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FINES will be charged if Book is returned after the date stamped below. © 1982 OWEN HERNESTO DAILEY All Rights Reserved A STUDY OF STORY PREFERENCE OF THIRD GRADERS, BETWEEN READING PRIMERS AND SPONTANEOUS STORIES TOLD BY SIMILAR CHILDREN IN SAN JOSE, COSTA RICA By Owen Hernesto Dailey A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partiaT fulfiTTment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum I981 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF STORY PREFERENCE OF THIRD GRADERS, BETWEEN READING PRIMERS AND SPONTANEOUS STORIES TOLD BY SIMILAR CHILDREN IN SAN JOSE, COSTA RICA By Owen Hernesto Dailey The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences could be found in student preference between published primer material and material generated by students of similar age and grade, and whether differences favor one or the other source of material. The review of the literature focused on four areas: (l) prefe- rence on reading and practice reading, (2) oral language and its rela- tionship to reading achievement, (3) content analysis and its relation- ship to age, grade, and sex variables; and (4), primer construction practices in Costa Rica. The review indicated that children's language can be used to reflect their experiential background; there is a shortage of research which may have used adequate control of extraneous variables as oral language relates to reading achievement; that variables of sex, age, grade and other content variables influence students reading pre- ference; and that primer construction practices in Costa Rica have been affected by limited knowledge and economic incentives for writers. The population sampled were third grade boys and girls chosen at random from a major urban public school district in San José, Costa Rica. Owen Hernesto Dailey The statistical procedures used to quantify the results included a chi square test of independence, a t-test for two sample mean differences of correlated data, the Fry readability formula, and general descriptive statistical measures (frequency counts, rank, and percentage). The data indicated that: (l) both boys and girls preferred their own stories over those generated by children of the opposite sex or stories taken from their primers; (2) students chose fewer difficult words and score higher on a recall test for information contained in the stories preferred the most compared to those preferred the least by them; (3) readability for primer stories on an average and student generated stories were at grade level, however, primer stories readability range from a high first grade level to a medium sixth grade level; and (4), while there was overlap on those variables related to theme, character represented, sex of activity, and age of activity, there was considerable differences between the stories made up by the students and those taken from their primers. To my wife Jeanette and my children Bonar and Tania, whose patience and understanding kept me until the end. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many individuals provided valuable guidance and assistance throughout this study. Dr. George Sherman, my advisor and the chairman of my dis— sertation committee who from the beginning offered his most genuine moral support and technical advice. Dr. Gaston Blom, a member of my committee, who demonstrated a profound personal interest for each stage of this study and whose past endeavors in the content analysis of children's primers made this study more viable. Dr. Norman Bell, a member of my committee and a true teacher, whose valuable technical assistance and readiness to help gave me the necessary direction. Dr. Ronald Wolthuis, a member of my committee, who acted as a facilitator and advisor throughout my doctoral program. My appreciation goes to Dr. Donald Galvin and Dr. Gaston de Mezerville, directors of the University Center for International Re- habilitation at Michigan State University and the Oficina del Conve- nio Internacional de Rehabilitacion in San José, Costa Rica respec- tively, both of whom provided partial economic support for overseas travel expense for data gathering pertinent to this study. A special thanks is extended to Dr. Denise Tate, Dr. James Mullin, and Dr. William Frey who offered me countless hours in advising and preparation for data analysis as well as encouragement throughout my academic progress. I wish also to forward my gratitude to all my friends in Costa Rica. Special reference goes to Mr. Gerardo Monge Chavarria, a committed friend and professional whose constant help was most significant from the beginning through to completion of this study. I want to thank also those individuals at the Universidad Nacio- nal de Heredia who believed in me sufficiently to provide the supplemen- tal financial support for my doctoral program. Students and faculties in the Education Department at the Univer- sidad de Costa Rica were instrumental in the data collection process. To you I wish to say, thank you very much. And last but not least, I wish to thank my friends in the Minis- try of Public Education in Costa Rica: the children who were so helpful in giving their time; the teachers who were always willing to make adjust- ments in their schedules; and Mr. Euclides Sandoval who provided me with the necessary administrative information and permits relevant to this study. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I. THE PROBLEM Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study . Generalizability of the Study Overview . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Overview Introduction . . Preference and Reading. Summary . . Oral Language and Reading Achievement Summary . . . . . . Content Analysis Material Preference by Sex . . . Material Preference by Age and Grade Preference as Related to Readability Level: Summary Primer- Construction Practice Summary III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Overview Introduction . . Primary Research Questions Secondary Research Questions Primary Research Hypotheses . . Secondary Research Hypotheses . Definition of Important Terms . Page viii —l oowmw IV. V. VI. DESIGN OFITHE STUDY Overview Introduction Subjects . . Instrumentation . Validity Concerns Strengths Weaknesses . Design Over Variables Variable Matrix . . Statistical Model of Analysis Research Hypotheses . . Procedures . Schools and the Students . Story Collection and Reading- ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Overview Summary Data . . Primary Hypotheses Statistical Results Secondary Hypotheses Results . Theme . . . . Character Representation . . . . Distribution of Children According to Age, Sex, and Family . . . . . . . . . . . Age of Activity . Sex of Activity . Outcome of Activity in Relation to Sex of Activity: Environmental Setting Distribution Discussion . . . Vocabulary Difficulty, Recall Scores, and Readability Level Content Analyses SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary General Discussion and Recommendations Future Research APPENDICES A. B. COVER LETTERS . INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN BEFORE STUDENTS GENERATED AND READ THEIR STORIES (SPANISH VERSION AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . Vi ll7 BIBLIOGRAPHY STORIES GENERATED BY THE STUDENTS AND STORIES TAKEN FROM THE PRIMERS, WITH QUESTIONNAIRE . . CODING MANUAL USED FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS . NAMES OF SCHOOLS USED IN THE STUDY AND PRIMERS REPORTED BEING IN USE AT TIME OF THE STUDY . vii Page 126 258 295 300 Table 5.1 5.2 .10 .11 .12 010101 0'1 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 LIST OF TABLES Mean Differences for Difficult Vocabulary for Most/Least-Preferred Stories , Mean Differences for Recall Scores for Most/Least- Preferred Stories Story-Type Readability Level . Individual-Primer Readability Level . Overall Summary of Theme Categorizations - Boys'-Stories Theme Categorizations - Girls'-Stories Theme Categorizations Primer-Stories Theme Categorizations Overall Summary of Character Representation. Boys'-Stories Character Representation Girls'—Stories Character Representation Primer-Stories Character Representation Distribution of Children According to Age, Sex and Family (Overall Summary) . Overall Summary of Age of Activity Boys'-Stories Age of Activity Girls'-Stories Age of Activity - Primer-Stories Age of Activity - Overall Summary of Sex of Activity Boys'-Stories Sex of Activity Girls'-Stories Sex of Activity . viii Page 76 77 79 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 86 87 88 89 89 90 90 91 91 Table 5.2l 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 Primer-Stories Sex of Activity Overall Summary of Outcome of Activity in Relation to Sex of Activity . Overall Summary of Environmental Setting Distribution . Boys'-Stories Environmental Setting Distribution . Girls'-Stories Environmental Setting Distribution Primer-Stories Environmental Setting Distribution ix Page 91 92 93 93 94 94 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.2 Variable Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.1 Variable Matrix for Frequency of Most-Preferred Stories Chi-Square Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 76 5.2 Graphic Representation of the Variable Matrix for Frequency of Most-Preferred Stories Chi-Square Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Learning to read is admittedly a complex task. Many variables, including the motivation, purpose and skills of the reader; the knowledge and attitude of teachers, parents, and society in general about the read- ing process and toward the reader; and the nature of the reading materials, all play significant roles affecting whether the individual learns to read or not. In Spanish-speaking countries, research has been conducted over the last two decades to attempt to clarify the many variables that re- late to reading acquisition. Much of this effort thus far has centered on analysis of various word miscues that students make while reading. However, one area of significant neglect in these studies relates to the nature of the reading materials, defined here as their story con- tent and language, to which children are exposed during reading instruc- tion. The guiding assumption of this study was that reading materials that do not reflect the child's language and environmental backgrounds have the potential to delay or retard a child's achievement when learning to read. The result of a survey by the researcher, July 1979, showed that a large number of Costa Rican teachers believe that there is a mismatch between the content of the published programs, i.e., 1 information, vocabulary, language, and the children for whom they were created. Similarly, students frequently reported, among other things, that the vocabulary level and the use of figurative language were reasons for not liking certain stories or writings in their primer books. Further direct evidence of this language mismatch was seen when only 5% of 30 third-grade teachers sampled at random by this researcher were able to correctly conceptualize or define key words selected from one of the primers frequently used by their students.1 Of concern to the researcher was the fact that less than 50% of the primers used at the third-grade level for the school dis- trict sampled in the present study were purposely made to match the experiential backgrounds of the children of that setting.2 While Spanish is used in most Latin American countries, it was evident upon examining the different reading materials in Costa Rica that the level and choice of vocabulary presented, the syntactic structure used, and the general story content in each primer series were very different from each other, a factor that may be connected to the materials having been printed and used in other countries. Findings of researchers in the United States, Blom (1971) and Zimet et al. (1971), have also pointed to various story content dimen- sions of primers as being an essential tool in the acculturation and socialization process of the students, providing additional grounds 1The words in question may be found on page 13 of the primer, Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente by Nora R. de Chacén. They are: avizorar, enclenque, lianas, tropel, and revoloteando. 2Books appearing with the (*) sign were not written and published in Costa Rica. See Appendix E. for the present concern with the match or mismatch of reading materials to the children for whom they were written. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences can be found in student preference between published primer material and student-generated material, and whether differences favor one or the other source of material and are significant. The concept of "preference" has been used interchangeably with "interest" by many investigators to indicate a relatively pro- longed and dynamic type of behavior that leads the individual to seek certain activities over others. However, while this broader defini- tion has been accepted throughout the literature, some researchers agree with Getzels' (1956) definition: The difference between a preference and an interest is that the preference is relatively passive, while the interest is inevitably dynamic. A preference is a readiness to receive one object as against another; it does not induce us to seek out the object. In contrast, the basic nature of an interest is that it does induce us to seek out particular objects and activities. (p. 7) It is expected that elementary-grade students, when asked to spontaneously verbalize an account, whether in a narrative, descrip- tive, or poetic form,1 real or imaginary, will relate content 1Although poetic creations were not the focus of analysis of this study since poetry does not adjust to the method of analysis used, the author indicated to the experimental subjects that they could re- late something of this nature if they wished. In an analysis of three of the most widely used primers in the public school system in San José, Costa Rica, about a third of all the selections were of this nature. reflective of their language, environment, and culture. Asking students to make up their own stories and subsequently using them to teach reading has proven highly successful. Ever since Sylvia Ashton-Warner's (1959) work with Maori children in Australia was pu- blished, emphasizing the value of self-made stories, more attention has been directed to the "language experience" approach for reading instruction. Using child-made stories for reading instruction has proven to be more compatible with the child's development (Veatch, 1973). Although most students will likely find a great amount of in- trinsic value in their own story creations, there is little evidence to indicate whether the self-generated stories made up by one group of students can provide a means of representing the preferences of other students of similar age, sex, and grade level. Similarly, we would ex- pect that standardized primer materials would reflect some degree of commonality between student language, environment, and culture and the story content. Discovering whether the standard materials or student- generated materials offer a greater degree of this quality of preference was the purpose of this study. Specifically, then, this study had fourinajor purposes: 1. To determine whether a sample of third graders selected at random from an urban setting in Costa Rican schools would indicate pre- ference for those stories that were told by other students of their same age, sex, and grade level significantly more often than they would indi- cate preference for stories from the third-grade primers currently being used; 2. To describe some of the important content and readability differences between the stories told by the third-grade students and those randomly selected from their primers based on the following vari- ables: theme; character representation; distribution of children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting; 3. To determine whether the students displayed significantly greater ability to recall more information contained in the stories that were preferred the most by them versus those that were preferred the least by them; and 4. To determine whether the students would indicate a greater number of difficult vocabulary words for the stories they preferred the most versus those they preferred the least. Significance of the Study There is evidence in the literature to indicate that many attempts have been made in some countries to determine children's preferences for materials used in school to enhance reading (Blom, 1971; Geeslin & Wilson, 1972; Zimet, Wiberg, & Blom, 1971). Some of the researchers have evaluated children's preferences by keeping track of different types of books checked out from school libraries while trying to identify major characteristics of such books relative to theme, characters, age appropriateness, and similar variables (Zimet & Camp, 1974), Other researchers have attended to children's responses on some of the aforementioned characteristics by manipulat- ing certain variables in a story (Oliver, 1977). Still others have looked at vocabulary content across readers and compared these with "key" or "organic" vocabulary chosen voluntarily by students to be used in their readings (Packer, 1970). The concept of a key_or organic vocabulary was initially intro- duced by Sylvia Ashton-Warner (1959). In her reports, Ashton-Warner described success in teaching a group of Australian aborigine children how to read by using their own words. These self-generated words proved to be powerful motivators. In earlier attempts to teach reading she had used imported textbooks. However, given the inappropriateness of the con- tent of these textbooks, her experience at teaching reading was unsuccesful. While the techniques used to determine students' preferences for reading materials have varied extensively, there is no indication, repor- ted in the literature, that children's stories have been used as an inte- gral part of published programs used for reading instruction. Therefore, the significance of this study can be stated as follows: First, some in- dication of the ability of adults and children to create materials that meet the social, cultural, language, and experiential background of child- ren of certain grade, age, and sex could be determined; second, this study would provide a basis for comparing and contrasting each type of story represented (boys',girls', primer) in relationship to the dimensions studied. This information could be useful for decisions relative to read- ing curriculum. One of the main reasons given by teachers sampled for using certain primers was that these had been recommended by the Spanish department of the Ministry of Education, (although teachers were not re- quired to follow these recommendations). The result of this study could help provide a basis for the recommendations made by the Ministry of Education or offer support for teachers who want to choose reading material for their own students. Third, while it was the researcher's expectations that the grammatical and vocabulary level of the student-generated stories would not always be entirely appropriate for teaching reading to students at this 1eve1, it was hoped that there would some indications of elements such as the nature of themes and types of characters and ac- tivities that could be further tested and/or incorporated into any new efforts for primer constrUction. It is not a common procedure in Costa Rica, as far as primary-level reading materials are concerned, to evaluate these materials through the use of strict scientific procedures, i.e., sampling, designing, control groups, and so on, previous to their PUbll- cation. Because of this tradition, any attempt, including the present one, to conduct a study while using scientific procedures could prove to be quite beneficial. Generalizability of the Study It is important to recognize that the implications of this study go beyond the specific groups of children involved in the research. Although groups of Costa Rican third graders from metro- politan San José were used as subjects, it can be assumed that this method could be used to elicit preferences for reading content for third graders living in other settings throughout the country. Furthermore, the possibility of a student generating his/her own stories as an approach to teaching many reading skills would also lend itself as a technique to be used with various groups of children, including third graders in rural communities in Costa Rica and other children representative of the other grade levels (first, second, and perhaps fourth grade) from Costa Rica. Both the method and approach might have applicability to children in early elementary grades in other Spanish-speaking countries. Overview Relevant literature, especially that dealing with the effect of preference on learning to read; oral language and its relationship to reading achievement; content analysis of reading materials as it relates to age, grade, sex, and other control variables; and practices in primer construction in Costa Rica, is reviewed in Chapter II. In Chapter'III,the research questions and hypotheses statements are presented. In Chapter IV, the methodology and procedures for collecting and analyzing data are explained, including a description of the popu- lation used and the methods employed in collecting the students' stories and having them read. The results and discussion are presented in Chapter V. In Chapter VI, a summary of the research findings together with the discussion and recommendations for future research is pre- sented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Overview The review of the literature focuses on four areas: (1) preferen- ce on reading and practice reading; (2) oral language and its relation- ship to reading achievement; (3) content analysis and its relationship to age, grade, sex, and other relevant variables; and (4), a summary of practices on primer construction in Costa Rica. While each area is dis- cussed independently, area three is subdivided as follows: (1) content as it affects preference in reading; (2) material preference by sex; (3) material preference by age and grade; and (4), preference as affected by readability of text. Introduction An inherent assumption of this study was that preference influen- ced learning to read and practice reading; and that third grade students would be capable of relating an account (be it narrative, descriptive, or poetic; real or imaginary) with sufficient coherence to enable it to be transcribed and used as a comparison with those accounts appearing in their primers. The result, it was hypothesized, would lead to the following: first, that boys would prefer boys' generated stories over either girls' generated or primer stories, and girls would prefer girls' generated stories over either boys' generated stories or primer stories; second, 10 that third grade students as a group would indicate less-difficult voca- bulary for most-preferred stories when compared to least-preferred sto- ries; third, that third grade students wuld score higher on a recall test for information contained in most-preferred stories when compared to least-preferred ones; and fourth, that differences would appear be- tween the boys', girls', and primer stories on content, defined here as readability level of text and other content variables such as: theme; character representation; children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. Two other conditions led to this study. The first relates to an apparent mismatch in the content of the published programs, i.e., information, vocabulary, and language and the children for whom they were created; while the second is concerned with a paucity of scienti- fic evidence from which primers appropriate to Costa Rican students may be constructed. The latter, it is hypothesized, has led to the impor- tation of primers from other countries, which by and large seem to lack sensitivity toward the Costa Rican children. Preference and Reading Students in this study were asked to generate stories sponta- neously, and these stories were written down and read by other children of similar characteristics. Questions regarding the origins and basis for this procedure and the type of research available to substantiate its appropriateness will be addressed. Language experience approach to teaching reading is a technique that has been used for many years to practice reading and elicit the 11 child's preference. This approach, it was discovered, represented a powerful way of stimulating the children's language while thoughts are kept at a highly meaningful level. Using the child's own words has come to be known as "key vocabulary." Language experience is based on the assumption that if teachers can tap a child's thought processes for those terms that are truly meaningful to the child, reading would be an easier and more natural task. To use the language-experience approach, the teacher writes down whole accounts as the child dictates. The teacher does not change the words. She/he then proceeds to teach various reading skills using what has been dictated and recorded. Language experience is a tech- nique that capitalizes on each individual's experiences. When the teacher individualizes the activity, he/she in essence is not only saying that each individual is very valuable, but that the ideas which emanate from each child are also of value. This is consistent with the asser- tion of some writers that a feeling of adequacy is determined by how the individual perceives himself (Combs, 1962). Rogers (1967) spoke of one individual's personal accomplishments as being the really meaning- ful ones and referred to these as "independence, self-initiated and responsible learning; release of creativity, a tendency to become more of a person." Rogers (1967), in reference to Sylvia Ashton-Warner's novel, Teacher, made the following statement: "The drive is no longer the teacher's but the children's own. . . The teacher is at last with the stream and not against it, the stream of children's inexorable creativeness" (p. 13). 12 In a discussion of Piaget's work on logical thought, Almy, Chittenden, and Miller (1966) claimed, "Knowledge arises and becomes organized" (p. 16). They believed that the foundation for children's learning arises from the ability of the child to relate new ideas to those that he/she already possesses. The language experience has its origin in language itself. To develop an appreciation of the language experience, it is essen- tial to grasp the meaning of language. Two views have been widely nurtured: The first assumes that language is equivalent to sounds, speech, and writings; the second is one that is more comprehensive and more inclusive in nature. The latter not only refers to the factors related to production of feelings and actions but to their acquisi— tions as they relate to one's environment (McQuown, 1964). Linguists usually give credence to the first position (Owen, 1964). The other viewpoint has been supported by Pei (1949) and Hayakawa (1939), who claimed that people are not only free to manipu- late various language symbols but can also create additional symbols. Another writer (Laird, 1963) asserted that language is a tool that can be used to enhance thinking and that it is a direct result of one's environment--meaning that it is more than just the creation of sounds. In an attempt to comprehend language and the role it plays in a child's development, one may refer to Piaget's work. He argued that "young children perceive things differently from adults" (Lansing, 1966, p. 13). Piaget, according to Lansing, defined "operation" as "coordination of a perceptual action, which, if it has a stable point 13 of reference, enables the person to fully understand the world from his perceptions. If he does not have a reference point he merely per- ceives a number of unrelated images" (Lansing, 1966, p. 37). Suchman and Ashner (1961) interpreted the above development period as not being related specifically to the age of the child in terms of acquisition since stages can be task specific, meaning that a child could be functioning in one activity at one stage and in another activity at another stage. In Bruner's (1960) words, "Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development" (p. 33). Bruner, like Suchman and Ashner, believed that the learning task must be com- patible with the child's conceptions of his world. Experience is essential in most learning activities. This is what Ashton-Warner (1964) referred to in Teacher as "captions of mind pictures" (p. 89), presumably to mean those things that children have experienced, whether they may or may not seem real to others. Shane, Reddin, and Gillespie (1961) wrote, "If children are to acquire a rapidly growing and functional store of language mean- ings, they need a rich diet of experience rather than the thin gruel of rote learning" (p. 21). Like Shane et a1., Dewey (1933) believed that language is a result of high-level thinking. To Dewey, intel- lectual activity depends on an accumulation of meaning, and language seems to maintain these meanings. He accepted the importance of experiences but only if past experience "abides in such a way as to be applicable in determining the character of the new" (p. 232). In another of his writings he mentioned that "it is meaningless to select 14 the topic first and then make it meaningful. Rather the topic should be selected based on the individual's dire needs and interests" (Dewey, 1913, p. 30). The importance of direct experiences on children's overall development cannot be overemphasized. A study by Cleveland (1967) showed that kindergarten children from low socioeconomic backgrounds made significant improvement in oral language when oral-language practice and direct experiences were provided. Packer (1970) asked teachers of Follow-Through kindergarten and first-grade programs in four cities across the United States to accumulate as many words as they could from their pupils that had most meaning to them. He then contrasted these asked-for words with those words appearing in various basal readers. The findings were as follows: First, in three out of four schools, words "asked for" had no similarity to those found in their texts; second, a high rela- tionship between asked-for words by children in several cities was observed; and third, there was high similarity between the words presented in the pre-primers and primers of the basals. The resulting positive effects of individualizing instruc- tion while using the child's experiences can also be seen in Barnette's (1970) study. First- and second-grade students were exposed to a similar instructional program. However, the experimental group from these grade levels was exposed to an individualized activity, while the control groups continued to use the standard procedures, which included many more extraneous variables not typical of their interests. The results showed a significant superiority in the mastery of 15 vocabulary by the experimental groups of first graders over the con- trolled groups. Second graders did not show any improvement since they had already mastered the subjects. Significant positive atti- tude toward the activity was also noted by the experimental first- grade children, while no significant change was observed by either the first- or second—grade control groups. Olson and Pau (1966) conducted another study using five- and six-year-old boys and girls to determine the effects of emotional loading on the acquisition of a sight vocabulary. Words were selected on the basis of their emotionality or nonemotionality value. Signifi- cant positive results (p < .001) were observed for those words that were considered to be eliciting high emotion, such as "hate," "kiss," "burn,' versus "many," "come," "busy" per se. Any time the language-experience approach for reading instruc- tion purposes is employed, almost invariably there will be a prepon- derance of words and their combinations that will most likely reflect the experiences and activities of children's environment. Chesterfield (1978), in a study of rural Brazil first-grade children, demonstrated the significance of having input of environmentally relevant materials to the readers used by the children. The experimental group of chil- dren used a reader that was constructed to reflect local values, e.g., fishing, hunting, and so on, while the control group used the standard reader that was used throughout Brazil. Despite the fact that those children using the locally constructed reader had lower reading mean scores to start, they did show by the end of the year significantly higher scores in word fluency (p < .05) and descriptive 16 word usage (p < .01) when compared to those using the standard text. Improvement was also shown in vocabulary and sentence structure, although they did not meet statistical significance. Language experience can be defined more precisely as a teach- ing approach and as such seems to be more relevant than some other approaches for beginning reading instruction (Kendrick & Bennett, 1967; Stauffer & Hammond, 1967). Despite the many positive outcomes, as evidenced by the above studies, language experience has not gone without criticism. Spache (1964) made the following observations: The language experience fails to recognize the ultimate sig- nificance of reading skill. . . . If the child's own written expression is the major source of reading materials in grades above the primary level, his reading experiences and development will be extremely limited. What would happen in such areas as science, arithmetic, history and the like, if there are no planned sequences of learning of facts and skills. (p. 140) Additionally, Spache questioned the idea of transition. He speculated on how the child will make the transition to other people's language after having read his/her own and considering that children's language varies from one individual to the next in terms of quantity, quality, and rate. A final concern of Spache centered on the organization and evaluation of what has been learned. How does one assess the child's development of reading skills? Spache concluded that "one major assumption is that incidental learning of skills is equal or superior to a direct planned presentation" (p. 141). Spache was not alone on the subject of how the child should continue to attain reading enrichment beyond certain grade levels. Russell (1961) wrote: 17 In the early elementary years the listening vocabulary is the largest, the speaking vocabulary is next, then reading, then writing. The reading vocabulary will surpass the speaking vocabulary in the Fourth and Fifth grades for those children progressing well in reading. (p. 266) Research, however, has not clarified how the language experi- ence fares in the higher grade levels. This question may be made more difficult to answer since the language experience is not a method or program. It presents an approach that is ecclectic in nature if a person must continue to develop reading skills at all levels. Summar In the first part of this discussion, the theoretical impor- tance of experience, as viewed by Rogers, Piaget, Combs, and others, and the role it plays in the total development of the child was dis- cussed. To get a better perspective of the language experience as a tool to be used in reading instruction, two widely accepted viewpoints of language were discussed. The first one, by Owen (1964), saw lan- guage as synonymous to sounds, speech, and written language, whereas the other, by Pei (1949) and Hayakawa (1939), viewed it as something that man can manipulate and even create. Laird (1963) saw it as a vehicle for thinking and as a direct result of one's environment. Several studies were reviewed indicating the effectiveness of the language experience for beginning reading. Other research in Brazil on first graders, by Chesterfield (1978), indicated greater improvement in word fluency, vocabulary, and sentence structure when using a primer constructed to reflect local values. Another study, 18 by Packer (1970), demonstrated a significant relationship between words first graders “asked for" in four cities in the United States. Yet there was no significant relationship between the "asked for" words and the vocabulary in their basals. While there is strong support for the language experience, some critics like Spache (1964) and Russell (1961) have built argu- ments against the language experience as being less effective in reading enrichment; making the transition from children's language to that of adults, sciences, history, and so on, more difficult; and being ineffective in terms of vocabulary development beyond the fourth- and fifth-grade levels. Despite the different views sustained by the various authors in regard to language and its relationship to experience as it may influence children's preference for reading-material content, the implied consensus is that any attempt that capitalizes on the learner's experiences and language level will more likely succeed in producing a closer match between the reader and the material. Oral Language and Reading Achievement There is a general impression among many researchers as well as lay people that the more fluent a person is in his/her oral lan- guage, the more possibility exists of this individual becoming a successful reader. Is there, then, a strong relationship between these variables? What does research indicate in this regard? In the previous section on preference and reading, certain assumptions as well as evidence were presented to substantiate the idea that allowing the child to generate his/her own ideas will not 19 only provide for content commensurate with the child's language and cultural development, but will also yield material that will be pre- ferred by children of similar language, environment, and culture. This seems to be reasonable, at least from an intuitive point of view. The limitation, however, revolves around the issue of whether the oral language used, which is later transcribed and used to foster reading skills, holds any relationship to reading achievement. The present section is directed at discussing research related to this topic. The influence of oral language upon reading has long been debated, yet there is little that would indicate that this debate is settled (Groff, 1977). Not only do some experts believe that there is a strong link between oral language and reading and writing (Loban, 1967), but that speech and reading are reciprocal acts of communica- tion, meaning that speech contributes to reading and vice versa (Furness, 1957). In some circles there are those who encourage oral- language development and are convinced that "a child who speaks in an easy, fluent manner has already achieved one requisite for good reading" (Gray, 1963, p. 109). Stauffer (1969) considered oral- language fluency as a transition device to reading. "Show and tell" and conversation groups were seen as techniques conducive to language development, which in turn facilitates reading (Heilman, 1967). Not only have advocates been very vocal about variables rela- ted to oral language, but many have looked at specific variables such as syntax and the role it plays in this matter. Sylvaroli and Wheelock (1975) believed that the child's knowledge of sentence structure may be observed in his oral conversation and considered this to be a very 20 important indicator of reading readiness. By comparison, Spache and Spache (1969) took more of a middle position on this issue. Never- theless, the implication is that whatever the language in reading, it must be at least comparable in level of difficulty to the output in language of the child. Otherwise, reading-comprehension problems may arise. While all of the above researchers believed to some extent or another that oral language significantly influences reading ability, there are those who believed that rarely does it influence reading difficulty (Durrell, 1956; Robeck and Wilson, 1974). Smith (1973), representing a very different line of thinking from any of those mentioned so far, claimed that fluent readers need not go from the print to oral language to get meaning from the written information. On the contrary, he wrote that "written language must be understood before an acceptable . . . translation into spoken language can be produced" (p. 24). This means that if one cannot derive meaning from the printed page, it will do no good to put it into oral language. Gaines (1941) observed that it was not possible to conclude from the available research the role oral language played in reading, finding that eight studies supported the positive influence of oral language on syntax, while six said just the opposite. Groff (1977) more recently noted that research can be identified as belonging to two groups. First are those who investigated oral-language fluency, as defined by 21 . . length of spontaneous speech, the number of and length of sentences, T-units or phrases spoken in controlled situa- tions or the number of words or the number of different words spoken in controlled situations and skill at sentence repe- tition, (p. 73). and those who have studied measures related to oral syntax, as defined by . . the relationship to reading of complexity of sentences, ratios of clause length to T-unit length and other subordinate ratios, the ability to apply grammatical rules, kernel structures patterns, frequency of use of "movables" and "connectors," the relation of T-units to total words, the number of elaborated sentences, and the number of sentences combining transportation per T-unit. (p. 73). According to Groff, the results showed 16 studies that questioned extensively the influence of oral language on reading, whereas 10 studies asserted just the opposite. Ruddell (1965) believed that the lack of agreement in results on this topic is perhaps a result of varied methodologies used, lack of control of extraneous variables, and differing criteria as to what constitutes comprehension. He claimed that readability of text has centered on three elements: (1) number of simple sentences (Vogel & Washburne, 1928), (2) number of prepositional phrases (Dale & Tyler, 1934; Gray & Leary, 1935; Lorge, 1939, 1948; Vogel, 1928), and (3) the average sentence length (Dale & Chall, 1948; Gray & Leary, 1935; Lorge, 1939, 1948; Smith, 1961; Spache, 1953), with the average sentence length being the one that has yielded the most consistent results. These factors, however, did not account for a significant percentage of the variability found in text readability; more atten- tion should be paid to language structure as it relates to difficulty in comprehension. Ruddell's thesis was sustained by Dale and Chall 22 (1949), Flesch (1948), Lorge (1948), Robinson (1947), Squire (1962), Steinberg and Jenkins (1962), and Strickland (1962). Although it is not possible to discuss in detail each of the studies referred to so far, the remainder of this discussion will focus on a few of those believed to be significant in their contribu- tion. These are also partially supportive of Ruddell's criticism. In Ruddell's study, third graders were asked to read six dif- ferent passages controlled for content, sentence length, and vocabulary. While three of the passages were arranged to reflect syntax structure similar to that found occurring often in their oral language, the other three passages reflected syntactic structures that occur less frequently. Using a Cloze technique to measure comprehension, he discovered that his subjects comprehended significantly more from those passages having more frequent syntactic structures similar to their oral language. Just the opposite occurred with the low- frequency-syntactic-structure passages. The controlled variables used by Ruddell were occupational status and educational background of the parents and the mental age, intelligence, and chronological age of the children, all of which he claimed “significantly relate to reading comprehension" (p. 407). However, he concluded that more experiments should be done using a wider pattern of syntactic struc- ture found in oral language to determine how high- and low-frequency syntactic structures in written materials are related to different content and how the low-frequency syntactic structure affects boys as compared to girls, since boys showed "disproportionately" greater difficulty, although not significantly, when compared to girls. 23 Calvert (1971) used pictures to elicit children's oral language, which he then recorded. Unlike Ruddell's study, the subjects were fifth and sixth graders who were categorized as low and high achievers in reading as determined by the Gates-MacGinities Reading Test. The controlled variables used were age, sex, intelligence, and socioeconomic status. T-unit length, subordination ratio, kernel sen- tence ratio (as a composite); multiple-clause T-unit frequency; length of T-unit; frequency of surface patterns; and frequency of kernel structure were used as the criteria variables. The results showed that when T-unit length, sentence subordination ratio, and kernel sentence ratio were used compositely, the difference was sig- nificant in favor of high-achiever readers in the area of comprehen- sion. But if these variables were taken separately, their predicting power was reduced. Kernel ratio became the best predictor of reading scores, followed by T-unit length and subordination ratio. No sig- nificant difference was noted between under- and over-achievers on multiclause T-unit frequency, length of T-units, and surface and kernel structure patterns. Higher socioeconomic status indicated more mature syntactic level despite the sex variable, although an interaction was observed between sex and reading achievement in favor of girls. Like Calvert, Shepherd (1974) used pictures to elicit children's oral language. He hypothesized that a significant positive relation- ship exists between verbal expressive ability and reading readiness. Oral expressions were analyzed according to the following criteria: length of sentence, total number of words, total number of words in 24 sentences, and percentage of the different syntactical patterns. Scores on the criteria were then compared with results on the Metro- politan Readiness Test. No significant relationships were found. It was also hypothesized that there would be differences according to sex and race. However, these differences were also not supported. Each of the studies discussed did seem to partially support Ruddell's criticisms about the research on oral language and reading achievement. Ruddell was the first to admit that there were numerous limitations in his study. Of importance were the limited number of syntactic structures that were sampled. This limitation was in viola- tion of the several hundreds of syntactic structural patterns identi- fied by Strickland (1962) in children's oral language, presumably be- lieved later by other researchers to be correlated with their abili- ty to understand written language. In addition to a limited number of syntactical patterns studied, reading comprehension in the Ruddell study was determined through a Cloze test, while in Calvert and Shepherd's studies this was obtained through standardized reading tests. Although it cannot be concluded that testing reading comprehension using one form or another of the above-mentioned measures is better or poorer, it can be safely concluded that each form may have assessed different criteria of read- ing comprehension. The population in each of these studies varied significantly, not only in their grade placement (kindergarten through sixth graders) but also in their abilities in terms of reading. Another factor worth 25 mentioning is that of all the criteria used to study sentence patterns, the only criterion used across studies was sentence length. Finally, it must be said that among the great majority of studies that have been done since 1941 on oral language and reading achievement, there have been very few replications. Summary As evidenced throughout this discussion, there is lack of agreement that oral language does influence reading achievement sig- nificantly. Quite a substantial number of studies have supported a significant relationship, yet the opposite has also been true. There were two distinct groupings: those who have researched oral language while paying particular attention to number and length of sentences, length of spontaneous speech, and the like; and those who have researched factors related to syntax, such as sentence pat- terns, subordination ratio of sentences, and so forth. Ruddell suggested that this lack of consistency was a result of methodological differences in various studies, lack of control of extraneous variables, and in some instances varying criteria usage of what constitutes reading comprehension. There was little evidence to suggest that adequate replication of studies had been done to clarify contradictory results. Finally, while the overriding feeling was that there have been difficulties in the methodologies of studies used to assess the relationship between oral language and reading achievement and limita- tions in the criteria for measuring reading comprehension, more 26 scientific evidence is greatly needed to provide for a better under- standing of the match between language structures that the child possesses and that which is used in his/her primer. This match would necessarily include the proper words as well as their order so as to stimulate the child's interest, which in turn would affect not only the types of materials read but also the quantity. Content Analysis Content analysis, as proposed in this section of the review, focuses on three areas that link reader preference for the content variables of age, grade, sex, and reading difficulty level. Reading preference of children has long been given attention by educational researchers. Zimet (1966) reported more than 300 studies on children's preferences and interests in stories that include a vast range of subjects. Many professionals have argued that content interest of primers by grade-school children for reading instruction may matter minimally for those children who will learn to read no matter what they read. The questions, however, will be raised regarding the importance of content for those who fail to read well, or at all, yet are capable of doing so. Kagan (1958) stated that content makes a difference. Busch (1970) believed that first-grade children who are exposed to reading material that is appropriate to their development and interests will demonstrate increased preference for their readings. Rose et a1. (1972) concluded that first graders, when given single pairs of stories on five content areas (theme, age of activity, character 27 interaction, sex of activity, and activity outcome), demonstrated a marked preference for "pranks theme," peer interaction, and same-sex activity much more than these dimensions appeared in their primers. When an attempt is made to uncover the role that content of a given topic plays in a person's desire to read, questions regard- ing the role several fundamental variables play are important; sex, age, amount of schooling, physical and emotional status, socioeconomic and cultural variables of the reader, as well as the style, format, and content of the material read will surely have some influence on the extent to which the reader prefers a given topic. An even more subtle factor is to determine preferences of children when only a limited amount of material is available to the reader. In 1979 the writer conducted interviews with 30 third-grade teachers in San José, Costa Rica. When they were asked whether they were satisfied with one of the primers that was used extensively for that grade level by a majority of teachers in Costa Rica, the overwhelming response was "No." When questioned "Why do you con- tinue to use it?", the response was "That's the best of the available sources." The latter variable is perhaps the most difficult to resolve. In any given setting the availability of primers representing varied content is strongly influenced by socioeconomic and prevailing sociocultural forces. Equally important is the availability of research to indicate children's reading preferences. Although not all the variables referred to above will be discussed because of lack of research findings to support their 28 importance in children's reading preferences, some of the ones fre- quently discussed, such as sex, age and grade, and readability, will be given some attention. Material Preference by Sex Many writers have consistently recorded sex differences in children's reading preferences (Norvell, 1950, 1958; Thorndike, 1941; Zimet, 1966). Tibbetts (1974) believed that the why of this question has not been answered, but in her words has been left up to "a sexist oriented reading audience to assume if it will, an innate tendency for the sexes to choose different reading material" (p. 279). She claimed that poor reporting has influenced certain beliefs. For example, she quoted Hazard (in Tibbetts, 1974) as saying that "girls demand books that demonstrate maternal feelings. . . . Boys demand books of valor" (p. 279), even in the face of evidence that suggests that interest tends to overlap (Wolfson, 1960; Woody, 1948). The controversy on sex differences and reading preferences has taken on an air of the nature-versus-nurture debate, which has baffled many researchers. While there are those investigators who have concluded that reading preference is not very significant between sexes in the primary grades (Dunn, 1921; King, 1967; Norvel, 1958), there are those who have claimed that these preferences are more sig- nificant around age nine and ten (Bond & Tinker, 1967; Harris, 1966; Lewis & Lima, 1928). Belser (1926) suggested that instincts of rivalry and fight- ing are stronger in boys, whereas the maternal instinct is more visible 29 in girls during this age. Belser's argument, however, does not hold up easily in face of the large amount of research that has pointed to social and cultural conditioning in which girls are expected to be less competitive and more maternal than boys. Much research has been carried out to substantiate the idea that a great deal of social conditioning has been sex-typing oriented (Dornbusch, 1966; Fauls & Smith, 1956; Mead, 1939). One author sug- gested that the sexes behave differently because they are treated differently (Chasen, 1974). This type of evidence prompted Tibbetts (1974) to assert, "It is also worth considering that“ they may have different reading interests because they have to prefer certain types of material that they are told what is appropriate for them" (p. 280). It is clear from this brief discussion that while some researchers have supported some kind of innate conditions that are believed to propel boys to prefer or to be interested in certain things when compared to girls, there are others who have argued that differences are attributable to social and cultural expectations. The researcher, however, wished to take a more neutral position. This position consistedtTFasking children to participate in those decisions entailing their reading preferences. which: would seem from an intui- tive point of view, to benefit the children since their ideas would be an intricate part of the content being read. Material Preference by Age andGrade Age and grade, like sex, have attracted much attention in regard to preferences in children's readings. However, these variables have been 3O relatively unexplored when compared to sex. Certain questions like: "Do children who read at two grade levels above their chronological age prefer the same type of materials as much as the children for whom it was constructed?" "Do children who are behind a couple of years in reading achievement prefer, to a significant degree, the materials that were written for children who are younger or at their age level?" "Can read- ing preferences be determined in the early primary grades?" The follow- ing discussion is aimed at answering these questions. There is indication that the first two questions were over- looked in Lewis and Lima's (1928) classical study, in which it was assumed that in any given classroom, interests of children tend to follow a normal distribution or average pattern; more-advanced pupils would cancel out the effect of less-advanced pupils on this subject matter. These questions were explored by Geeslin and Wilson (1972). In this study even geographical location was believed not to be influ- ential based on the findings from two other studies (Lazar, 1937; Rudman, 1957). The results indicated that when taken as a group (boys and girls), eight-year-olds or third graders showed no signifi- cant preference for ten-year-olds' or fifth graders' reading books, although it was found that boys gave more choices in favor of ten- year-olds' books than girls did. Eight-year-old girls showed, however, a marked preference (p < .05 and p < .01) for books appropriate to their chronological age. When the results were inspected for lZ-year-olds with reading ages between 10 and 11 years, some interesting patterns emerged. For boys, when their grade placement was known (3 in the seventh grade, 31 16 in the sixth grade, and 2 in the fifth grade), no statistically significant difference was obtained. For girls, however, whose read- ing ages were behind their chronological age by two years, and where three were in the seventh grade, five in the sixth grade, and one in the fifth grade, those in the sixth and fifth grades showed signifi- cantly greater preference for ten-year-olds' books. This was, of course, given that grade level was known. Based on just chronological age and reading age alone, no significant level of preference was observed. The conclusion drawn by Geeslin and Wilson in this study was that if third-grade boys who are reading at a more advanced rate seem just as likely to prefer materials for fifth graders, these ought to be made available to them. He stressed the importance of self-selection of books for boys and girls. Another crucial finding was that despite the fact that 12-year-old girls in the seventh grade read poorly, they preferred the same books that were liked by seventh graders as a whole. The above findings seem to have a powerful implication for reme- dial and corrective reading since it is possible to conclude that teach- ing in this area at this level may be more successful if reading mate- rials are developed around the interests of the chronological level of these youngsters and not as much around their reading age. A limitation of the study was the fact that no attempt was made to control for emotional factors, intelligence, socioeconomic status, or health problems, all of which may be a potential factor in reading preference, although there was no evidence, according to 32 the author at that time, that these factors would be significant. It must also be noted that very little control was exercised over those who read below their age level. Could it be that the inability to read at a certain level, yet having to judge a book for its con- tent, would be more influential for those who read less well? It is clear from the foregoing discussion that research has indicated much overlap between grades, age, and sex on children's reading preferences. However, what has research said about whether preferences of children can be detected in the early primary grades? In a study by Meisel (1970) on fifth-grade students, the questions explored were in regard to basal readers. Specifically, "Are the stories presented in these books of interest to children?" "Would they select them if they had a choice?" The experimenters chose interest areas and grouped them into 14 categories, some of which were classified as fiction and the others as nonfiction. These impressions were made up from 4,000 volumes taken from the school library. The same areas of interest were determined for the basal readers. The results of the study showed a number of things: First, there were definite likes and dislikes among students. Second, the range of interest areas in basal readers was limited. Third, the frequency of manifested preference for certain areas by the students was not congruent with the availability of these areas within the basal readers. Fourth, historical biographies and historic and geographic nonfiction, which were the favorites for all students and chosen from the library selection, were not included in the basal 33 reader. Fifth, of the children's ten most preferred areas, only four (personal adventure, humor, fantasy, and historical fiction) were represented in their basal readers. Findings reported by Smith (1962) indicated that neither the primers nor pre-primers reflected the reading interest of the students and that there is a need to supplement basal readers even as early as in the first grade. Petola (1963) found that the selection made by adults on books of interest to children as compared to those made voluntarily by children were significantly different. One of the most significant contributions of research regard- ing content of readers used in schools was carried out by a group of researchers at the University of Colorado and spanned roughly a decade (1961-1971). The studies focused primarily on the content of first- grade readers. One thousand, three hundred seven stories taken from some of the most commonly used readers throughout the United States were used. The variables studied were reading level, theme of story, environmental setting where story takes place, attributes of story characters, sex of the person given a certain activity, age of char- acter given certain activity, outcome of activity, agent of failure and frustration, and so forth (Blom et al., 1968). These stories were used in other research as a basis of comparison. One such study looked at the content of books checked out by children from the school library. The children represented a middle-class-value school (Zimet & Camp, 1974). 34 The studies cited above were of significance in the assess- ment of children's preferences of primers. First, a method for coding stories with a highly consistent agreement by two or more trained raters was developed (Blom et al., 1968). The second important aspect was that prior to these studies little evidence existed of syste- matic studies done on textbooks' content, although a few studies were known to have been conducted on children's preferences in the third grade (Child, 1946; McClelland, 1961). And third, from these studies, further investigations were conducted to analyze the content of read- ing textbooks from several countries, which provided a basis for comparison with the United States (Zimet et al., 1971). Of importance to the present experiment was the study by Blom et al. (1967), in which a multiethnic urban first-grade series was designed to overcome many of the shortcomings reflected in the national sample of stories. While the readers here were developed initially to reflect types of people living in multicultural neighborhoods (Marburger, 1963; Whipple, 1964), the results in many ways were not all that dif- ferent from the national samples. 0f the 118 stories from this new series, taking into account theme; character; age of activities; sex of activity; attributes of character based on age, sex, and family; outcome ratings; environmental setting; and ethnicity, there was much similarity between the urban stories and the ones from the national sample of books. There was an even greater emphasis on the stereo- typical family-centered structure in the urban setting when compared to the national sample, meaning that there were more suburban cha- racteristics depicted ( a black family living in a white neighborhood 35 with much economic and social stability and no other blacks other than those represented in the nuclear family). Another significant difference was in the area of success versus failure of activity depicted by the characters. In about half of the 118 stories, characters failed to attain success, meaning that the outcome of activity to be accomplished was not attained. In about a fifth of the stories, accomplishment of the task was attained through the help of some outside agent. In less than a third of the stories were children really described as successful in attaining their goals. Blom et a1. (1968), in describing the content of first-grade reading books, referred to these as having activities that tend to be "neutral" and "redundant," with little variation or much meaning in the content. Families are usually portrayed as being happy, while their roles according to their sex are hard to determine. Children are seldom alone or with older children. The setting is usually in the suburbs, very infrequently in a city, and usually they are in a home setting. Pets are seen more as something that entertains, yet in reality they are often nuisances and cause frustration. It was concluded from this study that the above descriptions are in contrast to everyday life since most children live in cities and come in contact with people of very diversified backgrounds, races, or nationalities. In regard to family activities, real life is not always frustration free or filled with laughter. Parents reprimand their children, and children manifest a range of sentiments. There are often older siblings as well as younger ones, and the 36 animals or pets are a source of learning that may range from a play companion or something to nurture to a means of learning about death, birth, or illness. Even in regard to sex roles in real life, boys and girls around ages six and seven show, to a certain degree, sex-role behav- iors appropriate to that level. The child at that age is probably away from home several hours a day. These latter studies, while being very helpful, have not escaped criticism. It has been noted that many of the studies done on preferences as far as children's readings are concerned have been causal-correlational in nature and descriptive. There is a need to study specific variables in more detail and randomly assign treat- ment to groups (Oliver, 1977). Oliver conducted a study to investi- gate the effect of three characters and settings on the reading pref- erence of first- and third—grade children. Three story lines were written by professional writers, one for each of the three types of characters and settings. One was about talking animals in a natural setting, another was about real children in a suburban or urban set- ting, and the last was about fantasy characters in a make-believe situation. The results showed interaction for grade level and character and setting. First graders tended to prefer animal characters most and realistic and fantasy characters about the same. Third graders liked fantasy and realistic stories the best but rated animal stories the lowest. Also, there was an interaction for grade level and the 37 three stories told. Whereas first graders liked the peer-relationship story the least, third graders liked these the best. Ratings were also determined for story lines within grades. While the variability was slight within grades, it was found to be much more significant between grades. To test for the consistency of the results, a three-way analysis of variance was conducted. A sig- nificant F-ratio was obtained for one main effect (grade level and two of the two-way interactions, character/setting with grade level and story line with grade level). The other F-ratios were not statis- tically significant. Inconsistencies were further checked for on the students' response sheets (if children said "yes" that they liked a story, yet said "no" when asked if they would like to listen to another one). It was found that in only 16 out of 162 chances were these inconsistencies present. Several findings were evident from this study. There was a decrease of children's preference for animal characters as they moved from the first to the third grade, while their preferences for realis- tic and fantasy characters decreased only minimally. Although it is a common belief by many that kindergarten and first-grade children prefer fantasy stories to realistic stories, it was evidenced by the results of the study that they liked realistic and fantasy characters almost as much. Third-grade children also demonstrated their highest preference for stories on fantasy when the character was in a make-believe setting. The author of the study suggested that to enhance reading in the first grade, there should be greater diversity of character and 38 settings, with emphasis on talking animals; whereas in the third grade, animal characters should be de-emphasized and fantasy and realistic characters more predominant. Story line, slapstick, and humorous plot decreased from first to third grade, while preference for peer relationships was constant across grade levels. It must be observed that although the results of this study revealed rather interesting findings, having to read the stories to children at certain grade levels may have had some effect on their ratings. This observation was speculated on by Oliver as being the possible cause of first-grade children giving higher ratings when compared to the third graders, despite the types of stories. The fact that this dealt with a limited sample of story line and character/setting was a definite limitation that would require further investigation. Preference as Related to Readability Level In the present study, students were asked to read various selected materials and indicate their preference. It was assumed that if the students were not able to comprehend what was contained in their readings it would become very difficult to justify their prefer- ence. Since reading ability was a factor, three approaches were used in an attempt to control for difficulty level of the readings. First of all, the students were asked to point to difficult words across the stories read, and these were counted and totalled. Second, a recall test on the content of each story read was administered. Third, the 39 readability level of the stories, as determined by sentence length and number of syllables, was performed for individual story. The first two analyses conducted were believed to be somewhat straight- forward. However, the concept of readability and the formulas that have evolved over the years have been rather controversial. Therefore, a review is provided to explain the limitations and strengths of this technique. The review focuses on readability from two points of view: one that relates to a definition of readability and the other that discusses the directional efforts of sentence length as an essential component to many readability formulas. Definitions.--Traditionally, the view held on readability has been that it refers to the amount of communication that takes place between the writer and the reader. This view has become somewhat restricted over time and has come to mean being able to predict the appropriateness or suitability of the text for certain groups of readers. For the purpose of this research, accessibility of the text was viewed as comprehensibility. In this manner one might be more inclined to view the reader as an important active agent in compre- hending the writer's intent and not just trying to predict the suita- bility of the text. The classic definition of readability by Dale and Chall (1949) stated, In the broadest sense, readability is the sum total (including the interactions) of all those elements within a given piece of printed material that affects the success a group of readers have with it. The success is the extent to which they under- stand it, read it at an optimum speed, and find it interest- ing. (p. 7) 40 Two aspects are worth some comments in the face of this tradi- tional definition. The first makes reference to the interrelation- ships of the words as a means of obtaining success as a reader; the second refers to the interest that the material should hold for the reader. Bormuth (1968) attempted to make the nature of readability even more clear by adding that early research concentrated on the idea of creating formulas that would be useful in determining the suita- bility of materials for the pupils. This is compatible in essence with Dale and Chall's thinking. Bormuth reviewed various readability formulas. He suggested that the following elements have been considered important in reada- bility formulas: word length, morphological complexity, vocabulary, transformational complexity, modifier distance, grammatical complexity, Latin base syllables, abstractness, frequency of word occurrence, and contextual variables. Another summary can be found in Klare (1974), pertaining to readability formulas regarding their limitations and possibilities. While there are many formulas on readability available at present, the two most commonly used are by Flesch (1948) and Dale and Chall (1948), developed in the 19405. Flesh developed two versions. The modified one included number of syllables per hundred words, count of the average number of words per sentence, and a measure of human interest that was determined by a count of personal words per hundred words and the number of personal sentences per hundred sentences. The Dale-Chall formula was a modification of Flesch's 41 formula. They included the length of sentence. Also included was a Dale score, which consisted of a percentage of words not included in Dale's list of 3,000 familiar words. Despite the factors mentioned by Bormuth as elements of readability formulas, Klare found that readability formulas that incorporated word length and sentence length were quite "adequate" for making predictions. Neverless, there are those experts who have argued that readability is a function of many other variables, namely redundancy, which relates to the content of the text itself and the experience and background of the reader (Smith, Goodman, & Meredith, 1970). Directional efforts.--It was mentioned earlier that Strick- land's study (1962) served to stimulate further studies that would investigate the relationship between oral-language structures and the written structure found in children's reading texts. She believed that sentence length may not necessarily be a function of text reada- bility. Two points will be dealt with here. The first explores the role of sentence length and structure as they apply to written lan- guage; the second discusses the feasibility of developing an instru- ment that could be used to gauge syntactic level of difficulty. Sentence length has been used for the longest time as part of most readability formulas and is as old as the formulas are. This is evident in the Flesch and Dale-Chall readability formulas, considered by many as the two most widely used, and in the Fry (1977) formula more recently. 42 It has been well documented by many authorities that sentence length as a measure of readability, even when combined with other frequently used variables such as number of prepositions or number of modifiers, does not reflect the true level of readability of a text (Dale & Chall, 1948; Dawkins, 1975; Standal, 1978). The idea that not word count but language flexibility (subordination and nominalizations) would be fairer as far as text readability is concerned has been endorsed by O'Donnell, Griffin, and Morris (1967). Research conducted by Bormuth (1966), Goodman (1969), Hatch (1969), and Fagan (1971) investigating specific language variables found that many elements (dependent clauses, adjectives) relate to sentence difficulties. However, attempts to include them in formulas have resulted in greater complexity. The use of sentence length as an index of text readability has yielded both positive and negative results. Glazer (1973) con- ducted a study that recorded the number of words per sentence at the different levels of reading materials used in the elementary grades. A complexity c0unt using the Botel, Dawkins, and Granowsky (BDG) formula was used to evaluate syntactic difficulty, as defined by the authors, of each book; correlation was plotted between sentence length and the BDG complexity count. It was found that correlations ranged from .480 for the lower-level materials to .981 for the higher-level materials. The author concluded there was a significant difference at the .01 level for all books except at the O-count level of com- plexity. Glazer (1974) concluded that 43 Most longer sentences were not independent clauses connected with coordinate conjunctions. Most of those sampled in the study included noun modifiers, dependent clauses, nominalized verbs, deletions in coordinate clauses, appositives and clauses used as subjects. (p. 467) Despite Glazer's comment, she was quick to point out that long sentences need not be synonymous with difficulty since they may result from several kernel sentences. She wrote, "Using a word count as a measure of readability is a good quick test only if one takes note of the syntactic elements within each sentence" (p. 467). A study of oral language by Strickland (1962), later confirmed by Loban (1970) and Hunt (1965), supported Glazer's findings that longer sentences are not always more complex. From her study it was concluded that young children, when speaking, "tend to use run-on units [where] a more mature speaker would cut these into two or more sentences through the use of subordination" (pp. 26-27). The complexity of sentence length has been endorsed by other writers using other techniques. Miller and Chomsky (1963) made up lists of other measures that seemed promising. One of them was rooted in Yngve's (1960) measure of word "depth" while studying com- puter processing of language. In his model, word depth was a function of memory load, which was a result of sentence structure while the sentences were being formulated. Bormuth (1966) found a correlation of .78 between mean depth for several passages used and Cloze scores for those same passages. Nevertheless, he concluded, "Mean word depth evidently measures a form of sentence complexity which is somewhat independent of the lengths of 44 independent clauses and, to a lesser extent, of the length of sen- tences" (p. 122). While the sentence-length issue continues in readability, various researchers have looked to other variables as a means of reflecting a broader perspective of the nature of sentences and reada- bility. Wisher (1966) viewed syntax in general in two ways in his study: first that it serves as an organizing agent for the reader, and second that it may be viewed as an interactive system. The first view was confirmed by Fodor and Bever (1965) as well. It says that while one listens, one tends to organize or group words according to one's knowledge of the syntax of the sentence. The second view, reading as an interactive system, has also been researched by others as well (Goodman, 1970; Marslen-Wilson, 1975; Rumelhart, 1976). They saw reading as an interplay between one's knowledge of language and the world with the print on the page. Standal (1978) was among the researchers who have voiced dis- satisfaction with the common use of readability formulas: "Each child comes to school with a unique background of experiences, interests, and abilities. Readability formulas that can be applied to a body of mate- rial don't include considerations of these things" (p. 642). He claimed that even word-frequency counts, which have been a common denominator of readability formulas, are regarded with suSpicion even by their makers. Dolch (1928), in a review of the literature on word lists existent at that time, wrote: "We do not have nearly enough informa- tion regarding the actual knowledge of words at different ages or 45 possessed by various groups, nor do we know how language is affected by the different purposes for which it is used" (p. 19). Various studies were done in response to that period of time when vocabulary knowledge was used to determine validity words have as predictors of reading comprehension. Of particular interest are the studies on latency time of recognition of words. In these studies it was believed that the reaction time given by individuals to words presented visually could be used as a valid measure of word knowledge. These studies showed that higher-frequency words were recognized faster than less—frequent words (Howes & Solomon, 1951; McGinnies, Comer, & Lacey, 1952; Stanners, Jastrzembski, & Westbrook, 1975). Despite the fact that common sense would indicate that higher-frequency words would be learned more quickly and probably contribute in part to reading comprehension, there is little research evidence to support this view. Klare (1963) found that word-frequency counts were part of 18 of the 31 studies he reviewed. This led him to believe that word frequency may very well be part of the ease related to text reada- bility. This, however, is very questionable. Rogers (1971) found that when sentences were provided with the objective of getting mean- ing from them by identifying target words, and three synonyms were given from which to choose as a criterion measure, the pronunciation ability of the subjects of the low-frequency words was hampered, but comprehension was only slightly affected. This finding led her to conclude that low-frequency words, if used in a "rich context," do 46 not affect understanding significantly. Pearson and Stoudt (1975) seemed to arrive at the same conclusion as Rogers did. Two other studies have questioned the relationship between sentence length and readability. Smith (1972-73) reported that "choppy" sentences for mature readers seemed to hinder readability rather than facilitate it, while Bransford and Frank (1971) investi- gated whether information across complex sentence boundaries is integrated. Four declarative complex sentences were created, each containing simple propositions. The experimenter then read proposi- tions from these statements in different combinations using only sub- units, not the entire sentence. Later the subjects were asked to say what they remembered. The results showed that the subjects later judged that they heard the whole complex sentence. In other words, they responded as though the information had been given in one com- plete unit. Finally, Pearson (1975) found that when fourth-grade students were asked to choose simple or more complex sentences when answering a cause-effect or adjectival relations, wh-type question, they chose the more complete sentences over the simpler ones. The evidence thus far by no means disqualifies the use of readability formulas if they serve as general indicators or guides to a range of reading materials, especially if they are used by indi- viduals who have some knowledge regarding the interests of their subjects. The second consideration in directional efforts, as mentioned earlier, is concerned with whether an instrument can be constructed 47 that can determine sentence difficulty. This question may have been answered partially through the foregoing discussion. Nevertheless, brief attention will be directed to some additional considerations. According to Endicott (1973), the T-unit of language analysis has proven to be useful and consistent. This unit has been used by many researchers, although in certain instances it has been referred to by different terms. Watts (1948) referred to it as a "natural linguistic unit" (p. 20). Loban (1963) called it a "communication unit" (p. 6). Later it was defined by Hunt (1965) as "one main clause with all the subordinate clauses attached to it" (p. 20). Bormuth (1966) used it in his analysis of readability formulas that were constructed by Botel, Dawkins, and Granowsky (1973). This instrument, the Botel, Dawkins, and Granowsky (BDG), had its basis in transforma- tional grammar theory, studies indicating the types of sentence structures frequently used by children, experimental findings that have indicated the complexity of sentence processing, and some intui- tions by the authors. In synthesis, the authors ranked various sentence structures according to their presumed level of difficulty while assigning counts (0, 1, 2, or 3) to the different structures. Zero represented the lowest difficulty level, while §_was the highest. The author suggested that it be used with a measure of vocabulary. The BDG has many drawbacks similar to the readability formulas discussed earlier. Like the readability formulas, it does not measure interest or experience of the reader. Short sentences are not usually less difficult or representative of clarity. If logical reasoning is violated, the B06 will not detect this any more than a readability 48 formula will. Because a ranking system is used to separate degree of difficulty of sentence structures, how much more difficult one sentence is when compared to another cannot be determined. For a more thorough review of the BDG, it is recommended that the reader consult Dawkins (1975). Summar Many studies relating to children's preferences and interests have been conducted over the years. While many children will learn to read despite the content of their reading materials, there are those who will benefit significantly when their preferences for and interests in what is being read are considered. Many variables are believed to affect reading preferences. Among these are those related to sex, age, amount of schooling, physical and emotional status, teacher influences, socioeconomic con- ditions and cultural background of the reader, and the format, type, and content of the material read. Research has not provided signifi- cant findings as far as some of these variables are concerned as to their specific effect on reading preference. However, certain vari- ables such as age, sex, and grade level of the reader and content of the material read on specific aspects have been more widely researched. Differences between sexes for reading preference have been concluded by certain experts, whereas some others have argued that these differences are attributed to poor reporting and are a result of stereotyping of behaviors expected from boys and girls. For age there seems to be agreement that as children get older their reading preferences also change. But equally important 49 is the fact that reading preference seems to overlap for children of different age and grade levels and that a wide range of reading materials should be made available. Evidence has suggested that even in the early grades children have reading preferences. Most recently, research has revealed that quite often these preferences are not represented in their readers to the extent that children have indicated, and that many activities described in their readers are unlike actual happenings in real-life situations. Two definitions of readability were reviewed: One was more traditional in nature and had to do with the quality of communication that takes place between the writer and the reader; the more recent one took into account the suitability or appropriateness of the text for groups of readers. The shortcomings and possibilities of readability formulas were also discussed. Certain variables like word length, morpho- logical complexity, vocabulary, transformational complexity, modifier distance, and grammatical complexity are commonly used in most reada- bility formulas. Despite the incorporation of these variables, most researchers believed that readability formulas should be used cautiously and that the reader's background, interest, and ability level should be considered. If all these factors were incorporated, there seemed to be a general consensus that readability formulas could serve as a quick and general indicator of text accessibility. The possibility of measuring the syntactic complexity of a text through the use of a special scale in many ways parallels some 50 of the limitations presented by readability formulas. Like these, the syntactic formulas only include a limited number of factors affecting the readability of a given text. For example, the viola- tion of logical reasoning, the interest or experience brought to the reading act by the reader, and the difficulty of one sentence over another, given a certain count, cannot be determined. Finally, as evidenced in this review, many factors do influ- ence children's reading preferences and interests, ranging from variables that could be considered as being externally determined, by and large (i.e., difficulty level of material, teaching conditions), to those more closely related to sex, age, and physical and emotional status of the child. Although research is lacking to demonstrate the exact relationship in terms of quality and quantity of material read when content variables are controlled, there is considerable agree- ment that children's attitudes and behaviors toward reading materials are greatly enhanced when there is a closer match between the students and their readings. Primer-Construction Practices This portion of the review, although being the last and con- taining a more limited fund of information, is nevertheless of great importance because of the many limitations existing in Costa Rica for gathering data pertinent to primer-construction practices. Much of the information contained herein resulted from various interviews conducted by the researcher, in some instances with the authors of the primers analyzed, in others with the help of people working in 51 the system, and in still other instances relying heavily on personal experiences from having worked in the system. Earlier in the review it was indicated that evidence from teachers and pupils substantiated the existence of a mismatch between the content of the published programs, i.e., information, vocabulary, language, etc., and the students for whom they were created. Yet, despite this, there seems to be a willingness to receive and use primers that were constructed primarily in other Spanish-speaking countries without an understanding of the realities leading up to their printing. Although there are a variety of reasons responsible for the above conditions, two main causes seem to be more apparent. The first is associated with the economics of text production; the second is a result of limitations in instrumentation to measure students' poten- tial, learning difficulties, and achievement (Helwing & Searles, 1970). Costa Rica, like many third-world countries, depends on agriculture, by and large, to support and develop its people. Export commodities are usually confined to a few products that generally are sensitive to changes on the international markets. Despite this precarious economic situation, for the last four decades or so the country has managed to invest 30% of its yearly budget in educating its people, a factor that may have contributed to a rather low illit- eracy rate (10%) when compared to many of the developing countries. Despite this effort, however, certain inconsistencies can be appreciated. It has been only within the last 15 years that a 52 research unit within the Ministry of Education was created to address various issues related to the cost effectiveness of the educational budget. Further evidence comes from the inrft on Educational Texts, also within the Ministry of Education, where much emphasis is placed on "administrative issues," to quote one of its employees, meaning that people are mostly concerned with procuring a library, determin- ing supply, defining patterns in usage, and the like, while little or no time is spent in determining the effect of the quality of the books on the readers. Evidence from several of the teachers working in the schools used in this study supports the latter contention. They claimed that although they are required or supposed to encourage their students to take books from the school library and/or visit the library periodically, this is not done as often since many of the books are not appropriate for them. It is reasonable to understand that in educational systems such as in Costa Rica, where the main thrust is acquiring the minimum level of texts, how such things as content would be overlooked. Most classrooms in the public schools do not have a collection of books or a system whereby students in the elementary grade level are able to check out books. Even worse, children who must depend on the Ministry of Education for their primers often are not allowed to take them home because there is some apprehension about the care that might be given to them if they are not under the teacher's supervision (Helwing 8 Searles, 1970). The unavailability of a market has also put some limitation on the production of textbooks. Costa Rica's entire population is 53 slightly in excess of two million people. Although there are many other neighboring countries where Spanish is also the official lan- guage, there exist sufficient political and economic differences, and even cultural differences, which serve as a disruptive force to communication. On few occasions have there been cross-national efforts to produce primers. Two of the five primers analyzed in this study were a product of such cooperation, which began in 1963. While these two sources, when compared to the other three, were judged rather favorably by the subjects in this study, there is little information available from the past on their content or how they might compare with other available sources. Another aspect that has influenced the low level of primer development is the lack of incentive for individual writers. Authors' economic gains usually do not exceed more than 10% of the profits. Considering the small market, the economic rewards are limited. In one writer's words, "ten percent is hardly sufficient to pay for the time invested. One must have lots of love for writing to want to do this." And there are also practices that go beyond economics. For many years the Consejo Superior de Educacidn authorized the primers that would be used in the school programs, which means that certain primers were recommended over others. This practice obviously favored certain authors since their books received wider attention. However, in most-recent years this practice has been recognized as unfair. At present, primers are subjected to the Consejo's evaluation and are 54 determined fit or unfit for the programs in the schools, but are not forced on anybody. In general, the printing industry is not very sophisticated, either, in its standards. In most instances the writer does not have to show that the content of his book was researched and normed on children similar to those who would be using it. An example of this can be seen with one of the most widely used primers, Lecturasypara Trabajos Independiente, by Nora de Chacdn. This is a primer in which she wrote exercises for selections taken from literature. In an interview she was asked about the procedure used in writing that book. She claimed that the decision to include the readings was arrived at through the help of teachers who had worked in the system for many years. Many of the selections were chosen from the works of great writers and at times seemed to the researcher a bit advanced for lower- elementary-age children. In asking her about her choice of these selections, her response was that one of her primary concerns was to be able to offer the students a rather high literary content. In another question, when asked how sex variables or other important factors were controlled for, the response was that this was done intuitively. It is apparent that the scarcity of scientific data plays as large a role in the construction of primers as do economic limitations. Just the fact that there exists no group of words organized or cate- gorized as essential to learn at different levels of the reading curricula, or that there is not a standardized reading test to measure comprehension and other important skills necessary for reading 55 C.4 Effect of Room Light on the Spectra of MPMS Figure III.5 shows the spectral changes which occur when a solution of 31.2 uM aerobic MPMS solution at pH = 7.4 is exposed to room (fluorescent) light. From these spectral changes and the isosbesth:point at 345 nm, we conclude that the main, and apparently the only, product of the photodecomposition of MPMS in the presence of oxygen at this pH is pyocyanine (absorption maximum at 310 nm). This was also observed by McIlwain (1937) and by Chew and Bolton (1980) to be a major product of the irradiation of MPMS by light at pH = 7. It is worth mentioning in this context that EPES, the ethyl analog of MPMS gave nearly identical results. Not only was EPES found to be similar to MPMS in photosensitivity, but also in all the other reactions mentioned in this text. Thus the conclusion by Ghosh and Quayle (1979) that EPES is less photolabile than MPMS at pH = 9.7 cannot be extended to lower pH values (pH = 7.4 in these experiments). When anaerobic solutions of MPMS were exposed to room light, the spectral changes were different from those shown in Figure 111.5. The photodecomposition apparently produced MPH as well as PHY+. The two products were formed in nearly equal amounts since upon exposure of the final products to atmospheric oxygen, the absorbance of MPMS at 388 nm rose to about half its starting value. In addition, the absorbance of pyocyanin at 310 nm reaches only about half the value anaerobically that it attains aerobically. These observations are consistent with the scheme proposed by Chew et a1. (1980) for high pH CHAPTER III RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Overview In this chapter the research questions and hypotheses as well as definitions of important terms used in the study are presented. The primary research questions and hypotheses address issues pertinent to the students' preference for stories, and vocabulary difficulty and information recalled for most and least preferred stories; while the secondary questions and hypotheses address issues pertinent to differen- ces between the stories on content and readability variables. Introduction The basic purpose of this study was to determine whether dif- ferences can be found in student preference between published primer material and student-generated material, and whether differences favor one or the other source of material and are significant. There was no indication prior to this study that any scientific methodologies were employed in the designing of primers used most frequently by third-grade students in_San José, Costa Rica, public shools. Neither was there any indication that the content, defined here as information, vocabulary, and language employed in the primers, was based on the students' needs. To address these questions, primary and secondary research questions were formulated. 56 57 Primary Research Questions 1. Do third-grade students show preference for self-generated stories by other third-grade students compared to stories from their primers? 2. Do third-grade students report fewer difficult words on stories that were said to be preferred the most versus stories that were preferred the least? 3. Do third-grade students get higher scores on a recall test for information contained in stories that were said to be preferred the most versus stories that were preferred the least? Secondary Research Questions 1. Are there differences in content analysis between the students' generated stories and the primer stories on text readability? 2. Are there differences in content analysis between the students' generated stories and the primer stories on theme; character representa- tion; children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental set- ting? From the research questions for the study, the following primary and secondary hypotheses were derived. Primary Research Hypotheses 1. Third-grade boys will select as preferred more stories gene- rated by another group of third-grade boys as opposed to either the sto- ries made up by third—grade girls or taken from their primers. 58 2. Third-grade girls will select as preferred more stories gene- rated by a group of third-grade girls as opposed to either the stories made up by third-grade boys or taken from their primers. 3. Third-grade students will indicate fewer difficult words a- mong stories preferred the most by them as opposed to stories preferred the least by them. 4. Third-grade students will score higher on a recall test for information contained in the stories preferred the most by them as op- posed to stories preferred the least by them. Secondary Research Hypotheses 1. Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on text readability. 2. Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on the following content dimensions: theme; character represen- tation; children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. Definition of Important Terms Definition of key terms used in the study are provided to clarify the nature of the research study. Students--Refers to the subjects in the study. Students are Costa Rican third graders between the ages of eight years and three months and nine years and eight months. These consist of boys and girls randomly chosen from a public-school district in metropolitan San José, the capital of Costa Rica. 59 Stories--Refers to the readings that were compared by the stu- dents. They were of two types: first were the students' stories made up spontaneously and related orally upon the request of a trained in- terviewer; second are the primer stories which refer to any given readings selected at random from the primer currently in use by the children at the time of the study. Primers—-Refers to either the imported or local type of text- books currently in use in reading instruction within the third grade. They may be a narrative, descriptive, or poetic account; and the con- tent of a realistic or nonrealistic nature. Preference--Refers to the yes/no responses given by the students in regard to stories they chose to read. Difficult words-~Refers to words in the stories that students indicate, upon request from the examiner, as causing difficulty in grasping the meaning. Recallf-Refers to the answers given by the students after each story was read to determine the level of information retained from stories. Readability--This term is expressed as grade level and is com- puted from the ratio between number of sentences in a given passage and the number of syllables per 100 words (Fry, 1977; Gilliam et al., 1980). Differences--Refers to detectable differences between types of stories as expressed through frequency, percentage, and rank order, as well as detectable differences in readability of text by grade level. CHAPTER IV DESIGN OF THE STUDY Overview In Chapter IV the design of the study is explained. Speci- fic attention is given to describing the population used in the study and the instrumentation and procedures utilized to quantify and des- cribe the results. Introduction The basic purpose of this study was to determine whether dif- ferences can be found in student preference between published primer material and student-generated material, and whether differences fa- vor one or the other source of material and are significant. There was no indication prior to this study that any scientific methodologies were employed in the designing of primers used most frequently by third- grade students in San José, Costa Rica, public schools. Neither was there any indication that the content, defined here as information, vocabulary, and language employed in the primers, was based on the students' needs. Following, is the design used to address these unaswered questions. Design of the Study This experiment was structured around a chi-square design with two equal groups of third-grade students being the focus of the study. 60 61 One group of students acted as story generators while the other acted as story readers. Each group was composed of half boys and half girls. The story generators were subgrouped by sex, three students to a group. Each subgroup of three was asked to make up a story of their preference, which was tape recorded and later transcribed to written language. Story readers participated individually. Each reader was asked to read three stories, including one that was told by boys, one by girls, and one that was taken from their primers. The reader was then asked to indicate which story out of 3 was liked the best and the least. The design may be illustrated as shown in Figure 4.1. B A Boys Girls X1 Boy X2 Girl X3 Primer Figure 4.1.--Design of the study. In Figure 4.1, A and B represent the students according to their sex; X1, X2, and X3 represent the three types of stories that were read by the students. Thirty triads of stories were read altogether (see Appendix C). Each triad was read by five boys and five girls for a total N = 300 students. Both the story generators and the story readers were taken out of their classrooms during the experiment but remained in the school building. 62 Subjects The subjects of this experiment were 600 students chosen through a simple random procedure from one of the largest adminis- trative districts which serves kindergarten, primary, and high school students thm1 both public private institutions in San José. However, only the public schools were included as part of this study. A total of 19 schools (see Appendix E) constituted the entire sample. Nine, chosen at random, were used for selecting students who would act as generators of stories, while the remaining ten were used to select students who would be asked to read stories. The number of students chosen to act either as readers or generators of stories was a direct function of the number of students in a given school in relationship to the number of stories to be used in the total sample of stories. The students' ages ranged from eight years and three months to nine years and eight months. This range was representative of approximately 95% of the students sampled in a pilot study. The decision to use this district was based on two factors. First, it is considered to be a school district having a fair repre- sentation of the school-age children living in the entire major me- tropolitan area of San José. Most of the schools have been in existen- ce for a number of decades. Historically,or before the advent of pri- vate schools, the rich as well as the lower classes would send their children to these older traditional as Opposed to newer ones in their neighborhood, even though the curriculum is exactly the same. This is 63 perhaps more true for the average and lower-income families than it is for the upper-income families, who send their children to private schools. The second reason was that if students preferred primer stories less than they did their own, and reported better ability to recall information read and/or less—difficult vocabulary for their own stories, the results would in reality probably indicate more signifi- cant differences in Costa Rica as a whole than indicated in the present study. Children living in an urban setting like San Jose would have many more opportunities for schooling as compared to children in the rural areas or even some of the other urban settings. One might expect a more negative response to these primer stories by those stu- dents living elsewhere who have to work with the same primers. Instrumentation Taking into account that there is no standardized instrument to determine reading achievement level for primary-school children in Costa Rica, a short multiple-choice test to evaluate information recalled in the stories read, asking the students to pick out diffi- cult words found in the stories, and using other descriptive measures were the main means to quantify the results of this study. It was hypothesized that students would recall more information from the stories they preferred the most when compared to those pre- ferred the least by them, and that they would select more difficult vocabulary from the stories they preferred the least when compared to those preferred the most. 64 To answer the first hypothesis, six multiple-choice questions were given in written form after the students had decided on the most- and least-preferred stories. This was to determine the students' ability to relate factual information contained in the stories. The questions were constructed by the researcher and reviewed by three teachers to insure that the questions followed from the stories. A perfect score would be 6/6. A total failure score would be zero over six. The hypothesis on vocabulary difficulty was determined by asking the students after recall of information had been carried out to carefully review each of the stories and select words from each of the stories not understood. For this a simple frequency count was con- ducted for both the most- and least-preferred stories. The greater frequency of words selected by the students would indicate a story with more difficult words. The preceding two modes of measurement were used to answer the questions asked in primary hypotheses three and four. Two other descriptive measures were employed to quantify the information asked for in the secondary hypotheses. The first was determining whether meaningful differences on readability for the primer stories when compared to the students' stories would be found. The second was examining whether meaningful differences existed between the stories represented by boys, girls, and those taken from the primers on the dimensions of theme; character representation; children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of 65 activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. The first secondary hypothesis was tested by averaging the number of syllables and sentences per story from all boys', girls', and primer stories with at least 100 words in order to determine the grade level based upon the Fry chart. The next secondary hypothesis was quantified through the use of frequency counts, percentage, and rank. These modes of quantification were a result of independent ratings of three adults who were teachers with training and experience in chil- dren's literature. These individuals did not know each other and worked separately during the ratings of the stories. Initially, a translation of the English version into Spanish of the Blom et a1. (1968) coding manual was presented (Appendix 0). Questions were allowed, and they were strongly encouraged to delete categories believed to be not applicable to Costa Rican society and to add others that were deemed more appropriate. Before each rater began the actual rating of the stories, a reliability coefficient of .90 was reached by giving practice stories for ratings until at least 90% agreement was attained. Once the actual ratings began, there were no time restrictions placed upon the raters to complete the task. Validity Concerns Strengths A particular strength of the study is the fact that all the students selected to act as generators and readers of stories were present through the study, with the exception of five persons from the reading group, who were easily replaced by back-up persons. 66 The students were exceptionally excited about being a part of the study. This was perhaps in part because they were told they would be reading stories or telling and recording their own. The opportu- nity to record their voices or just participate in a study is an experience students are infrequently exposed to in Costa Rica. The fact that the students told their stories in groups and read them in a familiar setting would intuitively seem to allow them to open up and be somewhat more spontaneous. All stories were generated and read within a six-week period, a factor that would decrease the likelihood of the students acting as readers to be exposed either at home or in school to primer stories included in this experiment. Finally, the recall tests and the vocabulary frequency count for most- and least-preferred stories taking place immediately after the stories were read decreased the possibility of any practice ef- fect that could have occurred from the students' interactions. Weaknesses The first area of concern sorrounding this study is evidenced by the absence of some procedure directed at determining the reasons teachers selected certain primers over others to fulfill the reading objectives. From both the pilot study and the present study, a sig- nificant number of teachers (approximately 80%) reported that the primers they were using were strongly recommended by the Spanish Department of the Ministry of Public Education, although they had to- tal freedom to use the primers they chose themselves. Two of the five 67 primers reported as having the widest usage in this study had not been present in the pilot study. The question then is, would the results be the same if different primers had been used? A second limitation stems from the influence or interaction of certain variables contained in the stories and how they might affect the choices of most- and least-preferred stories. One would have to ask how certain themes, characters represented, or the style in which the stories were written, among other variables, affected the student responses to the stories. The third limitation is the lack of standardized measurement relevant to this study. In Costa Rica there are no standardized measurement tools to determine reading achievement level and vocabu- lary knowledge of the students, nor instruments to determine the complexity of sentence patterns for Spanish-speaking children and how these might affect reading and comprehension. Standardized measures for determining socioeconomic status of the subjects were also non- existent. Finally, the preference for stories of approximately 5% of the third-graders who were too young or too old to participate in the study would have added additional information to support the findings in the study. Design Over Variable§_ Variable Matrix The independent variables were the types of stories, namely boys', girls', and primer stories. The dependent variables were the 68 students' responses indicating the stories preferred the most and the least, the scores derived from their answers on the recall tests for the stories, and the frequency of vocabulary selected as being diffi- cult for stories preferred the most and the least. The matrix is shown in Figure 4.2. Students Boys Girls Boy Girl Stories Primer Figure 4.2.--Variable matrix. Statistical Model of Analysis All primary hypotheses were tested at the alpha = .05 level. The statistical models employed to test the hypotheses of this study were a chi-square test of independence and the t-test for two sample mean differences of correlated data. The chi-square test was an appropriate measure since the question asked about the students' preference of stories was in a frequency form, and the observations were independent of each other. For using the t-test the assumption was that both samples came from the same population with equal means and variances. Research Hypotheses For the primary research hypotheses using the students' res- ponses to most- and least-preferred stories, their indications of 69 difficult words of most- and least-preferred stories, and their answers to questions from a multiple-choice question of the most- and least pre- ferred stories will prove that: l. Third-grade boys will select as preferred more stories gene- rated by another group of third-grade boys as opposed to either the sto- ries made up by third-grade girls or taken from their primers. 2. Third-grade girls will select as preferred more stories generated by a group of third-grade girls as opposed to either the sto- ries made up by third-grade boys or taken from their primers. 3. Third-grade students will indicate fewer difficult words among stories preferred the most by them as opposed to stories prefer- red the least by them. 4. Third-grade students will score higher on a recall test for information contained in the stories preferred the most by them as op- posed to stories preferred the least by them. For the secondary research hypotheses, using the Fry readabi- lity formula and the coding manual by Blom et a1. will prove that: 1. Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on text readability. 2. Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on the following dimensions: theme; character representation; children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. Procedures Following are social and physical characteristics of the schools 70 and the students from which the present sample was drawn, as well as a description of the process involved in collecting the stories and having them read by the students. Schools and the Students The 19 schools chosen seemed to represent an adequate cross- section of third-grade students in San José. The average number of children per school was 550 and ranged from 193 to 1278. The average classroom size was between 30 and 35 students, although the schools that were considered to be "very good" had over 40 students, while the ones considered to be "poor" had approximately 25-30 students. Three schools of the 19 have traditionally been considered by the general public as being "very good." Many teachers reported that a large percentage of children whose parents are professionals are believed to attend these schools. However, with a greater number of private schools emerging in recent years, there would seem to be fewer students from this socioeconomic class than would have been present in the past. Three other schools in the sample were attended by many of the lower socioeconomic class. When talking initially with the teach- ers and educators of these schools, it was not unusual that one of the first things mentioned by them was that many of the children were from economically poor homes, separated parents, problem drinkers, family members as prostitutes and the like. The remainder of the schools seemed to be more representative of "average" children from "average"homes. All students were interviewed briefly before collection of their stories. They were asked about their parents' occupations or line of 71 work and family size. The resuls indicated: 50% unskilled, 30% skilled, 15% professionals, and 5% had their own business. The average number of children per family was four, and about one-third of the mothers worked. From the researcher's viewpoint, although there were signifi- cant differences in the students' behaviors when comparing the "very good'' schools, the "average," or the "poor," these differences did not seem nearly as significant when the educational materials being used, the structural facilities, and the educational techniques were considered. Without exception, the noise level was extremely high, the space available to run and play was limited to a court surrounded by the classrooms, and much of the format in which the instruction was delivered was done in the more traditional sense--a teacher lectur- ing in front of a class of students. Considering the number of stu- dents per class in the "very good" schools, there was little room for children to have space for exploration centers or corners for indepen- dent activities. Story Collection and Reading As indicated earlier, students who generated stories worked in groups of three in a separate room in the building. Upon entering the room, they were asked to sit in a circle with the researcher. The identification numbers given them to distinguish their partici- pation in the group were checked, and several questions were asked regarding where they lived, what their parents did, and how many children were in their family. This took approximately five minutes. After this, the instructions pertinent to telling a story were read (see Appendix B). A flip chart indicating the types of stories the students might want to tell was used as an aid. The types were 72 presented in a counterbalanced order. The students were allowed to ask questions about the instructions either during their presentation or after. At no time did the researcher give any indication regarding the content of the story. They were encouraged to make up whatever story they as a group decided upon. The students then made up their story and recorded it. This portion took about seven minutes. After the students had recorded their stories, they were allowed to listen to them, which took roughly two minutes. Thus, approximately 15 minutes were needed to complete the process. Not all the stories generated by the students were usable. Roughly 10-15% of the stories were either of a poetic nature or incon- gruent to the point where corrections would take away the students' words and ideas. All students' stories were edited to some degree before they were usable. This process entailed punctuating, providing adequate transitions between paragraphs, logical sequencing, supplying the proper word if the intent was obvious (for example, changing "he" to "she"). Grammatical errors were not corrected. Boys' stories were, on an average, shorter than girls' stories, 121 and 130 words, respectively. The primer stories were chosen from five primers. These primers, taken from a total of 14, were mentioned by 71% of the teachers and were used by them from three times a week to once every two weeks. Primer stories were, on an average, longer than the students' 73 stories. The primer; the number of stories taken from each, based upon how frequently they were said to be used; and the average number of words are listed below: Source No. of Stories No. of Words Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente 10 152 Nacho Costarricense 4 196 Lengua Espafiola 5 220 Nuevos Caminos 6 184 Horas Felices 5 190 Although there was no intention on the part of the researcher to shorten the length of any of the stories, this was necessary for the last two primers listed above, Nuevos Caminos and Horas Felices. They each averaged 389 and 429 words, respectively. It was felt that the significant number of words would probably discourage many stu- dents instantly. The criterion for shortening these stories was that the cut be at some point where the length would be comparable to the other primer stories and not detract from the content. It should be pointed out here that most of the readings presented in the primers, including the latter referred to, were primarily descriptive and expository writings that seldom contained a plot. This made the cutting easier to deal with. Ninety-five percent of all the stories read by the students fit on a sheet 8-1/2 x 11 inches. While this was not purposely done as part of a control procedure to keep the length of stories somewhat equal, it was felt that this would make the stories seem somewhat more comparable in length to the students. Almost invariably when a story 74 occupied the majority of the space on one page, the student would turn the page to look at the back. For those students who read the stories, a quiet room was also used. Students read the stories individually. Before this, the instructions were read to them (see Appendix B). After reading the stories, the students indicated which they had preferred the most and the least, gave reasons for their choices, answered questions aimed at determining recall for most- and least- preferred stories, and selected words in those stories that they felt were difficult. The time needed for this portion of the study averaged 25 minutes. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Overview In this chapter the primary and secondary research hypotheses are discussed in the order in which they were presented in Chapter III. For two of the content variables, Outcome of Activity in Relation to Sex of Activity and Distribution of Children According to Age, Sex, and Fami- ly, discussion was omitted due to the large number of stories which fell either in the "Non-classifiable" or "Not-applicable" categories. Summary Data It should be recalled that in the primary hypotheses of this stu- dy it was stated that boys would prefer their stories over girls' or pri- mer stories; that girls would prefer their stories over boys' or primer stories; that third-grade students would indicate fewer difficult words from most-preferred stories versus least-preferred stories; and that the third-grade students would score higher on a recall test for information contained in preferred stories versus least-preferred stories. In the secondary hypotheses, the predictions were that there would be readability differences between boys', girls', and primer stories; and that there would be differences between the boys', girls', and the primer stories on the following content dimensions: theme; character representa- tion; distribution of children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. The variable matrix frequencies for boy and girl students' respon- ses to most- and least-preferred stories are illustrated in Figure 5.1. 75 76 Students Boys Girls Row Boy 60 41 101 E; Girl 50 67 117 E’ Primer 4o 42 82 3 Column 150 150 300 Figure 5.1.--Variable matrix for frequency of most- preferred stories chi-square analysis. Primary Hypotheses Statistical Results The statistical results from the chi-square analysis test of independence for the boys' and girls' responses to most- and least- preferred stories tested at the alpha = .05 level, 2 degrees of freedom, for a 13' value of 6.101. This value was statistically significant. The following statistical results for difficult-vocabulary frequency and recall scores for stories indicated as preferred the most and the least by the students are provided: Table 5.l.--Mean differences for difficult vocabulary for most/least- preferred stories. Source df Mean Scores t Vocabulary for most- preferred stories .3800 299 2.45* Vocabulary for least- preferred stories .6167 *Significant at alpha = .05. 77 Table 5.2.--Mean differences for recall scores for most/least- preferred stories. Source df Mean Scores t Recall scores for most-preferred stories 4.7533 299 3.76* Recall scores for least-preferred stories 4.3833 *Significant at alpha = .05. Hypothesis 1: Third-grade boys will select as prefer- red more stories generated by another group of third-grade boys as opposed to either the stories made up by third- grade girls or taken from their primers. HYPOth9515 2: Third-grade girls will select as prefer- red more stories generated by another group of third-grade girls as opposed to either the stories made up by third- grade boys or taken from their primers. The results indicated that both boys and girls preferred their own stories the most. Boys preferred theirs the most, followed by the girls' stories and primer stories, while girls preferred their stories the most and about equally boys' and primer stories (see Figure 5.2). 65 - 60 - 55 - 50 - 45 4 40 ~ 35 Boy Girl Primer Figure 5.2.--Graphic representation of the variable matrix for frequency of most-preferred stories chi— square analysis. 78 Hypothesis 3: Third-grade students will indicate fewer difficult words among stories preferred the most by them as opposed to stories preferred the least by them. The difference in the mean between vocabulary of most- preferred stories (X'= .3800) and the mean for vocabulary of least- preferred stories (X'= .6167) was statistically significant (t = 2.45, df = 299). (See Table 5.1.) HYPOthGSIS 4: Third-grade students will score higher on a recall test for information contained in the stories preferred the most as opposed to stories preferred the least by them. The difference in the mean between recall scores for the most- preferred stories (X'= 4.7533) and the mean for recall scores for the least-preferred stories (X'= 4.3833) was also statistically signifi- cant (t = 3.76, df = 299). (See Table 5.2.) Secondary Hypotheses Results Hypothesis 1: Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on text readability. As evidenced in Table 5.3, the readability level across stories is almost negligible. However, meaningful differences between the students' stories and primer stories appear when the latter are inspected individually (see Table 5.4). From these tables it can be observed that the readability ranged from a high first-grade level to a medium sixth-grade level. This will be discussed in more detail later in the present chapter. 79 Table 5.3.--Story-type readability level. Source No. of Mean Sentence Mean Syllable Grade Level Stories Length Length Boys' stories 16 8.38 113.6 Low 3rd Girls' stories 17 8.76 110.9 Low 3rd Primer stories 30 8.17 115.6 Med. 3rd Table 5.4.--Individual-primer readability level. No. of Mean Sentence Mean Syllable Source Stories Length Length Grade Level Nuevos Caminos 6 11.80 104.0 High lst Horas Felices 9.76 114.0 Med. 2nd Nacho Cos- tarricense 4 6.84 121.0 High 4th Lengua Espahola 5 6.86 119.6 High 4th Lecturas para Trabajo Inde- 6 5.65 119.8 Med. 6th pendiente Hypothesis 2: Theme Differences will appear between boys', girls', and primer stories on the following content . dimensions: theme; character representation; d1s- tribution of children according to age, sex, and family; age of activity; sex of activity; outcome of activity in relation to sex; and environmental setting. Fourteen categories were represented between all story ratings. Table 5.5 contains a summary of such information. Of significance is 80 the "real-life situations" category with 17.7% of the total, followed by "fantasy" with 12.2%, "lessons from life" with 11.1%, "outings or picnics" with 11.1%, "nature" with 7.7%, "description" with 7.7%, and "imaginative play" with 7.7%. These seven categories accounted for approximately 75% of all the themes, while the remaining seven accounted for roughly 25%. Table 5.5.--Overall summary of theme categorizations. Category Egorggs Boys Girls Primers % Rank Real-life situations 16 4 9 3 17.7 1 Fantasy 11 10 1 O 12.2 2 Lessons from life 10 2 3 5 11.1 3 Outings or picnics 10 3 6 1 11.1 4 Nature 7 O l 6 7.7 5 Description 7 2 3 2 7.7 6 Imaginative play 6 2 3 2 7.7 7 Pranks and humor 4 0 2 2 4.4 8 Occurred only once 4 O l 3 4.4 9 Real-life situations with negative emotions 3 2 l 0 3.3 10 Folklore 3 3 O O 3.1 11 Esthetic 3 O O O 3.3 12 School activities 3 0 0 3 3.3 13 Not classifiable 1 1 O O 1.1 14 Total 90 30 30 30 98.3 81 Table 5.6 reflects the theme ratings for boy's stories. Of striking significance for these stories is the "fantasy" category with 33.3% of the ratings. This represents nearly a third of all categories. Approximately another third of the stories were rated as "real-life situations" with 13.3%, "outings or picnics" with 10.0%, and "folklore" with 10.0%. Four other categories, including "real- life situations with negative emotions," "description," "lessons from life,' and "imaginative play" combined for 26.6% of the ratings. Table 5.6.--Boys'-stories theme categorizations. Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank Fantasy 10 33.3 1 Real-life situations 4 13.3 2 Outings or picnics 3 10.0 3 Folklore 3 10.0 4 Real-life situations with negative emotions 2 6.6 5 Description 2 6.6 6 Lessons from life 2 6.6 7 Imaginative play 2 6.6 8 Real-life situations with positive emotions l 3. Not classifiable 1 3.3 10 Total 30 99.6 Table 5.7 summarizes the ratings for girls' stories. Of sig- nificance is the "real-life situations" category with 30.0% and the "outings or picnics" with 20.0% for half of the total ratings, with 82 roughly another 36% being rated as "lessons from life," "description," "imaginative play," and "pranks and humor," all with 10.0% with the exception of the last, which had 6.6%. The remaining 13.2% of the ratings were distributed equally among the other theme categories. Table 5.7.--Girls'-stories theme categorizations. Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank Real-life situations 9 30.0 1 Outings or picnics 6 20.0 2 Lessons from life 3 10.0 3 Description 3 10.0 4 Imaginative play 3 10.0 5 Pranks and humor 2 6.6 6 Nature 1 3.3 7 Real-life situations with negative emotions l 3.3 8 Fantasy 1 3.3 9 Occurred only once 1 3.3 10 Total 30 99.8 Finally, Table 5.8 indicates the results for primer stories. The ratings were somewhat more homogeneous, with a gradual drop from one category to another. About a third of the classifications were distributed between two categories: "nature“ with 20.0% and "lessons from life" with 16.6%. Approximately half, 53.2%, were distributed among the following six categories: "real-life situations" with 10.0%, "esthetic" with 10.0%, "school activities" with 10.0%, 83 "occurred only once" with 10.0%, "pranks and humor" with 6.6%, and "description" with 6.6%. Table 5.8.--Primer-stories theme categorizations. Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank Nature 6 20.0 1 Lessons from life 5 16.6 2 Real-life situations 3 10.0 3 Esthetic 3 10.0 4 School activities 3 10.0 5 Occurred only once 3 10.0 6 Pranks and humor 2 .6 7 Description 2 .6 8 Outings or picnics l .3 9 Real-life situations with positive emotions l 3 10 Imaginative play 1 3 11 Total 30 99.7 Character Representation Table 5.9 reflects the ratings for each category of character representation. A total of 11 categories resulted from the ratings. Of significance is the "children and other adults" category with 24.4%. This was followed by "children only" with 12.2%, "animals only" with 12.2%, and "inanimate objects" with 11.1%, for a combined total of roughly 36.0% of the ratings. Also of interest are the stories that fell in the "occurred only once" category with 8.8% and those falling into two other categories: the "children, adults, and 84 animals" and the "children and parents" with 13.2% of the total ratings; and the "make-believe characters" and "animals and adults" for a combined rating of 9.9%. Table 5.9.--Overall summary of character representation. No. of Category Stories Boys Girls Primers % Rank Children and other adults 22 7 8 7 24.4 1 Children only 11 4 4 3 12.2 2 Animals only 11 7 3 1 12.2 3 Inanimate objects 10 1 3 6 11.1 4 Occurred only once 8 4 4 O 8.8 5 Children and parents 6 l 4 l 6.6 6 Children, adults, and animals 6 l 1 4 6.6 7 Make-believe characters 6 2 O 3 5.5 8 Adults only 4 1 O 3 4.4 9 Animals and adults 4 2 1 l 4.4 10 Not classifiable 3 O 2 l 3.3 11 Total 90 30 3O 30 99.5 A summary of boy's-stories ratings can be found in Table 5.10. Approximately 46.6% of the ratings fell in two categories: "children and other adults" and "animals only." Four other categories, "children only," "occurred only once," "make-believe characters," and "animals and adults," captured another 46% of the ratings. Table 5.lO.--Boys'-stories character representation. 85 Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank EH6]g;:2n:2§ other adults 7 23.3 1 Animals only 7 23.3 2 Children only 4 13.3 3 Occurred only once 4 13.3 4 Make-believe characters 2 6.6 5 Animals and adults 2 .6 6 2:}lgggn, adults, and 1 3.3 7 Children and parents 1 3.3 8 Adults only 1 3.3 9 Inanimate objects 1 3.3 10 Total 30 99.6 Girls' ratings, as evidenced in Table 5.11, captured 26.6% of the "children and other adults" category, whereas six categories, "children and parents, only," “inanimate objects," and "nonclassifiable," made up 66.6%. children only," "occurred only once, animals Primer ratings, as reflected in Table 5.12, resulted in 23.3% in the "children and other adults" category as a significant one, with 20.0% in the "inanimate object" category. gories, "children, adults, and animals," "children only," "adults only," and "make-believe characters" made up 43.3% of the total ratings. The next four cate- 86 Table 5.11.--Girls'-stories character representation. Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank Children and other adults (no parents) 8 26.6 1 Children and parents 4 13.3 2 Children only 4 13.3 3 Occurred only once 4 13.3 4 Animals only 3 10.0 5 Inanimate objects 3 10.0 6 Not classifiable 2 6.6 7 Children, adults, and animals 1 3.3 8 Animals and adults 1 3.3 9 Total 30 99.7 Table 5.12.--Primer-stories character representation. Category No. of Stories Percentage Rank Children and other adults (no parents) 7 23.3 1 Inanimate objects 6 20.0 2 Children, adults, and animals 4 13.3 3 Children only 3 10.0 4 Adults only 3 10.0 5 Make-believe characters 3 10.0 6 Children and parents 1 3.3 7 Animals and adults 1 3.3 8 Animals only 1 3.3 9 Not classifiable l 3.3 10 Total 30 99.8 Distribution of Children Accordigg to Age, Sex, and Family As evidenced in Table 5.13, a significant portion of the ratings for each group of stories was not applicable for classifica- tion: 53.5% of boys' stories, 40.0% of girls', and 56.6% of the primer stories. Table 5.13.--Distribution of children according to age, sex, and family (overall summary). Group ggérggs Boys Girls Primers % Boy->9-family 2 1 1 O 2.2 Girl->9-family 1 O 1 O 1.1 Boy-age 9-family 2 O 1 1 2.2 Girl-age 9-family O O O O 0.0 Boy-<9-family 1 O 1 O 1.1 Girl-<9—family 2 O 2 O 2.2 Boy->9-nonfamily 6 4 O 2 6.6 Girl->9-nonfamily l O 1 O 1.1 Boy-age 9-nonfami1y 0 O O O 0.0 Girl-age 9-nonfamily 2 O 2 O 2.2 Boy-<9-nonfami1y 2 O O O 2.2 Girl-<9-nonfamily l O l O 1.1 Boy/girl—>9-family 2 1 l O 2.2 Boy/girl-age 9-family 4 l 3 O 4.4 Boy/girl-<9-family 4 2 1 1 4.4 Boy/girl->9-nonfamily 9 2 1 6 10.0 Boy/girl-age 9-nonfamily 2 O l 1 2.2 Boy/girl-<9-nonfamily 6 3 l 2 6.6 Not applicable 43 16 12 17 47.7 Total 90 3O 30 30 99.5 88 Because of the high percentage of nonclassifiable stories and the numerous remaining categories, it was difficult to observe trends for each category among the small number of stories that were classi- fied. Thus the information for this content dimension will not be discussed further. Age of Activity Table 5.14 reflects a summary of the ratings of the stories based on whether the age of activity is nine years old, more than nine, or less than nine. Table 5.14.--Overall summary of age of activity. No. of Age Stories Boys Girls Primers % More than 9 years old 26 9 6 11 28.8 Less than 9 years old 24 15 7 2 26.6 9 years of age 24 3 12 9 26.6 Not classifiable l6 3 5 8 17.7 Total 90 30 30 30 99.7 Tables 5.15 and 5.16 reflect partial summaries of each of the story categories. For boys' stories, 50.0% of the stories were con- sidered to be below age nine, 30.0% above their age, while the remain- ing 20.0% were divided equally between stories considered to be appropriate for that age level or not classifiable. For girls' stories, 40.0% were rated age appropriate, 23.3% below age nine, 20.0% for older students, and 16.6% were not classifiable. 89 Table 5.15.--Boys'—stories age of activity. Age No. of Stories % More than 9 years old 9 30.0 Less than 9 years old 15 50.0 9 years of age 3 10.0 Not classifiable 3 10.0 Total 30 100.0 Table 5.16.--Girls'-stories age of activity. Age No. of Stories % More than 9 years old 6 20.0 Less than 9 years old 7 23.3 9 years of age 12 40.0 Not classifiable 5 16.6 Total 30 99.9 Finally, for the primer stories, 36.6% were considered to be for students older than nine years, 30.0% reflective of nine-year-old students, 6.6% for students younger than nine, and 26.6% were not classifiable (see Table 5.17). Sex of Activity, Table 5.18 contains a summary of how the 90 stories were rated for sex of activity: 45.5% deemed to be boy/girl, 32.2% boy activi- ties, l3.3% nonclassifiable, and finally 8.8% considered as girl activities. 90 Table 5.17.--Primer-stories age of activity. Age No. of Stories % More than 9 years old 11 36.6 Less than 9 years old 2 6.6 9 years of age 9 30.0 Not classifiable 8 26.6 Total 30 99.8 Table 5.18.--Overa11 summary of sex of activity. Sex No. of Stories Boys Girls Primers % Boy 29 19 4 6 32.2 Girl 8 l 6 l 8.8 Boy/girl 41 10 16 15 45.5 Not classifiable 12 O 4 8 13.3 Total 90 3O 30 30 99.8 Individually, however, 63.0% of the stories made up by boys were rated as depicting boy activities, 33.3% boy/girl, and the remain- ing 3.3% as girl activities (see Table 5.19). Of the girls' stories, 53.3% were in the boy/girl category, 20.0% girl activities, and the remaining 26.6% divided equally between the boy and nonclassifiable categories (see Table 5.20). Of the primer stories, 50.0% were classified as being boy/ girl, followed by 26.6% nonclassifiable, 20.0% in the boy category, and 3.3% in the girl category (see Table 5.21). 91 Table 5.19.--Boys'-stories sex of activity. Sex No. of Stories % Boy 19 63.3 Girl 1 3.3 Boy/girl 10 33.3 Not classifiable O 0.0 Total 30 99.9 Table 5.20.--Gir1s'-stories sex of activity. Sex No. of Stories % Boy 4 13.3 Girl 6 20.0 Boy/girl 16 53.3 Not classifiable 4 13.3 Total 30 99.9 Table 5.21.--Primer-stories sex of activity. Sex No. of Stories % Boy 6 20.0 Girl 1 3.3 Boy/girl 15 50.0 Not classifiable 8 26.6 Total 30 99.9 92 Outcome of Activity in Relation to Sex of Activity It is quite apparent from the breakdown of the data that a significant portion of the stories were not classifiable based on the results of the activity by sex (see Table 5.22). No further discus- sion of these variables will be included hereafter because of the high percentage of nonclassifiable stories. Table 5.22.--Overall summary of outcome of activity in relation to sex of activity. Outcome No. of Stories Boys Girls Primer % Boy/success 6 3 1 0 6.6 Girl/success 3 O 3 O 3.3 Boy-girl/success 12 3 5 4 13.3 Boy/help 6 3 2 1 6.6 Girl/help 3 O 3 O 3.3 Boy-girl/help 7 l 2 4 7.7 Boy/failure 2 l l O 2.2 Girl/failure l O l O 1.1 Boy-girl/failure 3 2 O l 3.3 Nonclassifiable 47 17 12 18 52.2 Total 90 3O 3O 30 99.6 Environmental Settigg_ Distribution A major portion of all three groups of stories were not classifiable in regard to the setting in which they took place (see Table 5.23). 93 Table 5.23.--Overall summary of environmental setting distribution. Setting No. of Stories Boys Girls Primer % Rural 21 ll 5 23.3 Urban 3 l 7.7 Rural/urban 4 1 2 7.7 Nonclassifiable 55 12 21 22 61.1 Total 90 3O 30 30 99.8 For boys' stories, 40.0% were not classifiable, whereas a sig- nificant number, 36.6%, were rated as taking place in a rural area, 13.3% in a rural/urban area, and 10.0% in an urban setting (see Table 5.24). For girls' stories, 70.0% were not classifiable; 16.6% were rated as taking place in a rural area, 10.0% in an urban area, and only 3.3% in a rural/urban setting (see Table 5.25). Table 5.24.--Boys'-stories environmental setting distribution. Setting No. of Stories % Rural 11 36.6 Urban 3 10.0 Rural/urban 4 13.3 Nonclassifiable 12 40.0 Total 30 99.9 94 Table 5.25.--Girls'-stories environmental setting distribution. Setting No. of Stories % Rural 5 16.6 Urban 3 10.0 Rural/urban l 3.3 Nonclassifiable 21 70.0 Total 30 99.9 For primer stories, 73.3% were not classifiable, 16.6% were rated in a rural setting, 6.6% in a rural/urban setting, with only 3.3% in an urban setting (see Table 5.26). Table 5.26.--Primer-stories environmental setting distribution. Setting No. of Stories % Rural 5 16.6 Urban 1 3.3 Rural/urban 2 6.6 Nonclassifiable 22 73.3 Total 30 99.8 Discussion The fundamental question addressed in this research was whether the student-generated stories could be used when compared to the primer stories as a basis for reflecting their reading preferences. The primary purpose, then, was to determine some of the fun- damental differences between the student-made stories and those taken 95 from their primers on content, defined as vocabulary, information, and language, so that future theoretical and practical efforts on primer construction for groups of children similar to the ones repre- sented in this study may take into account those findings that seem to be of some value for the problem studied and improve upon those need- ing further research. Given that both boys and girls preferred their stories most when compared to either the opposite sex's stories or those taken from their primers, the discussion will focus instead upon the variables of vocabulary and recall scores as they relate to least-preferred primer stories, and readability level as it relates to primer stories. Finally, attention will be directed to comparing and contrasting the boys', girls', and primer stories on those content dimensions that seem to capture the differences and similarities most vividly. Vocabulary Difficulty, Recall Scores, and Readability Level Of the five primers from which stories were extracted, three were basically constructed locally. These are Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente, Nuevos Caminos, and Horas Felices. Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente was used the most of all and was written by a Costa Rican author with whom the researcher had an opportunity to speak. She claimed that her series was developed with the help of teachers who had worked in the system for a significant period of time. However, there was no indication from our conversation that any scientific method had been used to control for either vocabulary language difficulty, readability level, or general content dimensions 96 such as theme, age of activity, and so on. When asked if there was any consideration given to factors such as sex differences as they might relate to the students' needs, the response was negative. Nuevos Caminos and Horas Felices were written by a Central American group of experts through an intergovernmental contract. The funda- mental premise, as understood by the researcher, in doing such work collectively was to take advantage of the similarities in language and culture across countries as well as an available market. This would mean that a given book would be used by all six countries in Central America. The author was unable to find any research to sub- stantiate the process that was followed in writing these primers. There was some literature available, however, relating to the patterns of usage during the first years. Interestingly enough, while these primers seem to have been preferred the most by the students when compared to the others, for unknown reasons they were not available substantially at the time of the study, nor were they mentioned to any degree of significance during the pilot study for this research a year earlier. The other primers were Lengua Espanola and Nacho Costarricense. The first one was written out of the country while the second was writ- ten in Costa Rica. There was no information available at the time of the study concerning their usage, printing, or how they were constructed. The most striking feature of these five primers, even when their relative contribution was taken into account for each of the variables studied, was the significant differences. For vocabulary difficulty Lengua Espafiola had an average of 1.60 difficult words, 97 followed by Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente with 1.19 words, then Nacho Costarricense with 1.06 words, and Horas Felices and Nuevos Caminos with .46 and .43, respectively. This discrepancy across primer stories for least-preferred stories was further evident in the area of recall scores. The primer that contributed to the least number of correct answers was Lgngga_ Espanola with 44.0%, followed by Lecturas para Trabajo Independiente with 35.0%, Nacho Costarricense with 32.3%, and Horas Felices and Nuevos Caminos with 23.4% and 15.0%, respectively. A similar pattern was also observed for readability level: Lecturas_para Trabajo Independiente with a medium sixth-grade level, Lengua Espafiola with high fourth, Nacho Costarricense with high fourth, Horas Felices with medium second, and Nuevos Caminos with high first. In summary, the findings would seem to suggest a need to develop primers while using more scientific techniques and exercising greater control over the various variables reported. The teachers' complaints about the primers being inadequate as well as the students' indicating rather difficult vocabulary were substantiated throughout the present findings. An inadequate amount of information in the literature and supported through various interviews certainly reinforces the above. Although it is clear that the primers used by third-grade students do need further research to support their adequacy, it was also evident, based on the frequency with which they were selected, that there are positive aspects about them that do require further investigation, particularly Nuevos Caminos and Horas Felices. 98 The present findings also seem to suggest that the students' stories do deserve more attention so as to determine, like the primer stories, those aspects that may be of value. Content Analyses The fact that the adults' ratings of the primer and students' stories were somewhat discrepant across each group, except for simi- larities in a few categories, would seem to indicate the need for future primer construction to consider a broader basis upon which theme, characters, and the other variables studied might be taken into account. For boys' themes, the number-one ranking was "fantasy" with 33.3% of the ratings (Table 5.6), whereas for girls' and primer stories it was "real-life situations" (Table 5.7) and "nature" (Table 5.8) with 30.0% and 20.0%, respectively. Not only would it be important to pay attention to the lead- ing themes that characterized each type of story, but also the relative importance of other categories represented in each. Approximately 33.3% of the boys' themes went to the categories of "real-life situa- tions," "outings or picnics,” and "folklore" (Table 5.6), whereas girls' stories were characterized heavily in "outings or picnics" with 20.0% and followed by "lessons from life,“ "imaginative play," and "pranks and humor“ with clearly another 30.0% (Table 5.7). The primers, however, did not show a very marked separation between each of those categories, which would seem to suggest that their themes were much more balanced and perhaps reflective of a more deliberate process by the adults who wrote them (Table 5.8). However, only two 99 of all the primer stories' themes were mentioned by the girls, and only one of the primer themes was mentioned by the boys. 0f the first five categories that were depicted in the girls' stories, only one was present in the boys' stories. Again this would all seem to indi- cate how different the needs across students really are. For character distribution, however, there was a bit more overlap between the figures chosen most frequently from each group of stories. A quick inspection would indicate that from the first five categories of characters for boys' stories (Table 5.10), four cate- gories, "children and other adults," "animals only," "children only," and “occurred only once" were also similar for girls' categories (Table 5.11), whereas for the primer stories (Table 5.12), only one category, "children and other adults," was common for both boys' and girls' stories. These dissimilarities again reinforce the need for awareness in primer construction as to the relative importance of various characters across each group of stories. On age of activity, it is interesting to observe the differ- ences between each group of stories (Tables 5.15, 5.16, and 5.17). Although there was a substantial number of stories from each group classified as being appropriate for students "over nine years of age" (30.0%, 20.0%, and 36.6%) for boys', girls', and primer stories, respectively, each age rating for the "less than nine years" category seemed to be somewhat compatible with the theme distribution. It should be recalled that boys' number-one theme rating was "fantasy," which would seem to be compatible with 50.0% of the age rating going to this category. Girls' number-one theme rating was "real-life lOO situations," which could easily be interpreted by an adult audience as being a bit more serious, and, not surprisingly, only 6.6% of the primer stories were considered to be for students under nine years of age. It should also be observed that a significant number of girls' and primer stories were rated as being appropriate to a nine-year-old person (40.0% and 30.0%, respectively) compared to the boys' stories (10.0%). This perhaps may be suggestive of the differ- ential social-growth patterns between boys and girls documented by various researchers, which would further strengthen the need for ade- quate representation of various content dimensions in the primers relative to the readers. Although it may not be possible to estab- lish any causal relationship between the variables researched and the problem at hand, one may wish to question the relationship between girls' preference for their own stories the most and about equally the boys' and the primer stories, which were either below or above their own age. While in all three groups of stories there was a significant percentage of stories that were not classifiable (10.0%, 16.0%, and 26.0%), the greater percentage of unclassified primer stories would leave room for investigating these stories more carefully. From the sex-of-activity analysis, all three groups of stories (Tables 5.19, 5.20, and 5.21) contained a significant per- centage of stories believed to be appropriate for either boys or girls (33.3%, 53.3%, and 50.0% for boys', girls', and primer stories, respectively). Again, the boys' stories were rated by and large as being boy with 63.3%, while girls' stories rated as being girls were 101 only 20.0%. The results are even made stronger when compared to the girls' or primer stories, by not falling into the "nonclassifiable" category. Again, many stories from the primer and some from the girls were ambivalent insofar as the "sex of activity" was concerned. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to determine whether differences can be found in student preference between published primer material and student-generated material, and whether differences favor one or the other source of material and are significant. The need for the study arose from an apparent neglect in past practices and studies in Cos- ta Rica to carefully match the content and language of reading materials with students' needs. Furthermore, there was evidence indicating a pre- ponderance in using published programs from other Spanish-speaking coun- tries where the social, cultural, and language expectations may be dif- ferent from those prevailing in Costa Rice. The review of the literature focused primarily on four major areas: (1) preference on reading and practice reading; (2) oral language and its relationship to reading achievement; (3) content analysis and its relationship to age, grade, sex, and other important variables; and (4) a summary of practices on primer construction in Costa Rica. This review indicated various findings: (1) that chil- dren's language can be used effectively to reflect their experiences, and using their experiences in their reading materials can lead to preference for the same; (2) that while reading achievement has been investigated in conjunction with oral-language practices, there is 102 103 a shortage of research demonstrating adequate control of extraneous variables and differing ways of measuring reading comprehension. Also supported by a number of investigators is the idea that reading achievement can best be analyzed if oral-language structures are more compatible with the written form; (3) that content variables and sex, age, and grade variables are a source of interaction that influences students' preferences for information read; and (4) that primer-construction practices in Costa Rica have been traditionally hampered by the limitations in scientific findings regarding the control of qualitative and quantitative variables of published programs, and that lack of economic incentive for writers, inadequate funding in general to produce sufficient materials, and a limited market adversely affect the development of quality materials. The researcher proposed to answer several hypotheses and described differences between the student-generated material and the published programs. The results indicated from the hypotheses tested that both third-grade boys and girls preferred their own stories sig- nificantly more than they preferred those stories taken from their primers. Girls preferred boys' and primer stories equally, while boys preferred girls' stories second and primer stories the least. It was also found that the students chose fewer difficult words upon request and got higher scores on a recall test for those stories preferred the most by them versus those preferred the least. From the descriptive portion of these data on readability and content analysis, the evidence suggested that the readability levels of boys', girls', and primer stories were fairly comparable (low third 104 grade for the first two and a medium third for the last). However, the individual primer readability varied from a high first to a medium sixth grade level. The content analysis showed that while there was overlap for some of the variables studied among the boys', girls', and primer stories, there were substantial differences across and within them. On theme ratings, "fantasy" was rated the highest for boys' stories, whereas "real-life situations" and "nature" were rated high- est for girls' and primer stories, respectively. A substantial level of differences for next-to-the-highest theme ratings across stories was also prominent. While boys' stories were characterized with "real- life situations," "outings or picnics," and "folklore," girls' stories were characterized clearly with "outings or picnics," which was, in turn, followed by "lessons from life," "imaginative play," and "pranks and humor." Primer stories were not characterized as showing that much of a spread between the categories in the frequency ratings. It was speculated that this might be connected to a more deliberate decision- making process on the part of the adult writers. For character representation, greater similarity for the first five rankings of boys' and girls' stories was seen when compared to the primer stories. Those categories were "children and other adults," "animals only," "children only," and "occurred only once." Of these rankings, only the "children and other adults" category was found among the primer stories' first four rankings. On age of activity, a substantial number of stories from each group were classified as appropriate for students "over nine years 105 old,‘' with the primer stories being the highest (36.6%), followed by boys' (30%) and girls' (20%) stories. However, the age-of-activity description for "less than nine years old" did seem to relate to the choice of theme that was most prevalent for each group of stories. For boys,whose stories were characterized highest as being "fantasy," 50% of their stories were rated under nine years of age. For girls, whose stories were characterized highest as being "real-life situa— tions," only 23.3% were rated as being under nine years; while primer stories, whose theme was "nature," had only 6.6% that were rated as being under nine. Furthermore, a greater proportion (40% and 30%, respectively) of girls' and primer stories were rated as being "nine years of age" compared to boys' stories with 10%. Many stories from each group were not classifiable according to age of activity, particu- larly among the primer stories. For sex of activity, all three groups of stories contained stories rated as being boy/girl type, with the girls' stories being the highest (58.3%), followed by primers (50%) and boys' stories (33.3%). However, more boys' stories (63.3%) were rated as being appropriate for boys, while only 20% of girls' stories were rated as being approp- riate for girls. Primer stories' second-highest ratings after the boy/girl category went to the boys' category with 20%. Primer stories also contained a sizable number (26.6%) of stories that could not be classified. From the environmental-setting distribution, more than two- thirds of the primer and girls' stories were not classifiable, compared to 40% of the boys' stories. Boys' preferred environmental 106 setting was in the rural areas (36.6%). This response was much more apparent when compared to either the girls' or the primer stories, with 16.6% and 6.6%, respectively. From the remaining two content-variables analyses-~outcome of activity in relation to sex of activity, and distribution of chil- dren according to age, sex, and family-~no conclusions were drawn because of the numerous subcategories included and the large number of nonclassifiable and nonapplicable responses existing relative to the overall number of stories rated. The mode of quantification of the data used in this study was answered through the following statistical and descriptive procedures: whereaichi—square test of independence was chosen to answer primary hypotheses one and two (Do third-grade boys and girls prefer their own stories over the other stories represented?); a t-test for two sample mean differences of correlated data was used to answer hypothe- ses three and four, or the hypotheses relating to third-grade students choosing fewer difficult words and obtaining higher recall scores from the stories preferred the most by them versus those preferred the least. Recall was a function of a six-item multiple-choice (three alternatives) questionnaire per story containing literal information from each story read. Secondary hypothesis one, on readability, was derived through the application of the Fry readability formula for Spanish materials, while secondary hypothesis two was a function of independent ratings and was quantified through frequency, percentage, and ranking techniques. 107 General Discussion and Recommendations From the results of the study, several conclusions may be drawn: 1. Both third-grade boys and girls can generate materials with sufficient coherence to be used in their primers for reading and practice reading if given an appropriate structure, and using the student-made stories could provide some indication of the relative importance and frequency that certain content variables play. When doing this, each of the following variables should be considered: Theme, The following themes--"fantasy," "real-life situa- tions," "outings or picnics," and I'folklore"--for boys should be given a higher priority in their primers, with the other areas playing a minor role; while girls' stories should include themes depicting "real-life situations," "outings or picnics," "lessons from life," "imaginative play," and "pranks and humor" as the most salient. Character representation. The results indicated a wide range of characters being represented in the students' stories. However, since there was greater overlap in those characters labeled as "chil- dren and other adults," "animals only," and "children only," this would seem to indicate that a greater number of these characters should be represented in their primers. Age of activity. For this dimension, special care should be exercised since there was a need, as manifested in the ratings, to have stories reflective of, below, at, and above the students' age level. Although a greater percentage of girls' stories were at and above the age level, this should not influence practices that may 108 negatively affect boys, for whom a majority of stories were below age level. The fact that "fantasy" was more prevalent in boys' themes may have contributed to rating their stories as less serious or mature. Nevertheless, at this level of the curriculum it should be remembered that basic reading skills are still being learned and that students' preference for the theme of the story will serve to enhance their preference for the material being read. Sex of activity. As indicated in the results, both boys and girls demonstrated preference for a significant percentage of stories that are appropriate to both sexes as well as stories appropriate for a specific sex. This all seems to indicate that adult writers should not hesitate to include stories reflective of both sexes or either sex individually. 2. Given that primer stories were preferred to some extent by the students, care should be taken to represent the themes, char- acter representation, age of activity, and sex of activity variables in a degree representative of their occurrence. 0f importance on theme categories would be "nature," "lessons from life," "real-life situations," "esthetic," and "school activities." From character representation the writers may wish to include "children and other adults (no parents)," "inanimate objects," "children, adults, and animals," "children only," "adults only," and "make—believe char- acters." On age of activity, attention would be directed to the "more than nine years old'' category and the "nine years of age" category. Finally, for sex of activity, the inclusion of stories rep- resentative of "boy/girl" and "boy" categories would seem beneficial. 109 3. Although it is difficult to make any causal relationship be- tween content variables as defined by vocabulary difficulty, readabili- ty of text, and general sentence complexity and preference for the sto- ries by the students, the assumption is that the greater the mismatch, the less likely it is that students will demonstrate increased preference for the materials used in learning to read. With this in mind, future efforts to construct, select, and evaluate primers should be concerned with the reduction of dissonance. The materials should reflect students' indepen- dent level of reading while reducing their frustration level to the max- imum. Focusing on the following aspects would provide some orientation for writers: (1) readability level (as defined in this study) should take into account the students' samples as representative of the third grade level. The primer Horas Felices could be employed to represent a second grade level, while Nacho Costarricense and Lengua Espafiola could be used to reflect a fourth grade level; (2) style of writing should be more closely related to the type found in the primers Horas Felices and Nuevos Caminos since they were less representative of less figurative language, fewer difficult words, and less language which may be defined as "poetic-prose" as indicated for the other primers; and (3), students stories should be emulated to greater extent since when compared to the primer stories, they contained more elements of conflicts and resolutions representative of a more traditional plot rather than just descriptive accounts or expository writings evidenced by many of the primer stories. It is important to note that both the students' stories and primer stories contained a morale. 4. The final recommendation that can be made from this study 110 relates to the number of authors involved in the construction of a gi- ven primer and the quality of information evidenced in each. It is interesting to note that both Horas Felices and Nuevos Caminos had in- put from several authors, while the other three appeared to have been written or edited more or less on an individual basis. It would appear that having a team of experts involved in the construction of primers can only serve to increase awareness of the students' needs in relation- ship to their content. This would seem to be very important and may have accounted for the substantial differences observed across each primer studied. Future Research In light of the present findings, future attempts to address issues related to primer-construction practices in Costa Rica should take into account the following: 1. A thorough replication of this study should be conducted, which would include not only groups of children similar to the ones used here, but also children living in other areas of Costa Rica, most especially those children living in the rural areas. 2. Future efforts should be directed to testing and control- ling how specific variables of theme, character representation, sex of activity, length of stories, to mention a few aspects, affect students' preference for what is being read. Furthermore, greater control in upcoming studies should include how these variables men— tioned affect the sex, age, grade, intelligence, and socioeconomic make-up of the students. 111 3. Since one of the greatest needs that came up in this study relates to the nonexistence of standardized measures to assess reading achievement as well as vocabulary and the effect of sentence complexity for Spanish-Speaking children, it would seem only appropriate to invest more energy in the future toward this direction. Lists of words for students at this and earlier levels that could be used by writers to be included in the primers is a necessity. 4. Oral language, as evidenced by recent research, plays a significant role in the students' efforts to understand written lan- guage. A knowledge of the syntactic structures that students possess at this level could only serve to enlarge the understanding of writers about the oral—language development of students in the third grade in Costa Rica. 5. Given that a major difficulty in providing sufficient primers to students in Costa Rica at this level that will reflect adequate standards resides in the limitation of the market, more feasibility studies are needed to determine the expediency of joint projects with other Central American and Latin American countries in constructing materials together. APPENDICES 112 APPENDIX A COVER LETTERS 113 APPENDIX A April 15, 1980 Mr. Lic. Euclides Sandoval Regional Director Ministry of Education San José, Costa Rica Dear Mr. Sandoval: I wish to extend my greetings to you and request your valuable cooperation. It seems as though I have already met you in person since Mr. Gerardo Monge, a close friend and colleague of mine, has talked positively about you, but most important, he has spoken of your continued effort in the advancement of students and others working in our educational system. At present I am doing doctoral work here at Michigan State Uni- versity and am a recipient of a scholarship from the National Univer- sity in Costa Rica. I have completed about two-thirds of my academic program, including my thesis proposal, which at present is in the hands of my committee. The study not only fulfills the requirements of being an original study but is regarded by my committee as being of practical and significant value for Latin American education, and more specific- ally for Costa Rica's. My area of specialization is reading and learning disabilities. As Mr. Monge may have indicated to you, he, as well as myself, has had a long-term interest in the improvement and achievement in this area for school-age children. Reading problems have been and continue to be one of the areas of most difficulty for school-age children in our country, as well as in the developing countries. The factors producing these difficulties seem to be numerous, as you well know. Due to this, only a small portion can be studied at any given time. Thus I have decided to investigate the preference that students may manifest for stories taken from their primers when compared to those made up by other students of similar age, grade, and sex. Common sense dictates that many children will learn to read despite the content of the primers used. Nevertheless, the question has been raised about the role preference plays for those children who do not learn to read despite their good ability or for those children who are capable of reading better. 114 115 Before conducting this study, I wish to anticipate several things: first, that the study will not include personal data from the students or their families; second, that no more than 30 minutes of work will be required from each student; third, any child who does not wish to par- ticipate in this study may discontinue at any time; and last, the teacher will only be required to fill out a one-page form indicating the primers that he/she uses in teaching reading. As you may observe, it is a rather brief study. From experience I know the children will enjoy the tasks required from them very much. Tentatively, I hope to begin the study toward the middle or end of July of the present year. My estimated time to complete the entire study is about three months. Having no additional request for the time being, and hoping to be able to answer any question that may arise, I would like to forward my deep appreciation for your cooperation. Respectfully, A @ngrea4. CZ) ' 45. Lic. Owen Dailey Ces edes cc Mr. Monge Scholarship Committee, Universidad Nacional 116 San Jose, 13 of May of 1980 Mr. Lic. Owen Dailey Cespedes East Lansing, Michigan Michigan State University Dear friend: I received your letter of April 15th in which you manifested interest in conducting a study on aspects related to reading diffi- culties for your doctoral degree. With much pleasure I must inform you that you have my authoriza- tion, especially since the request is from a colleague from the National University where I have been a tenured professor for many years. I would appreciate, however, that you indicate to this district the number of students needed, so that I may inform the directors of each educa- tional institution. I wish you the most success and send you my cordial greetings, 4:444 Lic. Euclides Sandoval Noguera Regional Director of Education Central Region n i‘kp )- \ lab/I“ V cc: G. Monge Scholarship Committee, National University , “' ('mnn APPENDIX B INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN BEFORE STUDENTS GENERATED AND READ THEIR STORIES (SPANISH VERSION AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION) 117 APPENDIX B Les voy a pedir que cuenten algo que verdaderamente les guste. Escuchen cuidadosamente, deberé ser algo que verdaderamente les guste porque lo grabaré en esta grabadora (sefiale) y luego lo escribiré exactamente como lo contaron y otros nihos de otras escuelas tendran la oportunidad de leerlo. Trabajarén en grupo. No les prestaré asistencia ya que esto seré su propia creaci6n. Tendrén aproximada- mente unos 5 minutos para hacerlo, no obstante, si necesitan més tiempo para completar lo que desean 'contar con mucho gusto tendrén mas tiempo. Podrén escoger a una persona del grupo para contarlo cuando estén listos para grabar, o bien podrén turnarse, cada uno contando una parte del cuento. Lo que llegaran a decidir como grupo, eso se lo dirén a la grabadora. Si desean, podrén usar un lépiz y una hoja para escribir 1as ideas y asi recordar e1 orden en que van a contar cada cosa. Esto queda a su criterio completamente. También les daré 1a oportunidad de escuchar lo que grabaron. Déjanme darles algunas ideas de los tipos de cosas que podrén contar, pero recuerden, estas son apenas sugerencias y no tienen que hablar de ellas. l. Quizé querrén contar sobre algo que les pas6 a ustedes o a alguien. Podré ser como un cuento de tu persona, de otras personas, 0 de cosas. 2. Si no desean hacer esto, podrén conversar sobre animales, plantas o cosas no vivientes. 118 119 3. 0 podré ser sobre la vida real, aunque hubiera sucedido muchisimo antes a que tu nacieras. 4. O podra ser sobre algo que no es real, como la fantasia. 5. Algunos querran contar un cuento o bien una poesia. Todo esto seria acceptable. Recuerden que $610 seleccionarén una do todas estas ideas. Ahora escuchen cuidadosamente, lo que deciden, p6ngan1e titulo. aTienen alguna pregunta? Si no, pueden empezar. 120 I am going to ask you to make up a story that you really like. Listen carefully; it should be something that you really enjoy because I will tape it on this recorder [point] and later write it exactly as you told it so that children from other schools may have the opportu- nity to read it. You will work as a group. I will not give you any help since this must be your own creation. You will have approximately 5 minutes to do it; nevertheless, if you need more time to complete what you wish to say, I can give you more time. You may choose a per- son in the group to tell it when you are ready to record it, or each person could tell different parts of the story. Whatever you decide on as a group, that is what you will say to the recorder. If you wish, you may use a pencil and a piece of paper to write the ideas down so that you may remember the order in which each thing in the story took place. This is entirely up to you. At the end I will give you an opportunity to listen to what you said on tape. Let me give you some ideas of the types of things you may wish to talk about, but remember these are only suggestions and you do not have to talk about any one in particular. 1. You may want to talk about something that happened to you or someone else. It could be like a story of yourself, another person, or things. 2. If you do not wish to do this, you could talk about animals, plants, or things that live. 3. It could be something about real life, although it may have occurred long before you were born. l2l 4. Or it could be about something that is unreal, like fantasy. 5. Some of you may even want to make up a poem. Now listen carefully; whatever you decide upon, give it a title. Do you have any questions? If not, you may begin. 122 "Te voy a poner a leer algunos cuentos. Léalos cuidadosamente porque al final le haré algunas preguntas." Al terminar el nifio/a de leer los cuentos, pregfintele: "aDe los cuentos que acabas de leer, cual preferiste?" Anote el numero y el nombre del cuento en la hoja apropriada. Después que el nifio/a haya escogido uno de los cuentos, y éste haya sido sacado de su vista, el entrevistador le preguntara sefialando los cuentos: "aCual de estos dos cuentos preferiste?" Anote el nombre y el nflmero del cuento que no fue seleccionado. Con los tres cuentos frente al nino, digale: "Dijiste que preferiste este cuento mas que los otros." Senale el primero que habia seleccionado el nifio/a. “Y que preferiste este cuento sobre esto otro." Sefiale el segundo cuento preferido por el nifio/a. "Vamos a sacar este cuento del grupo.“ Saque el segundo cuento que el nino dijo que prefirié. "Y vamos a hablar de estos dos. Por qué preferiste este cuento?" Anote los comentarios que el nifio/a dé. Acepte cualquier cosa que diga. El entrevistador solo debe cuestionar al nino en caso de que tenga dudas a lo que se esta refiriendo. Haga lo mismo con el cuento que prefiri6 menos de los tres, cuestinando por que fue el que menos prefirio. Después de que el nino haya hecho algunas observaciones generales de los cuentos, llamele la atencion sobre los cuentos nuevamente diciendo: 123 "Sefiale las palabras que no conoce en los cuentos o bien sefiale las frases que no entendio.“ El entrevistador también debera anotar en la hoja apropiada esas palabras o frases. Al terminar con el paso anterior diga al nifio/a: "Ahora deseo que contestes las preguntas en esta hoja. Las preguntas son en relacion al cuento. Cada pregunta tiene tres respuestas pero solamente una respuesta es correcta. Ponga una "x" sobre la letra que esta delante de la respuesta que usted considera que es la correcta.“ Sefiale las letras, y al terminar diga: "No hay tiempo limite para contestar las seis preguntas. Cuando terminas, avisame." Nota al examinador Presente en forma alterada al nifio los cuentos antes de cada lectura. Por ejemplo, cada vez que un nifio/a se sienta a leer los tres cuentos, estos deben ser cambiados de posici6n. 124 "I will have you read some stories. Read each story very care- fully because at the end I will ask you some questions about them." After the student has read each story, ask: "0f the stories you just read, which do you prefer the most?" The interviewer then writes the number and title of the story down. After the student has selected one of the stories, and the story has been removed from his/her sight, the interviewer asks: "Which of these two stories do you prefer the most?“ The interviewer then writes down the number of the story and the title which was not chosen. Placing all three stories again in front of the student, the interviewer will say: "You said that you preferred this one the best." (Point to the most preferred.) "And that you preferred this one the least." (Point to the least preferred.) "Why did you prefer this one the most and this one the least?" Write down all reasons given. Accept any answer. After the student appears to have given his/her response(s), call his/her atten- tion to the stories by saying: "I want you to look through each story carefully and point to the words you felt were difficult for you to understand as you read each story." The interviewer will proceed to write each word down. After this has been done, the interviewer will say: "Now I want you to answer the questions on this sheet. The questions are about the stories you read. Each question has three 125 answers, but only one answer is correct. You put an "x" here." (Point to the letters.) "There is no time limit to how long you should take. Let me know whenever you are finished." Note to the examiner Please be sure to place the stories in front of the child in a counterbalanced order. APPENDIX C STORIES GENERATED BY THE STUDENTS AND STORIES TAKEN FROM THE PRIMERS, WITH QUESTIONNAIRE Note: The stories are arranged in triads as used in the study. Letters appearing after each story indicates the source of origin: G for girls, 8 for boys, and P for primers. 126 APPENDIX C Triad 1 EL ACCIDENTE G Un dia yo estaba con un amigo mio. El se cay6 en un cafio y me ref. Después yo estaba jugando con otros amigos y Dios me castigo por reir- me de él. En ese momento yo estuve jugando a la pelota cuando me caf en el cano también. Otro dia yo me rei porque un chiquito se cay6 en un cafio y se ensuci6 todo. Dios otra vez me castig6 ya que me pic6 en el ojo una avispa. La picada se hinch6 muchisimo. Duro varios dias. Cada vez que miraba en el espejo me hace recordar que no debo reirme de las personas cuando les sucede algo malo. EL ACCIDENTE l. Yo estaba un d1a con a. mi mama b. mi tia c. un amigo mio 2. 0105 me castig6 porque a. me fui de mi casa sin el permiso de mis papas b. me re1 cuando mi amigo se cay6 en el cano c. le hable muy fuerte a mi amigo 3. En otra ocasi6n me castig6 Dios a. cuando me re1 de una anciana b. cuando un amigo se cay6 en un cano y se ensuci6 c. cuando dije una mala palabra 4. Me cai en el cano cuando a. jugaba futbol b. iba a brincar por encima de este c. me empujaron 5. Lo que me hace recordar que no debo reirme de las personas cuando les sucede algo a. es cuando me recuerdo del amigo m1o que se cay6 en el cano b. es la biblia c. es cuando me miro en el espejo 6. El segundo castigo que me mand6 Dios a. fue cuando me mordi6 un perro b. fue cuando me pic6 una abeja c. fue cuando me pic6 una avispa 127 128 LOS oos LETREROS P El duefio de la "Carboneria de la Piedra Movediza," hombre de ingenio, no gast6 infiltimente en un letrero completo. Hizo pintar estas palabras: “Carboneria de la...," y debajo at6 una piedra que se mueve con el viento, lo que dice claro, segun él: "piedra movediza." Al dar la explicacion, rebosa de a legria. Comparte con ruidosa vanidad las carcajadas de los sorprendidos. El también se ha quedado estupefacto de su agudeza. Su vecino de enfrente, en cambio, puso en su negocio: "Aqui se vende pescado fresco." El mismo dia de la inauguracion del costoso letrero, dijole un cliente: --Digame: aPara qué hizo poner "aqui"? iNo seré por cierto, en la otra cuadra donde se vende! La observaci6n era més razonable. Vino él pint6 y suprimi6 aquella palabra. Pocos dias después, una compradora lo convenci6 de que "se vende" estaba de sobre, ya que nadie podia suponer que regalaria el pescado. El letrero quedaria mil veces més hermoso--segfin le aseguro--con dos palabras, las finicas necesarias, grandes y bien pintadas: "Pescado fresco." Nueva reforma y nuevo desembolso. Vino entonces el duefio de la casa a cobrarle el alquiler. Elogi6 el letro, y dijo: . --Unicamente ha errado en lo de "fresco." Usted no seria capaz de vender pescado en malas condiciones. Eso seria criminal. Por con- siguinte, gasta un poco mas y haga las cosas en forma. Ponga una palabra: "Pescado," y todo el mundo reconocera su acierto. 129 LOS DOS LETREROS l. El Consejo Directivo del pueblo fue el que ordeno a. que se pintara el r6tulo "Carboneria de la ..." b. al duefio de la pulperia que pusiera el rotulo c. a un vecino que pintara un r6tulo 2. Debajo del letrero a. habia un pajaro enjaulado b. una piedra movediza c. habia un sombrero guindando 3. El duefio a. se sinti6 poco contento con este letrero b. se encuentra muy contento con esta hazafia c. esta por llamar a alguien para que lo quite 4. El vecino de enfrente tenia un letrero que decia a. "se arreglan bicicletas" b. "el senor de enfrente no sabe lo que hace" c. "aqui se vende pescado fresco" 5. Una sefiora a. dijo que tenia mucho sentido el letrero b. dijo que estaba sobrando las palabras "se vende" b. vino a comprar pescado y se ri6 del letrero 6. El que sugiri6 que se guitara la palabra "fresco" del letrero a. era el duefio de la casa b. fueron los cobradores de impuestos c. los que adornan el vecindario 130 EL POLLITO PERDIDO B Habia una vez una gallina que tenia cinco pollitos. Uno vi6 una mariposa, y se puso a perseguirla. Se alejé mucho y se perdi6. Después cual fue su sorpresa al mirar por todo lado y estaba perdido. El pollito entonces se puso a llorar. Llorando y llorando se fue por un caminito para ver si salia del bosque. Finalmente, vio un gallinero donde se meti6, y se encontr6 a sulnmné que estaba desesperada por su pollito. EL POLLITO PERDIDO l. La gallina tenia a. dos pollitos b. tres pollitos c. cinco pollitos 2. El pollito se puso a perseguir a. un pajarito b. una mariposa c. un abejoncito 3. Lo que sorprendi6 al pollito es a. lo perdido que estaba b. lo répido que volaba el pajarito c. lo despacio que iba el abenjocito 4. El pollito al enterarse que estaba perdido a. se puso a hacer unos ruidos b. se subi6 a un 6rbol a ver si veia a alguien conocido c. se puso a llorar 5. El pollito a. se esper6 a que la mamé lo encontrara b. se fue por un caminito hasta que sali6 del bosque c. no logr6 con su propio esfuerzo salirse del bosque 6. La mamé del pollito estaba a. en un gallinero b. estaba en un arbol esperando al pollito c. estaba en el bosque donde se habia perdido el pollito 131 Triad 2 LA VIVIENDA G La vivienda me gusta porque alli podemos hacer muchas cosas. Se puede hacer la vivienda de muchos materiales como dé madera, cemento y de paja. Cada uno tiene cosas buenas y malas. La de paja puede caer mas facilmente que la de madera o cemento como cuando hace mucho viento, pero es més barato de hacer. La vivienda nos protege de cosas, como la lluvia y los animales. También sirve para dormir, y hacer la comida. Es bonita, y nos cubre de todo mal. Nos protege mucho. LA VIVIENDA l. En esta lectura a la persona le gusta la vivienda porque a. puede hacer muchas cosas en ella b. es callada y se pueden hacer muchas cosas en ella c. es limpia y se pueden hacer muchas cosas en ella 2. La vivienda nos protege a. del diablo b. de los dinosauros c. de la lluvia y los animales 3. La vivienda también nos sirve a. para hacer la comida y dormir b. para jugar c. para vestirnos 4. La vivienda se puede hacer a. de madera b. de madera, cemento, o paja c. de cemento 5. Las viviendas tienen cosas buenas y malas a. 51 b. no 6. La casa de cemento es més a. fuerte que la de paja b. débil que la de paja c. bonita que la de paja 132 CONCHITA LLEGA A CLASES P __$efiorita, hoy tenemos una nueva compafiera y usted una alumna més. --aQuién es? gDonde esté? --pregunta la maestra--. No veo a nadie. --Adivine. La trajo Alicia, se llama Conchita. --;Es su hermanita? --No, no tengo hermanita. —-5Es su amiga? --Si, si, es una amiguita que quiero con todo el coraz6n. --aC6mo es? --Es pequefiita, morena y camina muy despacio. Esté cerca de la pizarra, a poca distancia de su mesa. La sefiorita Elena busca con los ojos. Como no encuentra nada, dice: --La busco pero no la veo. No puedo adivinar quien es esa alumna. Quiero conocerla. --Bien se la presentaremos. Espere...--. Alicia va hacia la papelera, mete la mano en ella y saca una cosa. La traé tapada con un sombrerito. Todos miran con atenci6n lo que hace la nifia. Cuando la sefiorita Elena ve lo que traé, se figura otra sorpresa. Alicia pone el sombrerito en el piso y dice: --;Adivine que hay debajo? iOh sorpresa! El sombrerito se mueve y sale caminando. De pronto Alicia levanta el sombrero y exclama: --Esta es mi amiga Conchita. La tortuguita que traje del mar. Espero que sea una alumna bien portada. 133 CONCHITA LLEGA A LAS CLASES l. Conchita a. b. c. 2. Cuando a. b. c. 3. Alicia a. b. c. 4. Alicia a. b. c. 5. Alicia a. b. c. era una persona era un caracol muy bonito fue tra1da por Alicia Alicia puso el sombrerito en el piso ya todos sabian que era un caracolito se escap6 el caracolito se sali6 la tortuguita del sombrero tiene una hermanita que se llama Conchita tiene una tia que se llama Conchita tiene una amiguita que se llama Conchita traia al animalito en un tarro al animalito en un sombrerito al animalito en una caja dice que quiere a Conchita con todo el cora26n que no quiere a su amiguita mucho que conchita es muy bonita 6. Conchita es a. b. c. pequefiita y morena de mediano tamano y morena muy grande y blanca 134 LA SIEMBRA DEL MAIZ B Para qué sirve e1 maiz? El maiz sirve para hacer harina, el atol y las tortillas. De d6nde se recoge el maiz? El maiz se recoge de la tierra de la siembra del maiz. El maiz sirve para alimentar a los animales como al cerdo, la gallina, las vacas, y los péjaros. El maiz crece fécilmente con un poquito de agua y tierra buena. Puede crecer en las alturas y en tierra baja. Hay muchos tipos de maiz. LA SIEMBRA DEL MAIZ l. El maiz sirve para a jugar bingo b. engordar a los elefantes c. hacer el atol 2. Para crecer, el maiz necesita a. s6lo sol b. agua y tierra buena c. 56lo lluvia 3. El maiz sirve para alimentar a. sdlamente a los pajaros y vacas b. a las personas y las plantas c. a los cerdos, gallinas, vacas, y péjaros 4. Segfin este relato a. s6lo hay un tipo de maiz b. el maiz sdlo crece en tierras altas c. hay muchos tipos de maiz 5. El maiz se recoge a. de la vina b. en Grecia y Palmares c. de la siembra del maiz 6. Sean el relato a. el maiz puede crecer en las alturas y bajuras b. el maiz crece s6lamente en Turrialba c. el maiz crece s6lamente en Lim6n 135 Triad 3 LA HISTORIA DE Jesus G Habia una vez en el pueblo de Belén una mujer llamada Maria. Entonces baj6 un angel del cielo y le dijo, Maria vas a dar a luz un hijo y le pondrés por nombre Jesfis. Y lo tuvieron entonces. Fue creciendo y creciendo e hizo varios milagros. Después habia otro senor que no creia que él era JesGs, entonces lo mand6 a crucificar. Y le pusieron una gran cruz al hombro, y le dieron una gran capota, y le quitaron la sandalia. Y llegaron al monte Calvario y alli lo llevaron para crucificarlo. Estaba Maria a sus pies llorando. Lo bajaron de la cruz. Le metieron una lanza en el costado y de alli Maria se puso a llorar. De alli lo bajaron, lo enterraron, y resucit6. LA HISTORIA DE JESUS l. El angel le dijo a Maria a. que se fuera a la iglesia a cantar mientras que nazca el hijo b. que se quedara en Belén c. que va a dar a luz un hijo 2. En Jesfis ’ a. toda la gente creia b. habia un senor que no creia en El c. s6lamente los sacerdotes creian en él 3. El senorno creia en Jesfis a. entonces lo mand6 a crucificar b. entonces le mando a decir que tuviera mucho cuidado con lo que decia c. entonces dijo muchas cosas malas en su contra 4. A Jesfis le pusieron a. cien guardas para cuidarlo b. cadenas para que no huyera c. una cruz al hombro 136 5. Jesfis andaba a. con un traje muy lindo puesto b. con una gran capota c. sin r0pa 6. En el Monte Calvario a. estaba Maria llorando b. sélamente la gente que lo queria c. estaban s6lo los soldados 137 LA VIUDA p Para ser femenina, sabe llevar su sentimentalismo oculto, con mucho disimulo, porque es la mas liberal de las viudas que conozco. ..-(ande esta su vestido negro? 5L0 cambiaria acaso por la celeste toalla de una hija de Maria? Alegre y festiva, gusta de estar acompafiada y canta posando sobre la rama 0 en pleno vuelo. Desde el boquete abierto en el ventanal, ha venido a pararse sobre el frutero donde se madura el oro p6lido de los bananos, y llena de confianza picotea las frutas, en medio de un susurro encantador y risueno. Apenas satisfecha, limpia su pico con gracia suma y alla va volando a exhibir el delicado color de su atavio de viuda alegre, azul celeste, lavadito con brumas, como un pedazo de cielo en una tarde sin sol. . . . LA VIUDA 1. La viuda a. sabe llevar su sentimentalismo oculto b. sabe cuando llega el otro pajaro c. no se molesta por nada 2. Es un péjaro a. muy conservador b. que no sale a ningfin lado c. muy liberal 3. Le gusta cantar a. por las mafianas b. cuando vuela o esté sobre la rama c. cuando vé que va llegando a su destino final 4. A la viuda se le vé a. desde las montafias b. desde la torre c. desde el ventanal 5. Cuando vé los bananos a. se espera a que comience la fiesta para comérselos b. se espera a que estén maduros c. se espera a que llegue el marido para picotearlo 6. Cuando termina de comer a. se limpia el pico con gracia b. se acuesta por un ratito c. le dice adi6s a los demas péjaros 138 LA PRINCESA Y EL OGRO MALO B Habia una vez una princesa que un Ogro la rapt6. El papé ofrecio una recompensa de mil pesos por ella y unos cuantos brillantes. El Ogro estaba feliz porque tenia la princesa. Y la princesa estaba llorando porque queria ver a su padre y el pr1ncipe. Un dia al principe le apareci6 una estrella. La estrella era una estrella fugaz que uno le pide un deseo. Y le pidi6 que le dijera donde estaba la princesa. Y le dijo que ella estaba en una cueva. Y el papé le dijo a todos los del pueblo que vinieron con el a matar al Ogro. Mataron al Ogro y se llevaron a la princesa. La princesa qued6 con el pr1ncipe. Se casaron los dos y vivieron muy felices. El papé le dio la recompensa a todos los del pueblo. LA PRINCESA Y EL OGRO MALO l. El Ogro estaba feliz a. porque ten1a a la princesa b. porque no ten1a que trabajar c. porque ten1a mucho dinero 2. El papa ofreci6 a. mil pesos de recompensa por el rescate de su hija b. casi nada de dinero por la recompensa de su hija c. diezmil pesos y unos brillantes de recompensa por el rescate de su hija 3. La princesa a. se re1a porque estaba con el ogro b. se pasaba llorando c. se pasaba invitando a mucha gente a su casa a. un mago que le dijo al pr1ncipe donde estaba la princesa b. por medio de una estrella fugaz que se dio cuenta el pr1ncipe donde estaba la princesa c. por medio de un sueno que se dio cuenta el pr1ncipe donde estaba la princesa 139 5. Fue a. un gorila que ayud6 a matar al ogro b. el pueblo que ayud6 a matar al ogro c. un gigante de otro planeta que le dio muerte al gorila 6. La recompensa fue dada a. a los jefes del pueblo b. a las personas que més pelearon c. a todo el pueblo 14O Triad 4 EL PROFESOR Y SANTOS B Habia una vez un Profesor que queria apoderarse de un tesoro que la Llorona habia escondido. Ella tenia un medall6n con el mapa del lugar. Un dia llegd Santos donde estaba el Profesor y se pusieron de acuerdo para buscarlo. Una noche fueron a una cueva donde se habia enterrado a la Llorona. Entraron a la cueva y empezaron a buscar la caja donde estaba la Llorona. La vieron y le quitaron el medall6n. Al salir ellos de la cueva entraron las sobrinas del profesor para buscar el medall6n, pero tomaron otro camino y no vieron al Profesor y Santos. Una de las sobrinas, Mantequilla Napoles, vi6 que la Llorona se movia. Fue para alcanzar a Santos, pero no pudo. Entonces regresaron a la cueva y vieron que la Llorona se movio y que las vendas se sol- taron. La Llorona se puso a llorar por el medall6n y a perseguirlos. Pero escaparon. Al salir de la cueva habian unos ladrones que también querian el tesoro. Empezaron a pelearse y darse golpes. Los ladrones estaban a punto de matar a las sobrinas del Profesor. En eso lleg6 Santos y con su fuerza arrollador los venci6. 141 EL PROFESOR Y SANTOS 1. La intenci6n del Profesor y Santos era a. de llegar a la cueva y tener una fiesta b. de apoderarse del medall6n c. de llegar y planear lo que harian si llegaran los ladrones a la cueva El medall6n tenia a. el mapa de donde se encontraba el tesoro b. un Cristo que les dirian donde encontrar el tesoro c. un dibujo de un pintor muy famoso La Llorona se puso a llorar a. porque le habian quitado el medall6n b. porque estaba contenta con la llegada de Santos, el Profesor y las sobrinas c. porque le habian enterrado por mucho tiempo y estaba con frio Las sobrinas del profesor no encontraron a Santos y al Profesor a. por querer asustarles b. porque se fueron por otra parte 0 ruta c. porque se puso a llover y no podian llegar donde estaban ellos El tesoro era buscado también por a. unos piratas de un barco b. la policia c. unos ladrones Al salirse de la cueva a. los ladrones se pusieron a pelear con las sobrinas del profesor b. los ladrones y las sobrinas se pusieron a discutir pacificamente c. los ladrones y las sobrinas decidieron que era mejor llamar a la policia 142 M1 ABUELITA Y YO G Yo tengo una abuelita, dos padres, y tres hermanos que me quieren mucho, y yo a ellos. Aqui empieza mi historia. Un dia yo queria ir donde mi abuelita. Mis hermanitos decidieron que iban a venir. Entonces se pusieron a discutir muy seriamente esto conmigo, y les digo --hermanitos, mejor discutan esto con mama. Pero mamé dijo --cuando venga abuelita discutiremos esto con ella. Lleg6 abuelita y dijo --gnifios que les pasa? gpor qué estén dis- cutiendo?. Entonces dice la hija mayor --es que nosotros también queremos ir a vivir contigo. Pero dice la abuelita --en mi casa S610 caben dos, un dia van a venir dia por dia, los tres dormiran un dia. Después un dia los tres estabamos donde abuelita. Ibamos a dar un paseo. La abuelita dijo --donde van?, y le dijo la hija mayor --abuelita vamos a ir a pasear. --Quieres ir?, y la buelita dijo --si, si claro. Entonces fuimos a pasear. Mi papa nos llev6 a Panama y nos quedamos varios dias. Regresamos a la casa de abuelita y la dejamos. Le dijimos adi6s a abuelita, y abuelita contest6 --adi6s, adids que les vaya bien. Después llegaron a la casa y todos felices porque habiamos ido donde abuelita y no era tanto para discutir. MI ABUELITA Y YO l. Los ninos querian visitar a. una ciudad que quedaba muy lejos b. los amigos de la abuelita c. la casa de la abuelita 143 La mama les dijo que a. discutieran la visita con sus papas b. discutieran la visita con la abuelita c. le preguntara a la maestra también La abuelita queria que los nifios la visitaran a. todos juntos b. de dos en dos c. de uno en uno La abuelita acepto ir con los nifios y sus papas a a. Panama b. Miami c. Colombia Los nifios a. querian regresar cada afio a Panama b. no les gusto el lugar c. estaban muy felices con la visita a Panama La recomendacién que se dio en este cuento es que a. los ninos no deben pelear ni ser egoistas b. los ninos deben pelear c. los ninos deberan discutir todo el tiempo 144 EL AMOR A LA PATRIA P El amor a la patria no se demuestra dando gritos de ;Viva Costa Rica! y agitando en el aire su bandera. El patriotismo es un sentimiento fntimo que a veces pasa desaper- cibido. Es una manera de obras, es una norma de conducta. Ama a Costa Rica el que respeta sus tradiciones y su historia. Ama a Costa Rica el que cumple a cabalidad sus deberes de ciudadano. Ama a Costa Rica el campesino que, de sol a sol, trabaja indefatigable. Ama a Costa Rica el obrero que en las fabricas produce honesta- mente telas, comestibles y libros para sus conciudadanos. Ama a Costa Rica el estudiante que con dedicaci6n y entusiasmo pasa las horas aprendiendo. Ama a Costa Rica el maestro que con sacrificio dedica su vida a la formaci6n de las generaciones. Ama a Costa Rica el policia que durante las noches y los dias cuida la honra y bienes de sus conciudadanos. Ama a Costa Rica el que esta dispuesto a morir por defender su soberania. Ama a Costa Rica todo aquel que, sin reserva cumple sus deberes. E1AMOR A LA PATRIA l. El amor a la patria a. no se demustra dando gritos de .Viva Costa Rica! b. se demuestra levantandose temprano cada d1a c. se demuestra metiéndose en las cosas de los vecinos E1 E1 E1 Si 145 patriotismo a. es como una fiesta b. es comprarse la loteria todos los domingos c. es un sentimiento intimo que a veces no se vé que ama a Costa Rica a. se lanza a la calle a agitar bandera b. cumple a cabalidad con los deberes de ciudadano c. trabaja 24 horas al dia que ama a Costa Rica a. produce honestamente telas, comestibles y otras cosas para los conciudadnos b. pelea si alguien dice algo ofensivo c. nunca viaja a otro pais un policia a. de dia cumple sus deberes, pero de noche no cumple, ama a Costa Rica b. durante las noches y de dia cuida la honra y bienes de sus conciudadanos, ama a Costa Rica c. se levanta.cada nmfiana y hace una oraci6n, ama a Costa Rica Ama a Costa Rica a. b. c. el que no trabaja porque recibi6 la prestaci6n del trabajo el que se rie de Costa Rica cuando hace bien aquel que sin reserva cumple sus deberes 146 Triad 5 DIOS Y EL SOL P A Benjamin Franklin, cuando los nifios lo veian por las calles, lo rodeaban y hasta le besaban la mano. Un dfa le dijo una nifia: --Sefior Franklin, usted que es tan sabio, apodrfa decirme d6nde est6 Dios? El anciano sonri6, y mostrando a la nifia el cielo, inundado de luz, le dijo: --Procura mirar al sol de frente. La nifia lo intent6, pero en seguida tuvo que taparse los ojos con las manos. --No puedo--contest6--; el sol me deslumbra. El sabio, moviendo la cabeza, dijo entonces: --Pedias ver a Dios, 5y ni siquiera puedes mirar al sol de frente? Ya ves cu6n débiles son tus ojos. Hija mia, a Dios no se le puede y ver con.los ojos;Dios es el foco de la sabidurfa y bondad, como el sol es el foco de luz y calor. Estudia mucho y procura ser buena, y te iras aproximando a El y lo veras reflejéndose en el fondo de tu alma. DIOS Y EL SOL l. Benjamin Franklin, el sabio, le dijo a la nifia a. que fuera més a la iglesia si queria conocer a Dios b. que no tenia necesidad de estudiar para conocer a Dios c. que estudie mucho y procura ser buena 2. A Benjamin Franklin los nifios a. le insultaban cuando caminaba por las calles b. le besaban las manos c. le tiraban piedras cuando pasaba 3. El sabio le dijo a la nifia a. que cuan débiles eran sus ojos b. que tenia ojos muy fuertes c. que se pusiera anteojos para mirar el sol 147 4. Una nifia le dijo a Benjamin Franklin a. que le dijera d6nde estaba Dios b. que se fuera a su casa para conocer a sus hermanitos c. que le contara un cuento 5. La nifia a. qued6 mirando la luna b. tuvo que taparse los ojos cuando miraba el sol c. no tuvo ninguna dificultad para mirar 6. Benjamin Franklin le dijo a la nifia a. mirame en la cara! b. que leyera la biblia c. que mirara el sol de frente 148 UN ACCIDENTE G Cuando yo vivia cerca del rio Torres me monté en una silla y me cai. Al caerme, cai sobre una aguja que estaba en la maquina de coser. Yo iba a travesear con la maquina. Me hice una herida en la parte encima del ojo derecho. Me llevaron al hospital inmediatamente ya que estaba sangrando muchisimo. Me inyectaron en la herida para que no doliera tanto cuando lo cosian. Después tuve mas cuidado cuando me trepaba sobre alguna cosa. UN ACCIDENTE l. Yo vivia cerca a. de la sabana b. del rio Virilla c. del rio Torres 2. Estaba subiéndome a. sobre una escalera cuando me cai b. sobre una silla cuando me cai c. sobre una mesa cuando me cai 3. Me cai sobre a. una aguja b. un cuchillo c. un palo 4. Yo iba a. a coser cuando me cai b. a alcanzar algo para mi mamé c. a travesear con la méquina de coser 5. Me corté a. un dedo b. por encima del ojo derecho c. la frente 6. En el hospital a. me inyectaron y me cosieron la herida b. sélo me dieron unas medicinas c. me vieron y me dejaron ir a la casa 149 EL HOMBRE INCREIBLE B Cuando yo naci era apenas como un bebé, pero despues mé fui haciendo mas grande. De tan grande me hice que se rompid donde dormia. Un dia me levanté, vi un carro, y de la c61era, lo tiré en un guindo y estall6 en llamas. Cuando call6 el carro en el guindo me llené de miedo de lo que habia hecho. Pero al final, desperté, y me di cuenta que nada mas era un sueno. EL HOMBRE INCREIBLE l. Todo este suceso fue nada més a. que un sueno que tuve ~ b. que un recuerdo de algo que me sucedi6 cuando era nino c. algo que me contaron 2. Un ia de la c6lera que tenia me tiré al suelo y daba patadas tiré un carro en el guindo decia maldiciones a todas las personas que veia OU'O’G. 3. Cuando cay6 el carro se a. convirti6 en un monstruo b. convirti6 en ceniza c. .convirti6 en llamas 4. Después se fue a. haciéndose como un lobo b. haciéndose mas grande c. haciéndose como un Gorila 5. Como me hice tan grande a. me comia toda la comida de las otras personas b. no podia entrar en mi casa c. se me rompi6 la cama 6. El nifio al nacer era a. un bebé b. una serpiente c. un gigante 150 Triad 6 UN DESCUIDO G Un dia, a mi hermana se le habia gastado el gas de la cocina. Ella se habia ido donde mi abuelita a tomar cafe. Entonces oyo un ruido en la cocina. Era que mi sobrinito se habia metido los frijoles dentro de la nariz. En la noche lleg6 el papE y entonces dijo el papa --a este chiquito hay que llevarlo de inmediato a emergencia. Entonces lo llevaron al hospital. En el hospital le metieron dos "chunches" dentro de la nariz, un doctor. Daba gritos y se puso a llorar y le sacaron los frijoles. UN DESCUIDO l. El nifio a. no se asust6 cuando le atendié el médico b. dijo que queria irse para la casa c. daba gritos y lloraba 2. Mi hermana fue donde mi abuelita para a. tomar café b. ayudarle ya que estaba enferma c. llevarle unas cosas que habia comprado para ella 3. En el hospital a. no le hicieron nada al nifio b. le metieron dos "chunches" en la nariz c. 10 vieron y le dijeron que estaba bromeando 4. El ruido que oia mi hermana a. venia de la calle b. venia de la cocina c. no se sabia de donde venia 5. El papé lleg6 y dijo que se tenia que llevar al chiquito a. a emergencias b. donde un amigo médico c. a la plaza de juegos a jugar para que se le salga el "Chunche" 6. Mi sobrinito se habia metido unos frijoles a. en la boca b. en los oidos c. en la nariz 151 EL LEON Y LOS INDIOS B Habia una vez un le6n que vivia en la selva. Las rejas del jaula no eran de hierro sino que eran de cafia. El le6n como era tan fuerte logr6 despedazar las cafias y se sali6. Un indio lo vi6 y fue a avisar a los demas indios para que ellos dieran cuenta y lo fueran a matar, pero entonces el le6n los vio y se escapé. Entonces los indios lo persiguieron pero como era tan vivo, se trep6 en un arbol y no lo lograron ver. El le6n al rato baj6 del 6rbol. Tenia hambre cuando vio una vaca comiendo pasto. Detrés estaba el duefio con un rifle. El le6n trat6 de agarrarlo para comérsela pero el dueno cogio el rifle, lo carg6 y le dispar6. Al le6n se le dio en el blanco, en el puro corazén. Cuando a uno le dan en el coraz6n no tiene mas vida. Se muri6. EL LEON Y EL INDIO l. El le6n logr6 engafiar a los que le venian persiguiendo a. al meterse en una cueva b. al meterse en la casa c. al subirse en un arbol 2. El le6n fue visto primero por a. un indio b. un vaquero que andaba cazando leones c. Tarzén 3. Se baj6 del 6rbol el le6n cuando a. habian pasado los cazadoses b. tenia hambre y vio la vaca c. era hora de irse a la casa 4. Los indios fueron en busca del le6n . para hacerlo rey de los otros leones . para hacerlo rey de su tribu . para matarlo e6n fue muertg por el dueno de la vaca . porque ten1a mucha hambre 5. E1 por otro le6n 6. La aula donde vivia el le6n estaba hecha de . tabla . cana a b c 1 a b c j a b c . acero 152 ELECCIONES EN LA ESCUELA P Ya vienen las elecciones para renovar el Consejo de la Escuela. Por eso los nifios de todos los grados estan muy ocupados. Los alumnos mayores hacen planes para la campaha. Explican a los demas chiquillos sus deberes y derechos en las elecciones. Unos grupos arreglan en los tableros la presentacién de los candidatos. Otros hacen banderas, cartelones y hojas volantes. Un maestro d6 estos consejos a los que hablardn en pfiblico: "No deben decir nada que lastime al otro candidato. No es bueno prometer tanto, mucho menos, lo que no se puede cumplir. Hay que hablar con palabras que expliquen claramente lo que se piensa alcanzar." Componen la directiva del Consejo: un presidente, un secretario y un tesorero. Ademas, figuran nifias y nifios como representantes de cada grado. Como candidatos a la directiva van los alumnos mejor portados. Son nihos que saben cumplir sus deberes y que conocen sus derechos. Estos nifios estan siempre listos para servir a su escuela y dispuestos a mejorarla. Toda escuela necesita tener un COHSEJO- Asi, los nifios aprenden a gobernarse. Los dirigen no $6lo el director y sus maestros, sino también otros compafieros. ELECCIONES EN LA ESCUELA l. Los nifios son dirigidos por a. sdlo adultos b. sélo compafieros c. adultos y compafieros 2. En las elecciones se deciden a. quiénes seran los campeones de ffitbol b. quiénes juzgaran a las personas que llegan tarde a la escuela c. quiénes formararan parte del Consejo de la Escuela 153 La importancia de tener una elecci6n en la escuela a. es para que los profesores vean que trabajadores son los nifios b. es para que los nifios aprendan a gobernarse c. es para que los nifios tengan unas fiestas Los alumnos mayores a. son los que hacen los planes para la campafia b. son los que sirven de policia c. no toman parte en las elecciones a. cuatro miembros los que componen el Consejo de la escuela b. dos miembros los que componen el Consejo de la escuela c. tres miembros los que componen el Consejo de la escuela El maestro recomienda a los estudiantes a. que deben decir cosas negativas de los otros candidatos b. que hay que hablar claramente lo que piensan c. que deberan prometer mas de lo que pueden cumplir 154 Triad 7 EL PATITO COMELON B Habia una vez un patito que le gustaba mucho los confites entonces la mama le dijo --No comes tanto, porque se le va picar los dientes. Entonces le empezaron a doler. Y el dijo --;Ay mama! me duelen los dientes. Entonces lo llevaron donde el dentista. El dentista le dijo a la mama --cuidelo y que se lave bien los dientes porque si no se echaran a perder. La mama dijo —-Bueno, esta bien. Entonces no lo dej6 salir. Pero el tenia un amigo que era un duende que lo llev6. Y le pregunt6 --quieres comer confite? Y le dijo que si. Entonces al tiempo lleg6 la mamé y le pregunta --;C6mo te va? Y dice el --Bien, bien. Pero estoy muy aburrido. Y le dijo la mamé --bueno te voy a dejar salir. Al salir compr6 muchos confites y lleg6 a la casa. Y la mamé dijo --oi algo en la noche como gritando --;me duele los dientes! Y fue a ver y tenia todas las muelas picadas y le dolian mucho. Entonces se lo llevaron al dentista. Y le quitaron todas las muelas y le pusieron dientes postizos. Y le dice --perd6name mamé, eso me sirvio de lecci6n. EL PATITO COMELON l. La mamé del patito le dijo a. que no comiera muchos confites b. que no comiera todo lo que podia c. que consultara con ella cuando le entraban muchas ganas de comer 2. La primera vez que al Patito Comel6n le doli6 una muela a. se fue’donde el dentista b. se tomo una’pastillita ’ c. no le presto mucha atencion 3. La mam6 para evitar que comiera confites el Patito Comel6n a. no le dejaba salir b. le cerraba la boca con cinta adhesiva c. puso los confites bajo llave 155 4. El Patito Comel6n decidi6 salir por que se lo recomend6 a. el dentista b. su mama c. el duende 5. Cuando la mama le revisd los dientes a. sdlamente estaban sucios b. todos estaban picados y le dolian mucho c. se le habian caido algunos 6. El entista . solo le regané . le tuvo que poner dientes postizos d a b c felicité al Patito Comel6n cuando le observ6 los dientes 156 EL SOL TAMBIEN TRABAJA P El buen sol se levanté muy temprano. Extendio su luz por el campo y comenz6 a trabajar con ardor. Lanzo sus ardientes rayos sobre las canas y le dijo: iCreced, hermosas cafias! es hora de formar el dulce jugo del azOcar, que tanto gusta a los nifios. Mir6 el platano y exclamé iaumenta tu racimo! y al maiz iforma tu mazorca! Brill6 y brillé sobre el pantano y convirti6 el agua fangosa en nube blanca. Después, se ocup6 horas y horas en tefiir de amarillo las naranjas, en hacer crecer otros frutos y vegetales y en pintar las florecitas, con sus colores mis lindos y brillantes. Por la tarde el buen sol, fatigado de las faenas del dia, se retiro, ocultandose en el ocaso. EL SOL TAMBIEN TRABAJA l. El sol trabaja a. con ardor b. sélamente por ocho horas c. muy poco 2. El sol le dice a las canas a. iCaigan lentamente al suelo! b. iCreced, hermosas cafias! c. iProduzcan cafias! 3. Al jugo dulce del azficar a. le gusta a todo el mundo b. sélamente a las mujeres c. le gusta a los nifios 4. Al platano le dijo el sol a. aumenta tu racimo b. eche frutas de banano también c. no trabajen tanto a. mand6 su luz y le ech6 una nube negra b. convirti6 el agua fangosa en nube blanca c. ni le hizo caso al pantano 6. El sol se dedica por mucho tiempo a tenir las naranjas de a. verde amarillento b. anaranjados c. amarillo 157 LA PEQUENA Y FAMOSA DUENDE G Era una nifia muy bonita que vivia en el bosque con sus padres. Pero, una vez sali6 a jugar con los animales, y se perdi6, y no pudo regresar a su casa. Entonces se puso a llorar y los animalitos le ayudaron a regresar. Cuando regresé a su casa ella se sinti6 sola ya que todo mundo de su casa se puso a reir y a reir, y a reir porque se habia perdido. La nifia otra vez se fue al bosque y se perdi6. Esta vez los animalitos la ayudaron nuevamente. Esta vez, decidi6 quedarse a vivir con los animalitos que habian sido tan buenos con ella. LA PEQUENA Y FAMOSA DUENDE 1. La niha vivia en a. un bosque con sus padres b. una aldea con sus primas c. un pueblo con sus padres 2. Sali6 a jugar a. de casita b. con un perrito c. con los animales 3. La nifia cuando se perdi6 a. se puso a buscar con quien jugar b. se puso a llorar c. se puso a hacer un fuego 4. Ella regres6 a la casa con la ayuda a. de sus papas b. de los animalitos c. de los socorristas 5. En la casa la recibieron con a. mucha alegria y mdsica b. llantos y tristeza c. mucha risa 6. La nifia regresd al bosque a. a vivir con los animalitos b. cada semana a visitar a sus amigos c. a llevarle a los animalitos comida 158 Triad 8 JUAN 8080 p Habia una vez un muchacho muy bueno y simpético. Le gustaba trabajar mucho, pero todo lo hacia al revés. A la gente del pueblo le gustaba verlo pasar por las calles. A todos los hacia reir con sus disparates. Pero le tenian mucho carifio porque el gozaba ayudando a cuantos podia. Una vez, su mamé le dijo: --Juan, vé a donde el granjero a conseguir trabajo. Ten mucho cuidado con la paga que te dan; échala en este costal. --Muy bien, mamé --dijo Juan Bobo, y se fue a ver al granjero. --Oiga, senor granjero --le dijo al llegar--. aPuede darme trabajo? --Con mucho gusto --contest6 el granjero--. Quizés puedas ayudarme en varias cosas. --Toma primero un poco de carb6n de aquel costal y echéselo al fuego. Coge después esos huevos. Se los ponés a la gallina clueca que esté echada en el gallinero. --Ahora mismo ~-dijo Juan Bobo. Y fue a cumplir lo que le habian mandado. Pero como todo lo entendia al revés, no hizo bien las cosas. Tom6 el carb6n y se lo ech6 debajo a la gallina clueca. Luego cogi6 los huevos y los arroj6 al fuego. JUAN BOBO 1. Juan Bobo cogi6 a. cogid el carb6n y lo puso debajo de la gallina b. los huevos y los puso debajo de la gallina clueca c. el carb6n y lo puso en el fuego 2. Juan Bobo a. era muy inteligente b. era un muchacho muy guapo c. todo lo hacia al revés 3. El trabajo que le toc6 hacer a Juan Bobo a. era cortar el zacate b. era echar el carb6n en un costal c. fue excavando la tierra 159 4. Juan Bobo a. era muy alto b. hacia reir a la gente c. tenia una novia 5. Juan Bobo a. consiguié un trabajo con un sacerdote b. consiguié un trabajo con un abogado c. consiguié un trabajo con un granjero 6. Juan Bobo a. era muy perezoso b. le gustaba ayudar a todo mundo c. sabia mucho de mecénica 160 EL DIA DE NAVIDAD G Erase una vez un dia de Navidad. A una nifia le trajo el Nifiito Dios una linda mufieca que hablaba y caminaba. La nifia estaba muy feliz de tener esa mufieca. Pero un dia se dio cuenta la nifia que la mufieca se volvi6 una persona. Entonces la nifia dijo, --;Que alegria! ella camina, habla y llora. Desde ese dia en adelante vivieron muy felices. EL DIA DE LA NAVIDAD l. Le época del afio era a. la Navidad b. los cumpleafios c. el dia de los nifios 2. A la nifia a. sus papas le habian regalado la mufieca b. el Nifiito Dios le habia regalado la mufieca c. se le regal6 la mufieca en una feria 3. La nifiita un dia se dio cuenta que a la mufieca no estaba donde la habia dejado b. la mufieca se habia convertido en una duende c. la mufieca era una persona 4. La nifia reaccion6 con a. alegria b. léstima c. tristeza 5. La mufieca podia a. caminar y bailar b. hablar y bailar c. caminar y hablar 6. Desde que la mufieca pudo hablar a. se iban a pasear todos los dias b. la nifia y la mufieca fueron felices c. se iban a la escuela juntas 161 EL DIA QUE NOS SIGUIO UN PERRO B Un dia fuimos a Heredia a un lugar que se llama los Lagos de Heredia. Era mi hermanita, mi mama, mi papa, y yo. Fuimos a visitar a unos primos. Al rato mis dos primos, un amigo, y yo nos fuimos a un cerco donde habia un guindo. En eso nos sali6 un perro. Y pues todos nos salimos corriendo muy asustados. Del susto me dejé ir dentro del guindo. Por poco quiebro la rodilla. Lo senti de lo mas feo. Era un dolor, pero gracias a 0105 se me quit6. EL DIA QUE NOS SIGUIO UN PERRO l. Cuando me asusté me tiré a. en un rio que habia cerca b. y me cogi de una rama de un arbol c. a un guindo 2. De repente nos salieron a. unas culebras b. unos maleantes c. unos perros 3. Cuando me tiré al guindo a. senti como que se me paraba la respiracién b. casi quiebro la rodilla c. senti como que iba volando 4. Cerca de la casa habfa a. un cementerio b. un cerco y un guido c. una montafia 5. Fuimos a visitar a a. mis abuelos b. unos amigos c. unos primos 6. El paseo adonde fuimos era en a. Las Lagunas Azules b. Lagos de Heredia c. Lagos de Lindora 162 M LA CASITA EN EL BOSQUE G Dos nifios fueron al bosque para arrancar flores para llevarselas a la mama. Fueron a una casita que habia cerca de muchas flores y tocaron a la puerta y le dijo a la sefiora que si ella podria regalarles flores. Ella les dijo que si pero que pasaran adentro. Ella encerro a los chiquitos y los puso a limpiar. Después lleg6 el esposo de la.senora y sac6 el chiquito de donde estaba metido y a la chiquita le dijo que no limpiara mas. Puso a la sefiora a limpiar y al chiquito también. Cuando terminaron de limpiar, los metieron a la carcel. LA CASITA EN EL BOSQUE 1. Los nifios fueron al bosque a. para coger animalitos b. para encontrarse con alguien c. para arrancar flores 2. En la casita a. se estaban regalando flores b. se estaban vendiendo flores c. no habian flores 3. La sefiora de la casita I a. les dijo a los nifios que regresaran mas tarde b. les dijo a los nifios que pasaran adelante c. les dijo a los nifios que no podran entrar a la casita 4. A los cuiquitos les salv6 a. la llegada de un sefior extrafio b. la llegada del esposo de la sefiora c. la llegada de la policia 5. A los chiquitos la sefiora a. les encerr6 b. les puso a hacer tareas de la escuela c. les puso a cortar el pasto 6. A la sefiora, de castigo a. le pegaron con una faja b. le pusieron a lavar, los trastos c. le mandaron a la cércel 163 PASEO AL BOSQUE B En el bosque hay muchos 6rboles donde pasa un rio. Hay frutas, péjaros, y animales. También fuimos al bosque ya que habian muchos naranjales. Comimos muchas naranjas, pero antes de comerlas las pelabamos y las lavabamos. Hay un rio también donde se acercan venados y p6jaros a tomar agua. El bosque es muy bonito para los nifios ya que uno puede jugar sin peligro para nosotros. PASEO AL BOSQUE l. En el bosque hay a. un rio b. una casa c. una duende 2. En el bosque hay a. personas que hablan distintos idiomas b. frutas, pajaros, y animales c. un castillo 3. Las personas en esta lectura fueron al bosque a. porque habian ciertos tipos de plantas venenosas que necesitaban b. porque habia naranjales c. porque les habian dicho que habia un volcén 4. Antes de comer las naranjas a. las lavébamos b. orabamos c. consultébamos con nuestros papés 5. Al rio llegan a. leones y tigres a tomar agua b. perros y gansos a tomar agua c. venados y pajaros a tomar agua 6. A los nifios les gusta el bosque a. porque es muy grande b. porque pueden jugar sin peligro c. porque hay muchos animales 164 EL REGRESO DE LA EXCURSION p El reloj marca las cinco de la tarde. --Pii ... pii --llama el autobfis que viene a llevar a los excursionistas. Los nifios, al oirlo, corren de un lado a otro. Unos buscan sus bolsas; otros, sus gorras. Los jugadores doblan muy bien sus uniformes. Un nifio anda afligido buscando su reloj, pero al fin lo encuentra. --Despidanse --les dice la sefiorita Elena. Las dos meastras se abrazan. Los de una escuela y los de otra se dicen adi6s con sonrisas y apretones de manos. La sefiorita Susana promete que iré con sus nifios a pagarles la visita. Por fin los alumnos de la sefiorita Elena suben con ella al autobfis. Aunque van tan apretados como venian, se sienten contentos. --5Estan todos? --pregunta la sefiorita Elena viendo los asientos--. aD6nde esta Pedro José? aQue se haria? —-Alla viene --dice Luis--. iMirenlo como anda! Pedro José llega al autobfis con dificultad. --gQue te pasé? --le pregunta una compafiera--. Te estébamos esperando. --Nada --contesta él--. Me doblé un pie por venir corriendo. Pero ya pas6. El autobfis se pone en marcha. Los pasajeros agitan sus manos diciendo adi6s. Los nifios de la otra escuela, rodeando a su maestra, les contestan griténdoles: --iAdiés! iQue les vaya bien! Se quedan en la puerta hasta que el autobfis dobla una esquina. EL REGRESO DE LA EXCURSION l. Los nifios de la sefiorita Elena a. se quedaron afuera en el jardin mientras se despedian b. se fueron a las ventanas para despedirse de los otros alumnos c. se quedaron en la puerta hasta que el autobfis dobl6 la esquina 165 Cuando lleg6 el bus para recoger a los excursionistas el reloj marcaba a. las cuatro de la tarde b. las tres de la tarde c. las cinco de la tarde Pedro José a. se habia golpeado en la cabeza b. se habia doblado un pie c. tenia un dolor de cabeza Cuando los nifios oyeron el bus llegar a. corrieron de un lado para otro a empacar sus cosas b. se quedaron acostados en sus camas c. levantaron a sus padres para que les ayudara La senorita Susana le prometi6 a los nifios a. muchos regalos b. pagarles la visita c. ayudarles con sus tareas La sefiorita Elena le dice a los nifios a. que disfruten del viaje b. que se porten bien c. que se despidan de los compafieros 166 Triad 10 UN EMBRUJO B Habia una vez una familia que era muy pobre. No podian comprar regalos para la Navidad. Un dia uno de los hijos que se llamaba Juanito salié a pasear a una cueva. Entr6 a la cueva y oy6 unas voces. Le dijo las voces --te regalamos regalos de navidad. Y Juanito pregunt6 --gqué son regalos de navidad? Entonces las voces preguntaron -1aen tus cumpleafios traen regalos? Y Juanito respondié --No. Entonces dijo las voces --si quieres tener muchos juguetes, espérame en diciembre, y te los traeré. Pasaron muchos meses y diciembre llegé. Estaban todos en la casa cuando se oye un ruido. Apareci6 un portal de lo mas feo con animales con cachos. La gente se asust6 y llamaron al padre para que le echara agua bendita. Al echarle agua cada uno de los animalitos se fueron haciendo mas grande. Cuando se hicieron mas grandes fueron desapareciendo hasta que qued6 una mancha negra. Cuando desapareci6 la mancha negra habia muchos juguestes en el lugar. UN EMBRUJO l. La familia tenia a. mucho miedo de comprar regalos de Navidad b. muy poco dinero para comprar regalos de Navidad c. muchisima plata para comprar lo que querian 2. La voz le habl6 a Juanito a. en la iglesia b. en una cueva c. en su casa 3. La voz le pregunt6 a Juanito a. si le gustaria ir al cine b. que si quiere juguetes c. si le gustaria ser rico 167 4. La gente en la casa a. estaba asustada b. estaba contenta cuando le apareci6 el portal y se oy6 el ruido c. comenzaron a avisarles a los vecinos cuando apareci6 el portal y se oy6 el ruido 5. La gente se fue a a. llamar a un policia cuando apareci6 el portal y se oy6 el ruido b. llamar a un padre c. llamar al mat6n del pueblo 6. Cuando se le ech6 agua bendita al arbol a. comenzd a echar hojas el arbol b. el tallo se hizo mas grande c. los animalitos se fueron haciéndose mas grande 168 LA ABUELA ZAPATONA P Habia una vez una viejecita dulce y buena que siempre llevaba zapatos muy grandes. Todos, sin verla, sabian cuando iba por las calles del pueblo, pues sus zapatones hacian iclas, clas, clas! Por eso le llamaban la Abuela Zapatona. Vivia en una casita de campo rodeada de un jardin de lirios, rosas y 6rboles inmensos. Ella y su esposo se querian mucho. Gozaban oyendo los trinos de los pajaritos que se arrullaban entre los arboles. Les encantaba ver como el viento movia suavemente el talle de las flores. Asi pasaban juntos muchos dias. Como se acercaba el cumpleafios de su esposo, la Abuelita Zapatona se puso a guardar dinero. Todas las mafianitas le echaba una moneda a su alcancia. Asi la fue llenando, hasta que ya no le cabia mas monedas. Cuando faltaban dos dias para el cumpleafios de su esposo, la Abuela abri6 la alcancia. iTin, tin, tin! hacian las monedas al caer. --iCuanta plata tengo! --decfa la Abuela--. iQue bueno es guardar dinero!-- Y comenz6 a pensar en lo que harfa. Cont6 y volvio a contar las monedas. iQue feliz se sentia! --Ahora --se dijo-- quiza pueda hacerle un almuerzo muy rico a mi esposo el dia de su cumpleafios. LA ABUELA ZAPATONA 1. La Abuela Zapatona queria a. regalarle una maquina de afeitar al esposo para los cumpleafios b. regalarle un viaje c. regalarle un almuerzo muy rico 2. A la Abuela le decfan "Abuela Zapatona" a. porque tenia unos zapatos muy bonitos b. porque tenia pieces muy grandes c. porque tenia zapatos muy grandes 3. La Abuela Zapatona vivia a. cerca de la ciudad b. en un castillo c. en el campo 169 4. La Abuela Zapatona a. no ten1a a nadie b. vivia con su esposo c. 5610 vivia con su perro 5. A la Abuela Zapatona a. le gustaba ver como se movian las flores b. no le gustaba el cantar de los péjaros c. le gustaba ir a ver el rio 6. Cuando se acercaba los cumpleafios del esposo a. la Abuela Zapatona comenzé a decirselo a los vecinos b. la Abuela Zapatona habia ahorrado muchisimo dinero c. le habia comprado un tractor al esposo para darselo de sorpresa 17O NOR CAMPOS G Habia un senor que vivia en el campo, y en el campo le dicen a los sefiores "fior." El tenia un cerdo que a cada rato se le metia a la casa y el 10 tenia que sacar. Un dia entonces lo mat6. Una sefiora le pregunt6 que por qué lo mat6, ya que era tan bueno. Entonces el senor le explico que el cerdo se metia y se salia, se metia y se salia, y que lo tenia loco. Asi que tuvo que matarlo. Después que lo mat6, a los dias Nor Campos se entristeci6, ya que decidi6 que pudo haber construido un portoncito para detenerlo. NOR CAMPOS l. En el campo le dicen a los senores a. Don b. Senor c. Nor 2. El cerdo siempre se metia en a. la casa b. el establo c. el gallinero 3. Nor Campos mand6 a a. que dejaran el cerdo encerrado en el establo b. que se lo cuidara un vecino c. matar al cerdo 4. Segfin la sefiora el cerdo era a. muy bueno b. muy malo c. regular 5. El cerdo tenia loco a Nor Campos porque a. hacia mucho ruido b. se metia una vez a la semana en la casa c. se metia y se salia constantemente 6. Nor Campos se entristecié después que mat6 al cerdo porque se a. acord6 después que el cerdo pudo haber tenido cria b. acord6 después que le pudo haber hecho un encierro c. acord6 después que lo pudo haber vendido por mucha plata 171 Triad 11 HACIA EL ESPACIO P Lleg6 la manafia, es la hora de salir para la escuela. El Sol bafia los campos con rayos de oro. Las mariposas vuelan de flor en flor. Todo parece sonreir ante el nuevo dia. Roberto se ha despertado feliz. Camino de la escue1a, recuerda el suefio tan maravilloso que ha tenido. En cuanto ve a la maestra le dice: --Sofié algo muy hermoso y quisiera contarselo a todos. -—Te oiremos aqui en el patio. Entraremos cuando sea hora de comenzar la clase --le dice la maestra--. Ahora, refiérenos lo que sofiaste, Roberto. --Sofié que hacia un viaje muy lejos. Volaba rapidamente hacia la Luna en una nave eSpacial. Miraba por las ventanillas. Veia la Tierra entre nubes. Veia brillar las estrellas. Parecian broches de luz. --Asi es el espacio --dice la maestra--. Pero sigue, sigue refiriéndonos tu sueno. --Yo era el astronauta --continua Roberto--. Dirigia la nave espacial formalmente. Esta volaba a toda velocidad. Lo gracioso es que llevaba puesto mi vestido de futbolista. iFigfirense, volando vestido de futbolista! HACIA EL ESPACIO l. Roberto iba a. para una fiesta b. a jugar con sus compafieros c. para la escuela 2. De camino a la escuela a. se acordaba de las experiencias tan bonitas en la escuela b. se acordaba del accidente que tuvo en la escuela c. se acordaba del suefio que tuvo la hoche anterior 3. El suefio de Roberto se trataba a. de una excursidn b. de unos perros c. de un viaje muy lejos 172 4. Roberto dijo que desde la luna a. la tierra se veia entre nubes b. la tierra se veia muy pequefia c. no veia la tierra del todo 5. Estaba a. haciendo buen sol cuando Roberto iba para la escuela b. haciendo mucho viento cuando Roberto iba para la escuela c. lloviendo cuando Roberto iba para la escuela 6. En su suefio, Roberto llevaba puesto a. su traje espacial b. su ropa corriente c. su vestido de futbolista 173 LA GRAN PINTORA G Habia una vez una nifia, Margarita, que era muy pobre que sofiaba con ser farmacefitica, pintora, y estrella. Ella sofiaba mucho. Un dia ella se fue de paseo a una montafia a jugar con sus hermanos y amigos. Se divirtieron mucho. El papa era pintor y de pequefio también le gustaba pintar. Margarita solo sonaba con ser estrella. A los l0 afios empezd a actuar en la pelicula entonces se la llevaron a los Estados Unidos. A los l5 afios ya llegé a ser una gran estrella. Fue de la mas grande del mundo. Entonces conoci6 a un muchacho y el muchacho le ofreci6 matrimonio. Ella le contest6 que si. Tuvieron una hija que se llamaba Deborah. Al cumplir los diez afios ella sonaba con ser pintora nada més. Al cumplir los l5 afios le ofrecieron trabajo de pintora. Ella gan6 dos premios. Después le ofrecieron un premio fabuloso. El primero fue una copa de oro, el segundo fue un viaje, y el tercero fue un Oscar de una pelicula llamada "La Gran Pintora" que ella particip6 con otras estrellas pintoras. Deborah tenia que volver al pais donde ella naci6 pero ella no queria porque tenia muchos compromisos. Entonces los papas se fueron. Finalmente se volvié para Australia que era donde vivia. Entonces empezé a buscar a sus padres. Pero result6 que ese mismo dia se fueron los papés para Miami. Deborah entonces tom6 un avién para Miami. De camino el avi6n par6 en Rusia ya que tenia que quedarse alli porque el avi6n tenia un dafio muy grave. Se fue en otro avi6n. Cuando ella llegé los papés empezaron a buscarla pero no la encontraron. Un dia iba a filmar la pelicula en que ella iba a actuar y entonces le avisaron que habian llegado los padres pero que no sabian donde estaban. Se detuvo su actuacién. No filmaron la pelicula. Fue a buscar a los papés. Ya estaban en el aeropuerto. Ella se fue corriendo en el carro a buscarlos. El avi6n estaba por salir. Cuando par6 el carro y lleg6 al aeropuerto el avi6n acababa de salir para Australia. 174 Horas més tarde le avisaron desde Australia que sus papas se habian estrellado en el avi6n. Se fue para Rusia que era donde vivia una tia. La adopt6 y la tia muridfi Deborah tuvo una hija que fue tan grande como la mamé. LA GRAN PINTORA l. Margarita sofiaba con a. ser una enfermera b. ser farmacefitica, pintora y estrella c. tener muchos hijos 2. El papa de Margarita era a. un mecanico b. un carpintero c. un pintor 3. Margarita tuvo una hija que se llamaba a. Alicia b. Deborah c. Cecilia 4. La hija de Margarita gan6 a. un auto b. una casa c. un viaje 5. Deborah no queria volver a Australia porque a. no le gustaba b. tenia muchos compromisos c. le quedaba demasiado lejos de los Estados Unidos 6. Los papas de Deborah murieron a. en un accidente de avi6n b. de vejez c. de una enfermedad natural 175 LA TULAVIEJA B A mi papé una vez le aparecié la Tulavieja. La Tulavieja era una chiquita que cuando la mama le decia --hija ven, hagame un mandado-- ella decia --voy, voy-- pero nunca iba. Una vez la mama le dijo que si iba ir a la misa, y dijo que si, pero no fue. Entonces a la tercer vez la mama lleg6 a escondidas y vio que no fue a la iglesia. Dios le mand6 un castigo y entonces todas las noches a mi papé cuando estaba durmiendo oia que decian --ivoy, voy! Pero la Tulavieja era pequefiita y toda mechuda. Cuando le oia tenia que salir corriendo. Una vez alli en Sagrada Familia el venia ya del trabajo, habia un cafetal, entonces oy6 como que alguien iba majando unas hojas secas. Cuando se volvia, la persona se escondia. Después oia --ivoy, voy! Entonces se acercaba més duro y més duro hasta que mi papa tuvo que salir corriendo. Se fue a una bajada donde vivia mi tia y oy6 otra voz que decia iaaaayyyy! Era la llorona. Entonces sale de nuevo para arriba y llega donde el padrino de un tio mio y tira la puerta. Entonces salié el padrino de mi tfo con un cuchillo y con una pistola. A mi papa le dio la pistola y el otro, el cuchillo. Cerraron la puerta. Desde ese dia mi papa no volvi6 a salir de noche por Sagrada Familia, ni por Paso Ancho. Mi papé tiene una canci6n de esa Tulavieja. LA TULAVIEJA l. La Tulavieja era un a. angel b. una anciana c. una chiquita 2. La ulavieja cuando la llamaban decia . voy, voy . no me llamen T a b c a sus 6rdenes 176 Cuando la Tulavieja se fue con la intenci6n de ir a la misa la persona que se di6 cuenta que no fue, era a. su mejor amiga b. su tio c. su mamé La Tulavieja vivia en a. Sagrada familia b. Pavas c. en Escazfi Mi papé a. ha hecho una poesia sobre la Tulavieja b. ha hecho una canci6n de la Tulavieja c. no le tiene miedo a la Tulavieja Cuando la llorona le sali6 a mi papa y a mi tio, uno cogi6 un cuchillo y el otro cogi6 a. un palo b. una lanza c. una pistola 177 Triad 12 LA NINA QUE SE CONVIRTIO EN PRINCESITA G Habia una vez una nifia que era muy sola en una casa. Entonces se fue a acostar ya que era de noche. Se durmi6 y 5066 que era una princesa. Pasaron muchas cosas. Cuando se durmi6 se habia hecho una reina y estaba en un Castillo. Tenia otro Castillo vecino en donde vivia un principe que le habia pasado lo mismo que la princesita. Pasaron muchos afios y ya se iban haciendo grandes. Entonces un dia se fueron en una alfombra mégica, y se perdieron en un bosque. No sabian que hacer, y los encontraron. Se hicieron una fiesta porque los encontraron, ya se casaron. Tuvieron muchos hijos y vivieron felices. LA NINA QUE SE CONVIRTIO EN PRINCESITA 1. La nifia a. se encontraba con unas amigas en el parque b. se encontraba muy sola y se fue a acostar c. no queria acostarse porque tenia miedo 2. Cuando se durmi6 la nifia 5060 a. que habia ganado un premio b. que habia caido en una trampa c. que se habia convertido en una princesa 3. En el suefio se habia ido a vivir a a. un castillo b. una isla linda c. Europa 4. Al principe a. se le habia quemado su castillo b. se le habia muerto su princesa c. le habia pasado lo mismo que a la princesa 5. El principe y la princesa se perdieron en un bosque un pais grande c. un reino desconodido 6. Para celebrar el haber encontrado al principe y la princesa se hizo a. una fiesta b. un acto deportivo c. una misa de agradecimiento U0) 178 Los HIJOS DE LA MONTANA P Que bello paisaje ofrece una montaNa. Parece una buena madre con sus hijos. Su hijo mayor se llama Monte y tiene la caballera revuelta. Monte nunca viaja a las ciudades. Es un viejo grufién pero caritativo con el hombre, le da leNa para el hogar y madera para hacer su casa. Volcan, hermano de Monte, es tan grande como él, pero tiene un genio infernal, cuando se enoja abre su inmensa boca y comienza a escupir fuego, cenizas, piedras y otras materias como si quisiera arruinar a los hombres. Cerro, es otro hermano. Es bueno, a veces vive muy cerca de las ciudades. Colina, la hija menor parece la pequeNa reina de la montafia. Como es chica le gusta jugar con los nifios. Monte, Volcan, Cerro y Colina tienen una abuelita: La Cordillera. LOS HIJOS DE LA MONTANA l. La montafia a. ofrece un bello paisaje b. no ofrece muy buen paisaje c. ofrece sélamente hojas y hierbas 2 El hijo mayor de la montaNa se llama a Volcén b. cerro c monte 3 El ijo mayor h a siempre va a las ciudades b. va a las ciudades pero pasa de lejos c nunca va a las ciudades hijo mayor a. le da lefia al hombre b. le da comida al hombre c le da comida al hombre a veces 179 5. Volc6n tiene a. un brazo muy fuerte b. un ojo muy grande c. un genio infernal 6. Cerro es a. muy feo b. bueno c. mala gente l8O EL ABEJON B Era gordo, comel6n, y aventurero. aSabias que era? Un abej6n. Un dia el abej6n por aventurero decidi6 ir a buscar comida. Se perdi6 en los mas hondo del bosque y se encontr6 a una abejoncita. Ella era muy bella. Después de mucho tiempo se casaron. Tuvieron abejoncitos y vivieron felices por mucho tiempo hasta que un dia les apareci6 un gran abej6n que le queria quitar la esposa. El abejoncito pele6 por ella, pero un dia la perdi6. Se la llev6 a un palacio el abej6n y la captur6 y la amarré contra un palo, y se iba de trabajo. Al llegar del trabajo entonces le dijo --iLola, Lola! aDénde estas? Habia dejado una carta, como lista que era. Le decia --ay6dame, estoy en lo mas hondo del bosque. Entonces el abej6n se visti6 muy répido y fue a buscar a su bella Madan. Cuando lleg6 al lugar el abenjocito habia mandado a llamar a los guerreros del pueblo. La gente del pueblo mat6 al abej6n y rescataron a la abejoncita. EL ABEJON 1. El abej6n era a. gracioso y pele6n b. serio y peledn c. gordo y comel6n 2. Se perdiO en el bosque porque fue a. a buscar comida b. a llevarle la comida a sus amigos c. a buscar a una amiga 3. El gran abej6n queria a. quitarle la esposa al abej6n b. hacerse amigo del abej6n c. hacerse amigo de la esposa del abej6n 4. El gran abej6n se llev6 a la esposa del abej6n a a. un palacio b. un lugar donde vivia solo diablos c. una hacienda 181 5. A la princesa el gran abej6n a. la encerr6 en un cuarto muy oscuro b. la tenia amarrada contra un palo c. la tenia suelta 6. La princesa cuando se escap6 a. le llam6 al gran abej6n por teléfono b. le mand6 un telegrama al gran abej6n c. le mand6 una carta 182 Triad 13 UN VIAJE A SANTA ANA B Tres nifios se montaron en un bus con la intenci6n de hacer un recorrido por Santa Ana. Cogieron un bus en el centro de San José y cuando menos pensaron ya estaban por la Sabana. Les impresion6 las piscinas que aqui se veian. Andar por la autopista nos hizo sentir que estébamos en un vel6dromo. En poco tiempo ya estébamos en el puente nuevo de Santa Ana y en el parque de Santa Ana. Alli habia toda clase de plantas. Los que cuidaban el parque nos enseNaron como cuidar las plantas. Alli también tuvimos la oportunidad de entrar en el vivero para observar las matitas pequeNos. Nos dijo el sefior que cuidaba las plantas que no manosearamos las semillas. Como nos encant6 este pequeNo paseo. UN VIAJE A SANTA ANA l. Los nifios se fueron a. en carro a Santa Ana b. a pie a Santa Ana c. en bus a Santa Ana 2. El bus lo cogieron a. por la Sabana b. por el Paseo Col6n c. en San José 3. A los nifios les impresion6 a. las canchas de basketbol en la sabana b. las piscinas c. la cantidad de gente que habia en la Sabana 4. La autopista les hizo sentir que a. estaban en un vel6dromo b. estaban en la pista de aterrizaje del aeropuerta Juan Santa Maria c. estaban en una pista de patinaje 183 5. Cuando los niNos llegaron a Santa Ana visitaron a. al parque b. el teatro c. la plaza de fdtbol 6. El sefior que cuidaba las plantas nos dijo a. que podriamos manosear las plantas pero que tuviéramos cuidado b. que hiciéramos lo que queriamos con ellas c. que no manosearamos las plantas 184 LAS PLANTAS G Las plantas tienen que recibir sol, agua, aire y tierra. Porque sin estas cosas no pueden vivir. Las plantas nos sirven para adornar las casas, y como regalo cuando una persona se enferma. Hay que cuidarlas con carifio como cuando una persona las pasa a otra. Si no hubieran plantas haria mucho calor, porque no habria nada para proteger la humedad en la tierra. Cuando la humedad se evapora de la tierra, se forman las lluvias. Las lluvias hacen crecer a las plantas. LAS PLANTAS l. Las plantas a. no necesitan sol, sdlo tierra b. sdlo necesitan sol o agua c. necesitan sol, agua, aire y tierra 2. Yo uso las plantas para a. adornar las casas b. hacer zapatos c. hacer bolsas 3. Las lluvias se forman a. con el humo de los bosques quemados b. sdlamente cuando hay un temblor en la tierra c. con la humedad que se evapora de la tierra 4. Sin las plantas a. no habria humedad en la tierra b. habria mucha agua c. el hombre podria vivir facilmente 5. Para que se mantengan bonitas las plantas a. es necesario conversar con ellas b. cuidarlas cuando uno las pasa de una mano a otra c. es necesario conseguirlas muchos amigos 6. Las plantas crecen con a. los fertilizantes b. las lluvias c. las miradas de las personas buenas 185 LA PELOTA DE FUTBOL P Mi dueNo me puso en el suelo. Me dio un puntapié, supuse que habia cometido alguna falta grave y que él estaba enojado conmigo. Pero estaba equivocada. Lo que mi duefio hacia era jugar conmigo. Me obli- gaba a correr y luego corria tras de mi para alcanzarme. Algunos dias después, mi dueNo me llev6 al campo. Alli me recibieron cariNosamente muchos nifios. Los niNos jugaron a meterme en una red como si yo fuese un pez. Si entraba en ella gritaban I'Gol" y me recogian y acariciaban. Al oir el silbato, los niNos me detenian, y me mantenian entre sus manos momentaneamente. Aunque terminé muy cansada, me quedaron deseos de volver con mi dueNo al campo. LA PELOTA DE FUTBOL l. La pelota pensé al recibir una patada a. que el duefio estaba bravo con ella b. que la querian estallar c. que iba ir de paseo 2. El duefio queria a. destrozar la pelota b. jugar con la pelota c. quitarle el color para luego poner otro color 3. Algunos dias después, el duefio llevaba la pelota a. al cine b. a la iglesia c. al campo 4. Los otros nifios querian meterla en una red preferian jugar que patear la pelota no querian jugar con la pelota GUN 000 5. Cuando se oia el silbato los niNos a. comenzaban a patear la bola b. mantenian la bola entre sus manos por un rato c. se iban para la casa 6. La bola después del partido a. no qued6 muy cansada b. qued6 rota c. qued6 cansada pero queria volver con su duefio 186 Triad 14 LLEGA EL CIRCO P iCuanto bullicio hay en la calle principal! Los nifios han salido de la escuela. Corren entre el pfiblico que esta en las aceras. Una mfisica alegre y bulliciosa despierta la curiosidad de todos. --iHa llegado el circo! iHa llegado el circo! --dice Marta, aplaudiendo con alegria. Los ojos de los ninos brillan de felicidad. iQue maravilloso es el circo! iCuantas sorpresas trae cada vez que viene! iQue gentio hay en las aceras! Desde lejos se oye el bullicio del desfile. Los nifios llegaron tarde, pero se ponen delante para ver mejor. Abre el desfile un carruaje rojo con adornos amarillos. Tiran de él dos caballos blancos. Lleva los mfisicos vestidos de azul. Los caballos van bailando. El pfiblico se admira al verlos bailar. Detrés van unos hombres grandes. Se ven horribles con las caras pintadas. Tienen bigotes negros muy largos. Llevan pantalones rojos y chaquetas amarillas. iQué botas tan grandes tienen! Cuando pasan, uno hace como que agarra a un nifio de la acera. Este grita asustado y el p6blico se rie. LLEGA EL CIRCO l. Detras de los caballos iban a. unos hombres grandes b. unos nifios en zancas c. unos perritos Pequineses 2. Los nifios a. no estaban como muy felices con la llegada del circo b. han salido de la escuela y corren entre el pdblico con bullicio y la felicidad c. no fueron avisados que iba a llegar el circo 3. Los mfisicos estaban vestidos de a. amarillo b. azul c. rojo 4. Marta a. b. c. 187 se puso a aplaudir con alegria se puso a llorar con la llegada del circo se visti6 de payaso 5. Lo primero en el desfile a. b. c. era un trencito con la reina del circo eran unos elefantes con una bastonera era un carruaje rojo con adornos amarillos 6. Los nifios a. b. c. llegaron a tiempo al circo y escogieron los mejores lugares no pudieron colocarse en un sitio bueno para observar todo llegaron tarde pero se pusieron delante para ver 188 EL CUENTO DE COOKIE G Habia una vez una perrita que se llamaba Cookie. Cookie era muy presumida y todos los dias se asomaba por la ventana de su casa para ver la ciudad de Nueva York. Nueva York es una ciudad muy grande y alli hay perros de todas clases. Una vez pa56 un perrito por la casa de Cookie y Cookie se asom6 y como Cookie era tan orgullosa fue a la tienda y se compr6 una tela para un vestido y unos pantalones y una blusa. Después sali6 a otra tienda y se compr6 un gorrito con una blusita rosada. Después fue a que le hicieran el vestido. Como la seNora que hacia el vestido sabia que Cookie era tan orgullosa, le hizo una costura mal. Se puso el vestido y sali6 al patio de su casa para que todos los vecinos la vieran. Como los vecinos eran pobres se fueron a asomar por el garaje de la casa para ver a Cookie. La costura mal se peg6 en un clavo y se le cay6 el vestido a Cookie y todos los vecinos se pusieron a reir. Cookie se sinti6 muy mal pero finalmente aprendi6 una buena lecci6n de no ser tan orgullosa. EL CUENTO DE COOKIE l. Cookie era una perrita a. muy inteligente b. muy mentirosa c. muy presumida 2. Cookie vivia en a. Tarrazfi b. Londres c. Nueva York 3. Para impresionar a los demés perritos Cookie a. se compr6 un carro Gltimo modelo b. se compr6 unas telas para hacerse un vestido c. se hiz6 una gran fiesta 189 4. La costurera a. hizo el vestido pero le dej6 mal una costura b. no le quizo hacer el vestido c. le hizo el vestido a Cookie muy bien 5. Cookie se puso el vestido y a. sali6 a la Avenida Central b. se fue al patio de su casa c. se fue a un desfile de modas 6. Los vecinos de Cookie a. eran muy pobres b. tenian mucha plata c. eran muy buenos 190 PINOCHO B Una vez Pinocho iba para la escuela entonces el gato llegd y le llam6 y le dijo --Pinocho venga, no vayas a la escuela. Y la hada madrina le dijo -—Pinocho iras a la escuela y le haras caso a los profesores. Entonces Pinocho no le hizo caso a la hada madrina. For no hacerle caso lo vendieron a un principe que tenia mucha plata. Entonces le dijo el principe a Pinocho. Tendrés que trabajar muchisimo. Pero Pinocho se escap6 y se top6 al zorro y al gato. Se tiraron al rio para coger la piedra. Los tres se tiraron al rio y los comi6 un tibur6n. Entonces Pinocho gritaba, --id6nde estamos, quiero ir donde mi pap6, Guepeto, quiero ir donde mi papé! Entonces unos amigos de Pinocho andaban en barco y de noche iban a buscar a Pinocho con una caja bien grande que tenia un cuchillo y mecate. Pero Pinocho no se podia subir porque un tibur6n le arranc6 el mecate entonces lo ech6 para la boca. Pinocho no podia salir del tibur6n hasta que por fin ech6 la caja. Logr6 abrir la caja con el cuchillo. Le raj6 el cuello. Entonces Pinocho ya sali6 y se montaron en el barco y se fueron a pescar. PINOCHO l. Pinocho y sus amigos usaron a. un mecate para salirse de donde estaban b. una caja c. un helicéptero 2. El gato le dijo a Pinocho a. que fuera a la escuela b. que fuera a la escuela sdlamente algunos dias c. que no fuera a la escuela del todo 3. Pinocho, el zorro, y el gato fueron tragados por a. una ballena b. un pulpo c. un tibur6n 191 4. La hada madrina a. le dijo a Pinocho que estaba bien si no iba a la escuela b. que fuera a la escuela y que le hiciera caso a los profesores c. le dijo a Pinocho que tuviera mucho cuidado con lo que le dec1a el gato 5. Pinocho, el zorro, y el gato se tiraron al rio a. para nadar un rato porque tenian calor b. para coger un pez porque tenian hambre c. para coger una piedra 6. Pinocho fue vendido a a. un comerciante b. una pulperia c. un principe 192 Triad l5 EL ESPEJO G El aNo pasado nosotros recogimos una plata para comprar un espejo. Yo fui a buscar al sefior que vendia los espejos. A los pocos dias de haber conseguido el espejo, una hermana lo quebr6. El espejo lo queriamos para coquetear. Nos pusimos furiosa y regafiamos a mi hermanita. Como sabia que estabamos furiosas, nos pidio que la perdonaramos. Dijo que nos compraria uno nuevo. Nosotras, después nos reimos de lo que dijo, porque sabiamos que ella no tenia dinero para comprarse confites. EL ESPEJO l. Mi hermana dijo que a. nos pagaria por el espejo b. no hace falta un espejo c. nos compraria uno nuevo 2. El espejo a. lo fueron a buscar todos los estudiantes b. lo fui a buscar yo c. lo fue a buscar mi hermana 3. Cuando mi hermana quebr6 el espejo a. le hicimos una fiesta b. fuimos muy comprensivos con ella c. nos volvimos furiosas 4. Mi hermana quebr6 el espejo a. después de algunos meses b. después de algunos dias c. el mismo dia que lo compré 5. El espejo lo compramos a. para coquetear b. para dejarlo caer al piso y ver que tan duro era c. para ver que hacian las personas detras de uno 6. La plata fue recogida para comprar el espejo a. este afio b. hace cinco afios c. el aNo pasado 193 LOS FRIJOLES MAGICOS B Habia una vez un chiquito que tenia una vaca, entonces se encontr6 con un sefior que queria que le vendiera la vaca. El chiquito lo cambi6 por tres frijoles magicos. Llego el chiquito a la casa y ensefio los frijoles magicos a la mama. Entonces la mama le dice que no sirven, que no son magicos, que los botara. El chiquito los tir6 hacia fuera. Por la noche crecieron hasta las nubes. El 6rbol se hizo grande hasta el cielo. Despues siguio su camino hasta que se encontr6 un castillo donde tenian una princesa tocando en un arpa. La princesa tenia que tocar un arpa. El gigante tenia un ganzo que echaba huevos de oro y entonces puso muchos huevo y mientras el gigante los partia. Pero un dia pudieron con la ayuda de muchos ratoncitos abrir la puerta y sacar el arpa, y al ganzo. Despues besaron a la princesa. DeSpues bejaron del cielo, pero cuando iban a bajar, se queria venir el gigante. Entonces cortaron el arbol y se cay6 el gigante en un hueco. También se cay6 toda la plata. El nifio le dijo a la mama --;mama, mama. Somos ricos, somos ricos! Entonces la mama sali6 a recibirlos. LOS FRIJOLES MAGICOS l. El chiquito cambi6 la vaca a. por unos frijoles b. por un ganzo c. por unos huevos 2. La mama del chiquito 1e dijo a. que se comiera los frijoles b. que los botara ~ c. que se los devolviera al Senor 3. Los frijoles crecieron a. muy lentamente b. del tamaNo de una planta enana c. tan grandes que llegaron al cielo 194 4. La princesa tenia que tocar el arpa a. porque si no la matarTan 13' para que "9 $9 19 leidara como tocar_ , . c. porque habTa un senor c1ego que neceSTtaba de la mu51ca 5. Con la ayuda de a. un angel lograron escapar la princesa y el chiquito b. muchos ratoncitos lograron escapar c. un cohete especial lograron escapar 6. El gigante cuando intent6 bajar por la planta a. llovid mucho y se ahog6 b. fue partido por un rayo c. fue cortada la planta 195 EL ARCO IRIS P Empezaba la tarde. El arco iris llego de bien lejos y empezo a beber agua del rio. --Va a llover, trinaban los pajaros. --Va a llover, anunciaban las mariposas amarillas. --Va a llover...er ...er, resonaba el eco sobre las piedras. El agua se pintaba con los siete colores del arco iris. El rio se sonreia con sus labios de arena fina, y corria alegre llevando hojas, ramas y flores. El perfume aromaba el paisaje, mientras el rio cantaba el milagro de sus aguas. Daba gusto verle la alegria al rio. El arco iris coloreaba el agua de tonos verdes, rosados, violetas, anaranjados y amarillos brillantes. Pero, que pronto pas6 el hechizo. El arco iris recogi6 sus colores y dijo adi6s al rio. Los violines de los 6rboles con sus dorremifasol..., le decian: --Adi6s... Hasta lue...go El arco iris dej6 el cielo limpio, azul y moteado de ovejitas blancas. EL ARCO IRIS l. El arco iris sali6 a. por la tarde b. por la mafiana c. a medic dia 2. El arco iris a. no tenia muchos colores porque habian muchas nubes b. empez6 a beber agua c. qued6 tranquilo 3. Los pajaros, las mariposas, y el eco de las piedras decian a. va a llover b. a qué hora se iré el arco iris c. ique arco iris mas bonitol 4. En E1 En 196 el agua a. se veian sOlamente seis colores del arco iris b. no se veia ningfin color ya que estaba muy sucia el agua c. se veian sdlamente siete colores del arco iris rio a. no corria porque no llovi6 b. se sonre1a, y llevaba hojas, ramas y flores c. estaballenisimo porque acababa de llover el paisaje se a. sentia el aroma, mientras el rio cantaba b. veian plantas c. sentia un olor desagradable 197 Triad l6 EL ALCOHOLISMO B Fui donde mi amigo. Tenia ocho chiquitos y la esposa estaba muy preocupada porque el padecia del alcohol. Se iba a la cantina y se tomaba frascos de guaro. Dur6 5 dias para llegar a la casa. Cuando llegd a la casa, lleg6 tomado. Le tuvieron que llevar al hospital donde se qued6 por lo dias. Lo visitamos. La esposa estaba llorando al igual que los hijos, ya que tenian casi 5 dias sin comer. Yo me senti muy triste. Yo quiero recomendar a las personas que no tomen mucho alcohol. EL ALCOHOLISMO l. Mi amigo a. tenia cinco chiquitos b. no tenia chiquitos c. tenia ocho ChiQuitos 2. Cuando iba a la cantina no le volvian a ver en su casa hasta dentro de a. un dia b. cuatro dias c. cinco dias 3. Tuvieron que llevarlo al hospital. Alli lo dejaron internado por a. ocho dias b. diez dias c. seis dias 4. La esposa y sus chiquitos estaban a. llorando b. muy tristes c. muy felices cuando el papd no estaba 5. Cuando el seNor tomaba lo que conversaba con su familia a. era muy limitado b. era muy bueno c. era como para tener a otra persona para que le ayudara a interpretar lo que él decia 6. Yo le recomiendo a otras personas que a. no tomen nada b. tomen sélamente una vez a la semana c. tomen con mucho control 198 UN PERRO G Yo una vez tuve un perro en mi casa. Era un perro muy obediente y carifioso pero estaba muy viejo. Un dia le comenzd a llorar el ojo. Nosotros pensamos que tal vez tenia una basurita en el ojo. Lo revisamos bien pero no encontramos nada. Al dia siguiente comenzd a hacer lo mismo. Esto siguio por muchos dias hasta que lo llevamos al doctor. El doctor dijo que estaba ciego. Le pusieron una inyeccidn, pero a los dias después se muri6. Nunca supimos de qué muri6. Sospechamos que fue de alguna infeccidn, o quizas de la misma inyecci6n. UN PERRO l. Mi perro era a. bravo b. muy tonto c. obediente y carifioso 2. Mi perro tenia una enfermedad a. en una pata b. debajo del est6mago c. en un ojo 3. Nosotros pensamos que a. no era nada que tenia el perro b. se sanaria al otro dia c. tenia una basurita en el ojo 4. El médico nos dijo a. que ese perro vivira por mucho tiempo b. que no nos preocupara c. que el perro estaba ciego 5. El médico le dio: a. unas pastillas blancas al perro b. una medicina roja c. una inyecci6n 6. Creimos que muri6 de a. vejez b. lombrices c. alguna infeccién 199 NUESTRA AMERICA P Salve, América, nuevo milagro de Dios para la redencidn del hombre. Las multitudes llegan a ti, y piensan que han encontrado el paraiso. iSalve, extranjero, que vienes desde lejos con tu hijo en los brazos! iSeca tus ojos y entra! iTen confianza! iAmerica es el hogar de los desdichados! Aqui encontrarés libertad y amor. Aqui vibra el ensuefio de la fraternidad. Aqui el 6rbol fructifica y la mies madura. Aqui la paz gana batallas contra el hambre y la ignorancia. iBendita sea la paz y sus cosechas! iBendito sea el amor y todos sus frutos! iUnamonos hermanos! iLevantemos bajo la mirada de Dios que la bendice, nuestra bandera de amor y de justicia! iPermeate de amor, oh América! iSerés la mano en que el mundo apoyaré su frente vuelta fuego! NUESTRA AMERICA l. En la lectura se pide que salve América a. para que sélo los que hablamos el espaNol nos redimimos b. para que $6lo los que hablamos el espafiol y el inglés nos redimimos c. para que toda América se redime 2. Cuando llegan las multitudes a America piensan que han encontrado a. mucha riqueza b. el paraiso c. muchas montafias 3. América es el hogar a. de los desdichados b. de los afortunados c. de los nifios 200 4. En América se encuentra a. mucho oro b. la mejor educacién del mundo c. libertad y amor 5. La paz en América gana batalla a. contra las grandes potencias mundiales b. contra el hambre y la ignorancia c. contra la esclavitud 6. En la lectura se pide que a. nos unamos y nos levantemos bajo la mirada de Dios b. peliemos hasta derrotar al amigo C- no durmamos de noche hasta que haya paz 201 Triad 17 EL VENDEDOR P Todas las mafianas, cuando el reloj da las y yo voy camino de la escuela, me encuentro en la calleja con ese vendedor que grita --;Pulseras, pulseras de plata y de cristal!--. Nunca tiene prisa, ni va mas que por donde quiere, ni lo obligan a llegar a sitio alguno, ni a volver a su casa a su hora... iQuién fuera vendedor, para pasarme el dia por la calle gritando: --;Pulseras, pulseras de plata y de cristal!--. A las cuatro, cuando vuelvo de la escuela, miro todas las tardes por el port6n de aquella casa que esta alli y veo al jardinero cavando la tierra del jardin. Hace lo que le da la gana con su azaddn, se mancha la ropa de polvo cuando quiere y nadie viene a decirle que si el sol le esté poniendo negro, que si se esta calando de agua... iQuién fuera jardinero, para cavar y cavar toda la tarde en el jardin sin que nadie me gritara! EL.VENDEDOR l. El vendedor regresa a su casa a a las cuatro de la tarde b. a las seis de la tarde c. cuando oscurece 2. Oigo al vendedor cuando a. voy a la escuela b. voy a la playa c. voy a jugar 3. El vendedor vende a. papayas b. escobas c. pulseras 4. El vendedor sale a vender ~ a. a las siete de la manana b. a las diez de la mafiana c. por las tardes 5. Al vendedor a. a veces le obligan llegar a tiempo b. siempre le obligan sus papas llegar a tiempo c. no le obligan llegar a tiempo 6. El vendedor vende las pulseras a. desde su pulperia b. por las calles c. desde un puesto de venta en la feria 203 EL DIA QUE Los MARCIANOS LLEGARON A LA LUNA B Un dia dos hombres de la tierra fueron a la luna y se encontraron con un platillo volador. Ellos dijeron --éQue era eso?- Entonces se bajaron a invetigar que era. Entonces dos hombres que eran los Marcianos estaban por el platillo volador. Con las pistolas atacaron a los hombres buenos, y les hicieron guerra. Luego se fueron a unas cuevas que tenian el jefe de los platillos, y empezaron a disparar desde alli con las pistolas que habian usado. Los que fueron a la luna tuvieron que salir disparados cuando los marcianos empezaron a atacar. EL DIA QUE Los MARCIANOS LLEGARON A LA LUNA l. Los hombres que fueron a la luna a. se encontraron con un avi6n b. se encontraron con un platillo volador c. se encontraron con un cohete perdido 2. Los hombres de la tierra se habian ido a la Juna a. a recoger algo que habian dejado alla b. a pasear c. a investigar 3. Los hombres de la tierra eran a. tres b. cinco c. dos 4. Los hombres que atacaron primeramente lo hicieron a. desde el platillo volador b. desde una cabafia c. desde una montafia 5. Después hicieron el ataque desde a. las montafias b. la cueva c. el platillo volador 6. Los hombres de la luna usaron a. cafiones en el ataque b. espadas c. pistolas 204 LA ESCUELA G La escuela es muy importante porque nos sirve para estudiar y para aprender. En la escuela aprendemos a leer, a escribir, y muchas cosas mas. Lo que aprendemos nos sirve para conseguir un trabajo cuando uno sea grande, por ejemplo si uno quiere ser una secretaria. Uno no s6lo va a la escuela para aprender, pero también va al colegio para hacer estudios mas avanzados. Es muy interesante aprender a escribir y a leer. Cuando ya uno sea grande y tenga chiquitos, ya uno le firma las tareas con el nombre de uno. LA ESCUELA 1. La escuela es a. poca importante para el estudio b. apenas buena para el estudio c. muy importante para el estudio 2. En la escuela aprendemos a. a ser buenos con el profesor o la profesora b. a leer y a escribir ~ c. a pelear con los companeros 3. La escuela nos ayuda a. a aprender cosas para conseguir un trabajo b. a tener buena salud c. a no ser egoista 4. Para hacer estudios mas avanzados uno va a a. un colegio b. una escuela de comercio c. la iglesia 5. Para aprender a escribir y a leer a. no es muy entusiasmante b. es muy interesante c. es muy dificil 6. Cuando uno sea grande y sabe excribir y leer a. puede ser padre de familia b. puede ir a las peliculas prohibidas c. puede firmar las tareas de los chiquitos 205 lljggi;u; LOS NINos SE LEVANTAN G Muy de manaNita los nihos se levantan. Una niha se llamaba Rebeca y el niNo Roberto. De pronto les sali6 un 050 y les pregunto, --5Que estan haciendo? Y los niNos le respondid --Nosotras estamos jugando "La Rueda, Rueda." Y les dijo el oso, --entonces les invito a mi casa a comer. Los nifios se fueron detras del oso. Llegaron a su casa. El 050 entonces cerr6 las puertas y ventanas. De pronto el oso dijo --me los voy a comer. Entonces le dijo Roberto --antes de que nos comas ve a traernos agua porque tenemos mucha sed. Pero cuando el oso fue a traer el agua, los niNos se escaparon y vivieron muy felices. LOS NINos SE LEVANTAN 1. El 050 le sali6 a Roberto y Rebecca' a. por la tarde cuando venian de la escuela b. por la hora de almuerzo c. por la manana 2. El 050 les dijo que a. el podria serles muy Gtil b. les invita a su casa a comer c. 61 era sus amigos 3. Los niNos estaban jugando a. "La rueda, rueda" b. "Mir6n, mir6n, donde pasa tanta gente." c. de escondite 4. Cuando Roberto y Rebecca llegaron a la casa del 050 el a. les cerr6 las puertas pero dej6 las ventanas abiertas b. les cerr6 las puertas y las ventanas c. no cerr6 ni las puertas, ni las ventanas 5. Uno de los niNos le dijo al 050 que antes de comérselos, que se fuera a a. traerles un rosario para que se pusieran a rezar b. avisar a sus papas c. traer agua para tomar 6. Cuando se fue el 050 a traerles agua a los niNos a. éstos se escaparon b. se escap6 solo Roberto para ir a buscar ayuda c. se quedaron alli asperando a que alguien viniera a socorrerlos 206 EN LAS PLAYAS P En las playas de todos los mundos se reunen los nifios. El cielo infinito se encalma sobre sus cabezas; el agua impaciente se alborota. En las playas de todos los mundos los nifios se rednen, gritando y bailando. Hacen casitas de arena y juegan con las conchas. Su barco es una hoja seca y lo botan sonriendo en la vasta profundidad marina, los nifios juegan en las playas de todos los mundos. No saben nadar ni echar la red. Mientras el pescador de perlas se sumerge y el mercader navega en sus navios, los nifios escogen piedrecillas y las vuelven a tirar. Ni buscan tesoros ocultos ni saben echar la red. EN LAS PLAYAS 1. Los nifios escogen piedrecillas y las vuelven a tirar a. mientras el pescador de perlas se sumerge b. mientras la marea este muy alta c. mientras los adultos estén dormidos 2. Los nifios de todo el mundo se refinen a. en las playas b. en las escuelas ’ c. en los parques de diversion 3. Los nifios a. son buenos nadadores b. no saben nadar, ni echar la red c. saben nadar un poquito 4. El agua ’ a. esta muy sucia b. se alborota c. esta muy caliente 5, Los barcos que hacen los nifios a. son de madera liviana b. son bonitos c. son como una hoja seca 6. Los nifios a. no juegan mucho en las playas b. hacen barquitos de papel c. hacen casitas de arena y juegan con las conchas 207 LA INUNDACION B Cuando westaba en mi casa se vino unos aguaceros y se inund6 una alcantarilla. Por alli se habia salido el rfo y se metid en tres casas. Llegaron unos muchachos a sacar a unas muchachas pero les cost6 mucho porque el agua estaba muy alta. Salieron a la calle unas muchachas que estaban en piyamas y bata. Un sefior las sac6. Habia también una sefiora que le llegaba el agua muy alto. Se cay6 y casi se ahoga, pero un chiquito entr6 y la sac6. Llegaron también los bomberos. En la noche unos chiquitos y yo comenzamos a llevar cosas al comunal. Aqui metimos las cosas como: colchones, camas, etc. Muchas personas durmieron en el comunal. LA INUNDACION l. El aguacero a. bot6 los arboles b. inund6 el barco c. inund6 la alcantarilla 2. El r’o a. se meti6 por unos cafios b. se metié por unas cuevas que habia cerca de mi casa c. se metio en tres casas 3. Algunas personas a. salieron a la calle con piyamas y bata b. salieron a las calles gritando c. siguieron durmiendo 4. Una sefiora a. estaba llorando b. se cay6 y casi se ahoga c. estaba tratando de sacar al agua de su casa con la escoba 5. Llegaron a. Los de la Cruz Roja b. Unos hombres ranas c. Los Bomberos 6. Las personas durmieron a. en sus casas de noche b. en el comunal c. en unos hoteles 208 Triad 19 L05 DEPORTES I3 A mi lo que me gusta mucho es el patinaje. Entre mas patina y lo hace bien, més deseos tiene de hacerlo. También me gusta el ffitbol porque es emocionante cuando se abre el marcador. También puede ganarse premios como una copa. El penal le da emoci6n al partido porque los que estén mirando estén con que si se van a meter el 901, o si el portero atraparé la bola. Si uno no juega el deporte, uno puede ser 6rbitro. También se puede disfrutar. La nataci6n también como deporte lo hace a uno sentirse bien. Uno hace ejercicios en los brazos, las piernas, y en los pulmones. LOS DEPORTES l. A la persona de este cuento le gusta mas a. el patinaje b. el béisbol c. el boxeo 2. En el ffitbol es emocionante cuando a. se caé algun jugador b. se abre el marcador c. se pelean los jugadores 3. Produce emoci6n también el ffitbol cuando a. uno gana algun premio como una copa b. el partido va empatado y se produce el desempate c. uno juega en la lluvia 4. El penal le da emoci6n al partido a. porque es un tiro de cerca b. porque es un tiro muy dificil ’ c. porque los que estén mirando no estan seguros si se va a meter un gol 5. Si uno no juega el deporte puede ser a. un guardalinea b. un expectador c. un arbitro 6. En la nataci6n uno a. puede dormise en el agua ’ b. ejercita los brazos, las piernas, y el pulmon c. puede ahogarse 209 LOS PERROS G Habia una vez tres perritos que eran de Naranjo. Cada uno tenia distinta personalidad. Uno de los perros se llamaba Gitana, uno se llamaba Rin-Tin, y el otro, Lassie. Gitana le gustaba comerse las matas en el patio y tuvimos que regalarla. Rintin era muy bravo. Tan bravo era que un dia lleg6 mi tia a la casa y la mordi6 ya que no la reconoci6. Mi tia nunca volvi6. Un dia sali con Rintin a pasear y no me hizo caso, se meti6 en el centro de la calle y un carro lo mat6. El filtimo perro, Lassie, tampoco me hacia caso. Este se trepaba a las camas. Mi mamé no le gust6, y se la regal6 a mi madrina. Mi madrina no la queria y tuvimos que regalérselo a mi tia. Mi tia no lo tuvo por mucho tiempo y lo regal6 a unos amigos que Vivian muy lejos de la casa. Estos amigos lo cogieron. Ya cuando se pensaba en mi casa que Lassie se quedaria con los amigos, un dia de sorpresa volvi6 a aparecer por casa. Esta vez decidimos dejarlo con nosotros. LOS PERROS l. Los perros eran a. Cartagineses b. Heredianos c. Naranjefios 2. Rin Tin a. se trepaba en las camas b. era muy bravo c. le gustaba comerse las matas 3. Lassie fue a. regalado a mi madrina b. regalado a un amigo c. regalado a una hermana 210 4. Mi tia a. no volvi6 a la casa después que la mordi6 el perro b. sigui6 viniendo de vez en cuando c. sigui6 viniendo a la casa después de que le mordi6 el perro 5. Lassie finalmente a. se muri6 b. se quedd'con los amigos c. se regresé a vivir con nosotros 6. La muerte de Rin Tin fue causada a. por una inyecci6n mal puesta b. por una enfermedad c. por un golpe producido por un carro 211 LA INTELIGENCIA DE LAS FLORES P Si se encuentran plantas y flores torpes o desgraciadas, no las hay que se hallen enteramente desprovistas de sabiduria y de ingeniosi- dad. Todas tienen la magnifica ambicidn de invadir y conquistar la superficie del globo multiplicandose en él infinitamente. Para llegar a ese fin, tienen que vencer, a causa de la ley que las encadena al suelo, dificultades mucho mayores que las que se oponen a la multi- plicacién de los animales. Asi es que la mayor parte de ellas recurren a astucias, combinaciones y asechanzas. Las flores dan al hombre un prodigioso ejemplo de insumisidn, de valor, de perseverancia y de ingeniosidad, ejemplo de ello lo constituye la fecundacién floral con el juego de los estambres y el pistilo, la seduccién de los perfumes, la atracci6n de los colores armoniosos y brillantes, la elaboraci6n del néctar, que las flores fabrican Gnicamente para atraer y retener al libertador extrafio, al mensajero del amor, abejorro, abeja, mosca, mariposa o falena que deben traerles el beso del amante lejano, invisible, inm6vil. Ese mundo vegetal que vemos tan tranquilo, tan resignado, en que todo parece aceptaci6n, silencio, obediencia, recogimiento, es por el contrario, un mundo de rebeli6n vehemente y obstinado. LA INTELIGENCIA DE LAS FLORES 1. Las flores a. apenas tienen un poco de inteligencia b. son enteramente torpes y desgraciadas c. no se encuentran totalmente desprovistas de sabiduria e ingeniosidad 2. El mundo vegetal es a. de resignaci6n b. de aceptacién c. de rebeli6n 3. Todas las flores a. no se multiplican e invaden el globo b. se multiplican e invaden el globo c. se multiplican si uno las trata bien 212 4. Las flores demuestran al hombre a. fecundaci6n floral b. poco valor c. poca atraccién 5. Para invadir el suelo y multiplicarse las flores a. tienen que vencer dificultades mucho mayores de los animales b. tienen que vencer muchos obstaculos c. tienen que vencer pocos obstaculos 6. La mayoria de las flores recurren a a. simplicidades para vivir b. astucias, combinaciones y asechanzas c. sus papas 213 M LA CASA CON GUARDA B Habia una vez una casa que cuando la ocuparon tenia muchos arboles. También tania unos perros y un guarda. Un dia pas6 un chiquito, y dijo --Ah, ese perro no es bravo. Al decir eso, el perro se le tir6 encima. Le mordi6 una mano. Le llevaron al hospital y tuvieron que cortarle la mano porque se le infect6. LA CASA CON GUARDA l. La casa estaba en a. Curridabat b. 80. Lujén c. Los Yoses 2. Cuando fue ocupada tenia a. un gallinero b. muchos arboles c. unas hamacas 3. El chiquito que pas6 a. si sabia que el perro era bravo b. no sabia que el perro era bravo c. no le importaba si el perro era bravo o no 4. El perro a. se qued6 quieto cuando e1cfiiqyito dijo que no era bravo b. acarici6 al chiquito cuando d1jo que no era bravo c. le mordi6 al chiquito cuando dijo que no era bravo 5. Al chiquito a. le tuvieron que llevar al hospital b. le curaron la mordida en la casa c. no le doli6 casi nada 6. Al chiquito a. le cocieron la mano y todo qued6 bien b. le tuvieron que cortar la mano c. le tuvieron que cortar las dos manos 214 LAS FRUTAS P Son deliciosas las frutas. Los nifios y los pajaros las buscan para comer sus pulpas de azficar. Muchas veces, por coger las frutas, los niNos maltratan los arboles amigos que las proporcionan. Debemos pensar que un arbol apaleado, como criatura viva Que es, se arruinaré y no dara buenas cosechas. En Costa Rica se producen muchas clases de sabrosas frutas. Tenemos frutas indigenas y otras traidas de Europa y de Asia. Entre las frutas indigenas estan las granadillas, las guayabas, los cases, los zapotes, las anonas, los aguacates, las papayas, los pejibayes, etc.; entre las venidas de fuera, tenemos las naranjas, las limas, los limones, las toronjas, los bananos, las pifias, las manzanas, los duraznosJos mangos, los membrillos y otros mas. Todos los niNos deben comer frutas; son mejores y mas sanas que las confituras. Si todos sembraramos al menos un arbol frutal, tendria— IDOS mas abundancia de frutas para todos. LAS FRUTAS 1. Las frutas son buscadas a. por las plantas que comen frutas b. por los niNos y los pajaros c. sOlamente por el hombre 2. Por coger las frutas muchas veces a. se olvidan los nifios de ir a la casa a comer b. se envenenan las personas y cogen otras cosas c. maltratan los arboles 3. Si el arbol es apaleado a. se arru1na b. usamos el resto para lefia c. sale otro arbol porque son resistentes 4. En Costa Rica a. solo hay un tipo de frutas b. hay que sembrar mas frutas c. hay frutas traidas de Asia, Europa, y otras que son indigenas 215 5. Entre las frutas indigenas estan a. las guayabas b. los bananos c. las naranjas 6. Entre las frutas traidas de afuera estan a. las granadillas b. las piNas c. los zapotes 216 MI ABUELITA G Un dia mi abuelita se muri6 cuando la atropell6 un carro, entonces todos los domingos la llevamos flores. Antes de la muerte de mi abuelita llam6 a la sefiora que arregla, y le dijo que le arreglara la tumba de mi abuelita Rafaela porque estaba muy fea. Desde ese dia cuando estaba en el hospital ya no la pudimos ir a visitar. Cuando la atropell6 un carro ella iba caminando y se dis- tray6. Yo la iba a halar a ella, pero en ese momento vino un carro y la atropell6. MI ABUELITA l. En el momento del atropello a. la llam6 una amiga b. ella iba caminando c. se resbalo 2. La sefiora que arregla las tumbas se le llam6 a. antes de la muerte de mi abuela b. después que murio mi abuela c. cuando faltabandos dias para que muriera mi abuelita 3. Cuando fue atropellada mi abuela a. se habia distraido b. venia saliendo de la misa c. tenia los ojos cerrados 4. Mi abuelita muri6 a. de un cancer b. por un bus que la atropell6 c. por un carro que la atropell6 5. Cuando estaba en el hospital mi abuelita a. ya no la podiamos ver b. sélamente una vez a la semana la podiamos ver c. sOlamente dos veces a la semana la veiamos 6. Le llevamos flores a mi abuelita a. cualquier dia b. los dias feriados c. sOlamente los domingos 217 Triad 21 LAS MALAS ACCIONES P Un padre habia entregado varios clavos y una tablita a su hijo, recomendandole que metiera un clavo en la tabla por cada mala accidn que cometiese. A los pocos dias se le present6 el hijo, diciéndole que habia empleado ya todos los clavos. —-iC6mo! --dijole el padre--. aEn tan corto tiempo has cometido tantas malas acciones? --aQué quieres, papa? iNo lo he podido remediar! --Pues ahora te tomaras el trabajo de arrancar un clavo por cada buena acci6n que hicieras. Casi con igual prontitud volvi6 el muchacho a reunir los clavos y entonces el padre le dijo: --Hijo mio, has procedido bien, y me complazco muchisimo en ello; pero advierte que aun cuando has reparado las malas acciones con las buenas, nunca podras quitar las huellas que los clavos dejaron en la madera. En la vida pasa 10 mismo. Las malas acciones jamas se reparan completamente. LAS MALAS ACCIONES l. El padre le recomend6 al hijo a. que metiera un clavo en la tabla por cada mala accidn que cometiese b. que no peleara con los amigos c. que no mintiera mas 2. El papa a. no estaba sorprendido de lo rapido que habia usado los clavos b. no le habia dicho al hijo que clavara los clavos c. estaba sorprendido de lo rapido que habia usado los clavos el hijo 3. El hijo a. arrancé los clavos mas lentamente en comparacidn como los puso b. arranco los clavos con igual prontitud a como los puso c. arranco los clavos mas rapidamente en comparacidn a como los puso 218 4. A los pocos dias a. lleg6 la abuelita del nifio b. el nifio le dijo a su papa que habia empleado todos los clavos c. se fue el niNo a la escuela 5. El papa a. recomend6 al hijo que dejara de bromear b. le pidi6 que pidiera a sus amigos que le ayudaran a clavar los clavos c. le pidié al hijo que sacara un clavo por cada cosa buena que hiciera 6. En la vida a. no es posible corregir el mal completamente b. es posible corregir el mal completamente c. $6lo un cincuenta por ciento de las veces se pueden corregir las cosas 219 EL BURRO PEREZOSO B Habia una vez un burro que era muy perezoso. Era tan perezoso que nadie lo queria. Un dia dijo el burro a una seNora, --aQuieres que te lleve esta carga? Y le dice la seNora, --es la primera vez que oigo a este burro decirme que me lleva la carga. Al llegar a la casa la sefiora le dijo que si queria quedarse en la casa. El burro le dijo que si. Desde esa vez el burro viv16 tranquilo con su conciencia. EL BURRO PEREZOSO 1. El burro era a. perezoso b. terco c. muy amigable 2. El burro era a. muy odiado b. muy querido c. ni querido, ni odiado 3. El burro a. le dijo a la sefiora que no puede llevar cargas muy pesadas b. le dijo a la sefiora que tenia mucha prisa c. se ofreci6 a llevarle una carga a la sefiora 4. La senora qued6 a. con mucha pena porque el burro siempre le ha llevado la bolsa a ella pero no a otras personas b. muy sorprendida con el ofrecimiento del burro c. poca sorprendida cuando el burro se ofreci6 a llevarle la carga 5. La sefiora a. ofreci6 su casa al burro para que se quedara a vivir b. le dijo que si le seguia ayudando que se podia quedar a vivir c. no le hizo ninan ofrecimiento al burro de quedarse en su casa a vivir 6. El burro ’ ’ a. quedo tranquilo con su conciencia despues de ayudarle a la senora b. qued6 iqual con su conciencia ya que era un burro tranquilo c. fue ayudado por un senor para que quedara mas tranqu1lo con su con conciencia 220 UN ROBO G Un sabado nos toc6 ir a la escuela. Mi mama tenia que ir a traer la lavadora. Un sehor se habia metido en la casa. Era un maleante. Se puso a robar. Se robo una licuadora y se robo el radio y tocadiscos. Mi tia que vivia con nosotros se le robaron unas joyas. Por dicha que mi mama tenia las cadenas de nosotros en una gaveta que ella usa todos los dias para echar las cosas. Al final agarraron al sefior y lo metieron en la cércel. EL ROBO 1. Mi mama tenia que ir a. a traer la comida de la semana cuando los ladrones entraron a la casa b. donde mi abuelita c. a traer la lavadora 2. El dia que se metieron a la casa era a. domingo b. sabado c. lunes 3. Se habia metido a la casa a robar a. un sefior b. un nifio c. una sefiora 4. Se rob6 a. una lavadora b. una licuadora c. una cocina 5. A mi tia le robaron a. un par de zapatos b. un vestido c. una joyas 6. Mi mama tenia nuestras cadenas a. en una gaveta b. la caja de seguridad en un banco c. en una joyeria 221 IIijLjQL PERDIDO EN EL BOSQUE G Un dia Evelyn, Jessica y yo nos fuimos de paseo al bosque. Yo les dije que no se fueran muy lejos porque habia peligro. Evelyn y Jessica se fueron y me quedé sola. Ya era hora para comer y yo las llamaba y no respondfan. Al rato oi a Jessica gritando. Me fui por todo lado y solo ofa gritos. A Jessica le habia mordido una culebra, pero no la podiamos encontrar. Decidi ir de donde habiamos partido. Finalmente decidi ir a buscar a una persona mayor. Encontramos a Jessica. La pierna la tenia mordida pero logramos llegar al hospital. Decidimos siempre permanecer juntas. PERDIDO EN EL BOSQUE 1. Evelyn y Jessica a. hicieron caso y no se apartaron de su compafiera b. se fueron cada una por su lado c. se alejaban pero regresaban a contarme donde estaban 2. La pierna de Jessica a. lo tuvieron que cortar b. la tenia toda mordida c. no tenia nada 3. A la hora de comer a. estébamos las tres juntas b. s§lamente habia quedado yo c. solamente estébamos dos de nosotros 4. Finalmente decidi a. quedarme en el mismo lugar para ver si me encontraban b. ir a llamar a una persona c. sonar una trompeta que tenia para ver 51 Jessica la oia 5. Cuando le pic6 la culebra a Jessica a. solo se oian gritos b. yo estaba all1 c. no grito 6. Lo primero que hice cuando no podia encontrar a Jessica a. era hacer un fuego para ver si ella veia el humo b. subirme a un 6rbol a ver si la veia c. era regresar de donde habiamos partido 222 EL TESORO DE LOS NINos P Sobre la mesa de la maestra hay un cerdito pintado de colores. Es una alcancia en que los nifibs estan guardando dinero. Todos los dias le echan lo que consiguen de sus papas. La toman entre sus manos y la mueven para ver c6mo va. Es muy poco lo que pueden poner cada dia. Tienen que esperar mucho tiempo para verla llena... Como necesitan tener pronto mucho dinero deciden trabajar; para empezar rifan una mufieca que les regal6 Rosita. Todos vendieron nfimeros entre sus compafieros. Tis, tas, hace el dinero de la rifa al caer dentro de la alcancia. Todavia tienen que trabajar mucho para llenarla. Entonces es cuando disponen hacer una velada. Hay nifios que bailan, cantan y recitan con mucha gracia. Otros pueden hacer cosas para vender. La maestra aprueba estos planes. Los nifios empiezan a trabajar siguiendo las indicaciones de la maestra. EL TESORO DE LOS NINOS l. Algunos niNos para la velada a. juegan b. saltan sobre obstaculos c. cantan, bailan 2. Hay a. un cerdito pintado de colores sobre la mesa de la maestra b. una caja sobre la mesa de la maestra c. un l1bro sobre la mesa de la maestra 3. Como no se llen6 la alcancia los nifios a. hicieron un bingo b. hicieron una velada c. fueron por la calle a pedir plata 4. Los nifios usan el cerdito pintado de colores a. para atraer a la gente b. para guardar dinero c. cuando estén aburridos para asi tener en que pensar 5. Para conseguir mucha plata pronto ~ a. deciden hacer una rifa de una muneca b. deciden pedirles a sus papas por mas dinero c. deciden no gastar la plata en golosinas 6. Dentro a. de una semana estaran muy ricos los nifios b. de poco tiempo el cerdito tendra mucho dinero c. de mucho tiempo el cerdito tendra mucho dinero 223 LOS TRES CERDITOS G Habia una vez un lobo que queria deribar una casa donde vivian unos cerditos. Una de la casa era de paja mientras la otra era de cemento. Derib6 la de paja, pero no la de cemento. Como no la pudo deribar entr6 por la chimenea. El lobo no sabia sin embargo que la chimenea tenia fuego. Al bajar por ésta, cay6 en el fuego y se quem6 todito. LOS TRES CERDITOS l. El lobo queria deribar a. una casa b. un arbol c. un rancho 2. La casa donde vivia uno de los cerditos estaba hecha de a. metal b. paja c. madera 3. El lobo no pudo deribar la casa de a. metal b. cemento c. paja 4. El lobo entr6 a la casa por a. la puerta de atras b. las paredes c. a la chimenea 5. aSabia el lobo que la chimenea tenia fuego? a. si b. no 6. Este cuento nos ensefia que a. las casas deben ser construidas con fuego b. 165 casas deben ser sequras c. las casas deben ser bon1tas 224 Triad 23 EN LA PLAYA P Lejos veo, el mar y las aves. Olas y pajaros juegan sin descanso, se diria que danzan. En esta una danza que no tiene principio ni fin. Hace millones de aNos, otros pajaros y olas hicieron su baile. Pienso si dentro de muchisimos aNos sera igual. Me parece ver a otro niNo como yo. Estd sentado junto a las olas haciendo iguales reflex- iones. Su mundo sera distinto del mio, pero hay algo inmutable: Esta sentado junto a las olas haciendo iguales reflexiones. Su mundo sera distinto del mio, pero hay algo inmutable: Ese mar que juega en sus Olas, violentas o pausada; aves marinas evolucion- ando en perfecta formacién o haciendo clavados audaces; y un niNo dejando volar su imaginacién. EN LA PLAYA 1. Un nifio a. juega con otro niNo b. no le da importancia al otro niNo c. deja volar su imaginacién 2. En la playa las aves y el mar a. estan lejos b. no se ven c. estan cercas 3. Las aves marinas a. no se distinguen b. hacen clavados audaces c. son unos flamingos 4. Las olas y los pajaros a. se saludan b. estan jugando c. estan serios 5. Otros niNos como yo a. hacen iguales reflexiones b. estan jugando en la arena c. estan jugando en la moNtana 6. Otros pajaros y olas bailaron a. hace unos aNos b. hace cienes de afios c. hace millones de aNos 225 LOS DEPORTES B Me gusta mucho la nataci6n, por ser un deporte atractivo para el cuerpo. Nos ayuda a adelgazar y crear habilidades. Me gusta montar a caballo porque uno puede correr. El taikondo me gusta porque nos hace correr, brincar, y dar patadas. Cuando prac- ticamos taikondo, como a las cinco y media de la tarde, todo mundo se sienta en ronda y escogemos equipos. El taikondo nos sirve para defendernos contra ladrones y contra personas malas. Ademas me gusta el fdtbol y el correr porque la persona hace muchos ejercicios y es bueno para la salud. Para meter goles es nece- sario moverse mucho. Pierde uno muchas calorias y peso. LOS DEPORTES l. Me gusta la nataci6n a. porque nos ayuda en el baile b. Porque nos ayuda en los estudios c. porque nos ayuda a adelgazar y crear habilidades 2. Lo que mas me gusta de montar a caballo a. es que uno puede ir muy lejos b. es que cuando el caballo camina rapido uno sube y baja c. es que uno puede correr 3. El taikondo es un deporte bonito porque a. uno siempre esta con otra gente b. uno tiene que ser disciplinado c. lo hace a uno correr y brincar 4. A las 5; de la tarde todos a. nos abrazamos como nuestra de buenos deportitas b. Nos vamos para nuestras casas c. Nos sentamos en ronda y escogemos equipos 5. El taikondo a. es un baile b. es una forma de mantenerse cercano a los amigos c. es una forma de defenderse contra los ladrones 6. A esta persona ademas de que le gusta el taikondo y la nataci6n, también le gusta a. el tennis y el basketbol b. el karate y el béisbol c. el futbol y el correr 226 UN VIAJE ALREDEDOR DEL MUNDO G Me gustaria hacerun viaje alrededor del mundo y conocer muchos paises que no conozco. Me gustaria llevar a mi papé y mi mama. De pasada, me gustaria conocer el Uruguay que es el pais donde naci. Me llama la atenci6n el viajar en avi6n. El llegar a distintos aeropuertos y oir los distintos idiomas que se hablan parece muy interesante. UN VIAJE ALREDEDOR DEL MUNDO l. La persona de este cuento desea a. llevar a su mama con ella en el viaje b. llevar a su mama y papa con ella en el viaje c. llevar a su papa con ella en el viaje 2. A la persona del cuento le gustaria conocer a. a el Paraguay b. a muchos paises c. la China 3. La persona del cuento naci6 en a. Paraguay b. Uruguay C. China 4. A la persona del cuento le gusta a. jugar en las playas b. viajar en avi6n c. estudiar 5. Cuando llega a distintos aeropuertos del mundo a. ve muchos autos b. escucha distintos idiomas c. ve muchos aviones 6. A la persona del cuento a. solo le gusta viajar a los paises de habla espafiol b. solo le gusta viajar a Europa c. le gusta viajar a los distintos paises del mundo 227 W EL PATITO FEO B Habia una vez un patito feo y la mama no lo queria. La mama no lo queria porque tenia las alas muy feas. Se le caian las plumas. Lleg6 y se enferm6. Ella lo dej6 abandonado. Entonces se fue a llorar a la par de un arroyo. Vio pasar a una pata. La sigui6. Entonces la adopt6. Se hizo grande. Cuando era grande se hizo rey y después se hizo un reinado. Se hizo rey de todos los cisnes y tenia una laguna muy grande y hermosa. Una vez el patito feo cuando era rey hizo una hazafia. Vio un patito que se meti6 a la laguna, pero como no sabia nadar se lo llevo la corriente. El patito feo entonces se acord6 lo que su madre le habia hecho. Se tir6 al agua y lo salv6. La madre cuando supo que el patito feo se habia convertido en rey se vino a visitarlo. Pero el se acord6 lo malo que habia sido ella con él. El no la recibi6. EL PATITO FEO l. La mama del Patito Feo no le queria porque a. era muy gordo b. era muy egoista c. tenia alas feas y se le caian las plumas Patito Feo como no lo queria su mamé se fue a para otro pais b. a llorar a la par de un arroyo c con sus amigos Patito Feo salv6 la vida a a otro patito b. a un cisne c a un pescadito cuando se lo llevaba la corriente Patito Feo cuando grande a se hizo médico b. se hizo rey c se convirtid en un ladr6n 228 5. La madre cuando supo que su hijo se habia hecho rey a. b. se c. le Patito a. la b. la c. la decidi6 ir a visitarlo mat6 mand6 muchos regalos Feo acept6 en la segunda ocasién rechazé en la segunda ocasi6n rechazé en la primera ocas16n 229 UN DIA EN EL MAR CON MI FAMILIA G Fuimos al mar. Me puse un traje de bafio y me puse a coger unos caracolitos a colores. Se lo df a mi papa. El me dijo --guardelo. Entonces yo lo guardé. Al dia siguiente me fui otra vez en el agua y cogi unos pececitos a colores. Se los llevé a mi papa. Mi papa los llev6 y los guard6 en una bolsita de agua para nosotros hasta que nos fuéramos a la casa. Cuando llegamos a la casa los echamos en una pecera. Y como tenian tanta hambre se me fueron dos tarritos de comida en ellos. Y después fuimos otra vez al mar y me encontr6 uno mas grandecito. Era de muchos colores, y, en ese dia se me fueron mucha comidita. Después los eché en una pecera mas grande y les echaba piedre- citas. UN DIA EN EL MAR CON LA FAMILIA l. La persona de este cuento se puso a coger a. caracolitos b. langostas c. cangrejos 2. La persona del cuento a. le regal6 lo que cogi6 en el mar a los amigos b. le regal6 lo que cogi6 en el mar al papd c. puso lo que cogié en el mar en un acuario 3. Al otro dia cogi6 en el mar a. unos lagartos pequefios b. unos tiburones c. unos pececitos 4. Los pececitos fueron guardados en la playa a. en una bolsita b. en un acuario c. en una jarra con agua 5.1Al llegara la casa echamos los caracolitos y pececillos en a. la pila b. la pecera c. el bafio en una tina de agua 6. Los pececitos y caracolitos a. no querian comer ciertas cosas b. no tenian hambre c. si tenian mucha hambre 230 SALUDO P Nifio americano; A través de las selvas, las ciudades, los montes, ahi va mi mano. Yo soy tu hermano. Soy, como td, un niNo de estas tierras nuevas y luminosas. Y en ellas. como ta, deseo para el mundo amor, paz y progreso, horas siempre dichosas. Estudio y juego; amo todo lo bueno y lo bello: el agua, que es la clara sonrisa de la Tierra; la luz, que es la canci6n generosa del Sol; el arbol, que es la vida y la alegria encierra. Estudio y juego; amo todo lo buena lo bello: los mediodias igneos, los dorados crepflsculos, la noble biblioteca, la mdsica, la ciencia, el campo de deporte, el juego de los masculos. Soy un tenaz anhelo de solidaridad de amor y libertad, justicia y voluntad. iOhl, nifio americano, que vives como yo, que sueNas como yo! A través de las selvas, las ciudades, los montes, ahi va mi mano. T6 como yo, de todos los niNos que pueblan el mundo eres hermano. SALUDO l. A través de las selvas ciudades, montes va a. mi carro b. mi mano c. el rio 2. Yo soy tu hermano a. porque nacimos de estas tierras nuevas b. porque nacimos de la misma familia c. porque pensamos igual 3. El nifio le dice a los otros nifios a. que él no es perezoso b. que le gusta el ffitbol c. que estudien y jueguen 4. El agua representa para este niNo a. el simbolo de resplandor b. la clara sonrisa de la tierra c. el inicio de toda vida 5. A1 E1 231 nifio le gusta a. s6lamente a sus papas b. sélamente a los otros nifios que piensan como él c. la mdsica, la ciencia, el deporte, etc. niNo dice ser a. una persona cobarde b. una persona que nunca se da por vencida c. una persona tenaz anhelo de solidaridad 232 II13Q_Z§ LA LIEBRE, EL CONEJO DE LA SUERTE G Habia una vez un conejito que tenia mucha suerte. Entonces un dia la mama le dijo que se fuera donde la tia a comprar la comida para ellos. El se encontr6 con un le6n, y le dice el le6n --conejito, est6 listo porque te voy a comer. Y el conejo respondid --no me comas ahora porque estoy muy flaco, después que venga de donde mi tia me podrés comer. Entonces se fue y se encontr6 con un tigre, y le dice --conejo, estate listo que te voy a comer. Y le dice el conejo --no me comas porque estoy muy flaco, después que vuelva de donde mi tia me podras comer. Después se encontr6 con una zorra y le dice -—conejito estate listo que te voy a comer. Y le dice --no me comas porque estoy muy flaquito, después que vuelva de donde mi tia me podrés comer. Y le dice la zorra --y, regresas por este mismo camino. Entonces le dice --si, regresaré por aqui. Ya lleg6 donde la tia. Y compr6 todo donde la tia. Entonces le dice la tia --ya te puedes ir. Y le dice el conejito a la tia --ahora ya no puedo ir, me tendré que quedar contigo porque anda un le6n, un tigre y una zorra que me quieren comer cuando regrese. --Bueno-- le dice la tia --metéte en este barril y nadie te podra ver. Entonces viene la zorra, y dice --barrilito, no has visto por aqui a un conejito. Y le dijo --si, y la pulperia donde el fue que era de su tia se quem6 y el se muri6. Véte que también te vas a quemar. Después se encontr6 con el le6n, y le dice --barrilito, barrilito no has visto por aci al conejito --no, la pulperia de la tia se quem6, y el se quem6. Alli viene el fuego. Véte porque te vas a quemar. Entonces se fue. Entonces llegd el tigre, y le dice --barrilito, barrilito no has visto por acé al CODEJitO- Y le dice --si, la pulperia de la tia se quem6, y el también se quem6. Vete porque te vas a quemar. Entonces dijo que si. Y me dice a mi --no me engafias conejito. Y ya cuando 233 iba muy lejos el conejo sali6 del barril y se le puso por detrés, pero no lo pudo alcanzar. LA LIEBRE, EL CONEJO DE LA SUERTE l. El conejo se fue a. a la pulperia a comprar la comida b. donde la tia a comprar la comida c. al Mas x Menos a comprar la comida 2. El conejo a. nunca se sali6 del barril b. salia de vez en cuando del barril c. sali6 solo cuando el tigre estaba lejos 3. El barrilito le dijo al tigre a. que cuando se encontraba al conejo que le llamaria b. que se quedara mientras él buscaba al conejito para él c. que el conejito se habia quemado y que se fuera él también si no queria quemarse 4. El conjejito siempre le dijo al tigre, al le6n y a la zorra a. que no tenian que esperar para comérselo b. que lo esperara a la vuelta de la esquina c. que espararan a que engordara 5. El conejito se meti6 a. en un agujerito para que no lo vieran b. en la pulperia de la tia para que no lo vieran c. en un barrilito para que no lo vieran 6. Los animales que querian comerse al conejito eran a. un tigre, una zorra, y un le6n b. un tigre, una zorra y un elefante c. un tigre, un elefante, y una culebra USANDO 234 USANDO EL TELEFONO P Todos necesitamos saber hablar por teléfono y cuél es la forma mas correcta de hacerlo. Debemos aprender que los pasos para hacer una llamada son: 1. Si no sabemos el ndmero del lugar a donde queremos llamar, lo buscamos en la guia telef6nica. Una vez que conocemos el namero, levantamos el receptor y cuando oimos el sonido apropiado podemos realizar la llamada, marcando el nfimero. Cuando alguien nos conteste, debemos preguntar si es la casa a la que llamamos, e inmediantamente dar nuestro nombre. Si es el lugar al cual llamamos, debemos decir nuestro mensaje y ser breves. Cuando hayamos terminado, nos despediremos dando las gracias y diciendo adiés. Enseguida colgaremos el receptor. Debemos tener presente que la persona que llama es la que debe terminar la conversaci6n, es decir, despedirse diciendo adiés, antes que la persona que ha recibido la llamada. EL TELEFONO 1. Si no sabe uno el nfimero de teléfono de una persona a. b. c. lo busca en la guia telef6nica le pregunta a un amigo ’ le pregunta a una persona que arregla telefono Para hacer una llamada, primero a. b. c. Cuando a. b. c. se marca el nfimero uno levanta el auricular uno dice el nfimero en voz alta alguien contesta en el ndmero donde llamamos preguntamos por la persona que siempre contesta el telefono decimos nuestro nombre preguntamos si es la casa a la que llamamos 235 4. Si es el lugar al cual llamamos a. debemos decir nuestro mensaje b. decir nuestro nombre primero c. debemos colgar el teléfono de inmediato 5. Cuando terminamos de hablar a. lo primero que decimos es que volveremos a llamar en la tarde b. nos despidamos c. lo primero que decimos es que mandaremos el dinero por la llamada 6. La persona que hace la llamada a. debe aguantar todo lo que se le diga por el teléfono b. es la menos inteligente de las dos personas que estén hablando c. es la que debe terminar la conversacidn 236 UN SUENO 3 Yo sefié que a un chiquito le tiraron en la piscina. La piscina era tan honda que me dijeron -- vaya salvelo! Y la mama no sabia quien era ese chiquito. Yo me tiré. Entonces lo cogi répido. Me agarré donde habia una escalera. Entonces dijeron --aDe quién es este chiquito. Entonces yo dije --yo no 56, yo vi cuando alguien lo empuj6, y me lancé a salvarlo. Cuando saqué al chiquito habia tragado agua y esta casi sin sentido. Unos hombres le dieron respiracién artificial. UN SUENO l. Lo sucedido a. fue un suefio b. no se sabe si era real 0 cierto c. fue algo real 2. Al chiquito a. le dieron una paliza y tuve que salvarlo b. le golpe6 un carro por accidente c. se le tir6 en la piscina 3. A mi me dijeron que a. salvara al chiquito porque estaba muy honda la piscina b. llamara un socorrista c. no me metiera que estaba muy honda la piscina 4. Cuando me tiré a la piscina a. se tom6 mucho tiempo para coger al chiquito b. cogi muy rapido al chiquito c. me cogi de alguien 5. Me cogi de a. un palo que me pasaron para sostenerme b. una escalera que habia en la piscina c. ya estaba muerto el chiquito 6. Cuando saqué al chiquito de la piscina a. estaba inconsciente b. estaba asustado y llorando c. estaba muy sonriente 237 Triad 26 SE ACERCA LA NAVIDAD p Diciembre esté a las puertas. El aire matinal es fresco y oloroso. Comienza el frio. Por las tardes la orilla de la sierra aparece pintada de color rosaceo. El cielo tiene un azul claro durante el dia. Por la noche se vuelve azul oscuro. En el resplandecen las estrellas como broches de oro y plata. Los campos lucen verdes, frescos y aromados. Hay gran variedad de colores en la pradera: capullitos amarillos, campanitas azules y de color violeta... El viento mece las copas de los arboles y juega con las cometas de losrfifios. C6mo gozan mirandolas viajar hacia las nubes! iQuién fuera cometa! iQué agradable sensacién la de volar tan alto! iQué alegres caminan los nifios hacia la escuela! Conversan y rien. --iMiren! iMiren! --dice Rogelio--. Ese cami6n traé ramas de pino. --;Que hermosas! --exclama Pedro José--. Estan fresquecitas, parece que las cortaron al amanecer. SE ACERCA LA NAVIDAD l. Cuando se acerca diciembre la sierra se parece a un color a. amarillento b. roséceo c. verduzco 2. Las ramas a. parecian un poco viejas b. parecian que las cortaron al amanecer c. no tenian caST hojas 3. De noche en diciembre el cielo es a. oscuro b. claro c. azul oscuro 238 4. Rogelio vi6 pasar a. un cami6n con ramas de pino b. un tren con lucecitas navidefias c. una carreta con decoraciones navidefias 5. Los campos en diciembre a. lucen verdes, frescos, y aromados b. lucen secos y amarillentos c. lucen muy hdmedos 6. En diciembre a. todo es tranquilo b. no hay brisa c. el viento mece las copas de los érboles 239 LA FAMILIA B Habia una vez una familia que vivia en el campo y tenian sembrados matas de platano, cafe, manzanas, y uvas. Habia un rio al otro lado de las montafias y todas las noches los niNos iban a ver el rio. Una noche salio una nube de ese rio y les llev6 a una estrella. Después casi en la madrugada regresaron. Sus familias se asustaron tanto que llamaron a la policia para avisarles que los hijos se habian perdidos. En las estrellas les trataron muy bien y les regalaron juguetes y confites. LA FAMILIA l. La familia se asustO tanto a. que no tuvo la oportunidad de contarle a nadie de lo sucedido b. que se desmayé c. que llamaron a la policia a. una laguna donde iban los niNos b. un rio donde iban los ninos c. una montana donde iban los ninos 3. La nube que sali6 del rio les llev6 a. a otra plantacién b. a una ciudad muy extraNa c. a una estrella 4. Regresaron a su hogar a. dentro de dos semanas b. por la madrugada c. después de un siglo 5. Tenian sembrados a. café, manzanas, y uvas b. pepino, lechuga, y tomate c. chayote, yuca, y ayote 6. La familia del cuento vivia a. en la ciudad b. en un barrio c. en el campo 240 LAS VACACIONES G Yo fui a las playas del Coco en las vacaciones y me bafié en el mar. Mientras yo me bafiaba en el mar mi hermano jugaba en la arena. También se puso a hacer castillos en la arena y le tapdbamos el cuerpo con la arena. Después de nadar en el mar, fuimos a un restaurant. Yo me comi unos gallos y luego nos fuimos a pasear en tren hasta la casa. Estéba— mos muy felices con todo. Después regresamos a la playa y mi tio se le meti6 una lata en el pie. Lo tuvimos que llevar al hospital. En el hospital le pusieron una inyeccidn. Al rato entr6 a la cama y se acost6. Mi tia Rosa nos acompaNO en este viaje y se acost6 en la arena. A ella también la enterramos en la arena. Después de esta segunda visita a la playa nos fuimos. Pasamos el resto del dia en el campo. Regresamos a la casa en tren. LAS VACACIONES l. Las vacaciones fueron a. en playas del Coco b. en playas del Jac6 c. en playas de Cahuita 2. Mientras yo me bafiaba en el mar mi hermano a. estaba jugando en la arena b. estaba en la pulperia c. estaba dormido 3. Después de que nos bafiamos en el mar a. nos fuimos a visitar a mi tia b. nos fuimos en avi6n c. nos fuimos al restaurant 4. En el restaurante nos comimos a. una ensalada de frutas b. unos gallos c. una cocacola 241 5. Mi tio a. se quebr6 un pie b. se cort6 con una lata c. fue golpeado con una piedra 6. A la playa fuimos a. en bus b. en tren c. en auto 242 Triad 27 EL GATITO B Habia una vez un gatito que sali6 con la novia y se compr6 un pedazo de chance. Le dijo a la novia --si yo me saco el milldh, te llevaré en avi6n a tu casa. . El gatito se levant6 temprano y se puso boina y chaleco y corbatin para coquetearle a la gata. Se la llevd para la casa y le dijo adids. Al dfa siguiente se la llevd a tanda de dos a ver los vaqueros hablando en inglés. Cuando sali6 del cine se quedaron en el Parque Central esperando a que saliera los chances. De tan mala suerte no le sali6 el ndmero que habia comprado. EL GATITO l. Para aparentar bien el gato se ponia a. una boina, un chaleco, y un corbatin b. unos pantalones comprados en Miami c. unos jeans 2. El gato le gustaba a. coquetearle a la novia b. fachentear c. decir que era muy rico 3. La llevo al cine a. para que se contentara con él b. para oir a los vaqueros hablando en inglés c. para ver cuéles de sus amigos entraban al cine. 4. Cuando sali6 del cine se esper6 a. en el parque Nacional a que saliera los chances b. en frente de la Monumental c. en el Parque Central 5. El gato le dijo a la gata que si se sacaba los chances a. la llevaria a los carnavales de Lim6n b. la llevaria en avi6n a la casa c. la llevaria a Los Angeles en avi6n 6. El gato le a. compr6 un vestido a la novia b. compr6 una casa a la novia c. compr6 un pedazo de chance a la novia 243 VIAJE A PARIS G Fuimos a Paris. Alli me compraron mucha ropa y muchos juguetes lindos. Ademas fuimos a un parque donde habian muchos arboles y animalitos. Paris es una ciudad muy linda y hay muchos lugares para visitar como: restaurant, teatros, y museos. Mi mamé estaba muy alegre. UN VIAJE A PARIS 1. Me compraron en Paris a. unos libros b. una bicicleta c. mucha ropa 2. Visitaron a. un museo b. un parque c. el acuario 3. En el parque habia a. orquestas b. animalitos c. rios 4. Mi mama estaba a. aburrida b. cansada c. alegre 5. Paris es una ciudad a. grande b. linda c. pequefia muchos tfineles P a. muchos lugares para visitar b c rios grandes 244 MARAVILLAS DEL MAR P El papé lleva a cada uno de sus hijos un album para poner figuras. Es el album de los animales y plantas del mar. --;Que lindo! iQue lindo! --dicen los niNos--. Toman el album y abrazan y besan a su papa al mismo tiempo. --Aqui tienen estos paquetes de figuras --les dice--. Luego entrega un paquete a cada nifio. Ellos sacan las figuras y comienzan a verlas. Son maravillosas. Hay plantas y animales marinos de distintas clases. --Un caballito de mar! —-exclama Roberto admirado. --Si --dice Carlitos --parece un caballito, pero no tiene patas. Papa, aPor qué no tiene patas? -—Porque no las necesita --le contesta--. Esos animales viven solo en el agua. No caminan, solo nada. --iQue maravilla! --exclama Alicia--. Este parece un clavel 0 un coral. --iHuy! iQue feo es éste! --dice Jorge, entregandoles una figura--. iMiren que animal tan horrible! Ellos lo ven y exclaman: --iQue feo! --Parece un lagarto, pero no tiene dientes --agrega Alicia. --Si —-dice Roberto --asi eran los lagartos hace muchos afios. MARAVILLAS DEL MAR l. La figura que le entreg6 Jorge a los demas niNos a. era muy atractiva b. no tenia color c. no tenia dientes 2. A los niNos les regal6 un album a. la profesora b. su papa c. su tio 3. A Alicia le parecio bonito a. el pulpo b. el pez espada c. un clavel 0 un coral 245 4. Es un élbum sobre a. personajes importantes b. c6mo colectar monedas c. animales y plantas del mar 5. El caballito de mar a. no tenia patas b. tenia dos patas c. tenia cuatro patas 6. El primer animalito que vio Roberto a. fue un caballito de mar b. fue un pulpo c. fue una ballena 246 Triad 28 VISITA A LA ABUELITA G Yo fui donde mi abuelita. Alléestudiaba. Cuando terminaba de estudiar me iba a jugar con mis primas. En las noches seguia estudiando. Un dfa se enferm6 mi abuelita y tenia que ir a decirle a mi mamd que mi abuelita estaba enferma. La llevaron al hospital y la internaron. Mi mama la iba a ver. Mi abuelita me mand6 una carta cuando estaba en el hospital, y yo la mandé una a ella. Después que estaba mejor mi abuelita fuimos a las playas del Conchal. Nos bafiamos y en la noche fuimos a comer a un restaurant. VISITA A LA ABUELITA 1. La persona de este cuento a. estudiaba mucho b. bailaba cuando iba donde su abuelita c. jugaba basquetbol 2. Cuando se enferm6 mi abuelita a. mandé mi hermano a avisar a mi mamé b. llame por teléfono c. yo fui a decirle a mi mamé 3. En el hospital el médico vio a mi abuelita a. y le dijo que debe regresar en dos semanas b. y la dej6 internada c. y le dijo que tomara unas medicinas 4. Mi abuelita me mand6 una carta a. y me dijo que viniera a visitarla b. y yo le mandé otra c. y yo nunca le contesté 5. Mi abuelita a. se muri6 b. se qued6 en el hospital c. se mejor6 6. Fuimos después a. a las playas de Conchal b. a las playas de Manuel Antonio c. a las playas de Puntarenas 247 TATAMUNDO P Hacia rato que Tata Mundo nos venia prometiendo llevarnos a una milpa que tenia por las laderas, s6lo que a la ida no se le llegaba la vez, decia el que porque el maiz afln no estaba cuajado. Asi que cuaj6, nos dijo que el sébado en la tarde nos ibamos a destorrentar por allé, de modo que despabiléramos las piernas para la caminata y nos diéramos desde ahora a paladear los elotes que nos habiamos de comer al propio pie de la mata. Y, como a lo dicho hecho, el sébado ibamos con Tata Mundo potrero arribafly cafetal abajo, y a eso de las tres, con un tiempo de golondri- nas, llegamos a las laderas donde, entre otras, nos sefial6 una milpa que era la suya, y hacia all6 nos despatarrémos. A poco, y teniamos el fog6n encendido y una docena de mazorcas doréndose en las brasas. lata Mundo estir6 el brazo, alcanz6 sus alforjas de una de sus talegas saco la botella con el café y sorbi6 unos tragos. Y mientras nos la pasaba a nosotros y entre mazorca que comiamos yelote linmio que desechébamos comenz6: Habia una vez en un pueblo de la meseta... Apenas termin6 Tata Mundo su cuento, cuando por el lado arriba de la ladera asom6 un campesino blandiendo tamafia cutacha. Como con p6lvora en las piernas Tata Mundo salt6 en sus pies, cogi6 las alforjas y: -a correr, m'hijitos, que ahi no mis llega el duefio de la milpa. Y nunca conejo alguno baj6 por las laderas aquellas, perseguido de perros, més veloz que bajamos nosotros con todo y Tata Mundo atravesando cercas y vallados. El viejo sinvergfienza. TATAMUNDO l. Tatamundo t . a. hacia rato que nos promet1a llevarnos a una milpa b. ten1a poco tiempo de prometer que nos iba a llevar a la finca c. no dijo nada en absoluto acerca del viaje a la finca 248 No ibamos a la finca a ver la milpa porque a. los dias estaban lluviosos b. el maiz no estaba cuajado c. quedaba muy lejos Nos dijo Tatamundo que a. tendriamos que llevar unas ollas para cocinar el elote b. una vecina de él los cocinaria c. comeriamos los elotes al pie de la mata La milpa quedaba a. cerca de unas lagunas b. entre dos rios c. por cafetales y montaNas Ibamos a la milpa a. como a las tres de la tarde b. a medio dia c. tempranito en la mafiana Comenzamos a cocinar las mazorcas a. en un fog6n b. en una olla magica c. en una estufa de canfin 249 LA QUEMADA B Fuimos a Guanacaste con algunos parientes. Empezamos a caminar por la arena y yo sentia un ardor en una pierna. Era una quemada. No le puse atenci6n. Seguimos caminando. La mama de un chiquito se fue y él y yo quedamos solos en la playa, en el agua. El agua al tocar mi cuerpo sentia mas ardor. Me fijé. Tenia una quemada. Fue producida por la arena. El agua del tubo se habia ido y al terminar no podia lavarme la sal que me quemaba. No fue hasta que llegué a un restaurant que me juntaron una pomada. LA QUEMADA l. Las personas de este cuento fueron a a. Puntarenas b. Lim6n c. Guanacaste 2. Senti un ardor en la pierna cuando a. caminaba por las playas b. me levantaba por las mafianas c. caminaba por la acera 3. Cuando senti el ardor la primera vez a. no le puse atenci6n b. paré inmediatamente para atenderla c. comencé a caminar mas lento 4. Sentia el ardor de la quemada més a. cuando me levantaba por las mafianas b. cuando me iba a dormir por las noches c. cuando me mojaba con el agua 5. Al terminar de bafiarme en el mar a. el agua del tubo se habia ido b. no habia nadie mas en la playa c. comenzd a llover 6. Para aliviar el ardor a. tenia que juntarle una pomada b. tenia que juntarle un poco de mantequilla c. tenia que echarle viento a la quemada 250 Triad 29 EL VIEJO PESCADOR P Un viejo pescador queria pescar él solo el pez major del mundo. Un dia, después de tomar café muy espeso en la cantina del puerto, se hizo a la mar en su barca. Pasaron el primero y el segundo dia y no pesc6 nada. Al tercer dia el hambre, la sed y la fatiga le arafiaban las entrafias como fieras marinas. Pero el viejo no queria volver a la tierra sin llevar el pez més grande del mundo. Los pececillos que podia pescar eran su anico alimento. Desesperanzado y sin fuerzas, el viejo se iba a dejar morir; pero de repente un gran pez largo y hermoso como un caballo, pic6 en su -anzuelo. El viejo y el pez estuvieron luchando varias horas; al fin vencio el viejo. Cansado, se ech6 a dormir. Cuando despertd en medio del mar, observ6 que una nube de peces grandes y medianos devoraban el pez que habia capturado. De nada le valieron al viejo las voces ni las amenazas. Los peces chicos se comieron al pez grande. El viejo, desesperado, pensé abandonar los restos del pez, pero después tuvo una gran idea: arrastrar y guardar el esqueleto del pez como un trofeo. Y asi lo hizo. A los cinco dias atrac6 la barca en el puerto, remolcando en su popa el pelado esqueleto del pez major del mundo. Un pufiado de hombres se ech6 al mar para socorrer al viejo pescador, que yacia en su nave exhausto y sin conocimiento. Cuando el viejo pescador abriO los ojos y reconoci6 a sus amigos sonrio largamente feliz, porque sin ayuda de nadie, habia capturado al pez major del mundo. En la playa, junto a la nave, estaba el esqueleto para que nadie pudiera dudarlo. EL VIEJO PESCADOR l. Los peces medianos y grandes a. no le hicieron caso al viejo b. obedecieron al viejo cuando les decia que no se coman su pescado c. obedecieron al viejo pescador, pero los chiquitillos no 251 Después de la lucha con el pez grande a. el viejo se tir6 al mar para quitarse el sudor b. el viejo se durmié c. el viejo se sent6 a tomar unos tragos para celebrar el acontecimiento El viejo pescador a. tenia muy pocos amigos porque se pasaba pescando b. queria ir a la caceria ya que estaba cansado de la pesca c. queria pescar solito el pez mas grande del mundo El viejo pescador a. le dio hambre el primer dia b. le dio hambre el tercer dia c. le dio hambre el segundo dia El viejo a. no tuvo que luchar con el pez grande para cogerlo b. tuvo que ir a llamar a sus amigos para que le ayudaran c. tuvo que luchar por varias horas mas El viejo tuvo que a. comer pececillos b. comer pan cuando le dio hambre c. comer frutas ya que era lo finico que habia 252 LOS VAMPIROS B Yo vi al conde dracula y al hombre lobo parados por el cementerio cuando me agarro por el brazo y me mordi6. Despues me llevo a un lugar el decia se llamaba los infiernos. Ahf me ahorco. En eso me morf. Cuando mori vi al diablo. Sali corriendo porque me iba a tirar por la ventana. En eso salid la llorona y se puso a pelear con el diablo. Gand la llorona. Pero después me acordé'que la llorona también era mala. Por suerte cuando me desperté por la mafiana me di cuenta que todo era un suefio. Que alegria fue sentirme todo el cuerpo y saber que estaba vivo. LOS VAMPIROS l. El conde drécula estaba parado a. por el cementerio b. frente al castillo embrujado c. entre los érboles 2. Los vampiros me cogieron por el brazo a. y me lo torcieron b. y me lo mordieron c. y me lo quebraron 3. Me llev6 a un lugar que se llamaba a. el castillo de Dracula b. el cementerio c. los infiernos 4. Cuando mori a. vi al diablo b. debajo de la tierra todo era muy frio c. vi muchos angeles 5. Cuando me iban a tirar por la ventana a. se oy6 un ruido extrafio b. sali corriendo c. me desperté 6. Cuando desperté por la mafiana a. corri a abrazar a mis papas b. toqué la cama c. senti todo el cuerpo para ver si estaba vivo 253 UN VIAJE G Fui a Alajuela en tren y volvi en tren. Los carros por las calles nos parecieron chiquititicos. Llevabamos la ventana abierta. Se nos vino un aguacero y nos mojamos todas. Pasamos por la sabana y habian chiquitos jugando. Habia una bicicleta y un chiquito. El estaba aprendiendo a andar en bicicleta. Cuando regresamos nos fuimos a Cartago en carro. Tomamos el bus y pasamos por un tdnel grande. Disfrutamos mucho. Después cuando volvimos nos fuimos a comer. Ese mismo dia fui a pasear a Puntarenas. A Nfiine enterraron en la arena y vino una ola de mar muy grande y me quit6 toda la arena. Me baNé y me tragué un poco de agua con sal. UN VIAJE 1. Yo fui a Alajuela en a. bus b. tren c. carro 2. Cuando iba uno en tren los carros a. parecieron animalitos b. parecieron muy grandes c. parecieron muy chiquiticos 3. Llevabamos las ventanas abiertas a. .y se nos metia el agua b. y se metieron muchos bichitos c. y las hojas de los arboles se metian 4. Cuando pasamos por la sabana a. vimos a un chiquito aprendiendo a montar en bicicleta b. se vino un aguacero c. no habia nadie alli 5. Al regreso de Alajuela nos fuimos a. a Paraiso b. a Naranjo c. a Cartago 6. Cuando ibamos a Cartago pasamos por a. el volcan Pods b. un puente grande c. un tfinel 254 Triad 30 VISITA A LA PIEDRA DE ASERRI B Decidimos ir a la Piedra de Aserri. Antes de esto compramos unos sandwiches y unas cocacolas para almorzar en algdn lado. Queriamos llegar hasta la Cueva de las Brujas. Pero no la encontramos. Habia unos muchachos que les preguntamos. Les dimos sandwiches pensando que nos ayudarian, pero ellos tampoco sabian. Creian que estaba por una cerca. Fuimos donde nos dijeron pero tampoco estaba alli. Luego le preguntamos a unos sefiores. Ellos nos dijeron y sin detenernos pudimos llegar al lugar. VISITA A LA PIEDRA DE ASERRI l. Para el almuerzo compramos a. muchas frutas b. unos jugos enlatados c. unos sandwiches y cocacolas 2. Teniamos a. ganas de almorzar en alan sitio b. ganas de almorzar en un potrero c. un sitio especifico donde pensébamos 3. Nuestra idea era llegar a. a la Cueva de las Brujas b. a la Cruz c. a la Piedrita 4. Nosotros le preguntamos a. a un chofer donde quedaba la Cueva de las Brujas b. a unos muchachos donde quedaba la Casa de las Brujas c. a una guia turistica donde quedaba la Cueva de las Brujas 5. Compartimos nuestro almuerzo a. con el que cuidaba una finca b. con unos animalitos c. con unos muchachos 6. Los que nos ayudaron a encontrar el lugar a. eran unos sefiores b. fueron unos patrulleros c. eran unos amigos nuestros 255 EL PATINAJE G El patinaje es un deporte muy bonito y facil de aprender. Uno debe ir al salon de patines para disfrutar de este deporte. También uno puede patinar en la acera de la casa si no est6 muy rajada. Para poder patinar debe tener buenos patines. Si las ruedas estan torcidas es muy dificil mantener su equilibrio y se puede caer. También si se traban las ruedas uno corre el peligro de golpearse muy fuerte. Si uno no tiene miedo y esta dispuesto a caerse algunas veces puede aprender a patinar enseguida. EL PATINAJE l. El patinaje es a. ni facil, ni dificil de aprender b. muy dificil de aprender c. facil de aprender 2. Para aprender a patinar es necesario a. tener patines de cierto color b. tener patines buenos c. que alguien le sostenga 3. Uno puede aprender a patinar a. sin que los patines tengan cordones b. aunque las ruedas estén torcidas c. cuando las ruedas estén rectas 4. Cuando las ruedas de los patines estan torcidas a. uno puede perder el equilibrio b. uno puede parar més répido c. uno puede ir mas rapido en las curvas 5. Otra forma de caerse es cuando a. uno mira en otra direccidn b. se traban las ruedas c. uno se pone a hablar con alguien 6. Si uno no tiene miedo de caerse al patinar es probable a. que uno aprenda en una semana b. que uno aprenda enseguida c. que uno aprenda en un mes 256 L0 QUE NOS CUENTAN LOS NINOS P Es una fresca mafiana con olor a hierba theda. Los niNos han venido a la escuela mas contentos que otras veces. Tienen mucho de que hablar. Todos pasaron un domingo muy alegre. La maestralos saluda y dice: --Buenos dias. £Pasaron contentos el domingo? Creo que ahora tienen mucho de que hablar. éQuien quiere decir algo? Luis empieza: --;Saben por qué no vine a clase el otro dia? Me dieron un bafio sin querer. Ya les diré c6mo. En el camino hacia la escuela vi un animalito. Era lindo. Su cola parecia un plumero. Me acerqué para cogerlo y me bafio por completo. El olor era fuerte y desagradable. Regresé a casa corriendo a bafiarme y a ponerme ropa limpia. iPero ni el bafio me quit6 el mal olor! Por eso no vine a la escuela--. Todos los niNos se rien. Mario le dice: --Ese era un zorrillo. --iClaro que era un zorrillo! --dice Jorge. --Quiero contar algo mas sobre eso --dice Alicia--. Se los diré. Una vez los animalitos tenian una fiesta. Los zorrillos se arreglaron la cola de plumero pensando en la fiesta. Pero no los invitaron por su mal olor. --;Pobres los zorrillos! --dice Mario. --Les explicaré --agrega la maestra--. Los zorrillos se defienden siempre con su mal olor. LO QUE NOS CUENTAN LOS NINos l. A los zorrillos a. el olor los ayuda a defenderse b. de nada les sirve su olor c. si los baNa uno, ya no huelen 257 Luis a. no pudo’quitar el olor afin después del baNo b. no querTa quitarse el olor c. qu1to el olor con un bano corriente Luis habia sido bafiado a. en el bafio de su casa b. por un animalito c. por la lluvia cuando iba para la escuela El olor del bafio del animalito a. era de perfume b. no se sentia c. era fuerte y desagradable El dia que le sucedi6 a Luis el incidente, era el dia después a. del martes b. del domingo c. del jueves La mafiana tenia olor a. a perfume b. a humo c. a hierba hfimeda APPENDIX D CODING MANUAL USED FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS 258 APPENDIX D All the major categories in the coding manual on content analysis as published by the original authors, with the exception of the "cul- tural composition" category, were utilized and kept intact for the present study. However, modifications (deletions or additions) were introduced within certain subcategories so as to accommodate the idio- syncrasies of the Costa Rican culture as perceived by the raters. A textual transcription of the original coding manual and the revisions introduced by its authors after June l966 is provided. The Spanish translation used in this study may be found at the end of this appendix. The changes noted below were implemented by the Spanish raters. Characters All subcategories from the original coding manual were kept for the Spanish translation except: "children and father." Instead, the following were added: "animals and adults," "children, adults, and animals," and "not classifiable.“ 313.66. All subcategories from the original coding manual were kept for the Spanish translation except: "activite play," "parties," "quiet activities," "religious activities," and "real life situations with positive emotions." The following were added instead: "real life situations," "fantasy," and "description." 259 260 Real life situations was defined by the raters as any happening that is realistic but that does not have a negative ending to it. Fantasy was defined as any unrealistic situation but does not include folktales. Description was defined as a series of accounts which contained an undefinable theme but is characterized by describing a number of unrelated events. Age of Activity All subcategories from the original coding manual were kept for the Spanish translation. Added was the subcategory of "nonclassifi- able." Nonclassifiable is defined as not being able to be placed in any known category. Sex of Activity Same as Age of Activity. Outcome of Activity Same as Age of Activity. Environmental Setting Distribution All subcategories from the original coding manual were kept for the Spanish translation, except: "suburban," "make-believe," and "not clear." Instead, "rural/urban" and "nonclassifiable" were added. Rural/urban was defined as any setting believed to be character- ized by having a mixture of rural and urban elements in the story. Nonclassifiable was defined as not being able to distinguish any particular setting where the story took place. —_——u—TT“ ;- - ._- ....” 261 The following coding dimensions are a true copy of the original coding manual: 1. CHARACTERS Determine and classify the characters of the story or plot, treat- ing each chapter separately and using the pictures as follows: Children only Children and animals (no adults) Animals only, no real people Make believe characters but no animals or people Inanimate objects that are either personified or described without real people or animals as characters Adults only Children and mother Children and father Children and mother and father Children and other adults \DmVO’lU'l wa-JO In the character rating (above, section l), whenever there are children (0, l, 6, 7, 8, 9), the rater lists the number of chil- dren in each of the following 12 categories: Boys-family-age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Boys-family-less than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Boys-family-more than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Girls-family-age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Girls-family-less than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Girls-family-more than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Boys-non-family-age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Boys-non-family-less than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Boys-non-family-more than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) tomNONU‘l-bwmd l0. Girls-non-family-age 6 (record number 0 to 9) ll. Girls—non-family-less than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) l2. Girls-non-family-more than age 6 (record number 0 to 9) Determine the predominant activity or central theme of the story, treating each chapter separately and using the pictures. The pre- dominant activity or central theme represents the plot of the story. It is the activity about which all other activities or actions revolve, that which unifies the plot, or that which occupies the most emphasis and/or space. The predominant activity or central theme is the basis for ratings 4, 5, 6, 7. In making your ratings on 4, 5, 6, and 7 be careful to avoid con- taminating; examples: do not let your age rating influence the sex rating, do not let category of theme or activity influence your age and sex ratings, etc. 262 PREDOMINANT THEME Classify the predominant activity or theme of the story (i.e., the plot itself). Place the story in only one category among those listed below: l. Active_play:-organized games such as ball games, blind man's ’Bluffiand unorganized sports such as swimming, hiking, fishing, running, skipping, wading, etc. 2. Aesthetic expression and appreciation--beauty, poetry, music, painting 3. Folk tales--fairy stories, Paul Bunyan, etc. 4. Imaginative play--with or without props or toys such as cops and rObbers, policeman, play acting, etc. 5. Lessons from life--morals, why one must be good, etc. 6. Nature--life of the honey bee, animal activities, not includ- ing pets; storms, growing flowers. 7. Outings--trip to zoo or to grandmother's or picnics, etc. 8. Parties--birthday parties, tea parties, etc. 9. Pets--playing with or taking care of pets. 0. Pranks,ghumorous situations--involving people and/or pets, teasing. ll. Quiet activities--reading, table games, watching TV, listening to radio, etc. l2. Real life situations with negative affect or excitement-~being lost, running away from—home, participating in family argu- ments, etc. l3. Religious activities--attending church, praying, etc. l4. School activities--not in terms of imaginative play. 15. Work projects--painting chairs, raking the lawn, etc. l6. Real life sTTUations with positive affect or excitement-- parents working, p1anning sUrprises, getting reward or prize, errands, going to the store, etc. l7. Unclassified (indicate the activity by writing it in)--not included in the above. AGE Classify the story according to the age at which children would perform the predominant activity and/or would be interested in the activity or theme depicted even though it may not involve children. A list of activities and interests is arranged by age groups to serve as guide lines. An activity is assigned to that age level where it is a predominant activity, where it achieves an ascendancy, where it is mastered by children, and where it is of paramount interest. Some interests and activities run through various age groups but their qualities (complexity or simplicity, elaborations, intensity, etc.) will depict an age group most appropriate. One needs to consider, therefore, not only the "what is being done" but also "how it is being done." For example, children at various ages swim or are interested in swimming, yet two and three-year-olds paddle and wade, six and seven-year-olds are beginning to swim, 263 eight and nine-year-olds swim fairly well, and ten and eleven- year-olds are diving and more accomplished. l. Two and three-year-olds 2. Four and five-year-olds 3. Six and seven-year-olds 4. Eight and nine-year-olds 5. Ten and eleven-year-olds SEX Classify the activity or theme independent of age on the basis of: l. What predominantly boys would do or be interested in. 2. What predominantly girls would do or be interested in. 3. What boys aflg_girls would do or be interested in. Both boys and girls would do or be interested in many activities or themes since masculine and feminine interests are shared by both. However, we are interested in a stereotypical rating which would indicate that boys predominantly or girls predominantly do the activity or have interest in the theme. Qualitative aspects (re: "how it is being done") should be considered in your ratings. A list of activities according to sex is included to serve as guide lines. In the sex rating when any stories are coded what both boys and girls would do or be interested in (above section 7-[3]). the rater makes a choice of boy or girl activities or interest. l. Boys 2. Girls OUTCOME Classify the outcome of the plot of the story according to whether: l. Success--the activity or purpose is accomplished 2. Failure--the activity or purpose is frustrated, failed or not achieved 3. Help--the activity or purpose is frustrated but then is finally accomplished through the efforts of someone else or an animal 4. Unclassified--(indicate by writing it in) 5. Self-help--child is thwarted but helps himself A list of situations is included according to success-failure-help to serve as guide lines. 264 REVISION JUNE, 1966 New Categories: ENVIRONMENT 1. Urban 2. Suburban 3. Rural 4. Not Clear 5. Other Both the physical appearance of the situation as well as the context of the story were used as criteria in establishing where the activity of the story is taking place, in an urban, suburban, or rural setting. When the setting is not clearly definable, it is rated as "Not Clear." "Other" settings (such as foreign country, jungle, make-believe, etc.) are specifically written in. Certain guide lines were established for more uniform ratings, such as: Suburban...White picket fences Sidewalks that are not obviously urban All airports are Urban Use #4 if setting changes within a story Seashores are Other Any clothing on animals is considered Other As long as the theme of a group of stories is continuous, ratings should be constant. CULTURAL COMPOSITION Classify the cultural composition of the characters depicted in the stories: 1. Non-Integrated Conventional...0nly middle-class, "Anglo-Saxon" characters present 2. Non-Integrated Other Cultures...Only one cultural group present but differs from the conventional, middle-class, "Anglo- Saxon" characters usually found 3. Integrated Bi-Cultural...Refers to conventional, middle-class, "Anglo-Saxon" characters plus Negro characters 4. Integrated Multi-Cultural...Refers to the presence of two or more cultural groups which may or may not include the stan- dard, middle-class, “Anglo-Saxon" characters 5. Make-Believe...Used when characters are clearly fictional, such as elves, animals in clothing, etc. The above classification is used only in the case of the new multi- ethnic reading series. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 265 Activities and Interests of Children According to Age Two and Three-Year—Olds (l) Being read to Coveralls--dress Does not share possessions Falls, trips when fast run or climbing (awkwardness) Gets distracted from activities Getting into things Lining up objects Massive expression of emotions Physical attachment to play object, toy, toy animal Playing with ball while sitting down Playing with dishes, pans Pulling small wagon Pushing toy truck Riding small trike Simple playing in mud Swinging on swing with parents' help Taking a nap 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. CDNChUT-bWN 266 Activities and Interests of Children According to Age Four and Five-Year-Olds (2) . Animals that act like people-- talk, etc. Attention getting clowning Blowing bubbles Blowing horns Boys and girls play together Climbing jungle jim Coloring books Concerns about separation from mother . Curiosity questions l0. ll. Doll play with others Dressing up animals, cats, dogs, etc. Excursion to farm Fears--dark, animals Goodness-badness themes Happily going for ride in car Helping parents (play) Imaginary companion Imitating and mimicking others Imitating animals Making houses out of blankets Marching in parades Painting at easel (beginning) Pasting 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. Play garage or service station Play in the bath Playing astronaut (uniforms) Playing doctor, nurse Playing fireman, policeman Playing house Playing store Prayers at bedtime Primitive play with clay Pulling things behind trike Riding tricycle Santa Claus Simple block building Simple foods--same Swinging on swing Tea parties Thematic play with stuffed animals Throwing small stones Tinker toys Trip to grandparents Wading in pools Wagon play (self-propelling) Watching workmen (e.g., construction -—J —l —I —-I —-l b (Q N -' 0 KO 0 O O O O C 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. (Bowman-coma 0000.000 267 Activities and Interests of Children According to Age Six and Seven-Year-Olds (3) Bible stories Brushing dog Building snowman Cartoons on T.V. Circus Cooking with Mother's help Dancing (e.g., tap, ballet) Dig holes, tunnels, foxholes Going to dentist Hide and seek Hopscotch Horseplay, rough-housing Interest in bird nests Interest in neighborhood-- names of streets, etc. Interest in tools (saw, hammer, etc.) Losing a tooth Magic Making present(s) for family Making valentines Play school teacher Playing in snow 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Playing soldier Playing tag Printing letters Reading to parents Riding pony being led Roller skates Running races Saving things (e.g., baseball cards Scooters Selling lemonade Sex differences in play Show and tell in school Skipping Slapstick Table games--simple Tell time--clock Throwing ball Trip to dairy, firehouse, police station, post office Wanting to win and be first Wants a wrist watch Wrestling with father or sibling 0101th .0000 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 268 Activities and Interests of Children According to Age Eight and Nine—Year-Olds (4) Bartering or trading with peers Being adventurous Boys and girls play separately Boys with fathers Building snow forts Care of garden--flowers and vegetables Children of foreign lands Climbing trees Comic books Cursive writing Fairy tales Feeding dogs, cats (alone) Flying kites Fishing Folk dancing Girls with mothers Going to restaurant to eat Helping father (not play) Helping mother (not play) Historical figures Children's huts Identifies and classifies, ranks, flags, license plates Interest in collections, stamps, etc. 25. 26. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. Interest in maps Interest in science Jump rope well Making models Marbles (competitive) Not like to dress up--boys Organizing clubs Playing with electric trains Playing war games Playing with snakes (boys) Pony riding alone Practicing piano and musical instrument Radio interest Repairing and fixing toys Riding bicycle Runs errands Sewing Snowball fights Stilts Strong friendships Table games Tops with string Whittling 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 269 Activities and Interests of Children According to Age Ten and Eleven-Year-Olds (5) A good sport Baseball fan with facts and figures Being with peers away from home Bowling Carpentry (not play--rough) Cooking by self Cutting the grass Dancing school (social dancing) Erector sets Feeding large animals (alone) Feeding the baby (girls) Girls' clothes, select own Give up play guns Going on hikes Going to movies (by self) Group allegiance 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Horse and dog stories Horseback riding Hunting with air rifle Outdoor over indoor Playing baseball well Playing football Popular music Reading (alone) Shovelling snow Sophisticated ambitions when grow up Spelling bees Sport spectator Wanting a horse Washing dishes Write letters to each other (girls) \DCDNOTU'I-DwN-H 270 Coding Dimension of Sex Relevance of the Activity Predominantly Boys (l) Adventure Aggressive, larger wild pets American flag Animals fighting Astronauts Being a hero Being brave and courageous Boats Bridges Building a fort Building dams Building fires Building with blocks Camping Chasing Climbing trees Competing Constructing and erecting Cops and robbers Cowboys and Indians Cutting the grass Digging Doctor Exploring Father at work Fast moving, aggressive action Fighting with others Fire engine, ambulance, cars, trucks Firemen, policemen Fishing Fixing the street Flying airplane, rocket Flying a kite Football, baseball, hockey, soldier Garage, filling station Getting dirty Guns, knives Hammering, sawing, carpentry Hiking History and historical people Hunting Interest in accidents, mishaps Making models--ships, planes, cars Marbles Marching Mechanical play Monster play Painting walls, fences, etc. Parade Pushing truck Playing chess Play with mud and water Racing Repairing and fixing Riding a horse Riding and pulling a wagon Robots Rock collection Rough-house with others Science Scooters Shovelling snow Skiing Sledding Snakes Stamp collection Steam shovels Things falling down, crashing Throwing snowballs Throwing stones Tops Training Trains Trumpet War games Working on the farm tomVOSUI-wa—I o o o o o o o o o 271 Coding Dimension of Sex Relevance of the Activity Predominantly Girls (2) Acting and drama Animals and babies Baby sitting Baton twirling Being afraid and crying Being chased Being pulled in a wagon Being sick Birds and nests Blowing bubbles Butterflies Church Cooking--play or actual Dancing--skipping Decorating Doll play Duck, bird families Fairies Family life stories Feeding the baby Figure skating Flute, harp, piano, violin Going shopping Goodness and safety Helping mother Home Hop scotch Household chores Interest in clothes Jacks Jumping rope Keeping clean Making a garden Nurse Obeying orders Painting pictures Paper and scissors--cut outs Picking flowers Playing house Playing secretary Quiet scenes of everyday life School Sewing Singing Softer, smaller pets--cats and hamsters Stuffed animals Taking a nap Tea party Teaching school Umbrella Valentines Visiting grandmother Washing dishes Writing letters \OWVOWU'I-hWN-d 272 Coding Dimension of Sex Relevance of the Activity Both Boys and Girls (3) Amusement park Bicycle Birthday party Bowling Christmas Circus Clubs Drawing Eating Fairs, exhibitions Family moving Fantasy Father return from trip Going on vacation Going to movies Guitar Halloween Humor Phonograph Reading book Sandbox Sleeping Swimming Swinging, sliding Traveling Visitors Zoo Dogs as pets 10. 11. 12. 13. 273 Coding Dimension--Outcome SUCCESS (1) Father arrives safely at the airport--met by the entire family. They all drive safely home. Pony snoops at Mother's purse. Mother takes out an apple for Pony. Mother feeds Pony the apple. The children dress up in home-made costumes. They also dress up Pony and Flip. They all met Father and surprised him. The family prepares for a ride. Flip begs to go by "sitting up." They take him along. The family goes for a drive. They stop at an ice cream parlor and all have cones. The family takes the train to visit Uncle Fred and Aunt Mary. They meet the train conductor. He shows them around the train. They arrive at their destination. Uncle Fred and Aunt Mary are waiting for them at the station. Tom is surprised by a birthday party. All the children have hats. They sit down at the table and the birthday cake and ice cream are brought in. They all sing "Happy Birthday to you." The family goes to the toy store. Tom picks out a toy train. Father comes home. He sits in his chair. The children give him a present, new blue house shoes. He is delighted. Frisky is up the tree and won't come down. Father brings a ladder. As he climbs up, Frisky comes down. Betty holds and hugs Frisky. Mother duck calls seven baby ducks out of the water to return to the farm. The babies don't want to come but they do. They follow the Mother but walk through an old stove pipe and come out black. Mother duck doesn't like dirty ducks so she directs them back into the water where they swim joyfully, and call Mother duck in for some fun. Susan makes a large sand pie. Tom puts an apple on top of the pie, and the three children laugh and call it an apple pie. The children play airplane. They fly and they land. 14. 15. 274 Tom gets a new red wagon for his birthday. He rides it down the walk and meets the postman. The postman gives Tom two boxes to take home in the wagon with him. Both are addressed to Tom. Tom gets some birthday money for toys from Uncle Fred. The family prepares for a trip to the toy store. Susan comes down wearing the birthday party hat. Mother puts on Susan's red hat. They leave for the toy store. 10. 11. 275 Coding Dimension--Outcome FAILURE (2) The children prepare a play-party for their toys. Flip climbs on the table and upsets it. Mother gives Betty a blue sweater for her doll, Patsy. Flip, the dog, grabs the sweater and runs away with it into the dog house. Everyone is helping to wash the car. Pony starts to drink the water ir1 the pail. The family goes for a ride. They stop at the roadside stand to buy pumpkins. Flip chases a kitten perched on top of the pumpkins. The pumpkins are toppled over. Flip and the cat run down in oppo- site directions, startled. Susan and Betty arrive home with Mother. Father has just painted the front door red. Flip gets the red paint on his fur. Flip meets Frisky and chases the cat through the yard. Flip jumps on the clothes line pole to reach the cat and the pole falls down with all the clothes on it. Mother ices a birthday cake for Tom. Susan puts too many candles on it. Mother tells her we only want seven candles. Betty starts taking the extra candles off. Tom went to feed the turkey. The turkey food was in his cowboy hat. The turkey came so fast that he knocked Tom down and the hat ended up on top of Mr. Turkey. Tom ran after the turkey to regain his hat. The turkey ran because he was frightened. The dog, kitten and duck see the turkey in a crate and are pleased he is there so that he won't gobble them up. But just as they are about to leave the crate, it opens up and the turkey starts to run after the animals to gobble them up. The animals run very fast to the barn. Betty gets a new kitten from Father. The kitten runs through the yard, and climbs a tree. Susan carries her chair and toys to the porch to play. Mother asks her to leave because she must work. Susan carried her things to the yard. Tom and Betty ask her to leave because they are working there. Susan carried her toys to another part of the yard. Daddy comes along with the wheelbarrow, lifts Susan into it on the chair and gives her a ride. 12. 276 The three children get new chairs to paint. After they paint them, they go to meet Father and ask him to guess what color they have painted them. He guesses by the color smeared on their clothes. 277 Coding Dimension--Outcome HELP (3) While Tom rides Pony, his cowboy hat gets caught on a branch. Mr. Green comes by in his truck. Tom stands in the truck and is able to reach the hat. Tom thanks the man and rides home on Pony. Flip remained in Mr. Green's truck and finds himself at the air- port. The planes frighten Flip. Mr. Green then takes Flip home to the little white house. The children went to the barn and climbed the ladder to the hay loft to see the kittens. Pony knocked down the ladder leaving the children stranded in the hay loft. They called and called and finally Father came, set the ladder up again so that the children could climb down. 278 Dimensiones a codificarse l. Personajes Determine y clasifique los personajes del cuento o trama, tra- tando cada cuento por separado mediante el uso de las siguientes dimensiones: l. nifios sdlamente 2 nifios y animales (ningdn adulto) 3. animales s6lamente, no incluye personas reales 4. personajes ficticios, no incluir animales o personas 5 objetos inanimados ya sea personificados mientras que no sean descritos, personajes reales o animales como personajes 6. adultos s61amente 7. nifios y madre 8. nifios y padre 9. nifios, madre y padre lO. nifios y otros adultos 2.* En la clasificaci6n de personajes anteriormente citados, cuando hay nifios de por medio (o, l, 6, 7, 8, 9), el "ranqueador" pondré el nfimero de nifios en cada una de las categorias siguientes: 9. 10. 11. 12. nifios-familia—9 afios de edad (ponga cantidad) nifios-familia-menos de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) nifios-familia-més de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) 1 2 3 4. nifias-familia-o ands de edad (ponga cantidad) 5. 6 7 8 nifias-familia-menos de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) nifias-familia-més de afios (ponga cantidad) nifios-sin referencia familia-9 afios de edad (ponga cantidad) nifios-sin referencia familia-menos de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) nifias-sin referencia familia-9 afios de edad (ponga cantidad) familia-menos de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) 9 a a nifios-sin referencia a familia-mas de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) a nifias-sin referencia a a nifias-sin referencia familia-mas de 9 afios (ponga cantidad) *"Nine years" was used instead of six as in the original. 279 Determine la actividad predominante o tema central del cuento, tra- tando cada cuento por separado mediante el uso de cada dimensidn dada. La actividad predominante o tema central representa el trama o argumento del cuento. Es sobre esta actividad alrededor de la cual giran todas las demas actividades. Unifica también el argumento o bien da el mayor énfasis y uso de espacio. La actividad predominante o tema central forma la base de los puntos 4, 5, 6, 7. A la hora de hacer la clasificaci6n de puntos 4, 5, 6, 7 tenga cuidado de no contaminar. Por ejemplo, no permita que la valora— ci6n de la edad afecte la valoracidn del sexo o no permita que la valoracién del tema o actividad afecte la valoraci6n que le das a la edad y sexo, etc. Tema predominante Clasifique la actividad o tema predominante del cuento (por ejemplo el tema en si). Ponga el cuento en s6lamente una categoria entre las citadas abajo: l. Juego activo: juegos organizados como todo tipo de juego donde se empTéan pelotas, y deportes no organizados como nataci6n, pesca, correr, brincar mecate, etc. Expresi6n estética y apreciaci6n: belleza, poesia, mdsica, etc. Cuentos folcldricos: de hada, cenicienta Juego imaginativo: con 0 sin juguetes, como ‘vaqueros e indios poTicia, simulacro de drama, etc. Lecciones de la vida: moralejas, por qué debe uno ser bueno Naturaleza: vida de la abeja que hace miel, actividades de los animaTes, no incluya mascotas, tempestades, sembrando flores 7. Paseos: viaje al zool6gico o visita a mi abuelo, o paseos campestres 8. Fiestas: de cumpleafios, té danzante, etc. 9. Mascotas: jugando o cuidando una mascota lO. Humorismos,picardias: incluya a gente y/o mascotas, molestando ll. Actividades calmadas: lectura, juegos de mesa, mirando TV, escuchando la radio, etc. 280 12. Situaciones reales de la vida con emociones negativas o entu51asmantes: perdiéndose, irse dela casa, participar en un argumento familiar l3. Actividades religiosas: asistiendo a la iglesia, rezando l4. Actividades de escuela: no en términos de juegos imaginativos l5. Proyectos de trabajo: pintando una silla, cortando el pasto, etc. l6. Situaciones reales de la vida con emociones positivas y entUSTasmo: padres trabajando, planeando sorpresas, consiguien- Yfl) premios, mandados, yendo a la tienda, etc. l7. No clasificados: (indique la actividad escribiéndola) no incluida arriba Edad Clasifique la edad en que los niNos harian la actividad predomi- nante lukiestarian interesados en la actividad o tema descrito aunque no incluya niNos. Una lista de actividades e intereses ha sido proveido y arreglado de acuerdo a edades para servi como guia. Una actividad se asigna a esa edad cuando predomina, u ocupa una posici6n jerarquica, o donde es ejecutado con soltura, y en donde es de interés sobresaliente el nifio(a). Algunos intereses y actividades tienden a caracterizar varios grupos de edades pero sus cualidades (complejidad o simplicidad, elaboracidn, intensidad, etc.) describira el grupo mas apropiado. Uno necesita considerar, por lo tanto, no solamente "lo que se esté haciendo" sino también "c6mo se esta realizando." Por ejemplo, los niNos de distintas edades estan interesados en la nataci6n, sin embargo los de dos y tres afios, reman y pringan, los de seis y siete afioscomien- zan a aprender nataci6n, los de ocho y nueve aNos nadan bastante bien, y los de diez y once aNos se tiran del trampolin y se consumen. l. De dos y tres afios de edad 2 De cuatro y cinco afios de edad 3 De seis y siete aNos de edad 4. De ocho y nueve aNos de edad 5 De diez y once afios de edad 281 Sexo Clasifique la actividad o tema independientemente de edad y basandose en: 1. Qué harian o por qué se interesarian predominantemente los varones. 2. Qué harian o por qué se interesarian predominantemente las niNas. 3. Qué harian o por qué se interesarfan predominantemente los varones y las nifias. Tanto los varones como las nifias harian 0 se interesarian en muchas actividades o temas ya que los intereses masculinos y femeninos son compartidos por ambos. No obstante, estamos interesados en las va- loraciones estereotipicas que indicarian lo que los nifios 0 las nifias hacen o por lo que muestran interés predominantemente. Aspectos cualitativos ("como se esta realizando") deberan ser considerados en su valoracion. Una lista de actividades de acuerdo a sexo esta incluida. En las valoraciones sobre sexo cuando los cuentos son codificados sobre lo que harian los varones y las niNas o segdn por lo que demuestran interés (seccidn 7, punto [3]), el valorador toma una deci- siOn sobre las actividades o intereses de nino o nifia. l. Varones 2. Nifias Resultado Clasifique el resultado del argumento o tema del cuento de acuerdo a: l. Exito--la actividad o propésito es logrado 2. Fracaso--la actividad o propOSito es frustrado, fracasa o no lo obtiene. 3. Auxilio--la actividad o propOSito es frustrado pero finalmente se logra mediante el esfuerzo de alguna otra persona 0 animal No clasificado--(indiquelo por escrito) 5. Auto ayuda--al niNo le sale distorsionado la actividad, pero se ayuda. 282 Una lista de Situaciones ha sido incluida de acuerdo a éxito, fracaso, ayuda, a manera de guiia. Revisi6n a Junio l966 Nuevas categorias l. Urbano 2. Suburbano 3. Rural 4. No muy claro 5. Otro Tanto las caracterizaciones fisicas de la situacién como el contexto del cuento fueron empleados como criterios para establecer donde toma lugar la actividad del cuento, ya sea en el 6rea urbana, suburbana, 0 en el campo. Cuando el sitio no esté claramente definido, se le valora como "no muy claro." "Otros" sitios (como en un pais extrafio, jungla, fingido, etc.) son anotados especificamente. Algunas guias especificas fueron establecidas para asi lograr una valoraciOn mas uniforme, tal como: Suburbano--cercas blancas aceras que no son obviamente urbanas Todos los aeropuertos son urbanos--Use el No. 4 si el sitio cambia dentro del cuento. Las playas son consideradas como "otros." Cualquier vestimenta sobre los animales se considera como "otro." Mientras que el tema de un grupo de cuentos es continuo, las valora- ciones deberan ser constantes. Composici6n Cultural (Esta categoria fue eliminada para el anélisis en espafiol) (JON CDVO‘UT 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. dd HODmNC‘U'l-hOJN-fl 283 Actividades e intereses de NiNos de acuerdo a sus edades Dos y tres afios de edad (l) Que se le lea Overoles-vestidos Se cae’, 0 se caé sobre algo cuando (falta de coordinaci6n) Se distraé’de las actividades Se mete en cosas Coloca objetos en fila Expresi6n exagerada de sus emociones Se apega fécilmente a los objetos, juguetes, juguetes de animal Jugando con la bola mientras esta sentado Jugando con trastos, palanganas Jalando vagonetas pequefias Empujando camiones de juguete Montando sobre triciclos pequeNos Jugando en el barro Mesiéndose en las hamacas con la ayuda de los papés Tomando una siesta Cuatro y cinco afios de edad (2) Animales que actfian como personas Haciendo payasadas para atraer la atenci6n Haciendo burbujas Sonando bocinas Varones y nifias jugando juntos Subiéndose sobre mecates Coloreando Preocupacién de separarse de la madre Preguntas de curiosidad Jugar de casita con otros Vistiendo a los animales, gatos, perros, etc. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 284 Excursién a la finca Temores a la oscuridad, animales Temas sobre lo bueno-malo Contento por ir de paseo en carro Ayudando a los padres (jugar) Compafiero imaginario Imitando y arremedando a otros Imitando a los animales Haciendo casitas de sabanas y cobijas Marchando Pintando Pegando Jugar de mecanico o servicio de gasolinera Jugar en la tina Jugando de astronautas (uniformes) Jugando de médico, enfermera Jugando de bomberos, policia Jugando de tienda Rezando a la hora de acostarse Jugar con arcilla y plasticina Jalando cosas detrés del triciclo Montando triciclo Santa Claus Juego con bloques Comidas sencillas--lo mismo Mesiéndose Te danzante Juego con muNecos rellenados Tirando piedritas Tinkertoy Un viaje a visitar abuelos Chapalear en la piscina Mirando a los trabajadores w w (A) N N N N N N N N N N -' —" --‘ —-’ -‘ —‘ --‘ -' —‘ —‘ N '—‘ O \o (I) \J 0‘ U1 b OJ N —' O ‘0 (I) \l 05 (II b (A) N "-" O \D o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o (DNCWU'I-bwmd 285 Seis y siete afios de edad (3) Cuentos biblicos Peinando el perro Haciendo mufiecos de nieve Fabulas por TV Circo Cocinando con la ayuda de la mama Bailando (ej. zapateados, etc.) Yendo al dentista Haciendo huecos Jugar de escondite Rayuela Interés en nidos de pajaros Interés en su vecindario a nombres d9 C311esa etc. Interés en herramientas (serrucho, martillo, etc.) Perdiendo una muela Magia Haciendo regalos a la familia Haciendo San Valentin Fingir ser maestro(a) Jugando en la nieve Jugando de soldado Jugando qued6 Haciendo letras Leyendo a sus papas cabalgando guiado Patinaje sobre ruedas Carreras Guardando cosas (tarjetas) Patinetas Vendiendo limonada Enfatizando diferencias sexuales mientras juega Llevar cosas para mostrar en la escuela 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 4]. N N N N ....a _.a ._a ...: ._a ._.I .....I ...: ...—n ..a (A) N -—' O to 00 \I 03 01 h on N —' O O O I O O O O C O I O C O O \DCDVO‘m-bwmd 000000000 286 Saltando Humores Juegos de mesa Decir 1a hora Tirando una pelota Un viaje a la lecherfa, dpto. de p01icfa, etc. Queriendo ganar y ser primero Querer un re10j de pulsera Luchando con los compafieros y su papa Ocho y nueve afios de edad (4) Intercambiando objetos con 10$ companeros Siendo aventurero Muchachos y muchachas juegan por separado Los varones con sus papas Construyendo fortalezas Cuido de jardin--f10res y vegetales Nifios de tierras lejanas Subiendo arb01es Revistas Escribiendo Cuentos de hada AIimentando a] perro, gato (soIito) Volando una cometa Pescando BaiIes folcldricos Nifias con sus mamas Yendo a1 restaurant a comer Ayudando a1 padre (sin jugar) Ayudando a la madre (sin jugar) Figuras histdricas Se interesa en colecciones (estampillas) Se interesa en mapas Se interesa en ciencia . but 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 3]. 32 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. -—l .—l ...-I -—l —-l —l —l _J \J 0‘ U" ah u N —‘ O £0 0 0 o o o o o o o Cowman-wa—a 00000000 287 Brinca suiza bien Haciendo modeios Boias de vidrio (competitivo) No 1e gusta mudarse--varones Organizando ciubes Jugando con trenes electricos Juegos simu1ando guerra Jugando con culebras (varones) Cabaigando Practicando e1 piano 0 un instrumento Interés en radio Reparando juguetes Montando bicicleta Haciendo mandados Cosiendo Diez y once afios de edad (5) Buen deportista Conoce hechos sobre e1 fUtbol Permanece con sus companeros alejado de] hogar Boiiche Carpinteria (no juega brusco) Cocina por $1 $010 Corta e1 césped Hace bailes sociaies en 1a escueia Ba de comer a los animaies grandes (solito) Ba de comer a1 bebé (nifias) Ropa de nifia/seiecciona su prOpia Devuelve pistolas de juguete Va en una caminata Va a] cine Da lealtad al grupo Cuentos de perros y cabalios Monta caballos 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 288 Caza Prefiere actividades de afuera que adentro Juega béisboi Juega ffitbol Mflsica popuiar Lee (soiito) Ambiciones sofisticadas cuando sea grande Expectador de deportes Quiere un caballo Lava trastos Escribe cartas (mujeres) Clasificando ias dimensiones relevantes a actividad relacionada a1 sexo Predominantemente varones —J .—J u—n’ —l —-l —J —J —J —l —J \D m \J m U1 b (J) N —“ O o o o o o o o o o o ©mNO‘U'I-wa—J Aventura Agresividad, animaies grandes saivajes Bandera Costarricense Animales peieando Astronautas Siendo un héroe Siendo vaiiente y demuestra coraje Botes Puentes Construyendo una fortaleza Haciendo represas Haciendo fuegos Construyendo con bioques Acampando Persiguiendo Subiendo arboles Compitiendo Construyendo Poiicias y ladrones 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 289 Vaqueros e indios Cortando e1 césped Excavando Doctor Explorando Papa trabajando Mucha acci6n (agresion) Peieando con otros Bomberos, ambulancias, carros, camiones Bombero, policia Pescando Arregiando calles Voiando aviones, cohetes Voiando cometas Ffitbol, béisbo], basketbol, soidados Bomba de gasolina Ensuciandose Cuchillos, pistolas Amartiliando, serruchando, carpinteria Caminatas Historia y personajes historicos Cazando Se interesa por accidentes, sucesos Haciendo modelos, barcos, aviones, carros Bolas de vidrio Marchando Juego mecanico Juego de monstruo Pintando paredes, cercas, etc. Desfile Empujando camién Jugando ajedrez Jugando con barro y agua Carreras 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 67. 68. 69. 74. 75. 76. 290 Arreglando cosas Cabalgando Montando una vagoneta y jaiando cosas con ella Robot Coieccionando piedras Ciencias Patinetas Excavando tierra Patinando (ruedas) Deslizéndose Cuiebras Colecciona estampillas Cosas cayéndose, quebrandose Tirando piedras Trenes Tambores Juegos de guerra Trabajando en la finca Predominantemente de muchachas ...: ..- ...I _a ._a -> (A) N -‘ O O O . C O \OQNO‘U‘l-wa—J 000000000 Dramatizacién Animaies y bebés Chinear Bastonera Teniendo miedo y ilorando Siendo perseguido Siendo jalado en una vagoneta Estando enferma Pajaros y ruidos Haciendo burbujas Mariposas Iglesia Cocinando--rea1 o imaginario Bailando-saitando 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 291 Decorando Juego con mufiecas Patos, famiiia de pajaros Hadas Cuentos de vida en familia Dandole de comer a1 nino Patinaje sobre hielo Flauta, piano, arpa, violin Yendo de compras Bondad y seguridad Ayudando a mamé Hogar Rayuela Interés por 1as ropas Oficios del hogar Jackses Saitando mecate Manteniéndose limpio Haciendo un jardin Enfermera Obedeciendo 6rdenes Pintando cuadros Pape] y tijeras--cortan Cogiendo flores Jugando de casitas Jugando de secretaria Escenas caiiadas de la vida diaria Escueia Cociendo Cantando Mascotas de peiucha, gatos Animales relienados Tomando una siesta Té 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 292 Ensefiando en 1a escuela Sombriiia Dia de los enamorados Visitando a abuela Lavando trastes Muchachos y muchachas N N N N N N N .... ...: ...: ...: ..a .—a ... ...: _.o ..a 03 U1 b (A) N -—' O ‘0 oo \1 Ch U1 D m N —-' O LO 0 o o o O I O I o o O O o O O O O o CDVO‘UT-wa—J Parque de diversion Bicicleta Fiesta de cumpleafios Boliche Navidad Circo Clubes Dibujando Comiendo Ferias, exhibiciones Familia pasandose Fantasia Papa regresando de viaje Yendo de vacaciones Yendo a1 cine Guitarra Haiioween Humor Fondgrafo Leyendo 1ibros Juego con arena Durmiendo Nadando Meciéndose, deslizandose Ir de viaje Visitas 293 27. Zoo16gico 28. Perros como mascotas EL? 1. Papa 11ega a1 aeropuerto bien, es topado por toda 1a fami1ia. 2. Potranco hue1e 1a cartera de la mama. La madre saca una manzana y se 10 da. Madre 1e da de comer 1a manzana a1 Potranco. 3. Los nifios se visten en trajes hecho en casa. También visten a1 Potranco y a1 perro, Feo. Van a topar a1 papa y 10 asustan. 4. La fami1ia se prepara para ir de viaje. Paran en 1a he1aderia y cada uno consigue un he1ado. 5. A Joaquin 1e sorprenden con una fiesta de cump1eafios. Todos 1os nifios tienen un sombrero. Se sientan a 1a mesa y se 1es traé e1 queque y e1 he1ado. Todos cantan "Cump1eafios fe1iz." 6. La familia toma e1 tren para ir a visitar a unos parientes. E1 conductor 1es ensefia e1 tren. A1 11egar donde 1os parientes, éstos 1es viene a topar. 7. La fami1ia va a 1a tienda. E1 hijo escoge un juguete. 8. Los nifios construyen un avion. Lo e1evan y 10 aterrizan. 9. E1 padre 11ega a 1a casa. Se sienta en su si11a. Los nifios 1e dan un rega1o. E1 se queda maravi11ado. 10. E1 gatito se encuentra en e1 arbo1 y no quiere bajar. E1 papa traé una escalera. Conforme se trepa, e1 gatito baja. Juana sostiene y abraza a1 gatito. Fracaso** 1. Los nifios preparan una fiesta de juego con sus juguetes. E1 perri11o se sube a 1a mesa y 10 derrumba. *Se acorto 1a 1ista a 10 ejemp1os en vez de 15 como en e1 origina1. **Se acort6 1a 1ista a 7 ejemp1os en vez de 12 como en e1 origina1. 294 La mamé 1e da a Rafae1a una sudadera para su mufieca, Juanita. Feo, e1 perro, 1o coge y sa1e en carrera con e11a a1 patio dentro de 1a perrera. Todos estan ayudando a 1avar e1 carro. E1 potranco empieza a beberse e1 agua que esta en e1 ba1de. La fami1ia va a pasear en carro. Se paran en 1a ori11a de1 camino a comprar ayotes. E1 perri11o ahuyenta a1 gatito que esta parado en uno de 105 ayotes. Los ayotes se derrumban. E1 perri11o y e1 gatito sa1en corriendo asustados en direcciones opuestas. Susana y 01ga 11egan a 1a casa con 1a madre. E1 papa acaba de pintar 1a puerta de1 frente roja. E1 perri11o se junta de pintura. E1 perro se encuentra con e1 gato y 10 persigue por todo e1 patio. E1 perro sa1ta en e1 soporte de1 tendedero de ropa para a1canzar a1 gato y se caé e1 soporte con todo y ropa. La mama decora e1 queque de cump1eafios para Tomas. Susana 1e pone demasiado cande1as. La mama 1e dice que $61amente se necesitan siete. Patricia comienza a quitar 1as cande1as extras. Auxi1io Mientras Tomés caba1ga sobre su caba11o, su sombrero de vaquero qued6 pegado a una rama. E1 sefior Rodriguez 11ega con su camién. Tomas se para sobre e1 cami6n y 1ogra a1canzar e1 sombrero. Tomas agradece a1 hombre y caba1ga hacia 1a casa. Misiffis se queda en e1 cami6n de1 sefior Rodriguez y se va sin querer a1 aeropuerto. E1 avi6n asusta a Misiffis. E1 sefior Rodriguez 11eva entonces a Misiffis para su casa, a su casita b1anca. Los nifios fueron a1 estab1o y se suben por 1a esca1era hasta e1 sostén de paja para ver 10$ gatitos. E1 potranco bota 1a esca1era dejando a 105 nifios sin medio de bajarse. L1amaron y 11amaron hasta que fina1mente 11egé e1 papa, y co1oc6 1a esca1era para que pudieran bajar. APPENDIX E NAMES OF SCHOOLS USED IN THE STUDY AND PRIMERS REPORTED BEING IN USE AT TIME OF THE STUDY 295 APPENDIX E Primers Mentioned by Teachers 1. Tit1e Ejercicios Idiomaticos para 3er Grado de Ensefianza Primaria 2. Author Mario Fernandez Lobo 3. Pub1ishing_Co. Sociedad Editoria1 Fernandez-Arce 4. P1ace_pub1ished San José, Costa Rica 5. 1979 1. Leergy Hacer 2. Prof. Ade1a de Séenz y Prof. Car1os Luis Séenz 3. Imprenta Las Americas Ltda. 4. San José, Costa Rica 5. 1974 0-+ 1. Nuevos Caminos 2. ROCAP-ODECA 3. Casa Grafica Ltda. 4. San José, Costa Rica 5. 1964 296 297 O-t 1. Horas Fe1ices 2. ROCAP-ODECA 3. Casa Grafica Ltda. 4. San José, Costa Rica 5. 1964 * 1. Libro Tercero de Lectura: E1 Nuevo Sembrador 2. Dr. Luis Pérez Espin6s 3. La Escue1a Nueva S. A. 4. Madrid, Spain 5. 1978 + 1. Lecturas_para trabajo independiente: Libro tercero 2. Nora R. de Chac6n 3. Editoria1 Costa Rica 4. San José, Costa Rica 5. 1978 +-* 1. Lengua Espafio1a: Tercer Grado 2. A1mendros A1vero 3. Vasco Americana 4. Bi1bao, Espana I970 298 +-* 1. Nacho Costarricense 2. Equipo didactico técnico de SUSAETAEDICIONES 3. Ediciones Centroamericanas 4. San José, Costa Rica 5. 1978 Note: Six of the 14 sources used in the schoo1s samp1ed for reading instruction are omitted here because of 1ack of specificity in procurement information and/or 1ow-frequency usage. *==Primers written in another country. 0==Primers written through an intergovernmenta1 contract. +==Primers used in this study as indicated by 71% of the teachers. 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