Black; certainly a questionable atti- tude by those who claim to be seeking equality for all persons. It appears that compensatory education materials, more sensitive school personnel, and improved teaching 93 strategies should be utilized with low socio-economic Anglos as well as low socio-economic Blacks and Chi- canos. The negative relationship of achievement to self- concept of academic ability indicates that low socio- economic Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade ele— mentary school students of low achievement perceive their capacity to achieve to a higher degree than their higher achieving peers.2 Assuming that one's perception of his capacity can be a limiting factor in his per- formance, it can be seen that with materials and encour— agement to succeed, these lower achieving students could be expected to achieve to a much higher level than they are presently manifesting, given the fact they think they can. Another interpretation of this negative relation- ship of achievement to self-concept of academic ability might be that low achieving students of low socio- economic status do not place a premium on actual aca- demic performance, and as a result, even though they do not achieve that well, they perceive their capacity to achieve higher than their better achieving peers. One further interpretation might be that the lower achieving students, feeling inadequate academically, state 2It will be noted that only 13 of the 120 students in this investigation are achieving at or above grade level; so these students are for the most part, below grade level students. 94 unrealistic perceptions of their capacity to succeed. In any of these three interpretations, the need is clearly for materials, sensitive school personnel, and effective teaching strategies to enhance the actual per- formance of these students. Further results contrary to assumptions by many writers and researchers on the Chicano were that among low socio-economic Chicano and Anglo fifth- and sixth- grade students, the Chicano did not choose language- related activities as what he liked to do least in school, nor did he choose non-language related activi— ties as what he liked to do best in school to higher degrees than his Anglo peer. Consistent with these results was the fact that the Anglo chose arithmetic over reading as his better subject more often than the Chicano. The trend of responses to the three above mentioned questions indicated a Chicano preference for language-related school activities when compared to his Anglo peer. An obvious implication here is that the low socio-economic Anglo fifth- and sixth-grade student is I 'Im'b‘r . also having much trouble with language-related activi- ties and renewed emphasis to his needs should be con- sidered when compensatory reading programs are produced or chosen for use by school districts. Just to say the Anglo will learn to read because he is an Anglo, and thus a member of the dominant group, is irrational and damaging to the prospects of his academic success. 95 A reasonable interpretation of the results that showed the Chicanos and Anglos to have comparable edu- cation aspirational levels, but the Chicanos to choose unskilled or factory work more frequently than the Anglo as what they would do when they finish school, would be that since Chicanos see few Chicanos in high socio- economic occupational positions, they see this pattern to continue for them. One school solution for this would be the addition of Chicano units and materials into social studies programs that would point out successful Chicano-Americans as models for the young Chicano students, similar to what is and has been done for the Black-Americans in many schools. Taking into account that all the students in this study are low socio-economic, this result was felt by the investigator to be significant since what a person feels he can do or would like to do is not as important as what he intends 22.22. Limitations and Spggestions for Future Researph Technically, the results of this investigation are limited to the 120 students who made up the sample used. However, careful generalization may be made to any population of subjects in similar social conditions to those tested in this investigation. This limits generalizability to low socio-economic fifth- and 96 sixth-grade Chicanos and Anglos in schools where they combined, make up the dominant proportion of the total school population, and in Midwestern cities of approxi- mately 150 - 200,000 population. Even though the school self-concept of ability scales used in this investigation have, and are being used with many elementary school students, this adap- tation of the originals might not be fully valid since they were originally developed for secondary school stu-3. { dents, grades seven through twelve. Reliability and i validity studies should be carried out for these instru- ments with elementary school students. The one-item questions used in this study to gather data for Hypotheses 3-8 were developed specifi- cally for this study and results derived from student responses to them should be analyzed with this in mind. This is an exploratory study which raised a great number of questions regarding differences in school self-concept of Chicanos and Anglos. Despite certain limitations, it hopefully can add to the grow- ing body of knowledge on the Chicano. It also is hoped these results will show that the low socio-economic Anglo should not be automatically considered to have a higher school self-concept than minority students in various ethnic groups, and thus have his educational needs not be given the emphasis given other minorities. 97 Variations of this investigation might include the following actions: 1. Conduct studies of Chicanos and Anglos in school communities of different socio-economic status to determine what effect socio-economic status has on the student's school self-concept. Use different grade levels to see what effect grade has on the student's school self-concept. Conduct similar studies in the East and Southwest to determine what effect geographical location has on school self-concept. Compare the school self-concept of Chicanos and Anglos with such other groups as Blacks, Indians, and Spanish—Americans other than Chicanos. Compare schools with varying proportions of Chi- canos and Anglos in the total school pOpulation to determine what effect ethnic group school distribution has on the student's school self- concept. Final Comments py the Investigator When one completes an investigation that has required much effort over an extended period of time, as this has, it is extremely difficult to state in a few words how one views his results; however, this will be attempted. 98 The paradox of this study is that the major con- cern in the investigator's mind after its completion is not for the obvious educational changes that must be made in the schools if Chicanos as a group are to achieve their potential, but that the low socio-economic Anglo is often overlooked by many persons who have taken the highly irrational position that because a student is an Anglo, he does not have the educational needs that a Chicano or Black student has. The point is not that programs for Chicanos and other minorities should be limited, but that low socio-economic Anglos should not be excluded from special programs. A further feeling is that in order to be truly effective educators, generalizations about groups must be limited and the needs of individual students must be met as they enter classrooms every day. The investigator feels too many educators and politicians that blame "racist" attitudes for our educational woes, give very "racist" solutions to these woes. All Blacks and Chicanos are often lumped as disadvantaged while all Anglos are classified as advantaged by merits of their ethnic group as a whole. Taking into account the high aspirational level of the Chicano, along with his preference for English language-related activities in the school when compared to his Anglo peer, might educators not conclude that more efficient approaches to teaching English to Chicanos 99 might be considered? The results of this investigation should at least be in the minds of those writing and implementing bilingual and ESL programs for the Chi- cano. This would be particularly true in the Midwest where this investigation was done. The widespread belief that Chicanos dislike English language-related activities in the school more often than their Anglo counterpart was not borne out in this investigation. The results actually showed a trend in the opposite direction. To pursue the topic of the Chicano in the Midwest, Midwest bilingual and ESL programs should be developed for the particular needs of the Midwest Chicano and not be dictated by the experiences of the Southwest Chicano and the programs developed for him. The investigator feels there are greater differences between low socio-economic Chicanos in the Midwest and the Southwest than between low socio- economic Midwest Chicanos and Anglos. Even though suggested curricular changes was not an aim of this study, it appears that special language proqrams should also be implemented for low socio- economic Anglos that would take into account their cultural and language handicaps. The achievement results listed in Appendix D show that both the Anglos and Chicanos in this investigation, as groups, are achieving substantially below their grade level. This 100 indicates that present English language programs are not only failing the low socio-economic Chicano, but also his low socio-economic Anglo peer. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, James G., and Safar, Dwight. "The Influence Differential Community Perceptions on the Pro- vision of Equal Educational Opportunities." Sociology of Education, XL (1967), 219-30. on Anderson, James G., and Johnson, William H. “Stability and Change Among Three Generations of Mexican- Americans: Factors Affecting Achievement." American Educational Research Journal, VIII 11971), 285-309. Ausubel, David P., et a1. "Perceived Parent Attitudes as Determinants of Children's Ego Structure." Child Development, XXV (1954), 173-83. Ausubel, David P., and Ausubel, Pearl. "Ego Development Among Segregated Negro Children." Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by A. H. Passow. New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1963. Bledsoe, Joseph C., and Garrison, Karl C. "The Self Concepts of Elementary School Children in Relation to Their Academic Achievement, Intelligence, Interests, and Manifest Anxiety." Cooperative Research Project No. 1008. Athens: The University of Georgia, College of Education, 1962. Brookover, Wilbur B. "A Social Psychological Conception of Classroom Learning." School and Society, XXCVII (1959), 84-87. Brookover, Wilbur B., et al. "Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement." Final Report of Cooperative Research Project #845. 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Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966. Combs, Arthur, and Snygg, Donald. Individual Behavior. 2nd ed. New York: Harpers, 1959. Coopersmith, Stanley. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1967. Cottrell, L. S. "Some Neglected Problems in Social Psy- chology." American Sociological Review, XV (1950), 705-12. Davidson, Helen H., and Lang, Gerhard. "Children's Per- ceptions of Their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related to Self-Perceptions, School Achievement and Behavior." Journal of EXperimental Edu- DeBlassie, R. R., and Healy, G. W. “Self-Concept: A Comparison of Spanish-American, Negro and Anglo Adolescents Across Ethnic, Sex, and Socio- Economic Variables." ERIC-CRESS (March, 1970). Deutsch, M. "The Disadvantaged Child and the Learning Process." Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by A. H. Passow. New York: Teachers College figzeau of Publications, Columbia University, 3. 103 Duncan, Otis D. 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Soriano, Jesse M., and McClafferty, James. "Spanish Speakers of the Midwest: They Are Americans Too.“ Foreign Language Annals, II (1969), 316-23. Videbeck, Richard. "Self-Conception and the Reactions of Others." Sociometry, XXIII (1960), 351-59. Wylie, Ruth C. The Self-Concgpt. Lincoln: University of NebraSka Press, 1961. Yarborough, Ralph W. "Bilingual Education as a Social Force." Foreign Language Annals, II (1969), 310-15. 105 Zirkel, Perry A., and Moses, Gnanaraj E. "Self-Concept and Ethnic Group Membership Among Public School Students." American Educational Research Journal, VIII (1971), 253-65. Zobel, Jan. "The Mexican-American School Child." Illinois Schools Journal, L (1970), 103-13. APPENDICES APPENDIX A GENERAL SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE 106 General Self-Concept of Ability Scale Pick one. Circle the letter for your answer. Remember, no one else will see_your answergi so please tell me just what you think. 1. Think of your friends. Do you think you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than your friends? a. better b. the same c. poorer Think of the students in your class. Do you think you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than the students in your class: a. better b. the same c. poorer When you graduate from high school, do you think you will be with the best students, average students, or below average students? a. the best b. average c. below average Do you think you could graduate from college? a. yes b. maybe C. no If you went to college, do you think you would be one of the best, average, or poorest students? a. the best b. average c. poorest If you want to be a doctor or a teacher, you need more than 4 years of college. Do you think you could do that? a. yes b. maybe c. no 107 Forget how your teachers mark your work. How good do you think your own work is? a. excellent b. average c. below average What marks do you think you really can get if you try? a. A's and B's b. B's and C's c. D's and E's APPENDIX B PERCEIVED EVALUATIONS OF STUDENT'S ACADEMIC ABILITY BY OTHERS SCALES 108 Parents Pretend_you are_your mother or father. Answer like they would. Pick one. Circle their answer. 1. Think of your mother and father. Do your mother and father say you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than your friends? a. better b. the same c. poorer Would your father and mother say you would be with the best, average, or below average students when you graduate from high school? a. the best b. average c. below average Do they think you could graduate from college? a. yes b. maybe c. no Remember, you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Do your mother and father think you could do that? a. yes b. maybe c. no What grades do your mother and father think you can get? a. A's and B's b. B's and C's c. D's and E's 109 Best Friend Pretend you are your best friend. Answer like he or she would. Pick one. Circle their answer. 1. Think of your best friend. Would your best friend say you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than other people your age? a. better b. the same c. poorer Would your best friend say you would be with the best, average, or below average students when you graduate from high school? a. the best b. average c. below average Does your best friend think you could graduate from college? a. yes b. maybe c. no Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your best friend think you could do that? a. yes b. maybe c. no What grades does your best friend think you can get? a. A's and B's b. B's and C's c. D's and E's 110 Teacher Pretend_you are_your teacher, the one you like the best. Answer like he or she would. Cifc1e their answer. 1. Think of your teacher. Would your teacher say you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than other people your age? a. better b. the same c. poorer Would your teacher say you would be with the best, average, or below average students when you graduate from high school? a. the best b. average c. below average Does your teacher think you could graduate from col- lege? a. yes b. maybe c. no Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your teacher think you could do that? a. yes b. maybe c. no What grades does your teacher think you can get? a. A's and B's b. B's and C's c. D's and E's APPENDIX C SINGLE ITEM SCHOOL SELF- CONCEPT MEASURES lll Pick one. Circle the letter for your answer. 1. Do you do better in arithmetic or reading? a. arithmetic b. reading How far would you like to go in school? a. quit now b. finish junior high school c. finish high school d. finish college Answer the followingin the space below that is underlined. What would you like to do when you finish school? Of any person you know gg know of, who would you most want to be like? During the school week, what do you like to do best in school? During the school week, what do you like to do least in school? APPENDIX D RAW MEANS OF RESPONSES TO THE GENERAL SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE AND PERCEIVED EVALUATIONS OF STUDENT'S ACADEMIC ABILITY BY OTHERS SCALES AND RAW ACHIEVEMENT MEANS 112 5v.v o a o a m m m.ma m mamsmm osmoaso mo.q m.m m.m o.m «.ma N mHmEmm osmoano av.v o.m m.m m.m m.¢a H mamEmm canvano m~.v m.m 5.x m.m m.mH m mam: ocmuano ma.¢ o.m m.m m.m m.>a N mam: osmoano mq.v o.m n.m a.m m.ma H mam: osmoano mm.¢ m.m m.m o.a m.~H m mamewm cased mm.q m.m v.m o.m m.va m mamsmm onqm qo.m v.m m.n ~.o A.NH H mamsmm camca Ho.¢ a.a H.m ~.n ~.vH m mam: onqa mm.m m.m H.m m.m m.ma m mam: oamaa am.v m.~ a.» m.m m.ma H mam: oamqa quMMMwflmwd umnomma pawfium ucmumm umwwmmu Hoonom xwm owmmww .mcmmfi ucmEm>mHnom 3mu cam mmamom mumnuo >3 xuflawnm owEmcmom m.ucmvsum mo mc0wumsam>m pm>fimoumm can mamom auHHHnm mo ammocoonmamm Hmumcmm mnu ou mmmcommmu mo mammE 3mmll.ala mqmfie A ‘Wtcf A. I} ‘h' APPENDIX E INTERCORRELATIONS OF THE FOUR BROOKOVER SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALES AND ACHIEVEMENT -. 0" 113 TABLE E-l.--Intercorre1ations of the four Brookover self- concept of ability scales and achievement. Self- Parent Friend Teacher Concept Concept 1.000 2. Parent 0.637 1.000 3. Friend 0.638 0.678 1.000 4. Teacher 0.552 0.659 0.619 1.000 Achievement -0.335 -0.305 -0.345 -0.332 J‘ ' 8mi‘Ah‘fi ‘L .A. ”man“ ‘I l : -_ .— ‘1...» new“)! -_. m I ‘ 2s“; . APPENDIX P DIRECTIONS TO THE STUDENT BEFORE THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENTS USED IN THIS STUDY 114 DIRECTIONS: I am trying to learn more about students and their work in schools. I would therefore, like for you to respond to the following questions. This is not a test of any sort and will not affect your work in school. Nobody else will see your answers. There are no right or wrong answers, I simply want you to tell me your answer to each question. 1. Name PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CIRCLING THE LETTER ON THE LEFT OF YOUR BEST ANSWER TO THE QUESTION. PICK ONLY ONE ANSWER FOR EACH QUESTION: 2. How old were you on your last birthday? a. 9 years old b. 10 years old c. 11 years old d. 12 years old e. 13 years old 3. Are you a boy or girl? a. boy b. girl 4. What grade are you in? a. 5th grade b. 6th grade 5. Please write your teacher's name on line below: 6. Please write the name of your school on line below: 115 7. How many years have you been at this school? a. Less than 1 year b. 2 years c. 3 years d. 4 years e. 5 years f. 6 years 9. 7 years If your father does not live with you or if he is not alive, please answer this question for the person in your house who supports the family. 8. What type of work does your father do? (Give a short description of his job.) a? I.- ‘II. I: ‘- \lHlHllllWill]WWIIllllllMHlliHlHIH[INIHIHUHl I :1 I.“ .1 Q Q III 0 ‘ ¢ 0 O I1,wlfllgugmWW