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ABSTRACT
BODY POSITION AND MEMORY RECALL

by Elsie Berdach

This is a study of the relationship between body
position and free recall of memories. Interest in this
problem stems from the advantage attributed by psychoanaly-
sis to the lying down position for free association.

Each of 42 male undergraduates was asked to recall
any memories that came to mind in a 20 minute free recall.
situation. Half of the §s were tested in a sitting-up
position (SU) and half in a lying—down position (LD).

It was found that l) the mean number of memories
in the age 0-3 years category was significantly greater in
the LD position than in the SU position; 2) significantly
more subjects in the LD condition recalled memories for
the 0-3 year period than in the SU condition; 3) the mean
age for all memories recalled was earlier for the LD group
than for the SU group, though this difference was not sig-
nificant; 4) there was no significant difference in the

number of memories recalled as a function of body position.
Results are interpreted as experimental confirma-
tion of the psychoanalytic procedure of using the lying-

down position in free association and memory recall.

\L.) Q)”

BODY POSITION AND MEMORY RECALL

by

Elsie Berdach

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1965

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with great pleasure that I take this opportunity
to formally thank Dr. Paul Bakan, the chairman of my Masters'
thesis committee, for all the help he has given me in the
preparation of this thesis. In all stages of preparation, in
the earliest formulations, in the securing of necessary equip-
ment, in the analysis of the findings, and in the final prepar-
ation of the paper, Dr. Bakan was at all times available and
willing to offer his assistance. His encouragement and interest
in my own endeavors made writing this thesis a very enjoyable
and pleasurable experience.

Thanks also go to Drs. Karon and Hurley. Dr. Karon
for his ideas and reading suggestions. Dr. Hurley for his

stimulating questions and suggestions for further research.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction . . . . . . . .

Psychoanalytic Approach to Problem
Hypotheses Leading to Present Study

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Conditions . . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Arrangements . . . . .
Task of Subject . . . . . . .
Recording of Responses . . . . .

Results . . . . . . . . . .

Mean Age of all Memories Recalled .

Earliest Memory Recalled . . . .
Analysis by Age Categories . . . .
Distribution of Memories over Time .
Total Number of Memories . . . .
Qualitative Impressions . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . .
Age of Memories . . . . . . .

Relevance of Theories of Perception .

Relevance of Sensory Deprivation Studies

Decline in the Number of Memories over Time

Number of Memories . . . . .

Suggestions for Further Research . .

Conclusions . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

bra

\DC‘U‘IU'I

10

13

13
l3
14
16
18
18

21

21
24
26
27
29
30
32

33

35

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Mean age of all memories and the earliest
memory recalled in LD and SU conditions. . 13
The mean and total number of memories
recalled as a function of age category . . 15
Placement by five minute segments of
earliest memory recalled during 20 minute
session . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Mean and total number of memories recalled
in LD and SU conditions . . . . . . . 18

iv

Diagram 1.

Figure 1.

LIST OF DIAGRAMS AND FIGURES

Page
Experimental room . . . . . . . . 8
Mean number of memories recalled during
each 5 minute period during 20 minute
free recall for LD and SU conditions. . l7

INTRODUCTI ON

 

Body position has been implicated as a variable re-
lated to recall of early memories, especially in the context
of psychoanalytic method. This implication is derived from
clinical observations. There have been no empirical studies
of the effect of body position on recall of early memories.
In the present study free recall of memories is studied under

two conditions; with S sitting up and with S lying down.

Psychoanalytic Approach to Problem

 

Freud stressed the importance of recalling early
childhood memories in the course of psychoanalytic treatment
for he believed the etiology of neurosis often lay in repressed
infantile memories. If the repressed memory was brought to
consciousness with its accompanying affect, neurotic symptoms
were often observed to disappear. (Freud, 1911, 1917, 1947)
Due to Freud's stress upon the importance of recalling memories
in the curing of neurotic symptoms it was decided, in the
present study, to explore the relationship of body position
to memory recall.

The notion that body position should affect recall
of memories stems from Freud's use of the couch during the

analytic session. According to Freud, the reason for the

use of the couch was to relieve muscular tension and "dis-
tracting sense impressions which might disturb the concen-
tration of the attention upon . . . mental affairs." (Freud,
1917) From this idea, relieving muscular tension should
lead to effects upon memory recall.

-Other analysts have mentioned the relationship of
resting to thinking and other mental phenomena. Breuer, for
instance, believed the brain works with a restricted mass of
energy which alternates between ideation and muscular exertion.
He says, "Thus we see that in strong muscular exertion it is
impossible to think continuously, that concentration of
attention on one sensory sphere diminishes the functional
capacity of other cerebral organs . . ." (Breuer, 1947).
Braat¢y, another analyst, also mentions the importance of the
body in the therapeutic situation. "In psychotherapy, this
basic connection between respiration, emotion, and symbolic
behavior is important because the restriction of breathing
and emotions is predominantly implemented by rigid postures
and by hypertonus in the slow-reacting postural muscles. In
releasing respiration and emotion, it is therefore helpful
to take all obligations away from the postural muscles. For
this reason the couch is an active factor in liberating the
patient." (Braat¢y, 1954).

Ferenczi, Reich, Lowen, and Jacobson are other analysts
who have indicated the importance of the body in analysis and

its relationship to mental affairs. Ferenczi used "relaxation

exercises" to overcome psychical inhibitions and resistances
to association. "'There seems to be a certain relationship
between the capacity in general for relaxation of the muscula-

ture and for free association." (In Lowen, 1958) Reich
related muscle tension to defense mechanisms and to repres—
sion (1949). According to Reich, muscular rigidity explains
the manner and is the mechanism of repression. "Psychic and
somatic rigidity . . . are not mutual expressions of one
another, but form a unitary function . . . the physiological
behavior determines the psychic behavior and vice versa."
(1949) It is possible, according to Reich, to observe dis-
solution of a muscular rigidity which not only liberates
vegetative energy, but in addition, also brings back into
memory the very infantile situations in which the repression
had taken effect (in Lowen, 1958). Lowen, influenced by
Reich, actively uses the body in therapy indicating the re—
lationship as, "On the somatic level there is an increase

in motility, coordination and control; on the psychic level

there is a reorganization of thinking and attitudes."
(Lowen, 1958) Jacobson, who has explored the relationship
of relaxation to ideation on a more experimental basis has
developed a technique of progressive relaxation which in-
volves training the body musculature to relax in order to
overcome physical and psychical tensions (1938). He has

implied muscular tensions are directly related to ideation

imagery, and recollection.

Hypotheses Leading to Present Study

 

From the foregoing discussion, the present study was
aimed at determining if 1) lying down leads to recall of
earlier memories, and 2) if lying down leads to recall of

more memories.

PROCEDURE

 

Experimental Conditions

 

Two conditions were used. One consisted of having
S recall memories while in an upright, sitting position.
The other condition consisted of having S recall memories
while in a supine, reclining position. In the reclining
condition, the legs were raised at the knees, the weight of
the body was upon the back, and the neck and back were at a
300 angle to the floor. In the upright position S sat as
if in an upright chair with the neck and back perpendicular
to the floor. Aside from body position the two conditions

were identical.

Subjects

Forty-two male subjects1 participated in the experi-
ment, 21 in each body position. The mean age of the Ss in
the LD2 group was 19.3 and in the SU group 20.1, not a

statistically significant difference (t=1.l). The age range

 

1A pilot study done in which 3 female 88 were used
seemed to indicate that females were less able—to recall
memories than male Ss, perhaps due to E being female, and
they seemed to be more defensive. For this reason it was
desided to use male Ss.

2LD refers to the lying down condition and SU to the
sitting-up condition.

of the S5 was 17 to 28 years of age. The Ss were from an in-
troductory course in psychology. They signed-up for an experi-
ment in "memory recall" for 1/2 hour credit on a posted sign-up
sheet for psychological experiments. They were randomly
assigned to either of the two experimental conditions when

they appeared for the experiment.

Physical Arrangements

 

The eXperiment was done in a small, 10 foot by 10
foot, soundproof room. When S arrived for the experiment
he entered the anteroom, also 10 feet by 10 feet, where he
left his coat and books. A table and chair were the only
furniture in the anteroom. The door to the experimental
room, separating it from the anteroom, was closed during the
experiment. In both rooms during both conditions there was
uniform lighting. In the experimental room, the light was
from two neon overhead lights.

The materials present in the experimental room con-
sisted of the lounge chair in which S was seated during the
experiment, (the chair was in either the upright or lounge
position when S entered the room depending upon the condition
for a given S; a stool in back of the chair; a table on which
was placed a tape recorder; and a chair for E to sit on dur-

ing the experimental session.

The lounge chair used in the experiment was made of
canvas with a wooden frame. The canvas was tied to the frame
with rOpe. Two side boards were present on either side of
the face to block vision to either side and keep the head
steady with the face forward. These boards were approximately
2 inches away from actual skin contact. When the chair was '
in the lounge position, the back of the chair was at 30°
angle to the floor. The knees were raised so that the legs
were elevated, similar to a T.V. lounge chair. When the
lounge chair was in the upright position, the back and neck
were at a 90° angel to the floor. The S was forced to sit
straight. S's feet could touch the ground when in the up-
right position.

The position of the furniture was such that the
lounge chair faced in the direction of the entrance door,
but to the side of it. The left wall was 5 inches away from
the left side of the subject; when in the upright position,
the wall which S faced was 3 feet in front of him. The
right wall was 7 feet to the right of the subject. E sat
against this wall and 3 feet in back of S. The tape re-
corder was in front of E and out of the eye reach of S, as was
E, during the session, (See diagram 1).

A tape recorder was used to record the responses of
Ss. (Before S entered the room E recorded his number,
position, number of the tape and side of tape for playback

purposes.) The microphone was not visible to S when in the

 

 

Taperecorder

@ o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MicrOphone \ i

 

 

 

Loungechair

Door

 

 

 

Anteroom

Diagram 1. Diagram of the experimental room. Lounge-
chair on the right side, E in upper left,
taperecorder on the table. (Scale: %" = 1')

experimental chair, being mounted on the right side of the
chair on the side of the headboard away from S, but it was
clearly visible when S entered the experimental situation.

The particular tape recorder used gave a low hum when running.

Task of Subject

 

When S entered the experimental room he was seated
in the chair. E faced S while reading the instructions for
the experiment. The instructions were as follows:

This is an experiment in memory recall. What I
would like you to do is to put your head back, relax,
and tell me any memories that come to your mind.. You
can be as detailed or as general as you want; and
there does not have to be any particular order to the
way in which you tell me your memories, there is no
right or wrong way to doing this, just say what comes
to your mind.

After or before each memory that you tell me,
please mention how old you were at the time when the
event which you are remembering occurred. It is very
important for me to know how old you were for each
event that you remember.

I am going to sit in the corner, in the chair,
don't pay any attention to me. What you say is being
recorded. I will tell you when time is up.

Now to summarize, you are to relax and tell me
about any memories that come to mind. For each
memory that you report, tell me the age at which the
event occurred. If you are not sure, guess.

Do you have any questions?

After the instructions were read, E walked to her
seat and turned the tape recorder on with a concomitant-
comment to S such as "OK," "Go ahead," or "Alright," to
indicate he could begin to respond. E made no other comments
until the end of the session. The session lasted for 20

minutes, at which time E made a comment again, such as

10

"OK," “That's fine," or "Fine," to indicate the session was
over and the tape recorder was turned off at that point.
After the 20 minutes of free responding, additional
data was obtained from each S by verbally asking him ques-
tions. He was first asked about his reactions to the experi-
ment by a phrase such as, "Any reactions to the experiment?"
Any reactions mentioned were written down by E. Other data
concerned the S's age, major, class, where he was raised,
what he was doing before coming to the experiment, if he
was sleepy during the experiment, and if he was comfortable
in the chair. During the session his behavior was recorded
and he was rated by E on a five point scale for degree of
nervousness, 1 being low and 5 being high. After the session
S was asked to rate himself on nervousness on the same scale
and his response was recorded.3
After all data was collected, S was given a slip
indicating he had participated in an experiment and thanked

for his cooperation by E.

Recording of Responses

 

A memory was defined as any event recalled, or any
experience which S mentioned as a memory. Memories could be
separated from one another by the fact that S related an age

for each event. If S did not report an age, thus himself

 

3Much of the data collected after the session was not

amenable to analysis. Some of E's qualitative impressions,
however, were derived from talking with the Ss after the session.

11

separating one memory from another in his flow of thoughts,
a memory was defined as a change in content area talked
about even though no obvious break in the verbalization
occurred. Another indication of what was a memory for S
was a break in his thoughts evidenced by a period of silence.
Examples of the content areas talked about as memories in-
clude: the first day of grammar, junior, or high school,
the first day of college, teachers (of various grades re-
membered,) plays or sports in school, vacation trips taken,
walking alone, playing with friends, births of siblings,
deaths, injuries, girl and boy friends, feelings about cer-
tain events such as getting a new bike, being scolded by
parents, being left alone by brothers, and other events that
happened to S or experiences he had. In some cases one con-
tent area such as a trip or an injury or a football game
were related in great detail. However, the main content
area determined a memory rather than the details given.

For instance, if S took a trip he might mention the weather,
where he ate, where he stayed, the exact route taken, what
was seen, and so forth, and these would all be considered

as details of one memory centering around the theme of
"trip." In this way memories varied in duration of time
spent in relating them due to the amoumt of detail given
within one memory.

As A was recalling memories, it was possible to

write down the ages that he mentioned in the order that the

ages were given for each memory. If no age was given to

12

the memory, some word about the content area of the particu-
lar memory could be written as an indicator to later ask S
about the particular memory. After the session was over S
was asked about the memory given without an age and he could
then re-recall the memory and add the age. It was thus pos-
sible to classify almost all memories into given age cate-
gories. Those that could not be classified because they
were of no particular event, but rather something that hap-
pened over a series of years, were classified as "general."
Other memories where no age at all could be ascertained
were classified as "unknown." The latter two categories
were later subsumed under the classification of "unknown
age."

A stopwatch was used to time the 20 minute period
of free recall. It was possible to make note of each 5
minute period during the notation of the ages of the memories
being given by S. This allowed for four 5 minute periods to
be ascertained from the total 20 minutes with the number of
memories given for each 5 minute period recorded separately.

Tape recordings of the sessions were listened to by
E. This allowed for a recheck of the original ages and
number of memories noted. Scorer reliability for the age of
memories recalled was determined by having two independent
judges score the tapes. Reliabilities for 7 Ss on age of
memories were .61, .83, .89, .91, .92, .96, and .99. Almost

perfect agreement was obtained concerning the number of

memories per S.

RESULTS

Mean Age of All Memories Recalled

The mean age of the total number of memories recalled
by the LD group was 11.7 years. The mean age for the total
number of memories recalled by the SU group was 13.12 years.
The difference of 1.42 years was not statistically signifi-
cant, (t=1.52) although in the predicted direction. The
mean age recalled by each group was based on the mean age of
recall for all memories for each subject within the group.

Table l.--Mean age of all memories and the earliest memory
recalled in LD and Su conditions.

 

 

LD SU t
Mean age of all memories recalled 11.7 13.12 1.52
Standard Deviation 2.85 3.02
Mean age of earliest memory recalled 3.9 4.9 1.39
Standard Deviation 2.32 2.53

 

Earliest Memory Recalled

 

The mean age of the earliest memory recalled for
each S in the LD group was 3.9 years. For the EHJgroup it

was 4.9 years. The difference of 1 year was not statistically

l3

14

significant, (t=l.39) but the trend was in the predicted
direction (Table l). The findings of other studies indicate
the earliest memory recalled is usually in the age range
from 3.04 years to 3 years 8.5 months using means or medians
(Dudycha, 1941).

The whole age closest to the median age of recall
for the earliest memory was 3 years. Of the 42 SS, 17 fell
below and 25 above this age when using their earliest
memory. Using age 3 as a cutting score, a x2 analysis was
done in a 2 x 2 design to test for the contingency between
the LD and SU conditions and number of S3 with memories at
or below 3 and above 3 years of age. Of the 17 Ss remember-
ing before age 3, 5 were in the SU group and 12 in the LD
group, a significant difference. The x2 was significant at
the .05 level (x2 = 4.84, 1 df). In the LD condition a

greater number of Ss recall memories before age 3.

Analysis by Age Categories

 

The memories recalled were grouped into 5 age ranges;
birth to 3 years old, 4 to 7 years old, 8 to 11 years old,
12 to 15 years old, and 16 and above. The difference be-
tween the groups in mean number of memories recalled was
tested separately for each age classification. A statisti-
cally significant difference was found in the age range of

birth to 3 years, (t = 2.46, p = .02), which was in the

15

predicted direction.

most marked in the early period (Table 2).

recall more memories before age 3 than the SU group.

The effect of body position appears

The LD group

Both groups show a trend of increased number of

memories recalled as age is increased except for one rever-

sal in the SU group which recalled more memories for age

range 8 to 11 than for 12 to 15 (Table 2).

 

 

 

 

Table 2.--The mean and total number of memories recalled as
a function of age category.
Age Range Number of Memories
LD SU t
Birth to 3 years old
Mean 1.2 .29 2.46*
Total 25 6
Standard Deviation 1.55 .57
4 to 7 years old
Mean 5.33 3.95 1.02
Total 112 83
Standard Deviation 5.19 3.47
8 to 11 years old
Mean 5.52 4.57 .73
Total 116 96
Standard Deviation 4.21 4.06
12 to 15 years old
Mean 6.19 4.1 1.74
Total 130 86
Standard Deviation 4.65 2.39
16 years and above
Mean 6.71 7.48 .32
Total 141 157
Standard Deviation 9.04 6.18
*Significant at .02 level with 40 degrees of freedom.

16

Distribution of Memories Over Time

It was of interest to see when, during the 20 minute
session, the earliest memory was recalled. It was found
that 28 of the 42 Ss recalled the earliest memory within the
first 5 minutes of the session. (The 20 minutes were di-
vided into four 5 minute periods.) It was also found that
the earliest memory was the first memory recalled in 17 of
the 42 Ss. Of the 28 Ss recalling the earliest memory in
the first 5 minutes, 15 were in the LD group and 13 in the
SU group. The 14 Ss not recalling the earliest memory in
the first 5 minutes were evenly distributed in the second,
third, and fourth 5 minute periods. Of those 14, 6 were in
the LD group and 8 in the SU group (See Table 3).

Table 3.--Placement by five minute segments of earliest
memory recalled during 20 minute session.

 

 

Placement in Time of
Earliest Memory Recalled LD SU

 

During first 5 minutes- 15 13
During second 5 minutes
During third 5 minutes

During fourth 5 minutes

 

21 21

2
ll
2
ll

 

In both groups there was a decline in the number of
memories over time. Both groups had more memories in the

first 5 minute period than any subsequent 5 minute period.

17

The LD group had the greatest drop between the first and
second 5 minute periods. The SU group had the greatest
drop between the second and third 5 minute periods. Both
groups produced the smallest number of memories during
the last 5 minutes of the session. The course of memory

recall over time for both groups is shown in Figure l.

 

 

m10
0) LD
-H
H
29
(D
E
su

"88
H
3
5 7
Z
$6
(I)
E

5

0—5 6-10 11—15 16-20

Minutes from start of 20 minute session

Figure 1.--Mean number of memories recalled during each 5
minute period during 20 minute free recall for LD and SU
conditions.

18

Total Number of Memories

 

It had been hypothesized that the LD condition
would produce more memories overall. The total number of
memories recalled for the LD group was 563 and for the SU
group 490. The mean number of memories per S in the LD
condition was 26.81 and the mean number per S in the SU
condition was 23.33. Though in the predicted direction

this difference did not approach statistical significance

(t = .409, (See Table 4).

Table 4.-—Mean and total number of memories recalled in LD
and SU conditions.

 

 

 

Number of Memories LD 80 t
N = 21 N = 21
Total number of memories 563 490
Mean number of memories 26.81 23.33 .409
Standard deviation 10.22 14.39

 

Qualitative Impressions

A few Ss in each group closed their eyes during the
session at some time. Since E was behind them it was dif-
ficult to determine exactly when S was looking downwards,
when his eyes were closed, and when he was flinching. For
this reason the information is not more exact. Most Ss how-

ever, seemed to keep their eyes open during the session.

19

The impression of E concerning the difference be-
tween the two groups centers around what may be considered
a general set which was different for each group. The SU
group seemed to be concerned with the task and was problem
oriented. During the process of recalling memories they
expressed concern about the appropriateness of their re—
sponses. Their comments seemed to indicate they were sift-
ing through their thoughts and choosing what they were
going to say. They verbalized the thoughts they judged
would be significant to E. Such comments as "I don't think
this is important," or "You don't want to hear this," or
"I hope this is what you want," indicated that Ss in the SU
group were concerned with doing a good job. On the other
hand, Ss in the LD condition seemed less concerned with the
task in the sense of worrying about what was wanted by E.
Rather, they seemed to enjoy reminiscing. At times they
seemed surprised, delighted, curious, or wondered at the
memories that occurred to them. They did not indicate
through verbal comments that they were as concerned with
what E wanted. They seemed lost in their thoughts and en-
joying the task. Instead of a problem oriented set they
seemed to be introspecting more naturally.

The Ss in the SU group often jumped hurriedly out
of the chair and seemed anxious to leave the room at the
end of the session. They asked what the experiment was

about, often made comments about the task being difficult,

20

and thought the situation was unusual. In contrast, the LD
group of S5 was not anxious to leave the room and often Ss
remained in the chair at the end of the session. They seemed
less interested in the purpose of the experiment. Instead
of asking about the experiment they seemed to perseverate
upon the task of recalling memories, often even after stand-
ing up. The SU group, if asked, would probably have judged
the task difficult while the LD group would probably have
judged the task easier and perhaps even pleasant. The latter
found the recalling of memories while lying down not an un-
usual situation.

Both groups reported the lounge chair as being com-
fortable. Neither group reported being disturbed by the

tape recorder or by E.

DISCUSSION

 

Age of Memories

 

It was hypothesized that lying-down would lead to
recall of earlier memories than sitting-up. The evidence
indicates that there was a trend for memories called by the
LD group to be earlier than those of the SU group. Inter-
estingly enough, the most significant findings indicated
that the period most affected by the body position was the
age range before 3 years old.

The fact that the years before 3 are most affected
by LD is interesting in the light of Freud's theory about
childhood memories and the primary process. According to
Freud (1958), before language development the primary pro-
cess, (which consists of visual experiences and hallucina-
tions), is the mode of experiencing the world for the young
child. The primary process also functions in dreams. In
dreams the early childhood memories are in part re-experi-
enced when the individual becomes older. Freud further
linked the primary process to motor discharges into the
interior of the body (Freud, 1958 and Freud in Rapaport,
1951). It can readily be seen that some similarity exists

between the lying down position when awake and the lying

21

22

down position when asleep in terms of Similar muscle tensions
of the body when in the reclining position. These body ten-
sions and motor discharges into the interior of the body in
turn seem related to phenomena of primary process ideation
occurring. It seems that in the awake condition when lying
down a change in the muscle tensions allows for the uncon-
scious elements of the psyche to become conscious in the
form of recalling the earliest experiences of childhood,
originally experienced on the primary process level. On the
other hand, when asleep and lying down the primary process
material is revealed in the form of dreamwork. It seems
that in both instances of lying-down, when either awake or
asleep, the relaxation of the muscles and the change in
muscle tension facilitates occurrence of primary process
material.

Freud believed many memories that were recalled, and
especially those attributed to ages before 2 or 3, were often
"screen" memories, substitutes for other impressions which
were more significant but repressed (Freud, 1958). He used
the screen memories to get at the real underlying repressed
experience which was causing the neurosis. Freud thus made
use of these very early memories in his analysis of the
patient. The present study indicates that lying down facili-
tates bringing more of these "screen" memories to conscious—
ness since more memories were remembered before age 3 in the

LD condition than in the SU condition. The implication for

23

analysis or therapy is that if "screen" memories are used
to get at repressed material, lying down is more conducive
to bringing into consciousness clues to repressed material
than is sitting up. Primary process material is more
readily accessible in the LD S than in the SU S.

The earliest memory recalled by an individual has
been used as a diagnostic tool, as well as a therapeutic
tool (WinthrOp, 1952, Kahana, 1953, Lieberman, 1957):

Kahana (1953) uses the earliest memory recalled in formu-
lating an individual's dynamics within the psychoanalytic
framework. Kahana believes that information concerning
unconscious conflicts, significant traumatic experiences

in childhood, and defenses against anxiety and transference
reactions can be obtained from the earliest memory recalled.
The present observations would agree with Kahana that much
of this type of information is readily obtainable in this
free responding situation of asking for early memories.
However, it should be added that with Ss lying down this
type of information leading to formulations concerning under-
lying personality dynamics seems much more readily available
and easier to obtain than with S sitting-up. Since S is not
concerned with what E wants from him when he is lying down,
he is more likely to reveal what is important to himself.
There seems to be a qualitative difference in the way in
which the material is given. S, while lying down, seems
less defensive than when SU and in this way cooperates in

giving information about himself.

24

Another approach to the earliest memory and number
of memories recalled is that of Child (1940). An attempt
to relate the earliest memory and the number of memories
recalled before age 6 to degree of neuroticism was made by
Child using a paper and pencil technique. His study stemmed
from Freud's theory about the relationship of repressed
childhood experiences to the etiology of neurosis. Although
Child's correlations were in the predicted direction, they
were not statistically significant. The present study seems
to indicate that perhaps another variable could be intro-
duced, that of body position. It may be found that high
neuroticism may be related to his two measures of childhood
amnesia, (age of earliest memory and number of memories re-
called before age 6;, if S is lying down. As Child himself
points out, however, Freud did not believe that all types
of neurosis were related to repre551on of early experiences.
Further studies of the relationship between neurosis and
childhood amnesia should discriminate the types of neurosis
involved. There may be significant interactions of body

position, childhood amnesia, and type of neurosis.

Relevance of Theories of Perception

 

Various theories of perception have indicated the
importance of the body state and muscular tensions on per-
ception (Freeman, 1939, Witkin, 1949, Werner and Wapner,

1952, 1957, and Allport, 1955.

25

Experiments have shown that there are individual differences
in styles of perception (Witkin, 1949). The importance of
these perceptual theories and related studies is to point

to the relationship between the body tonus and muscular im-
pulses upon phenomenal experiences. The finding that the
body tonus and posture influences perception, a phenomenal
experience, has been extended by the findings of the present
study so that it can be said body tonus influences the
phenomenal experience of memory recall. As Jacobson points
out (1938), a link can be made between the original percep-
tion and the memory of the perception through the body sen-
sations. " . . . when a sense-organ--for instance, the
eyes--are active, the muscles that control them also are
active, and the sensation from the controlling muscles
evidently plays a useful role in vision. Accordingly it
seems a matter of course that when the original experience
is repeated, taking the form of imagery, the muscular experi—
ence that goes with it also is repeated. In this way the
individual doubtless at least in some measure "controls" his
images and thought-processes. The cultivation of this factor
has been used in clinical work for the control of undesir-
able mental activity or over-activity." Since there are
these relationships between original perception, perceptual
style, imagery, and body sensations, it may be possible to

find significant aspects of personality dimensions and

26

configurations through combining of various findings,
especially when perceptual styles are linked to personality
variables and these in turn to aspects of physiological

functioning.

Relevance of Sensogy Deprivation Studies

 

Various experiments in sensory deprivation have
shown that limiting the sensory input produces primary pro-
cess phenomena. Morgan and Bakan (1965) have shown that
lying down Ss are more likely to have Visual hallucinations
than are sitting up Ss in a sensory deprivation condition.
Lilly (1956) points out that primary process phenomena occur
when stimulation is reduced in a sensory deprivation con-
dition in a laboratory or due to natural conditions of depri-
vation such as being snow-bound or ship-wrecked. The impor-
tance to the present study stems from the relationship of
sensory input to primary process material presenting itself
to consciousness. The lying down condition in the present
study reduced stimulation from the muscular senses, which
led tr) primary process material coming to consciousness in
the form of early memories, similar to the sensory depri-
vation studies in which primary process material also occurs
with lessened stimulation. As Jacobson (1938) has shown,
relaxation leads to a decrease in attention, an ego function,
and it may be that reduction in this aspect of the thought

process leads to the primary process material being allowed

27

into conscious awareness. The sensory deprivation studies
and the present findings indicate that reduction of body
sensations seems to be intimately tied to production of

primary process phenomena.

Decline in the Number of Memories Over Time

 

No specific hypothesis was made in regards to the
number of memories over time. Both groups showed a similar
trend which was a decrease in the number of memories over
time. This decrease can be attributed to perseveration
upon detail within a given memory, which most Ss seemed to
do after approximately the first 10 minutes, which lead to
fewer memories being recalled during an equal time interval.

In terms of psychoanalytic formulations, persevera-
tion upon insignificant details is a form of resistance
(Jung, 1917, Glover, 1955, Meerloo, 1959). Freud (1958)
believed resistance to be either the unconscious avoidance
of painful repressed material or the conscious avoidance of
"working through" problems. Since both groups showed the
identical pattern of persevation upon detail, they can be
considered equal in terms of resistance either on a con-
scious or unconscious level.

Another possible interpretation of the decline in
memories over time comes from studies in social reinforce-
ment (Sarason and Ganzer, 1962). Since E did not reqard or

indicate to S if S was doing the correct thing, it may have

28

caused §.t° revert to a pattern of details in order to keep
talking even though S did not produce more memories. S may
not have been sure which type of memory to recall and this
may have resulted in the recalling of fewer memories. From
the observations made, this seems a less likely explanation
than the resistance explanation since all Ss when asked
reported being unaware of E and lost in their thoughts during
the session. Even if they reported being aware of E at the
beginning of the session, by the end of the 20 minute period
they were no longer concerned with E. They did not seem to
be waiting for approval or recognition. The procedure Of B
being in back of S, which differs from the usual face to

face situation in the social reinforcement studies, may be
the reason for the feeling that lack of social reinforce-
ment was not a significant factor in the decrease in memories
over time.

One other possibility presents itself, that of what
Jacobson (1938) finds in progressive relaxation. He finds
that as his Ss learn to relax there is a decrease in ideation
and imagery. Jacobson finds that "With progressive muscular
relaxation--not alone imagery, but also attention--recol-
lection, thought-processes and emotion gradually diminish,

. . . . the intensive relaxation of movement brings with it
a subsidence of voluntary recollection and reflection."
(Jacobson, 1938) ,It may be that in both conditions in

the present study the S3 relaxed more as time progressed

29

and thus less presented itself to consciousness. This in

turn reduced the memories recalled. It still seems feasible
that a reduction of tension could occur in both groups, thus
reducing the number of memories, and yet a qualitative dif-
ference exists in what presents itself to consciousness (Pri-
mary process material in the LD group) based upon where the
sensations are coming from in the body. Jacobson finds that
the neck muscles are important in relaxation, and the LD group
would be more relaxed in this muscle group than the SU group.
The link between muscle sensations and what presents itself

to consciousness may be more complex than mere total input.
Where the sensations are derived from may be a critical factor

in determining the quality of the subjective experience.

Number of Memories

 

The second hypothesis predicted a greater number
of memories would be recalled lying down than sitting up.
Although the difference was in the predicted direction, it
did not approach statistical significance. It seems that
body position has a greater influence upon the age of the
memories recalled than upon the number of memories recalled.

The results of the study indicate that body posi-
tion has the greatest influence upon 2232 is presented to
consciousness and not SS something is presented to conscious-
ness. This seems to clarify in what way lying down affects

the "mental affairs" which Freud talks about. It is

30

not related to the amount of material recalled per se, but
rather to the quality of the experience, allowing primary
process material to be brought to consciousness. This is
the most significant aspect of the findings in regards to

implications for therapy.

Suggestions for Further Research

 

The present study has not dealt with the difference
in content of the memories given by Ss in the two different
positions. Onlyéageneral overall impression concerning the
qualitative differences between the two conditions was
mentioned. Examining the content of the memories for affect
or types of events recalled would lead to greater under-
standing of the way in which a change in body position
affects recall. As previously mentioned, earliest memories
are used within therapy and also as a diagnostic tool. If
a content analysis reveals significant differences as a
result of a change in body position this would have impli-
cations for both therapy and diagnosis. It may be that the
reclining position, which allows relevant material to become
available, may serve as a useful tool to speed up therapy.
In terms of diagnosis, a speedier formulation of personality
dynamics may be possible if the individual recalls memories
while in the reclining position. In a therapeutic situation
the subjective experience of S should be relevant and Ss

lying down seem more comfortable than Ss sitting up when

31

recalling memories. A content analysis may shed light on
which affects become more prominent in which condition, and
which events are recalled more readily in which position.
These findings may indicate in which way body position could
be a useful tool to facilitate therapy and diagnosis.

Since in many techniques of therapy the client faces
the therapist, the present study should be repeated with E
and S facing one another. It would be difficult to predi-
cate in which way this variable would affect recall, but any
findings would have direct implications for therapy settings.

A recommended change in procedure involves having S
tell the age of the events recalled after the session in-
stead of before or after the memory. Having S give ages
while recalling may not allow S to freely introspect. By
giving the age during the session he is called upon to be
task oriented and attentive to environmental demands.
Eliminating this aspect of the procedure may result in more
earlier memories, or an increase in the number of memories
recalled.- The differences between the two conditions may
be magnified with this change in procedure.

The last suggestion for research concerns repeating
the study using female Ss. There is no a priori reason to
assume that female Ss will respond the same way as male Ss
in the two conditions. Since the present study was done
using male Ss and E was female, other studies should use

both sexes for Ss and Es to determine how this variable is

32

related to memory recall and body position. Witkin (1949)
has found sex differences in perception as a function of body
position and it would be interesting to extend his findings
to sex differences in memory recall as a function of body

position.

Conclusions

 

The present study has clarified to some extent the
way in which the psychoanalytic technique of lying-down dur-
ing analysis affects "mental affairs." The present findings
indicate that body position affects quality rather than
quantity of material that presents itself to consciousness.
It has been shown that in the lying down position S can
more readily recall earliest childhood memories. Since
these earliest memories are a form of primary process
material it can be said that lying-down facilitates the
occurrence of primary process material. It is of interest,
in the course of therapy or analysis, to have the individual
reveal this type of material. Support, then, is given to
the psychoanalytic technique of having the individual in a

reclining position during the course of therapy or analysis.

SUMMARY

The present study was an investigation to determine
if 1) lying down leads to recall of earlier memories and
2) if lying down leads to recall of more memories. Interest
in this problem stems from psychoanalytic theory and tech-
nique. The Ss were 42 undergraduate males between the ages
of 17 and 28. Half of the Ss were in a lying-down (LD)
position and half were in a sitting-up (SU) position. Re-
sponses were obtained in a free recall Situation lasting
20 minutes. Support was given to the first hypothesis by
the following: 1) the mean number of memories in the age
0-3 years category was significantly greater in the LD
position than the SU position; 2) significantly more sub-
jects in the LD condition recalled memories for the 0-3
year period than in the SU condition; 3) the mean age for
all memories recalled was earlier for the LD group than
for the SU group, though this difference was not signifi—
cant. No support was found for the second hypothesis that
lying-down leads to recall of more memories. Discussion
mentioned: uses of memories in therapy and diagnosis
implying body position may be a useful adjunct in recall
situations; relevancy of studies in perception and sensory

deprivation; and suggestions for further research. The

33

34

results of the present study are interpreted as experimen-
tal confirmation of the psychoanalytic procedure of using
the lying-down position in free association and memory

recall.

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