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ABSTRACT

A PROPOSED PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATICN
WHICH WILL USE AVAILABLE RESOURCES
TO MEET THE NEEDS OF JORDAN

MORE EFFECTIVELY

By
Yousef M. Alkadi

This study presents a proposed program of teacher educa-
tion which will use available resources to meet the needs of
Jordan more effectively (See p. 115).

Areas which have been explored in developing a
rationale for improving teacher education in Jordan include
social problems, economic development, modern political
development, learning theories and the learner and teacher
education inside and outside Jordan.

This study was undertaken to determine in what ways
teacher education in Jordan has responded to national needs
for trained manpower and development of Jordan, to what
extent teacher education outside Jordan contributes to the
improvement of teacher education inside Jordan, and to explore
ways in which further contributions can be made by teacher

education in Jordan.

Yousef M. Alkadi

Primary sources of data included government reports and
studies, annual reports from the Jordanian Government submitted
to the Aggb Information center in New York City and UNESCO.
Other sources include interviews by the writer with teachers
and graduate students in the United States from Jordan study-
ing at Michigan State University, East Lansing. Secondary
sources included books on Jordan, articles pertinent to the
study, and unpublished materials filed in the MSU library.

Major findingsof the study show Jordan's need for profes-
sional teachers and skilled manpower are in the crucial areas
of teacher education, vocational education, educational plan-
ning and curriculum development.

Teacher education playing an emerging role in the develop-
ment of Jordan. During the past twenty years teacher educa-
tion in Jordan, together with international agencies and
friendly countries, tried to provide the country with needed
teachers and experts in education. At present, the increased
population, explosion of knowledge and changes occurring in
social, economic and cultural areas make it difficult for
teacher education in Jordan, as it is now, to provide the
country with needed professional teachers.

On the basis of the major findings of this study, namely
Jordan's needs for professional teachers and skilled manpower,
the improvement and expansion of teacher education programs

to meet the needs of Jordan are indicated.

A PROPOSED PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATION
WHICH WILL USE AVAILABLE RESOURCES
TO MEET THE NEEDS OF JORDAN
MORE EFFECTIVELY

By
. AH
Yousef NJ Alkadi

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Education

1968

./ (X/n/fi-
i7'v' “" “
. A ,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Deep appreciation is expressed by the writer to Dr.
Troy L. Stearns, chairman of the advisory committee, for
his sincere help, advice and encouragement. His understand-
ing of overseas nations has contributed much to the writer's
attitude, philosophy and general development.

Thanks are expressed to the other members of the
committee: Dr. George Myers, Dr. Horace Hartsell and Dean
Homer Higbee, and Dr. Elwood E. Miller for the significant
contributions they made toward the development and completion
of my graduate program.

The writer is very grateful to Mr. August G. Benson for
his help, advice and friendly attitude. Thanks, also, are
extended to all MSU faculty members who shared the process

of sophisticating, enlightening and widening the writer's
knowledge and thinking.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AC ICNOWLEDG MENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

LIST OF
LIST OF
LIST OF
CHAPTERS
I.

II.

III.

TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O
MAPS I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
CMTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

INTRODUCTION 0 O O O C O O O O O O

The Purpose of the Study.

The Need for the Study. . . . . .
The Design of the Study . . . . .
Limitations of the Study. . . . .

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND. .

The Land and People . . . . . .
Jordan: Past and Present . . .
Modern Political Development. .
Economic Development. . . . . .
The Government. . . . . . . . .
Social Organizations. . . . . .
Manpower Distribution . . . .
The Standard of Living and Socia

l

EDUCATION IN JORDAN . . . . . . .

HlStorical SynopSZlS e e e e e e

The Current Educational System in
Teacher Education . . . . . . .
Illiteracy and Teacher Education.

Welfare

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON TEACHER EDUCATION

Professional Competence in Teaching .

Learning Theories. . . . . .
Motivation . . . . . . . . .
Types of Teaching Experience

Training Teachers. . . . .
Evaluation . . . . . . . . .

ill

for

Page
ii

V.

Some Characteristics of the Curriculum
Designed to Produce Competent Profes-
sional Teachers . . . . . . .

The Nature of Educational Centers in
which Professional Study Occurs . . . . .

Formulating Criteria Related to Program
of Teacher Education. . . . .

Criteria for Formulating Objectives. .
Criteria for Selection of Basic Needs

of Teachers. . . . . . . .
Criteria for Selection of Training
Centers. . . . . . .

Criteria for Selection of Student
TeaCherSeee 0 0000000.
Criteria for Developing Programs of
Evaluation 0 O O O O O O 0
Summary of Implications Based on a Review
of Literature on.Teacher Education. . . .

A PROPOSED PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATION
WHICH WILL USE AVAILABLE RESOURCES TO MEET
THE NEEDS 0? JORDAN MORE EFFECTIVELY. . . .

Objectives of Teacher Education in
Jordan. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Some Emerging Trends Related to the
Improvement of Education in Jordan. . . .
A Proposed Program of Teacher Education
in Jordan. 0 0 O O O O
A Proposed Developmental Plan for the
Improvement of Teacher Education in
Jordan. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

iv

Page

81
84

87
87

90
92
93
96
99

101

101
103
105

112

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Population of Jordan . . . . . . . . . .
Jordan Labor Force, 1955 . . . . . . . .
Natural Increase in Population . . . . .
Composition of Dead Sea. . . . . . . . .
Balance of Payments. ... . . . . . . . .
Progress of Enrollment, 1952-1963. . . .

Basic Statistics of Public, Private,
and UNESCO-UNBWA Schools in 1962-1963. .

Teacher Training Colleges During 1962-63

Page
10
35
36
no
Ah

50

56
62

Map
l.
2.

3.

LIST OF MAPS

Location of Jordan . . . . . . .
Concentration of Population. . .

Educational Districts of Jordan.

vi

LIST OF CHARTS
Page
1. The educational Ladder in Jordan . . . . . . . . 57
2. A.Proposed Developmental Plan for the

Improvement of Teacher Education in
Jordan. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 115

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Purpose of the_§tudy

The purpose of this study is to present a proposed pro-
gram of teacher education which will use available resources

to meet the needs of Jordan more effectively.
The Need for the Study

Since the population of Jordan has been tripled as a
result of the Arab-Israeli War of 1947, (23:9), the need for
more and better qualified teachers for the various levels of
learning is urgent. As a result, Jordan has sought coopera-
tion from the United Nations, neighboring Arab countries, and
several overseas countries, to help develop teacher education
and secure experts, consultants, and facilities.

Teacher education in Jordan is not as effective as it
might be due to the following:

1. The educational process, including teacher educa-
tion, is not an integral part of the whole
developmental process of the country. Education
as a whole is not integrated with the major needs
of economic growth and social development.

1

2
Teachers are not prepared to carry on a develop-
ing, balanced and professionalized program of
education which combines theory and practice to
meet the needs of Jordan. Currently, students
may enter teaching after completing two years of
work beyond the junior high school. Teachers are
also recruited from high school students imme-
diately after they finish high school.
Parent-teacher-student relationships are neglected
in teacher education in Jordan. There are no
parent-teacher associations, big brother clubs,
or other similar agencies.
The teacher education program is not flexible enough
to meet changes occurring all over the world, such
as the knowledge explosion, and to channel such

changes to meet the needs of Jordan.

' Good research in teacher education is lacking. A

few unrelated data are not sufficient to make sound
research in teacher education.

Existing facilities in the Jordanian University in
Amman, as well as in other educational, social and
economic centers, are not fully utilized. They are
used primarily during the daytime. They are not
used evenings or the whole year around.

Evaluation programs which lead to improvement of
teacher education are lacking. Evaluation is viewed

as synonymous with recitation and oral or written

3

testing. It emphasizes final tests or national
examinations only.

8. A balanced and selective program of teacher educa-
tion is needed. The teacher education program in
Jordan is very academic in nature. It provides few
opportunities for training in technical and voca-
tional aspects.

9. Learning situations outside the classroom are
neglected by teacher education. Travel, visita-
tion and social activities are not included as part
of the teacher education program in Jordan.

10. More systematic educational planning is needed on
all levels. Statistical projections to show status
in teacher education is what counts in Jordan at
present. Planning in Jordan does not include
collecting data for making and using systematic

educational research.

The Design of the Study

This study is focused on presenting a proposed program
of teacher education which will use available resources to
meet the needs of Jordan more effectively. The method of
research used in this study is a combination of the historical,
descriptive, analytical and synthetical approaches.

This study is organized so that Chapter Two focuses on
the historical and cultural background of Jordan, including

a brief discussion of the land and the people, Jordan's past

4
and present, modern political development, economic develop~
ment, the government, social organizations, manpower distribu-
tion, standard of living, and social welfare.

Chapter Three discusses education in Jordan, covering
a historical synopsis, the current educational system, and
-teacher education.

Chapter Four focuses on a review of selected literature
on teacher education including professional competencies in
teaching, the characteristics of the curriculum designed to
produce competent professional teachers, the nature of the
educational centers in which professional studies take place,
criteria for developing a plan of teacher education, and
summary of the implications of this review of literature on
teacher education.

Chapter Five focuses on the development of a proposed
program of teacher education. It includes objectives of
teacher education, emerging trends for the improvement of
education in Jordan, a proposed program of teacher education,
and a proposed developmental plan for the improvement of
teacher education in Jordan.

Chapter Six presents conclusions and recommendations.
Limitations of the Study

1. The major limitations of this study are due to the
brevity of some of the available primary and
governmental reports; the insufficiency of research

on teacher education in Jordan, and the paucity of

5
the original, reliable and comprehensive publica-
tions.
Due to the limitations of time, no empirical testing
of the workability of the plan will be conducted in
this study.

CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND
The Land and People

The Land

The name of the country is derived from the famous river
Jordan (23:3) in which Christ was baptized. (The Arabic
pronounciation of Jordan is Urdunn) (11:19). Jordan has a
total area of about 37,000 square miles (11: 18) mostly lying
to the east of the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. To the
west is Palestine (Israel), to the north is Syria and the
Jarmuk (Yarmuk) River: to the east are Iraq and Saudia Arabia:
and to the south are Saudia Arabia and the Gulf of Aqaba
(33:5) (see map 1. page 7)-

Physically, most of the Eastern portion of Jordan is
desert, (Syrian Desert). The western and southern portions
of the country are hilly, with elevations up to 5,400 feet
above sea level. Between the eastern desert and uplands, and
western hills, running in a north-to-south direction, is a
trough-like depression called the Jordan Valley, which varies
in width from 2 to 15 miles (23:6).

The River Jordan itself flows from the Lebanese and
Syrian territories in the north. The Hasbani and Banias

tributories are joined together to form one single river near

6

 

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

N

Lebanon

    

 

map 1. Location of Jordan.

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8

the border line between Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. The
Sea of Galilee (Tabariyya or Tiberias), is a few miles to
the south, with its western and southern shores in the land
of Palestine (Israel), while the eastern shores are on the
borders with Syria.

To the south of the Sea of Galilee is the Dead Sea,
which occupies the central part of the depression. The Dead
Sea is considered the deepest point on earth, (1,290 feet
below sea level) (23:7). The depression runs south and forms
the Wadi Araba, which stretches from the Dead Sea south to the
Gulf of Aqaba: then it runs into the Red Sea, to the great

depression in central Africa and Lake Victoria.

The People
The physical nature of Jordan has its effect on the

people: the depression which divides the country from north
to south, divides the people into two distinct groups. Harris

states:

This geological rift . . . initially divided
the two distinct groups among Jordan's
1,#00,000 people - thgurelativelanrb Q and
westernized_Palestiniansiof,the West Bank,
“and the more isolated and conservative
inhabitants“of the East Bank. Today, how-
ever, Palestinians are to be found through-
out the country. The two populations are
not amalgamating easily, and the effort to
bring them together in a single national
entity continues to involve friction and
unrest. (11:19-20)

Concerning this contrasting culture, customs and aptitude

of the people of Jordan, Judge Sparrow also says,

9

. . . it is important to bear in mind that

the old division of Jordan into Eastern

Palestine and the Amirate of Trans-Jordan

has left behind a heritage of two types

of Jordanians with contrasting customs

and aptitudes. The Palestanian Arab, is

on the whole, better educated and more

modern than the Arab people of the Old

Amirate. (28:18)

The "Fact Sheet,” Near and Middle East Series, further
distinguishes between the people of the West Bank of Jordan
and the East Bank. The sheet explains that the “Inhabitants
of Trans-Jordan are essentially a desert people engaged in
pastoral and nomadic pursuits. The Palestianians, on the
other hand, are traders, more professional in occupation, and
towns people. Lack of affinity between the two groups has
created some social and political problems." (44:3)

The fact that Jordan's population has tripled in one
year has had its effect on the economic, and political life.

Patai mentions,

The most significant fact with regard to the
growth of Jordan's population is the trebling

of its members as a result of the Arab-Israeli

War (1947) and the annexation of the West Bank
(1950). Prior to 1948, although no official census
had ever been carried out in Transjordan, it was
estimated that the Transjordanian population num-
bered about 400,000. To them were added some
400,000 residents of the West Bank and another
450,000 refugees. (11:10)

Despite this trebling of the population, the Arable
land was increased by only about one-third when the Palestine
Hill Country was added to Jordan (56: 3-4).

If the natural increase in population at the rate of

24.73 or roughly 25 per thousand each year is added, this

10
means an increase of 34,000 annually, on a base of 1,360,000.
Table I illustrates the increase in Jordan's population
between 1947-1952.

TABLE I

Population of Jordan

 

 

 

 

End Influx Natural Internal Housing
of Refugees Increase Movement Census
1947 1948 l948-52 1948-52 Aug. 1952
(1000 persons)
W. Jordan 460 280 90 ~88 742
E. Jordan 375 70 54 +88 587
Total 835 350 144 0 1329

 

If we assume that the sum of the first two columns
represents the population at the middle of 1948, the rate of
growth of 1952 is 2.9% per annum.

Due to the climatology of Jordan, the distribution of the
population coincides with the rainfall pattern. According to
Patai, "Only the northwestern corner of the country, on both
banks of the Jordan River, receives sufficient rainfall for
regular cultivation: consequently, the overshelming majority
of the population is concentrated in this section. The total
area of this corner of Jordan is about 5,000 square miles,
within which there are about 1,775 square miles under cultiva-
tion. Taking the cultivated areas as a basis, one finds here

a population density of about 780 per square mile.“ (23:10)

ll
Relatively, such population density is quite high when
compared with other agrarian countries. Patai further
describes the population density by saying,

The three West Bank districts of Nablus, Jerusalem
and Hebron accounted in 1954 for 56 percent of

the total population of Jordan or about 780,000
persons. The three northwestern districts of

the East Bank - Ajlun, Balqa, and Amman - con-
tained a population of about 530,000. Another
90,000 persons lived in the districts of Krak

and Maan, to the south of Amman, directly east

of the Dead Sea and of the Wadi Araba. (23:10)

A map of Jordan shows that the districts of Karak and Maan
account together for almost 50 percent of the area of Jordan,

while less than one-tenth of the population live there.

Population Explosion
Population and the economics of the country are related.
The sudden increase in population in Jordan adds to the

social and economic problems. Among the wordly philosophers
Malthus says,

There is a pressure of population against resources,

and today in many parts of the world we can see

the consequences of a population that has relent-
lessly expanded against the rigid barriers of

land supply until it is crushing itself to death.
12:73

Among the implications of the above facts concerning

population growth to teacher education are the needs of the

following:

1. Emphasizing the "achievement motivation" by
promoting aspiration for a better life among
teachers, and through them, among the young
generation and adult people.

12
2. Encouraging studies on the relation of
income to the size of the family, which may
lead in the future to a kind of birth con-
trol.
3. Promoting technical education by encouraging
teachers of various fields to improve their

technical skills, as well as social and
psychological skills.

Jordan: Past and Present

The land of Jordan possesses a great history from the
dawn of civilization to the present. "There are traces of
human habitation which go back at least as far as 6000 B.C.
The entire territory abounds with megalithic and paleolithic
elements." (27:17) Archeological findings indicate that
high domestic standards were begun in Jericho. Dearden says,
"Jericho is the oldest town that we know of in the world."
(8:32) The long history from the Bronze and Iron Ages,
through the Nabateans, the Hellenistic period, the Romans,
Arabs, Ottomans, British, and to the establishment of an
independent state, 1946, has brought a vigorous interest in
archeological excavation, and hence, an increasing tourism
movement. From the holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem,
to Petra, Amman, Jarash, and the Medieval Arabs' and Crusaders'
castles, thousands of relics, ruins, and monuments are
scattered everywhere. This rich historical legacy may stim-
ulate teacher education in Jordan to recognize and relate its
future program to this tourist movement and thereby promote

international and cultural understanding.

13

Jordan contains many places of great religious,
historical and archeological importance. In
Jerusalem alone there are the church of the Holy
Sepuleture, the Via Colorosa, the Garden of
Gethsemone, the Mount of Olives, the magnificent
seventh century mosque in the Haram-Esh-Sharif,

and a first-class archeological museum. Within

a short distance are the church of the Holy
Nativity in Bethlehem, Solomon's pools, the tombs
of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in Hebron, and the home
of Mary and Martha in Bethany, The Jordan Valley,
the River Jordan.and the Dead Sea are of great
intrinsic interest, and in addition there are

many archeological sites, particularly in Jericho.
In East Jordan, there are well-preserved structures
of the Roman, Omayad and crusader periods, and the
rock city of Petra hewn by the Nabateans. The land-
scapes, for instance between Jerusalem and Jericho,
and in the mountains of East Jordan overlooking

the Dead Sea, are of a character unfamiliar to
many tourists from Europe and America. (50:241)

The present future of Jordan as a country is not clear
yet. Maintaining peace on the long Israeli frontiers is a
difficult task, the social and economic problems are not
solved, and it seems that it will take much more time to

resolve such problems.

Modepn Political Development

Before World War I, Jordan was a part of "Greater Syria"
with its two regions, Northern Syria, at present divided into
two countries, Lebanon and Syria: and Southern Syria, divided
into Palestine and Transjordan.

Following World War I, the political development of
Jordan can be divided into two periods: that of the Mandate
or (Ahd al-Intidab), 1920-1946, and that of Independence or
(Ahd al-Istiqlal), 1946---.

14
Period of the Mandate

The internal consolidation of the Amirate was the first
job of the Jordanian Government. "The Amirate had been set
up in the midst of political instability and tension in the
area. Though created smoothly and boosted by the effective
recognition and assistance of Britain, it was not universally
acclaimed by the people in Transjordan." (1:13)

In addition to the opposition of the tribal chiefs, the
Jordanian government was not accepted by the urban politicians
of Arab nationalists. Next to these, and far-reaching in
consequence, was the urban political opposition provided by
the refugee Arab nationalists from Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
A majority of them subscribed to the al-Istiqlal (Independence)
Party of Syria. Their objective was the establishment of a
single Arab state. (1:14)

In spite of the opposition of people and nationalists,
the government was able to consolidate itself in the country
under the direction of the "Amir," Abdullah. Article one of
the agreement of 1928 stated that the Amir agreed that Great
Britain be represented in Transjordan by a British Resident
acting on behalf of the High Commissioner for Transjordan and
that communications between the British Government and all
other powers, on the one hand, and the Transjordanian govern-
ment, on the other, were to be made through the British
Resident. (27:167)

Transjordanians reacted unfavorably to the agreement.

Shwardan describes the Transjordanians' reaction by saying,

15

Not only did they protest the agreement, but

they accused Abdullah of entering into an unholy

compact with the British, bartering away

Transjordan's political rights in order to

secure British support for himself: and they

accused the British of sacrificing the freedom

of the Transjordanians to Abdullah in order to

strengthen their position in the country for

their imperialistic ends. (27:171)
But ”Amir” Abdullah.wasted no time in implementing the agree-
ment, and began to work with the British Advisors on the
“Organic Law."

Until that date, 1928, there was no official election
in the country, and government business was transacted until
1929 by an "Executive Council" consisting of members officially
appointed by the Amir. To meet the requirements of the
"Agreement,” an election was held in February 1929, for a
legislative council which first met April 2, 1929 (23:38).
Sixteen members were elected: of them nine were Moslem Arabs,
three were Christian Arabs, two Circassians and two Beduins,
the last two also being Muslim.Arabs but representing the
special interest of the Nomads. Six official members (the
Chief Minister, the Minister of Justice, the Chief Secretary,
the Treasurer, the Director of Health, and the Director of
Education) brought the total membership of the council to
twenty-two. An amendment to the 1928 Agreement was made in
1934. The main points of the new agreement were the following:
”A new British Resident was to be appointed to Amman represent-
ing the High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan.

Transjordan was to be entitled to establish relations with

foreign powers through the offices of the Resident and the

16
High Commissioner, and to set up consular officers in the
neighboring Arab state." (23:40)
Organization and growth of public opinion took place
during the "Mandate period." Political parties were
organized, and a kind of organized opposition was formed and

still exists at present,

Independence Period

Transjordan, as a fully independent state and his high-
ness the Emir as the sovereign thereof, was recognized by
Britain in 1946 (24:45). From this date on, Transjordan,
now ”The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan,” entered the second
phase in her political development. Although the character
of the government and the spirit of administration remained
unaffected, there was a complete change in the official status.
Abidi explains this by saying,

Al Imarah (The amirate), Al Amir (The Amir),

Khefag (Agreement), Al Qanun Al Asasi (The

Organic Law), Majlis at-Tashri (The Legislative

Council), and Advisory Council were replaced by

A1 Mamlakah (The Kingdom), A1 Malik (The King),

Al-Muahedah (The Treaty), Ad-Dastur (The

Constitution), Majlis al-Ummah (The Parliament),

and Majlis a1 Wuzara (Council of Ministers)

respectively. (1:18)
King Abdullah, through the period of independence and even
before, tried to play an important role in the political
affairs of the neighboring Arab countries, especially
Palestine and Syria. Abidi says, “As regards the wider
question of Syria, Abdullah's ambition was to unify, polit—

ically, the entire area of the geographic Syria (as-Suriya

17

al-Jughrafii). His concern for Syria could be traced back
to the time of Faysal's ouster from Damascus in 1920." (1:21)

In Palestine, King Abdullah was acclaimed King of United
Transjordan and Palestine at the end of the Arab-Israli War,
and the West Bank of Jordan was annexed in 1948.. Within the
periods of mandate and independence, King Abdullah had
succeeded in strengthening his position in Transjordan. He
had given the country a parliament, a constitutional life,
an administrative machinery, and an efficient army to protect

the frontier and maintain order deep in the desert area.
Economic Development

Though economic development is one of the essential goals
for developing countries, still it must be balanced with
social, cultural, political, and educational goals. Theobold,
in his book, The Rich and the Poor, 1961, states:

While economic growth is a necessary goal for

the poor countries, it must not be considered

to outweigh all others, nor should it be

assumed that every action that increases

wealth is necessarily right. Economic develop-

ment will be satisfactory if it acts to
preserve the meaning of life, not to destroy

it. (30:27)

Generally speaking, Jordan is considered a poor country
because most of the lands are either desert or have a very
low rainfall rate. Few minerals of commercial value have
been discovered. Few forests and timber resources exist.

The water supply is inadequate for both irrigation and human

use. Manpower and natural resources are not only unevenly

18
distributed but are not effectively used. Wars, as well as
natural catastrophes were, and are still, hampering the
economy of Jordan. The "Fact Sheet" states, "Jordan's
economic development has been hampered as a result of the
Arab-Israel conflict. Because of this war the country's
population tripled, many of the original population lost
their employment and Jordan's established trade and trans-
port routes to the Mediterranean and neighboring countries
were cut off." (44:8)

In spite of these problems, Jordan is changing with the
momentum of change spread all over the world. Modern tech-
niques in communication, agriculture and education are used
on a small but accerlerating rate. Among prevailing obstacles
is the lack of capital for investment in economic activities,
such as agriculture, industry and mining. A second obstacle
is the great political tension spreading all over that area
of the Near East as a result of the Israeli-Arab Wars and
partition of Palestine, with more than one million inhabitants
expelled from their homes and land.

In relation to agriculture, the Department of Social
Science at Michigan State University, under the title,
”Problems of Change in Underdeveloped Areas,” states,

. . . One ofithe possible methods of change is

found not only in Africa but all through the

developing world. It is to persuade the

villagers to consolidate their holdings in

economic plots and to provide them with the

credit, fertilizer, the improved seed, the

pattern of crop relation, the insecticides, the

storage and marketing facilities which make

intensive farming safe for the land and
profitable for the farmer.

19
The statement continues

But whatever the approach--community develop-
ment, new farm settlements, cooperative
plantation-~one thing is clear, all methods
without exception, demand massive investment
of fresh capital. (40:8)

In Jordan agriculture falls short of meeting the needs
of the country. Opportunities in agriculture are limited as
indicated by the 'Fact Sheet',

The country is predominantly agricultural with
limited resources and a high rate of popula-
tion growth. About 80 percent of the arable
land (4 million acres or 17 percent of the
total area) is under cultivation, but
productivity is dependent upon each year's
uncertain rainfall. Schemes for irrigation
and hill terracing to capture rainfall are
limited to that part of the country centering
about the Jordan River: the remainder of the
country to the east is without sufficient
rainfall to support such schemes. (44:4-5)

But according to what may be a conservative estimate,
the perennial flow of Jordan's spring and streams is suffi-
cient to increase the production of irrigated crops by one-
third (11:154).

To make up for some of the shortcomings and to increase
Jordanian productivity, the government is expanding agricul-
tural education, especially in the fields of planning and
implementing water control, irrigation projects, terracing
and soil conservation and reforestation. Harris confirms
this by saying,

The Jordanian government has been active both in

planning and implementing irrigation and water

control schemes. 0f the twelve small irrigation

projects, proposed by the government's Depart-

ment of Irrigation, five totaling 12,800 acres have
been carried out. (11:154)

20

Other developmental schemes are the Bunger Plan and
the Main Plan for irrigation purposes (11:157).

Describing the economics of Jordan under the heading
"Economic Structure,” the "Basic Data on the Economy of Jordan
confirms what has been said concerning agriculture by saying,

Agriculture is the most important section of

the Jordanian economy. It provides half

the goods sold in the country and employs a

majority of the population. However, its

contribution to the National Income Accounts

varies considerably from year to year due

to the fluctuation in the rainfall which

seriously affects drop production. Irriga-

tion systems and water control are essen-

tial to expand development and production

in Jordan in both agriculture and industry.

(11:154)

Concerning minerals, the "Fact Sheet" states that mineral
resources are negligible with the exception of phosphate near
Amman and Hasa and potash extracted from the Dead Sea. Phos-
phate production increased in 1962 and accounted for 38 per-
cent of the total value of Jordan's exports (44:5). In 1962,
income from wholesale and retail trade accounted for 24 per-
cent of the GNP followed by agriculture, fishing and forestry,
19 percent, and public administration and defense, 17 percent.
Phosphate exports and tourism are the principal earners of
foreign exchange (53:2).

The economic development has implications for teacher
education in Jordan, among them:

1. Economic, social, political and technical

changes call for emphasis on technical and

rural education in addition to the vocational

and community development areas.

21
2. Politically as well as economically, Jordan
is not stable and needs foreign aid. Hence,
regional and international education should be
emphasized along with economic development.
Concerning economic development, the 'Fact Sheet'
states,
A 5-year plan adopted by Jordan's develop-
ment Board covering (1962-67) is expected
to expand production and income, cut
unemployment, and reduce the country's
dependence on foreign aid. Investment will
be primarily in irrigated-agriculture,
water-resources development, tourism and
the expolitation of phosphate and potash.
(44:8)
Teacher education in Jordan should recognize and be
closely related to this plan to supply the country with
manpower needed for planning, maintaining, and developing

such projects.
The Government

Remarkable progress in the direction of democracy has
been achieved. The constitution states specifically the
division of power among the king, the parliament, and the
people. The people, according to the constitution, are
declared to be the source of all power. Personal freedom,
worship, and property, are safeguarded and ensured. Freedom
of opinion and of the press and publication are also
guaranteed by law.

The constitution declares that Jordan is a hereditary

monarchy with a representative government. Three powers are

22
defined by the constitution: the executive, the legislative,
and the judicial. Over all of them, the king has wide
powers. He appoints the Prime Minister and may dismiss
individual ministers or the entire cabinet. He appoints
the members of the Upper Chamber (Council of Notables) of
the legislature, but while the membership of the lower
Chamber (Council of Representatives) is elected, the king
may dissolve it, whereupon general elections must be held
to enable a new council to convene within four months.

Harris describes the history of the Jordanian constitu-
tion by saying,

The constitution of Jordan dates from its
publication in the government's official
Gazette in January 1952: it succeeded a
constitutional instrument of December 1946,
which in turn supplanted that of 1928 as
amended in 1939. These constitutional
developments have moved haltingly toward
executive responsibility. Aside from

what the constitution owes to an Islamic
background its inspiration was drawn from
western sources by way of Syria. Beyond
this, the decisive elements have been the
precedents of the British mandatory system,
the influence of British administrators, and
the personality and intelligence of both
King Abdullah and the collaborators who
aided him in building the formal constitu-
tional order of Jordan from its inception.
In general, the progressive phraseology

of the constitution pertaining to civil
rights and social welfare was borrowed
substantially from the Syrian constitu-
tion of 1950: the conservation features
were rewritten from the Transjordan
Constitution of 1946, which in turn leaned
heavily on the original Transjordanian
Organic Law of 1928. (11:87)

The Executive Power

Concerning the executive power Patai says,

23

In addition to the increase in the number of
ministries, the personnel and the structure
of the older ministries increased substan-
tially and some of them underwent reorganiza-
tion. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was
reorganized in 1950 and is now headed by a
Minister who has under him a permanent Under-
Secretary and a Secretary General. The
departments of the Ministry (of Foreign
Affairs) are of two categories: specialist--
departments include those of Political
Affairs, United Nations, Treaties and
Conferences, Arab, Islamic and Oriental
Affairs, Consular Affairs, Protocal, and
Press and Publicity: functional--departments
include those of Economic Affairs, Legal
Affairs, External Liaison, Clerical,
Accountancy, Translation and Personnel
Affairs. (23:91)

The council of ministers is responsible to the council
of Representatives (the parliament). A two-thirds majority
of the Representatives must be cast for votes of confidence.
The cabinet consists of the Prime Minister (the president of
the council of Ministers) and other ministers according to
necessity and need. The prime minister and ministers shall,
before assuming office, take the following oath before the
king:

I swear by Almighty God to be loyal to the

king, uphold the constitution, honestly

serve the nation, and perform the duties
entrusted to me. (28:45-46)

The Legislative Power
The Legislature consists of the National Assembly which,

in turn, is composed of the Council of Notables (the Upper
Chamber), 20 members appointed by the kind and serving for
eight years: the Council of Representatives (the Lower House),
40 members above thirty years of age. They are elected by

universal suffrage.

24
The Judicial Power
Patai states:

The Constitution and the Court Establishment
Law of 1951 provided for the establishment of
the judiciary branch of the government. The
lowest courts are the Magistrates Courts sit-
ting in each large town and dealing with all
civil cases where the matter involved does
not exceed 150 Jordanian dinars* (J.D.).
Above them are the courts of First Instance,
one of which is located in each district**
(Amman, Jerusalem, Irbid, Salt, and Karak):
these comprise 3 justices and have jurisdic-
tion over all cases not dealt with by the
Magistrates Courts or by the religious courts.
One court of Appeals functions in West Jordan
and one in East Jordan, each with 3 or more
justices. These courts hear cases appealed
from either the Magistrates' Courts or Courts
of First Instance. The Court of Cassation

in Amman can be appealed to from the two
Courts of Appeal in all civil cases exceeding
J.D. 500, in major criminal offenses and judg-
ments involving important legal points of
general interest. (23:93-94)

In addition to the courts, there are religious and
tribal courts for various faiths and tribes. Another court,
called "Land Settlement Court,” travels in districts which
are declared to be land settlement areas to adjudicate cases
arising out of the land settlement. (23:95)

Among the implications of Jordan's political development
for teacher education in Jordan are the following:

1. Greater transition from family and kinship loyalty

to national and international loyalty is needed

in Jordan. The traditional Middle Eastern family

 

*Jordanian dinar is equal to $2.80.

**A district has the same meaning as a county in U.S.A.

25
is the center around which the individual's
loyalties revolve. For its members the family
still takes precedence over any other larger
social group, including the state (11:221).
2. Equality, freedom, and living a democratic life
should be stressed and practiced in Jordan. The
Constitution emphasizes equality before law with-
'out any discrimination. "No discrimination of

any kind shall be made before the law between
Jordanians in regard to their rights and obliga-
tions, on the ground of race, religion or language."
(62:52?) To help the people understand the law

and practice according to its provisions should

be one of the goals of teacher education.

3. Departments in various ministries and other public
and private agencies need technical and academic
equipment and personnel. The role of teacher
education should be to collaborate with those
departments to help in supplying the country with
needed personnel and specialists for running public

affairs effectively.

Social Organization

Generally speaking, the Jordanian society may be divided
into three categories: (a) people living in towns and urban
centers who may be divided into three classes: the upper

class, the middle and the lower class: (b) people living in

26
villages and rural areas including landowners, shopkeepers
and peasants: (c) tribes of Bedouins.

These categories have been subjected to tremendous
changes since World War I. New political forces are alter-
ing the cultural and traditional order in Jordan. The new
sources of wealth accumulated during the two World Wars, and
other political crises, have created a new influential middle
income class. Much overlapping is occuring between traditional
and progressive categories. For instance, many Bedouins have
settled down and are practicing modern methods of agricultural
production. ”Grain is commercially produced in the neighbor-
hood of Amman and around Irbid and Madaba, where on some of
the larger tracts modern methods of production are employed
as in the case of the wheatland held by the al-Huwagah sub-
tribe. This project is directed by efficient managers and

is equipped with modern agricultural machinery.“ (11:153)

Urban Centepp

There has been a great increase in the number of urban
centers and their population since the Arab-Israeli War of
1947-48. A good example is Amman, the capital. The city has

expanded in both area and population. Ethel Mannin describes

Amman by saying,

Amman has become . . . the gateway to Jordan.
King Hussein, who was born there declares

in his autobiography . . . he has seen it
grow from a township to a busy and prosperous
capital city. Its population in 1947, when
the King was fifteen, was 35,000. In 1961

its estimated population was 244,599. (17:108)

27

At present, Jordanian urban centers are influencing the
rest of the society more than in the past. The emergence of
the middle class is disturbing the balance which was once
maintained through the previous decades, between the upper
wealthy, secured, status class and the lower poor class.
Harris illustrates the situation by saying, "The upper-class
landlord, once secure in his wealth and status of family, is
confronted with novel demands, not only from the villages but
from a government which must be concerned with the plight of
the farmer. The member of the new middle class, equipped with
ideas and skills developed in the West but not yet adjusted to
the conditions of Jordanian life, finds it hard to employ his
knowledge effectively or place himself in the tradition-bound
but changing social scene” (11:70). Describing the urban
people of the cities in Jordan and their impact on politics
Phillips says:

The most important groups of people from the

standpoint of political stability are found

in the cities. These include the unemployed

laborers, the partly-educated but unemployed sons

and daughters of the middle-class and elite economic

groups, the half employed, better qualified and

more intelligent refugees, and the members of

formerly wealthy refugee families who lost

large properties in Palestine. These are the

people who need most careful political atten-
tion. (24:88)

On the other hand, in describing the political and
economic importance of the city, Harris says, ”The new
economic role of the town is matched by its heightened impor-
tance as a center of administration, political, judicial,

religious and educational activity at a time when these functions

28

are affecting the country as a whole." Harris adds that,
”The traditional urban monopoly of wealth, power, and
cultural pursuits made of the town, for all those who were
conscious of its existence, the seat of everything desirable.
That attraction has not waned, and it has combined with the
pressure of contemporary economic and social conditions to
accelerate rural migration to the urban centers.” (11:66-67)

The aforesaid denotes that all modern achievements are
concentrated in the Jordanian cities. In addition to being
the economic, trading, manufacturing, industrial, commercial
and financial center, the city is the center of political and
religious activities, to which great numbers of rural people
are attracted. As a result of that attraction, a constant
flow of migrants from village to town is taking place. This
process is being greatly accelerated by the greater employ-
ment opportunities offered by the industrial plants estab-
lished in the towns. Map 2, p. 30 illustrates the concentra-
tion of population in and around the urban centers such as

Amman, Nablus, Jerusalem, Ramallah, Hebron and others.

The Rural Areas

Although a great percentage of the population lives in
rural areas, the village doesn't contribute much to the cul-
ture of the country. Patai says, ”Broadly speaking the role
of the rural population has been confined to providing food
and taxes and some raw materials and folklore. Everything
else originated in the town." (23:212) Access to water, soil

fertility, and defensibility are among other considerations

29
which enter into the choice of a village site under the condi-
tion of Jordan's physical and social environment.

Phillips describes a typical Jordanian village by saying:
"The typical village consists of one or more clusters of
buildings and a surrounding area of land. The population of
a large village consists of the farmers, landlords, merchants,
professional people, government officials and police. Some of
the farmers own land: some are share-croppers or cash renters:
some are owner-tenants. A small village contains only farmers."
(24:80)

In classifying the Jordanian villages, Phillips mentions:

The present villages of Jordan are classifi-

able in several different ways. There are

(I) settled villages, (2) semi-settled

villages, and (3) non-settled and non-

nucleated villages. Any of the three

types may be tribal or non-tribal in

organization and ownership, may be owned

and managed as a number of individual tracts

or by landlords who rent to the villagers

or hire them as laborers. (24:80)

Rural areas, if they are organized and irrigated, are
considered among other key factors which may lead to the
promotion of a prosperous economy in Jordan. Two main plans
are among others which, if put into practice, may contribute
to the prosperity of the country. One of them is the Bunger
Plan: the other is the Main Plan for irrigation.* But the
political situation in the area does not allow for implement-
ing either one at present. Love of the land is widespread
among all classes in Jordan. Devotion to the land and land-

owning is highly regarded among the people of the village:

individual prestige is directly related to owning land, and

 

*For more details see Harris, page 157.

 

30

 

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

   
  

 

 

 

 

Lebanon
S Y R I A
v, /'
1 /
Acre , f //
Haifa .L. ibe ' s /
" .3 GaIIIee ) /
/
I: rbio . /
- ' ' .0 I I
run ~o\ /
C //
Tul.:ar 'ab us :3 U . ' Ma .
Tel Aviv Ra llah '7 93.12
l
Jafa . . . .
. ~ c: O mman / /
Jrusalem‘-.. 0 ,4 ’
. /
J 0 R D A N ,/
Hebron n '/ r I
(
@wrms \
v I, ‘ . \
/ ' \
1" EL Karak \
. \
\
I ' - ‘
\
\ \
I \
\ \
\ \
SINAI ‘\ \\
Q I
Ma at
\
\
I
I
I
I
I A
\\ ... .. 5’ d .‘p
A U D I A x. k A B I A
Map 2. Concentration of Population. (.'. Each dot represents

50,000.)

31
the more land the individual owns, the higher his prestige
is among the people of the village and the villages around.
Harris writes, "Four primary themes have traditionally char-
acterized village life in Jordan and throughout the Middle
East: devotion to the land, immersion of the individual in
the kinship group, adherence to religious sect, and community
cohesiveness. Though these characteristics are still dominant
in the area, they are being weakened and altered by the forces

of the present.“ (11:65)

The Bedouins

In recent years, the contribution of the Bedouins to
the economic life of Jordan has diminished with the replace-
ment of caravans by cars, airplanes, and railways. A settling
process of the nomads is of much importance and priority to
the Jordanian government.

Six stages can be distinguished in the transition from

nomadism to sedentary village life:

1. The pressure of economic conditions may force a
tribe into mixed pastoral economy of camel and
sheep breeding instead of depending on pure
camel nomadism.

2. Coming to a town or a village to buy and sell,
the Bedouins observe the more comfortable life
of the town and village people and find life
there appealing.

3. To practice agriculture as a sideline to supple-

ment livelihood, the Bedouins acquire land.

 

32

4. As a sequence to acquisition and maintaining land,
the radius of migration and the number of animals
are reduced.

5. Erection of store houses to store the surplus grain
and delay its sale until a higher price can be
obtained, leads to the erection of more houses, or
a kind of permanent encamping.

6. Once this stage is reached, the nomads no longer
see any point in putting up with the discomforts of
tent life, and they build permanent houses for them-
selves. (45:40-41)

A good example of this is the Beni Hasan tribe about
whom Patai writes, ”A well-advanced stage of the sedentariza-
tion process could be observed among the Beni Hasan after the
first World War. The Beni Hasan (who) have about 860 tents
dwell in Ajlun, one of the most fertile parts of Transjordan,
where they own about 372,000 dunams (about 93,000 acres) of
land.” (23:193)

Such social organizations as those discussed above pose
these implications for teacher education:

1. Diversity in teacher education programs is a
necessity to meet the needs of the town, the village
and the tribe.

2. Expanding of vocational training is necessary.

There is a serious lack of vocational training. A
school of arts and crafts and an agricultural school

provide the only technical vocational instruction

3.

33
other than that given in regular secondary school

courses. For this type of education to be greatly
expanded, however, basic attitudes toward the goals

of education must change. (11:195)

When developing the curriculum for teacher educa-
tion one must give special consideration to train-
ing which will help insure redistribution of manpower
to coincide with the needs of the country, the region,
and international requirements.

Teacher education in Jordan should consider both the

modern and the traditional ways of life in an attempt

to mold both in one pot, the product of which will
be a generation of hard core builders of the new
nation. This new generation may help in developing

the human and the natural resources of the country.

Manpower Distribution

In the developed countries, a responsible department
such as the Department of Labor (61:1) takes necessary steps
to anticipate the problems which will be created as the
economy moves toward full employment. The technological
problems and the expanding of existing industry are among
the challenges to full employment in Jordan.

Keeping accurate statistics is another important factor
in determining the economic growth of a country. A good
example is the United States. In the United States accurate

statistics are kept of manpower, the jobs available, and the

34

expected increase or decrease in both manpower and the jobs
for the years to come. Underdeveloped countries do not have
accurate statistics for manpower and jobs. Estimation plays
a prominent role in determining what is needed in that field.
The 'Report' of the mission, organized by the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (hereafter the “Report")
to study the economic development of Jordan, states, "Any
estimate of the labor force available for employment suffers
from the lack of information about the age distribution of
population. A rough guess is that one-half of Jordan's popula-
tion is between 15 and 65 years of age.” (56:441)

Harris agrees with the "Report" when he states, "Informa-
tion concerning the composition of the Jordanian labor force
and the conditions under which it works is scanty and unreli-

able.“ (11.125)

Employment

Due to the lack of natural resources, the presence of
hundreds of thousands of refugees, and the slow rate of
economic development, both.unemployment and underemployment
are high. Patai states, "The Ministry of Economy estimated
that some 70,000 males, equally divided between East and West
Jordan, were totally unemployed: this figure represents nearly
a quarter of the country's labor force." (23:129)

This relatively high percentage of unemployment and low
productivity are due, according to Patai, to the following:

1. Low productivity due to poor health, congested
housing, and inadequate food.

35
2. Lack of training.

3. Illiteracy.
4. Absenteeism and high turnover of labor.
5. Lack of a sense of security.

6. Poor equipment used, and the inefficiency of
management,

7. Legislation and worker unions are new things to
Jordanians. (233135)

The estimated total labor force* was in 1955 distributed

as shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Jordanian Labor Force, 1955 (11:226)

 

 

 

 

Agriculture
Refugee Indigenous Total
Full-time Employment Negligible 131,000 131,000
Part-time Employment 50,000 10,000 60,000
Unemployed 42,000 40,000 82,000
273,000
MITRE
Full-time Employment 10,000 43,000 53,000
Part-time Employment 15,000 4,000 20,000
Unemployed 20,000 13,000 33,000
106,000

 

*The majority of Jordan's industrial and professional
workers are in Amman, the Capital, in Jerusalem and Nablus.

36
Both the "Report" and Harris estimate the percentage of work-
ing women to be about 5 percent, after excluding those who
work on their farms and in agriculture, and what the "Report"
called “Unpaid family labor.” (56:441)

The high rate of annual increase in population adds to
the problem facing Jordan at present. In comparing the annual
rate of the natural increase in population in Jordan with
other countries, one finds that Jordan ranks second to Costa

Rica in this respect. This is shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Natural Increase in Population (25:43)

 

 

 

Country Rank Annual Rate Year
Costa Rica 1 38.1 1955 - 59
Jordan 2 37-3 1957

 

The figures in Table 3, indicate that Jordan maintains
one of the highest natural increases in population annually,
which will add to the number of unemployed if the situation

does not improve accordingly. Harris stresses the same ideas,
by saying,

The natural increase in population between 2 and

3 percent per annum during the last few years is
estimated to be sufficient to add between 5,000

and 7,000 annually to the total labor force.

Age statistics of the refugee groups indicate

an unusually high proportion of young people, which
suggests the entry into the labor market of a
disproportionate number in a relatively short

time. (11:126)

37
Another disadvantage is that the labor movement in

Jordan is still weak in making its desires and attitudes
felt. "Increasing industrialization is bringing changes in
the relations between employers and employees, but thus far
little has been done to improve the rate and pace of productiv-
ity, and there is little to suggest that organized labor will
soon achieve a strong bargaining position in relation to the
employers. Nor is labor in a position to play any part in
. . . relocation of industry or the hiring of foreign labor.”
(11:132-133)
The problem of manpower distribution in Jordan has the
following implications for teacher education:
1. Jordan still depends mostly on estimation
instead of accurate statistics. Teacher educa-
tion can help in making the shift from estima-
tion to systematic statistics by emphasizing
statistical courses and training, and by help-
ing people to get, accept, and apply statistics
to know what they need.
2. Manpower force is not distributed all over the
country. "The majority of Jordan's industrial
and professional workers are in Amman and Jerusalem:
indeed, practically all the modern skills of Jordan
are concentrated in these two towns." (11:127)
Redistribution of manpower and labor force all over
the nation is essential for the development and

prosperity of the country. Teacher education can

38

help in the redistribution of manpower by training
people technically and vocationally in many centers
to be distributed in a way to cover most of the
inhabited areas of Jordan. Moreover, building and
cultivating the uncultivated lands to make room for
the increasing number of agriculture laborers is
another task related to teacher education, as well
as to other public and private agencies.

3. Creation of new jobs and the encouragement of invest-
ment in agricultural and industrial projects are
not progressing at the same speed and level as the
population is increasing. Establishing new industries,
especially those industries which are connected with.
and use raw materials available in the country, such
as various fruits, vegetables and phosphate, is of
prime importance to solving, or at least easing,
the problems of unemployment. Training people to
use modern techniques and machines, as well as
emphasizing the role of leadership and membership,
are among tasks connected with teacher education, in
cooperation with other public and private agencies

in the country.
The Standard of Living and Social Welfare

Basic to planning a program for the improvement of teacher
education in Jordan is the consideration of its major economic

and social welfare problems. A discussion of these problems

follows.

39
The Standard of Living

Jordan is in the process of trying to develop more fully
its natural and human resources. This development process
takes time, energy and money to achieve prosperity and pro-
gress. On the basis of per capita income, Hoffman characterizes
the dividing line between developed and underdeveloped coun-
tries by saying,

If you apply the income per capita yardstick, you

discover, of course, that the United States and

Canada and several of the European countries are

at the top of the list with average annual per

capita income between $1,000 and_$2,000, (at

present time between $3,000 and $4,000). We can

safely take a $300 average annual per capita

income as the dividing line between the developed

and underdeveloped countries. (43:46)

The level per capita income in Jordan is estimated to be
$129 (25:295). Among the reasons for such low income per
capita is that the country is not sufficiently industrialized,
depending mainly on agriculture, with emphasis on livestock
production. Harris states that agriculture cannot meet even
the food needs of the country:

Jordan's agriculture cannot at present meet

the food needs of the country's expanded

population: the principal agricultural

products - wheat and livestock - must be

supplemented by imports. (11:121)

Another reason for low income per capita in Jordan is
that natural resources are limited at present. The huge
mineral reservoir of the Dead Sea is not developed and
cultivated properly. According to the Jordanian Government

laboratory analyses, the Dead Sea water contains the follow-

ing minerals:

40

Table 4

Composition of Dead Sea(a)

 

 

 

‘Salts Grams per liter(b)
KCL 10.55
MgBr 5.09
NaCl 74.57
MgCl 117.90
CaC12 33.20
Total salts 242.76 (24:65)

 

(a) Jordan Government laboratory analyses.

(b) sp. gr. 1.75.

Other reasons for low income in Jordan are land tenure
and lack of marketing facilities. Harris adds,

The problems are numerous in Jordan: excessive
fragmentation of the land, a land tenure sys-
tem which discourages improvements, inadequate
seasonal credit, high transportation costs,
poor marketing facilities, low quality and
lack of standardization, primitive methods of
cultivation. Moreover, the country's two

most important crops, wheat and olives - which
can be raised on non-irrigated land - are
subject to extreme fluctuations in price and
production. Scanty and unreliable yields low
produce prices, and high interest rates on
agricultural loans mean that the average
cultivator cannot set aside a surplus to main-
tain himself and his family in the bad years,
to invest in improvements in the good years.
(11:121)

41
Social Welfare

Among the responsibilities of the Jordanian people
and the government is that of providing sufficient funds
for social welfare to help the needy people. The low income
per capita, which is a reason for the low standard of living,
affects social welfare services indirectly: the lower income
per capita, the more the need for social welfare agencies
and activities.

Harris, trying to illustrate the welfare problems in
Jordan, compares the standard of living in the West Bank and
the East Bank by saying,

Jordan's economic problems are reflected in the

general living standard of its population.

Standards of living in turn reflect a consider-

able disparity between the Palestinian segment

of the population and the East Bank residents.

Relatively better educated, to a greater degree

urbanized, and more prosperous, West Bank

Jordanians enjoy living conditions which are

generally superior to those of their compatriots

on the East. Many welfare problems are, however,

shared by both groups, and the situation of the

refugees has severely strained the meager food
resources and welfare facilities of the country

as a whole. (II:179)

Faced with many social problems such as unemployment,
low per capita income, poor working conditions, and the lack
of unemployment insurance, the Jordanian Government is
working hard to overcome social obstacles. In this respect
the Government is encouraging investment, establishing new
industries, opening more schools and institutions and

subsidizing voluntary organizations. Harris, in this concern,

says,

42

The Ministry of Social Affairs encourages and
to some extent subsidizes the work of various
voluntary organizations on which it relies for
the major Part of the country's welfare program.
With the gradual emancipation of women in
Jordan, woman's societies have been increasingly
active in social work, but their efforts are
restricted largely to the towns. In many rural
areas, particularly in East Jordan, traditional
forms of charity and family aid are still the
only source of assistance. (II:182)

In addition, protecting labor and promoting laborer's
welfare is of prime concern to the Jordanian Government.
Among the various provisions of the Constitution of 1952
concerning public welfare are the state's obligation to
provide for minimum working hours, obligations to protect
labor and to establish unemployment insurance. Article 23
of the Jordanian Constitution shows the state's obligations
toward the working class by stating,

1. Every citizen has the right to work, and it is

the duty of the State to provide opportunities
for work for Jordanians by directing the

national economy and raising its standard.

2. The state shall protect labor and legislate for
it with the following principles in view:

(a) The workman's pay shall be proportionate'
to the quality and quantity of work pro-
duced:

(b) Limiting the number of hours work per week
and the grant to laborers of weekly and
yearly holidays with pay:

(c) The fixing of special compensation to work-
men supporting families and on account of
retrenchment, illness, old-age and
emergencies arising out of the nature of
the work:

(d) Defining the special conditions for the
employment of women and juveniles:

(e) Making factories and workshops subject to
health rules:

43

(f) The free formation of trade unions within the
limits of law. (63:529)

Private and voluntary agencies help the Government in
giving aid to workers' families and poor people. In addi-
tion, several reforms are administered directly by the
Government in spite of the tightness of the social welfare
budget. Among them are orphanages, homes for the blind and
for illegitimate children.

The table on the following page illustrates the amount
of foreign aid which helps the Government to face its obli-
gations generally.

Table 5 shows that in 1955, foreign aid was J.D.
l6,530,000.00, of which the main share was paid by the
United Kingdom. Since that year, the share paid by the
United States began to increase, and the U.S. now is a major
contributor in foreign aid to Jordan.

From this discussion of some of the major social pro-
blems in Jordan, implications for teacher education can be
drawn:

1. Speeding up the process of women's emancipation

is a necessary step for developing the country

and sharing in the social work actiVities. Equal
opportunities for both men and women should be
offered in education and public and private work.
Providing educational and work opportunities should
not be restricted to a certain class or area, but
they should cover all people in the whole nation.

Teacher education can help in promoting the process

44

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:msmae passage Hompo
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mmaa sums mmaa mmaa Hmaa omaa

 

 

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n tance

45
of emancipating women by educating groups of people,
men and women, to work in different parts of the
country to help advance the emancipation movement.
Harris emphasizes the emancipation movement by
saying, "Educational and professional opportunities
for girls have been increasing, and the royal family
has set the lead in promoting emancipation of women."
(11:209)
Unemployment creates social, political and economic
problems. Cooperation is needed among the people,
the government and the schools for studying and
planning the needs of the country. Teacher educa-
tion can prepare and train the manpower needed to
assume leadership in this area.
Promoting and improving laborers' social conditions
and salaries by improving their capacity and under-
standing of the work is among teacher education
responsibilities. Special sessions and training
courses should be conducted in factories as well as
in training centers. Preparing qualified teachers
to run the training centers and the sessions should

be among the teacher education functions in Jordan.

CHAPTER III

EDUCATION IN JORDAN

Historical S o sis

In the previous chapter, the historical and cultural
background of Jordan has been discussed. This chapter dis-
cusses the educational process in Jordan including teacher
education and training colleges.

From an historical point of view, a kind of civilization
had begun on the banks of the River Jordan at the dawn of
history. The hills paralleling the River Jordan are the
site where many ancient cities have flourished. Remnants of
the old city of Jericho tell the story of the civilization
which began so early that many historians consider it the
first known civilization found on the earth. Winifred Carr,
in describing the historic tower in Jericho, says, "A massive
stone watch tower, hollowed out inside to hold a staircase of
wide stone steps, lies against the wall, and now that it has
been dug out of the rubble of centuries, looms over the excava-
tions like an ancient threat. It was spell-binding to realize
that this tower was as old to the Egyptians when they started

to build their first pyramid as Stonehenge now is to us."

(7:63)
46

47

Assuming that civilization and education start together,
it is safe to assume that a kind of education had started
early in Jordan and is still going on. The quality and
quantity of education has varied in Jordan from time to time,
and from people to people. This, among other things, has
exposed Jordan to several occupations of the country by
foreigners. The desire of the people to educate their child-
ren according to their own standards to meet the actual needs
of the country has been impeded and denied by foreign control.

The country now known as Jordan was exposed to different
cultures during the Helenic, Roman, Arabic, Turkish, and
finally British occupations. British occupation is well
known for its differentiation between people in Jordan. Prior
to 1950, the people living on the Western Bank enjoyed rela-
tively better education and standards of living than the
people living on the Eastern Bank. The two Banks were unified
in 1950 and since that time the government has attempted to
ameliorate the educational imbalance on the Eastern Bank.

Lengyel depicts the continual denial of the peoples'
rights by foreign control to follow their line of procurring
needed education by saying:

The coreland of the Middle East fell into western

hands in the wake of the first World War. It

was some of the main exponents of western culture,

the French and the British, who ruled over those

regions as mandatory powers under the auspices of

the League of Nations and "protectors.“ Barring

the usual exceptions, they deemed it unwise to

provide the entire population, mainly Arabs and

ethnic minorities with education. Schools were

eye-openers, purveyors of skills that might have
rendered the western powers superfluous. (46:99-100)

48

Few elementary schools were in existence in Jordan dur-
ing the Turkish occupation which ended in 1918. In the
larger towns, only a handful of elementary schools for boys
was maintained, while formal schooling for girls was non-
existent. On the other hand, one of the results of the
British occupation was the disturbing of the educational
balance on the two Banks of Jordan. Harris shows the con-
sequences of the difference in educational opportunities
between the Western Bank and the Eastern Bank by writing,

With the establishment of the Emirate of
Transjordan in 1921 and the British Mandate

in 1922, a small public school system began

to develop under British influence. Far

more extensive and westernized, however, was
the educational system - both public and
private set up under the direct British
Administration of Palestine. This difference
in educational opportunities is reflected
today in a conspicuous disparity between the
educational level of the former Palestinians
and that of East Bank Jordanians. It has also
affected the attitudes of two groups toward
one another. The East Bank residents resent
the fact that Palestinians, because of their
superior qualifications, have been able to
assume coveted positions in government,
business and the professions: the Palestinians
regard the East Bankers with disdain as back-
ward and ignorant people. (11:192-193)

The insight given to the Jordanian educational system
by the Palestinian scholars who had worked in Palestine before
1948, and by a few scholars from the Eastern Bank, led to the
establishment of a new progressive educational system in
Jordan. Subsequently, the Jordanian law helped the expansion
of the new educational system by providing for compulsory educa-
tion for seven years. In addition, foreign aid helped in provid-

ing the necessary funds for more schools and students. It is

49
amazing to know that Jordan, at present, has one of the
highest ratios of the total school enrollment to population
in the Middle East (17.8%). The ratio of pupils in the
elementary schools to population is 13.2%. Table 6, Page
50 illustrates the rapid expansion of enrollment in the public
schools, the private schools and UNESCO-UNRWA schools in
Jordan. It shows that between the scholastic years 1952-53
and 1962-63, the number of students enrolled has been almost
doubled.

Parallel expansion has occurred in teacher training
colleges, commercial, agricultural, industrial and higher
education. Due to the rising demand for higher education,
the Jordanian University was founded in September 1962.

Generally speaking, education is considered an effective
instrument for bringing about the reconstruction and improve-
ment of the social, economic, cultural and political condi-
tions in Jordan. The raising of a new and able generation is
an essential step in the reconstruction and improvement of
the country. The Jordanian government places high priority
on the education of its youth--for the well-educated genera-
tion will be able to use education as a lever for socio-
economic mobility.

Under "Education in Jordan," the Arab Information Center
describes the educational development in Jordan by stating,

{ In the last decade, education in Jordan has

made unprecedented strides. The school

population, the number of teachers and

schools, have more than tripled in ten

years. State elementary and secondary schools
have mushroomed all over the country, reaching

50

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o tance

51
the small distant villages and the Bedouin camps.
Teacher training institutions have been estab-
lished and in-service training courses have
recently been made obligatory and permanent.
New programs are being introduced. More respon-
sibilities in the realm of cultural relations,

bilateral and multilateral cooperation are being
added to the functions of the administration.

(54:77)

In addition to governmental awareness and encouragement,
the Jordanian people themselves are interested in pursuing
education. Even illiterate Bedouin Chieftains, who proceed
along the lines of tribal law, send their sons to study
abroad after finishing high school. This willingness to
pursue higher education is expressed by the Arab Information
Center: "No university graduate was elected to the membership
of the legislative council in 1929, while more than 60% of the
members of the Parliament in recent years were university

graduates. (54:78)

The Current Educational System in Jordan

Objectives of Education

Establishing objectives is an essential step for educa-
tional planning. The objectives of education in Jordan are
explained in the General Law of Education of 1955. Among the
various objectives of the law are forming a consolidated cul-
tural unit in all Arab Countries, propagating culture,
developing fine arts, keeping up to date with world thought,
educating adults, and meeting local needs. According to the
law, the basic task of education, I

. . . (is) to develop the personality of the

citizen, to bring up a generation sound in
body, creed, mind and character which

52

recognizes its duties toward God and the

motherland, and works for the well-being

of the country . . . (54:78)

Administration oprducation

Education in Jordan is a state function. It is financed
through the national budget. The administration of public
schools is centralized under the Ministry of Education located
in Amman, the capital. The Ministry of Education controls A
the appointment and dismissal of teachers through district
offices. It also conducts state examinations, inspection of
schools and development of curricula. Concerning private
schools, the Ministry has the responsibility for supervising
and licensing them. Universal free compulsory education is
provided for seven years. In addition, the government pro-
vides free education from grade one through the university to
many students who prove competent and show self-motivation.

It is estimated that about 15,000 students are studying in
universities abroad, especially in the UAR, Lebanon, Syria,
Iraq, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom and other
countries. About 700 of them are enrolled in American colleges
and universities. (54:81)

From an educational point of view, Jordan is divided into
seven educational districts, with Amman as the center
(Muhafadhat El Asima). Each district has its own office of
education, an inspector and a number of assistants, all
appointed by the Ministry of Education. The educational dis-
tricts are as follows: (1) District of Nablus, (2) District

of Jerusalem, (3) District of Hebron for the West Bank,

53

 

 

 

MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Lebanon
S Y R I A
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. !
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Map 3.

Educational Districts of Jordan.

 

54

(4) District of Ajlun, (5) District of Balqa, (6) District of
Karak, and (7) District of Maan on the East Bank (54:80).
Map 3 illustrates the location of each educational district.

The trend toward a less centralized system of education
is looked upon favorably in Jordan. The educational districts
are charged with responsibilities such as appointment of
teachers and their promotion, establishing new schools, and
adding new classes. More responsibilities in selecting and
preparing textbooks, modifying the curricula and involving
the communities in school activities are among the steps which

should be taken to raise the educational level in Jordan.

ggencies of Education

Educational agencies in Jordan can be classified into
three categories: public schools, private schools and UNRWA-
UNESCO schools.

The public schools are supported by the government.

They are financed by the Ministries of Education, Health,
Agriculture and Social Welfare, and the Department of Wakfs
and Muslim Affairs. The number of students has almost doubled
from 1950 to 1963. According to the Royal Institute of
International Affairs, the number of students in the primary
public schools in 1950 was 71,795. (66:361) By 1963 the
number of students in the primary public schools was 167,701
(see Table 6, page 50).

Private schools, which include national and foreign
schools, were in existence before the establishment of public

schools. They include the Muslim Kuttab as well as a diversity

55

of American, Russian, British, German and other schools
which emphasize the teaching of their respective languages.
UNBWA-UNESCO schools are for the Palestinian children.
It was agreed that educational questions would fall within
the sphere of UNESCO and administrative questions within that
of UNRWA.
Statistics on the work of the three educational agencies

appear in Table 7 on the following page.

The Structure of Education

Figure 1, page 57, presents a general picture of the
structure of education in Jordan.

General education is composed of three cycles: the
elementary, the preparatory and the senior secondary cycles.

The elementary cycle (primary) consists of six years or
grades. When children are six years of age, they are admitted
to elementary classes. However, due to the shortage of
provisions and the crowded classes in densely inhabited urban
areas, such as Amman, Hebron and Hablus, admittance is delayed
until seven. According to the Constitution of 1952, elementary
education is free and compulsory for Jordanians. In fact,
". . . all education in the state system is free except for a
nominal annual scholastic contribution which students pay
toward the enrichment of school libraries, laboratories, and
toward the promotion of extracurricular activities.” (5h:80)

The program of studies for the elementary classes

comprises Arabic, (the mother language), English (introduced

56

 

 

 

 

 

 

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57

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a Higher Education

fl. 2 Polytechnic
It T. '1‘. College .
[—1— owner-
'— cial
l6

'5

-- Secondary Cycle

I!

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12

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3. 4

— Elementary Cycle

8 3 (Compulsory)

7 2

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Figure 1. The Educational Ladder in Jordan.

58
in the fifth elementary year), arithmetic, history, and
geography of the Arab world, civics, religious instruction,
nature study, hygiene and physical training. Promotion from
the elementary cycle to the next cycle, the preparatory cycle,
depends upon the child passing the elementary public state
examination.

The preparatory cycle is the equivalent of junior high
school in the United States. Students who pass the elementary
public state examination are eligible to enroll in the
preparatory cycle. subjects offered in the preparatory cycle
are parallel to those offered in the elementary with emphasis
upon vocational training. At the end of the last year of the
preparatory school (ninth grade), students must pass the
preparatory public state examination to be eligible for the
preparatory cycle diploma and to be admitted to the following
cycle, the senior secondary cycle.

The senior secondary cycle is three years long. This

cycle is an equivalent of the senior high school in the United
States. In this cycle the students have the choice of going
either to the grammar branch or to the vocational branch which
includes commercial, agricultural and industrial training.
At the end of the last year, students who pass the examina-
tion of the senior secondary cycle qualify for admittance to
teacher training colleges or to universities inside and outside
Jordan (see Figure 1, page 57).

Before September 1962, students who passed the examination

of the senior secondary cycle were sent to complete their

59

higher education abroad. In view of the rising need for

higher education and specialization, the Ministry of Education,
together with the Supreme Council of Education, founded the
University of Jordan in September 1962. This university is
located on 150 acres of land near the capital of Jordan,

Amman. The newly established university commenced its activities
with the faculties of arts, including the departments of history,
geography, Arabic, English, archaeology and psychology. In

July 1966, the University of Jordan graduated its first class

of some 165 students. Many of them are continuing their

higher specialization in the United States.

Plans for expanding facilities of the University of
Jordan are envisaged. Among those facilities are departments
of science, commercial economics, agriculture, engineering and
medicine.

Facing the problem of unemployment, especially among the
graduates of the academic schools who apply for white collar
jobs, the Ministry of Education in Jordan recently took steps
to overcome the emphasis on academic training and introduced
more technical courses adapted to the expanding industrial
needs of Jordan and the neighboring countries. One-fifth of
the weekly program in the preparatory schools is now adapted
to prevocational training, domestic science and homemaking in
girls' schools, handicraft, technical and commercial courses
in urban schools, and agricultural work in school gardens of
rural schools. New technical schools have been established.

Students are admitted to vocational schools after the completion

60
of the preparatory cycle. More technical and agricultural
secondary schools are planned. The $56; Year Plan" envisages
the establishment of one agricultural school and one technical
school in each district. Commercial departments in the
present urban secondary schools are being established on a
large scale. (5&z82)

On examining the educational ladder of Jordan (Figure 1),
one might notice that there are technical secondary schools
for industry, agriculture and commerce as well as grammar
secondary schools. After the completion of the preparatory
cycle, students are eligible for admission to one of the tech-
nical schools which emphasize the practical approach rather
than the theoretical one. There are three trade schools and
one agricultural school offering their courses for three years

beyond preparatory (junior high) school.
Teacher Education

Teacher Training Colleges

It has been mentioned that there are three educational
cycles in Jordan: the elementary (primary) cycle consisting
of six grades; the preparatory (Junior high) cycle consisting
_of three grades; and the senior secondary (senior high) cycle
consisting of three years. At the end of each cycle there
is a public state examination. Those who pass the last
examination of the senior secondary (senior high) cycle,
qualify for admittance to the University of Jordan; to
universities outside Jordan: or to teacher training colleges

of which there are five in Jordan. The five teacher training

61
institutions offer a two-year course beyond the completion of
the senior secondary high school. Table 8, page 62, shows
teacher training colleges in Jordan and their enrollments.

The present teacher training institutions and scholar-
ship programs are not sufficient to produce enough teachers
to fill the newly established posts and to meet the needs of
the annual turnover resulting from teachers leaving the coun-
try to work in the neighboring Arab countries, especially in
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The annual shortage is met by the
employment of secondary high school graduates and summer in-
service training programs.

Table 8 shows that the number of students expected to
graduate from teacher training colleges during 1962-63 was
#20, about one hundred of them female. This is, by far, less
than the required number of teachers needed in public schools
in Jordan. More efforts should be made to increase the number
of female graduates to fill vacancies in various schools,
especially in girls' schools. This in turn requires more
training colleges and centers to be opened and more teachers
and experts to be employed. Little change has occurred in
curricula and methods of learning. The Report submitted to
the International Yearbook of Education by the Jordanian
Ministry of Education states,

The number of teacher training institutions

remained the same as last year, but they have

almost doubled their enrollment since 1960,

without any change in curricula or methods

of learning. The Ministry of Education will

supervise the new rural teacher's college
for women in Ajloan, in the northern part

62

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63
of the Kingdom, as soon as the building is
completed. UNESCO will take part in the
implementation of this project. This
school is part of the general plan adopted

by the Ministry of Education to widen the
scope of rural education. (56:207-8) (582183)

Illiteracy and Teacher Education

Illiteracy is another problem which should be discussed
in regard to educational as well as social prdblems. Illit-
eracy limits the ability of individuals for earning a living,
especially when one considers the fact that today's living is
in the ”Space Age.“ An illiterate person finds difficulty in
adjusting himself and living happily in a literate society.
For the abovementioned reasons, the writer will discuss illit-

eracy under a separate heading.

Illiteracy

It is difficult to secure accurate statistics about
illiteracy in Jordan, but it is possible to gain some estimate
from figures given in various reports dealing with different
phases. Mannin, in showing the educational progress in Jordan,

says .

In the seven years from 1952 to 1959 a hundred
thousand new pupils had been enrolled in the
Government schools, an increase of 215 percent.
During the same period the increase in the
number of teachers employed in the Government
schools increased 277 percent. (These figures
do not include the 90,000 children from the refugee
camps in the UNRHA schools, which employ approxi-
mately 2,000 teachers). Point IV has assisted
the Government in its educational program,
technically and financially. (173182-183)

on

From what mannin reports, a decrease in the percentage
of illiteracy can be expected in the near future. Still,
the percentage of illiteracy may be estimated at present to
be between ho and 50 percent. This high percentage presents
a considerable obstacle to national development, and adds
to the economic and social problems, in addition to being a
barrier to needed progress and change.

Although education in Jordan has made unprecedented
strides by tripling the number of schools, teachers and the
schools' population in the last twenty years, the rate of
illiteracy still is high when compared with the rates of
illiteracy in the developed countries. Illiteracy in Jordan
is contributing to the existence of superstitious ways of
thinking and of undesirable attitudes. such as accepting
poverty, illness and hunger as fate, or believing in evil
and bad spirits, and the substituting of passive talk for
action. Improving teacher education in Jordan is one step
to help reduce illiteracy and move the country along the
lines of progress.

Implications of the above problems for teacher education
include 8

l. Emphasizing and encouraging the involvement of all

people in educational and social activities,
practically as well as theoretically.

2. Emphasizing learning experiences which help in

recognizing the relationship between ”cause and

effect.”

3.

65
Emphasizing action as much as posSible. ”Now the
problem is not the talk. It is, rather the
inability to move from talk to action.” (10:28#)
One of the prime goals of teacher education in
Jordan should be to help teachers and students to
“move from intelligent talk to intelligent action.
The gulf between talk and deed must be bridged."
(103285)
Encouraging educational planning to be a cooperative
process in which teachers, administrators, and
people should cooperate. ”Planning must flow both
ways - from.the top down, and from the bottom up.
The full human resources of the educational estab-
lishment must be used. If this is done, the planners
will be better planners and the teachers, better

teachers.” (103287)

CHAPTER IV

REVIEW 0? LITERATURE ON TEACHER EDUCATION

In the previous chapter a general idea about education
in Jordan has been given. In this chapter. emphasis is put
upon the research which has been done on teacher education
outside Jordan.

The following review of research of teacher education
in general has applicability in Jordan.

Butts writes under the heading, 'Teacher Education:

A Focal Point,’ "Above all, we must view the education of
teachers as belonging at the very heart of any human resource
development plan.” (383372)

Dean Rusk* in 'Address at the Policy Conference on
Economic Growth and Investment in Education' says, "Education
is not a luxury which can be afforded after development (of
a country) has occurred; it is an integral part, an inescap-
able and essential part, of the development process itself.”
(18:28)

The importance of education in the development process

is obvious when it is channeled to serve and achieve the needs

 

*Dean Rusk, ”Address at the Opening Session at the
Department of State Policy Conference of Economic Growth and
Investment in Education,” (Paris Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development Publications.) February, 1962,
PP. 12-200 66

67
of a country and a society. The teacher is considered the
focal point in the educational process. He disseminates
information and knowledge, helps establish attitudes and
develop appreciations. Hence, the role of the teacher in
the development process is an important and essential one.
”And in the underdeveloped economics, education itself
, stimulates development by diplomatically demonstrating that
tomorrow need not be the same as yesterday, that change can
take place, that the outlook is hopeful.” (b9.31)

Four areas of research literature seem applicable to
this study. These areas include: (a) professional com-
petence in teaching including knowledge of theories of learn-
ing, teaching experience and evaluation, (b) the characteris-
tics of the curriculum designed to produce competent, profes-
sional teachers, (c) the nature of educational centers in
which professional study occurs, (d) formulation of criteria
related to developing an improved and functional program of

teacher education.

Professional Competence in Teaching

 

Professional competence in teaching is of prime impor-
tance in a discussion of teacher education. Masoner describes
the ”markS" of professional competence in teaching by saying,

Basic to professional competence in teaching
are the marks of the liberally educated man
--a broad and comprehensive acquaintance with
the learning that man has accumulated, a free-
dom from the limitations of ignorance and
fear, the capacity to think logically and
clearly, and the ability to make wise deci-
sions. Enually important is a real depth

68

of learning in those fields of knowledge
for which the teacher assumes a special
responsibility. To teach, one must know
that which he teaches. (18:11-12)

Stratemeyer and Lindsey explain what is professional educa-
tion and competence in teaching by saying,

By professional education (and competence
in teaching) is meant those planned
experiences dealing directly with the
teachrng-learning process and the teacher's
work related to the guidance of that pro-
cess. These will include, in almost all
programs, systematic study of (1) human
growth and development, (2) the nature of
learning process, (3) selection and organiza-
tion of curriculum experience, (#) history
and philosophy of education, and (5) gen-
eral and special methods of teaching.
(29:27-28)

Kenworthy adds a new dimension to the professional
competency of teachers by emphasizing an education for world-
mindedness and for world-citizenship. He says, '. . . It
is the teacher who is the keystone of any education enter-
prise and it is with the teacher that efforts in building
one World must begin.“ (16:5)

In fact, the pressure and demand for a kind of interna-
tional teacher is steadily increasing. The world is shrink-
ing and distances are decreasing in all dimensions. It is a
matter, nowadays. of a few seconds to listen to and see what
is happening all over the world: the race is intensified for
reaching the moon by the end of the sixties.

The times, then demand a new type of teacher

--one who thinks in terms, not only of the

school, the local community, and the nation,

but the world: one who thinks and acts not

only with a knowledge of the past and present,
but with a view to the future: one who thinks

69

and acts with the realization that we are
living in the second half of the twentieth
century and in a revolutionary era: one who
influences persons and policies in the
classroom and outside the classroom.as a
teacher and as a citizen. (16:6)

Another dimension, a kind of a general education for
teachers, is stressed by Butterweck, Director of ”Pilot Study
1” of an ”Experimental Program.in Teacher Education.” He
says, “The teachers like the physicians and dentists, must
attend a clinic where new ideas can be obtained and old
ideas revised.” Butterweck adds,

.A symposium.in education where authorities
expound and a coordinator helps to enlighten
and where the teacher tests the new found
professional knowledge with his peers, will
become a necessary form of general education
to which every teacher needs occasional
exposure. (5:19)

General education is considered an integral part of
teacher education programs for professional competency in
teaching. Stratemeyer and Lindsey show the relationship of
the goals of general education programs to those of teacher

education by saying,

The goals of general education programs not
only are consistent with those of teacher
education, but are of importance to every
future teacher. Illustrative of the

stated goals of many general education
programs are these: (1) to assist each
student in the development of physical and
mental well-being: (2) to help each student
master the art and skills of communication:
(3) to aid each student in.deepening his
understanding of our culture, its institu-
tions and values, its relation to other
cultures of the world-~past and present--
its current problems and its future hopes:
(A) to help each student acquire the values
and sensitivities which contribute to

7O

intelligent citizenship in a democracy: and

(5) to provide each student with opportunities to

acquire basic acquaintance with the bodies of

human knowledge as they relate to understand-

ing, meeting, and dealing effectively with

social and personal prdblems. (29:25-26)

In summarizing what kind of teacher is needed at present,
Butterweck lists the following:

we want a teacher who:

1. Has a wholesome influence on children

2. Has an effective body of knowledge in some
comprehensive field of interest to adolescents

3. Can challenge them (students) to their best
effort

4. Bespects their peculiar sensitivities

5. Is actively interested in the world in
which he lives. (5:20)

To acquire professional competence in teaching, in
addition to a wide field of knowledge, teachers should know
learning theories including reinforcement, generalization,
discrimination, transfer of learning, concept formation and
development, and motivation. In addition, teachers should
have experience and know-how to evaluate themselves and the

students.

Learnipg Theories
Jordan relies upon UNESCO and other international

agencies for furnishing what a country needs of experts and
specialists in various fields, including education. Teachers
are recruited usually from the high school graduates. Recently,
in an effort to raise the standard of education, the Ministry
of Education in Jordan, with the help of the international

71
agencies, such as UNESCO and UNBWA, has built and equipped
a few teacher training colleges, and sent a number of students
abroad for furthering their higher education and training.
These students are to return to serve as a ferment for the
improvement of the educational standard in Jordan.

There are a variety of learning theories such as the
cognitive learning theory, the learning theory of personality
and the conditioning theory of learning. Still, another theory
is ”self actualization,” which has been emphasized by Kelly,
Maslow and Rogers in the yearbook, 1962, Perceivin Behavin ,
Becoming. (36).

.A few general principles of learning are accepted by all
or most of the theorists and experts in learning. Hilgard,
in this concern, mentions the following:

While each major theorist believes his con-

cepts to be the appropriate ones, their

propriety often depends upon that theorist's

interest, primarily in some segment or aspect

of the total learning situation. Some are

interested in the initial adjustment, as in

insight or problem.solving, others are interested

in improvement with practice as in rote memoriz-

ing, others are interested in the predictability

of performance under varied conditions of moti-

vation, and so on. (13:326)

In spite of the above statement, the writer believes
that reviewing learning principles, which are agreeable to
most learning theorists, will offer helpful suggestions for
improving teacher education. The areas which will be reviewed
by the writer are the following: (1) reinforcement: (2) gen-
eralization, discrimination and transfer of learning:

(3) development and concept formation: and (h) motivation.

72
1. Reinforcement:

There are two types of reinforcement: to reward and
reinforce a desirable behavior to be repeated sufficient
times to be learned, or to punish.an undesirable type of
performance to help in its abandoning and acquiring desir-
able types of behavior.

Travers explains reinforcement by saying,

The law of reinforcement states that a
reinforcer which follows a behavior increases
the probability of the occurrence of that
behavior. (32:75)

Hull states the effects of reinforcement in different
words, but with similar meaning to those of Travers and
Hilgard:

The effect of reinforcement may become
manifest in overt action upon the presenta-
tion of the associated stimulus at any time
during the subsequent life of the organism.
This central fact shows conclusively that
reinforcement leaves within the organism.a
relatively permanent connection between the
receptor and the effector associated in the
original reinforcement. (15:11?)

Thorndike shows the influence of rewards and punish-
ments by saying,

Rewards and punishments alike will teach
by virtue of the conditions and activities
which they produce in the animal. Rewards
in general tend to maintain and strengthen
any connection which leads to them. Pun-
ishments often, but not always, tend to
shift from it to something else, and their
education value depends on what this some-
thing else 18. (31:27?)

It is commonly agreed that behavior which shows action
in a particular direction, indicating choice, and, in a
particular direction, it indicates a certain amount of

73
persistence. The continuation of choice and persistence
depend upon the consequence of the behavior. The conse-
quence is the event which follows the response. Empirically,
we might say, that if a consequence increases the likelihood
of response, than it is reward. According to Thorndike,

The influence of rewards and punishments

is of enormous practical importance. If the

facts which we have presented are accurate

and if the conclusions which we have drawn

from them are correct, the cause or causes

of the favorable influence of a satisfier are

also of great theoretical importance since

they presumably operate in all selective

processes, including problem-solving and

reasoning. (31:313)

For more details about reward and punishment, the reader
is referred to the studies by Mowrer (21), Estes (bl),
Skinner (51), Prince (#7), and Weiss (3A).

The principles on reward and punishment stated above
have the following implications for teaching and teacher
education:

1. A variety of learning experiences are essential

in teaching and in teacher education to provide
a sense of success to every individual.

2. Reward and feedback should be provided for during
the teaching process and learning experiences. It
is an effective factor in shaping behavior.

3. Reinforcement of response immediately is a decisive
factor in making it successful.' The teacher must
reward the response as soon as possible after it
happens. By anticipating the right time of the

response, the teacher can avoid having the learner

7#
get tired of the task and the reinforcers, or
forgettlng the important responses.

2. Generalization, Discrimination, and Transfer of Learning:
While the learner must generalize from one stimulus
situation to another and respond as he did in the first situa-

tion, he must also be aware of how much the situation may
differ before he uses another response. In other words, the
learner must discriminate between the situations by noting
differences and similarities of attributes. Traverse says.

Without stimulus generalization, the living creature

would learn to respond only to the specific situations

in which learning occurred. If the child learned to

say "boy“ when the printed word ”BOY” was written on

the blackboard, then, without stimulus generalization,

he would not be able to make the same response if the

word were written smaller or in different type.

Stimulus generalization permits the learner to .

respond to a wide range of stimuli as though they

were all the same. Thus, what is learned in one

situation can be applied in other situations, even

though they may differ. (32:122)

Travers further says, "Stimulus generalization represents
one of the most important means whereby the skills learned
can be applied to new and similar situations.” (32:503)

In speaking of negative transfer Travers says, “Negative
transfer is most likely to occur in those situations in which
the stimuli are the same as those previously encountered but
the responses required are different." (32:504)

Concerning response generalization, Hull states, ”The
stimulus involved in the original conditioning becomes connected
with a considerable zone of reactions other than, but related
to, the reaction conventionally involved in the original
reinforcement: this may be called response generalization.“

(15:183)

75

The principles above have the following implications

to teacher education:

1.

2.

3.

The teacher must be able to discriminate between
the situation in a learning process setting by
noting differences and similarities of attitudes,
before making generalization from one stimulus
situation to another.

Emphasizing principles and their application is an
essential task of the teacher. Travers says, “Many
teachers make the error of citing numerous facts
without ever indicating that each is an example of
the same underlying principle. But the statement
of the principle is not enough. Pupils must also
have the opportunity of practicing the use of the
principle with a variety of problem situations.”
(32:216) '

In planning a curriculum.for teacher education,
emphasis should be put upon structure, willtngness
to learn, grasping general principles and concepts
rather than facts. Bruner writes, ”Mastery of the
fundamental ideas of a field involves not only the
grasping of general principles, but also the develop-
ment of an attitude toward learning and inquiry,
toward guessing and hunches, toward the possibility

of solving problems on one's own.” (#:20)

3. Concept Formation and Development:

30

There is evidence that learning and concept formation
occur slowly in early childhood, then build up rapidly

76
upon the bases of early learning. Mendick.writes.
”When a child first learns to say the word “doggie,”
he usually applies it to horses, cows, and cats.
Bit by bit, after many corrections and reinforce-
ments, he may begin to restrict his usage to dogs
he regularly encounters even though he may wonder
about chihuahuas and wolves. He is learning a type
of categoryenaming called concept formation.”
(19:63)

b. Concerning ability to learn Travers says, ”The
ability to learn increases up to the early adult
years.” (32:50?) Travers adds, ”Sudden insight into
the solution of a prdblem occurs in those situations
in.which the learner has had extensive previous
experience with related problems and with trans-
ferring what he has learned to new, but related,
problems.“ (32:50?)

c. Learning may be graded from the simple to the complex.

Motivation

Motivation is considered among the cornerstones of the
learning-teaching process. It is not sufficient to acquire
knowledge. Without motivation, the learner will not acquire
more and more knowledge to satisfy his needs. Motivation
helps in acquiring knowledge and strengthening one's ability
to learn.

Sears and Hilgard stress the importance of social motives

in education and the learning process by saying,

77

Social motives have to do with one's relation-
ships to other people. The desire to affiliate
with others is one class of dependable human
motivational disposition found in parent-child
relations, friendships, and as an important
aspect of sex and marriage. (26:18A)

Studies by Gewirtz (#2), Rosenblith (#8), Murray (22),

and Bull (15) support Sears and Hilgard concerning the

importance of motivation in education and the learning

process.

Some statements on theories of learning upon which the

majority of theorists would agree are given by Murray:

1.

2.

3.

A.

5.

9.

10.

11.

The capacity of the learner is very important
for deciding what can be learned.

The motivated learner acquires learning better
than the non-motivated.

Motivation which is too intense, especially fear,
pain, anxiety, may be accompanied by distracting
emotional states.

Learning with reward is usually preferable to
learning under punishment .

Learning with intrinsic motivation is preferable
to extrinsic motivation.

Tolerance for failure is best taught by a backlog
of successes.

Individuals need practice in setting realistic
goals.

Personal history of the individual may increase
or decrease ability to learn from a given teacher.

Active participation by the learner is preferable
to passive.

Meaningful material and tasks are learned more
readily than nonsense material, and tasks which
are not understood.

There is no substitute for repeated practice:
a) in learning skills: b) in learning facts which
are unrelated.

12.

13.

1h.

78

Information about the nature of a good performance,
knowledge of mistakes, and knowledge of successful
results aid learning.

Transfer will be better if: a) the learner discovers
relations for himself: b) the learner has experience
in applying principles with a variety of tasks.

Spaced or distributed recalls are advantageous for
longer retension. (22:93)

The above principles of learning theories have the follow-

ing implications for teacher education:

1.

3.

4.

Since learning may be graded from simple to complex
in a continuous manner, it would be convenient and
advisable to plan learning experiences in such a

way as to allow continuity of progression.

Since ability to learn increases up to early adult-
hood stages, teacher education should be planned in
such a way that it will be convenient to all people
participating in it.

Since people live in different environments, a
variety of teacher education activities and require-
ments should be provided to meet differences in
people's backgrounds and needs. as well as the needs
of various aspects of living.

Learners come to school with many previously learned
concepts. Selecting appropriate content and arrang-
ing the sequence of instruction to meet individual
differences is a vital step to improving the process

of learning and teacher education in Jordan.

79
Types of Teaching Experiences for Training Teachers

Troyer and Pace summarize kinds of student teaching
programs by saying,

Student teaching programs, of course, vary
greatly from institution to institution.

There are variations in the place where
practice teaching is done in a campus

school, in local public schools, in out-
of-town schools. There are variations

in the time when practice teaching comes in
the last part of the year prior to certifica-
tion, in the junior year, or it may be distrib-
uted over a two or even a four-year period.
There are differences in the variety of situa-
tions in teaching which the student obtains
practice, it may be confined to a single grade
in a single school or distributed among several
grades in different schools. (52:179)

Another idea concerning student teaching experience is
expressed by Moffitt:

Teachers of our time and those in the future
must accept this unparalleled opportunity (in-
service training) for professional growth as they
teach. To do otherwise could be to threaten the
expanding ideals of this democracy. The
sensitivity of teachers to the array of prdblems
with which they are confronted may be noted by
their eagerness for continuous growth. It
therefore appears safe to conclude that the
quality of any school system may largely be
determined by the quality of the in-service
educational pro s involving the total profes-
sional staff. 20:8)

A third opinion comes from Hodenfield and Stinnett:

There is great variety in the student-teaching
practices of the l,l#7~teacher education
institutions across the country, (USA) as
reflected in a survey by the National Council
for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)
from the 1927-1958 academic year. The survey
included 29 of the institutions accredited by
the council. It showed that the predominant
practice among the 29% institutions is to con-
duct their student-teaching programs in off-
campus schools. The next largest group used

80

a combination of campus and off-campus schools,

and the lastdused procedure was to use campus

schools exclusively. (14:86)

W

Due to the difficulty in evaluating performances of
teachers there is little agreement among authorities who
have written on this topic. The following are some quota-
tions of what has been said on evaluation ofteaching
practices.

Troy and Pace in describing evaluation say, “Evaluation
is most helpful in.stimulating teacher growth when it focuses
on problems about which the teachers are personally concerned--
their effectiveness in class, their relationships with pupils,
their own programs, their part in the life of the school and
community. Teachers grow in effectiveness as they participate
fully and freely in attacks on such problems.“ (52:305)

Moffitt shows the difficulty of evaluating teaching
practices by saying, "The real fact is that teaching is dif-
ferent from.working on a production line where articles or
produce in packages can be counted and where any deviation
from the standard article is a sign of defect. Education is
both.a process and, in a sense, an end. Education seems to
make people alike and to make them.different. Consequently,
any evaluation or rating program intended to improve the
quality of teaching will be confronted with problems which
are not present in the production of material goods.“ (20:102)

In discussing the importance of the relationship between

theory and practice in teacher education Troyer and Pace say,

81

Evaluation of what students learn in courses

of professional and general education is not

complete until we have determined how well

they can use their knowledge and insight in

their own teaching.‘ The building of close

relationships between theory and practice

has been increasingly a major objective of

programs of teacher education. (52:179)

Nevertheless, in spite of the difficulties, evaluation
should take place at all stages of the education process.

After reviewing some of the studies and research con-
cerning professional competence in teaching, it is desirable
to review the characteristics of the curriculum which is

designed to produce competent teachers.

Some Characteristics of the Curriculum
Designed to Produce Competent Professional Teachgzg

It is not easy to state or to know the characteristics
of the curriculum.which is designed to produce competent
professional teachers because there are differences among
authorities concerning the definition of competency and the
meaning of a competent teacher.

Stratemeyer and Lindsey stress that in spite of the
diversity of teacher education, common elements are to be
found in most programs. Among them are general education,
specialization and professional education (29:25). According
to Stratemeyer and Lindsey the curriculum.designed to produce
competent professional teachers should include content and
laboratory experience. Content of the professional curriculum
includes studying children and the community, planning instruc-
tion, participating in curriculum.planning, organizing

82
instruction, evaluating students' growth, participating in
school management, studying the broader problems of the
profession, developing good human relationships and planning
for professional growth (29.43-u6). Among the principles
which should govern professional laboratory experiences are
these: .

A. Professional laboratory experience should be an
integral part of the total program of teacher
education.

B. The needs of the students determine the length
and nature of the professional laboratory
experience.

C. Professional laboratory experience should be
cooperatively planned by all people involved in
the experience.

D. During laboratory period, persons involved in
laboratory experiences are responsible for provid-
ing guidance for students.

E. Responsible people should provide for evaluating
students' growth. (29:46-52)

Masoner in trying to state what the characteristics of

teacher-training curriculum are, writes,

Essential to the best development of the curric-

ular pattern described is a true integration of

liberal and professional studies. This is not a

program divided into discrete academic and profes-

sional segments. It is rather, a total educa-

tional experience leading to entry into the

teaching profession, a unified experience in

which liberal education, study in the behavioral
sciences, exploration of a teaching field in

83

depth, and professional study and practical

experience are truly related and play an

important role in the development of a

competent professional teacher. (18:27-28)

Beggs emphasizes the blending of theory and practice
in teacher education by saying, ”Through a careful blend-
ing of campus and field experiences, the line that divides
theory and practicum should be erased as nearly as possible.?
(3:108-109)

Ryans stresses the relationship of media communication
to teacher education by saying, ”In the future, much heavier
demands may be placed upon those persons in our culture
traditionally known as teachers or instructors as they
become scholars, programmers and controllers, both of the
information to be communicated and of the channels (i.e.

media) of communication.“ (50:191-223) .
8 Butte and Russell express what they would like the
undergraduate education of teachers to include: a broad
education in the liberal arts and sciences, competence in
a major field of learning, and professional competence in
education. They feel, “Elementary school teachers and
secondary school teachers should not be segregated into
different types of institutions of university level standard.
Both should have similar preparation in the liberal arts
and sciences and in the foundations of education.” (38:56-57)

These ideas concerning a program designed to produce
competent professional teachers have the following implica-

tions for the characteristics of the curriculum of teacher

84

education:

1.

2.

3.

Theory and practice should go hand in hand in
teacher education.

Living in a changing world, the teacher should

be prepared to meet those changes by being well
informed, by using the best known research, by
using good modern equipment and materials for
instruction.

Preparation in the liberal arts, sciences and in
the "foundations of education” are not sufficient
to make a competent teacher. ”He must build a
profession into which persons will be admitted
upon the basis of approved standards of competence.
These standards must be demonstrated in performances,

not in training alone.“ (#6:6)

The Nature of Educational Centers
in Which Professional §tugy Occurs

The nature of the teacher education institution affects

the educational development of the teacher and the curriculum,

in addition to its effects on the nature and climate of the

learning process. Masoner maintains,

If an institution is engaged in the prepara-
tion of teachers, there should be a commitment
by the institution to a program of high
quality--one that reveals a concern not only
for the preparation of teachers and other
professional workers in education, but also
for research designed to bring new knowledge
to educational problems, for study intended

to bring about the development and

85

dissemination of improved concepts and practices
in teacher education, and in education generally,

and for the provision of consultative services to
educational institutions in the interest of
lmprovlng educational programs and practices.
18:31

Hanson and Brembeck in describing the functions of
educational centers and what schools should aim to do in
underdeveloped nations note,

First and foremost, the schools of the nation
must foster a spirit of innovation in their
students - a desire to try out, to experiment,
to create. Progress is never made by stand-
ing still, but by developrng the new.

Second, the schools will need to share in
developing a new spirit of adventuring. The
traditional attitudes, the clerical mentality
which finds it most acceptable to seek the
security of a government office, must give way
among an increasing number to a willingness
to take a chance to strike out on one's own,
if economic growth is to be rapid.

Third, a healthy attitude_toward productive
labour, toward doing a technical job, toward
getting one's hands dirty in the process of
creating or discovering or doing, needs to be
restored. '(10:36)

The “Report" of the International Bank emphasizes the
adaptation of teacher training to regional requirements by
saying,

Regular teacher training in normal annual
courses should be expanded from year to
year, and the institution of additional

full teacher training schools should cer-
tainly not be neglected. At the same time,
their character should be adapted to
regional requirements, which.means that most
of them must be of the rural type. (56:311)

Along with teacher education, intensive research in

social, psychological and cultural problems should be taken

86
into consideration. In addition, consultation services to
improve and help in developing and improving educational
programs and practices should be provided. Hanson and
Brembeck emphasize the importance of studying and understand-
ing the principals of social aims of education:

Obviously this national purpose requires direct
attention by the schools and the courses of
study to the principal social aims of education:
(1) It demands increased attention to the civic
and political needs of the nations, to develop-
ing new attitudes toward government and law, to
concern with effective participation in the
political process, to placing national interests
and well being above narrow tribal or local
interests. (2) It demands increased attention
to the social and personal needs of the nation,
to improving the health.and the well-being of
the people, to solving problems of mental and
physical health as they arise, to maintaining
the individual's self-respect and self-
confidence in new surroundings, to relating

the new cities with the rural communities in a
spirit of partnership, to increasing rather than
breaking down the respect of different age groups
for one another. (3) It demands increased atten-
tion to the economic and technological needs of
the nation, to selecting and educating qualified
individuals for high-level positions, to equip-
ping technical and agricultural manpower with
skills that will produce maximum efficiency in
using natural resources, to developing a new
spirit of economic innovations, and to building
new attitudes toward saving, investment and
purchasing. (10:33-34)

Schools have impacts upon teachers. The success or
failure of teachers is determined, among other things, by
the atmosphere the administration provides. Butterweck
illustrates the impacts of schools upon teachers by listing
the following points:

1. Faith shown by the administration in the ability

of teachers, thereby giving them a feeling of
importance.

2. The size of the classes.

87

3. The type of community in which the school
is located (city, suburban, small town, rural).

h. The socio-economic rating of the community.
5. The overall opportunities that the school provides
to insure the possibility of success to new teachers.
(5:85)
Since educational centers are of great importance to
teacher education, great care should be expressed in select-

ing and constructing them.

Formulating Criteria Related to Developing
an Improved and Functional Program of Teacher Education

W

In formulating objectives, the following criteria
should be considered:

1. Are the objectives attainable in the time allocated

to the training centers?

Some objectives might require the student teacher to
master some instrumental skills, such as feeding a computer
or repairing a machrne, which are difficult for physical
development and coordination, or they might deal with con-
cepts which cannot be conceptualized easily in the time and
facilities allocated. Paychology of learning provides some
ideas as the attainability of certain objectives. Tyler
states that ”a knowledge of the psychology of learning
enables us to distinguish goals that are feasible from those
that are likely to take a very long time or are almost
impossible to attain at the age level contemplated." (33:23)

88

2. Are the objectives desirable?

Desirable objectives in terms of a set of values are
derived from the values of the culture of the people. The
major values and beliefs of the Jordanian culture are
stated in the national constitution which in turn reflects,
to a certain extent, the way of thinking of people in Jordan,
their behavior, and other cultural values. Facing the
various problems discussed in the previous chapter, the
Jordanian people are trying to build their country on the
foundation of principles derived from the needs of the
country and the amalgamation of various people of both the
West and East Banks of the Jordan River. These principles

include:

a. a belief in freedom.
The state shall insure the free exercise
of all form of worship and religious
rites in accordance with the custom
observed in the Kingdom, subject only
to the maintenance of public order and
morals. Freedom of opinion is safe-
guarded and every Jordanian is free to
express his opinion verbally and in
writing and in other forms of expression
within the limits of the law. (6#:538)

b. a belief in equality.
No discrimination of any kind shall be
made before the law between Jordanians
in regard to their rights and obliga-
tions, on the grounds of race, religion
or language. (6#:537-538)

c. a belief in democracy.
The people shall be the source of all
powers. The people shall exercise,
those powers in the form prescribed by
the constitution. (6#:5#0)

d. a belief in Arab unity.
. . . The people of Jordan form a part
of the Arab Nation. (6#:537)

89

e. a belief in the United Nations.
In addition to the fact that Jordan
is a member of the Arab League, it is
also a member of the United Nations and
other international agencies, such as
UNESCO, UNICEF and others.

3. .Are the objectives clearly defined in terms of
behavioral change in the student teacher?

Tyler defines learning as a change of behavior by
saying, '

Education is a process of changing the

behavior patterns of people. This is

using behaviOr in the broad sense to

include thinking and feeling as well as

overt action. When education is viewed

in this way, it is clear that educational

objectives, then present the kinds of

changes in behavior that an educational

institution seeks to bring about in its

students. A study of the learners them-

selves would seek to identify needed

changes in behavior patterns of the

students which the educational institu-

.tion should seek to produce. (33:h)

The objectives should be stated from the student teacher's
point of view, rather than of teacher behavior only.

h. Can the attainment of the desired behavior be

evaluated?

If a specific behavior, such as counting from one to
ten, cannot be evaluated or observed, then it is difficult
to know whether the desired behavior is attained or not. In
such a case, neither the teacher nor the student knows what
to do next. The belief that any educational outcome should

be evaluated is a necessary step to know whether the desired
behavior is attained.

90

5. {Are the Objectives broad enough to specify all

the important aspects of the terminal behavior
of the student teacher?

6 Objectives dealing with mastery of principles, concepts,
and facts only, such as memorizing the atomic theory, are not
sufficient objectives. Objectives should be comprehensive
and adequate in view of the educational philosophy of the
school system, and include less tangible objectives such as
scientific thinking and scientific attitudes, as well as
tangible ones such as geometrical facts.

6. Are the objectives developmental?

Objectives should represent roads to travel on, rather
than terminal points. This suggests that different objectives
at different levels should contribute to the growth and
development of the student teacher. Each objective might
aim at the development of such skills as the formulation of
hypotheses, the collection of data, reaching conclusions,
and the use and conducting of various experiments and tests.

griteria for Selection of Basic Needs of the Teachers

Among the processes in the teacher education plan
development is the selection of basic needs of teachers.
The following are some criteria to guide the selection of
basic needs of teachers:

1. Are the basic needs broad enough to include

an.understanding of the learner?

Knowledge of children's development through various

91
stages of their lives, and the physical, emotional and
social problems they face in growing up, should be emphasized
through the teacher preparation process. It is important for
teachers to know how much children are capable of understand-
ing at various levels of maturity.

2. Are the basic needs broad enough to encompass a

better understanding of the teacher himself?

As teachers acquire more and more understanding and
acceptance of themselves, often they will become happier and
better adjusted persons as well as more effective teachers.
Such.understanding is important to the teacher's professional
growth.and development.

3. Do the basic needs include skills in using

instructional materials and teaching methods?.

Skills for the effective use of textbooks, audio-visual
materials, test, and other tools and means of teaching, are
among the basic needs of teachers. Other skills such as
the need to understand the curriculum theory and practice,
the planning of lessons and courses of study are also needed.
Teaching is both an art and a science. .

#. Do the basic needs include an understanding and

appreciation of the profession of teaching?

Studying professional ethics and school law will be
helpful in guiding the teacher's behavior and in dealing and
working with other professional people such as physicians,
engineers, social workers and others. Learning more about

the local, national, regional and international organizations

92
that serve the profession may help in modifying and broaden-
ing the teacher's behavior and in understanding his rights
and obligations.

5. Are the basic needs broad enough to help teachers
understand and appreciate the world in which they
live?

Teachers should help children prepare for "the great
adventure of life” by encouraging them to acquire the informa-
tion they need regarding the physical nature of the universe
they live in, peoples' customs, cultures, habits, problems
and interesting things they have.

Criteria for Selection of Training Centers

Another process in developing a plan of teacher educa-
tion is the selection of teacher training centers. Some
criteria for guiding the selection of teacher training cen-
ters are stated below,

1. .Are the training centers distributed evenly all

over the country?

Population distribution, social classes and economic
opportunities are focal points which should be considered
when selecting teacher training centers. Concentration of
training centers in one area and neglecting others, may
disturb the balance of the whole educational system, and
hence may disturb the progress of the country. Emphasis
should be made to insure the establishing of at least one
training center in each of the seven districts (countries)

in Jordan.

93

2. Is the location of each training center suitable

and appropriate to serve the people in the area?

Easy accessibility of training centers by various
means of transportation and communication are among the
prerequisites for selecting the location of teacher train-
ing centers. Isolated and remote centers hinder and keep
people from reaching and taking advantage of the facilities
available to them.

3. Are the centers sufficiently equipped to meet

the vocational and technical training needed in
the area?

Equipment needed for rural education is not the same
as that needed for urban education, although there may be
some similarities between the two. The stress on training
in rural areas should be put on land cultivation, forest
and plantation reservations. For urban areas stress should
be mainly on thdngs needed in urban centers such as clothing,
housing, industry, foods, and business in general.

Cniteria fgr Selection of Student Teachers
There is no agreement on the qualities and skills needed

by teachers because of the different needs in different
communities. Many people have written about the desirable
characteristics of teachers. Among important studies is one
by Paul Witty in which he concludes the desirable character-

istics of teachers to be:

a. The inclination and the ability to under-
stand children. Such a teacher recognizes
differences in needs, interests, and

9h

abilities and makes suitable individual
adjustments. ‘

b. The desire to obtain instructional materials
from diversified sources to satisfy the
varied levels of interest attainment, and
to use different approaches to insure suc-
cessful learning for each child.

c. The inclination to record and appraise
growth in such a way that pupils may be
enabled to make steady progress. Through
continuous evaluation, an orderly and

systematic acquisition of knowledge and
skill is assured. (67:20#)

The following are some criteria to guide the selection
of student teachers.

1. Does the student teacher have intellectual
qualities?

.According to Wynn, one of the important qualities of
teachers is their interest and ability in intellectual
pursuits. Wynn continues by saying,

If teachers have a deep intellectual curiosity

that impels in the pursuit of knowledge, if

they like to read and study, if are interested

in ideas, if they are challenged by problems,

and if have the ability to learn quickly and

easily, they are undoubtedly well qualified

in this regard and possess one of the most

important prerequisites for successful teach-

ing. (35 :219)

2. Does the student teacher have personal and

social qualities?

Qualities such as affection for children and adults,
interest in and appreciation of people, understanding and
confidence in children and people, and a sense of humor are
among the personal and social qualities which student

teachers should have to become successful teachers.

95
3. Does the student teacher have mature, emotional

qualities?

To understand others, a teacher must understand himself
first. Wynn says, “Unless he (teacher) has learned to con-
quer his own feelings of anxiety and insecurity, he will have
little capacity for helping others gain self confidence.“
(35:230) What has been said about the personal and social
qualities depends upon certain aspects of the teacher's
emotional make-up such as self-understanding and self-
restraint.

4. Does the student teacher have physical qualifica-

tions? . .

Teaching is a demanding task. Unless a teacher has a
good physical health, a good voice and good appearance, it
is not easy for him to carry on his responsibilities or
affect the children's impression of him.

5. Does the student teacher have a good moral

character?

Students learn much through.imitation of teachers.

The teacher's character and behavior should be sufficiently
good and noble to serve as a model for young people to
follow.

Other qualities which training colleges should inculcate
in student teachers are integrity, ability to take on respon-
sibility, and the formation of a consciousness in performing
a duty to the community and to themselves. Byrne emphasizes
the ability to take on responsibility by saying,

96
The qualities of responsibility and self-
reliance should develop naturally as the

students work at the training college and

in regular practice teaching periods.
(6:84)

Criteria for Develoning a Prognnn of Evaluation-
The criteria developed in this chapter thus far could

help in the first four steps of developing a plan of teacher
education. The steps are stating the Objectives, identify-
ing the basic needs of the student teacher, selection of
training centers, and selection of a student teacher. The
process through which the achievement of objectives is tested
is the process of evaluation.

Evaluation is not just giving a grade or is it synonomous
with giving paper and pencil tests: it is aiming toward getting
evidence about behavior changes in the learners, and about
the changes in the needs of a society or a group of people.
Generally speaking, any valid method to obtain the evidence
about behavior and needed changes is a desirable method of
evaluation. Among desirable methods of evaluation are inter-
views, performance tests, paper and pencil tests or both,
sociograms, questionnaires, tape recorder techniques, attitude
scales, interest inventories, anecdotal records, or rating
scales.

The following are some criteria for developing a comprehen-
sive program of evaluation.

1. Is the evaluation process continuous?

Evaluation should be carried on continually with the
progress of the programs and the achieved objectives.

97

Evaluation may be provided in three phases. The first phase
is the period before instruction also called pretesting.
Pretesting can benefit both student and teacher. A teacher
can formulate or revise objectives, delete them or add others.
The student, on the other hand, does not have to restudy
objectives already attained. The second phase takes place
during instruction. The benefit of monitoring for a teacher
is that he can find out if the students are responding to
instruction while they take each.new stage. The teacher does
not have to repeat large portions of instructions missed by
the students. On the other hand, the student does not
continue to make erroneous responses and practice an erroneous
response chain. The student gets immediate feedback. The
third phase is post-instruction or post-testing. It benefits
the teacher in that he will find if behavior change has
approximated objectives, and he also may have the information
which may help to judge whether content, sequence and
instructional method were effective enough to aid the student
in attaining the Objectives. From the students' point of
view, they will know what they have learned and what they
have missed and need to improve on.

2. Does the evaluation process facilitate learning

and teaching?

The evaluation process provides the teacher, the learner
and other interested people, such as principals and administra-
tors, with feedback of a good.running account of the student's

mistakes and of his successes.

98

3. Is the evaluation program consistent with the

stated objectives?

The evaluation program should use a variety of instru-
ments and techniques of evaluation based on what is expressed
as significant in the objectives.

4. .Are the instruments used for evaluation reliable

and valid?

An instrument used for evaluation is valid if it
measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability is
consistent throughout a series of measurements. It gives
the same results if it occurs approximately under the same
conditions. (2:28-29)

5. .Is the evaluation program objective?

.Applying personal opinion in evaluating does not give
accurate results, because it depends on subjective evalua-
tion. Objective evaluation is the degree of objectivity
which in the case and amount of agreement with any competent
person may discriminate those learners who have attained the
objective from those learners who have not.

6. Are the instruments used for evaluation differen-

tiating?

.A differentiating instrument used for evaluation does
not have tasks which a naive individual can perform: the
only people that can perform the test tasks are those who
have attained the instructional objectives.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

99
Summanz of Imnlications Based on a Review

of Literature on Teacher Education

Teacher education should help in preparing professional
teachers who have a wholesome influence on children,

have an effective body of knowledge, can challenge child-
ren to their best effort, have respect for children's
peculiar sensibilities and have active interest in the
world in which they live.

Professional teachers know about theories of learning.
They can provide a variety of learning experiences, know
when and how to reward feedback and reinforce responses.
They can discriminate between learning situations,
emphasize principles and their application and put more
emphasis on structure of knowledge rather than on facts.
Professional teachers can plan learning experiences to
allow for continuity of progression,_selectwggntent and
sequence to meet individual differences, and can increase
theirprOfessional growth by evaluating themselves as well
as students.

Teacher education should provide a flexible program of
study to help teachers meet changes. Professional study
and practical experience should go hand in hand.

Teacher education should provide for a program of evalua-
tion which can evaluate student's growth.

Teacher education should be the joint responsibility of
all interested people in the community.

100
General education is an integral part of teacher educa-
tion programs. For instance, planning cooperatively in
humanities courses, meeting the individual needs in
communication, and relating student's work to prOblems
‘which have meaning for them, demonstrate to prospective
teachers important principles of teaching, such as

cooperation, meeting individual differences, and problem

solving.

CHAPTER V

tA PROPOSED PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATION WHICH WILL USE
AVAILABLE RESOURCES TO MEET THE NEEDS
OF JORDAN MORE EFFECTIVELY

Knowing the objectives of teacher education is a pre-
requisite for the development of a proposed program of
teacher education in Jordan which can meet the needs in

Jordan and use the available resources effectively.

Objectives of Teacher Education in Jordan

While teacher education cannot assume the sole respon-
sibility for solving Jordan's problems, it certainly must
include in the program elements which will educate its
teachers who teach youth, who will later enter a variety of
occupations and professions, to help solve current and future
problems in Jordan.

A composite of the implication for teacher education in
Jordan as previously enumerated in this thesis by Butterweck
(5), Byrne (6), Hodenfield (l4), Kenworthy (l6), Masoner (18),
Moffitt (20), Stratemeyer and Lindsey (29), and others, show
the need for these things:

lOl

1.

2.

3.

9.

10.
11.

12.

13.

102
Preparing professional teachers to carry on the
teaching process more effectively.
Providing programs which can meet individual
differences.
Modifying the instructional materials to meet
individual differences among students and take into
consideration the needs of Jordan.
Providing for the development of a national planning
center.
Helping to reduce illiteracy.

Emphasizing more parent-teacher-student relation-

ships.

Speeding up the process of the emancipation of
women.

Opening more technical centers for the exploration

and exploitation of natural resources in the desert
area and Aqaba.

Using a systemic statistical method instead of
depending mainly on estimation.

Improving technical and mechanical skills.
Creating a national-international awareness in
addition to family and kinship loyalty.

Creating an economic awareness and relating income
per-capita to family size.

Understanding the Constitution and individuals'
rights and obligations.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.
19.

103
Accepting new forms of social life as well as
traditional ones.
Encouraging investment to improve and raise the
standard of living.
Considering more fully the expansion of knowledge
and science.
Improving the individual's social life.
Improving hygienic conditions.

Improving working conditions for the laboring man.

Some Emerg;ng Trends Related to the Imnrovement

Of Education in Jordan

Among the emerging trends related to improving the

educational system in'Jordan are the following:

1.

2.

The formation of the Department of Local Educa-
tional Committees. This department is responsible
for supervising the relations and correspondence
between the Ministry of Education in Amman and

the various local educational committees in the
country. In volume one of the Laws and Regulations
connected with the Ministry of Education, it is
noted that the mentioned department is responsible
for encouraging people to participate and share in
the development of the educational process in the
country. (59:162-163)

The licensing of teachers. The Office of Preparing

and Licensing teachers supervises two kinds of

104
licenses: the ordinary and the temporary license.
According to the licensing system, a candidate may
obtain the ordinary license to teach in kindergarten
and primary grades if he has successfully completed
high school, and has studied general education and
behavioral psychology for two more years. To be
eligible to teach.in high school, a candidate has
to complete his undergraduate studies, majoring in
the subject he wants to teach. Teaching in college
requires at least a masters degree or the equivalent.
A temporary license is given to teachers who do not
meet the requirements under certain circumstances,
when it is difficult to find qualified teachers.

3. Summer sessions assume a significant role in prepar-
ing teachers in training colleges and for furthering
education of other school personnel. These sessions
are held annually under the supervision of a commit-
tee of five members, headed by the Under Secretary
of the Ministry of Education (60:181-183).

4. Teacher education is planned at the national level
by the Office for Preparing and Licensing Teachers
in Amman. (59:163)

By stating the objectives of teacher education and the

emerging trends for improving the educational system, the way
is paved to propose a program of teacher education which

hopefully can meet the needs of Jordan.

105
A Pronosed Prognam of Teacher Education in Jonnnn

The following is a broad outline of a proposed teacher
education program set up to meet the objectives of teacher
education in Jordan.

1. Preparing professional teachers.

The increase in number of students and schools forced
the Ministry of Education in Amen to appoint professionally
unprepared teachers, especially in the primary cycle. It is
believed that the primary cycle is the basis for the other
two cycles, namely junior high.and senior high; So, teachers
in the primary cycle as well as in the two other cycles should
be prepared professionally. This could be done by improving
and increasing the number of teacher colleges and by using
them over longer periods to include evening classes and year
round classes.

In addition to improving and increasing the number of
teachers colleges, there are other possibilities to raise
standards for teachers in Jordan. More professional summer
sessions should be provided. In addition, teacher colleges
should be more involved with the Ministry of Education in
preparing the teachers' general examination and in setting
standards for the examination.

2. Providing programs which can meet individual

differences.

Students come to school from different backgrounds and

bring with them different perceptions and behavior patterns.

106
Unless schools provide for individual differences, some
students will become alienated and drop out. To encourage
students to pursue a teaching profession it is necessary to
provide for expected differences in ability, achievement and
practice. This could be done by offering a variety of pro-
grams and by leaving more choices for students to take what
they like and are able to do.

3. Modifying the instructional materials.

Instructional materials in Jordan, as well as in many
countries of the Middle East, are academically oriented and
divided into distinct academic and professional segments which
do not lend themselves to evaluation or continuation of needs
at present and in the future. Jordan needs a program which
will take into consideration the expansion of knowledge in
science and other fields. To set up such a program experts
and specialists in curriculum.development, and social and
psychological studies should be invited to work with the
Ministry of Education for conducting a general survey of
what Jordan needs and how it may be applied through a
modified instructional materials program. Specialists from
other ministries should be invited to participate in develop-
ing such a program, each representing his own field.

4. Providing for a national planning center.

To avoid the effect of changes which occur in personnel
in government, an independent executive agency for planning
and executing plans for improving teacher education is

indispensable for the general progress of Jordan. The location

107
and communication facilities provided in Amman make it a
favorable place for a national planning center. This center
should include a section of documents to furnish general and
specific resource information about Jordan's social, economic
and educational aspects. 8

5. Helping reduce the illiteracy rate.

Jordan has a high rate of illiteracy. Gaining experience
in teaching illiterates has many advantages. Among them are
(a) providing inservice training for experienced teachers
and training prospective teachers: (b) reducing the rate of
illiteracy which hampers Jordan's progress.

Reducing the rate of illiteracy can be done by making
illiteracy training experience part of the teachers' prepara-
tion program.

6. Working for better parent-teacher-student relation-

ships.

To avoid dichotomy in preparing teachers, communication
and cooperation between home and training colleges should
be emphasized. The developing of parent-teacher associations
and student-teacher associations should be included in the
educational programs.

7. Speeding up the process of the emancipation of

women.

Emancipation of women could be accomplished by providing
more schools and classes for girls. To fulfill this objective,
teacher education should offer equal opportunities for both

sexes and emphasize sex education in teacher education programs.

108
More knowledge dealing with child bearing, delivery and
rearing is indispensable for avoiding many problems which
arise usually from neglect or lack of such.information.
Increasing the number and amount of scholarships for girls
should also encourage them to pursue higher education and
specialization.

8. Opening technical and vocational centers in the

desert area and Aqaba.

This would train people in trades needed in these areas,
such as storage techniques, locating natural resources and
minerals. Providing such courses is part of the objective
of teacher education, which, in addition to using systemic
statistics for collecting data, will help in the redistribu-
tion of manpower according to the country's needs.

9. Using a systemic statistical method instead of

depending on estimation.

Increasing the number of courses in statistics is neces-
sary to make the shift from estimation to the systemic
statistical approach. Creating an awareness of accurate
statistics and training specialized statisticians should be
among the goals of teacher education to meet the needs of
the emerging industrialized community.

10. Improving technical and mechanical skills.

The 5-year plan adopted by Jordan's Development Board
provides an opportunity for teacher education to coOperate
in planning for supplying the country with needed technicians

to develop and maintain such projects. To improve technical

109
skills, scattered and unrelated programs such as black-
smithing and welding should be reorganized and included in
a major technical-industrial-agricultural program. Specializa-
tion in these fields should start as early as the beginning
of senior high school. The Jordanian University should spon-
sor a program of specialization equivalent to undergraduate
study to meet the country's need in mechanical and technical
skills. Training centers at Jerusalem and Irbid should
cooperate with the Jordanian University for reaching that
aim. .
11. Increasing national-international awareness.

Exchange programs for students and teachers should be
expanded and included in teacher education programs. Accept-
ing other people to study and work in Jordan provides good
examples and helps Jordanians to know something about foreigners,
their culture and behavior. Studying abroad helps Jordanians
to interact with other people and to acquire wider national-
international awareness in addition to family and kinship
loyalty. EIpanding exchange programs provides Jordanians
with first hand knowledge about other people and other coun-
tries and promotes their feeling that they live in a country
which is a member of a big family, the world.

12. Increasing economic awareness.

Increasing the time allocated for courses in economics
to include a program in planning the use of family income
should help to develop an awareness in economic planning in

general. Teacher education should include examples of

110
economic planning in its program. A.kind of restricted
birth control might come into being if more people began to
understand the relation of per-capita income or earning to
family size.
13. Understanding the Constitution.

Understanding the Constitution and individuals' right
and obligations should be included in teacher education pro-
grams. Increasing the awareness of the provisions of the
law helps in the development of good citizens, who, in turn,
will help in developing Jordan.

14. Accepting new forms of social life as well as
traditional ones.

Some traditional ways of life, such as the desire to
help people and to give to charity, are useful and should be
utilized continuously. Including both useful traditional
ways and new ways of life which emphasize the using of tech-
nology in teacher education programs will help in bringing
together people of different views, and narrowing the gap
between young and old generations.

l5. Encouraging investment.

Investment should be encouraged by providing more
courses in finance and economics in teacher education programs.
Investment in industrial and agricultural projects should
provide funds for more projects and more and better work
opportunities. This, in turn, should raise the standard of
living in Jordan.

16. Considering more fully the expansion of knowledge.

It was mentioned previously that the amount of knowledge

111

is doubling every ten years. Because of this, teacher educa-
tion should be flexible and reviewed continuously. A commit-
tee for reviewing teacher education programs should include
a curriculum specialist, a social worker and a psychologist.
These specialists could be provided by UNESCO as part of the
international assistance to Jordan. This committee should
meet at least quarterly and make use of the facilities of the
proposed national planning center.

1?. Improving social life.

Improving social life can be done by encouraging people
to participate and attend social functions and meetings,
forming committees and clubs such as Big Brothers Clubs,
scout movements and other social activities. To provide for
such social activities, teacher education should arrange for
extending the use of schools, colleges and institutions to
cover evenings. Evening and community activities need
coordinators and directors. Training and preparing community
coordinators and directors should be included in teacher
education programs in Jordan.

18. Improving hygienic conditions.

Maintaining good health contributes to promoting aspira-
tion for better living and increasing one's ability to work
and produce. Developing a hygienic program for training a
staff to deal with health conditions and to work in schools
should be an objective of teacher education in Jordan.

19. Improving skills and working conditions of laborers.

This could be done by conducting courses in factories

112

and vocational training centers. Teacher education should
participate with business and industry in planning for skill
courses. Specialists from.various fields should be involved

in planning and implementation of courses. Goals of such
courses should emphasize national and international labor
regulations and law, as well as training courses for improv-
ing laborers' skills and salaries.

To put such proposed programs into action, a developmental

plan for the improvement of teacher education in Jordan is

proposed below.

‘A Pronnsed Develonmental Plan fo; the Imnnovemnnt

0 Tea h r ucation Jo an

1. .A committee composed of educators, members from the local
educational committees, parents, sociologists, and
anthropologists should be given the task of examining the
Jordanian social values and beliefs, culture and community
problems. Implications of this study for the development
of the teacher education plan could be stated in the form
of desirable behavioral objectives. Examples of what
could be achieved in this step are indicated in the
examination of some social prOblems mentioned in chapter
two under the heading, “Historical and Cultural Background.“

2. A committee of counselors, consultants on vocational
education, economists and educators should examine the

structure of teacher education and vocational education

3.

113
to identify the needs of both. Some desirable directions
in this concern might be sought in similar endeavors in
some of the developed countries such as the United States
and in UNESCO. Studies such as ”Education for a Changing
World of Work” (54) and ”The Process and Product of
Vocational Education in the United States” (64) may be
of some interest to those people who are trying to improve
vocational education in Jordan.
.A committee of educators and psychologists should examine
findings of research on teaching, learning and the nature
of the Jordanian people. Implications of such examina-
tion could provide useful information for the planning of
teacher education.
Members representing the three committees and the Office
of Preparing and Licensing Teachers could form the major
teacher education committee. Delineating and modifying
the objectives of teacher education to meet the needs of
Jordan would be one of the main tasks of this committee.
Criteria for the selection of objectives of teacher educa-
tion, the basic needs of teachers, training centers and
student teachers, and the development of a program of
evaluation could be useful for teacher education committees
in Jordan. Other functions of this committee should be
the supervision of the preparation and licensing of
teachers and providing for the development of textbook
and other instructional materials, such as charts, maps

and other audio-visual aids.

11h

5. The developed criteria_for a plan of teacher education
should be tried for four years in teacher training
colleges representing different environments in the
country. The Jordanian University and teacher training
centers in Jerusalem and Irbid might be chosen to try the
developed plan.

6. Generalize the use of the plan in all teacher training
colleges if it proves suitable according to the evaluation
process.

An outline of the proposed criteria for developing a
plan is shown in the following figure.

115

Feedback evaluation

 

L

 

A Committee of
educators and
sociologists to
examine community
problems and
culture.

 

i

 

 

 

 

l

Feedback evaluation
4

A committee of
counselors, psy-
chologists and
educators to
examine & identif
the needs of
teacher educatio

 

 

4‘4‘
(From 3-6 months)

*1
1

 

 

A committee of
psychologists &_
educators to exa-

 

 

‘ /

mine the nature of
teaching-learning
process.

 

 

 

Teacher education committee representing
the three previous committees. ‘

 

 

1

 

__L

l

l

J

1 ?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Selection of Selection of Developing Supervision Supervision
objectives students a program. of instruc- of prepara-
of teacher {teacher & of evalua- tional tion of
education training tion materials teachers
centers development
I
(Fgfifi—336—fi5fiffi‘ "“
‘1.
A L trial I centers 4, A

 

 

 

 

 

Teachers' College The Jordanian

Teachers' College

 

 

 

h—-—-——(%#~
Feedback evaluatiot

in.Irbid University in in Jerusalem
Amman
l T (Four years)
Evaluation

 

 

 

 

 

Feedback evaluation

Figure 2. A Proposed Developmental Plan for the Improvement of
Teacher Education in Jordan. .

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study has attempted to present a proposed program
of teacher education which will use available resources to
meet the needs of Jordan more effectively. The proposed
program suggests an approach to teacher education focusing
upon developing a rationale for decision making. Such a
rationale makes teacher education development more scientific
than complete reliance on the traditional procedure which
emphasizes making decisions by a few persons at the top of
the educational echelon.

Among the significant problems which have been found re-

} lated to teacher education development in Jordan are the
following: illiteracy, unemployment, low standard of living,
economic development, and the rapid increase of population.
Research findings have been reviewed in learning areas of
reinforcement, generalization, discrimination, transfer of
learning, concept formation and motivation. Recommendations
have been outlined when necessary.

The educational system in Jordan, including teacher
education, has been discussed in detail. This examination

of teacher education has yielded the following

116

117

recommendations:

1. The educational process including teacher
education, is an integral part of the whole
developmental process.

Better integration of education with the major needs
of economic growth and social development is needed in
Jordan. The educational process coincides with, supplements
and complements other social and economic activities. The
separation of the educational process from those activities
delays the progress and prOSperity of the country, because
it creates dichotomy and overlapping in many fields, which,
in turn, may restrict innovations and creations. A broad
revision of the pattern of student enrollment and of the
curriculum is required to better integrate education with
the major economic and social needs. Better integration
requires-deeper analysis of prospective manpower on
national and various subregional labor markets, eSpecially
in the agricultural and rural sectors.

2. There is an urgent need for professionalized

teacher education in Jordan.

Two years of preparation after the completion of high
school (secondary) or junior high (intermediate) are not
sufficient for preparing and training teachers. Four years
of professional training after high school should be
required. Supervising teachers, resident coordinators,
consultants and university faculty should be systematically

and carefully screened for working in the training centers.

118

Systematic procedures should be used for selecting candidates
for the purpose of preparing them as prospective teachers.

Special research is needed in relation to the nature
of the content and methods of courses required. The
writer recommends that such research should be done by the
various committees proposed in chapter five for developing
a program of teacher education in Jordan.

The writer also proposes that the Jordanian University
in Amman, together with two other existing centers be chosen
as training centers. Location in respect to transportation
facilities and service to a maximum number of residents should
be kept in mind in selecting the centers. The writer suggests
the location of the following centers: (a) one center to
serve the Western Bank, to be located at Jerusalem; (b)
two centers to serve the Eastern Bank, one to be located at
the Jordanian University in Amman, the other center to be
located in Irbid.

An internship program should be set up in the centers.
Other centers could be added according to need and neces-
sity. The process of selecting centers is facilitated by
the fact that the educational system is centralized and
there is no fear that the alliance between the centers and
the University will be broken. The writer recommends that
representatives from the University, the centers and
residents of various geographical areas should participate
in the selection process.

3. Parent-teacher-student relationships should

119
be encouraged by teacher education in Jordan.

Education should not be controlled or monopolized by
a few people at the top of the echelon. Jordanians should
be involved in the educational process. The more the
involvement of people in education the more and stronger the
parent-teacher-student relationships. In addition, Jordan
depends on other countries for assistance in financing its
projects. Regional and international cooperation should be
strengthened and facilitated.

4. Jordan needs a teacher education program which

can.meet the challenges of changes occuring
all over the world, such as those dealing with
the increase of population, technological
advances and social and cultural changes.

The storage of knowledge and choosing and using what the
country needs most should be the job of Specialists in
various fields. Experts from the committees mentioned in
developing the plan in chapter five should be used to help
in storing, choosing and using needed knowledge.

5. Research is urgently needed in Jordan to

produce new knowledge which will help in
furnishing answers to the educational and
other related problems.

The main center of research should be located in the
Jordanian University at Amman. EXperts and Specialists
furnished by UNESCO and other regional and international

agencies should participate in planning and developing the

120
research process in various fields. Research work should
be expanded according to the availability of needed resources,
while the available local, regional and international
resources are used effectively.

6. Due to limited resources in Jordan, it is

recommended that the existing facilities in
the Jordanian University and other educational,
social and economical centers in the country be
utilized.

The Jordanian University should assume the role of a multi-
purpose center: provide a center for training teachers;
provide a center for research with the help of experts and
specialists provided by UNESCO and other agencies, and serve
as a link between the various centers. Centers for training
teachers should be provided by existing colleges. Expanding
and increasing the number of such centers will depend upon
the results obtained at the end of the demonstration period
of four years.

7. An evaluation program should be developed to

improve teacher education in Jordan.

Viewing evaluation as almost synonymous with testing,
and emphasizing the achievement in the final test or onpa
national examination only, is not sufficient to know either
the weaknesses or strengths of the program content, in
addition to predicting the progress in the candidate's
achievement.

Using the criteria develOped in the fourth chapter for

121

examining the evaluation program in Jordan the following
conclusions were reached: (a) The evaluation program is not
consistent with stated objectives. It is not sufficient

to write objectives and emphasize them on paper only.
Implementing such objectives by a variety of means is of
paramount importance. (b) The evaluation program fails to
take into consideration the continuous growth or lack of
growth of the student during the total learning process.

The evaluation program in Jordan emphasizes mainly achieve-
ment made on a national examination such as the Jordanian
Matriculation Examination and the Teachers Examination.
Creating one or more consultant positions in each proposed
center to furnish candidates with guidance and continuing
individualized supervision is also recommended. Supervisors
might be selected from the most able teachers in the Ministry
of Education at no additional expense for salaries and other
necessary expenditures.

8. Teacher education should be more balanced

and selectively expanded.

The aim should be to bring the different levels and the
different programs, such as preparing teachers for technical
and general education, into better balance with each other
in relation to the needs of the country.

9. Teacher education outside the classroom should

be strengthened.
Jordan suffers from a dichotomy between formal education

and all other organized forms of training and education,

122

many of which are just as important to national development
as those which go on inside the schools and universities.
Activities of this type, such as field trips and visiting
other teacher training centers in neighboring countries,
should be carefully selected, planned and developed to give
a quick, relatively inexpensive boost to teacher education
and preparation.

10. Educational planning must be concerned with

much more than making statistical projections
and promoting a larger version of teacher
education as it now exists in Jordan.

Good educational planning requires systematic research,
collection of reliable data and a program of evaluation to
measure the level of progress when implementing new plans.

Developing a plan of teacher education is a continuous
process. The author hopes that this study will encourage
others to initiate and implement other studies which will
lead to further explorations and developments for enriching

teacher education in Jordan.

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