49‘ p.15 .. 7; fi‘i‘g‘, .5 '- ' ' ~ 23““!!! ~ 1 ‘vm "I OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to mo charge from circulation recol .0... b..-- ..c.. I.-— -. v-.._" ‘ CHILDREN'S FANTASY PLAY AS RELATED TO PARENTS' AND CHILDREN'S PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL CAREGIVING BEHAVIORS AND CHILDREN'S PSYCHO-SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT BY Yanon Volcani A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1980 .0.-. u»-— — v -“Q-OD‘ “ .u --.. ~- ~t n"-' ‘ ‘ -~.. ‘ O... In tn.--. - on... [n “I... u . -~ .' ‘-.‘ \ V-“- : Io. ‘ —.~-: u.‘ ‘0 ‘ D‘ s.: . .0 . \‘l CLT‘ ‘335 ‘4. _ at t- ”‘2. ‘- .. ‘- 3" . “~.. 8. ~ ‘ h..w‘ - - a ‘- ‘u \ 1 \,~ ‘ b‘.‘ . o s ‘3 § ~ ~‘:.~_\ ‘2 V‘ .v‘ ‘: ~ ‘ 3"‘a, . “"‘l ‘1'“ ABSTRACT CHILDREN'S FANTASY PLAY AS RELATED TO PARENTS' AND CHILDREN'S PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL CAREGIVING BEHAVIORS AND CHILDREN'S PSYCHO-SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT BY Yanon Volcani The current investigation explored the relationship between children's fantasy play, parents' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors, the children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors, and the children's psycho-social adjustment. Ten Caucasian, latency aged (7—9 year old), "normal" boys, living in upper-middle class two— parent families, participated in the study. Fantasy play was elicited using the Lowenfeld World View Technique (Lowenfeld, l939)--an instrument consisting of a small sandbox and numerous objects (i.e. miniature people, ani- mals, buildings, vehicles) with which the child constructs a "World." Each child made 3 Worlds over a one week period which were videotaped and later coded by 3 sets of raters using a scoring system developed by the current experi- menter. Measures were made to assess dimensions of fantasy play that best discriminated high and low psycho-social functioning in Children, these being: (1) Aggression (sub- categories: Devouring, Direct Physical, Distance Physical, Accident, Verbal, Social, Deprivation, Abandonment); (2) Yanon Volcani Benevolence (subcategories: Physical, Verbal, Helping, Affiliative Acts, Satisfying Experiences); (3) Adequacy (Positive and Negative); (4) Assertion (Reactive and Iniated); (5) Construction; (6) Dominance; (7) Submission; (8) Dependence; (9) Propensity for Imaginative Play. Parents' perceptions of their caregiving attitudes and practices were assessed using 2 self-report inventories, independently completed by each parent. Children's percep- tions of their parents' caregiving behaviors were assessed using an orally administered inventory, while their psycho- social adjustment was measured by parents' and teachers' ratings of the children's functioning on several inventories. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients yielded several interesting relationships between the de- pendent and independent measures. For example, there was a positive relationship between fathers' composite score of engaging in theoretically effective caregiving behaviors and fantasized Benevolence, and a negative relationship between mothers' Rejecting behaviors and Benevolence. Furthermore, children's perception of their fathers as being rejecting positively related to Dependency, while negatively related to PrOpensity for Imaginative Play. There were no strong, consistent relationships between children's fantasy play and parent/teacher ratings of their psycho-social adjustment. Examination of the relationship between parents' percep- tions of their caregiving and their children's adjustment a n a- -.—"a’ 0- .'---‘.l-- o z conga-u. Cob-no-.-' . O . 4 ..D.o ‘ II A'- p ~-u¢'-v.: Yanon Volcani generally showed a positive association between high psycho- social functioning and caregiver behaviors characterized by acceptance, explicit limit setting, and the fostering of autonomy. Separate effects for paternal and maternal be- haviors were found, with paternal as compared to maternal behaviors showing a stronger relationship to the children's adjustment. o II . - ‘fl' “A I: .4 . Vfl--.. ” ' Q . wwha 7“. . ‘- "vhv-‘L _. . I SSE); 2-1-3 a...) O...» a h;.: . ' Q'- A "U I ‘- I ‘. .‘ I I I. ‘E r” ‘hyn. it." _‘ o‘- ' ‘H. . ‘ 0’5 UV; $ - . . . w 31"“1: ' Q J a M . ‘ A ‘3»? a" N .A hwa‘ . \\‘ AF~ ‘ ~ sses ‘0 El: *1- u . h‘l. . .'h\ 0"“ TS‘ , 3. , AUGUVIEDGVIENTS Gary Stollak, on our time together I have been deeply moved by your profound trust in the human spirit (a word I realize you probably would not use, though I hear it resonating inthe eloquence with which you speak, like some grand double bass upon which the rest of the orchestra inparoeptively floats) . I have been even more moved by your courage and integrity to live-- in operationally specific ways— the beliefs you cherish. 'I’nus I have felt acknowledged, respected and trusted by you, freed to ride the waves I choose, with guidance and consultation as to which break might be best to try. Your wit and wisdan have delighted and inspired me. A rabbi in the truest sense oftheword, throughyothaveexpardedwhoIam. ForthisIthankyou. I thank you Helen Benedict for your openness, thoroughness and supportive encouragement. I have savoured our discussions of God, Jung, fantasy and the universe. I relish their unresolvedness. Lucy Ferguson, you have helped me gain clarity and precision in the midst of befuddlement through your patient pointing out of possibilities. You also have encouraged my autonomy and exploration while pointing the territories to explore . Thank you . I thank you Phyllis Watts for your warmth, sensitivity and playful— ness. Your gentle guidance through the seemingly nefarious maze of ii ccmputers and SPSS was magical, oh good fairy. Our friendship has been a harbour and a hcnme. Joel Aromff, your uncompromising standards and insistence 'on excellence have been the buoys by which I have guided the quality of my work. Thank you. Larry Messe, thank you for the 90. l—second phone consultations that saved tours of time. iii *..---‘. -. “-00-...J ‘1'. ‘vn... 'l "d vo<.-- \nu ,_. _ .__V A— .\o-.. . l (I ) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHILDREN'S FANTASY PLAY AS RELATED TO PARENTS' AND CHILDREN'S PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL CAREGIVING BEHAVIORS AND CHILDREN'S PSYCHO-SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT. . 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . 1 Children' s Psycho-social Adjustment . . . 5 Caregiver Behaviors and Children' s Psycho-social Adjustment. . . . 7 Children' s Perceptions of Caregiver Behaviors and Their Psycho- -social Adjustment . . . 13 The Nature and Function of Fantasy Play . . 15 Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Fantasy Play. . . . . 20 Measurement of Children's Fantasy Play . . 25 Summary. . . . . 3O Developmental Aspects of Children's Fantasy Play. . . . . . . . . 31 Cognitive Functioning. . . . . . 31 Psychological Deve10pment. . . . . 32 Major Tasks and Concerns . . . . . 33 Defenses and Coping Strategies . . . 34 Dependent Measures . . . 35 Structure of the Children' 3 Worlds . . 35 Content of the Fantasy Play . . . . 36 Aggression . . . . . . 36 Benevolence. . . . . . 37 Adequacy . . . . . . 38 Assertion . . . . . . 38 Construction . . . . . 39 Dominance . . . . . ‘ . 39 Submission . . . . . . 40 Dependence . . . . . . 40 Expansion . . . . . . 4O Propensity . . . . . . 41 HYPOTHESES . . . . . . . . . . 42 iv -~-- .- .-O-"d uh» a... a. .. .. 1. v. .e. a: Page METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Subject Selection. . . . . . . . 45 Sample Characteristics . . . . . . 46 Procedure. . . . . . . . . . 46 Independent Measures . . . . . . 46 Children' s Psycho-social Adjustment . . . . 47 Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Behaviors. . . 48 Children' s Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors . 49 Dependent Measures . . . . . 50 Scoring the Dependent Measures . 52 Procedure for Coding the Fantasy Play. . . 62 Reliability of the WVT Variables . 64 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . 68 Independent Measures . . . . . 68 Children' s Psycho—social Adjustment . . . . 68 Parents' Perception of Their Caregiving Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment . . . . . . 74 Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors . 78 Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors and the Children's Psycho-social Adjustment . . . . . . 80 Dependent Measures . . . . . . 83 Category Usage . . . . 83 Changes Across the 3 WVT Sessions. . . . . . 85 Inter-relationships Between Cate- gories of Fantasy Behaviors . 90 Children's Fantasy Play and Their Psycho-social Adjustment. . . 95 Children's Fantasy Play and Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Behaviors. . 98 Children's Fantasy Play and Their Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors. . . . 102 V ‘0. ‘ U.-"'--- «o-Ao"--- in u .e A C In ~ 0 P. F. a c n2 Y .. 7w. Page DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Qualifications of Results. . . . . . 105 Number of Subjects . . . 105 Characteristics of the Sample. . 106 Reliability of Measures . . . 107 The World View Technique as a Means of Evoking Fantasy Play . 108 Relevance of Findings for Hypotheses . . . 111* Relevance to Past Theory and Research. . . 114 Implications for Caregiving Behaviors and Children's Psycho- social Adjustment . . . 114 Implications for Theories on The Nature and Function of Fantasy and Child Development . . . 116 Implications for Research Metho- dology and Directions for Future Research . . . . . 123 FOOTNOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . 129 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . 130 A: Letters to Parents and Teachers . . . . 130 B: Parent Information Form . . . . . 132 C: Measures of Children's Psycho- social Adjustment . . . . . . . . . 133 D: Measures of Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Attitudes and Behaviors . . . 153 E: Measures of Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors . . . . 170 F: World View Coding Manual and Rating Forms. . 173 G: Sample Characteristics . . . 188 H: T-values for Differences between World View Sessions . . . . 189 I: Correlations between World View Categories and Factors of Positive/Negative Caregiving Behaviors on the CRCP . . . . . . 190 J: Correlations between Aggression and Benevolence Subcategories and Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Behaviors . 191 K: Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Psycho- -socia1 Adjustment: Toward a Synthesis of Piagetian and Humanistic Perspectives . . 192 V1 Page FOOTNOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . 195 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . 197 vii ‘w. ‘4. .u. e. e. . . a. e. c. e. .H .. v. .H ...1‘ o . ..h t. e . .h v. .3 o I O n . git \c- V. ‘- FM v. «‘3‘...‘ C C 2 ph- . a 2. ..§ va 5.. ‘3 C C vs Tu ..e p. e. a» Cs ‘2 5“ FM V§ Ale t‘I 9% h an n v c. u}. Table 1. 10. LIST OF TABLES Page Inter-rater reliabilities across the 3 WVT sessions on dimensions assessed using frequency counts . . . . . . . . 65 Inter-rater reliabilites across the 3 WVT sessions on dimensions assessed using rating scales . . . . . . . . 66 Means, standard deviations, and ranges of fathers', mothers', and teachers', ratings of children's psycho-social adjustment . . 69 Correlations between fathers', mothers' and teachers' ratings of children's psycho- social adjustment. . . . . . . . 71 Means, standard deviations, and ranges of fathers' and mothers' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors . . . . . . . 75 Correlations between parents' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors and ratings of children's psycho-social adjustment . . 76 Means, standard deviations, and ranges of children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors . . . . . . . 79 Correlations between children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors and ratings of children's psycho-social adjustment . . . . . . . . . 81 Means, standard deviations, and minimum- maximum occurrences of fantasy play categories . . . . . . . . . 84 Means, standard deviations, and minimum- maximum occurrences for categories across the 3 WVT sessions . . . . . . . 87 Vdii ,1 --. -C. F\ Riv —\ as a» a» s. a» “u «C nu he by We. Table 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Means, standard deviations, and minimum- maximum occurrences for the subcategories of Aggression and Benevolence. . . . Means, standard deviations, and minimum- maximum occurrences for objects used in the 3 WVT sessions . . . . . . Inter-correlations between categories of objects used . . . . . . Correlations among fantasy play categories . . . . . . . . Inter-correlations between Aggression and Benevolence subcategories. . . . Correlations between fantasy play categories and measures of psycho-social adjustment . . . . . . . . Correlations between Aggression and Benevolence subcategories and psycho- social adjustment. . . . . . . Correlations between fantasy play categories and parents' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors . . . . . . Correlations between fantasy play categories and children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors . . Correlations between World View categories and factors of positive/ negative caregiving behaviors on the CRCP. Correlations between Aggression and Benevolence subcategories and parents' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors. Page. 88 89 91 92 94 96 97 99 103 190 191 ~'. w“ ~-~-' -“-~- 2. e . ... 3 ... 2. Le s C e . ... A e A: e. I" - .i vi...- ‘— \. ~ ‘en~ ~§ r v. be .2 e. 1: 1:. «e a: .... u. \ s: s- L‘ a» e: be —~ a: is ..‘ an. Cy ' g 3. e: CHILDREN'S FANTASY PLAY AS RELATED TO PARENTS' AND CHILDREN'S PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL CAREGIVING BEHAVIORS AND CHILDREN'S PSYCHO-SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT INTRODUCTION In the beginning . . . there was darkness and the earth was with— out form. And God said, 'Let there be light.' And there was light. One of the few areas of confluence between the many divergent theories of psycho-emotional development in chil- dren is the assumption that the human infant first experi- ences the universe as an undifferentiated, holistic mass of conglomerated sensations with which s/he feels at one (Freud, 1953; Fenichel, 1945; Guntrip, 1969; Jung, 1956; Kernberg, 1976; Lewin, 1935; Mahler, 1975; Neuman, 1973; Piaget, 1937; Sullivan, 1953; Werner, 1948). These theories further agree that development out of this original sense of "primordial oceanic omnipotence" (Fenichel, 1945), complete "ego-centricism" (Piaget, 1962), or "uroboric unity" of at- oneness-with-the-universe (Neuman, 1973), involves a slow differentiation of self from world, wherein the attainment of language plays a key role. Recent discoveries in physiological psychology char— acterize this transition in terms of the lateralization of 1 0--..- «It. o- v-0--oo‘ .- vUV--- ’ 00*. I’- 00-..- . .~. a” .. o w. x. .. e g e. 1— x: a. C :. _. s. nu ... s T. .3 E a. C» s. .H a. 5 .2 a. .c .r u. a. r .. .. a: v. . n . . .t .3 .t .e. a: u. a. a» a e 4‘ .. a :— 5» z. .3 . . .T 2‘ . . . s e . . a . .e. a e . a n: ... v. Y. ..e .e C. .n. C. 2. ... Ru 2» .c a» e“ .. .3 .. .q. r. . a e: a» .. ... a. .u.. o 2 brain hemispheres, with the child's newly developing syn- tactic, lineal, rational mode of cognitive functioning typically being localized in the left hemisphere, while the original non-syntactic, spacial-aesthetic, irrational mode of experiencing being delegated to the right hemisphere (Harnad, 1977; Ornstein, 1974; Whitaker, 1976). Here lies the contrast between analogic and analytic thought, the transformation from the analog system to the digitial system. This progression towards lineal thinking, with its objective, consensual nature, is a slow one. Thus the child does not fully have the capacity for abstract, deductive reasoning until after his/her first decade of life (Piaget, 1936; 1962). Before this time, and to varying degrees after the acquistion of analytic thought, the child per— ceives and formulates much of his/her experiencing of the internal/external world along the subjective dimensions of what Sample (1976) has called the "metaphoric mind." This- is the world of prelogical, prerational, preconsensual per- ceptions, thoughts, and feelings, the quintessence of child- hood experiencing. It is an ordering of the universe along "clusters" of inextricably interwoven sensations, affects, images, concepts, and memories, nonsequencially encoded in a holistic, unified, all-at-once fashion, immuned to the boundaries of time and linear logic (Lowenfeld, 1938; 1964; Bowyer, 1970) . —-v" -- Q ----'~- --u-- uh" u..§0-' .~ -nAv‘ .: .C e . 1‘ a u .. _: 2. .. I. 2. .. .. . a. .3 .e I. .u u” .3 2. —.. a. .. . . v. v. 1— .‘ efld «u» 3. . . a. a. e . a . . . . . 1. .2 .. z. ... u. ... :. : . a. ... .. z. a. a. z. 2. .u. . . ”m I . .~. .Q v. 3 The language of this fusion of experiencing is the child's fantasy play. It is the bridge between the meta- phoric and analytic mind; it is the very switch that ini- tially turned on the light of consciousness in the vast, primordial darkness of unconscious experiencing. Thus any adequate understanding of children's perceptions, thoughts, feelings, struggles, concerns, and wonderings about their internal/external worlds is inseparable from a thorough understanding of their fantasy play. Concomitantly, such an understanding of children's fantasy play necessitates an exacting analysis of other pertinent aspects of their life spaces. Most relevant here would appear to be the child's psycho-social development, reflected in his/her overt social behaviors, and the child's experiencing of his/her parents--figures deemed by both conventional and contemporary wisdom to be a crucial influ— ence in the formation of the person. If this is indeed the case, it would furthermore seem imperative to glean a fuller understanding of the parents' own perceptions of their care- giving behaviors and how these relate to the child's fantasy play. The current investigation thus explored the relation- ship between children's perceptions of their parent's care- giving behaviors, the parents' self perceptions of their caregiving behaviors, the children's psycho-social function- ing, and various related dimensions of their fantasy play. “V ~.- .-u .s- -: --—o ‘ sq - v ~¢gv-~ -. :- .. .. 1. o. u.- s» n: 2. a. .3 . . z e. ... ... 1“ c.‘ ”A g: .1 a. . ... e. . . .. .e. . . . . . .e. I In. 11 1.. T. e. .. .: r 3‘ e \ .e‘ sz u e nu. q~‘ u. A» .w. .-1. = «J u s s» e R‘N .m‘ —s. I‘ \C “ e e .1 e s ‘ ~ Q.\ is kn C 4 In brief, this study examined five conceptually interrelatv ing facets of the child's life space: (1) the parents' self-perceived caregiver behaviors and child's psycho- emctional development; (2) the child's perception of his parents' caregiving behaviors and his psycho-emotional development; (3) the parents' self-perceived caregiver be- haviors and the child's fantasy play; (4) the child's per- ception of his parents' caregiver behaviors and his fantasy play; (5) the child's psycho-emotional development and his fantasy play. Since a plethora of research--by no means conclusive --now exists on the relationship between child-rearing prac- tices and children's psycho-social development (see Mussen, 1970), children's perceptions of their parents' behaviors and their psycho-social development (Bronfenbrenner, 1961; Goldin, 1969; Michaels, et al., 1977; Serot and Teevan, 1961; Schaefer, 1965), and children's social behaviors and their fantasy play (see reviews by Levin and Wardwell, 1962; Singer and Singer, 1976), the focus of the present investi- gation was on children's perceptions of their parents' care- giver behaviors, the parents' self—perception of their care- giving behaviors, and the children's fantasy play. Indeed, it is here that an auspicious hiatus exists in the literature. Yet the effects of caregiver attitudes and practices upon children cannot be adequately understood without a thorough exploration of the very language children most naturally use .A o- 'i O [n .4... v..- e O-- ‘A '5 V.» (II 5‘ ' (I, 5 to communicate their experiencing of their worlds-—their fantasy play. It was toward the bridging of this gap and further exploring the tapestry of the child's inner world that the present study was aimed. Children's Psycho-social Adjustment A pivotal construct in the present investigation is what is referred to as children's "psycho-social adjustment." This admittedly rather lofty phrase is intended to denote the broad domain of behaviors indicative of the child's ability to effectively, competently, and masterfully respond to and act upon various aspects of the internal/external en- vironment--what traditionally has been termed "positive mental health." Clearly, the process of delineating such behaviors is fraught with the biases of cultural, social, and personal perceptions, values, and attitudes. Nonethe- less, a number of psychological theorists have grappled with this specter of cultural-personal subjectivism in attempting to define trans-cultural criterias of healthy psychological functioning (e.g., Allport, 1960; Besell and Palomares, 1970; Jahoda, 1958; Lindemann, 1955; Maslow, 1962; Stollak, 1978; White, 1959). Stollak (1978), for example, conceptualizes positive psychological functioning as involving the following areas: (1) Positive "self-esteem," "self acceptance," and "self .A‘ v. .‘a —.. v. I. . 1. e . 2‘ . . . . a. . ..... a u z. 1. .g. e: :- co- .4. can.- -wv- ... .. q: .3 . . .... ... a. .._ .: .‘e .c 1. ~. .e. 1. .e t. —.. A. «. ... .. :n .- ... .4. .. ... 2 2 a. .i‘ . . I ..e z. .. u. .t s ~ ~ . - he. h .‘ 6 regard," which involves both accurate perception and posi-- tive valuing of one's experiencing; (2) the accumulation of a large repertoire of personal cognitive and emotional skills and capacities, characterized by such things as self-awareness and understanding, self-control, self-confi- dence, initiative, and an ability to reason and learn; (3) the accumulation of a large repertoire of interpersonal and social skills and capacities manifested by empathy and interpersonal awareness, understanding and acceptance of other's experiencing along with the ability to communicate such awareness, understanding, and acceptance; (4) the ac— cumulation of skills involving mastery of body functions and somatic capacities and capabilities; (5) the accumula- tion of skills involving mastery of the environment and its objects. Thus "high psycho-social adjustment" refers to various degrees of competent functioning along these five dimensions. More globally it involves the ability to ac- curately perceive, evaluate, and effectively act upon the internal/external environment so as to maximize adaptation. The degree of psycho-social adjustment of the chil- dren in the current investigation was determined by inven- tories filled out by the parents and teachers of the children, inventories which were intended to assess the relevant dimensions of psychological competence (see Appendix C). .~. -~. 4. n. -. .: .e. e.— In. Ia a. ~u‘ .s a V» sxs 7 Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment The human infant is born into the world with many constitutionally predisposed, idiosyncratic patterns of perceiving and responding to the environment. His/her unique ways of behaving strongly effect how others in turn behave towards him/her (Thomas, Chess, and Birch, 1968; Mahler, 1962). Thus dynamic, mutually influencing inter- actions between infant and caregiver occur from birth. Jungian and Object Relations theories hypothesize that all facets of the early infant's environment are holis- tically experienced as "Mother." The warm sun on the in- fant's skin would be internalized as part of the intra- psychic constellation of the "good mother," while the experi- ence of a wet, irritating diaper would be internalized as part of the "bad mother" constellation. Thus any number of situational factors, totally irrespective of the actual caregivers' behaviors, can effect the infant's experiencing of his/her caregivers (Guntrip, 1969; Jung, 1956; Kernberg, 1976; Mahler, 1976; Neuman, 1976). To quote Neuman, "A 'gocd' personal mother can become for her child a 'terrible' mother through the preponderance of negative transpersonal factors such as sickness or affliction" (Neuman, 1976, p. 73). In Piaget's (1962) terms, the primary, assimilated schemas that define the experience of "mother" are altered by factors that have nothing to do with the actual, personal mother. 8 Clearly the interactional effects between child and. caregiver are immensely complex, with much of the variance in terms of the child's psycho-social adjustment being pos- sibly attribted to factors having little directly to do with the parents' caregiving practices. Yet it is just as apparent that caregiver behaviors do have a profound influence on children's psycho—emotional development. The literature is replete with studies attempt- ing to discern the dimensions and directions of these effects (see Mussen, 1970). From the psychoanalytic perspective, parental behaviors would have a great influence on the sever- ity of superego conflicts, whereby a stricter, more punitive approach would be internalized by the child as a harsher superego constellation, manifesting a more "global condem- nation" of the self for its socially distonic impulses (Gould, 1972). For social learning theorists, parents play a key role as reinforcement agents and models for their chil- dren (Bandura, 1969; Dollard and Miller, 1950). More important to the humanistic school of thought is the quality of the relationship between parent and child, whereby the parents, through behaviors that communicate empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard for the child, create a psychologically safe environment that frees the child's motivation towards self-actualization (Axline, 1947; Maslow, 1962; Moustakas, 1959; Rogers, 1961; Stollak, 1978). p-o A . - . A: .s. 9 The present research alligned itself with the psycho- philosophy of this latter school of thought, and thus studies will here be reviewed from this orientation; A consistent trend in the multifarious research on child rearing attitudes, caregiver behaviors, and child psycho-social adjustment is the finding that warm, accepting parental behaviors, coupled with firm, clearly deliniated and explicated limit setting are positively associated with children's behaviors indicative of high psycho-social compe- tence (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; Becker, 1964; Coopersmith, 1967; Hoffman, 1963; Liberman, et al., 1971; Mussen, 1970). Baumrind (1967) and Baumrind and Black (1970), in studying parental behaviors related to three empirically determined patterns of socio-emotional behaviors in pre- school children, found that children who were rated as being highly explorative, mature, self-reliant, and socially re- sponsible (Pattern I), had parents who in structured inter- view and observed parent-child interactions were found to be more loving, understanding, demanding, and controlling (“authoritative") as compared to the parents of children who were rated as more withdrawn, distrustful, "dysphoric and disaffiliated" (Pattern II). Pattern II children had parents who were less affectionate and more punitive, detached, and controlling ("authoritarian") than Pattern I parents. The parents of the children who were rated as immature, lacking in self-control and self-reliance (Pattern III), were found A... 10 to be relatively warm though non-demanding and non-controll- ing, which Baumrind called "permissive." Stollak (1978) points out that these parents' behaviors are more accurately termed "submissive"). Similarly, Coopersmith (1967) found that junior high school children who showed high self esteem on subjective and behavioral indices, had mothers who were highly accept- ing of their children, clearly defined and enforced limits, while showing much flexibility within the prescribed limits. Several studies by Hoffman (1963, 1970) are corrobra- tive here. Studying the child rearing behaviors of parents whose children were described as being highly considerate of others, Hoffman found that these children's parents were warm, explanatory when disciplining, and pointed out the consequences of the child's behavior. In a later study, Hoffman (1970) delineated three styles of parental disci- pline--those characterized by physical punishment and threat ("Power Assertion"), those characterized by non- physical direct expression of anger and disapproval by means such as shaming and criticizing ("Love Withdrawal"), and those involving explanation and reasoning ("Induction"). High moral development in children was positively related to "Induction" discipline, low moral development was posi- tively associated to "Power Assertion" discipline, while "Love Withdrawal" did not clearly fit any pattern of moral behavior. . 1. . s 1: 1‘ ._ . L. :— —. 2. u. p. I. I. .J u u a Z . v. a. r a. .: .. 2. 1: - . e 3. f .1 .. .. .... .1 .. I S .2 a. I. .2 .: a. .2 I. z. ._ 1 I. L . T. v e r T .1 c .. S 1. . . .. 1 a. .c .. S E 1.. . . ... a. .. n; w .u .. 4. a. ;. ... .. .2 .3 we a. «e he 5. . . .. .. .. .. 1” z. .. .e. .. . e . e .2 .2 : ... .: :. .. .e. a. .. .e ... .3 o .3 :- .... -.. e: 4‘ .e s. .e. 11 Parental discipline approaches that were divided along two orthogonal dimensions of "Warmth versus Hostil- ity" and "Permissiveness versus Restrictiveness" were found by Becker (1964), in a comprehensive review of the consequences of different styles of parental discipline, to be related to psycho-social development in children. Children who displayed Competent psycho-social adjustment had parents who were characterized as "permissive-warm," while children who displayed less effective, more dys- social behaviors had parents who were characterized as "permissive-hostile" or "restrictive-hostile." "Permis- sive-hostile" discipline approaches were associated with alloplastic aggressiveness in children, while "restrictive- hostile" discipline was related to autoplastic destructive— ness. Liberman, Stollak, and Denner (1971), investigating parent-child interactions in a playroom, found that chil- dren's behaviors reflecting positive emotional adjustment-- including the child's awareness of self and others, mas— tery, and interpersonal skill--were positively related to parental behaviors in the playroom indicative of empathy, geniuneness, and non-possessive warmth. In studying the child-rearing antecedents of aggres- sion and dependency in preschool children, Sears, et a1. (1953) found a clear positive association between severity of maternal punitiveness for aggression and dependency and IIIIIIIIIIIIIH;;;;EIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIILIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIL._ :_ u‘ UV -n-r‘ ~ “---v-- -— o‘-’ -~C1 v...— he. .‘ s .. . . :s i. a: 2‘ “a .1“ ‘O‘ -- \ ~ —~. 4 u .2 :— Q l. we «3 2‘ .2 ‘\~ .. .. E s C I u .. «t C 3 . e e .. a: :e C \ QC ..\ s: 12 amount of overtly aggressive and dependent behaviors in boys, while the relation for girls was curvlinear. The authors speculated that girls identified more with their mothers and thus experienced the punishment as more severe, thereby inhibiting overt expression. They found that severe punishment inhibited general activity level, in the girls studied, however when this variable was partialled out, there was a sharp rise in both aggression and depend- ency in high punished girls. Of still greater relevance to the present study are the findings of research specifically investigating parent- al self—perception of caregiving behaviors and children's psycho-social adjustment. These studies consistently indi- cate that parents' self-perceptions of their caregiving be- haviors as being warm, loving, and accepting are positively related to high psycho-social adjustment in their children (Sears, et al., 1957; Yarrow, et al., 1968), while self- perceptions of punitive caregiving practices were associated with child maladjustment (Lefkowitz, Walder, and Eron, 1963; Sears, et al., 1957). The above studies consistently point to the conclu- sion that parental behaviors characterized by warmth, accept- ance, and clear delineation of limits positively influence high psycho-social adjustment in children. Thus it was pre- dicted that high self ratings on these dimensions of care- giver behaviors by parents participating in the present .2 5. :e . ... .. —.. e « .e e... .a 7 .. - e. L. i. e. L. .—.. .~.. I 2. .1 2. u. .1 3 he a. 2. .3 .. ... r .. e. :_ a. c. 4: ac .“ ... .. .. —.. .7 a. he. :- Qe .. nu .. C. . a .. . s e 4: 2. .2 . . J a L .. 2. a. v. .. a L. r. a: be ... be _.. 2. :- .4. e... :- .... a. a. a. k. ..e .: ... ... e. . . :— ... e. e. e? ..R e e .. e? 13 research would be positively related to high psycho—social- competence in their children, as measured by parent and teacher ratings. Children's Perceptions of Caregiver Behaviors and Their Psycho-social Adiustment As previously emphasized, much of children's experi- encing of their parents might have little to do with their parents' actual behaviors. Not only might transpersonal experiences be incorporated into the internalized represen— tation of the parent (Kernberg, 1976; Mahler, 1976; Neuman, 1976), but Freud (1924), Hartmann (1964), and others have speculated that much of the child's perception of his/her parents involves projections of his/her own feelings towards the parents. Clearly these feelings have some relationship to actual caregiver behaviors, though the psychoanalytic perspective speculates that Oedipal fear and hostilities would be projected onto the parents irrespective of how be- nevolent they may actually be (Freud, 1926; Fenichel, 1945). It is thus imperative to ascertain the child's perception of his/her parents' caregiver behaviors, independent of the parents' self-perceptions. There is a growing body of research indicating that children's perceptions of their parents (Goldin, 1969; Schaefer, 1965; Serot and Teevan, 1961) and parents' per- ceptions of their own caregiver behaviors and other aspects of the child-parent relationship are related to child psyco- : .. ... u.“ .... .. .... .z. : _... n 7 L ;. ... .: - 3 .N 3 n C .. C t 3. A. a. .: ».. .. v. 1 o a. v. wg. .‘ “u. A. u~s :\ . :_ J. z. 4. .c ... v. z. a. 4. .a we a: :. .: .. 3 .. .. L .. .. a. .: ... ... .... a. .. v. .. .2 . .~ ... ... .. v. ... as 2‘ we .3 :— .-u .2 .3 .. .2 :. .... a. a. .. ‘ a ‘ a Q. .. a. V“ .. :. .... .. .. a... a. C. I .f .5. a: l4 emotional adjustment (Fergusion, Partyka, and Lester, 1974; Michaels, Messe', and Stollak, 1977; Stollak, Meese', Michaels, and Ince, 1977). Evidence of little correspondence between parents' self-perceptions and children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors, or parental inferences about their children's perceptions has been consistently found (Michaels, Messe', and Stollak, 1977; Serot and Teevan, 1961; Zuker, 1971). Michaels, Messe', and Stollak (1977), for example, found systematic differences in parent-child perceptions, with children tending to View their parent's caregiving be- haviors more positively (i.e. more "loving" and less "pun- ishing") than the parents viewed themselves or expected their children to view them. Parents, however, were also perceived as more "demanding" than they perceived themselves to be or expected their children to perceive them. A second part of the Michaels, et al. (1977) study found that children's perceptions of their parents as "loving" was positively related to adaptive behaviors in a playroom situation with a stranger. Unexpectedly, children's perceptions of their parents as punitive was also correlated with adaptive playroom behaviors, contradicting previous findings, wherein children's perceptions of their parents as punitive were positively associated with maladjustment (Anderson, 1940; Schaefer, 1965). This was explained by the b D ava- ‘ “-" .— -bo‘ .o. .u"-'- ‘....v- OR .8 pt- “‘IQU- 2‘ \c .u. I I . ... 1 s 7. .7 a: v . a» o .2.“ e « Km «2 us; ix x» k. x: . . . . . ... t . ..u . . . r A» I u‘ a .u . «a I «a s» Q» .n. A» e 3 3. C a. .. . ._. .1 2 a. 3. C ,L C L. ' n“ . . -\~ ‘3‘ .~\ ~\\ . A \~ g \ Nw n .a . 9v ‘4‘ .hw “‘ a \ ‘ ‘dd - is u. 3.“ ~ ‘0 a. v. n. .. u- 4. .a n‘ p». a at .s L. «» \.. . e v n. .. ... ... ... ... a» .~ 2. w. u. s e 2 .t .1 a: .. e. . s v. . . s: s: s s a.» . s ‘9. av an.“ a: s. is my. 15 authors as perhaps being due to the use of "normal" chil- dren in their study, these children having less inclination to deny the existence of the relatively few punitive be- haviors that their parents might actually exhibit. From the above studies it was presumed that chil- dren's perceptions of their parents as "warm" and "struc- turing" (along with other dimensions theoretically indica- tive of "effective" caregiver practices) would be positively related to high psycho-social adjustment in the present investigation. The Nature and Function of Fantasy Play In reviewing the myriad of theories on the nature and function of fantasy play, two broad distinctions become evident. Fantasy appears to serve as a defensive strategy to assuage fear and anxiety (Freud, 1936; Freud, 1953; Gould, 1972; Kardos and Peto, 1956; Sandler and Nagera, 1963; Waelder, 1932), or it can possibly serve an expansive purpose in furthering the child's mastery and competence over the internal/external environment (Griffths, 1935; Klinger, 1971; Lowenfeld, 1935; Murphy, 1956; Piaget, 1961; Schachtel, 1959; Singer, 1973). The former aims at pro- tection and restitution (Freud, 1936; 1965), the latter at exploration and adaptation. Fantasy as a defensive strategy is exemplified in the psychoanalytic interpretation of fantasy play as being a -1 -0-.- "----o‘ . . .¢~ c. :h F». .- .: .. u .3 S C a. ... w. .. t 7. .: .3 . a z. 3 n t a. .3 . .: v. .3 z. 3 .. I .u C .3 .. :. ._. .. T. w. .. .u A. Z a. a. z. .. s. .. .. .2 z. :. .. .. .u ... ... T. .... c. r. ”a .2 .z .2 . . .. I u. a. z. 3 C b‘. \ S ‘5 I “‘s‘ «.- 16 cathartic release and compromised fulfillment of primitive, repressed, ego-distonic libidinal striving and impulses, with the temporary suspension of ego alleviating the anxi- ety and guilt normally associated with these strivings (Freud, 1936; 1965; Freud, 1953; Gould, 1972; Kardos and Peto, 1956; Sandler and Nagera, 1963; Waelder, 1932). Fantasy here is theorized to allow expression and integra- tion of anxiety arousing wishes and fears through exaggera- tion and symbolic representation which buffer and distance the child from the direct impact of what is being expressed. The "repetition compulsion" (Freud, l953)—-a perpetual re- enacting of a traumatic event under safe circumstances in an attempt to gain mastery over a situation in which the child previously felt helpless--is an exaggerated instance of fantasy play serving defensive ends. Fantasy as a means of expansion and adaptation is conceptualized by Piaget (1961) who, while also pointing out its wishfulfilling purpose, further speculates that through fantasy play the child is able to assimilate reality in such a manner so that the ego can effectively integrate it rather than be overwhelmed by it. Pre-existing schemas are thus both consolidated and altered in the fantasy play to better accommodate reality. Expanding on these formulations, Singer (1973; 1975) applies Tomkins' (1962; 1963) theory of affects to a theory of fantasy play, noting that imaginative play reduces the =-'.‘. -A 5a..-- - ‘0 A..- u... s... \ - .-.~ " \.. 17 novelty and complexity of new experiences which would otherwise evoke feelings of anxiety and fear. Instead, the resulting reduction of neural stimulation arouses interest- joy affects, the child thus wanting and being better able to adapt and master the new information. Singer summarizes, "(Fantasy play) is a form of exploration, a controlled ex- amination of novelty and gradual assimilation of that novel- ty, that is accompanied by the altering affects of interest, surprise, and joy. The exploration is not of the physical environment but of a stimulus field created by the child's own insufficiently assimilated experiences and fantasies or memories of adult interactions and communications" (Singer and Singer, 1976, p. 12). Klinger (1971), borrowing from stimulus-response and information processing theories, stresses that children's fantasy activities orient around their "current concerns"-- "interrupted but nonabandoned instrumental response se- quences." Fantasy play is thus a further attempt at instru- mental adaptation as well as emotional integration. Current concerns have associated with them affects, expect- ancies, memories, and schemas of sequencial Operant be- haviors. The child, in his/her fantasy play, tries out new combinations of these old schemas, grouped along the associ- ated sequences of the current concerns. Elements are thus likely to be fused together in novel ways, creating new, adaptive, instrumental Operations for the mastery of the environment. 18 Griffths (1935), in an earlier formulation of the adaptive, problem solving nature of fantasy play, concep— tualized fantasy as serving to "undertake the resolution of a problem perceived at the conscious level but which cannot be straight away understood" (p. 356). Noting a specific ordering of the "fantasy work," Griffths outlined a three-fold process, involving (1) a statement of the problem, often reiterated time and again; (2) a development and embellishment of the problem by means of a series of successive imagined experimental and provisional solutions; (3) a formulation, by way of the child's increasing contact with the world, of a more objective, adaptive, and socially appropriate attitude and mode of responding. Thus fantasy play leads to the acquisition of new information and a change of attitude and perception, moving the child "from a personal, subjective, and generally egocentric attitude, towards a more socialized, objective, and realized attitude" (p. 74). To synthesize from what has been reviewed, fantasy as a defensive mechanism is characterized by rigidity, repetitiveness, inflexibility, an undoing or redoing of past events, and an expulsivity in an urge to rid the self of a feared reality (Freud, 1936; 1965). Indeed fear, anxi- ety, and guilt are the dominant affects motivating the de- fensive response. Fantasy as an expansive mode is .'.... .- 3.. *0 - sud-o-.. -0. v". .. .. :. ._ c .. _. : . .... .. S .a E .: 3 s . . .3 .n ... r S :. C . . .: 7. .I 3 e. E r a. a. r. S ... C S .2 . .... E 7. .. . 7. .7. S ”J .. a. .. ... v. a. e. S s. S 4.. 3. :— ~: .2 . . a. .3 .3 ... z. .u a. S .4 :. a. .. ... S .4 “a .. .: .u .3 3. .. 3. ... e. .. a.) a. e p. 2. : ... we :. ... .. .. ... u. .. C .t .. .... ... a... L. a 2. Lu .a. C .u a . .: .2 a. a e .o . 3. s e . a: .1. s . s“ as a. s. s x a c 19 characterized by flexibility, variety, a seeking and explo- ration of novelty, and an embracement of the external world in an attempt to assimilate and bring into the self some newly discovered, exciting aspect of reality. Indeed ex- citement, interest, and joy are the motivating and associ- ated affects of this form of play (Singer, 1973; Singer and Singer, 1976). Clearly there are innumerable circumstances and events that evoke terror, dread, and angst in the human organism, necessitating temporary and long term mobiliza- tion of defensive stratagems. However, Maslow (1962), Rogers (1961), and others have argued that a fundamental sense of "psychological safety" (Stollak, 1978) derives ul- timately within the context of significant human relation- ships. Stollak (1978) extends this viewpoint in emphasiz- ing that it is the role of primary caregivers to maintain the sense of psychological (as well as physical) safety in the infant and child. Specifically, Stollak believes that caregiver behaviors that communicate an unconditional ac- ceptance and acknowledgment of the validity of the child's thoughts, feelings, and experiencing function to maintain this sense of psychological safety, self worth and what Gould (1972) calls "entitlement." Furthermore, clear com- munication to the child of the caregivers' thoughts, feel- ings, and experiencing of the world, along with well defined A. v. 3. o .. a. I .3 —.. ... .. . Z .3 ”a p . .3 —.. .: ... a. .. v . . . . .3 .3 .. .06 ”I V. V. C. Qua I. H». Wu. .3” “g .u .3 3 x . “ ... .. n I ... .t a. .n» a. . n. .: .‘. F. 5» ~ . Lu Cw .3 20 and fully explicated limits and guidelines as to the be- haviors expected from the child, function to protect, model for, and teach the child effective modes of being in the world. The studies previously reviewed are highly consisté ent with this line of reasoning. Thus it is these parental caregiver behaviors, serv- ing to maintain and foster the psychological safety of the child, which help free him/her to use fantasy play as an expansive strategy in the acquisition of modes of respond- ing and adapting to the environment. Likewise, parental behaviors that disturb the child's sense of safety only serve to augment his/her need to use fantasy play as a de- fensive mechanism in c0ping with the feelings of fear, anxiety, helplessness, and loneliness that are thus aroused. To paraphrase Klinger (1971), fantasy is not only a response associated with the absence of "compelling external stimula- tion," but mature, highly developed, expansive fantasy play necessitates the absence of compelling internal psycholog- ical conflict. Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Fantasy Play Relevant to the preceding line of deduction is Singer's (1973) speculation that much of the highly aggres- sive, "dark" side of children's fantasy play derives from their frightening experiences with significant others, par- ticularly parents who tease, threaten, and punish the child. 21 The child in these moments is overwhelmed with a sense of psychological non-safety (Maslow, 1961; Stollak, 1978) and uses the fantasy play to cope with the terror and angst that is thereby evoked. These frightening experiences with parents are the "material which the child then attempts to assimilate in grossly exaggerated or distorted form into his narrow range of schemata" (Singer, 1973, p. 232). Thus it is through exaggeration and elaboration that children desensitize themselves to their disturbing experiences with caregivers, thereby attempting to regain a sense of mastery and control. Following these assumptions, one would speculate that children who experience their parents as frightening would display high amounts of exaggeratedly aggressive, frightening fantasy play. Similarly, children who do not experience their parents as frightening--and again, the essence of the "effective" caregiver behaviors previously discussed is that they presumably maintain and foster the psychological safety of the child-~would have a low inci- dence of grossly elaborate fantasized aggression. Sears (1951) and Sears, et a1. (1953), indeed, found a clear positive relationship between fantasy aggression in doll play and severity of maternal punitiveness. These re- sults were replicated by Hollenberg and Sperry (1951) who studied the children who participated in the Sears, et al. (1951) research a year later. Of particular interest was O --b‘ . our -‘V ‘0‘. - Q..‘_‘ o A. ~‘ "‘- Q v-- v V— nv-v. n. U-..‘ .‘. -co- “.2- 3'“ g 1 v c :— .1 d u . ui :\ a . ~ .. a... E a .. s c S .2 . .. e .. n E r . .. i L .. .2 z. 3 s ... p a E w e c c a . . i ~ : S . c E a . c . .. z .. . . .. .t a y .. .. a. \-... a c . S C .l .. s. a. s. ‘3 c. as 22 the finding that unlike overt, social display of aggressive behaviors, which showed a curvlinear relationship with se- verity of punishment for aggressive behavior in girls, the doll play aggression showed no such trend. Thus severly punished girls who inhibited overt expression of aggressive behaviors in the classroom did not do so in the doll play situation. The authors conceptualized the findings in terms of a learning theory paradigm, proposing that the mothers' punitive behaviors produced conflict-drive and increased frustration in their children. Punishment here was inter- preted to evoke aggression in the children while at the same time increasing the tendency to inhibit the expression of aggressive behaviors for fear of further retaliation. Similar results were found by Isch (1952) in compar- ing measures of "aggression," "rejection," and "directive- ness" for mothers interacting with their children in a play- room environment, and the children's fantasy doll play. There was a significant, positive association between maternal aggression, rejection, and directiveness and the amount of such behaviors emitted by the mother doll in the fantasy play. Thus the fantasy play here was replicative of the actual behaviors of the mother. In a more direct exploration of the effects of adult behaviors on children's fantasy play, Reif and Stollak (1972) found that "permissive" and "responsive" adult be- haviors were positively related to mature, highly develOped . .. ‘v.. .3 a v a: ... ... v. a. . c a. u: a: .. . 2. i : .... .2 ... Z .. a. Z I ... : ... ..~ 2. 3C a. v a 23 imaginative play in children. Children who encountered such adult behaviors engaged in fantasy play characterized by cognitive and affective complexity, interpersonal aware- ness, and "symbolic expression of conflict." "Non-permis- sive," "non-responsive" adult behaviors were positively associated with lower levels of fantasy play, e.g. dis— organized motor behavior, greater use of inanimate rather than animate objects in the play, and more stereotypic responses. Also relevant to the present investigation is a study by Wowkanech (1977), who found that preschool chil- dren rated as "competent/compliant" (Baumrind, 1967; 1973) by their teachers predominantly identified with "Provider- Protector" roles (Gould, 1972) in a modified Miniature Situ- ations Test (Santostefano, 1962). Furthermore, these children perceived symbolic parental figures as using "reasoning" reSponses to deal with fantasized transgres- sions in Deviation Doll Play (Sears, Rau, and Alpert, 1965), while the children themselves apologized for the deviant acts. In contrast, "Impulsive/Withdrawn" children predom- inantly identified with "Aggressor" roles and displayed "continued deviant aggression" in their responses to fanta- sized transgressions. Wowkanech concludes, "It seems like- ly that strong identification with at least one stable parent figure, usually of the same sex, who is also general- ly 'permissive, nurturent,’ vs. 'cold, restrictive,’ is --O‘ -....." c. 4—- u."‘ w. L- u. .2 2. Z .3 .. ... 24 conducive to the promotion of the child's fantasy expres- sion as a means of achieving 'catharsis' and/or 'ego mastery'" (p. 18). The importance of this study lies in the fact that it is the only one in the current literature that addresses the relationship between children's perceptions of their parents' disciplinary behaviors, their psycho-social com- petency, and dimensions of their fantasy play. It was pre- cisely the surprising paucity of research in this area that served as a key impetus for the present investigation, ex- panding on Wowkanech's contribution by additionally explor- ing the parents' self-perceptions of their caregiver behaviors in relation to the children's perceptions, psycho- social adjustment, and fantasy play. To reiterate, the importance of studying children's fantasy play lies in the fact that whether the function of the play is "expansive" or "defensive," it is first and foremost communicative-~expressing the child's perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and experiencing of his/her world. It is thus a "live, dynamic, individual language indispensable for the expression of subjective feelings, for which collec- tivelanguage alone is inadequate" (Piaget, 1962, p. 167). It is "exactly suited to the nature of what is signified" (Piaget, 1962, p. 155), often being "an expression of an intuitive idea that cannot yet be formulated in any other or better way" (Campbell, 1971, p. 307). It can be an a.er--- ; -~~ -.c~-~--. . .----- 1 \u— fi.-- .0 I n ‘ , V-I‘- ‘ 5 . .vn.‘ .--.-os’ ‘ V-.. v- 2' ‘b‘ ‘,.' '- . a- ‘h H -- . ~ u av....‘- .- . . :‘n. ~ .-av : o r-“ :~-~ - V..\ “-V w - \ 9., \{i ‘Q‘ ' “ o. I. ~ g‘ v L! ~ §“v ‘s t is ~ :‘v we be \- ‘5 v A ‘ ‘u':'-..‘ g \ “ A \s M h 5‘s Q. “h ‘A‘ . t.‘ bug-L ‘5 C: s ‘. "J w u‘ "s. I: ‘4 25 expression of the numinous, a "bridge thrown out towards an unseen shore" (Campbell, 1971, p. 311). Fantasy play is thus a metaphorical, analogic mode of communicating, under- standing, problem solving, and knowing (Campbell, 1971; Fromm, 1955; French and Fromm, 1964; Lowenfeld, 1935; Neuman, 1954; Samples, 1976), indispensable for the under- standing of the effect of parental caregiver behaviors on the child. Measurement of Children's Fantasy Play The current study used the Lowenfeld World View Technique (Lowenfeld, 1935; 1938; 1939) to explore the fan- tasy play of the children who participated. The technique consists of a small sandbox and numerous objects (i.e. miniature people, animals, houses, trees, cars, etc.) with which the child creates a "World." The child is simply in- structed to use the objects to build whatever s/he would like in the sandbox. Deriving the idea from H. G. Wells' Floor Games (1911), Lowenfeld was quick to deduce the advantage of such an approach to exploring the inner world of childhood, for it gave the child a nonverbal medium to express his/her perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and experiencing of reality. Stressing that much of childhood experiencing (as well as that of adults) is of an inextricably nonverbal, image- thinking nature, the technique proved highly efficacious in In 'II (b a. V- (D I” -..- - 4 v‘--- --:, --§ --.. 26 tapping this analogic, metaphoric domain. Lowenfeld speaks of the World Technique as being, "An apparatus which gives a child power to express his ideas and feelings . . . inde— pendent of knowledge of skill . . . capable of the represen- tation of thought simultaneously in several places at once, allowing representation of movement and yet being suffi— ciently circumscribed to make a complete whole, combining elements of touch and sensation, as well as sight, and being entirely free from a necessary relation to reality" (Lowen- feld, 1938, p. 67). The nonorganization of external struc- turing is particularly conducive to the elicitation of rich, diverse fantasy play, while the concrete, three-dimensional product lends itself easily to objective scoring. ‘Further development and standardization of the tech- nique have been attempted by numerous researchers (Bolgar and Fischer, 1947; Bowyer, 1956; Buhler and Kelly, 1941; Murphy, 1956; Van Wylick, 1935). This work has established construct validity for the instrument, e.g. the technique effectively discriminated normal from clinic populations (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; Buhler, 1951; Fischer, 1950; Lumbry, 1951); normal from institutionally retarded individuals (Bowyer, 1958; Buhler, 1951); and children at different developmental stages (Bowyer, 1956; Kamp and Kessler, 1967; Van Wylick, 1935). The dimensions that discriminated among these populations will be explicated below. 27 Relevant to the present investigation is a study by. Ridley (1952) comparing the Worlds of 12 year old boys with teacher rating of their psycho-social adjustment. Worlds were scored solely on a structurally quantitative basis (i.e. number and kinds of objects used), and thus it is not surprising that no significant results were found. Indeed it would appear that the subleties and complexities of children's fantasy behaviors would be better reflected in measures that approached both the structural and content aspects of the Worlds using broad yet highly specified and detailed categories of analysis. In'a more sophisticated design, Buhler and Carrol (1951) compared the Worlds of 30 5th graders with teacher ratings of the children's "adjustment to the environment" and "inner balance." The children were also administered . the California Test of Personality and the Brown Personality Test. Results showed a highly positive relationship between the amount of aggression in the Worlds and teacher ratings of low adjustment and "inner balance." Low psycho-social adjustment also positively correlated with "Empty," "Closed," "Rigid," and "Disorganized" Worlds. Interestingly, neither personality inventory correlated with teacher rating or Worlds; the authors speculating this as being due to the nature of the different measures-~the personality inventor- ies reflecting more social desirability and the children's attempts to "look good," the teacher ratings reflecting .- -04?” .-..-- ... 3. ... L. ..- ... ... ... ... .4. ... .5 ~ :- .. .. . c Q ..‘.~ a» .2 T. ““fi ‘ v... .2 r ..‘ 8'. 28 more immediate social behaviors, while the Worlds illumin-- ated "deeper" aspects of the personality. The six "symptoms" delineated by Buhler (1951) and used in the preceding study have become the categories most frequently used to evaluate children's Worlds (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; Buhler and Carrol, 1951; Lumbry, 1951; Ridley, 1952). These are: (l) "Unpeopled Worlds" lacking any peOple or animals, theoretically indicative of severe disturbances in social relationships; (2) "Empty Worlds" of five or less object categories or fewer than fifty total objects used, reflecting an inability to use cognitive resources due to either intellectual limitation or emotional blockage; (3) "Fenced Worlds" where many areas are closed off by fences or other objects, considered to signify "active self pro- tection" by children who either fear their own impulses and seek outside control, and/or wish separation and seclusion from a world perceived as hostile; (4) "Rigid Worlds" where there is an exaggeration of symmetry and order, suggesting; an attempt at impulse control by obsessional means; (5) "Disorganized Worlds" with objects scattered chaotically with no apparent interrelationship, interpreted to reflect dissolutionment and breakdown of ego organization; (6) "Ag- gressive Worlds" with themes of extreme violence and destruc- tion, found in all groups of children though apt to be more "primitive" (i.e. animals devouring people as opposed to institutionalized forms of aggression such as war) in --v¢- ...-_‘ ‘1 I. .h F‘ «v 0 ' .. .. ... 3 .o ... ~ . V . (I ... .. .... a. .. ..~ 2. ..u :- 5. .. ... a . ... ‘3 a; :u :. .2 q: .. a» C. s Q .n . s u .44 .44 .-n ‘u .m u~¢ A» e fih e 0 g V c 29 clinic referred children. Bowyer (1970) speculates, how- ever, that aggression may denote "emotional potential" rather than hostility or fear of hostility, implying an "ability to face dangers without repression, and to work through them, play them out" (p. 90). ,The present study incorporated Buhler's (1951) cate- gories in the evaluation of the children's Worlds. However, since these categories, like the vast majority of measures used to assess fantasy play, emphasize pathological manifes- tations in the play rather than attempting to measure what might constitute the characteristics of highly mature, com- petent fantasy, other criteria were developed. Thus con- cepts initially formulated by other researchers were elaborated and adapted by the present Experimenter to form the following scales: Benevolence (Gould, 1972, Hartwell, et al., 1953; Wowkanech, 1977), Adequacy (Hartwell, et al., 1953), Assertion (Erikson, 1950; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963), Construction (Erikson, 1950; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963), Dominance (Hartwell, et al., 1953; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963), Submission (Hartwell, et al., 1953; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963), Dependence (Erikson, 1950; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963), Expansion (Bowyer, 1956; Lewin, 1935; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963; Werner, 1948), and Propensity for Imaginative Play (see Singer and Singer, 1976), as well as Aggression (Bowyer, 1956; Buhler, 1951; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Pitcher and 3O Prelinger, 1963; Sears, 1947). Emphasis was placed on eval- uating theme content, though records of all objects used were made. Composite scores of Human, Animal, and Trans- portation object use were made based on Gondor's (1964) speculation, supported by Gershowitz (1974) and Pitcher and Prelinger (1963), that a progression from inanimate to animal to human object reference in fantasy play was indi- cative of increasing ego development. Summary. Unlike previous studies, the orientation towards the scoring of children's Worlds in the current in- vestigation was designed to assess aspects of fantasy play indicative of high psycho-emotional functioning, rather than pathology. A wide array of scoring systems--both specifi— cally for the World Technique, as well as for other projec- tive and play techniques-~that have shown to be discrimina- tive of high and low psycho-social adjustment were drawn upon (Bach, 1945; Bolgar and Fischer, 1947; Bowyer, 1956; Buehler, 1951; Gershowitz, 1974; Gould, 1972; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Kamp and Kessler, 1967; Leary, 1957; Murray, 1943; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963; Sears, et al., 1947; Singer, 1973; Tomkins, 1947; Wowkanech, 1977). Any con- struction of a protocal to assess fantasy behavior must be approached with great humility, for one is immediately faced with an enigma--how to meaningfully quantify the phe- nomena without losing the quality of what is being expressed. .< an. L» ... .. ... v. .... .. u. a». a: ‘. u“ .- :— . ‘ nu. . \ ‘ Q» . x z . v . . . . . r ... E ... 3 Le ... ... . t. E «In. . s a. a t a. 31 The difficulty of the task is made clearer in the realiza-- tion that fantasy is essentially a metaphorical, non-syn- tactic, analogic, "right brain" phenomenon, while the language of statistical analysis is by its very nature a highly lineal, syntactic, digital, "left brain" system. The dilemma is thus one of changing apples into algorisms while still preserving something of the essential "apple- ness." Developmental Aspects of Children's Fantasnglay The ages of the children who participated in the present research ranged from 6-9 years to 9—3 years, with a median age of 8-2 years. This is a stage of maturation typified by characteristic development in the physical, cog- nitive, interpersonal, and psychogenetic spheres. Thus a brief overview of the expected cognitive, social, emotional, and intra-psychic characteristics and concerns of this age period will be given before further explicating the depend- ent measures used in the present study. Cognitive Functioning By age seven the child, according to Piaget (1937), is progressing into the stage of Concrete Operations. Cog- nitive functioning is here characterized by a developing ability for conservation, reversibility, negation, deduc- tive reasoning, inference, introspection, seeking causal explanations in objects themselves, an awareness of QA— o --- --v ~\~ ... ... ... a ...u. . .3 v. nah \.A I. ‘~.. I. as P. .1 .2 A5 .. .2 ‘- 3. ... ... 32 reciprocal relationships, logical classification, and serialization. There is a high level of cognitive differ- entiation (Werner, 1948), with a decrease in animism and syncretic, egocentric thinking as the thought processes be- come more socialized. With this comes an increased concern for objectivity and realism. There is also a progression from what Stevenson (1962) termed "reflexive to reflective behavior," with an increase in planning before acting. Psychological Development From the psychoanalytic perspective, the child at age seven has passed through the sequence of pre-genital stages, having moved through the height of the Oedipal drama, and has now entered into the latency period (Freud, 1953). Here childhood sexuality is supposedly inhibited, with the decreased intensity of libidinal urges and the regnancy of specifically cathected objects allowing for a return of interest to the external world. There is an in- creased awareness of self, along with some ability to take on the role of others. Parental sanctions have now been internalized, solidifying the formation of the superego. This hallmarks Erickson's (1950) stage of Industry vs. Inferiority. Fantasy themes thus revolve around social accomplishments, technical achievements, and the discovery of how things operate and are made. Responsibility, com- petence, assertiveness, ingenuity, effectiveness, and n: 'r! a? 33 persistence are further characteristic themes of the fantav sy play of this stage of psychosexual development (Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). Superego conflicts are typically expressed through themes of punishment, retribution, dom- inance/submission, judgment, positive/negative adequacy, shame, and guilt (Hartwell, et al., 1953; Haworth, 1966; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). Furthermore, children by this age--with their own ego boundaries having been more solidified—-are better able to distinguish fantasy from reality, more easily moving in and out of both while being able to discriminate real from pretend danger (what Gould (1972) terms "fluctuating certainty"). Major Tasks and Concerns A significant shift at this stage of development of the child is the loosening of ties to the parents, accompa- nied by the increased importance of school and peer group in the child's life space (Erikson, 1950). Thus school adjustment, relationships with peers, development of inde- pendence, autonomy, self-reliance, and a mastery of cogni— tive, social, and motor skills all become issues of para- mount importance for the child. Specific fears and concerns of this age group thus typically center around school failure, peer acceptance, disease, disfigurement, and death (Jersild, 1968; Jersild and Holmes, 1935). .... .. ... .. ... . . ... ... .C e .. . ... .. a. .v .. ... ... a. ... v. «a v. .3 .. ... .3 ... A. ... V“ ... .. ... o. a. . s . s 4. ..~ v.“ 0 “- t “A 34 Defenses and COping Strategies The decrease in egocentricity by age seven is ac- companied by a decrease in the feelings of self and paren- tal omnipotence. The fears and concerns evoked by this, in conjunction with the tasks of psycho-social-cognitive acquisition now demanded of the child, call forth a parallel development of defensive and coping strategies (Freud, 1936; Murphy, 1962). Anna Freud (1936) delineated a hierarchical ordering of defense mechanisms, with the child regressing to using the more primitive ones under stress or where proper maturation has not occurred. The major defensive tactics of this age period are repression, undoing, isola- tion, displacement, projection, reaction formation, and sub- limation, the latter two being the most prominent (Freud, 1936). Rationalization and intellectualization character- ize more sophisticated defensive strategies and thus would be expected to be employed by those children who are more psycho-socially advanced. In summary, it would be expected that, to the degree fantasy content centers around children's "current concerns" (Klinger, 1971), the typical fantasy play of seven to nine year old children would be characterized by themes of mastery and conquest over the environment, assertion, auton— omy, adequacy, construction, social recognition, dominance/ submission, and benevolence/aggression. Such themes thus reflect children's concerns and struggles with their ... .‘ ~— --‘a-- -Aan Hwy. 2. .p. .n. u...- I _ --. - a v o a. s v ... aw o. .2 .3 a» “a ‘v ‘u- as. .p v 5%.. 35 developing sense of self, of independence and separation from parents, of increased mastery over the internal and external domain necessitated by the demands of socializa- tion and the subsequent rapid acquisition of new cognitive, social, and motor skills, and of the increased valuing of peer acceptance and recognition. Depiction of exaggerated power and ability would be expected in children of less psycho-social competence as they employ reaction formation to compensate for their feelings of helplessness, powerless- ness, and inadequacy. Highly adjusted children, however, would be expected to manifest themes of construction, asser- tion, and benevolence in their fantasy play (Gould, 1972; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). Dependent Measures Structure of the Children's Worlds Structural aspects of the children's Worlds were measured using object frequency counts and rating scales along the five structural dimensions found to be signifi- cantly related to psycho-social adjustment in past research (Bowyer, 1956; Buhler, 1951; Buhler and Carrol, 1951; Lumbry, 1951; Ridley, 1952). Thus composite scores were made for the number of human figures used (Buhler's "Un- peopled" score), as well as the number of animals and transportation vehicles used (Gerschowitz, 1974; Gondor, 1964; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). A rating for "Sparse- ness" and a record of the total number of objects, U‘ a. a. .. . ... 5‘ A)» . ,.. Le ‘ t s: L. .a.‘ vs 3‘ .5s 36 categories, and subcategories used gave a measure of "Emptiness," following Lewin's (1935) and Werner's (1948) conceptualization of maturity as involving an increase in the differentiation and organization of part-to-whole rela- tionships, here being manifested in the increased number of objects and categories used to form a coherent, integrated World (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; Kamp and Kessler, 1967). "Closedness," "Rigidity, and "Disorganization" (Buhler, 1951) were evaluated by rating scales. Content of the Fantasy Play Children were asked to describe what they had creat- ed and explain on-going events while building their Worlds, most doing so spontaneously, often becoming deeply engrossed in dramatically playing with the objects rather than formal— ly constructing a scene. From these descriptions and play frequency counts of thematic content were made along the following dimensions: (1) Aggression. Numerous researchers using the World Technique have found a positive relationship between high degrees of aggression and low psycho-social adjustment, particularly when the aggression was of a "primitive" level (i.e. animals devouring people in contrast to more "social- ized" aggression such as war) (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; 1970; Buhler, 1951; Buhler and Carrol, 1951; Lumbry, 1951; Ridley, 1952). This positive relationship between high fantisized 37 aggression and low psycho-social adjustment has also been consistently found in the doll play research (Bach, 1945; Isch, 1952; Sears, et al., 1947; see Levin and Wardwell, 1962), as well as studies using children's spontaneous stories (Buss, 1961; Kapan, 1956), stories to stimulus pictures (Hartwell, et al., 1953), and fantasy play in a natural setting (Gould, 1972). (2) Benevolence. Hartwell, et al. (1953) in studying the responses of over 700 children to stimulus pictures while developing the Michigan Picture Test, found that children rated highest on psycho-social adjustment by their teachers expressed significantly more themes of positive affiliation, affection, and love than children rated as poorly adjusted. Gould (1972), in her analysis of children's spontan- eous fantasy play, discerned three forms of identification used by the children in their play: (1) Identification with the Provider-Protector role (characterized by acts of nurturance, care, and giving); (2) Identification with the Aggressor (characterized by acts of destruction towards others/objects; (3) Identification with the Victim (char- acterized by being hurt by the environment). Gould specu- lates that identification with the Provider-Protector role derives from the children's early experiences with care- givers as warm, nurturant, and protective, and was indica- tive of positive psycho-emotional adjustment. v v-u :— ... -A‘ ... 2. ‘4‘ :- ~ g A: ‘ V... 2. A: 4— s a: 38 Strong empirical support for this contention was given by Wowkanech (1977), who found that children rated as "Competent/Compliant" (Baumrind, 1967) by their teachers indeed chose "Provider-Protector" roles significantly more frequently than peers who were not perceived to be as high- ly adjusted. The "Competent/Compliant" children further- more depicted parents as using "reasoning" responses in dealing with fantasized transgressions in Deviation Doll Play, thus suggesting they perceived their parents as using caregiver behaviors presumed to enhance psycho-emotional development in children by the research previously reviewed (Baumrind, 1967; 1971; Baumrind and Black, 1970; Becker, 1964; Coopersmith, 1967; Hoffman, 1963; Liberman, et al., 1971; Mussen, 1970). (3) AdeqUacy. Hartwell, et al. (1953) found that children rated as highly adjusted by their teachers gave significantly more references of both positive and negative "adequacy" to stimulus pictures (i.e. "She's a pretty girl eating the yucky cereal") than children rated as poorly adjusted. (4) Assertion. As was previously discussed, the children in the present study were psychologically in Erikson's stage of Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson, 1950). Thus high psycho-social development would be expected to be reflected in fantasy themes of assertion, self-sufficiency, self-reliance, confidence, and mastery (Pitcher and 39 Prelinger, 1963). (5) Construction. Pitcher and Prelinger (1963) found a trend towards an increase in themes of building and con— struction with increasing ego development in boys, support- ing Erikson's (1950) theory of psychogenic development. The oldest children in their study were five years of age, thus the authors suggest the need to study older age groups to see in what way this trend continues. Their suggestion was a impetus for the use of the seven to nine year old age range in the present study. (6) Dominance. Pitcher and Prelinger (1963) also speculate that characteristic superego development and con- flict in this age group are typically expressed in themes of dominance and control. Such themes represent the subju- gation of ego-distonic impulses by internalized parental. and social norms. Studies by Hartwell, et a1 (1953) and Haworth (1966) are corrabrative here. A specific association between themes of dominance and psycho-social adjustment have not been clearly differ- entiated, however it would seem reasonable to expect a curvlinear relationship, with either a very low or very high frequency of such themes being indicative of lax or overly harsh superego functioning and thus less satisfactory psycho-social adjustment (Gould, 1972). Dominance themes would also appear to be related to assertion and self confi- dence, reflecting the ability to impose one's will on the environment. v. .. a: .3 a u .: -— o. ...-0.. - .: ... ... a. Z .. .. a» ... ~\w .. .... ... :g a» “u. C» J. ... ... \( ‘40 (7) Submission. This is a corollary to the above score based on the same rational (Erikson, 1950; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Haworth, 1966; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). High scores on this scale would conceptually be related to a sense of helplessness, inferiority, and subjugation to external demands, in contrast to feelings of autonomy- control (Erikson, 1950; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963) and "entitlement" (Gould, 1972). Whether the fantasy play is here replicative of domineering parental practices, or re- flective of intra-psychic superego conflicts within the child, a high score on Submission would be expected to positively relate with low psycho-social adjustment. (8) Dependence. A key component of the latency period and the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, is the child's slowly emerging independence and separation from his/her parents as a necessary occurrence for the individuation of self (Erikson, 1950). Thus a decrease in themes of depend- ency, concomitant with an increase in themes of assertion and self-sufficiency, would be expected in the fantasy play of highly competent children during this stage of development (Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963). (9) Expansion. In their study of developmental trends in children's fantasy stories, Pitcher and Prelinger (1963) noted a general progression towards increasing ex- pansion and differentiation of the internal/external domain, thereby lending support to the developmental theories of O t - -.- ..u ..u .. -\~ W. ... .q— u» a» V; S .. ._ ... ... ... .1 ... ... ... : ... r v. .. .u .. m: . ... ... : ... . .. ... u. ... .. ... ... .. .. p. ... u. ”a .- Ag . . ... a. .3 . . ... a? s: a 41 Lewin (1935) and Werner (1948). These findings were strong- 1y corroborated by Bowyer (1956) and Kamp and Kessler (1967) in their studies of developmental trends in children's Worlds. Expansion here was reflected in an increasing use of the sandbox area, an increase in Worlds depicting events outside of the child's immediate environment (i.e. foreign lands or outer space), and an increase reference to past or future events as Opposed to sole use of present time. This expansion on the spacial and temporal dimensions was as- sumed to reflect a general expansion in the child's psycho- logical life-space. (10) Propensity. Numerous studies have found a sig- nificant positive relationship between a general ability and proclivity to engage in fantasy play and high psycho-social adjustment (Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971; Nahme-Huang, et al., 1976; Rosenhan, et al., 1974; Singer, 1973; Spivak and Levine, 1964). Singer and Singer (1976) in their review of the literature state, "In general, the data suggest that imaginative play is accompanied by a good deal of positive emotionality and that children already predisposed to imag- inativeness in their play are likely to show less overt ag- gressive behavior, to be harder to arouse to aggression following frustration, and to show, in general, more positive affects or indeed a broader range of affects than children less imaginatively inclined" (p. 99). 42 PrOpensity for Fantasy play in the current study.was measured using several rating scale items that theoretically reflected various dimensions of the child's ability to en- gage in complex, highly developed fantasy behaviors. HYPOTHESES The purpose of the present investigation was to ex- plore the relationship between parents' self-perception of their caregiving behaviors, children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors, children's psycho-social ad— justment, and their fantasy play. Perceptions of caregiver behaviors were measured by rating scales along several dimen- sions deemed relevant to children's psycho-social adjustment by past research; children's psycho-social adjustment was measured by teacher-parent ratings of relevant child be- haviors. Children's fantasy play, using the Lowenfeld World Technique (Lowenfeld, 1935), was assessed using rating scales and frequency counts along dimensions shown to be relevant by the literature. The following hypotheses were examined: High psycho-social adjustment in the children will be positively related to: (1) Parents' perceiving them- selves as exhibiting "effective" caregiver behaviors; (2) children's perceptions of their parents exhibiting "effec- tive" caregiver behaviors; (3) fantasy play behaviors in the children's Worlds exhibiting (a) Benevolence, (b) Ad- equacy, (c) Assertion, (d) Construction, (e) Dominance, (f) ...-l.’ :‘ F: goat—-..- . v o I: .- cad ha -;-o=b Uh unva.... o -- ..A- :a - ... ‘ 350'»: ‘- ' u R‘s ' I ~-;- um.-- .. v.‘ u-..c. 9". \- (u ‘ ‘Q an. ‘P-n' 'l‘-.fi- -.. .. 3"! A“. in..- v- “A .5...” .. R ~3:-3~~..-, U -e't- . up Iv“ Ft 43 Expansion, and/or (g) Propensity for Imaginative play. High psycho-social adjustment in the children will be negatively related to: (1) Parents' perceiving them- selves as exhibiting "ineffective" caregiver behaviors; (2) children's perceptions of their parents exhibiting "ineffec- tive" caregiver behaviors; (3) fantasy play behaviors in the children's Worlds exhibiting (a) Aggression, (b) Submission, and/or (c) Dependency. Indices of "competent" child fantasy play (Benevo- lence, Adequacy, Assertion, Construction, Dominance, Expan- sion, and Propensity) will be positively related to: (l) Parents' perceiving themselves as exhibiting "effective" caregiver behaviors; (2) children's perceptions of their parents exhibiting "effective" caregiver behaviors. Indices of "competent" child fantasy play will be negatively related to: (1) Parents' perceiving themselves as exhibiting "ineffective" caregiver behaviors; (2) chil- dren's perceptions of their parents exhibiting "ineffective" caregiver behaviors. Indices of "less competent" child fantasy play (Ag- gression, Submission and Dependency) will be positively re- lated to: (1) Parents' perceiving themselves as exhibiting "ineffective" caregiver behaviors; (2) children's percep- tions of their parents exhibiting "ineffective" caregiver behaviors. r) . . ... .: 3. .u u. . . a. ... .. a S .... Q 5. --v- 44 Indices of "less competent" child fantasy play will- be negatively related to: (1) Parents' perceiving them- selves as exhibiting "effective" caregiver behaviors; (2) children's perceptions of their parents exhibiting "effec- tive" caregiver behaviors. Y b! ...... e bu ‘- p‘vfi S 5‘ ‘bta \- Q. nu I .a.‘ «D A. .... a. a» ... .«u a: ... as ... fly ~u. I... e. c . an cflu Na Rb -‘ ... sflu H 9.; 5‘ Al. A» ... .nu ... Al .10“ A METHOD Subject Selection Roughly 350 introductory letters, with stamped, ad- dressed return postcards, were distributed to first through fourth grade students attending eight elementary schools in the Lansing area (see Appendix A). The students were in- structed to take the letters home to their parents. In ad- dition to explaining the general nature of the current study, the letters requested the parents to return the en- closed stamped, addressed postcard indicating their will- ingness to receive a phone call from the Experimenter to further explain the study and arrange for their participa- tion during the months of January through March, 1977, should they decide to become involved. Thirty-seven postcards (10.6%) were returned, of which only 10 fit the specific criteria for subject selec- tion of the present investigation. Subjects were to be 7—9 year old Caucasian males, living in two-parent families. Fortunately, all 10 of those who fit these criteria agreed to participate. Clearly, the present sample cannot be considered representative of the total population of 7-9 year old boys and their families. However, given the paucity of 45 O n -.6 ... a . Vs . v. .. .u .u to u. .u 4. .. . . a. 3C a. . a. ;. :. :u 4 3» .—~ V. v; a Q 75 gag HI .6 s 3.— .. . ... ... ... a . r 3. ... e . .5 C. .r .m .0 a. .u n L. 0-~ .9.“ ~37. Cflrre‘. A .. S tue 5, Ga: 46 knowledge as to the characteristics of fantasy play of boys in this age range--particularly in respect to the World View Technique (WVT)--and the lack of well developed scor- ing categories for the WVT. Sample Characteristics General demographic information on the children and their families (age of the subject, age and sex of his siblings, ages, occupations, and years of education of both parents) were obtained through a form completed by the parents (see Appendix B). The children, all Caucasion males, ranged in age from 6-9 to 9-3, with a mean age of 8-2. The sample was highly homogenous with respect to birth order (80% being second or third born) with only one child having no siblings. The children were living in two-parent, "middle-class" urban families, (Groups II of the Hollings- head Index), with fathers working in "white-collar" and professional occupations (see Appendix G for a more detail- ed summary of the sample characteristics). Procedure Independent Measures Packets containing all the inventories used in the current investigation, and a stamped envelope addressed to the B, were distributed by the E to the parents and teach- ers of the children participating in the study. Parents received their packets during the initial home visit and 47 were instructed to complete all the inventories independ- ently. After obtaining parental permission, teachers were telephoned by the E and asked if they would be willing to fill out three inventories on the designated child. All the teachers agreed to do so, and packets were delivered to the schools by the E. All inventory packets were returned in the self ad- dressed, stamped envelopes provided by the E while the subjects were participating in the fantasy play procedure. Inventory packets were 23E opened, however, until all Sub- jects had been run, thereby assuring blindness as to Ss' psycho-social functioning and their parents' caregiving behaviors. Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: An abridged version of the Children's Behavior Checklist (CBC) (Ferguson, et al., 1974) (see Appendix C)--independently filled out by the 83' parents and teachers-~was used as one measure of psycho- social adjustment. Cumulative scores of positive and dys- functional adjustment were derived from the totals of items found by Ferguson, et a1. (1974) to be characteristic of nonclinic and clinic referred children, as designated by their parents- For an item to be counted in the cumulative score in the present study, it not only had to be designat- ed as "applying" to the child but in fact be "characteris- tic" of him. H H 0-. ‘O‘ b.- ... I a. . v. M u a o u.b h A‘ V; -n Q...“ 'D I «Q P. .... C s 48 An abridged version of the Developmental Profile. (in current study designated as "B-P") (Besell and Palo- mares, 1970)--an inventory specifically oriented towards assessing competent, pro-social behaviors in children--was independently filled out by each S's parents and teacher (see Appendix C). The B-P gives a single, global score of psycho-social adjustment. In addition to the above inventories, teachers also filled out the A—M-L Behavior Rating Scale (AML) (Cowen, et al., 1975), an instrument that yielded a single, global score indicative of the child's psycho-social adjustment in the classroom (see Appendix C). Parents' Perceppions of Their Caregiving Behaviors: Par- ents' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors were as- sessed using two inventories, completed independently by both parents. The Child Rearing Concerns and Practices (CRCP) in- ventory develOped by Green (1975) was used to yield 9 fac- tors and 3 variables theoretically associated with positive and negative caregiving behaviors (see Appendix D). The 9 factors were as follows: (1) Concern with Child's Pro- social Behavior (assumed to be indicative of positive par- enting behaviors); (2) Concern with Child's Aggression- Hostility (assumed to be a positive trait); (3) Criticize- Threaten (assumed to be a negative trait); (4) Give Extrinf sic Rewards for Desired Behavior (assumed to be a negative 49 trait); (5) Point Out Intrinsic Reward for Desired Behavior (assumed to be a positive trait); (6) Nonverbal Rejection (assumed to be a negative trait); (7) Inductive Discipline (assumed to be a positive trait); (8) Express Pride (assum- ed to be a positve trait); (9) Demand Self Control (assumed to be a positive trait). The 3 additional variables, as- sumed to be indicative of negative parenting behaviors, were Criticize-Shaming, Do Nothing, and Take Desirable Be- havior for Granted. In the present investigation these factor and variable scores were grouped together to form two composite scores of positive and negative caregiver be- haviors. In addition to the CRCP, parents also independently completed an abridged, revised version of Schaeffer's (1965) Children's Report of Parental Behavior inventory (CRPB) (Armentrout and Burger, 1972; Burger and Armentrout, 1971) (see Appendix D). The inventory yielded 3 orthoginal factors assumed to be characteristic of positive and nega- tive caregiving behaviors. The 3 factors were: (1) Accept- ance vs. Rejection (Acceptance was assumed to be positive); (2) Psychological Autonomy vs. Psychological Control (Psy— chological Autonomy was assumed to be positive); (3) Firm Control vs. Lax Control (Firm Control was assumed to be positive). Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behav- iors: An abridged, revised version of Schaeffer's (1965) 50 Children's Report of Parental Behavior inventory (CRPB)- (see Appendix E) was orally administered by the E to each S in his home upon the initial visit. The inventory was ad- ministered separately for the child's perception of his father and mother, thereby individually assessing the child's perception of each parent along the 3 orthoginal dimensions listed above. During the initial visit to the home, each S was also administered by the E the Vocabulary and Block Design sub- tests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-- Revised. These scores, ranging from 10 to 16 (i = 13.3; s.d. = 1.89) on Vocabulary and 9 to 19 (H = 14.7; s.d. = 3.59) on the Block Design, were obtained to help determine any possible relationship between verbal or analogic intel- ligence and behaviors on the WVT. Pearson correlations showed no significant relationship between the WISC-R scores and any of the dimensions assessed on the WVT. A Rorschach was administered to each S by the E before beginning the first WVT session. Protocols were obtained for possible future comparison to behaviors on the WVT. Dependent Measures Children's Fantasy Play Behaviors: The children's fantasy play was prompted using the Lowenfeld World View Technique (WVT) (Lowenfeld, 1935; 1938; 1939). The WVT, also known as the "Sandtray Technique" (Bowyer, 1970), the "World 51 Test" (Buhler, 1951), and "Sandplay" (Kalff, 1971), con- sists of a small sandbox 6%” x m?) and numerous objects (i.e. miniature people, animals, houses, vehicles, trees, etc.), stored by groupings on 12 shelves in a cabinet. The cabinet and sandbox were made for the 3* following specifi- cations suggested by Bowyer (1970). Toys were selected and purchased by the E at various stores throughout the Lansing area using lists suggested in Bowyer (1970) and Kalff (1971). Tombstones, certain buildings, explosion/fire objects, and other miscellaneous objects were constructed by the B. Each child was picked up at his home and driven to Olds Hall, on the Michigan State University Campus, by the E, who returned them home at the end of each session. Each child was brought to a self—contained room with a one-way mirror, having been informed that his fantasy play would be videotaped. Before beginning, the child was introduced to the camera person in the adjoining room behind the one-way mirror and allowed to explore the videotape equipment. Upon entering the room with the sandbox and object cabinet, the E introduced the WVT in the following manner: This is a miniature sandbox and this is a cabinet full of little toys. As you can see there are tiny people, animals, houses, cars, trees, and all kinds of other things * I wish to thank Mr. M. Little for the elegant work he did on the cabinet and sandbox. His expertise and co- operation were greatly appreciated. 52 (the child is shown the objects on each of the 12 shelves). I'd like you to build whatever you'd like with these toys in the sandbox. You can use as many or as few of the toys as you like, and build for as short or as long a time as you'd like for up to an hour. If you spread the sand, you could use the blue painted bottom as make-believe water (the author spreads the sand to show the blue bottom). Go ahead and make whatever you'd like in the sandbox with the toys. The E sat to the side of the sandbox while the child constructed his World. The child was occasionally asked to clarify what he was doing and when finished, asked to de- scribe what he had made. Each child also was asked upon completion whether his World depicted a scene in the past, present, or future, whether the events were occurring dur- ing morning, noon, or night, whether he would want to be in the World, and if so who or what would he be and what would he be doing. The child was brought back to make a World two more times during the week, thus each child made three Worlds in one week. In introducing the second and third sessions the child was told to build whatever he would like in the sand- box using as many or as few of the toys as he would like, taking as little or as much time as he would like for up to an hour. The rest of the procedure for the two addition- al Worlds were identical to the initial session. Scoring the Dependent Measures: Drawing upon a diverse spectrum of scoring systems used in a multitude of fantasy 53 play and projective techniques (Bach, 1945; Bolgar and Fischer, 1947; Bowyer, 1956; Buhler, 1951; Gershowitz, 1974; Gould, 1972; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Kamp and Kessler, 1963; Leary, 1957; Murray, 1943; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963; Sears, et al., 1947; Singer, 1973, Tomkins, 1947; Wowkanech, 1977), measures were developed by the current E to assess those dimensions of fantasy play that best discriminated high and low psycho-social functioning in children. Both frequency counts (see Appendix F) and rating scales (see Appendix F) were used in assessing these dimensions. Frequency counts, scored by raters independently viewing videotapes of the WVT sessions, were made of the number of times specified behaviors occurred during each 30 second interval. The occurrence of relevant behaviors was deter- mined in three possible ways: (1) direct action or verbal- ization by the child to an object (i.e. the child kisses a figure or tells the Experimenter that the object is very beautiful); (2) action or verbalization through an object (i.e. one figure kisses another or tells another figure it is very beautiful); (3) action or verbalization described by the child to the Experimenter (i.e. the child states that a figure is kissing another figure or states that one figure is telling another one that it is very beautiful). Rating scales, independently scored by the raters after viewing the entire session, ranged from one to four, with four representing the "positive" end of the scale. An 54 object count was made by the author using the description given at the end of each WVT session of the objects used (see Appendix F). Definitions for the 8 categories scored using fre- quency counts were as follows (see Appendix F for coding manual and rating forms): 1. Aggression: Any event where something was phy- sically or emotionally harmed. Aggression was differenti- ated into 8 subcategories--(a) Devouring/Biting, defined as any incident where a non-food object was bitten, eaten, or devoured; (b) Direct Physical, any incident involving pur- poseful, direct physical contact intended to harm another object (i.e. hitting, stabbing, kicking, smashing, choking, wrestling, running over, etc.) (if not obviously intention- al the event would be scored under "Accident"); (c) Distance Physical, any incident involving a purposeful attempt to harm an object from a distance (i.e. shooting, bombing, exploding, throwing something to hurt an object, etc.), also any act of violence in which it was not stated how the act occurred though it was clearly not accidental (i.e. "they were murdered"), as well as poisoning; (d) Accident, any incident involving a harmful outcome where there was no apparent intentionality or control (i.e. accidental crashes, fires, natural disasters, etc.), also events involving a harmful outcome in which it was not stated how the act occurred (i.e. "they're dead"); (e) Verbal, any verbal 55 attempt to emotionally hurt or demean another object (i.e.- teasing, ridiculing, swearing at, cursing, scolding, ad- monishing, threatening, harrassing, laughing at, embarras- sing, name calling, etc.) (not merely stating a feeling, such as "I'm mad at you," or daring the other, as in "I bet you can't," but comments that were clearly not respect- ing the other and were attempting/succeeding in making the other feel bad); (f) Social, any incident that clearly, un- ambiguously breached social norms of etiquette and moral conduct that was not included in the preceding categories (i.e. lying, stealing, cheating, deceiving, scaring, reject- ing pleas for help, taking away what others want, being greedy, being stingy, committing gross dissocial acts such as urinating in public, etc.); (9) Deprivation/Suffering, any incident of suffering, unhappiness, or unpleasantness due to general circumstances rather than purposeful aggres- sion from other objects (i.e. hunger, sickness, coldness, general physical or emotional discomfort and uneasiness); (h) Abandonment/Lost, any incident where an object was left contrary to its desire as specified by the child or the object's reaction, as well as any incident in which an object is lost. 2. Benevolence: Any act of goodness towards an object. Benevolence was differentiated into 5 subcate- gories--(a) Physical, defined as any direct physical con- tact that communicated warmth and caring (i.e. kissing, w‘v niv‘ .... J ... u: I,\ .... .W 9' v. a» I‘d r C. .5 ..Il 1‘) ,. \ \J § 56 hugging, cuddling, stroking, holding hands, arms around. each other, massaging, patting the other on the back, etc.); (b) Verbal, any verbal expression of care, empathy, sup- port, comfort, warmth, complimenting (i.e. "I love you," "I hope you feel better," "It'll be OK," "You're pretty" etc.) (compliments were also scored under "Adequacy: Posie tive"); (c) Helping/Rescuing, any incident where an object was helped or rescued (i.e. feeding, dressing, protecting, guiding, giving helpful advice, warning with clear concern for the object's welfare, taking care of a sick or hurt object, tucking into bed, guarding, etc.); as well as acts of service such as delivering milk, mail, or the paper; (d) Affiliative Acts, any incident where two or more objects were engaged in an activity that was clearly mutually en- joyable, as Specified by the child or the objects' reactions (i.e. playing together, singing together, dancing together, etc.), as well as acts of generosity, care, goodwill, and joyful social events not included in the preceding cate- gories (i.e. gift giving, sharing, social gatherings like parties, picnics, sporting events, weddings, parades, etc.); (e) Satisfying Experiences, anytime an object was feeling satisfied, happy, content, as specified by the child direct- ly or through the object, due to general circumstances or specific acts by others (i.e. "I feel good today," "What a wonderful night's sleep," "The little girl was fed by her mother and felt great," etc.). 57 3. Dominance: Any act of controlling, ordering, commanding, forcing, demanding, restraining, arresting, or in any other way forcing one's will on another (i.e. "StOp that!" "Come here!" "You guys are under arrest," "The witch cast a spell so the girl couldn't move," "Superman grabbed him and wouldn't let him go" (this would not be scored "Direct Physical" unless the child stated that Super- man was trying to hurt the person), etc.). The incidents here did not involve mere requests, giving the impression that two equals are interacting, but instead gave a clear sense that one object was or was trying to be more powerful than the other. 4. Construction: Events that involved physical building, creating, or producting, as depicted through the objects or through the child himself pretending to be a machine building something. The incidents here do not mere- ly involve the child creating a World scene, but are defined by the specific use of objects or oneself to depict the building of something (i.e. "They're building a road," "These workmen are constructing a house," "They're clearing the land to build a housing project," "I'm a crane digging out the lake" (not merely the fact that the child used his hands to dig but that he specifically stated he was some kind of construction equipment building something), etc.). It is important to note that construction equipment could be used for destructive purposes, such as a crane 58 intentionally chopping off a person's head, at which point- it would be scored as "Aggression: Direct Physical." 5. Adequacy: Any evaluative or judgmental refer- ence about the characteristics of something or attribution of positive or negative qualities to it. Adequacy was dif- ferentiated into 2 sub-categories--(a) Positive Adequacy, where the child directly or through another object attribut- ed a positive quality or characteristic to an object (i.e. "You're beautiful," "The pretty princess," "She was strong and kind," etc.). Generally any use of a complimentary adjective, such as "wonderful," "cute," "smart," "generous," "honest," and the like, would be scored under Adequacy: Positive, though sometimes only context can define whether a description is meant positively or negatively. Thus, the "little, tiny puppy" might infer a positive cuteness or a negative helplessness. Furthermore, it might merely be descriptive without implied valuing, in which case it would not be scored at all. Complementary adjectives that became a part of and object's name, such as "the Good Fairy," were only scored one. (b) Negative Adequacy, in which the child directly or through another object attributed a negative quality or characteristic to an object (i.e. "You're ugly," "He was a cruel wolf," "That's a stupid house," etc.). 6. Submission: Any act of obeying, giving into the demands of another, following orders, going along with what one was told to do, cowering, feeling ashamed or embarrassed. 59 Events here did not involve the mere c00peration with a- request but clearly gave the sense of an object willfully following the orders, demands, or commands of another object that was more powerful (i.e. "They obeyed the King's command," "They did exactly what she told them to do," "I'm embarrassed," "The dOg was ashamed," etc.). Any ex— plicit act of deference was also scored here, such as bowing. 7. Assertion: Any act involving asserting oneself to gain or maintain what one wanted. Assertion was differ- entiated into 2 sub-categories--(a) Reactive, as reflected in assertion against the restrictions, demands, or commands of others or the environment (i.e. "She refused to do what she was told to," "The river tried to sweep him in but he hung on," "It was real hot but he didn't let that stop him from playing," etc.); (b) Initiated, as shown in assertive acts to gain what one wanted that were not in response to external constrictions or demands, but rather acts that gave a sense of independence, self-sufficiency, resourceful- ness, masterfulness, confidence, pride, effectiveness, autonomy, daringness, exploration (i.e. "The little girl tied her shoes all by herself," "She knew she could do it," "I don't need any help in building this road," "They were proud of the job they did all on their own," etc.). 8. Dependence: Any incident involving the seeking of aid, comfort, help, consolation, forgiveness, support, protection, guidance, advice, care, succorance (i.e. "They 60 asked for someone to come pick them up," "Please make me something to eat," "The cat wanted to lay in her lap," "I'm sorry I did that, I'll be better next time," "Don't let the monster hurt me, please protect me," "They asked him how to get to the town," etc.). Frequency count subscales were composited to give a single score for each category per session. Mean scores for each dependent measure across all three WVT sessions were also determined and a Student's T-Test was performed to assess if there was a significant difference in category use between the three sessions. A ninth dimension, "Propensity for Imaginitive Play," was also determined through several rating scale items. The measure was not intended to discriminate the degree or ability to deviate from the boundaries of reality (i.e. play involving fantastical events not possible in reality as opposed to those likely to occur in the child's everyday life), but rather to assess the child's ability to develOp elaborate, complex stories and themes, irrespective of the degree of proximity to real life events. Definitions for each point on the scale were as follows: (1) The child shows little ability for imaginative play. (2) The child shows some ability for imaginative play. (3) The child shows quite a bit of ability for imaginative play. 61 (4) The child shows a great deal of ability for imaginative play, creating rich, elaborate, highly involved themes and stories. In addition to this global rating, several other ratings thought to be relevant to this same dimension were also scored. These were: (A) Approach to Task—-assessing the child's general way of creating his World, with each point on the scale being defined as follows: (1) Items carefully placed for scene con- struction, rarely played with. (2) Some playing with items during scene construction. (3) Quite a bit of playing with items during scene construction. (4) Much dramatic playing with items throughout the WVT session. (B) Description vs. Story--determining the child's tendency to develop stories with the objects and scenes he constructs as Opposed to building a scene and simply de- scribing what has been made. Discriminative points on this scale were as follows: (1) The child merely constructs scene; no story or incidents are depicted, the child only describes what he has made. (2) A few brief events are depicted. (3) Several longer incidents are depicted. (4) Many stories and incidents are depicted; many interrelated events or one long story is developed. (c) Theme Complexity--intended to discern the degree .Q a: T. Q. >4 .... Q. t c Q. .... C. «\v 62 of SOphistication elaboration, and complexity of the themes in the child's fantasy play. The descriminative points here were: (1) Theme very simple; merely descriptive of items. (2) Theme generally simple though a few aspects are more elaborate. (3) Theme somewhat complex with some elaboration of ideas. (4) Theme highly complex and elaborate. A global score of the child's propensity for imagina- tive play was determined, both for each session and across all three WVT sessions, by compositing the above rating scales. Justification for such a grouping was based on a reliability analysis for the composite scale, resulting in a standardized item alpha of .99 for World I, .97 for World II, .80 for World III, and .92 across all three Worlds. Other rating scale items were developed by the author as part of a 27 item rating scale protocol assessing various dimensions of the WVT (see Appendix F). Unfortunately, there was insufficient reliability to use any but the above items in the data analysis. (For a complete list of the reliabilities of each item see Table 2.) Procedure for Coding the Fantasy Play: 3 sets of 2 raters each scored each child's WVT, with each rater working inde- pendently. Each set of raters was assigned to score one session from each of the 10 Subjects, alternately being 63 given the first, second, or third session (raters were not. aware of which session they were scoring). To control for practice effect, raters in each set scored the WVT in re- verse order. Thus one rater started with Subject 10 and worked back to Subject 1 while his/her partner started with Subject 1 and worked up to Subject 10. To assure all raters started-scoring at the same point in the videotape, the author dubbed himself saying "now" at the beginning of each. tape. Raters' means for the individual categories were used in the data analysis. Unaware of the hypotheses of the current investiga- tion, the six raters* initially met together with the E and were given a manual defining the categories to be scored and the scoring procedures (see Appendix F). The manuals were read aloud, with each category being fully described and revised as needed. Raters kept their manuals to further familiarize themselves with the scoring dimensions. The raters met as a group with the E on 3 additional occasions to code a practice tape, thereby refining the scoring cri- terias and procedures until consensual agreement was reached. At this point, each rater was given a practice tape to score individually, with his/her rating being com- pared with the E's, who served as expert. The E then met *I wish to thank Bob Bosner, Tim Grant, Janet Rostek, Deborh Savage, Jean Shackman and Ginny Teugh for their dedication, perseverence, and precision throughout a mammoth job. I) rf ll) 64 with each rater to clarify any specific problems. An ad- ditional practice tape was independently scored by the raters, with these scores being compared between raters and with the author and thereby used to determine inter- rater reliability. The reliabilities proved sufficient on all of the frequency count variables and on the "Propensity for Imaginative Play" variable which was scored via a rating scale (see Tables 1 and 2). Reliability of the WVT Variables: Tables 1 and 2 represent the average correlations of the mean scores of each rater team over the 3 WVT sessions. The values are based on the scores of the 6 raters, independently rating their assigned 10 videotapes on the designated variables. Each rater was compared to his/her team member in deriving the inter- coder reliability. As can be seen, the reliability for all the frequen- cy count variables (Table l) was very high, most being at the p < .001 level and thus sufficient to be used in the subsequent analyses. However, some of the rating scale items originally develOped and trained for did not reach sufficient reliability (p < .05) (Table 2) and unfortunate- ly had to be dropped. 65 Table l. Inter-rater reliabilities across the 3 WVT sessions on dimensions assessed using frequency counts. f variable Rater Team A B C Aggression: - Devouring/Biting .98 .99 .98 Direct Physical .91 .94 .95 Distance Physical .95 .91 .94 Accident .93 .90 .92 verbal 1.00 .99 .99 Social .97 .96 1.00 Deprivation/Suffering .99 .98 , .98 Abandonment/lost l . 00 l . 00 l . 00 Benevolence: Physical 1.00 1.00 1.00 verbal .98 .98 .99 Helping/Rescuing .94 .92 .94 Affliative Acts .99 .98 .97 Satisfying Experiences .98 .97 .98 Dominance ' .93 .93 .95 Construction .93 .92 .91 Adequacy: Positive .99 .91 .98 Negative .98 .97 .96 Submission .98 .98 .97 Assertion: Reactive .99 .98 .98 Initiated .99 .97 .98 Dependence 1.00 .98 .91 Table 2. Inter-rater reliabilities across the 3 WVT sessions 66 on dimensions assessed using rating scales. Nbgic variable Rater'Damn A B C Involvement --* .18 .36 Approach .75 .84 .86 Cmganization .40 .27 .52 Structure .56 -—- .67 Haphazardness .30 --- .62 Closedness .44 .43 .50 Sparseness -- -- .52 crowdedness .62 -.99 -.17 Area —-- .55 .57 Description/Story .42 .79 .92 Realism. .64 .80 .68 Expansion .80 .37 -— Time: Distant Past 1.00 1.00 .41 Past .67 1.00 .61 Recent Past 1 00 .67 .50 Present .80 .80 .41 FUture -- -- -- Complexity .70 .73 .81 Pbdn.Figure -- .37 .56 Qualities .00 .15 .77 Emotions -- .67 .55 ’ Thinking .oo .90 .98 Imaginary Figures .78 .84 .13 any 67 Table 2. (Obntinued) Variable Rater rleam A B C iject Use .84 -.20 .83 Propensity .73 .87 .81 In/Out Ability .32 .76 .54 *Could not be computed due to one Rater holding constant HI (I) (l (7 (I n; RESULTS Analysis of the Data Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were derived to examine possible relationships between the inde- pendent and dependent measures, as well as to clarify pos- sible relationships within the independent and dependent measures themselves. Thus the 3 independent variables--the children's psycho-social adjustment, the parents' percep- tions of their caregiving behaviors, and the children's per- ceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors--were correlated with the 9 dependent measures assessing the children's fantasy play (Aggression, Benevolence, Dominance, Construction, Adequacy, Submission, Assertion, Dependence, and Propensity for Imaginative Play). A two-tailed Student's T-test was also performed to discern whether there was a significant difference between the 3 WVT sessions on the dependent measures. Independent Measures Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: Table 3 shows the mean, standard deviation, and range of the Subject's scores obtained from parents' and teacher's ratings of dimensions 68 *t ‘1‘, *‘1 69 Table 3. Means,standa.rd deviations, and ranges of fathers' ,mothers' , and teachers' ratings of children's psycho-social adjustment. Rater Inventory B-P* CBC Positive** CBC Negative*** Father ‘ = 38.10 17.58 5.20 SD= 5.00 6.40 6.70 Range = 27-45 3-24 0-20 thher i = 35.70 17.10 4.30 SD= 4.50 5.30 4.80 Range = 28-48 8-23 0-14 Teacher 1? = 36.30 10.80 3.70 SD— 8.80 6.30 4.10 Range = 24-48 4-24 0-11 AML**** (Teacher) 32 = 70.40 SD = 24.40 Range = 45-121 *10-50 possible, higher score signifies Esitive adjustment. **0-27 possible, higher score signifies positive adjustment. ***0-25 possible, higher score signifies ngative adjustment. ****43-215 possible, higher score signifies negative adjustment. 70 relevant to the Subject's psycho-social adjustment. Scores indicate that the sample was composed of children perceived to be relatively well adjusted by the adults who have close contact with them. The sample was made up, however, of a diverse range of perceived degree of adjustment. Thus the mean scores on the B-P, which has a possible range of 10-50, with a higher score being theoretically indicative of greater psycho-social adjustment, was 38.1, 35.7, and 36.3 as rated by father, mother, and teacher respectively. The ranges, again by father, mother, and teacher, were 27-45, 28-43, and 24-48. Similarly, mean scores for behavior in- dicative of positive psycho-social functioning on the CBC (possible range of 0-27 with increased score being associ- ated with increased functioning) were 17.5, 17.1, and 10.8 with ranges of 3-24, 8-23, and 4-24. Means for cumulative scores indicative of poor psycho-social adjustment on the CBC (possible range of 0-25, higher score associated with poorer functioning) were 5.2, 4.3, and 3.7 with ranges of 0-20, 0-14, and 0-16. The mean scores by teachers on the AML (possible range of 43-215, higher score associated with poorer functioning) was 70.4 with a range of 45-121. Important to note is that though father, mother, and teacher ratings of the children's adjustment appear to be relatively similar, direct correlations between these measures reveal in fact a mixed pattern of reliability. Thus Table 4 shows that fathers' and mothers' positive 71 .oo.Vae® .oo.va® Ho.vd««« No.va«« mo.Vc« _ . _ 99mm . Honomme .wwz Om. ow. Hmfiuoz omc ..me. ask. me. " possum llllllllllllllllllll _I.1.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.I.1.1.I.I.I.I.I.|.I.|.I.I.I.I.I. oc.l Hm.l mq.| HN.I _ umcommfi .mom NH.I co.l Om. mN.I _ wH.I Hwfiuoz Ono MN. on. mo. me. _ mm. RN.I Hmfiumh _ asam.- aoe.- ...- am.- _ .«.e. m..- «0.- “050889 ««q©.I «aumwmz ucmaumsmp< m>fiuwmom fl _ 424 m>fiumwmz omo _ w>wufimom omo mlm _ _ .ucmsumsnpm awaoomlonozmd m.cmupHH:o mo mwcfiumu .mumsommu can ..muonuoa ..muocuww cmwzumn chfiumHmuuoo .c manna 72 ratings of their sons' adjustment agree to a statistically- significant extent only across one measure, that is between the fathers' B-P and mothers' CBC Positive (.77, p < .004). When comparing mothers' B-P with fathers' CBC Positive, or mothers' CBC Positive with fathers' CBC Positive, we in fact find negative correlations (-.l3 and -.27 respectively). Thus the mothers and fathers in the present sample indeed perceived their children rather differently. This could be accounted for by different perceptual styles between the mothers and fathers (Messe, et al., 1978), different amounts of exposure to their children in different situa- tions, the children behaving differently with each parent, or an interaction between several or all of these possibilities. Agreement between parents and teachers was also mixed, being most reliable between fathers' and teachers' ratings of the children's negative behaviors (e.g. fathers' and teachers' CBC Negative ratings correlated .70 (p < .03)). Again, similarity in perceptual styles,similarity in the children's behaviors towards these adults--perhaps experi- encing both in authoritative, disciplinarian roles--or an interaction between both of these factors could account for this high correlation coefficient. Equally important is the rather perplexing pattern of reliability across rating scales purporting to measure similar dimensions of children's psycho-social adjustment. 73 Thus only teachers' B-P significantly correlated with teachers' CBC Positive (.67 (p < .02)), while fathers' B-P correlated slightly negatively with fathers' CBC Positive (-.20). Fathers', mothers', and teachers' B-Ps do corre- late significantly negatively, however, with fathers', mothers' and teachers' CBC Negative as expected (-.70 (p < .01), -.55 (p.<05), -.80 (p.<003) respectively). Fathers' and mothers' CBC Positive tended to positively correlate with their CBC Negative (.43, .50), though this could be due to merely an awareness of both the children's positive and negative behaviors. These findings clearly warn against using a single inventory to measure a characteristic. They also, however, point out the problem of assuming that using several inven- tories to measure the same dimension necessarily makes the results more valid. Another possibility here is that high psycho-social competence is not a global, uniform trait but instead is made up of separate, interrelated or independent characteristics. Thus a child could be competent in some areas and not in others, with the inventories tapping dif- ferent areas. Nonetheless, the relatively inconsistant scores across inventories and across fathers', mothers', and teachers' ratings necessitated treating the scores inde- pendently in the data analysis rather than combining them to form a singular, global scores of the children's psycho- social adjustment. 74 Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Behaviors: Table- 5 shows the means, standard deviations, and ranges of scores obtained from father and mother self ratings of their caregiver attitudes and behaviors on the 3 factors of the CRPB and the two composite scores of the CRCP. Thus, for example, along the Acceptance-Rejection factor of the CRPB (possible range 24-72, higher score associated with rejection and considered ineffective caregiver behavior) the mean scores for fathers and mothers were 41.30 and 36.30, with standard deviations of 4.3 and 3.7, and ranges of 35-47 and 31—41 respectively. As can be seen, the present sample was comprised of parents who described them- selves as fairly effective caregivers in terms of the fac- tors assessed by the CRPB and CRCP, though here too the de— gree of ascribed effectiveness is quite diverse. . Noteworthy here is the general similarity of matern- al and paternal self perceptions, though the mothers tended to present themselves as being more accepting on the CRPB and exhibiting more positive and less negative parenting behaviors on the CRCP. Parents' Perception of Their Caregiving Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: Table 6 presents the correlation coefficients between parental reports of their caregiving behaviors and parent/teacher ratings of the children's adjustment. It is clear the results are highly variegated. Table 5. Means, standard deviations, and ranges of fathers ' and mothers' perceptions of their caregiving behaviors . 75 Rater Inventory CRPB CRCP Acptnc-Rejctn* Autnmy—Contrl“ lax-Firm*** Postv@ Negatv@@ Father X = 41.30 42.50 41.10 100.00 81.20 SD = 4.30 3.60 4.90 14.60 19.60 Range = 35-47 36-46 33-48 81-120 48-119 Mather X = 36.30 42.70 41.40 108.70 73.80 SD = 3.70 3.70 4.80 8.30 25.50 Range = 31-41 36-46 32-45 98-125 42-121 *24-72 possible, higher score signifies ineffective behaviors. **16-48 possible, higher score signifies effective behaviors. ***16-48 possible, higher score signifies ineffective behaviors @28-140 possible, higher score signifies effective behaviors @@39-195 possible, higher score signifies ineffective behaviors. 76 HO.VQ¥« NO.VQ¥ .x; _ _ mm.- mm.) o~.u Hm. _ 4m. mm.. mm. mm. Am. mm.u xma oz mo . me. so mH. " om. ... me. mm. mo.) ao.u xma mm mm N. .o.. mo. " mo. mo.) on . em.u Am.u a..- quenmm 0: m. o.. 0.. em. _ om.u m..u e~.u om.u «.me.u $8.: cuonmm we _ Hm. «em. ... mm. _ a..- mm. mm. em.- mm.u no.1 >ummz oz ... mo mo.» mo. H; mm.- ...- om. so. ...- om.n >umoz as _ mm.- m..- mm.) mm.) _ em. om : mm.) mm mm.: mm.: sesame as ...A.- ..on.- mo.u Hm.) _ ... mm. a..- «me. a. om. sacuaa ma _ em.- A~.- mm.u mo.u " ... m.. mm. me. ..A@. mm. >pmoa oz em.- ...: m..- mm.s _ .m. «so. we. mo. «,me. «.he. >0moa we H2000... H0502 H050... 0:000? .059. H050... 0>fifimom 08 mum ace—505mg. 0>fifimom 3:000? M03089 H059. H055. _g:a 0>wummmz omu .l+ i; . _ ...ng .mp1. 0>wu0m02 " I ‘ .ucmfimsflcc ~030ng 0.5.4320 mo mmfiumw one huge/9.03 §>flm0nmo .305 m0 mswumgumm . 5.0.8.. c0250.. 9.0330830 . w 0.30... mmmu .5502 mummy mmmu Bmom mUmU 77 The composite score of the various factors of the CRCP theoretically indicative of positive paternal care- giving behaviors did indeed correlate significantly in the expected direction with fathers' and mothers' ratings of high adjustment using the B-P (.77 (p«<.005), .69 (p'<.Ol)) and mothers' ratings on the CBC Positive (.64 (p < .02)). This same composite score for effective maternal caregiving behaviors also correlated positively with competent child functioning as measured by the mothers' B-P ratings (.67 (p‘<.02)). Furthermore, there was a positive relationship between teacher ratings of high adjustment and fathers who perceived themselves as fostering autonomy (.63 (p<:.03)), as well as a negative relationship between such paternal behaviors and teacher ratings of low adjustment {-.70 (p<:.02) on the CBC Negative, -.74 (p<:.02) on the AML). In general, positive parental behaviors correlated negative- ly with every measure of low child adjustment, though most of these correlations were small. Parental reports of theoretically ineffective care- giver behaviors tended to negatively relate to ratings of high psycho-social adjustment, while positively relating to ratings of poor adjustment, though here again the rela- tionships were small. Of the specific factors of caregiving behaviors on the CRCP the most consistent pattern of correlations was between maternal reports of giving extrinsic rewards for 78 desired behavior (assumed to be an ineffective caregiver response) and ratings of low psycho-social functioning. Thus this factor correlated positively with every rating of poor child functioning, correlating .59 (p < .07) with fathers' CBC Negative, .72 (p < .02) with mothers' CBC Negative, .89 (p < .001) with teachers' CBC Negative, and .81 (p < .004) with teachers‘ AML. Admittedly, given the small number of subjects in the current sample, this could be accounted for by one mother who loaded high on this factor and whose child happened--for a myriad of reasons other than his mother's tendency to give him extrinsic re- wards for desired behavior--to be rated low on psycho- social adjustment. Nonetheless, the finding was indeed an interesting one. Another more general pattern was found in the posi- tive correlations between effective paternal behaviors, as assessed by the CRCP, and ratings of high child functioning. Thus fathers' reports of expressing pride in their children correlated .70 (p < .01) with fathers' B-P, .57 (p < .04) with mothers' B-P, and .80 (p < .002) with mothers' CBC Positive, while inexplicably correlating -.22 with fathers' CBC Positive and not correlating significantly with any of the teachers' ratings of positive psycho-social functioning. Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors: Table 7 presents the means, standard deviations, 79 Table 7. means, standard deviations, and ranges of children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors. Person Rated Inventory CRPB Acceptance-Rejection* Autonomy—Control“ Iax-Finn*** Father 3? = 32.50 36.00 36.20 SD = 5.90 8.50 4.70 Range = 26-45 22-48 28-42 Mother 2 = 32.50 36.90 35.90 SD = 6.76 8.90 4.80 Range = 25-44 20-48 29-43 *24-72 possible, higher score signifies ineffective behaviors. **16-48 possible, higher score signifies effective behaviors. ***16-48 possible, higher score signifies ineffective behaviors. 80 and ranges of children's perceptions of their parents' care- giving behaviors on the 3 orthoginal dimensions of the CRPB. As can be seen, the children in the present study generally viewed their parents as exhibiting behaviors assumed to be effective, though a wide spectrum of perceptions existed. Mothers and fathers were viewed nearly exactly the same, though this in part could be due to the children not wanting to give the impression of liking one parent better than the other. The present results support the research of Michaels, et al. (1977) in finding that the children perceived their parents to be more accepting, while also more psychological- ly controlling, than the parents viewed themselves. Further- more, they experienced their parents as exhibiting more firm control than the parents reported. Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors and the Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: As Table 8 shows, the relationship between the children's per- ceptions of theoretically effective and ineffective care- giving behaviors exhibited by their parents, and various ratings of the children's competence was to some extent con- tradicted expectations. For example, it was indeed sur- prising to find that children's perceptions of their parents as rejecting correlated positively with parent ratings in- dicative of good adjustment (children seeing fathers as re- jecting correlated .50 (p < .07) and .67 (p < .02) with 81 moo.vee H0593; mo.vm«« nova..." (i .. _ eeeee.- ream.) Ho. mH.u _ mm. NH. mm.) emu. . oe. mo. x60 or _ mm.u om.n Hm.- mo. . mm. mm.. no. three. mm. mm.. rte mm _ 3.: 3.. emf 8.- u 2.- mm. 3.... 3. es. :3. Bahamas mm I me u ee.- me I H OH . Hm me - eo eeee. om enonmm mm lllllllllllllllllll T'lallllnlllllllllllllIIIIIIII'I'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII' «me u eemo.n me . mm.u so as ewe . we eeeee. em secure as .eeme.- «eeee.u NH.- mm.u me. me. «ene.u mm. es. HH. secure he I H05000B H2008. H052 H050m 020 m>Hummmz omo usgmdflfla 0300002 00W>HHwMu£ H0fi0m H2000? H932 H0£u0m moan/H003 .0. om omo 0.0 no mcoeuemoumm unusumsnnc 0>H0Hmom m.20H0HHnu —-——qb-—-— .0550: .mp0 HOHoomlonummm 0.:0HGH.EO mo mmfi0H 20 95.30309 mfi>wm0H00 . muc0H0m “30.3 no mcoflm00H0Q m .GwHUHEo 0003002 0:030HOHHOU . m 0209 mgmHU “mama 82 fathers' B-P and mothers' B-P; children seeing mothers as rejecting correlated .60 (p < .03) and .81 (p < .002) with fathers' B-P and mothers' B-P). Furthermore, the table reveals that fathers and mothers perceived as rejecting negatively correlated with all measures of low psycho- social adjustment. Building on Michaels', et al.'s (1977) reasoning, it could be that the more competent children in the present study had less need to deny the existence of the relatively few rejecting behaviors their parents displayed, since these children felt psychologically safe enough in their relation- ships with their parents to be candid about their percep- tions of them. Parents did not have to be idealized but could be seen as they were. Children's perceptions of their parents as exhibit- ing lax control--behaviors assumed to be characteristic of ineffective parenting--were also unexpectedly positively correlated with teacher ratings of high psycho-social com- petence (children perceiving fathers as lax correlated .71 (p < .01) with teachers' B-P, while their perception of mothers being lax correlated .83 (p < .001) with teachers' B-P). This factor was also negatively correlated to most of the teachers' ratings of poor adjustment. Here again, these results could be explained by assuming that the rela- tively low degree of perceived laxness in the present sample of generally well functioning children were not 83 sufficient of hinder positive psychological development. In fact, the children might have experienced such laxness as a validation of their ability to make choices for them— selves and a valuing of their autonomy. Dependent Measures Category Usage: Table 9 presents the means, standard de- viations, and minimum-maximum occurrences--rank ordered by frequency of usage--for the 9 fantasy categories that were scored, 8 by way of frequency counts and one using a com- posite of rating scale items. Mean category usage of these dimensions assessed by frequency counts was based on the average scores of the two independent raters, summed across the three WVT sessions. Clearly, aggressive acts (Y = 51.15) were far more prevlant than any of the other categorized behaviors, being five times more frequent than benevolent acts (3 = 10.25) which was the next most prevalent category used. Previous studies have found that "permissiveness" of aggression by an adult experimenter increased fantasy aggression (Pintler, 1945; Siegel, 1957; Siegel and Kohn, 1959). Perhaps this phenominon contributed to the high degree of aggression in the present investigation. Construction, Dominance, and Adequacy occurred with roughly equal frequency (f = 5.95, i = 5.80, i = 5.35 re- spectively), and though in absolute terms they did not 84 Table 9 . Means , standard deviations , and mmn—maxinm occurances of fantasy play categories. Category X S .D. Minimum-'Maxnnum Occurranoe Aggression 51 . 15 25 . 27 16-81 Benevolence 10.25 5.53 1.5-20 Construction 5 . 95 5 . 17 0-16 Daninance 5.80 6.12 0-17.5 Adequacy 5.35 5.25 O-l6.5 Assertion . 75 . 83 0-2 Submission .70 1.27 O-3.5 Dependency . 40 . 70 0-2 Propensity for Imaginative Play* 31 .30 9 . 95 20-47 .5 *Based on composite scores of several rating scale items: 12-48 possible score range, higher score signifies greater propensity. 85 occur often, they indeed occurred much more frequently than Assertion, Submission, and Dependence (X = .75, i = .70, i = .40). Clearly, these last three categories occurred infrequently. As can be seen, Propensity for Imaginative Play--a composite score of several rating scale items--had a mean of 31.30, a standard deviation of 9.95, and a range of 20-47.5 (a rating of 12-48 was possible, with higher score being indicative of greater propensity). These ratings reflect the diversity of the kind of fantasy play engaged in by these children in the sandbox context and the differences in their proclivity to do so. Changes Across the 3 WVT Sessions: A Student's T-test was performed to determine if there was a significant difference between the 3 WVT sessions across any of the relevant di- mensions (see Appendix H). Computations revealed no sig- nificant differences between sessions on any of the cate- gories. The highest significance level reached was p.<30, occurring when comparing the amount of Adequcy responses between the first and third WVT. These findings are in contrast to previous research that found aggression to increase across fantasy play sessions e.g., Bach, 1945; Hollenberg and Sperry, 1956; Sears, 1951), although the play contexts were not the same as the present study, i.e. the Ss in this study were limited 86 to the sandbox and the miniature objects. Table 10 presents the means, standard deviations, and minimum-maximum occurrences for the frequency of the various categories across the 3 WVT sessions. It can be seen that despite differences not being statistically sig- nificant, the occurrence of aggression decreased over the sessions while Benevolence, Construction, and Adequacy in- creased. Also, the general propensity to engage in imagina- tive play increased. When delineating Aggression and Benevolence into their component subcategories--as is shown in Table ll--we find that Distant Physical, Direct Physical, Accidents, and to a lesser extent Devouring acts made up most of the Aggres- sion score, while Helping behaviors made up by far most of the Benevolence score. In fact, according to the raters, no act of Physical Benevolence (e.g. hugging, kissing, etc.) occurred in any of the 3 WVT sessions, while only one rater scored one act of Verbal Benevolence (e.g. complimenting) having occurred in sessions 2 and 3. There appeared to be a trend toward decreasing expression of direct aggression (e.g. Devouring, Direct Physical, Distant Physical), with a concomitant increase in more symbolic ways of expressing aggression through Accidents. At the same time, Helping behaviors increased across the 3 sessions. Table 12 shows the means, standard deviations, and minimum-maximum use of human, animal and transportation 87 Table 10. Means, standard deviations, and rru'ninun—maxinun occurrances for categories across the 3 WVT sessions. Category WVT 1 WVT 2 WVT 3 Aggression SE = 20.50 17.40 13.60 SD = 25.13 23.68 16.00 Min-Max = 0—72 0—66.5 0—47 Benevolence i = 2.20 4.00 4.05 SD = 2.99 5.90 4.90 Min-Max = 0—8.5 0-19 0-16.5 Construction 2 = 1.80 1.90 2.25 SD = 3.20 2.31 2.94 Min-Max = 0-10 0-5.5 0-6 Darunan' ce 2 = 1.95 2.25 1.60 SD = 2.67 3.56 2.10 MinrMax = 0-8.5 0-12 0-6.5 Adequacy 32 = .70 1.25 1.45 ' SD = .62 1.25 2.25 MinrMax = 0-3 0-6.5 0—14.5 Assertion i = .15 .10 .13 SD = .33 .29 .27 MinéMax = 0-2 0-1.5 0-1.5 Submission 2 = .40 .10 .20 SD = 1.10 .32 .63 _ MinrMax = O—3.5 O-l 0‘2 Dependency i = .15 ~10 '15 SD = .34 .32 .34 Min-Max = 0-1 0-1 0-1 Propensity for _ Imaginative Play X = 9.35 10.55 11.40 SD = 5.01 4.13 2.54 Range* = 4-16 5—15.S 7.5-16 *4-16 possible on each WVT session. 88 010 His vale m.lo o n x0zrcHE mm. mm. mo.¢ ma. o n om ca. om. o>.m mo. 0 u m m B>3 m.lo mic male m.Io o n x0zr2Hz am. mm. :40 3. o n om OH. on. ma.m mo. 0 u m N Eb: o mic m.mlo o o u x0zrcHz 0 mm. mm.~ o o u_om 0 mm. mm.H o o u m a e>3 000:0HH0mxm m0o< 00:0Ho>0c0m 00:0Hoe0c0m mafixumH00m 0>H00HHHMM< mchH0: H00H0> H00Hm>5m :onm0m 0 H40 010 01o m.HHIo mato H010 m.mlo u x0srCHz 0 mm. Hm. mv. oo.¢ oo.m ha.v mh.H N am 0 cm. om. om. on.v om.~ mm.m no.0 u m m B>3 01o 01o mlo m.|o mmzo vale m.mauo m.mlo u x0ZICHz mm. mm. mm. Hm. vm.m mm.m hm.v HH.~ u am 00. om. cm. 00. mm.m on.v mh.m om.H u m N B>3 c 010 His m.co m.mato halo m.malo mane n x0erHz o vm. we. mm.H mo.v mm.oa mv.v mm.m u am 0 ma. om. om. oo.¢ om.b mm.m mo.~ I m H B>z 0oc0ao§0H02 0oc0do>0a0z_ H00Hm>nm H0Omenm 0c0ecooc0h< coa00>HHmmo H0Hoom H0QH0> 0c0pHoQ< 00:00mHQ 0o0HHo mcstofimo conm0m .0oc0ao>0c0m nc0 :onm0Hmmm mo m0HHom000 now 050 How m0oc0HHsooo Samoa—Eggs. 0:0 0005000000 000.000 .0000: .3 0.30m. 0000a Io>0c0m 89 Table 12. Means, standard deviations, and minimum- maximum occurrences for objects used in the 3 WVT sessions. Object Category i SD Minimum-Maximum Human 43.7 42.06 2-145 Animal 59.8 55.62 13-191 Transportation 42.0 23.61 6-85 90 figures across the 3 WVT sessions. As can be seen, animal. figures were more often used by the children in the current study than human or transportation objects, though here again there was a great diversity in the numbers used by different children. When inter-correlating the use of these three groups of objects, we find no statistically significant relationship (Table 13). Inter-relationships Between Categories of Fantasy Behaviors: As Table 14 shows, the various categories of fantasy behav- iors were by no means independent and mutually exclusive. Dimensions that would appear to be in polar opposition were in fact correlated, i.e. Aggression and Benevolence (.64, p<.02). Thus it would appear that the children in the cur- rent study often manifested seemingly bi-polar behavior rather than simply exhibiting a predominance of a single mode of fantasy play. Caution must be taken in interpreting the interesting correlation between Dependency and Dominance (.83, p < .002), Assertion (.77, p < .005), and Aggression (.64, p<:.02), since the mean frequency of Dependent behaviors was only .40 across all 3 sessions, and occurred maximally only twice. Thus these high correlations appear to be due to a single child who happened to display the few Dependency be- haviors while also exhibiting Dominance, Assertion, and Aggression. 91 Table 13. Inter-correlations between categories of objects used. Object Category Human Animal Transportation Human 1.00 -.19 .23 Animal -.19 1.00 .29 Transportation .23 .29 1.00 92 Hoe. no coo. o... No. m«« mo. Q« «0055. >UCO©GOQOQ NH . I mm . I 000000.50 «««o>. «««hh. HN.I :OH0H000¢ ...ma. mm. oH.u me. 50655000 hitch. **«mm. mo.l Qam. vm. QOCQGdEQu mo. HH. ma. mN.I mo.l mm.l GOMUUSHumcou «mm. vH. vo.l AH. «saw. om. mo.l 00C0HO§0c0m @Nm. «*vm. HH.I «0mm. «*«MB. «««mh. NN.I «eve. :OH000Hmm< I. x0290 6000000 000.550 00.004 >005 0500 0000,0008 00.3000 . b00008 V . 003000000 >30 00000.0 mac—=0 000000.358 . 3 0.309 93 Also of interest is the surprisingly small relation- ship between Construction and all other categories. This too could be due to one or two children who exhibited most of the Construction behaviors while manifesting few other behaviors and playing in what the raters assessed to be a relatively unimaginative way (Construction correlated .03 with Propensity for Imaginative Play). When delineating the Aggression and Benevolence com- posite scores into their subcategories and inter-correlat- ing these, interesting patterns arise. Thus Table 15 seems to suggest two different patterns of aggressive behaviors, in that Devouring and Direct Physical are highly correlated (.91, p < .001) while being negatively correlated with Distant Physical (-.33 and -.25). Similarly, there is little relationship between Helping and Affiliative Acts (-.08), suggesting that these behaviors also make up sep- arate dimensions of play and are not components of a sing- ular factor. Thus children in the present investigation who engaged in benevolent behaviors by way of helping be- haviors did not necessarily engage in make believe affilia— tive actions or physical or verbal benevolence. The high correlation between Accident and Helping (.91, p < .001) reveals that the children in the present study strongly tended to have Helping behaviors occur con- comitant with Accidents. This could be an important char- acteristic of the fantasy play of relatively well adjusted 94 000. 00 Ho. Q«¥¥ mo. 000 mo.m* _ 00f _ 000000: IIIIIIIIIIIII _IIIIII|IIIIIIIIIlI'IllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII‘IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII «mm. mo _ 0000H050H0z _ Hmfloom _ NV. 00. _ «mo. 0000Ho>0amz _ 0000000 _ mo. @Hm. _ mm. mo.I 00000000 _ me I No.I _ mm. Hm.I 0m. H0000>00 _ 00000000 _ «0. 0m. _ 00. meo. cm. 00.- 00000000 000000 _ 00.- mm. _ mo. 00. 00. mm.I 00m. 000000>00 _ mo.I 0mm. _ HH. mm.I *«om. av. *«xmo. «mm. >0Hm _ 0>Hu00flm0EH _ 000 >00000Qoum _ 0000 >00000. 0000000 n 002 0000 002.000> 000000 0000 00000 0000 0000 000>00 _ 00000000000 .0000000000000 0000H05000m 000 0000000000 0003000 000000H00000I0000H .ma 0H005 95 non-clinic children. It also accounts for most of the positive relationship between Aggression and Benevolence (.64, p <.02). Children's Fantasy Play and Their Psycho-social Adjustment: The relationship between the various measures of the children's psycho-social adjust- ment and dimensions of their fantasy play was highly varied and inconsistent, as Tables 16 and 17 reveal. That fathers, mothers, and teachers perceived and experienced that same child very differently again becomes clear through the dis- crepancies in the data. Thus, for example, while Aggres- sion correlated positively with teachers' and fathers' BP and CBC Positive (measures of positive functioning), it correlated negatively with mothers' ratings on these same measures. Such discrepancies were also found in regards to Dominance, Adequacy, Assertion, and Pr0pensity for Imagina- tive Play. Inconsistencies between inter-measure reliability were also evident in contradictory patterns such as Domi- nance negatively correlating with fathers' BP while posi- tively correlating with fathers' CBC Positive--inventories that supposedly measure the same traits. Such incongruen- cies compounded the difficulty of interpreting the data, though it is clear that no strong, consistent statistically significant trends in the relationship between the chil- dren's fantasy play and measures of their psycho-social 96 mo. 000 00. 00 00. 00. 00.- mm.- 00. 0m.- mm. «N. mv.- mqr 0000 0000000005 000 3000000000 00. mo. 00. mm.- 00.- 00.- 00. mo.- «0m.- mo. 0000000000 00. .- mm .- ..vmf 0m .- 00.. 00. 0.0. 00 . 0mm. 2.. 000000.500 0m.- 00.- 00,- 00.- 00. 00.- 00.- 00. mm.- 00.- 000000000 00. 00. mm.- 00.- m0. om.- 00. mm. 00.- «o.- 00000000 mm 0m.- nm.- 00.- «m. 00.- mm. 0m. 0m.- mo.- 000000500 om. mm. 0000. «m. 00. 00. mm. 00.- hm.- mo. 000000000000 om.- 00. 00.- m0.- 00. 00. mm. mm. 00. mm. 00:00o>0000 om. mo.- mm.- 00.- 00. «m.- mm. mm. 0m.- 00. 0000000000 00000009 0000000. 0000002 000000.00 0000000. 000090 00:00.00 0000009 0000000 00000.00 300.00 00 0:0 0>00000z 000 0>000000 000 0-0 0000000 000000080 000000002 00000ng 03.000000 00000000000 000000I900>0Q 00 000000000 0000 0000000000 >000 >000000 0003000 000000000000 .00 0000.0. mo. 9.30. 97 00. 00 _ 00. «m 0~.- mm. _ 00. 0~.- mm. m0.- 00. N0.- 0000 _ 0>000000000. 000000 00.- 00. mo.- mN.-.b 00. 00. am. 00. 00. 00. 000000: ->0000 «mm - 00.- 00.- 00.- _ 0m. 00.- .00. 00. 00. 00. 0000000000: " HmHUOm mm.- 00.- 00.- No.- . mm.- 00. 0m.- mm. 00. m0. 000000>000z _ 00000> «0. mm. ~00. 0m.- " 00. 00. 00. 00. 00.- 00. 00000000 0000 00. mm. 000. 00.- _ 00. 00.- 00. mm.- 0mm.- 00. 00000000 -000000 _ 00003000 00.- 00.- am.- 00.- n 0000. mm.- 00.- 00. mo.- 00.- 00000000 000000 mm.- 00.- 00.- mm.- _ om. 0~.- 0~.- «000. , 00. 00.- 000000500 0 000300.090. 0020009 000302 Hmfiumm _ 00300009 .0209. 000000.00 .00—00000.0. 00:00: 00:00.00 .000 0>00000z 000 _ 0>000000 000 0-0 00000000000 008.5032 000000002 _ 0000:5033 0.0000000 >000ch .0095ng 00.000.010.00me 0:0 0000000000000 0000090008 0000 000000000900 50308 000.000.000.000 .5 0000.0. 98 adjustment were to be found in the present investigation. Furthermore, trends that did appear often seemed to contra- dict previous research, e.g. Construction positively corre- lating with measures of low adjustment. Children's Fantasy Pl y and Parents' Perceptions of Their CaregivingyBehaviors: Table 18 sug- gests no strong, consistent relationship between caregiving behaviors and the various measures of fantasy play used in the current study. A few correlations are in the expected direction, however, as in the negative relationship between mothers who reported manifesting rejecting behaviors toward their sons and benevolent behaviors in their sons' fantasy play. Furthermore, mothers' reports of fostering autonomy in their children positively related to dominant and asser- tive behaviors in the fantasy play. Numerous unexpected relationships also were evident, for example the positive correlation between measures of theoretically ineffective paternal caregiving behaviors and construction themes in the children's fantasy play--themes that are hypothetically indicative of positive psycho-social functioning. That indices of effective paternal behaviors negatively correlated with Assertion and Propensity for Imaginative Play was also unexpected, as was the positive relation between Aggression and mothers' reports of foster- ing autonomy. 99 moo. ma so. a.. we. a. no. «a. no.. em. so. as. u as. am.- am.: ~m.: swam m>flmfimg " How mafimcwmoum Hc. mo. Ho. be. ac. mm. _ mm. «mm.- mm.: Hm.u socmncmnmo om. .vm. mm. Hm.u Hm.u sm.u " m~.- ma. me. am. coflmmflensm «H. ma.n ad.» mm. sm.n ca. _ wwmm. ao.u 5a.: «mm.n cofluummma ma. ca.u Ho.» mm. mo. mH.u “ mm. va.u mm.n mo.- somsaonm NH. no.u hm.u «a. am.u «mm. _ *«vm. om.u va.u mv.u mocmcfleco He. amp. hm. ma. ma. «Hm. “ Hm.n vo.u mo.n mo.u :ofluosuumcoo «H.u no.u om.u vm.: He. Ho. _ mo.a ca. 50. we. mocmao>mcmm NH.: HH.a ma.: ea. HH.I ca. " em. mH.u mm.u mH.u :oflmmmpmmm xmq xmu :uonmm :uoflmm >ummoz >ummmz " mecunm asthma >umom sumom 0: mm Qz mm 9“ mm _ Dz mm 94 mm - memo muao _ mmmo sumo suokumo mauucmumm :m>flumomz= _ mcwpcwumm =m>wufimom= ammucmm .muofi/wzmn msfifimonmo Hams» mo mcofluamoumm .mucmumm can mmfiuommumo ~33 gnaw ~5ng mcofiumamhfloo .2 manna 100 Of more general importance seems to be the different effects the same behaviors can have when manifested by the father or mother. Thus fathers fostering autonomy tended to relate negatively with aggression in the play, while mothers fostering autonomy related positively to aggression. Similarly, theoretically ineffective caregiver behaviors in fathers were positively related to dominance in the chil- dren's play, while such fantasy behaviors were negatively related to theoretically ineffective caregiver behaviors in mothers. When the CRPB Positive and Negative composite scores were differentiated into the factors making them up and re— lated to the fantasy play, only a few relationships reached statistical-significance at the p < .05 level (see Appendix I). These were as follows: Fathers' concern with aggres- sion (a theoretically positive attribute) correlated -.62 (p < .03) with Dependency; fathers' stressing intrinsic re- wards for pro-social behaviors (theoretically effective be- havior) correlated .58 (p < .04) with Benevolence; fathers' use of inductive discipline (considered effective parenting) correlated .65 (p < .02) with Submission; mothers' showing pride in their children (assumed effective) correlated -.66 (p < .02) with Aggression, -.76 (p,< .005) with Dominance, -.73 (p < .008) with Assertion, and -.55 (p<:.05) with Pro- pensity for Imaginative Play; fathers being rejecting and taking pro-social behaviors for granted (both considered lOl ineffective) correlated -.57 (p < .04) and -.60 (p < .03) with Construction. In relating the Aggression and Benevolence subcate- gories with the perceived caregiver behaviors, four relation- ships reached statistical significance at the p < .05 level (see Appendix J). These were Driect Physical with fathers being rejecting (.55, p <:.05), Verbal Malevolence with fathers being lax (-.69, p <:.Ol), Social Malevolence with 3 mothers exhibiting ineffective parenting skills (.57, p‘<.04), 1 and Helping with mothers being rejecting (-.55, p < .05). When these subcategories were related to the factors making up the global positive and negative parenting scores on the CRPB, the following significant relationships occurred (see Appendix J): fathers emphasizing intrinsic rewards for pro- social behaviors and Helping (.55, p <.05); fathers showing pride in their children and Distance Physical (-.59, p < .04); fathers taking pro-social behaviors for granted and Distance Physical (.56, p < .05); fathers not disciplining and Affil- iative Acts (-.55, p ‘<.05); mothers showing pride and Dis~ tance Physical (-.58, p < .04); mothers showing pride and Social Malevolence (4.55, p < .05); mothers criticizing and Social Malevolence (-.57, p < .04); mothers stressing ex- ternal rewards for pro-social behaviors and Devouring (-60, p < .03); mothers being rejecting and Helping (.60, p < .03); mothers shaming and Social Malevolence (-.S6, p < .05); mothers shaming and Helping (.56, p < .05); mothers taking 102 pro-social behaviors for granted and Accident (.57, p < .04); and mothers taking pro-social behaviors for granted and Helping (.55, p ‘<.05). Though many of the relationships here were in the expected direction, it is clear that many were not. ghildren's Fantasy_Play and Their Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors: There again seems to be only minimal association between the chil- dren's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors and the measures used to assess fantasy play in the current investigation, as is shown in Table 19. The most important variable seemed to be fathers and mothers being perceived as rejecting, which correlated positively with Submission (.67, p < .02 and .55, p < .05 respectively) and negatively with Propensity for Imaginative Play (-.60, p «(.03 and -.66, p ‘<.02). This variable al- most reached significance in relation to Aggression (-.50, p <:.07 for fathers and -.48, p < .08 for mothers and De- pendency (-.51, p < .07 for fathers and -.54, p‘<.05 for mothers thereby reaching adequate significance). While mothers being perceived as fostering autonomy predictively correlated negatively with Dependency (-.62, p < .03), it unexpectedly also correlated negatively with Propensity for Imaginative Play (-.54, p < .05). The only relationship that reached statistical sig- nificance at the p < .05 level when relating the Aggression 103 No. Q«¥« L mo. mes mo. Q« _ Ho.l No. «s«mo.l «som.l _ «wm.| mm.l amHm _ 0>HDMCHmMEH _ now xufimCOQOHQ NH.- m~.- .om.u Hm.u " ..No.n mo.u sucmocmamo He.n mm. «mm. ««*hm. _ Ha. no.l :onmflensm om. S . omf on ... n m: .n oa. coflummg no. as I oo.: om.u . mm.u mH.u somaoooa oH. oo. oo.: oo.n “ oo.u no.1 mocmcoeoo ea. ma. mm.s om.l _ mm.l mm.l sofluosuumcoo oo. mm I mm.n om.u " mo.u ma.u oocm~o>mcmm mo. mH.I mv.l om.| . H¢.I mH.I scammmumm< a xmq oz xmq mm mswuoonmm oz. mcfluomnmm mm masocous< oz. weocouzfl mm mucwwmm mo mcoflpmmoumm m.cmHUHfl:U whommumo acaucmumm :m>wummoz= . mooucmumm =m>HuHmom= wmmucmm .muoo>mnwn mca>wwmumo .mucmnmm Hanna mo mucoummoumm m.:mupaflco can mmfluommumo meQ >mmusmm cmmzuwn mcoflumHmHMoO .mH memE 104 and Benevolence subcategories with the children's percep- tions of their parents' caregiving behaviors was perceiving ' mothers as fostering autonomy with Distance Physical (-.58, p < .04). DISCUSSION Qualifications of Results Number of Subjects: Clearly, the most limiting aspect of the current investigation for generalizability was the small number of children who participated. Indeed, conclu- sions about the relationship between caregiver behaviors, child psycho-social adjustment and fantasy play based on a sample of only 10 children must be made in very tentative, equivical terms. The greatest liability here was that the results as a whole became highly vulnerable to the effects of any extreme. That is, strong, statistically significant relationships between variables could be due to a single, extreme rating on any dimension--caregiver behaviors, child psycho-social functioning, or fantasy play--rated by either of the parents, the teacher, or the child. Thus, for ex- ample, the significant relationship between Assertion and mothers fostering autonomy (.69, p < .01) could be accounted for by a single child who exhibited a few fantasy assertive behaviors, while his mother perceived herself as manifesting many autonomy-fostering caregiver responses. This does not necessarily imply a strong general relationship between mothers' fostering autonomy and assertion in their children's fantasy play. 105 106 Characteristics of the Sample: The present sample consist- ed of 10, middle class, non-clinic referred boys who were perceived by their parents and teachers as psycho—socially functioning relatively well. In addition, the parents in the current study perceived themselves, and were perceived by their children, as exhibiting relatively effective care- giver behaviors. With such a normative sample, both in re- spect to the children's psycho-social adjustment and the parents' caregiver behaviors, effects between parenting styles, child functioning and fantasy play would have to be extremely strong for any inter-relationship to reach sta- tistical significance in a consistently patterned way. More subtle effects could be discerned by contrast- ing groups that were extreme on any of the three main di- mensions. Thus selecting children who were rated on the highest and lowest ends of the competency continuum, or parents who reported and/or were perceived by their children -as exhibiting the highest and lowest degrees of effective caregiver behaviors, or children who manifested extreme fantasy play behaviors, would have illuminated more clearly the relationships between these variables. Indeed, Baum- rind's (1967; 1970) studies of the relationships between parenting styles and children's psycho-social adjustment followed such a design. Lastly, the 10 subjects who agreed to participate in the present study were selected from 37 families who 107 initially volunteered. These families, in turn, were the only ones to respond to the 350 requests that were original— ly sent out through the elementary schools. Generalizabili- ty from such a select sample--likely not to be representative of the population as a whole--is indeed trepidaciously pre- carious. Reliability of Measures: The sporadic, inconsistent reli- ability between fathers', mothers', and teachers' ratings of the children's competence, as well as the low inter-measure reliability between measures of competence, left ambiguous the degree of the children's adjustment and the validity of the measures for this concept. More precise objectification would have been obtained by having trained raters observe the children invarious settings to measure their degree of competence. Thus, for example, Baumrind (1967; 1970) had trained raters spend 2 weeks in the classrooms assessing the children's competence, comparing these ratings with the teachers' scores to deter- mine the teachers' reliability.’ Mbre careful assessment of actual caregiver behaviors, again using trained raters making in vivo observations of the interactions between the parents and their children in various settings, would have indicated more clearly the parenting styles. An attempt in this direction was made by Sears, et al. (1953) in assessing maternal behaviors towards their children through direct observations of the mother- 108 child interactions in the playroom. The World View Technique as a Means of EvokingFantasy Play: Children's fantasy play in the current investigation was assessed using the Lowenfeld World View Technique. This approach was used due to its being an unusually good medium for tapping the nonverbal, analogic domain of childhood experiencing. It further allows for various means of objective scoring, while remaining rela- tively free of an overly intrusive, inhibiting, experimental- ly induced structuring. Yet these very properties of the technique which potentiate the elicitation of a phantasma- gorical array of imaginative themes, perhaps have a pro- found influence on the nature of the play itself. Jung (1968), Leary (1957), Sullivan (1953) and others have speculated on the existence of various levels of un- consious experiencing. Demarcating these as the "Personal" and "Collective" Unconscious (Jung, 1968), "Levels I - V" (Leary, 1957), or "Prototaxic" and "Parataxic" experiences (Sullivan, 1953), these theorists all postulated a hier- archical structure of the continuum between unconscious and conScious experiencing. Traditional psychoanalytic thought also makes an implicit assumption that latent unconscious content is subject to differing degrees of repression (Freud, 1953; Fenichel, 1945). Uniform to all of these theories is the idea that at the more primordial levels of the psyche, the structure of experience becomes more trans- 109 personal, universal, and alike. Individual issues give-way to specie issues. If, in fact, the WVT evokes these deeper regions of the psyche, as Bowyer (1970), Buhler and Carrol (l951), Kalf (1971), and Lowenfeld (1935; 1939) have speculated, then one would get eXpect significant differences in the Worlds of relatively well functioning individuals, for at these deeper levels we would expect the themes to be alike. From another perspective, it becomes clear that competence is not so much defined by what unconscious processes under- lie the personality, but rather by hey these processes are expressed and integrated into the personality. (The issue here essentially echoes the transition from the early id- oriented psychoanalytic thought (Freud, 1953; Fenichel, 1945) to the later ego-psychologies of Rappaport (1967), Hartmann (1958), and others.) It may well be that the WVT expresses the "what" of the unconscious more than the "how" 'of the ego. Perhaps the WVT, in its propensity to evoke more id- laden fantasy play, is analogous to the Rorschach in re- flecting more primitive layers of the personality, as opposed to the more structured, ego-fantasies elicited by the TAT (Allison, et al., 1968; Rabin, 1968). Indeed, we would expect more variation between the TAT stories of "normal" individuals than between their Rorschach responses (Allison, et al., 1968; Rabin, 1968). 110 In reviewing the past research on children's fantasy play, one realizes that the methods used to elicit the fan- tasies tended to evoke what could be considered more ego- oriented, higher order forms of fantasy. Thus Pitcher and Prelinger (1963), in their study of children's fantasy life, used the children's verbalized stories for their data. Verbalization--as has previously been pointed out--is a relatively high order level of ego functioning in children (Lewin, 1935; Piaget, 1937; Werner, 1948), and thus the nature of this form of fantasy is likely to be quite differ- ent from other fantasy expressions. Sears, et a1. (1965) and Wowkanech (1977), in their research on imaginative play using a structured doll play technique, introduced a rela- tively explicit, well defined format which again would tend to elicit higher order forms of ego-oriented fantasy play. Even naturalistic observations of children's play, as done by Erikson (1950), Gould (1972), and Reif and Stollak (1972), could be observing a more ego based form of play since in the free and unstructured manipulation of the physical and social environment the child by necessity must make many subtle accommodations to the external reality. Thus, for example, the child must attend and accurately respond to many interpersonal cues from his/her peers if s/he is to continue playing with them. If s/he does not accurately gauge the degree of "fluctuating certainty" (Gould, 1972) of a playmate and introduces a fantasy theme that overwhelms 111 the other child, the now fearful playmate might stop play-- ing. Such awarenesses and decisions are ego operations and thereby raise the level of play to a more ego-oriented form. Few such restrictions exist in the WVT situation since the child need be only indirectly aware of the E, who attempts to be highly permissive and accepting of the child's behaviors. The minimal amount of physical and social reality demands inherent in the WVT, along with the use of a sandbox and miniature toys-~tru1y the environment of the earliest forms of sensory-motor p1ay--are likely to evoke the most regressive forms of play. Stated in Pi- agetian terms (Piaget, 1957), the WVT necessitates minimal accommodative responding and thereby allows for the maximi- zation of assimilative behaviors. Clearly, research com- paring children's fantasy play evoked by different means would help elucidate the question of different levels of "ego-oriented" and "id-oriented" fantasy and how such phe- nomina interact with different fantasy play mediums. Relevance of Findings for Hypotheses The expectation that there would be a positive rela- tionship between high parental self reports on dimensions theoretically indicative of effective caregiving behaviors and high psycho-social adjustment in their children was partially confirmed. This relationship was stronger and more consistent for fathers, where several dimensions 112 reflective of positive parenting correlated positively with measures of child competence and negatively with indices of poor adjustment. Some specific caregiver behaviors had a stronger effect of child adjustment, most of these being in the expected direction. The overall pattern was variegated, however, lacking a consistent positive relationship between theoretically effective caregiving responses and competent child behaviors, and/or a prevailing negative relationship between theoretically ineffectual parenting and poor adjustment. The finding in regard to children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behaviors and the children's ad- justment were in general antithetical to the initial pre- dictions. There was an unexpected positive relationship be- tween children's perception of both parents as rejecting and measures of high adjustment. This positive relationship also existed for perceptions of parents as being lax and one teacher rating of competence. Perceived parental fostering of autonomy related both positively and negatively to meas- ures of competence, though it consistently correlated neg- atively with measures of low functioning, as was initially assumed. Assessment of the various dimensions of the children's fantasy play also produced some unexpected results. There was no significant differences across the 3 WVT sessions on any of the measures used. This was in contrast to the 113 expected increase in aggression. On the contrary, the trend was for aggression to decrease, while fantasized helping behaviors, constuction, adequacy, and propensity for fantasy play to increase. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the more primitive forms of aggression in con- junction with an increase in the more socialized forms. The assumption that certain dimensions of fantasy play--specifically Benevolence, Construction, Adequacy, As- sertion, Dominance, and Propensity for Imaginative Play-- would be positively related to high psycho-social function- ing, while Aggression, Submission, and Dependency would show a negative relationship, was not substantiated by the results of the current investigation. Indeed, there was no readily interpretable pattern of relationship between the children's fantasy play and their psycho-social adjustment. They appeared to be separate facets of the child's life Space. Similarly, there were few significant relationships between dimensions of the fantasy play and parents' percep- tions of their caregiving behaviors. Though a few expected relationships were found, in general, the interrelational patterns were highly scattered and inconsistent, often con- tradiciting the original assumption of a positive relation- ship between effective parenting behaviors and competent child fantasy play. I 3 ..o \A a.“ .l a..- 1‘ L 1: v. V‘ f ’r“ 114 What few significant effects that existed between children's perceptions of their parents' caregiving behav- iors and the children's fantasy play tended to be suppor- tive of the original hypotheses. Thus there was a positive correlation between children's perception of their parents as rejecting and fantasized Submission, as well as a nega- tive relation with Propensity for Imaginative Play. The lack of stronger, more pervasive and consistent effects was in contrast, however, to initial expectations. Relevance to Past Theory and Research Implications for Caregiving Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: The current re- sults only partially supported previous findings of a posi- tive relationship between caregiver behaviors characterized by warmth, acceptance, clear delineation of limits, and fostering of autonomy, and high psycho-social competence in children (Baumrind, 1967; 1971; Becker, 1964; Coopersmith, 1967; Green, 1975; Hoffman, 1963; Lefkowitz, et al., 1963; Liberman, et al., 1971; Mussen, 1970; Sears, et al., 1957; Yarrow, et al., 1968). This inconsistency was also found for the specific caregiver factors delineated by Green (1975). A more thorough discussion of the possible relation- ship between caregiver behaviors and children's competence is given in Appendix K. In explicating this possible rela- tionship it is imperative to reiterate that caregiver \ 115 behaviors are only one of the multifarious factors effect-. ing psycho-social adjustment. Yet it is clear that this factor in itself is immensely complex (see Appendix K). In light of this, it is not surprising that the results of the current investigation did not support the supposition that there exists a direct, consistent correspondence be- tween caregiver behaviors and child psycho-social function- ing. Indeed, if such a simple correspondence did exist, the controversy as to how best to parent would have ceased long ago, and the world would be burgeoning with individuals possessing exquisite psycho-social skills. Given the small number and relative homogeneity of the subjects in the present study, it was encouraging, if not remarkable, that the trends between caregiver behaviors and child function- ing were as supportive of previous research as they were. Thus the current results do support, in a more global sense, the importance of caregiver acceptance, limit setting, and encouragement of autonomy in the formation of psycho-social competence. More conclusively, the current findings point to the importance of the separate effects of paternal and maternal caregiving behaviors. The apparently stronger effects of paternal behaviors on the psycho-social adjustment of the children in the present study would seem to be congruent with psychoanalytic theory, since the present sample con- sisted of latency age boys who would theoretically be highly 116 influenced by their fathers due to their identification with them in the resolution of the Oedipal drama (Freud, 1953). There has been a recent interest in studying the effects of paternal behaviors on children's development (Lamb, 1976; Levine, 1978), a trend the current findings would certainly support. Implications for Theories on The Nature and Function of Fantasygand Child Development: The current re— sults often appeared to conflict with previous research on fantasy play in children. This discrepancy existed both for studies using the WVT as well as those using other ap- proaches to elicit fantasy play. The sharpest contrast between the current results and previous studies using the WVT was in the lack of associa- tion between aggression and poor psycho-social functioning (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; 1970; Buhler, 1951; Buhler and Carrol, 1951; Lumbry, 1951; Ridley, 1952). Furthermore, no relation- ship was found to exist between more "primitive" expressions of aggression and poor adjustment, as has been previously found (Bowyer, 1956; 1958; 1970; Buhler, 1951). Quite to the contrary, aggression was positively related to one meas- ure of positive adjustment. The discrepancy here may in part be due to the lack of highly specific, Operationalized criteria for what constituted "high aggression" in the pre- vious studies. It was for this reason that the current in- vestigation used frequency counts to discern the amount of 117 aggression, rather than more global rating scales. Somewhat more corroborative of past research with the WVT was the apparent lack of the other "clinical signs" delineated by Buhler (1951), as would be expected since the present sample was made up of non-clinic referred children. There were no "Disorganized," "Rigid," or "Fenced" Worlds, though this assumption is based on the current author's sub- jective opinion since there was insufficient reliability for these measures in the present study. Object counts showed there was no "Unpeopled" Worlds, though some Worlds were made up of less than 5 object categories or 50 total objects --what Buhler (1951) referred to as "Empty" Worlds, also presumed to be a pathonomic sign. The lack of relationship between aggression and poor psycho-social functioning was also antithetical to findings of other research on children's fantasy play using different means to elicit fantasy. These included structured doll play (Back, 1945; Isch, 1952; Levin and Wardwell, 1962; Sears, et al., 1947), stories told to stimulus pictures (Hartwell, et al., 1953), spontaneous stories (Buss, 1961; Kaplan, 1956), and free play situations (Gould, 1972). As was previously discussed, the lack of congruency here could be due to the particularly regressive nature of the fantasy evoked by the WVT, in contrast to the more "ego- laden," reality determined play of these other approaches. Furthermore, there is a lack of a uniform, cross-study 118 criterion measure of "high" aggression. Thus, there may be a relatively broad continuum of normative fantasized aggres- sion which is characterized by a relatively high magnitude of frequency and intensity, with a rather specific basal point which differentiates pathologic behavior. The rela- tion could be a curvlinear one, with either extremely low or high amounts of fantasized aggression being related to poor adjustment. The lack of a significant relationship be- tween fantasized aggression and adjustment in the present study could be accounted for by the fact that the discrimin- ative criterion point for pathonomic aggression might be above and below the degree of aggression exhibited by the present sample of relatively well adjusted children. The lack of a significant positive association be- tween fantasized benevolence, assertion, dominance, con- struction, references to adequacy, and propensity for fan- tasy play with positive psycho-social functioning--as well as the lack of a negative relationship between adjustment and fantasized submission and dependency--was also in con- trast to previous findings using various mediums of fantasy play (Gould, 1972; Hartwell, et al., 1953; Haworth, 1966; Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971; Nahme-Huang, et al., 1976; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963; Rosenhan, et al., 1974; Singer, 1973; Singer and Singer, 1976; Spivok and Levine, 1964; Wowkanech, 1977). Here again, there are no uniform, cross- study criteria for these dimensions, thus comparison 119 becomes difficult. As speculated for aggression, here too. there may be a wide spectrum of normative behaviors, with only the extremes--not found in the present sample--being indicative of positive and/or negative adjustment. Nonetheless, the unexpectedly high amounts of fanta- sized aggression, and the relatively low amounts of benevo- lence, dominance, construction, adequacy, and assertion is dissonant with general assumptions of childhood development, particularly during the latency period (Erikson, 1953; Freud, 1936; Freud, 1953; Gould, 1972; Lewin, 1935; Murphy, 1962; Pitcher and Prelinger, 1963; Werner, 1948). These theoreticians speculate that such fantasized behaviors are both the expression of and the mechanisms by which the socialization of impulses occurs, being integrated, subli- mated, and/or displaced. Such behaviors also presumably express the process towards autonomy, individuation, and mastery of the internal/external domain, as the child's burgeoning sense of self becomes more fully constellated. Again, it may be that the high amount of aggression in the present study is due to the "id-evoking" character- istic of the WVT. Indeed, there are apparently no studies comparing the amount of fantasized aggression in different fantasy play techniques to help ascertain the validity of this assumption. Perhaps the more central issue here, however, is not what is evoked, but Egg it is dealt with. That is, the content of the play is perhaps secondary to 120 the process of the play, since process lies in the domain of ego while content is more expressive of unconscious concerns. Important to remember here is that competence is defined more by ego skills than the content of unconscious presses. Thus it becomes imperative to study the sequence of events rather than simply their occurrence. For example, a child whose fantasy play involves someone hitting someone else but then helping them is perhaps very different from a child who fantasizes someone is helping someone and then hits them, though the frequency count of helping and aggressive behav- iors is the same in both cases. Furthermore, the more general pattern of event occur- rence--whether aggression increases or decreases during the session or across the 3 sessions--might also be indicative of high or low psycho-social functioning. Pertinent here was the slight tendency in the current investigation for ag- gression to decrease over the 3 sessions and be expressed in more socialized forms, while benevolence slightly increased. This pattern might be related to high adjustment, similar to the ability on the Rorschach to re-assert appropriate form-to-percept responding on the color cards after an ini- tial slippage of distorting internal presses (Allison, et al., 1968; Rabin, 1968). Crucial here is the ego's ability to adaptively structure, transform, assimilate, and inte- grate affect laden, symbolically charged material. Thus it is in studying the miniscule, as well as more global, 121 delineations of the moment to moment sequencing of fanta- sized events that will likely lead to a clearer understand- ing of the characteristics of the fantasy play of highly competent and less competent children. That there was no incidence of physical benevolence (i.e. fantasized hugging, kissing, etc.) or verbal benevo- lence (i.e. complimenting or stating affection) in any of the children's fantasy play in the present study is indeed surprising, perhaps even disheartening. But rather than being a direct comment on the children's experiencing of the world as an unloving, threatening place or revealing their lack of proclivity for expressing warmth and affec- tion, this tendency might be more a reflection of the nature and function of fantasy per se. Thus in synthesizing the assumptions of numerous theorists who have speculated on the phenomenology of fantasy, it would appear that the es- Sence of such play involves the repeated evocation, manipu- lation, and exploration of subjectively relevant, pressing, unresolved concerns in an attempt to understand and master these issues under a controlled situation that reduces novelty and complexity to a manageable degree (Freud, 1936; 1935; Griffths, 1935; Klinger, 1971; Piaget, 1961; Singer, 1973; 1975).1 Thus fantasy play presumably is oriented around potentially anxiety arousing material, rather than ‘what the child is comfortable with. Assuming that relative- ly well adjusted children are not highly conflicted about 122 the expression of warmth and affection, it would be expected that aggression would predominate their play as a means of coping with the areas in which they do feel fearful, help- less, and powerless. A lack of appropriate aggression might in fact indicate a sense of being overwhelmed and an un- willingness to confront pressing matters (Bowyer, 1970). The consistently high level of aggression in the present study, therefore, could be interpreted as deriving from the functional attributes of fantasy play, rather than poor psycho-social adjustment or overbearing concerns with a world that is experienced as threatening and malevolent. Development necessitates confrontation with novelty, since it involves the acquisition of hither to non-existent schemas and ways of perceiving and responding. Such novel- ty can, depending on the degree, evoke stress and anxiety, which in turn can provoke an aggression response. Further- more, fear, angst, dread, disappointment, pain, anger, and the various other states of psychological dis-safety are inherent to the human condition. Thus competence is per- haps better defined by the effectiveness of the stratagems one possesses to c0pe with the concerns and stresses of life, rather than the limitation or elimination of such feelings. Concomitantly, effective parenting becomes character- ized more by the encouragement of the develOpment of adap- tive means for dealing with novelty and stress rather than 123 simply its reduction. Clearly, the reasoning here is some? what circular since it has been previously argued that the development of a wide range of effective coping skills can only occur within a relatively safe environment where the organism does not feel overwhelmed by threat. Thus parents need to minimize the threat experienced in the child's re- lationship to them so that the child can go on with the task of mastering the challenges posed by everyday living. Nonetheless, no form of parenting could, or in fact should, eliminate all the pains, strains, and stresses of growing up. It is these unavoidable feelings and concerns that will be expressed through fantasy play, one of our greatest tools for synthesis and adaptation. Implications for Research Methodology and Directions for Future Research: Some methodological problems that arose in the current investigation serve as a caveat for future research. Most notably, the highly di- vergent ratings between the mothers', fathers' and teachers' assessments of the children's psycho-social functioning bring to question the practice of combining such scores into one measure of adjustment. It appears that issues of interpersonal perceptual style, as elucidated by Messe, et al. (1979), as well as the different relationships these significant others have to the children at various develop- mental stages, confound attempts to establish an "objective" assessment of the children's adjustment. 124 Such objectification would seem to necessitate the use of trained raters for in vivo observations of the chil- dren. These observations would need to span across various facets of the children's lives, for it may well be that there is no "g-factor" (Cattell, 1971) of psycho-social competence and that competence is situationally determined. Thus a child's social behavior with peers might vary con- siderably from classroom to playground to home and across various activities within each of these locations. This could partially account for the relatively poor inter-meas- ure reliability of the rating scales theoretically assess- ing competence. It could be that the items were in fact highlighting different, independent facets of competence. The relationship between the various traits that make up competence clearly need to be further studied. The suggested rigorous, in vivo observations across a plethora of daily situations would also seem relevant to increasing the knowledge of the effects of caregiver behav- iors on children's functioning. Indeed, it appears that none of the multitude of studies investigating parenting be- haviors actually observed parents with their children in their natural environment across various situations over a prolonged period of time. Thus the edifices of theories of competence and the effects of parenting styles are presently built upon the terra non-firma of self-rating scales and brief playroom observations, rather than the thorough 125 assessment of behaviors occurring on the natural settings which the theories purport to explain. That such in vivo approaches are needed is made still clearer by the relatively poor inter-measure reli- ability of the instruments supposedly measuring similar dimension of psycho-social adjustment. Such low inter- measure reliability certainly cautions against using a single measure of a trait, as well as assuming that using multiple measures of a trait in and of itself increases reliability and validity. It further brings to light the liability of self—rating scales to idiosyncratic interpre- tations based upon phrasing--a mere change in the wording of an item can in fact dramatically change how the item is interpreted. The apparently differing effects of maternal and paternal caregiving behaviors of the children in the present study warns against the previous convention of only studying maternal behaviors, as well as the more recent approach of clustering both parents together. It would seem to be im- perative to explore the effects of each parent separately, both across various caregiver behavior variables and at different developmental stages of the child. This latter dimension is important since most dynamic theories of de- velopment assume that the mother and father become intra— psychically and interpersonally significant in different ways at various junctures of the growth process (Freud, 126 1953, Jung, 1956). The orally administered rating scale purporting to assess the children's perceptions of their parents could well be contaminated by social desirability, recent impact— ful interactions with a parent (i.e. having just been scolded or allowed to do something special), and the child's own anxiety about experiencing the parents in certain ways. .Thus a more unobtrusive method of assessing children's per- ceptions of their parents--perhaps via situational doll play as was used by Wowkanech (1977)--need be implemented. It would be interesting to compare Schaefer's (1965) more direct inventory, as used in the present study, with these other approaches. In regards to research in the area of fantasy, the present investigation strongly suggests some necessary di- rections of exploration. Methodologically, it will be im- portant to objectify criteria of assessing various dimensions of fantasy so that accurate cross-study comparisons can be made. Clearly there is still much work needed to be done to better discern what constitute the crucial dimensions of competent fantasy play in the first place. Some of the current discrepant findings have been explained as being due to the more "id-laden" form of fan- tasy evoked by the WVT. This assumption of a gradient of fantasy levels being evoked by differing mediums or modes of play needs to be further tested. Thus it would be 127 important to explore the relationship between the structure and content of children's free play, story telling, struc— tured doll play, Rorschach responses, Worlds, and other forms of imaginative activities. It may well be that chil- dren differ on their ability to use various forms of fan- tasy, being more drawn to specific modalities rather than simply being generally more or less imaginative. The current findings further suggest that research on fantasy play, and particularly those using the WVT, needs to shift emphasis from content to process. The se- quencing and moment-to-moment unfolding of events in the fantasy are likely to be more indicative of the child's ego integrative abilities than the specific amount of aggres- sion, benevolence, or other behaviors per se. Microscopic assessment of the order of events is imperative for future studies if we are to broaden our base of knowledge on the relationship between fantasy and psycho-social competence. The pivotal assumption of the current investigation, congruent with nearly all theories of fantasy, was that fantasy behaviors are a means of exploring and mastering central internal concerns--both in a defensive fashion of resolving past conflicts and in an expansive fashion of de- veloping new schemas that increase the repetoire of poten- tially adaptive responses. This being such a crucial assumption in the literature on fantasy behavior, it is in- deed astonishing to discover the paucity of research 128 attempting to empirically ascertain the accuracy of this notion. Thus there are apparently no studies that explore in a specific, predictive manner, the play of children with overt, explicit situational concerns--such as an impending operation, a recent death of a significant other, or a divorce--to see if in fact such themes predominate their play. Furthermore, to what extent and in what ways does such play facilitate adaptive coping with these events? Do children who are given access and encouragement to engage in fantasy behaviors function more effectively? Clearly this is the axiomatic rational for play therapy, thus the question arises in what ways do the content, structure, and process of children's fantasy play change over the course of treatment and in relation to changes the child makes in his/her external environment? In addition, how do we free fantasy that is merely persevatory defensive re-enactment of a trauma into an expansive integration and resolution of the event? It is these questions that must be addressed to hedge us closer in our understanding of the nature and function of fantasy--this magical domain at the interface of the conscious and unconscious, mirroring the unfathom- able possibilities of our souls. 129 FOOTNOTES 1There is a need for research that further explores this assumed relationship between current concerns and fantasy play, in which the concerns would be specified—-perhaps through experimental manipulation--and predictions as to the fantasy play would be tested. Though this has been attempted, with little success, in dream research, it has apparently not been explored using fantasy play. APPENDIX A Letters to Parents and Teachers APPENDIX A Letters to Parents and Teachers MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Psychology East Lansing - Michigan 48824 Olds Hall Dear Parents: My name is Yanon Volcani; I am a graduate student in psychology at MSU working with Professor Gary Stollak in studying the fantasy play of 7 to 9 year old boys. My project involves children using miniature figures and toys to create scenes in a small sandbox. Each child is brought to our facilities by myself for three, separate, one hour sessions at the child's and parents' convenience. Since I am also interested in parental attitudes and approaches to child rearing, as well as the child's general behavior in the world, I would also like parents to fill out some questionnaires on child rearing attitudes and practices and their perceptions of their child's behavior. These take roughly an hour to complete. Furthemore, before beginning the three play sessions I meet with each child at his hare for an hour to ask him similar questions to those filled out by the parents on their questionnaires. If you feel you and your child might be willing to participate in our research sanetine between now and August, or else in the Fall, please return the enclosed postcard indicating that you are willing to receive a call frcmne (returning the card in no way commits you to participate in our research but only indicates your willingness to receive a call from me for a more detailed description). We have found that children readily take to the form of fantasy play we are studying and thus anticipate your child will thoroughly enjoy the experience. If you have any questions feel free to call me at 349-9408 or Professor Stollak at 353-8877. Thank you very much. Sincerely , Yanon Volcani YVfi§hnss 130 131 Dear Teacher, My name is Yanon Volcani. I am a graduate student in clinical psychology at Michigan State University woficing with Prof. Gary Stollak. My research involves exploring the relationship between children's fantasy, parenting style, and children's behaviors. It is in regards to this last area that I need yom' help. Previous studies have found that teachers are very accurate in judging their pupil's general social and anotional behaviors. Mr. and Mrs. have been kind enough to allow to participate in my study and have given their approval of your filling out, if you wish, the enclosed questionnaires on him (I've enclosed their permission slip) . I realize you're very busy and thus I have tried to select inventories that will give Ire maximum infometion about the child's general social/ enotional behaviors while minimizing your tine involvement (the average time involved is roughly one hour) . I would very much appreciate your cooperation in filling out the enclosed fonns, nailing them back to me in the self addressed, stanped envelope when you're finished. If you have any questions feel free to call me at either my hone (349-9408) or office (353-8877) . Sincerely yours , Yanon Volcani APPENDIX B Parent Information Form APPENDIX B Parent Information Form Code Number Name Age____'Ielephone No . Present Address Narital Status Occupation Years in Occupation Highest Level of Education Completed (circle one) : e1ementarygrade:l 2 3 4 5 6 junior high school: 7 8 9 high school: 10 11 12 college: 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years degree granted M.A. degree Ph.D. degree other degrees or certificates (e.g., M.D., D.D.S., D.O., law or high school certificates indicating completion of vocational training) : Names and Ages of Children Children's Grades in School Other People in Household and Relationship to Children Note: Only this questionnaire will contain your name. The checklists you will complete will contain only the code number noted in the upper right-hand corner. This questionnaire will be removed and kept in a separate locked file and your answers will be kept completely confidential. 132 APPENDIX C Measures of Children's Psycho-social Adjustment APPENDIX C Measures of Children's Psycho-social Adjustment B-P Ratinngcales Name of Person Being Rated Name of Rater Date(s) Rated 133 l 3 4 FLEXIBILITY The fle)o'.b1e person can shift his viewpoint or behavior in accordance with new informa- tion or new demands of the people. He is adaptive, but shifts because of conviction rather than because of passive- ly submitting to persuasion. When changing he continues with the same degree of interest and involvement. RATING Very flexible . Adapts readily and easily to new infome- tion and demands . Participation continues with undiminish— ed interest. Very frequently flexible. IVbst of the time adapts although shows some tendency to persist even in the face of new information or new expectations. Reasonably flexible, but often clings to his original viewpoint or behavior. At times flexible, but usually unable to adapt to new in- formation or demands . Rigid. Very unresponsive to new information or demands. Cannot shift. ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING Uh—‘w-fi —_ It“ '4; 'w IN [H 135 EAGERNESS ‘Ihe eager person likes to try new things or take on a new problem. He is eager to over- come, to engage, and to try to master a new problem. RATING loves challenge; eager to try anthing that is new. Delights in testing his ability. Frequently seeks out and meets new and challenging situ- ations. Shows little hesitancy. Often rises to a challenge that is presented to him, but does not seek out challenging situations of his own. Shows sate hesitancy. “lends to shy away from challenges much of the time, but will deal with them when encouraged. Almost always shiee away from challenge. Requires a great deal of encouragement, before he reluctantly tries . ACTIONS JUSTIE'YING RATING It” ’4:- 136 EFFECTIVENESS The effective person copes appropriate 1y . He readily tries and is successful in his efforts to implement his own desires or to meet the external demands of the environment. RATING Very effective. Always deals appropriately and success- fully with his inner reeds and external demands. Always meets and responds effectively to a problem situation. Nbstly effective. Typically gets his reeds met and handles challenge successfully. Nbderately effective. Often successful, but often fails to get his needs met or to cope with problems with success. mstly ireffective. But occasionally successful in his efforts. Rarely succeeds in his efforts. Inadequate. Ineffective. MITIONS JUSTIFYING RATING 137 AWARENESS OF SELF The aware person (child or adult) knows how he or she feels, what he thinks, and what he is doing. Although he is conscious of himself, he is not self-conscious, insecure or embarrassed. This awareness does not pro— duce anxiety. He accepts and can acknowledge how he really feels, thinks, and acts. RATING Very aware; always conscious of his feelings, wishes, fears, and the meaning of his behavior (positive or negative) . Mast of the time aware, ready to acknowledge what he feels, thinks, and does. Only occasionally uses denial. Often aware of his feelings, thoughts and behavior, and willing to recognize them as such. However, often re- acts without awareness or uses denial. Usually unconscious or unaware of himself; denies his real feelings and thoughts, and cannot recognize his own actions for what they are. Unconscious; full of denial, completely unable to recog- nize his true feelings, thoughts, or behavior. ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING 138 CONSIDERA'IENESS The considerate person cares about the well-being of others. He adjusts his be- havior in ways that are thoughtful and beneficial to otters. RATING Extremely considerate. Always thoughtful and spon- taneously concerned with the other person's welfare. Very considerate. Most of the time he is thoughtful and deals constructively with others. Somewhat considerate, but sometimes inconsiderate about what is good for another person. Seldom considers the well-being of other people. Only rarely takes into account what others may feel. Tends to be thoughtless, indifferent. Rarely considers the other person. Tends to pursue his behavior no matter how it may affect the other person. ACTIONS JUSTIFYIBB RATING 139 TOLERANCE 'Ihe tolerant person recognizes and accepts individual differ— ences. He accepts and gives full regard to others who have different feelings, thoughts, and reactions than his own. But he does not necessarily approve or yield to their influence. RATING Extremely tolerant. Understands and accepts differences as natural. 'Iblerates a very broad spectrum of feeling, thoughts, and behavior in others. Reasonably tolerant about individual differences . Mildly tolerant, but tends to not accept certain natural variations. Usually intolerant. Tends to regard peOple who differ frcm him as being unacceptable, even wrong. Very intolerant. His way of feeling, thinking, and re- acting is the only way that he can accept. People who are different are completely unacceptable. Very narrow. ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING I“ It. ILA) IN [H 140 STABILITY The stable person is emotional- ly balanced. He remains com- posed in the face of stressful events . He remains involved and does not find it necessary to shift his direction. RATING Very stable. Not easily Ipset by change or disappoint- ment. Usually stable. Accepts and adjusts well to changing circmstances, but occasionally loses his calmness and direction. Nbderately stable. Often retains his equilibrium, but rather easily upset and loses his direction. Sometimes shows stability, calm and direction, but fre- quently is upset and loses his bearings when circumstances change. Unstable. Shows little capacity to accommodate to change. Excitable or immobilized by new demands. ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING I“ .5) 141 SPONTANEITY 'lhe spontareous person is natural . His acceptance of himself is high and permits freedom of expression. He is uninhibited, but not dramatic or exhibitionistic. RATING Always highly spontaneous . Very natural and free in his express ions . Very often spontaneous. Nbst of the time reacts freely and naturally, but on occasion is inhibited. Usually spontaneous. While he frequently expresses himself naturally be is inhibited on many occasions. Shows spontaneity on occasion, but more often inhibited, constricted, and stilted in his response. Many strong inhibitions, very constricted. Almost never spontaneous; not natural. ACTICNS JUSTIFYING RATING 142 SENSITIVITY ’IO OTHERS 'Ihe sensitive person is aware and concerned about the welfare of other peOple . He readily ascer- tains what the other person is feeling and what would be in their best interest. RATING Acutely aware and concerned about peOple 's feelings and reactions . IVbst of the time aware and concerned about how others are truly feeling and reacting. Often aware and concerned, but in many instances seems unaware and relatively unconcerned about other people's feelings and reactions . Usually unaware and disinterested in what other people are feeling, but can recognize what is going on in others when it is directly called to his attention. Insensitive and unconcerned as to what is going on in and with other people. Deals with them as though they were devoid of feelings. ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING 143 SELF-COMET DENCE The confident person be- lieves that he is able and behaves with a calm assured manner. He is self-assured and realistic when coping with new challenges. RATING Realistically very confident. Approaches challenge with assurance. Possible failure does not deter action. Confident most of the time with realistic challenges. Only mild caution with unfamiliar tasks. While often confident, in many instances is imsure of his ability to cope with realistic challenge. Some degree of confidence with familiar things, but often expects to meet with failure with challenge. Virtually no self-confidence. Unable or unwilling to try. Almost always behaves as though he expects to fail with rew challenges. ACTIGVS JUSTIFYING RATING 144 IN'IERPEW COMPREHENS ION This trait assesses the person's understanding of how one person's behavior causes approval or dis- approval of that behavior in another person. RATING Very high comprehension. Person almost always recog- nizes the effect of any given behavior. tlsually comprehends what the second person's reaction will be to the first person's behavior. Saretimes perceives the interpersonal effects, but just as often fails to comprehend how one person's behavior affects another person's attitude. Seldom ccmprehends interpersonal interaction. Usually at a loss in being able to see how one person's be- havior affects another person ' s reactions . Virtually no comprehension of how a person's behavior causes attitudes in other peOple. Almost always fails to comprehend the interaction . ACTIONS JUSTIFYING RATING 145 CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR CHECKLIST FORM A Name of child: Age: Date: Name of person filling out checklist: lblationship to child named above (mother, fatter, teacher, etc.): This is a list of items describing many aspects of children's behavior—things that children do or ways they have been described by others. Not all of the itets will apply to the particular child you are describing, but quite a few of them will. First, go through the list and put a checkmark N) in the first column by each item which applies to this child. If you feel that the item does not apply to the child, put a zero (0) in the first column. After you have gone through the list, please go back through those items you have checked and put another checlcrark N) in the second column Opposite those that are now most characteristic of this child, that describe how he (she) is most of the time. Does this Is it char- apply at all? acteristic? 1. Is happy when h/she does a "good job." 2. Gets carried away by his/her feelings. 3. Is tidy and neat, perhaps evei a little bit fussy about it. 4. Can't wait - wants to have things immediately. 5. Is concerred about the feelings of adults. 6. Gets irritated or angry easily. 7. Feelings are apparent in his/her facial expression. 8. Plays with toys in a rough way. 9. Handles small objects skillfully. 10. Doesn't pay attention to what others say. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 146 Activity is focused on a particular purpose, seems to accomplish what he/she sets out to do. looks awkward when he/she moves around. Accepts new ideas without getting upset. Acts in ways that makes adults not like him/her. Shows pride in accomplishment. Appears stiff in walking or moving about. Seems comfortable in rew situations . Has trouble finding the right words to say what he/she means. Wants very much to be approved of. Seems to Cb things just to get adults angryat him/her. Nbves gracefully - well coordinated. Has a characteristic manrerism or nervous habit. Plays to win. Quickly loses interest in an activity. Does what persons ask him/her to do. Never gets excited about anything, even when you expected him/her to be pleased with something. Makes friends quickly and easily. Seems sad and unhappy. Self-confident . Does this apply at all? Is it char— acteristic? 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. I 47. 48. 147 Tends to go too far unless reminded of rules. Talks all the time. Often has to be reminded of what he/she can and can't do. Affectionate - enjoys being physically close to adults. 'Ihreatens to hit or hurt others. Is able to stand up for himself/ herself. Seers out of touch with what is going on around him/rer - off in his/her own world. Is polite and cooperative. Has uncontrollable outbursts of tempter. Is easily embarrassed. Often breaks the rules in games. Is careful in explanation - precise. When told to do something he/she doesn't want to do, he/she becomes angry. Is curious about things . Plays aimlessly, doesn't seem to make or accomplish anything. Prefers competitive games . Seems selfish, always wants his/ her own way. Showed appreciation when others helped or did things for him/her . Seldcm laughs or smiles. Does this apply at all? Is it char- acteristic? 49. 50. 51. 52. S3. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 148 Energetic . Doesn't seem to care about how he/ she looks - often looks sloppy. Asks sensible questions. Blows Lp very easily when botlered. Shows pleasure and involvement in most things he/she does. Fidgety and restless. Is competitive. Acts as if adults are against him/her. Pitches in when things have to be cbne. Often seers angry for no particular reason, expresses it in many different ways. Quick and clever. Aggressive and overpowering. learns quickly. Bossy. Likes to do things well. Tires easily in activities. Does this apply at all? Is it char-v acteristic? 149 Pupil Date Sex of Pupil M F (circle one) Grade of Pupil School Teacher ' 5 Name We would like you to indicate how often you have observed certain be- haviors in the classroom of the child named above. To help you inter— pret the five rating points, brief descriptions are provided for each. (1) Never—You have literally rever observed this behavior in this child. (2) Seldorm——You have observed this behavior once or twice in the past three months. (3) moderate frequency—You have seen this behavior more often than once a month but less often than once a meek. (4) Often--You have seen the behavior more often than once a week but less often than daily. (5) Nbst or all of the time-You have seen the behavior with great frequency, averaging once a day or more often. TWO things should be kept in mind while completing the AML: (a) Work rapidly and don't fret too much about making fine discriminations, (b) It is extrerely important that your ratings realistically reflect problers that the child evidences. Please make your ratings reflect problers as you have perceived them. Thank you for your attention. 150 Section I. Please rate every item on the following scale: 1. not a problem 3. moderate problem 5. very serious problem 2. very mild problem 4. serious problem Child's Classroom Behavior: __disruptive in class __fidgety, hyperactive, can't stay in seat __talks out of turn, disturbs others while they are working constantly seeks attention , "clowns around" __overly aggressive to peers, (figrts, is overbearing, belligerent) __defiant, obstinate, stubborn __impulsive, is unable to delay __withdrawn __shy, timid __does not make friends over conforms to rules __daydreams, is preoccupied, "off in another world" __unable to express feelings __anxious __worried, frightened, tense __depressed __cries easily, pouts, sulks __does not trust others shovvs other signs of "nervous- ness, " specify: __specific fears speCify: Other Behaviors: __lacks self-confidence __overly sensitive to criticism __reacts poorly to disappointment _depends too much on others __pretends to be ill other, specify: __poor grooming or personal hygiene Child ' 3 Academic Performance: __underachieving (not working up to potential) _poorly motivated to achieve __poor work habits __difficulty following directions r concentration , limited attention span motor coordination problem __other, specify: Child has specific academic problers in: __reading__math__numbers __writing___colo rs___cx>ncepts __1anguage skills problers , specify: 151 PLEASE RATE THIS PUPIL'S BEHAVIOR AS ~ - YOU HAVE OBSERVED AND EXPERIENCED IT: Moderately Dbst or all Never Seldom Often Often of the time This Pupil-- (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Gets into fights or quarrels with other students ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2. Has to be coaxed or forced to work or play with other pupils ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3. Isrestless () () () () () 4. Is unhappy or depressed ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) S. Disrupts class discipline ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 6. Becomes sick when faced with a difficult school problem or situation ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 7. Isobstinate () ~ () () () () 8. Feels hurt when criticized ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 9. Is impulsive ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 10. Is moody ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 11. Has difficulty learning - ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Below, we have listed specific behavior and adaptation problers which may appear to you as interferring with this child's ability to profit from his/her school experience. Please rate every item in Section I on the following scale of problem severity: 1. not a problem 4 . serious problem 2. very mild problem 5. very serious problem 3 . moderate problem Specific instructions are provided for Sections II and III. 152 Section II. From your experiences with this child, please check (/) any of the following which you believe relate to the problems you have reported: __separation or divorce of parents economic difficulties __illness or death of a family __under family pressure to member succeed __1ack of educational stimulation __family difficulties in the home Section III. From your experiences with this child, please dieck (/) where she/he would lie on the following dimensions taking into account the direction of each item: Krm child well Barely know child 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Child seers easy Child seers to like difficult to like 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Child has significant Child has no school school adjustment problems adjustment problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 APPENDIX D Measures of Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Attitudes and Behaviors‘ APPENDIX D Measures of Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Attitudes and Behaviors CRCP QUESTIONNAIRE Since we don't know for sure what are the best ways to raise children, we are studying more about what parents and prospective parents do (or might do) in different situations involving children. In answering all of the questions, try to imagine that you are the parent of the 4 to 10 year-old child whose behavior is described in the item. We are interested in what you would actually feel or do in the situations described, not what you think a jerson should ideally feel or do. While different peOple give different responses to these qrestions, there are no "right" or "wrong" answers. Every person has his or her own individual way of responding to children. We want to learn what your way is or would be in these situations. You responses will be kept strictly confidential. No one but the researchers will ever see your answers . Read the directions carefully and do not skip any items. Your name: Your address : You age: You sex: Today's date: Please list the names, ages and sex of you children in the space belm. Please put a checkmark in front of the name of the child who took part in ou study. You last grade completed in scl'ool: You occupation: Marital status: Single Married Divorced Separated Widowed Remarried 153 1 5 4 CRCP Questionnaire . PartI Directions: Belm is a list of items describing many aspects of children's feelings and behaviors. Of course, not all of these iters apply to a particular child, but quite a few of them apply to most children. We are interested in how much parents and prospective parents focus their attention on various behaviors that children engage in. We want to krow hm much you would emphasize, place importance on, be con- cerned about, care about, focus on, or give you attention to each be- havior described. We want to know how much it would matter to you if your child acted in certain wayg. It makes no difference here whether you would encourage or discourage the behavior in question. We only want to know how much it would matter to you if you child engaged in the behavior, regardless of how you might show it. For example, while all parents may agree that a child should wear a hat in winter, some parents might focus their attention on this behavior more than other parents would. Read each item carefully and indicate the extent to which the behavior described would matter to you in raising your own child. Imagire you are the parent of a 4 to 10 year-old child who is engaging in the described behavior. Then use the follming scale to indicate hm much the behavior would matter to you-—hm much you would focus your attention on it: It would matter very little. It would matter somewhat. It would matter to a moderate degree. It would matter quite a bit. It would matter a great deal. 1 2 3 4 5 Read each item carefully, then darken the number that best indicates the extent to which you would focus you attention on the behavior in question—the extent to which it would matter to you. Do not skip any itets. Use the purple answer sheet. 155 CRCP Questionnaire. How much would it matter to you if you child: very some- moderate quite a great little what extent a bit deal 1. Ignores what adults tell him/her to do? 1 2 3 4 5 2. Shares toys? 1 2 3 4 5 3. Gets irritated or angry easily? 1 2 3 4 5 4. Shows pride in an accomplishment? 1 2 3 4 5 5. Tells lies? 1 2 3 4 5 6. Shows concern about the feelings of others? 1 2 3 4 5 7. Fights with friends or with brothers and sisters? 1 2 3 4 5 8. Shows self-confidence? l 2 3 4 5 9. Has to be reminded of what he/sle may or may not do? 1 2 3 4 5 10. Makes friends easily? 1 2 3 4 5 11. Plays with toys in a rough way? 1 2 3 4 5 12. Does well at a new task? 1 2 3 4 5 l3. Becomes angry when told to do something he/sl'e doesn't want to do? 1 2 3 4 5 14. Is polite and cooperative with others? 1 2 3 4 5 15. Does things just to get others angry? l 2 3 4 5 16. Plays to win? 1 2 3 4 5 l7. Goes too far unless fre- quently reminded of rules? 1 2 3 4 5 156 CRCP Questionnaire. How much would it matter to you if your child: very some- moderate quite a great little what extent a bit deal l8. Pitches in when things need to be done? 1 2 3 4 5 l9. Blms up easily when bothered by someone? 1 2 3 4 5 20. Accomplishes what he/ she sets out to do? 1 2 3 4 5 21. Cheats in school? 1 ' 2 3 4 5 22. Helps around the house? 1 2 3 4 5 23. Threatens to hit or hurt others? 1 2 3 4 5 24. Keeps new clothes clean? 1 2 3 4 5 15 7 CRCP Questionnaire. Part II Directions: Four parent-child situations are described on the follming pages. Belm each description, there is a list of things that some parents (who were interviewed in the past) do in such situations. Read each description carefully, then check how often you horestly believe you would do each of the things on the list of parental responses. Use the follming scale to indicate hm often you feel you would do each thing (or something like it) if you were the parent of a 4 to 10 year-old child at such times: 1 Never 2 Barely 3 Sometimes 4 Frequently 5 Usually Imagine you are the child's parent at such times as those described. Tien darken the appropriate number for hm often you would do each thing on the list in these kinds of situations. ' Read the iters carefully, and please do not skip any items. Oontime to use the purple answer sheet. *NOIE: The word "he" is to be read as "he or she." l 5 8 CICP Questionnaire . SITUATIG‘I A Some times it's hard for parents to get children to do things for them. For example , imagine you have something that you want very much for you child to do right away. You walk to the room he's in and tell him what you want him to do, and ask him to do it right away. He says he's busy watching a television program and can't do the thing you want him to do now. Here is a list of things that some parents have done at times like that. Circle how often m would do each one or something like it in such situations. 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Frequently 5 = Usually Some Never times Usually 25. Hit or spank him. 1 2 3 4 5 26. Tell him he ought to be ashamed of himself. 1 2 3 4 5 27. Explain that if he would do it row, theanouldhaveachanceto doscmeotherthingslreedtodo. l 2 3 4 5 28. Tell him he's being selfish. 1 2 3 4 5 29. Give reasons why the thing has to be done right away . 1 2 3 4 5 30. Tell his father (mother) and let him (her) handle it. 1 2 3 4 5 31. Gooverandturnoffthe television. 1 2 3 4 5 32. Tell him he can finish the program as long as he does what I want as soon as it's over. 1 2 3 4 5 33. Go and do it myself, but show him that I'm hurt and dis- appointed in him. 1 2 3 4 5 34. Tell him I'm sorry he'll miss the programandexplainwhythething mmstbedonenow. 1 2 3 4 5 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. CRCP Questionnaire . Situation A (continued) Te11 him that if he doesn't do it now, he won't be able to have something he likes or do sorre- thing he likes to do. Tell him I'm disappointed in him. Do it myself and show him I don't like itbynottalkingtohimfor awhile. Tell him that we each have to help each other out and that I need for him to do the thing right away. Tellhimeouldlikehimtobe more considerate of my wisres. Donothing. Te11himtodoitnowanyway. Te11 him he is just being stub- born and that he better stOp it right nm. Te11 him he'll be sorry if he doesn't do it right away. Sare- Never times Usually l 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5 Situation B There are times when every child shows self-confidence and performs well atarewtask in school. this happens. thing like it in such situations. 1 = Never 2 == Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Frequently 5 = Usually 45. Give him some extra spending morey or something else he wants. Here is a list of things some parents do when Please check how often you would do each thing or some- l 6 0 CRCP Questionnaire . Situation B (continued) 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. Some- Never times Usually Explain how good is must feel 1 3 5 after trying hard and succeeding. Kiss him or hug him. 1 3 5 Show him that he could still do even better. 1 3 5 Promise him something re wants. 1 3 5 Explain that he feels good because he's working up to his potential. 1 3 5 Do nothing. 1 3 5 Show him how proud I am. 1 3 5 Te11himtokeepupthegoodwork. l 3 5 Ten him that what he did makes me happy. - l 3 5 Buy him something he wants. 1 3 5 Tell him how much it means to us for him to do well. 1 3 5 Remind him that he shouldn't get conceited or brag about his accarplishments. 1 3 5 Explain to him that doing well will help him feel good about himself and get what he wants in . life. 1 3 5 TellhimIknowhmproudand happy he must be because he did so well. 1 3 5 Show him that these things are just expected from him and that they are no big deal. 1 3 5 Ten him he'll be rewarded for doing so well. 1 3 5 1 6 l CHIP Questionnaire Situation B (continued) Some- Never times Usually 62. Tell him what a talented person 1 2 3 4 5 re is. 63. Ten him that a job well done is rewarding for its own sake. l 2 3 4 5 64. Make arrangerents for him to do something he has wanted to do for a long time. 1 2 3 4 5 Situation C Every child when he can't have his own way will sometimes get angry at his parents and talk back. Here is a list of things some parents do when a dnild angrily talks back. Please circle how often you would do each thing or something like it in such situations. Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Usually UiothH II II II II II 65. Hit or spank him. 1 2 3 4 5 66. Ten him I cbn't like it when he talks back angrily and that he can discuss it more calmly. 1 2 3 4 5 67. Tell him I don't like children who don't show respect for their parents. 1 2 3 4 5 68. Tell him I'll hit or spank him if he ever talks like that again. 1 2 3 4 5 69. Explain that even though he's angry, I would prefer that he ex- press his feelings in a regular tore of voice. 1 2 3 4 5 70. TeuhimI don'twanttotalkto himor have anything todowithhim unless he says he's sorry. 1 2 3 4 5 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 162 Situation C (continuted) Not let him have sarething he likes or do something he likes to do. Tell him that what he said hurts my feelings and that he can ex- press his anger without saying nasty things to me. Give him an angry look and walk away. Te11 his father (mother) and let him (her) handle it. Do nothing. Tell him he is acting like a little baby and that he better stop it right now. Te11 him I'm angry at him for what he said and explain why he can't have his way. Sendhimtohis rocmuntilhe's ready to talk about it. Tell him he'll be sorry if he doesn't be quiet. ' Tell him he ought to be ashamed of himself for talking like that. Givehimreasonswhyhecan'thave his way. Give him an angry look and ignore him for awhile. Te11himeon'ttalk tohimor haveanythingtodowithhimif that's the way he's going to act. Tell him I know he's aneg and ex- plain why he can't have his way. Never 1 2 l 2 1 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 1 2 1 2 l 2 CRCP Questionnaire times Usually 163 Situation D CRCP QLestionnaire There are times when every child shows a great deal of concern for the feelings of others, being kind of helpful and c00perative when it is reeded. Here is a list of things some parents dowhei this happens. Please circle how often you would do each thing or sarething like it in such situations. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 = Sometimes 4 = Fiequemtly 5 = Usually let himdo something special he wants to do. Not make anything of it even though I might feel good inside. Explain to him that doing good will make him feel good about himself in life. Te11himthatl lovekindand considerate people like him. Ten him what a helpful and good person he is. Reward him for doing the good deed. Ask why he isn't always so cOOperative and considerate . Ten him that what he did makes me happy. Say it is good when you treat others as you would like to be treated. Explain how it makes him happy to do kind and helpful things. Show him that these things are just expected and are no big deal. Never time's Usually 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 164 Situation D (continued) Te11 himI amveryproud of the way he acted. Give him some extra spending money or something else he wants. Point out some other good things he ought to do but hasn't been doing. Explain that being considerate to others makes a person feel worthwhile Te11 him that doing something kind is very rewarding just in itself. Promise him something he wants. Ten him that "nice guys finish last." Kiss him or hug him. Buy him something he has wanted for a long time. Never 1 CRCP Questionnaire times Usually Before returning the questionnaire, please check to be sue that each item has been completed. Thanks for you participation. 165 CodeNumber PAREN'T'S CRPB FORM B - BOYS ON THE FOIIO‘VING PAGES YOU WILL FIND A LIST OF STATEMENTS. FOR EACH STATEMENT YOU ARE ‘IO INDICATE WHETHER ‘IHE STATEMENT IS "LIKE," "A LITTLE LIKE," OR "NOT LIKE" THE WAY THINCB ARE IN YOUR FAMILY. PLEASE PUTYOURANSWERSON'IHEANSWERSHEETTHATISEMZIOSEDWITHTHE QUESTIONNAIRE, USING THE FOWG ANSWER FORMAT: 1=Like 2=AlittleLike 3=NotLike THAT IS, IFAS'I‘ACIENENTIS "LIKE" THEWAY'IHINGSARE INYOUR FAMILY, FIILINTHENUMBERIAIDNGSIDETHATS’IATEMENTNUMBER. IF'IHEITEMIS "ALI'I'IIELIKE"THEVRY'IHIN$AREINYOURFAM[LY,FILLINTHENUIVBER ZAIDNCEIDE THAT SW NUMBER. IFTHES'IATHVIENI‘ IS "NOT LIKE" THE WAY'IHINCEAREINYOURFMLY, FILLIN'IHENUMBERBAIDNCEIDE THAT STATEMENT NUMBER. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. APPENDIX E Measures of Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors CRPB Form B - mothers Mother can be talked into things easily. Mather does not bother to enforce rules. thher says that sooner or later we always pay for bad behavior. Mather likes to talk to me and be with me much of the time. Mother seeIs proud of the things I do. Mather smiles at me very often. thher says some day I'll be punished for my bad behavior. thher enjoys working with me in the house or yard. Nether says if I really cared for her, I would not do things that cause her to worry. thher makes her whole life center about her children. mother cheers me up when I'm sad. Mather excuses my bad conduct . Nether doesn't check up to see whether I have done what she told m. thler says if I loved her, I'd do what she wants me to do. bother lets me get away without doing work I had been given to do. Mather does not insist I obey if I complain or protest. Mather thinks I'm not grateful whei I don't obey. Mother seers to see my good points more than my faults. Mather isn't interested in changing me, but likes me as I am. Nether enjoys staying at home with me more than going out with friends. Mather worries about hm I will turn out, because she takes anything bad I do seriously. 169 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 167 I think and talk about his misbehavior long after it is over. I make him feel like the most important person in my life. I let him off easy when he does sarething wrong. I often speak of the good things he does. Ihaveagoodtimeathcmewithhim. I tell him hm much I have suffered for him. I am able to make him feel better when he is upset. I enjoygoing on drives, trips or visits with him. I let him stay up late if he keeps asking. I give him a lot of care and attention. I think that any misbehavior is very serious and will have future consequences . I don't insist that he does his herewom. I often give up something to get something for him. I almost always speak to him with a warm and friendly voice. He can talk me out of an order, if he complains. - I enjoy doing things with him. I don't pay much attention to his misbehavior. I let him get away with a lot of things. I feel hurt by the things he does. I understand his problems and worries . I am always thinking of things that will please him. I feel hurt when he doesn't follm advice. I say to him that someday he'll be sorry that he wasn't better as a child. I comfort him when he's afraid. Iameasywithhim. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 168 I usually don't find out about his misbehavior. I tell him of all the things I have done for him. I spend almost all of my free time with my children. I enjoy talking things over with him. I make him feel better after he talks over his worries with me. If he breaks a premise, I don't trust him again for a long time. I seldom insist that he do anything. I can't say no to anything he wants. APPENDIX E Measures of Children's Perceptions of Their Parents' Caregiving Behaviors APPENDIX E World View Coding Manual and Rating Forms APPENDIX F World View Coding Manual and Rating Forms Coding Manual Coding procedures: (1) Run beginning of tape 'till I come on saying "NOW." (2) Set tape on "Pause," SET TAPE COUNTER ON "000" and WRITE THIS ITEEERIEKNE<3X1TN l,vmut.fin:thelx)sec.keep. (3) As:xxmmesyoulmarijeabem>somfi:rmmfingihe‘Emeeemicodth OM Wheryourmar‘dmanextim eeL hex>set12peput1ie texacoda1iandyomrzhutiahsin‘flmapnmdded spaces as well as the page number of the presence/absence coding sheet!!! 172 173 NOTES AND GUIIELINES Response determinants: There are fou different ways to determine under what category a response is to be classifed- (1) 'lhrough what the child directly says about an object or scere (i.e. "These are the good guys and they go over and kiss the ladies"). (2) Through what the child indirectly says by speaking through the objects (i.e. "We're the good guysand we're going to give you ladies a kiss") . (3) Through the nonverbalized actions of the objects (i.e. the child picks up the male figures, places them against the ferale figures and makes a kissing sound). (4) Through hm the child answers the experimenter's qiestions (i.e. I ask, "Are tlese guys kissing the ladies?" and the child answers, "Yes") . - Code only if an action has actually occurred, will occur, or has been attempted, NOI‘ if the child states it migt occu. - Do _NOT_ code my repeating of the child's staterent of what just occurred in previous 30 sec. - If a camera is on an object/scene (i.e. construction equipment) right after "beep" and child no longer directly involved in it do NOT code— code what child actually is doing/saying at the moment! 1 7 4 DEFINITIONS Aggression: Any event where something is physically or emotionally harmed. Devouing/Biting—-Any incident where a non-food object is bitten, eaten, or devoued. Direct Physical—Any incident involving purposeful, direct physical contact intenwd to harm another object; hitting, stabbing, kicking, smashing, choking, wrestling, running over, etc. (If not obviously intentional score under "Accident" .) Distance Physical—Any incident involving a purposeful attempt to harm an object from a distance; shooting, bombing, exploding, thrming at, etc. Also any act of violence that not specifically stated‘hm occured but clearly non-accidental (i.e. "they were murdered") , poisoning. Accident-Any incident involving a harmful outcome where there is no apparent intentionality or control; accidental crashes , natual dis- asters—fires, "dying", etc. Verbal—Any verbal attempt to erotionally hurt or derean another oEject; teasing, ridiculing, swearing at, cursing, scolding, ad- monishing‘, threatening, harrassing, laughing at, embarrassing, name calling. (NOT merely stating a feeling i.e. "I'm mad at you" or daring i.e. "I bet you can't" but cements that are clearly not re- specting the other and are attempting/succeed in making the other feel bad.) Social—Any incident that clearly, unambiguously breaches social norms of good etiquette and conduct not included in the above categories; lying, stealing, cheating, deceiving, tricking, gross dissocial acts (i.e. peeing in the street), rejecting pleas for help, taking away what others want, greed, stinginess, scaring. Deprivation/Suffering—Any incident of suffering, unhappiness, due to general circumstances rather than purposeful aggression from other objects; hunger, sickress, coldness, general physical/erotional dis- comfort and uneasiness. Abandonment/Iost--Any incident where an object is left contrary to its will (as specified by the child or by the object's reaction to being left); any incident where an object is lost. Berevolence: Any act of goodness towards an object. Physical—Any direct physical contact that communicates warmth and caring; kissing, hugging, cuddling, stroking, holding hands, arms around each other, patting on the back, massaging. 175 Verbal—Verbally expressing care, empathy, support, comfort, warmth, complimenting; "I love you, " "I hope you'll feel better," "It'll work out ok," "You're pretty" (compliments should also be scored under "Adequacy: Positive"). Helping/Rescuing--Any incident where an object is helped or rescred; feeding, dressing, protecting, guiding, giving helpful advice, warn- ing (where clear concern for the object's welfare), tucking into bed, taking care of a sick/hurt object, etc. doing a service for someone (i.e. milkman delivering milk), guarding something. Affiliative Acts--Any incident where two or more objects are engaged in an activity that is clearly mutually enjoyable as specified by the child or the objects' reactions; playing, singing, dancing, etc. Acts of generosity, care and good will that are not included in above categories i.e. gift giving, sharing what ore has, singing a lullaby, social gatherings like parties, picnics, sporting events, weddings, parades, etc. Satisfying ExEriences--Anytime an object is feeling satisfied, happy, content, as specified by the child directly or through the object, die to general circmstances or immediate, specific acts by/with others; "I feel good today," "What a wonderful night's sleep," "'Ihe little girl saw it was a beautiful morning and felt very happy," etc. Dominance: Any act of controlling, ordering, commanding, forcing, de- manding, restraining, arresting an object; NOT merely requesting some- thing of an object where there's a sense of two equals interacting, but instances where there's a clear sense that one object is or is trying to be more powerful/in command/the boss of the other object; "Stop that right nm!" "Come here immediately!" "You guys are under arrest," "The witch cast a spell so the girl couldn't move," "Superman grabbed her from behind and wouldn't let her go" (this would NOT be scored "Direct Physical" unless the child states that Superman was trying to hurt her; it is scored "Dominance" since it is an atterpt to control another and prevent tlem from doing what they would like). Submission: Any act of obeying, giving into demands, follming orders, going along with what told to do, cowering, feeling ashamed or embar- rassed; NOT merely cooperating with a request but clearly giving the sense of willfully going along with the orders, commands, instructions, derands of an object that is superior/the boss rather than an equal: "The boy followed what the others told him to do," "She felt very em- barrassed," "They were ashamed, " the child has one object order another one and has the other then carry out the order in action though doesn't explicitly state obedience; deference, cm-tow. Construction: Byents involving physically building, creating, or pro- dfircing either by the objects or the child pretending to be a construc- tion equipment doing a job; NOT merely the child creating/constructing a World scene, but specifically using objects or himself to depict 176 themes involving construction/building; "'Ihey ' re building a road, " "'Ihese workmen are constructing a house," "They're clearing the land _ to build a housing project," "I'm a crane digging out the road" (NOT merely the fact that the child uses his hands to dig out a road or river but that he specifically states he is sate kind of construction equipment building something); (a good clue in for construction themes is wherever the child selects out objects like the crane, bulldozer, dump truck, and other construction equigrent BUT a child could also use construction equipment for destruction as in running over someone with it or explicitly stating the equipment was destroying the land/ town/whatever, in which case it would be scored "Aggression: Direct Physical"). Assertion: Asserting oneself to gain or maintain what one wants. Reactive—Assertion against restrictions/demands/comends of others or the environment; sticking up for oneself against others who are or are trying to be in a dominating/more powerful/controlling position; not doing what asked to do; rebelling or not conforming to others' intentions; "'J‘hey tried to scare her (would be scored "Aggression: Social") but she wasn't," "No, I won't do it," "It was raining real hard but he didn't let that stop him from going;" generally not letting others/nature stop one from what wanting to do or force one to do what don't want to. Initiated—Self initiated assertion to gain what one wants where NOT as a reaction to external restraints/demands; acts that give a sense of independence, self-sufficiency, resourcefulress, masterfulness, confidence, pride , effectiveness, enterprising, exploration; doing things for oneself; "The little boy wanted to tie his shoes all by himself," "She knew she could do it," "I don't need any help in building this house" (scored "Assertion: Initiated" as well as "Construction") , "She was proud of the good job she did all on her own" (scored also for "Adequacy: Positive"). : Any evaluative/ judgmental references about the characteris- tics c something or attributions of positive/negative qualities to it. Positive—The child directly or through another object attributes a positive quality or characteristic to an object; use of any of the positive adjectives in describing something, i.e. beautiful, strong, smart, kind, generous, loyal, honest, nice, wonderful, cute, etc., etc. , etc. (sometimes whether a description is meant positively or negatively can only be determined in context, thus "The little, tiny puppy" might infer a positive cuteness or a negative helplessness, or merely descriptive and thus not be scored "Adequacy" at all. Eative—‘Ihe child directly or through another object attributes a negative quality or characteristic to an object; use of any of the negative adjectives in describing something, i.e. ugly, weak, stupid, cruel, stingy, unfaithful, dishonest, horrible, etc., etc., etc. 177 (NOTE: Any compliment or deridement which is stated through an object and not directly by the child (i.e. one object says to another "You are beautiful" vs. the child saying "This object is beautif ") is scored BOTH "Benevolence: Verbal" or "Malevolence: Verbal" AND "Adequacy: Positive" or "Adequacy: Negative." How- ever, anytime the child makes direct evaluative statements about an object, i.e. "Wow, what a far out car!" it is ONLY scored under "Adequacy: Positive or Negative" and NOT under "Benevolence or Malevolence: Verbal" .) Dependence: Seeking aid, comfort, help, consolation, foregiveness, support, protection, guidance, advice, care, succorance; "The little girl wanted scneone to cute pick her up" (the phrase "the little girl" is NOT scored under "Adequacy: Positive or Negative" since there is no sense of evaluation or judgment being made here but merely description) , "Please make me scnething to eat," "I want to lay in your lap," "I'm sorry I did that, I'll be a better boy next time" (scored also for "Adequacy: Negtive" since the implication is the boy is NOT being good now), "Don't let the monster hurt me" or "anster, please don't hurt me" or "She didn't want the monster to hurt fer," "He asked them how to get to the town." Hiding/Escaping: Any incident of sarething explicitly hidden or hiding (as directly or indirectly specified by the child), escaping, fleeing, running away; "'Ihey stayed in the cave so nobody would find them," "He got away from the cops," "She jumped over the railing so that they wouldn't catch her." Searching/Finding: Any act of seeking/searching for something and/or finding it; "They found the lost treasure" (scored also under "Abando- ment/lost" for the " lost treasure"), "She was looking for a place to sleep," "They were trying to find the escaped convict" (scored also under "Hiding/Escape" for the "escaped convict") . 178 UZHDZE\OZH§m UZH§\QZHQE mUzmozmmma ZOEDZBmZOU ZOHmmHZmDm confine: 93%3 8338 moocofiummxm moawumfluom mend m>HHMHHflwH¢ mafioommm\mcfldaom Amqfluoosg 35> Amfimmsé HSoum uméucgaooqmfi mcwuomwom\coflum>flummm 33383 338 Amoflmomuv acoum> Homofloom Amoeuoonmv Hmoem>nm noncommm Samoa: Hammad 8&3 e mqflamxmcflsgma g8 ZOHB 930mg Immmmd moosq Ian—4 Hue om ma ma ha ma ma ea ma NH Ha.oa m m h m m v m N H comm HODMm 179. Code # Rater (1) Task involvement: 1 2 3 4 Uninvolved A little Quite a bit of Extremely involvement involvement involved (2) Approach to task: 1 2 3 4 Items carefully Some playing with Quite a bit of Much drama- placed for scene items during scene playing with items tic playing construction , construction with items rarely played with (3) Organization: 1 2 3 4 Items apparently A few areas of Numerous areas of Mast/all unrelated, placed interrelating interrelated items items inter- totally at random; items though though not all related in a W looks chaotic these areas not of these areas single co- related to each related to each hesive theme, other other interdepend- ent and or- ganized by a unifying idea; items can be in separate groups of in— terrelated items though these grows are interre- lated by a single theme/ idea (4) Structure/rigidity: l 2 3 4 Mast of W very Much of W A few areas No/little structured; items rigidly struc- rigidly struc- rigid struc- in rigid rows/ tured though tured though turing; items columns equal some areas not most of W not in orderly distance, highly relation yet regimented forming di- verse patterns or ‘1' 2 3 4 Total lack of sym- Much of W A few areas No/little metry; items in a lacks symmetry haphazard haphazardness; multitude of direc— though a few 3101,1911 most items in tions, spacially cohesive, of W not orderly, di- haphazard orderly areas verse patterns Code# (6) Closedness: 1 Many areas closed off to contain/ex- clude items by en- circling them with fences , sand, river, other items; or whole W encircled (7) Sparseness: 1 Items are scat- tered very far apart with much space between them; W appears sparse or T8_) Crowdedness : 1 Items arecom- pacted very close together; W ap- pears very crowded (9) Use of area: 1 Child uses roughly one fourth of box area (10) 1 Child merely con- structs scene; no story/incidents depicted, child only describes what made 180 Rater 2 Several enclosed areas or one large area though some of W not enclosed 2 Items are placed somewhat far apart; W appears somewhat sparse 2 Iters are placed somewhat close to- gether; W appears sarewhat crowded 2 Child uses roughly half of box area Description vs . story: 2 A few brief incidents depicted 3 A few enclosed areas A few areas wrere items somewhat far apart A few areas where items somewhat crowded Child uses roughly three fourths of box area 3 Several longer incidents depicted 4 No enclo- sures, no areas seg- regated from others 4 Itets placed in an ex- pected dis- tance from each other; W does not ap- pear sparse 4 Items placed in an ex- pected dis- tance from each other; W does not ap— pear crowded 4 Child uses nearly all of box area 4 Many stories / incidents cbpicted; many interre- lated events or one long story 181 Code# Rater (ll) Realism: 1 2 3 4 W totally of fan- W mostly of fan- W of events that W entirely tasy events that tasy events that could occur in re- realistic have no counterpart have no counter- ality but are not all iters /possibility in part in reality part of the and theres reality though some events child ' s everyday have mun- are possible life terparts in child's everyday reality (12) Expansion: Rate the greatest degree of expansion found in the World as indicated by specific mention of' places or what the iters portray. l 2 3 4 W depicts activi- W depicts activi- W depicts W depicts ties inside the ties around home familiar, environ- home and immediate local environ- ments be- vicinity (i.e. ments yond the 5 backyard) child's W depicts environ— actual lo- ments outside of cal envi- earth (i.e. the ronment moon) or of imag- (i.e. bat- inary lands not tlefields, possibly existing foreign on earth; or inter- countries) mingles (i.e. part earth, part another planet) Time: Rate the time dimension used in the World where clearly indicated by the events depicted or the child's explicit staterents while building the scene (irrespective of whether the child states the World is in the present, past, or future whei asked at the conclusion) . (l3) (14) (15) (16) 1 2 3 4 W depicts distant W of past events W of recent past; W of pre- past before re- before l900 but events after 1900 sent; events corded history after recorded up to near present occurring in i.e. prehistoric history (i.e. (i.e. W W II, the last days of dinosaurs) Romans/Greeks, Nixon's impeach- week or where cowboys/indians) ment the theme does not clearly dic- tate past/ future 182 Code # Rater (l7) 5 W of future; events of things in the future that not possible yet (i.e. space worlds) (18) 1 Theme very simple; merely descriptive 'Iheme Complexity: 2 'mere generally ‘ simple though a of items few aspects more elaborate (l9) Differentiation of main figure: 1 2 One clearly differ— A well defined ME‘ entiated MP which though focus oc- remains in central casionally shifts focus throughout the story (20) Di fferentiaticn of intra—character qualities: 3 There somewhat complex with some elaboration of ideas 3 A M? can be dis- tinguished but other figures are also in the fore- ground or becare ME"s for a time 4 'Ihere highly cam- plex and elaborate 4 No MP is distin- quishable; or differ- ent fig- ures be- come MF's ‘ with equal emphasis Score the highest degree of differentiation of qualities/attributes/roles/be— haviors for any character (i.e. good-bad, happy-sad, cruel- kind) . l 2 Characters have one Characters have extreme and/or ex- extreme qualities aggerated quality though on occas- (i.e. all good/all sion manifest a bad); one quality different quali- is given to each character or group of characters nant one ty than the domi- 3 . Characters have different quali- ties on several occasions though still portray ore dominant quality ( "Character" includes nature/object/animal/hmman . ) 4 Characters have dif- ferent qualities in re- sponse to different Situations; qualities span a wide spec- trum of type and degree Code# (21) 1 NOT APPLY Emotional differentiation: 183 Rater Rated for story as a whole; include pleasure/pain and any behaviors that allude to affects such as smiling/laughing/crying. No mention of any feeling, af- fect, erotion (22) 1 involved. 2 One/a few feel- ings mentioned Action vs. thought processes: 3 Several feelings mentioned on a number of occa- sions 4 Different feelings and shades - of emotions described often Score the highest degree of com- plexity found in the story regardless of which character is "Thought processes" here refer to planning, evalu- ating, reflecting, pondering, scheming, deducing, analyzing, remembering, forgetting . No mention of thinking; charac- ters‘act with no reference to their thoughts 2 3 4 Thinking mentioned Thinking mentioned Thinking ' one/a few times on quite a few occasions mentioned and re- lated to past/pre- sent/ fu- ture be- haviors consist- ently (23) Use of imaginative figures: "Imaginative figures" are characters the child alludes to that are not represented by actual, phy- sical objects (i.e. "the guy driving the car" when no physical object is in the car) . 1 No use of imagina- tive figures 2 3 Imaginative fig- Imaginative fig- ures referred to ures referred to a few times on several occa- sions 4 Imagina- tive fig- ures re- ferred to on many occasions 184 Code # Rater (24) Use of magic: "Magic" as supernatural powers/abilities/means not possible in reality used to do/gain something (spells, hexes, incantations, sorcery, granting wishes) . Not just Superman being able to fly/having SLper strength but specifically magical powers/acts to gain an end. 1 2 3 4 No use of magic Magic occurs a few Magic occurs quite Magic oc- tihes a few times curs many - times, dominates the story :1 (25) Use of objects in ways other than specified: Where child is clear- ly aware of the general use of an object but uses it in a differ- ent way or uses clay to mould something that's wanted but not in the cabinet (i.e. taking a house and explicitly stating that it is being used as a table). 1 2 3 4 Objects never used Objects/clay used Objects/clay used Objects/ for anything other in different than in different ways clay used than what desig- designated way on several occa- in differ- nated one/a few times sions ent ways on numerous occasions (26) Propensity for imaginative play: l 2 3 4 Grild shows little Guild shows some Child shows quite Guild ability for imagin- ability for imegin- a bit of ability shows a ative play ative play for imaginative great deal play and creative of ability theme construction for imagin- ative play creating rich, elab- orate, high- ly involved theres and stories Code # 1 Child shows very little ability to become involved in fantasy or becomes totally‘immersed in fantasy and shows very little ability to pull out on own 185 ter (27) Ability to move in/out of fantasy: 2 Child shows some ability on a few occasions to move in and out of fantasy 3 Guild shows quite a bit of ability to more in.and out of fantasy 4 Child shows a high ability to move in and out of fan- tasy, be- coming deeply inr volved in fantasy while also pulling'out to be de- scriptive, self re- flective, or otherb wise relate to E in present, realistic, here-now way 186 Code# BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF WORLD: Use of sand: __Only place objects on __Patting, stroking, smoothing _IVbunds, hills, poles __Pouring, filling __Caves, tunnels __Digging, excavating __Raads, rivers Deeply embedding objects __(short of actually burying) __Working with objects __Marking , tracing patterns Burying upes of landscapes created: Ocean __Lake River Hill/Nbuntain Desert Forest __Jungle __Valley/Canyon __Cave Other: Types of city environments: Residential Business Social institutions Transportation facilities Park Zoo Road. Farm! Monument Other: No. of landscapes created:____ No. of city environments: 187 Code # OBJECTS USED: People Landscape-~city Armymen ............. Total :_ Instutnl bldings . . . .Tbtal :____ Cowboys ............. Total :_ Other bldgings ...... 'Ibta1:___ Indians ............. Total :_ Fences .............. Total :_ Steer-“heroes ......... 'Ibtal:_ Other ............... Total :_ Civil servants ...... Tbtal:____ Sum:___ Other ............... 'Ibtal :_ Landscape—nature sum— Trees ............... Total :_ Animals Shrubbery ........... ’Ibtal:____ DomestiC/ farm ....... 'Ibtal :_ Rocks .............. .Total :_ Tame ................ 'Ibta1:___ Sum:__ Wild. . . . ............ 'Ibtal :_ Miscellaneous FéntaStlc/prehsuc ° 'TOtal ‘— Food ................ Total :____ Fish ................ Total :____ Fire /explosions ..... ’Ibtal:__ Crusmceans """"" Tbtal‘-— Tombstones .......... 'Ibtal:___ Sum:__ Clay/card ........... 'Ibtal:___ Transportation Otler ............... 'Ibta1:____ Private cars ........ Total :_ Sum:— CiVil servants """" Total :—- 'Ibtal objects used. . . .Total:_ Construction ........ Tbtal:___ Total categories us ed.Tbtal:___ Army ................ 'Ibtal:___ 'Ibtal subctgrs used. . .Tbtal: Planes .............. Tbtal:_ _- Helicopters ......... Tbtal- 1 Child states W in: Trains .............. Total: --—PaSt _Present __Future Boats ............... Total: _mmng _N°°n ——Night Rockets ............. Total: ...—won“ __Would mt want to --- be in scene Other ............... Total :_ Sum: Who/what/where would be: Building time:— Time including questions:— APPENDIX G Sample Characteristics oxm Eu 3 ©3808 R 3 ogz Hm cue S e e as owesz em .<.z c8353 em 9a a QEHimoflWfiao _fiammomfie 2 .e o S 8335 oz em .<.m ofiefism em Sum e I .. $3285 more ooE em Aoeoedgm more nos Te 5 mégnmflnflbo m 2 die 8635 “oz mm .oeo owe/28¢ mm one e «a E mfiflomflflfloo 2 .2 e .2 8638 ooz mm on ee mum m .2 .3 z 3 commoomflem mm :32 8:88. cm mum e QEaimflflfloo menace a n NH 8836 ooz mm e. cosmofiomo R mum m .. u 3 8:88 mm at: cocoons mm Te m Homer unmamcd Inomom coau e a 4m anemone mm 3 («oncogene em Ta H owe xom coflumooom :oHuooocOO mod coeumooom oofluomwooo mom mom mad 36 85% 85mm noon. new .9. moflumfiuouocuoou oaofiom U XHDZflAQfl 188 APPENDIX H T-values for Differences between World View Sessions APPENDIX H T-values for Differences between World View Sessions T—values for differences between WVT sessions on fantasy play categories. T-value Category wv'rl-z wvr1-3 wv'rz-3 Aggression .46 1.02 .68 Benevolence -.99 -l.06 -.02 Construction -.07 —.37 -.32 Dominance -.26 ' .43 .52 Adequacy -l.09* -.91 -.35 Submission .80 .51 -.43 Dependency .43 .00 -.43 * p < .30, highest significance reached 189 APPENDIX I Correlations between World View Categories and Factors of Positive/Negative Caregiving Behaviors on the CRCP APPEWIX Ia Correlations between fantasy play categories and factors of positive caregiving behaviors on the CRCP. CRCP Factors Aggrssn Benvlnc Constrctn Dcmnc Adqucy Assrtn Suhmsn Dpndcy Prpnsty Fa Pro- . Socl .05 .41 .23 -.31 .14 -.26 .46 -.25 —.07 Mo Pro- Socl -.23 —.24 .20 -.39 .23 .21 .34 -.29 -.24 Pa Aggrssn -.08 .38 .21 -.44 .02 -.4o .26 -.62* -.17 Nb Aggrssn -.21 .05 -.3o -.12 -.12 -.02 .32 -.42 -.16 Fa Intrnl Rewras -.04 .58* -.1o -.25 .02 -.46 .46 -.35 -.12 MDIntrnl ‘ Rewrds -.28 .19 -.26 -.13 -.29 -.23 .41 -.27 -.23 Pa Indctv Dscpln -.30 .003 -.10 -.39 -.34 -.52 .65** -.45 -.50 IVbIndctv DSCpln .29 -.35 —.13 .67** -.13 .73@ -.18 .48 .33 FaProud -.19 .46 .19 -.48 .13 -.41 .17 -.38 -.26 "bPrOud -.66** -.O6 .25 -..76@@ —-.17 -.73@ -.13 -.42 -.55* Pa Self Control -10 10 —49 -34 -.23 -37 22 -.51 ~45 lVbSelf Control .12 .25 .19 .44 .03 .31 .36 .22 .22 \ *p.os **p .02 @p.008 (49.005 190 APPENDIX Ib Correlations between fantasy play categories and factors of negative caregiving behaviors on the CRCP CRCP Factors Aggrssn Benvlnc Constrctn Domnc Adqucy Assrtn Submsn Dpndcy Prpnsty Fa Crtcz -.O8 -.07 .41 .41 -.19 .36 -.17 .30 .003 Mo Crtcz -.17 .39 .20 -.29 .15 .32 -.09 Fa Extrnl Rewrds .29 .30 .25 .43 .06 .19 -.51 .33 .29 MoExtrnl Rewrds -.15 .14 .30 -.22 -.14 .43 -.48 .10 -.06 Pa Rejctng -.001 -.42 .57* .31 -.15 .36 -.29 -.02 -.03 MORejctng..l8 .51 .17 .02 .27 .03 -.41 .11 .31 Fa 31131715an -.20 -.14 .29 .34 -.30 .27 -.18 .26 -.12 Mo Shining -.09 .46 .20 -.24 .20 .27 —.10 -.02 .13 Fa Take Pstv Gmtd .34 .30 -.60** .49 -.11 .40 -.13 .29 .18 MOTake PStV Gmtd -.03 .51 .10 -.36 .05 .45 -.42 -.22 -.05 FaDo 1'0ng .12 -.41 .44 .35 -.23 .52 -.15 .19 .07 Mono Notlung .08 .12 .03 -.09 .23 .06 .00 .30 .16 \ *p .04 **p .03 191 APPENDIX J Correlations between Aggression and Benevolence Subcategories and Parents' Perceptions of Their Caregiving Behaviors 192 do. do v0 . 93. mo. Q« _ em. ea 1 we. ma.n em.u em.u " ea mo. em.u em. move >uaoo< o~.u No.1 4mm u on 1 me. me. _ ma.u we. ea. He. condom: IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 7|:IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII no. ae.- Hm.u me.u «rem. em. . mam. em. ea. mm. oaa>ees doom NH. eae.u mm . se.- ma.u mm. n me. am. He. mm. 0eH>Hez Hor> Ne.u mH.: me e~.u em. ea. _ mo. No.u eH.a em. neeoue em.u se.- NH.I me.n se.- me. H mm. ee.n mm.- mm.. Humane oeomo ea. mm. mm. «mm. ma.n em.n _ we. we. mm.u em.n Homage oomo em. ea. mm. am. no.1 em.u _ am. me. He. e~.u maeuao>oo _ ran as rec me voucher o: acoomom 6m >oez oz >oaz we _secusa.oz_ asooa< mm >oma oz >oma on moaooaoomo moaucmuom =o>wucmoze “ ocaucowom :m>Huemcm= .>mcucom .mH0e>momo mcfl>flmouco Henna mo mcofludoouod .mucouod can mofluomoDMOInom cocoao>ocom coo :onmonmm consume mcofluoaouuou h. x~9§mm< cocoa Iooocom coflm Immumm< APPENDIX K Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: Toward a Synthesis of Piagetian and Humanistic Perspectives APPENDIX K Caregiver Behaviors and Children's Psycho-social Adjustment: Toward a Synthesis of Piagetian and Humanistic Perspectives flmacummmt‘nuiemnec.fibtfingknamefly'pmbuzouttheiaememtms comphedtybeJesuIUmu:fnmmthecyh namic, mutually related interface of 3 dimensions: (1) the individual's cmufiihhfiomfllyInedhxoeeimemmscfpenxflvhm;amdreexmdnKJUDthe environment (Freedman, 1979; Thomas, et al., 1968); (2) life events, circumstances, and experiences, including those having cccurred.by'mere whims of fate and fortune; (3) the behaviors of significant others to- wanhstheindhddmfl” 'nuacunemt:hwestkmtflXIatUmpoeito flnmher elucidate the role of the latter of these 3 dimensions, being highly cmguzantcfi'flmafactthatcxuy1aJimiueiammmmncfthexmrnemeeemfld be attributed to this variable. FUrther explication of this hypothesized nflatflmehupbeoeen«xuegrwn'beuwicnsamdtheckwekxmentcfifcmme- tence will be made at this point. The line of reasoning here will be an attempted synthesis of Piagetian and humanistic perspectives, thus a definition of competence from a Piagetian viewpoint need be given. Competence, in this framework is defined as the maximization of poten- tial responding through the equilibration of assimilative and accommo- dative capacities, thereby allowing for the greatest possibility of effective adaptation to occur in any given situation (Piaget, 1957; 'Weiner, 1975). 192 193 In the previous review of the literature on caregiver behaviors associated with positive psycho-emotional development in children, 3 global factors were discerned. 'Ihese were empathy, warmth, or accept- ance, firm setting of limits with clearly defired rules and expectations, and flexibility and encouragerent of autonomy within the prescribed limits. 'Ihe interplay of these 3 factors in the development of compe— tence is perhaps as follows: (1) Empathy and the communication of acknowledgment, acceptance and valuing of the child's experiencing F- fosters a sense of psychological safety, a sense that one's thoughts, feelings and desires are valuable, that one's being as a unique individ- ual is worthwhile (Axline, 1947; Maslow, 1962; Nbustakas, 1959; Rogers, 1961 ; Stollak, 1978) .1 These positive early perceptions and experiences of oneself, acquired through the perceived reactions of the environment. ccnstellate into a primitive self-schema, or "core-me" (Gould, 1972) that includes the attributions of goodness, "entitlerent" (Gould, 1972) , and potential masterfulness. Such trust and confidence in oneself and the environment augments exploration and manipulation of the social/ material world, thereby increasing accommodation and assimilation of new scheras . Equilibrationuthe adaptive balancing of accommodation and assimilation (Piaget, 1957; Weiner, l975)-is also heightened by the affirmation of self, since the child is not compelled to be over accom- modative out of fear that the environment will be overwhelming if not molded to, nor be over assimilative due to a fragile sense of self that necessitates the environment to conform to its schemas for fear that accommodation would result in a giving over or loss of identity.2 l9 4 (2) Firm, consistent setting of limits with clearly specified rules and expectations would seem to aid the child in adaptive accom- modation by teaching him/her effective ways of acting upon the environ- ment and thereby increasing the assimilation of new schemas. The pre- dictability of the limits would probably also enhance the sense of safety since they would give a clear framework within which to act with predictable consequences. ( 3) The encouragement of autonomy within prescribed limits expands accommodation as the child tries out and develops new modes of responding, again assimilating new schemas in the process . Such allow- ance for experimentation within set boundaries also ccnstellates into the "core-me" the attribution of competency, masterfulness, and effectiveness. Thus it would appear that psychological safety and the encourage- ment of autonomous exploration are necessary, though not sufficient, conditions for the development and maintenance of psycho-social compe- tence. As Stollak (1978) points out, however, competence is also de- veloped through the child seeing caregivers engaging in competent behaviors with others, in addition to him/herself. The child thus models after such behaviors, thereby assimilating new schemas and ex- panding his/her modes of accommodation and adaptation. 195 FOOTNOTES lWhile expressed empathy and the communication of acknowl- edgment and acceptance of others' experiencing would appear in general to be condusive to psychological growth and a sense of psychological safety, I have on occassion experienced verbalized empathy as something of a psycho- logical assault to the integrity of my self-boundary-- whether the empathy was accurate or not. Such empathy was experienced as intrusive, engulfing, and violating a sanctimcnious boundary of self. Perhaps this echoes a developmentally earlier phenomincn, beginning in the "terrible twos" (Erikson's (1958) second stage of develop- ment involving autonomy vs. shame and doubt), in which the child begins to define a budding sense of self by asserting him/herself against the parents and the environ- ment. It is in this regard that Lang (1962) asserts the importance of the first lie as being a primary experienc- ing of a separate, inviolable self that is at that moment individuated from a hitherto omnipotent, all-knowing parent. Thus initial dependency, expressed in "yes," progresses to a budding independency, asserted in "no," and finally reaches an interdependency in which there is a strong enough sense of identity that either compliance or defiance can be made without a loss of boundary.* Nonetheless, there are times in which identity feels threatened rather than affirmed by verbalized accurate empathy. 2Over accommodation would thus appear to be an attempt to define, delineate, and protect the self by fusing with the environment, while over assimilation would seem to achieve definition, delineation, and protection of self through opposition to the environment. The former is perhaps a more regressive mechanism, reminiscent of symbiotic, Stage I issues (Erikson, 1958), while the latter seems more characteristic of Stage II power struggles. Thus forms of pathology and coping styles can be defined by the prepon- derance of accommodative vs. assimilative modes of re- sponding (Weiner, 1975). 3Interesting to note is that even Pines' (1979) research on "invulnerables"-—chi1dren raised under extremely difficult * The author wishes to thank Lawrence Jaffa for his comments here. 196 circumstances who nonetheless psychoemotionally flourish-- found that in every case there appeared to be at least one supportive, nurturing relationship with a significant other, usually outside of the home. REFERENCES -u' "’ _ REFERENCES Albino, R. Defences against aggression in the play of young children. British Journal of Medical Psychiatry, 1954, 21, 66-71. Allison, J., Blatt, S.J., and Zimet, C.N. The Interpre- tation of Psychological Tests. New York: Harper and Row, 1968. Allport, G.W. Personality and Social Encounter. New York: Beacon, 1960. Ames, L.B. Child Rorschach Responses. New York: Brunner and Maxel, 1974. Anderson, J.P. A study of the relationships between certain aspects of parental behavior and attitudes and the behavior of junior high school pupils. Teacher College Contributions to Education, 1940, No. 809. Armentrout, J.A., and Burger, G.K. Factor analysis of college students' recall of parental child-rearing behaviors. Journal of Genetic Psychology: 1972. Arietti, S. Interpretation of Schizgphrenia. New York: Brunner, 1955. Arietti, S. The Intrapsychic Self. New York: Basic Books, 1976. Axline, V. Place Therapy. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1969. Bach, G. Young children's play fantasies. Psycholog- ical Monographs, 1945, 59, 3-69. Bandura, A. Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969. Baumrind, D. Child care practices anteceding three patterns of pre-school behavior. Child Development, 1967, 15, 43-88. 197 198 Baumrind, D. Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 1971, 4, No. l. Baumrind, D. The development of instrumental competence through socialization. In Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychologx, 1973, 1, 3-46. Baumrind, D. Early Socialization and the Discipline Controversy. New Jersey: General Learning Press, 1975. Baumrind, S., and Black, A.E. Socialization practices associated with dimensions of competence in pre- school boys and girls. Child Development, 1967, 38, 291-327. Becker, W. Consequences of different kinds of parental discipline. In M. L. Hoffman and L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of Child Development Research. New York: Russel Sage, 1964. Berg, M. The function of imaginative play. Unpublished research proposal, Michigan State University, 1975. Berlyne, D. Conflict, Arousal and Curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. Bessell, H. and Palomares, U. Methods in Human Develgpment: Theory Manual. San Diego, Ca.: Human Development Training Institute, 1970. Bettleheim, B. The Uses of Enchantment. New York: Knopf, 1976. ' Bilbow, E. Imaginative play and the control of aggressive behavior. In J. Singer The Child's World of Make- Believe. New York: Academic Press, 1973. Bolgar, H. and Fischer, L.K. Personality projection in the world test. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1947, 21, 117:128. Bowyer, R. The sand-tray world as a projective technique with mental defectives. Journal of the Midland Mental Deficiency Society, 1958, 4, 44-51. Bowyer, R. A normative study of sand-tray worlds. Bulletin, British Psychology Society, 1956. Bowyer, R. The Lowenfeld World Technique. London: Pergamon, 1970. 199 Bridges, K. M. B. A genetic theory of emotions. Journal of Genetic Psychologyr 1930, 31, 514-527. Bronfenbrenner, U. Some familial antecedents of responsi- bility and leadership in adolescents. In L. Petrullo and B. M. Bass (Eds.), Leadership and Interpersonal Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. Buhler, C. The world test, a projective technique. Journal of Child Psychiatry, 1951, 2, 4-12. Buhler, C. and Kelly, G. The World Test: A Measurement of Emotional Disturbance. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1941. Buhler, C. and Carrol, H.S. A comparison of the results of the world test with teacher's judgment concerning children's personality adjustment. Journal of Child Psychiatry, 1951, 2,36-43. Burger, G. K. and Armentrout, J. A. A factor analysis of fifth and sixth graders' reports of parental child rearing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 1971, 4, 483. Burger, G. K., Armentrout, J. A. and Rapfogel, R. G. Esti- mating factor scores for children's reports of paren- tal child-rearing behaviors. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1973, 133, 107-113. Buss, A. The Psychology of Aggression. New York: Wiley, 1961. Campbell, J. (Ed.) The Portable Jung. New York: Viking, 1971. Cappell, M. Games and the mastery of helplessness. In R. Sclvenko and J. Knight (Eds.), Motivations in Play, Games, and Sports. Illinois: Thomas, 1967. Cattell, R. B. Abilities, Their Structure, Growth and Action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971. Coopersmith, S. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1967. Cowen, E. L., Trost, M. A., Izzo, L. D., Lorion, R. P., Dorr, D. and Isaacson, R. V. New Ways in School Mental Health. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1975. 200 Dansky, J. L. and Silverman, I. W. Effects of play on associative fluency in preschool-age children. Developmental Psychology, 1973, 2, 38-43. Dansky, J. L. and Silverman, I. W. Play: A general facil- itator of associative fluency. Developmental Psy- chology: 1975, 22, 104. Dave, R. D. The effects of hynotically induced dreams on creative problem solving. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1976. Dollard, J. and Miller, N. E. Personality and Psychotherapy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. Erikson, E. Childhood and Society. New York: Norton, 1950. Eron, L., Banta, P., Walder, L., and Laulicht, J. Compari- son of data obtained from mothers and fathers on childrearing practices and their relation to child aggression. Child Development, 1961, 22, 457-472. Fein, G. A transformational analysis of pretending. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 2, 291-296. Feitelson, D. Developing imaginative play in pre-school children as a possible approach to fostering crea- tivity. Early Child Development, 1973, 2Q, 220-223. Ferichel, D. The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. New York: W. W. Norton, 1945{' Ferguson, L. R., Partyka, L., and Lester, B. M. Patterns of parent perception differentiating clinic from non- clinic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psych- ology: 1974, 2, 169-181. Fischer, J. K. A new psychological tool in function: A preliminary clinical experience with the Bolgar- Fischer World Test. American Journal of Ortho- psychiatry, 1950, 1, 281-292. Flavell, J. H. The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1963. Franklin, D. Block play modeling and its relationship to imaginativeness, impulsivity-reflection and internal- external control. Unpublished pre-dissertaticn research, Yale University, 1975. Freedman, D. G. Human Sociobiclgpy. New York: Free Press, 1979. i 201 French, T. and Fromm, E. Dream Interpretation: A New Approach. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Freud, A. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defenses. London: Hogarth Press, 1936. Freud, A. Normality and Pathology in Childhood. New York: International University Press, 1965. Freud, S. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. New York: Pocket Books, 1953. Fromm, E. The Forgotten Language. New York: Rinehart, 1951. If?“ Gershowitz, M. Fantasy behaviors of clinic-referred chil- _i dren in play encounters with college undergraduates. ‘ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1974. Gesell, A. and 119, F. L. The Child from Five to Ten. New York: Harper, 1946. Goldberg, L. Aggression in boys in a clinical population. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York, 1973. Goldin, P. A review of children's reports of parent be- havior. Psychological Bulletin, 1969, 22, 222-236. Golomb, C. and Cornelius, C. B. Symbolic play and its cognitive significance. Develppmental Psychology, 1977, 2, 13-20. Gondor, L. H. Use of fantasy communications in child psy- chotherapy. In M. R. Haworth (Ed.), Child Psycho- therapy. New York: Basic Books, 1964. Gottlieb, S. Modeling effects upon fantasy. In J. L. Singer The Child's World of Make-Believe. New York: Ach, 1973. Gould, R. Child Studies through Fantasy. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. Green, R. J. Child-rearing attitudes and perceptions of children's behavior across two generations in families. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1975. Griffiths, R. A Study of Imagination in Early Childhood and Its Function in Mental Development. London: Paul, Trubner, and Co., 1935. 202 Groos, K. The Play of Man. New York: Appleton, 1901. Guntrip, H. Schizoid Phenomena, Object Relation and Self. New York: International University Press, 1969. Hall, G. S. Youth. New York: Appleton, 1920. Harlow, H. F. Motivational forces underlying learning. In Learning Theory, Personality Theory and Clinical Research - The Kentucky Symppsium. New York: Wiley, 1954. Harnad, S. (Ed.) Lateralization in the Nervous System. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Hartmann, H. Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adgptation, M.D. Rapaport. New York: International University Press, 1958. Hartwell, S. W., Andrew, G., Hutt, M. L., and Walton, R. E. The Michigan Picture Test: Diagnostic and therapeu- tic possibilities of a new projective test in child guidance. American Journal of Orthopsychiatgy, 1951, 22, 124-137. Hartwell, S. W., Andrew, G., Hutt, M. L., and Walton, R. E. The Michigan Picture Test. Chicago, Illinois: Science Research Associates, 1953. Haworth, M. R. The CAT: Facts about Fantasy. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1966. Herron, R. and Sutton, B. (Eds.) Child's Play. New York: Wiley, 1977. Hoffman, M. L. Child-rearing practices and moral develop- ment, generalization from empirical research. Child Development, 1963, 21, 295-318. Hoffman, M. L. Parent discipline and the child's consider- ation for others. Child Develgpment, 1963, 24, 573-588. Hoffman, M. L. Conscience, personality, and socialization techniques. Human Development, 1970, 22, 90-126. Hoffman, M. L. Moral development. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology. New York: Wiley, 1970. 203 Hoffman, M. L. Moral internalization, parental power, and the nature of parent-child interaction. Develop- mental Psychology, 1975, 11, 228-239. Hoffman, M. L. and Saltzstein, H. D. Parental discipline and the child's mOral development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1967, 5, 45-57. Hollenberg, E. A study of some effects of child-training practices on doll play behavior. Unpublished Masters Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1949. Hollenberg, E. and Sperry, M. Some antecedents of aggres- sion and effects of frustration in doll play. Journal of Personality, 1951, 1, 32-43. Holway, A. R. Early self-regulation of infants and later behavior in play interviews. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1949, $2! 612-623. Isch, M. J. Fantasied mother-child interaction in doll play. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1952, 81, 233-258. Jahoda, M. Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health. New York: Basic Books, 1958. Jeffre, M. F. D. Fantasied mother-child interaction in doll play. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, 1946. Jersild, A. T. Child Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1968. 4 Jersild, A. T. and Holmes, F. B. Children's Fears. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. Johnson, E. Z. Attitudes of children toward authority as projected in their doll play at two age levels. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University. Jung, C. G. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. New York: Meridian Books, 1956. Jung, C. G. "Man and his Symbols. New York: Dell Publish- ing Co., 1968. Kagan, J. The child's perception of the parent. Journal of-Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1956, 53, 257-258. 204 Kagan, J., Hoskin, B., and Watson, S. The child's symbolic conceptualization of parents. Child Development, Kalff, D. Sandplay: Mirror of a Child's Psyche. San Francisco: Browser, 1971. Kamp, J. M. J. and Kessler, E. S. The World Test: Pre- liminaries to a developmental scale. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Utrecht University, 1967. Kardos, E. and Peto, A. Contributions to a theory of play. British Journal of Medical Psychiatry, 1956, 22, 100-113. Kernberg, 0. Object Relation Theory and Clinical Psycho- analysis. New York: Aronson, 1976. Klein, M. The Psychoanalysis of Children. London: Hogarth Press, 1932. Klinger, E. The Structure and Functions of Fantasy. New York: Wiley, 1971. Kretschmer, E. A Textbook of Medical Psychology. London: Oxford University Press, 1934. Lamb, M. The Role of the Father in Child Development. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1976. Lang, R. D. The Self and Others. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1962. Leary, T. F. Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality: A Functional Theogy and Methodology for Personality Evaluation. New York: Ronald, 1957. Lefkowitz, M. M., Walder, L. O. and Eron, L. D. Punishment, identification, and aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1963, 9, 159-175. Levin, H. and Sears, R. R. Identification with parents as a determinant of doll play aggression. Child Development, 1956, 21, 135-153. Levin, H. and Wardwell, E. Research in doll play. Psy- chological Bulletin, 1962, 59, 27-56. Levine, J. A. Fathering books: A new generation. Psy- chology Today, 1978, 12, 152-161. 205 Levy, D. Use of play techniques as experimental procedure. American Journal of Orthopsyphiatry, 1933, 2, 266-277. Lewin, K. A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935. Liberman, M., Stollak, G. E., and Denner, B. Dimensions of psychological health in family play interactions. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Detroit, Michigan, 1971. Lindemann, E. Mental health: Fundamentals to a dynamic epidemiology of health. In T. Goldston (Ed.), Egg Epidemiology of Health. New York: Academy of Medicine, 1955. Lowenfeld, M. Play in Childhood. London: Gollancey, 1935. Lowenfeld, M. The theory and use of play in psychotherapy of childhood. Journal of Mental Science, 1938, 21, 1057-1063. Lowenfeld, M. The World Pictures of children: A method for recording and study them. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1939, 22, 65-72. Lowenfeld, M. Non Verbal Thinkipg. London: Institute of Child Psychology, 1964. Lumbry, G. K. Study of the World Technique characteristics as a basis for discrimination between various clinical categories. Journal of Child Psyghiatry, 1951, 2, 24-29. Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., and Bergman, A. The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant. New York: Basic Books, 1975. Maslow, A. Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostraud, 1962. Meichenbaum, D. H., and Goodman, J. Training impulsive children to talk to themselves. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1971, 21, 115-126. Messé, L. A., Stollak, G. E., and Michaels, G. Y. Sensitiv- ity to children's behavior and adult-child playroom interactions. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, 1977. 206 Messé, L.A., Stollak, G.E., Larson, R.w. and Michaels, G.Y. Interpersonal consequences of person perception processes on two social contexts. Journal of Person- ality and Social Psyghology, 1979, 21, 369-379. Michaels, G.Y., Messé, L.A. and Stollak, G.E. Relationships among children's perceptions of parent behavior, parents' inferences of their children's perceptions, and parents' self-perceptions. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1977. Michaels, G.Y., Messé, L.A., and Stollak, G.E. Predicting children's social behavior from parent person per- ception processes. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, 1977. Millar, S. The ngchology of Play. London: Penguin, 1968. Moustakas, C.E. Psychotherapy with Children. New York: Harper, 1959. Murphy, L. Personality_in Young Children. New York: Basic Books, 1956. Murphy, L. The Widening World of Childhood: Paths Towards Mastegy. New York: Basic Books, 1962. Murray, H.A. The Thematic Appercgption Test. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943. Mussen, P.H. (Ed.) Manual of Child Psychology: Volume II. New York: Wiley, 1970. Nahme-Huang, L., Singer, D.H., Singer, J.L. and Wheaton, A. Imaginative play and perceptual motor intervention methods with emotionally-disturbed, hospitalized children: An evaluation study. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, New York, 1976. Neuman, E. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Cambridge: Princeton University Press, 1954. Neuman, E. The Child. New York: Harper, 1976. Ornstein, R. The Nature of Human Consciousness. New York: Viking, 1974. Piaget, J. The Construction of Reality in Childhood. New York: Basic Books, 1937 207 Piaget, J. Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton, 1957. Piaget, J. The Moral Development of the Child. New York: Free Press, 1965. Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. Mental Imagery in the Child. New York: Basic Books, 1971. Pines, M. Superkids. Psychology Today, 1979, 22, 53-63. Pintler, M.H., Phillips, R. and Sears, R.R. Sex differences in the projective doll play of preschool children. Journal of Psychology: 1946, 2;, 73-80. Pitcher, E. and Prelinger, E. Children Tell Stories: An Analysis of Fantasy. New York: International University Press, 1963. Rabin, A.I. (Ed.) Projective Techniques in Personality Assessment. New York: Springer, 1968. Rapaport, D. The Epilected Papers of David Rapaport, M.M. Gill (Ed.). New York: Basic Books, 1967. Reif, T. and Stollak, G.E. Sensitivity to Young Children: Training and its Effects. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1972. Reiss, A.A. Study of some genetic behavioral correlates of human movement responses in children's Rorschach protocols. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1957. Ridley, D. A pilot study of the sandtray World to examine the possibilities of a quantitative scoring method. Unpublished Bachelors Thesis, University of Bristol, 1952. Rogers, C. On Becoming a Person. Boston: Mifflin, 1961. Rosenhan, D., Underwood, B. and Moore, B. Affect moderates self-gratification and altruism. Journal of Person- ality and Social Psychology, 1974, 2Q, 546-552. Samples, B. The Metaphoric Mind. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1976. Sandler, J. and Nagera, A. Aspects of the metapsychology of fantasy. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1963, 22, 160-195. 208 Santostefano, S. Miniature situations as a way of inter- viewing children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, Behavior Development, 1962, 2, 261-269. Schachtel, E. Metamorphosis. New York: Basic Books, 1959. Schaefer, E. Children's reports of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Develgpment, 1965, 26, 413-424. Schaefer, E. A configurational analysis of children's reports of parental behavior. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1965, 22, 552-557. Schiller, F. Essays Aesthetic and Philosophical. London: George Ball, 1875: Sears, R.R. Relation of fantasy aggression to interpersonal aggression. Child DeveloPment, 1950, 22, 5-6. Sears, P.S. Doll play aggression in normal young children: Influence of sex, age, sibling status and father's absence. Psycholggical Monographs, 1951, gs, No. 6. Sears, R.R., Whiting, J.W.M., Nowlis, V. and Sears, P. Some child-rearing antecedents of aggression and dependency in young children. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1953, 52, 135-234. ii Sears, R.R., Maccoby, E.E. and Levin, H. Patterns of Child- rearing. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson and Co., 1957. Sears, R.R., Rau, L. and Alpert, R. Identification and Childrearing. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1965. Serot, N. and Teevan, R. Perception of the parent-child relationship and its relation to child adjustment. Child Development, 1961, 22, 373-378. Singer, J.L. The Child's World of Make-Believe: Experi- mental Studies ofilmaginative Play. New York: Academic, 1973. Singer, J.L. Imagery and Daydream Methods in Psychotherapy and BehaViOr Modification. New York: Academic, 1974. Singer, J.L. The Inner World of Daydreaming. New York: Harper and Row, 1975. 209 Singer, J.L. The experience types: Some behavioral cor- relates and theoretical implications. In M.R. Rickers-Orsiankina (Ed.), Rorschach Psychology. New York: Wiley, 1960. Singer, J.L. Imaginative play and pretending in early childhood: Some experimental approaches. In A. Davids (Eds.), Child Personalitysand Psychopath- ology: Current Topics. New York: Wiley, 1976. Spencer, H. Principles of Psychology. New York: Appleton, 1873. Sperry M. An experimental study of the effects of dis- approval on doll play. Unpublished Masters Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1949. Spivak, G. and Levine, M. Self regulation and acting out in normal adolescents. Progress report for NIMH grant N-453l. Devon, Pennsylvania: Devereaux Foundation, 1964. Stevenson, H.W. Piaget, behavior theory and intelligence. In W. Kesen and C. Kuhlman, Thought in the young child. Monograph on Social Research in Child Development, 1962, 21, 113-126. Stollak, G.E. Until We Are Six. New York: Kriegen Publishing Co., 1978. Stollak, G.E., Messé, LA., Michaels, G.Y. and Ince, R. Children’s behavioral problems and parental per- ceptual bias. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, 1977. Sullivan, H.S. The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatsy. New York: Norton, 1953. Sutton-Smith, B. A reply to Piaget: A play theory of copy. In R. Herron and B. Sutton-Smith (Eds.), Child's Play. New York: Wiley, 1971. Sutton-Smith, B. The role of play in cognitive behavior. In R. Herron and B. Sutton-Smith (Eds.), Child's Play. New York: Wiley, 1971. Sutton-Smith, B. A syntax for play and games. In R. Herron and B. Sutton-Smith (Eds.), Child's Play. New York: Wiley, 1971. 210 Syle, W.H. and Levitt, E.E. Punitiveness, authoriatarian- ism and parental discipline of grade school children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1955, 22, 42-46. Symonds, P.M. Fantasy. In The Dynamics of Human Adjustment. New York: Appleton-Century, 1946. Thomas, A., Chess, S. and Birch, H.G. Temperment and Be- havior Disorders in Children. New York: New York University Press, 1968. Tomkins, 5.8. The Thematic Apperception Test. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1943. Tomkins, S.S. Affect, Imagery, and Consciousness. Volumes I and II. New York: Springer, 1962, 1963. Tucker, J. The role of fantasy in cognitive-affective functioning: Does reality make a difference in remembering? Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1975. Van Wylick, M. Die Welt des Kindes in seiner Darstellung. Vienna: Eberle, 1935. Vernon, M.D. The relation of cognition and phantasy in children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1940, 22, 1-21. Waelder, R. The psychoanalytic theory of play. Psycho- ana2ytic Quarterly, 1932, 2, 208-224. Weiner, M. The Cognitive Unconscious: A Piagetian Ap- proach to Psychotherapy. New York: International Psychological Press, 1975. Weiner, M. Dynamic cognitive therapy. In R. Herink (Ed.), Psychotherapy Handbook. New York: New American Library, 1979. Werner, H. Comparative Psychology of Mental Development. New York: Follet, 1948. Whitaker, H. and Whitaker, H. (Eds.) Studies in Neuro- linguistics. New York: Academic Press, 1976. White, R.W. Motivation reconsidered: The concept of com- petence. Psychological Review, 1959, 22, 297-333. 211 White, S.H. Evidence for a hierarchical arrangement of learning processes. In L. Lipsitt and C. Spiker (Eds.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior. Volume II. New York: Academic Press, 1963. Witkin, H.A. Personality through Perception. New York: Harper, 1954. Wowkanech, N.K. Children's differential coping styles on fantasy related to social competence. Unpublish- ed doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1977. Yarrow, L.J. The effect of antecedent frustration on pro- jective play. Psychological Monographs, 1948, 22, No. 293. Yarrow, M.R., Campbell, J.D. and Burton, R.V. Child Rearing: An Inquiry into Research and Methods. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, 1968. Zucker, R. and Barron, F.H. Toward a systematic family mythology: The relationship of parents' and ado- lescents' reports of parent behavior during childhood. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psycho- logical Association, New York, 1971.