PATHS TOWARD MODERNIZATION IN
TRADITIONAL BRAZILIAN COMMUNITIES

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
JOHN; A. WINTERTON
1969

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3291

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
PATHS TOWARD MODERNIZATION IN TRADITIONAL

BRAZILIAN COMMUNITIES

presented by

John A. Winterton

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Communication

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Date July 8,

 

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ABSTRACT

RATHS TOWARD MDDERNIZATION IN TRADITIONAL
BRAZILIAN COMMUNITIES

____T1

by John A, Winterton

Traditionalism is defined as a static style of life regardless

 

of occupational endeavor or place of residence. It is often character—

fm _' ___..___< __
, ,

ized by economic deprivation, attitudinal immobility, localiteness ,
fatalism, low empathy, mutual distrust in interpersonal relations,
limited aspirations, low risk-orientation and many other socio-psycho-
logical and economic indicants. rDwo questions were asked in the
present study: (1) do empirically-verifiable economic, attitudinal and
behavioral dimensions exist in traditional life? and (2) can these
Characteristics serve as predictors of communication behavior?

Data for this study came from a part of the MSU/AID Brazil
Phase II Diffusion Project. During July and August of 1966 1,307 house-
hold heads in 20 Minas Gerais (Brazil) subsistence farning communities
were interviewed in a field survey of the diffusion of innovations.
Respondents included those who mined at least part of their land, or
made the major decisions for a particular farm and were not absentee
landlords.

Factor analysis, both R— and.P—types, were the major data-
analytic techniques employed in the present attempt to parsimoniously

describe both traditionalism and traditional typologies of individuals.

John A. Winterton
Three R-type factors were extracted from an R-factor analysis of 26
variables. These factors were named: (l) socioeconomic achievements,
(2) modern attitudes and (3) community leadership.

A comparative analysis of six factor analytic studies of tra-
ditionalism, including the present study, was conducted. A total of
21 factors extracted from the six studies were examined in order to
determine the similarity of traditional factor dimensions across diverse
national settings. Four common dimensions of traditionalism were found
among the studies of traditional life in Kenya, India, Colombia, Brazil
and the United States. These factor clusters were named: (l) commun-
ication contact, (2) economic resources, (3) modern attitudes and (A)
community leadership.

A random sample of 100 subjects from the original 1,307 re-
spondents were subjected to a P—type factor analysis. In this case,
correlations between individuals, serving as "variables," and 20 indices
of traditionalism (previously isolated by the R-type factor analysis),
serving as observations , were factor-analyzed in order to identify tra-
ditional typologies of peOple. Three P—type factors were extracted and
named: (l) attitudinally modems, (2) economic achievers and (3) com-
munity leaders . The three P—type factors and three R-type factors
extracted in the two factor analyses were markedly similar.

The data indicated that in Brazil traditionalism was negatively
related to mass media exposure, cosmopoliteness, change agent contact
and the number of commmication channels used for innovation informa-

tion. It was also found that traditionalism was related to greater

John A. Winterton

exposure to interpersonal, rather than mass media, channels in the com-

munication of innovations. However, it was found that traditionalism

was not related to higher credibility for interpersonal, rather than
mass media, channels in the communication of innovations. Finally, it

was found that traditional typologies did not differ in their commun-

ication behavior.

a»

PATHS TOWARD I’DDERNIZATION IN TRADITIONAL

BRAZILIAN CDMMUNITIES

By
John A. Winterton

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirenents
fOr the degree of

TIDCI' OR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Communication

1969

n" M-

a

Accepted by the faculty of the Departnent
of Communication, College of Communication.Arts,

Michigan State university, in partial fUlfillment
of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy

degree.

Guidance Committee:

 

 

 

'

 

.ACKNOWIEDGMENTS

The author is greatly indebted to the following individuals

and institutions who helped in the completion of this thesis:

Dr. Everett.M. Rogers, academic advisor and chairman of the

author's Guidance Committee, for initiating and maintaining the

author's interest in this study. from him, the author received

valuable time, materials and advice which contributed immensely to

the completion of this dissertation. The author cannot thank him

enough for the help he has provided during the course of his graduate

study.
Dr. Bradley Greenberg, Dr. Gerald Millery Emu Elwin Bettinghaus,

and Dr. Eugene Jacobson, all of whom served on the author's Guidance
Committee, for their ideas and critical suggestions which so greatly

influenced the theoretical and methodological fOrmulations of this

thesis.
Mrs. Anita Immele and the staff of Communication Researdh

Services at Midhigan State University, for their valuable assistance

in the analysis of the data.
The U. S. Agency for International Development-sponsored

research project on Difosion of Innovations in Rural Societies, for

providing the author with the data used in this dissertation.

iii

III—— .a .fi—.~__

 

‘Fellow graduate students and colleagues, whose ideas the
author has incorporated here.
Radene Winterton, the author”s wife, who continuously provided

encouragement and to whom this thesis is dedicated.

iv

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .

LIST OF TABLES . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES . . . .

LIST OF'APPENDICIES . . . . .

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION

Statement of the General Problem Area and Its
Importance . . . . . . . . . . .

Traditionalism. . . . . .

The Traditional Man . . .

Traditionalism as a Subculture . . . .

Traditionalism and Communication . . .

The Present Study . . .
Objectives . . .
Plan of the Thesis .

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . .

Traditionalism in Rural Brazil
Traditionalism and Communication Behavior

Hypotheses . . . . . .
Justification of the Present Study. . . .

III .METHODOLOGY’. . .
Sampling .

Selection of Communities .

Selection of Respondents .

Respondent Profile . .
Instrument Construction and Data-Gathering

V

~q.r<n+4

ll
11
ll

l3

l3
18
19
27

29

31
31
32
33
33

 

Table of Contents - Chapter III (contd)

Chapter Page
DataeAnalytic Strategy . . . . . . . . . 35
Data-Analysis: Stage I . . . . . . . 37
Data-Analysis: Stage II . . . . . . . 38

Data—Analysis: Stage III . . . . . . . 39
Data-Analysis: Stage IV . . . . . . . HO
DataeAnalysis: Stage V . . . . . . . HO

IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: PART ONE . . . . . . H2

Data-Analysis: Traditionalism and Communication

in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . H2
Data—Analysis: Stage I . . . . . . . H2
DataeAnalysis: Stage II . . . . . . . u2
DataeAnalysis: Stage III . . . . . . A7
Interpretation of P- Factor Typologies . . . 52
Type I: Attitudinally Moderns . . . . . 5H

Type II: Economic AChievers . . . . . . 5”
Type III: Community Leaders . . . . . . 55
Data-Analysis: Stage IV . . . . . 57

Traditional Typologies (P— Factors) and
Communication Behavior . . . . . . . 75

V FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: PART TWO . . . . . . 87

Traditionalism: .A Comparative Analysis . . . 87
Six R-Type Factor Analytic Stud1es of

Traditionalism.Variables . . . . . 88

Three P—Type Factor Analytic Studies of
Traditional Typologies . . . . . . . 97
VI SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . 101
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Traditionadisni. . . . . . . . . . . 102
Socioeconomic Adhievements . . 102
Modern Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . 103
Community Leadership . . . . . . . . I83
Traditional Typologies . . . . . . . . . 10”

Attitudinally moderns . .
Economic Achievers . . . . . . . . . I8:
Community Leaders . . . . . . . . .

l—mw ' Ll
..

Table of Contents - Chapter VI (contd)

Chapter
Traditionalism.and Communication Behavior .
Discussion: Paths Toward Medernization in
Traditional Brazil .
Traditionalism. . . . . . .
Traditional Typologies . . . .
Implications for ResearCh . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . .

APPENDICIES . . . .

Page
105
106
106
110
11A
117

123

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page
II-l. Locational Diversity of Traditional Life . . . . . 1A
II-2. Variables Initially Selected as Descriptive

of Traditionalism. . . . . . . . . . ...... 15
II-3. Initially Selected Communication Variables . . . . 20

III-1. General Respondent Profile . . .......... 3H

III-2. Data—Analysis Design . .............. 36
IV-l. R-Factor Loadings on Traditionalism. ..... . . nu

IV—2. Highest Loading on Factor I in P-Type Three—
Factor Solution . . ...... . . . . . . Ag

IV-3. Highest Loading on Factor II in P- -Type. Three-
Factor Solution . . . . . . . . . . 50

IV-H. Highest Loading on Factor II in P— —Type Three-

Factor Solution . . . . ..... . ..... 51
IV-5. Indeterminant Subject Loading in P-Type Three-

Factor Solution . ..... . . . . . . . 52
IV-6. WRAP Interpretation of P—Factor Typologies . . . . 53
IV-7. Dimensions of Traditional Characteristics and

weighted Standardized Scores of Traditional 56

MOlOgj—es O C O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O
IV-8. Zero-Order Correlations Among Dimensions of

Traditionalism.and Commun1cat10n Var1ab1es . . . 58

IV-9. Mean Scores of Traditional Typologies on

Selected Communication Variables . . . . . . . . 76

viii

 

Tables

Six R-Type Factor Analyses of rIhraditionalism

Comparison of R-‘Iype Traditionalism Factors
Drawn from Six Studies

Comparison of Traditional P-Type Factors
Drawn from Three Studies

ix

Page

89

91

98

“5-“...- "’" a
‘.

 

u'

Figure
I-1.

III-1.
IV—1.
IV—2.

IV-3.

LIST OF FIGURES

Venn diagranlillustrating traditionalism.as
characteristic of both peasantry and urban

poverty

Flow Chart of the data analysis methodology

Factor 1:
Factor 11:

Factor III:

Socioeconomic adhievements

Modern attitudes .

Community leaderShip

141

NS

H6

us

 

I -'-¢._-)«-g..L--'-" .'

LIST OF APPENDICIES

Appendix Page
.A OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TRADITIONALISM AND
COMMUNICATION VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
B STAGE I DETERMINATION OF VARIABLE RETENTION
AND DELETION ................... 126

A “

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I .am illiterate and so can understand nothing about
life. Another thing that makes me unhappy is my in-
ability to teach my only son, and I can't find the
way how to do this.

(Lerner, 1958, p. 15)

Statement of the General Problem Area and Its Importance

The bulk of the world's population is hungry, unskilled, often
illiterate and unchanging. This vast category of people is faced with
increasingly ominous survival problems such as the food/population
ratio, and decreasing manual labor needs. On the positive side, the
affluent, skilled sectors of the world are increasingly becoming aware
of their less fortunate neighbors.

Little is known about these people, comprizing the largest
portion of the world's population, of their motivations and personality
Characteristics , their perceptions of each other and of their external
enVironment. One reason that traditionals are relatively "invisible"*

is an inability to disseminate information about themselves. Only

The reference term "invisible" is borrowed from Ellison (19147)
Who dealt with the problem of being "Black" in the UnIted States. He
notes that the majority of upper or middle c1assOAmerican society se ec-
1:iVElIV' limit their perceptions of poor Afro-Americans, espec1a11y of
their economic and cultural plight.

1

‘t——
‘

 

2
have largely been written by individuals who have become more.modern,
acquired literacy and literary skills, and are reminiscing about past
experiences WhiCh are perhaps inaccurately remembered. Therefore, as
Lewis (1966, p. xxii) notes, Anthropologists and other social scientists
"Have a new fUnction in the mmtbrn world: to serve as students and re- I
porters of the great mass of peasants and urban dwellers of the under
developed countries who constitute admost 80 percent of the world's

population."

I4 '5-v¢£

The goal of the present analysis of field survey data is the

II,.‘.

study of certain socio—psyChological and economic variables often con-
sidered important in describing traditional behavior. Two questions
are asked: (1) do empirically-verifiable economic, attitudinal and
behavioral commonalities exist in traditional life styles? and (2) can
these characteristics (factors) serve as predictors of communication
behavior?*

Traditionalism.may be studied from.a.variety of perspectives
with different units of analysis, including: (1) national aggregate
analysis, as Characterized by Lerner's (1958) study of 75 more and less
developed nations, (2) community analysis of rural traditional villages,
as conducted by Fliegel and others (1968) and Dube (1958), (3) analysis
of family groupings in traditional settings, as conducted by Lewis

(1962), (A) study of traditional behavior in natural or experimentally-

 

*The two empirical questions broaChed in the present study are
bOth communication inquiries. First, we seek insight into traditionals
as an audience for messages of social and economic change. Also, we
examine the process of modernization, individual movement fromImore to
less traditional life sters, from.a communication point of via».

 

3
manipulated groups, as characteristic of studies by Neurath (1960, 1962)
and (5) analysis of individual traditionals. The present research de—
sign employs the individual as the unit of analysis in an attempt to
empirically describe and analyze traditional life.* This focus on in-
dividuals as the principle targets of modernization is designed to pro-
vide Change agencies with useful information about their clients.
Change agencies need to know as muCh as possible about their audience
in order effectively to disseminate and reinforce theiriprograms of

change.**

Traditionalism

Traditionalism is defined as a static life style, regardless of

 

occupational endeavorior’place of residence. It is contrasted with

modernization.WhiCh refers to individual progress from a more to a

less traditional life.*** The notion of traditionalism is a

 

*
All 1,307 respondents interviewed in the present survey may
be considered traditional in life style and outlook; however, they are
all moving, at different rates, toward modernity.
**

The problem of traditionalism and economic development might
include analysis of "which set of messages, transmitted underiwhat
conditions, by whiCh sources, to which potential receivers, will have
the greatest effect, i.e., The most rapid adOption of new teChnology"
(Herzog and others, 1968, p. l). The present analysis concentrates

on receivers or clients of Change.
**
This definition shares certain elements with at least two

puevious attempts to clarify the meaning of modernization. Rogers with
Svenning (1969, p. 1A) defined modernization as "the process by whiCh
individuals Change from.a traditiona1.way of life to a more complex,
technologically-advanced, and rapidly-Changing style of life." Lerner
$1958, p. 89) defined the concept as ". . . a secular trend unilateral
in direction from traditional to participant lifeways."

‘1'. r... "A-

LI
comparative concept which refers to a relative quality.* In fact,
Sen and ‘Roy (1966) argue that modernity should be viewed as a state
of non-traditionalism. *

At the national or societal level the process of modernization

is frequently termed development,“ defined "as the process whereby a

 

contemporary society continuously improves its control of the environ-
ment by means of an increasingly competent technology applied by in-

creasingly complex organizations" (Caplow and Finsterbusdi, 1961+, p. 21+).

The Traditional Man

Traditionalism at the individual level is a multi-faceted phe-
nomenon, encompassing both economic and socio—psychological elements .
The traditional man is often identified as a peasant or a slum dweller.
Yet, despite the obvious similarity of these classifications , there
exist some important conceptual and operational differences .

Peasan_1:_ry, as defined by Rogers with Svenning (1969, p. 20),
refers to the "farmer who is oriented largely, but not necessarily en-
tirely, to subsistence production. He consumes the major portion of the

food and other products that he produces."*** Slum dwellers,**** like

 

s:

Valentine (1968, p. 3) noted that "The state of poverty is . . .
a continuum, rather than a point on an absolute scale. The condition is
always defined in relation to a variety of quantitative and qualitative
criteria which change as societies and cultures change. "

M:
Rogers with Svenning (1969, p. 18) defined individual progress
toward modernity as modernization, and national progress toward modernity
as develo ment . '

"Subsistence-farmer" is a term commonly used to identify the
rural agriculturally—oriented poor. Rogers with Svenning (1969 , p. 20)
noted that the terms "peasant" and "subsistence-farmer" may be used

mterghangeab 1y .
we
Often the terms "ghetto" and "slum dweller" are used as

 

5
their rural cousins, live marginal, subsistence lives. They reside
in crowded, depressed urban neighborhoods where they must devote most,
if not all, of their time and energy to the acquisition of food,

clothing, and shelter.

Definitional differences between peasant and slum life center

around situational effects of urban or rural residence. The construct,

includes urban and rural poverty under the same rubric in order to
portray a more generalizable picture of economic deprivation. Figure
1—1 illustrates, via Venn diagrams, the relationship between poverty,
peasantry and traditionalism.*

Traditionalism.refers to a static life style, regardless of

 

occupational endeavor or place of residence. The out-ofework coal
miner from Southern Appalachia, the jobless tenement dweller in New
YCrk City, and the subsistence farmer in rural Brazil are all tra-
ditionals. Farmers, artisans, builders, businessmen or even small
manufacturers may be traditional men. However, the traditional man

is not likely to change his occupation. "The traditional system in—
sists on a rigid and fixed occupational structure. Each man is vir-
tually born to an occupation . . . and the traditional social structure

is profoundly conservative and custom bound" (Ishwaran, 1966, p. 113).

 

Synonyms despite important differences. A,slum.is an overpopulated
and economically depressed urban neighborhood. A.ghetto is a racially
homophilous neighborhood irrespective of the area '5 density or socio-
economic;status.

The present analysis of survey data collected from subsistence
feImers in Brazil seeks to make reference to the broader'phenomenon of
traditionalism.(see Figure I- 1). TherefOre, variable selection largely
was based on indices representative of economic, social psyChological
and social structural Characteristics of traditional life in both urban
GDd rural settings. .A number of the agricultural variables, of course,
could not be studied in urban settings.

aha-hp: vv A

mr—————T-

PEAS. ’Y

FigLue I-l.

.TRADITIONALI SM . URBAN / POVERTY

Venn diagram illustrating traditionalism as
characteristic of both peasantry and urban

poverty .

-.-_._._1- ..1
""7l

‘ 1' Jrufl' h;

relative phenomenon .

Traditionalism as a Subculture

elements of life style , environmental factors , and attitudinal dis-
positions to be distinguishable from their own larger cultural base.
Valentine (1966, p. 111), from an ethnographic stance, expressed
several reservations concerning social scientific identification of
traditional peoples in subcultural terms. He argued that subcultural
labeling should only be attempted with the "elucidation of part-whole
structural relationships . . . combined with recognition of internal
heterogeneity. " Additionally, he noted "The content and distinctive-
ness of subcultures must be regarded as questions to be settled
empirically." Gans (1962, p. 3M8) also suggested that

While occupation, education, income, and other factors

help to distinguish subcultures, the exact role of these

factors is thought to be an empirical question. The

(social) strata are defined as subcultures on the assump-

tion that relationships, behavior patterns, and attitudes

are related parts of a social and cultural system.

The intricate relationship between culture and subculture was

outlined by Rogers (1966, p. 9):

.__—‘
., . .

'h.

 

8

A subculture contains many elements of the broader
culture (a culture consists of material and non-
material aspects of a way of life shared and trans-
mitted among members of a society) of which it is a
part, yet can be characterized by particulars which
set it apart from other parts of the culture.

 

The present investigation attends closely to Valentine ’8 ( 1966) concern

for empirical investigation of subcultural distinctiveness and internal

heterogeneity.* Additionally, it utilizes Rogers' definition of dis-

tinctiveness in subcultural identification. I

Lewis (1961) was among the first behavioral scientists to make

r51 .7.

reference to a "culture of poverty." He suggested that poverty, across
national and cultural boundries, includes: (1) a provincial orientation,
(2) a lack of integration into national institutions, ( 3) low formal
participation, and (LI) a constant struggle for survival. Emphasizing

the functional interrelationship of these elements, he noted (1961, p.
xxvi-xxvii) that some of the psychological and ecological aspects of

life in a poverty culture include:

Livingin crowded quarters . . . a high incidence
of alcoholism, frequent resort to violence in

the settlement of quarrels , . . . early initiation
into sex, . . . a strong disposition to author-
itarianism, and a greater emphasis upon family
solidarity--an ideal only rarely achieved. Other
traits include a strong present time orientation
with relative little ability to defer gratifica-
tion and plan for the future, a sense of resigna-
tion and fatalism based upon the realities of their
difficult life situation . . . , and finally a
high tolerance for psychological pathology of all
sorts.

 

A .

The present investigation utilizes a P (people)—type factor
analysis in order to examine lo 'es of people who reside within
the broad framework of traditionaI ET .

 

.
~ .

q

9

Rogers with Svenning (1969) described a subculture of'peasantry
based on studies of subsistence farming in rural areas of Brazil, India,
Nigeria and Colombia. He postulated that despite the variability of
cultures, “meaninngl generalizations can be made about most peasants

. ., which hokitrue in most national settings" (1966, p. 8). The

central elements of the peasantry subculture include: (1) Hutual dis-
trust in interpersonal relations, (2) ladk of innovativeness, (3) low

aspirational levels, (u) lack of deferred gratification, (5) limited

1.. A

time perspective, (6) fatalism, (7) localiteness, (8) familism, and (9) a

low empathy.

The present traditionalism subculture includes many of the
elements of Lewis' poverty culture and Rogers' subculture of peasantry.
In fact, in many ways it represents an attempt to house the two under
a common rubric. Proposed is the submission of demographic, ecological,
socio-psychological and economic measurements (obtained fron a sample
of 1,307 Minas Gerais subsistence farmers in Brazil) to factor analysis,
in order to obtain a parsimonious, empirically—descriptive picture of
traditional life. The obtained factors are then to be used to predict
communication behavior, including: (1) receptiveness to mass media
and interpersonal communication, (2) credibility of mass media.and
interpersonal communication Channels, (3) exposure to change-oriented
Communication (in mass media and/or~interpersonal Channels), (9) change

agent-client contact, (5) cosmopoliteness,* and other communication

 

*Cosmgpoliteness, the degree tOIWhiCh an individual is oriented
outside his social system, is treated in the present analysis as a com-
munication variable. It is conceptually related to mass media channels;
for like the mass media, it offers exposure to the external environment.

 

10

behavior.*

Traditionalism and Communication

A principal objective of the present research project is the
investigation of communication behavior characteristic of traditional
people. Attention is specifically directed at the communication of
change-oriented ideas sponsored by sources external to the local community.

A number of modernization and diffusion theory generalizations
concerning the communication process are examined in the present inquiry.
Modernization research has rarely analyzed the relationship between
select socio—psychological and economic Characteristics of traditionals ,
and the relative attractiveness and/or credibility** of various mass

media and interpersonal communication channels.***

*The present investigation of traditionalism is based on data
collected from 1,307 Brazilian subsistence farmers in Phase II of a
three-nation (Brazil, India and Nigeria) research project conducted by
the Department of Communication at Michigan State University and sponsored
by the Agency for International Development. The MSU/AID research project,
Diffusion of Innovations in Rural societies, followed a three phase re-
search design: "Phase I concentrated on the community and its influence
on adoption process with some additional data collection on change agent
communication techniques; Phase II focused on personal differences
among individual cultivators and related these to the adoption process .
While Phase III is a field experiment aimed at assessing the effective-
ness of different communication strategies in introducing agricultural
innovations" (Whiting, 1967, p. 27).

3':
Credibility refers to the degree to which a communication source
or channel is perceived as trustworthy and competent by the receiver.
id:
Traditionalism and communication behavior was the focus of
studies by lerner (1958) in six Middle Eastern countries, Deutschmann
and Pals Borda (1962) in Colombia, Frey (1961+) in Turkey, and Raju (1969)
in India.

 

11
The Present Study

Objectives

 

The present investigation has two principal Objectives: (1)
empirical description of traditionalism.via.identification of its
major dimensions, and (2) analysis of traditional communication be-
havior. Description of traditionalism.is attempted via R-type factor
analysis* of numerous socio-psyChological and economic measures.
Additionally, a P-type factor analysis** Serves in identification of
traditional typologies of individuals. The relationship between R-
factors of traditionalism and various communication indices is sought
with zero-order correlation analysis. Finally, an analysis of variance
of differences in communication behavior of traditional typologies of

people is also conducted.

Plan of the Thesis

 

Chapter I attempted to provide justification for the analysis
of survey data that follows. This justification comments upon the
uniqueness and importance of analyzing traditionalism as a subculture
with distinguishable communication behavior. It was based on a review
of the literature on modernization, peasantry, poverty, traditionalism,

and traditional communication behavior. Chapter II provides a

 

*

R-type factor analysis is a statistical procedure which seeks
to reduce a large number of variables to their underlying dimensions or
groupings.

**
P—type factor analysis is a statistical procedure Which seeks

tO'reduce a large number of people to their underlying typologies or
groupings. In other~words, P-analysis clusters people of similar
Characteristics.

“7 _A..-- :__.

12

literature review in conjunction with presentation of the theoretical
background of the proposed researdh. .Also, a series of hypotheses are
offered. Chapter III concentrates on.the methodological background of
the present analysis; While, Chapter IV presents the results of the
dataranalysis. Chapter V compares findings from the present study with
those culled from studies of traditionalismIin other national settings.
Finally, Chapter VI presents a discussion of the relationship between

our expected and obtained results of traditionalism.and communication

behavior.

 

I

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The first element in our definition of the modern
man is his readiness for'new experience and his
openness to innovation and change. we consider
the traditional man to be less disposed to accept
new ideas, new ways of feeling and acting. we are
speaking, therefore, of something that is itself a
state of mind, a psychological disposition, an
inner readiness . . . .

(Inkeles, 1966, p. 191)

Traditionalism in Rural Brazil

Traditionalismn as conceptualized in the present investigation,
is based on past ethnographic reports, survey investigations and theo-
retical formulations of peasant and urban poverty life. The most
easily discernible linkage between these subcultural configurations is
the economic deprivation they share. They are also characterized by
static outlooks and approaches to their life situation. Clearly, the
poor reside in quite diverse settings, in both more and less developed
countries, as well as in urban and rural environments. The geographic
breadth of traditionalismxis illustrated in Table II-l. However, an
important premise upon which the present researCh is based is the as-
sumption that distinguishable socio-psyChological, attitudinal and
economic elements accompany impoverished life styles wherever found,
and that the sum of these elements may best be categorized under the

rubric of traditionalism.
l3

rh-iI-‘fi—fl .-

 

fib—

Table II-l. Locational Diversity of Traditional Life

 

 

 

Traditionals
Urban Poor Rural Poor

More Example: Slum.dwe11ers Example: Southern
Developed of New York and Boston* Appalachian welfare
Nations recipients***

Less Example: Residents of Example: Subsistence
Developed barrios (slums) in San farmers of Demirciler,
Nations Paulo, Brazil** Turkey or Vasilika,

k

a
See X with Haley (1965) and Gans (1962).
me
See De Jesus (1963).
me
See Weller (1965).

**** .
See Pierce (1964) and Friedl (1962).

3%

It initially attempts to describe traditionalismlwith the responses of

1:30? rural Brazilians on 39 variables (see Table II-2).*

\

* ° d at

The resent anal lS proceeds through several stages, an .
eadh junCturepone orzmoreyiariables may be eliminated. These deletions
Will be based on such criteria as: (1) insufficrency of correlationfw1§h
Other variables, (2) high rersal (no answerO rate, (3) establishmen o
a-Superior measurement of the concept with an alternative variable, or
Various other deletion criteria such as extreme skewness of'distrigufiéon.
This Procedure is discussed at length in the methodology chapter 0 e

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18

The present analysis of traditionalism attempts neither isolated
nor initial study of urban and rural poverty; but rather to build on the
theoretical and empirical works which have preceded it. Therefore ,
nearly all of the variables posited by Lerner (1958), Lewis (1961, 1966),
Foster (1962, McClelland (1961), and Rogers with Svenning (1969) with
respect to their investigations of peasantry, poverty and traditionalism
are found in the present research project.

In addition, a number of variables which may be considered novel
in empirical description of traditional life have been included for one
of two reasons: (1) either they conceptually appear to be linked to
traditional life styles as in the case of opinionatedness, or ( 2) they
represent situational measures, relevant to traditionalism as found in
rural agricultural Brazil, such as the indices which relate to farm

orientation and agricultural success .

Traditionalism and Communication Behavior*

The traditional commmication system is characterized by de-
pendence on oral communication channels. This amounts to less contact
with the external environment than if mass media channels were used.
Alteration of this strategy of information transmission in the form of
participation in a mass media audience often seems to signal movement

toward modernity. Lerner (1958, p. 52-65) refers to the mass media as

 

present report. Also, the analytical procedures to be employed at each
Stage in the research project are presented in the methodology chapter.

*Traditionals in rural and urban environments are distinguished
by different patterns of communication behavior. For example, urban
traditionals are heavy users of such mass media channels as television
Which receive little use in rural traditional settings . The present
analysis focused on rural traditional commmication behavior.

'It-‘i".9s.u _‘_ V ..

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~v-'.'"

 

 

I“

ll:

19
the "mobility multiplier." Mass media open a world of vicarious ex-
perience to large numbers of people. Sdlrarmn (1961+) and Rao (1966)
suggested that the mass media aid modernization by widening the dis-
tribution of information .
In the present study numerous indices of communication behavior rut?
serve as dependent and independent variables . This research strategy ‘

is adopted in order to empirically examine the relationship between .

traditionalism and communication behavior. Attention is directed at

 

such categories of communication measures as exposure and credibility

 

of mass media and interpersonal channels, cosmopoliteness , and change-

oriented information seeking, see Table II-3.

Hypotheses

The findings of Deutschmann (1962), Stycos (1952), Rogers
(1965), Rogers with Svenning (1969), and Lerner (1958) all support the
generalization of a negative relationship between traditionalism and
mass media exposure or high mass media credibility. Traditionals
characteristically shun mass media channels , even where readily avail—
able, in preference to interpersonal channels. For example, Caplovitz
(1963, p. 129) cites the importance of door-to—door peddlers as trusted
marketers of goods in urban slums where "individuals exclude themselves
from the larger market because they do not feel comfortable in it . "
The interpersonal interaction of these peddlers with their urban poor
customers seem to be the key to the trust placed in them; it certainly

is not derived from the quality of their goods or the prices they

charge .

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20

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22

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23

Lerner (1958, p. 56) in his analysis of aggregate data collected
in several traditional nations notes that as societies move from tra-
ditional through transitional to more modern life styles that "the
direction of change is always from oral to media system (no known case
exhibiting change in the reverse direction) . " In accordance with the
findings of these and other modernization and commmication theorists ,
the following hypotheses are postulated for our sample of 1,307 Minas
Gerais (Brazil) rural agricultural traditionalists:

GH 1: Exposure_t9_mass_media_comumication channels is
negatively related_to traditionalism.

 

 

A number of studies support a negative relationship between
mass media exposure and traditionalism. For example, Rogers with
Svenning (1969, p. 115), on the basis of data collected in Colombia,
note that "When one compares the mass media in less developed countries
with their counterparts in more developed nations, it is seen that the
former reach much smaller audiences." They found (1969, p. 97) "a con-
siderable disparity in mass media penetration" in traditional versus
relatively more modern Colombian ccmnunities. A national sample of
India conducted by Sen and Roy (1966) and a national sample of Turkey
conducted by Frey (1966) yielded canparable mass media exposure findings.
Pye (1963) reports that ccmmuication in traditional settings is usually
dependent upon a word-of-mouth process resulting in countless ineffec-
tive communication subsystems based upon personal contacts .

GH ’ 2: Cosmopoliteness is negatively related to tra-
ditionalism.

 

 

Cosmgaoliteness, an orientation outside of one's immediate

 

social system, is contrasted with localiteness or concentration of one's

 

21+
'interest in the immediate environment to the exclusion of the outside
world. Traditional men are characteristically localite, and cosmopolite-
ness seems to play a.key role in the modernization process. For example,
Dondhew and Singh (1967) in a factor analytic study of poor Kentucky
farmers found cosmopoliteness to be the most important single variable

in distinguishing modern from traditional respondents. Rogers with
Svenning (1969, p. 161) fbund.strong correlations between measures of
crenopoliteness and numerous indices of modernization among Colombian
peasants. In a comparison of traditional and relatively nore modern
Colombian villages they noted that about 31 per cent of the variance of
socioeconomic antecedents to modernization was explained by cosmopolite-
ness in the modern villages While only about 16 per cent of the variance
was explained by the traditional villages in a multiple correlational
analysis.

GH 3: Chan e ent contact is negatively related to tra-
dit1on§§§sm.*

 

Change agents are professionals who influence the adoption or

 

rejection of innovations by their clients. Although their greatest
service is to their’more traditional clients, they tend to interact
most frequently with the most modern of their traditional clients. For

example, Rogers with Svenning (1969, p. 176) reported that in Colombia,

 

*In addition to the two hypothesized relationShips between tra-
ditionalism and general communication behavior, four hypotheses are
offered relating traditionalisnxand change-oriented communication be-
havior. The communication variable in eaCh of these hypotheses measured

either change agent contact or reception and credibility of agricultural
news.

25
India and Kenya "most change agents have higher contact with clients
who are characterized by greater innovativeness , higher social status
and more education than their counterparts."
GH u: The number of communication Channels used for

innovation’inftmnation,is negatively related
to traditionalflmn.

“fin-r

.Attendance to numerous communication channels is a sign of

modernity. Lerner (196“) and Frey (1966) reported that the most modern

of their Turkish respondents attended to numerous mass media Channels.

They found that exposure to one mass media channel was positively re-

r1." -¢‘-‘_Q.n._-.mi .‘fiA.-" -

lated to exposure to other*media. On the other hand, the most tradi-
tional of their respondents were found to exclude themselves entirely
from the mass media audience. Rogers with Svenning (1969) and DeutsCh—
mann (1963) found the same "centripetal effect"* or overlapping exposure
to numerous communication Channels in the communication of Change among
the most modern of their Colombian respondents. On the other*hand, the
most traditional of their peasant respondents exposed themselves to
very few Change-oriented communication channels. Thus, even though tra-
ditionals are the principal clients of Change, they receive little
information which.is innovative.

GH 5: Greater exposure to interpersonal, rather than mass

media, channels in the communication of innovations
is positively related_to traditionaIism,

Innovations are ideas or practices whiCh are perceived as new.

 

Traditionalists are not often exposed to new ideas, nor are they seekers

 

*

Lerner (1963, p. 3H1) operationalized the "centripetal effect,"
overlapping exposure to numerous communication Channels, as high corre-
lations among exposure to five ness media, including: newspapers, radio,
magazines, films and television.

26
of information about Change. Iherefhre, when they are confronted with
innovations it is likely via communication channels which are most used,
that is interpersonal rather than mass media. Rogers with Svenning

(1969) reported that in less developed, as opposed to more developed,

 

 

nations interpersonal communication Channels were far~mrme important FIT
‘ l
than mass media channels throughout the innovation—decision—making pro- 5
cess, from initial awareness through final adoption. i
GH 6: Higher Channel credibility fOr'interpersonal, rather '
than mass media, ChannEls in the communication of’ .
innovations is positively related to traditionalismu* L“

 

Rogers with Svenning (1969, p. 98) pointed out that mass media
programming often ignores the informational needs of traditionals.
"Mass media messages in less developed countries are of low interest
and.relevancy to villagers because of the strong urban orientation of
the mass media." In fact, the mass media of highly developed nations
often ignore infOrmational needs of the urban poor audience. The com-
bination of limited exposure and low salience of mass media channels
mitigates against high credibility for mass media Channels. Ramos
(1967) and Herzog (1967) found in studies of Ecuadorian and Brazilian
peasants, respectively, that mass media exposure precede mass media
credibility. They noted that the relative positions of various com-
munication Channels on a continuum of credibility in diffhsing agri-
cultural innovations (ranging from least to most credible) were: news-
paper, commercial salesman, neighbor, radio, school teacher and ex-
tension agent. The two most credible channels were interpersonal,

while the least credible was a mass media Channel.

 

* . .
. These six general hypotheses are also tested in Similar form
with traditional typologies replacing traditionalism.

27

All of flue previously-mentimed hypotheses make reference to
oomnmication behavior characteristic of traditional people. The
dominant theme of each hypothesis is the overriding assumption that
traditionals tend most frequently to attend to interpersonal communica-
tion channels for their informational needs. This tendency appears to
be at the expense of the reception of messages through mass media or
cosmopolite communication channels. Finally, progress toward modernity
appears to be closely linked to increased exposure to mass media, cos-

mopolite and change-oriented communication channels.

Justification of the Present Study

The present approach to the study of traditional life and com-
munication behavior is innovative in several instances:

1. A large sample of Brazilian subsistence farmers (1,307 from
18 rural commities) provides the opportunity to utilize R—type factor
analysis in the study of responses to a wide variety of socio-psycho-
logical and economic indices. This statistical methodology allows for
identification of factors central to traditional life. This approach
has been employed by Deutschmann and Pals Borda (1962) in Colombia,

Jain (1965) in Canada and Donohew (1967) in the United States.

2. Submission of 100 randomly-selected respondents from the
population of 1,307 to P-type factor analysis allows (a) description of
"People" factors in traditional settings and (b) comparisons of tra-
ditional people typologies with variable configurations of traditionalism.
Ascrof‘t (1969) (commented on the rarity of this factor analytic technique

in the study of traditional life. Parace (1966) used P-type factor

.I. ‘ q ..__- _ _.

ram-u—

28
analysis at the aggregate level in a study of 109 modern and traditional
nations. .Also, Raju (1969) and Donohew (1967) used P-type factors in
descriptions of traditional typologies in India and the United States.

3. Finally, the obtained R- and P—type factors provided inde-
pendent and dependent variables with WhiCh to test hypotheses concerning
traditional communication behavior. Two statistical teChniques, corre-
lation analysis and analysis of variance, were used to test the rela-
tionship between traditionalism and communication behavior. Raju (1969)
used similar statistical manipulations in describing the communication

behavior of his sample of Indian peasants.

In 1' ‘ws.
'
l

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

Data analysis, needs to be both exploratory and con-

firmatory . In exploratory data analysis there can
be no substitute for flexibility, for adapting what

is calculated . . . both to the needs of the situa-
tion and the clues that the data have already
provided.

(Tukey, 1969, p. 90)

Methodological cons iderations important in the present analysis
of survey data on traditionalism and communication behavior are examined
in the present chapter. Attention is directed at instrument construc-
tion, sampling, data-collection and data analysis .

The data utilized in the present analyses were drawn from a
field survey of Brazilian subsistence farmers. This survey was Phase
II in a three-phase, three nation study of the "Diffusion of Innova—
tions in Rural Societies."* India, Nigeria and Brazil were selected
for inclusion in the investigation as being somewhat representative of

the range in level of development of less developed nations .**

 

*A research project funded by the United States Agency for
International development and conducted in conjunction with the Depart-
ment of Communication, Michigan State University, and the Agency for
Credit and Rural Assistance (ACAR) , Minas Gerais , Brazil, under the

direction of Dr. Everett M. Rogers.
ink . .
The criteria for selection also included favorable logistic

possibilities, significance and representativeness of the country,
interest and approval by the host government and by appropriate host
institutions, as well as local AID support.

29

.v "IAT
.
'u.“ ..n[

“I.“ . \'

F'"

1_L

 

 

30
- Phase I was a field survey conducted over a representative
sample of commmities in an effort to determine the influence of select
community characteristics, such as modernization levels, social struc-
tural characteristics , cormmity leadership (formal and informal) and
degree of interaction with change agents, on the adoption process. In E.
Phase II of the Project a second field survey concentrated on the char— *

acteristics of individual farm decision-makers. During this juncture

 

’J‘ilol" ,M‘fi'n‘

of the investigation attention was directed at the relationship of in-

dividual characteristics (social, economic and attitudinal) to both

 

(l) innovativeness , and (2) opinion leadership. Phase III represented
a set of field experiments designed to investigate, under controlled
conditions , the relative efficiency of various commumication strategies .
The diffusion of specified innovations was experimentally studied. The
treatments were combined media and interpersonal channels during the
final phase of the research project.

The methodology of Phase II of the Brazilian Project is best
understood in the context of the total research program for Brazil and
in comparison with comparable researdm being conducted at the same
time in India and Nigeria. The research decisions made during each
phase of the investigation had an impact or succeeding phases . Also,
the overall research objectives tended to shape the research in each

country toward similar ends in order to provide for comparability of
findings .

 

 

Ax-.-

31
Sampling

A purposive sample of 76 Minas Gerais (Brazil) commmities
was selected during Phase I of the research project. These commmities
were chosen by NO randomly-selected ACAR change agents . Each agent was
asked to pick the most successful and least successful community in his
jurisdiction. Through attrition, sampling and other problems this
sample of 80 communities was reduced to 76, with 38 corresponding

change agents .

Selection of Commmities

At Phase II of the research project 18 ACAR change agents were
purposively selected from the original Phase I sample of 38. This
selection was completed with the aid of ACAR specialists working in
conjunction with research personnel. Their decisions were based on
criteria such as: nearness of a community to a single radio broad-
casting station, clustering of houses or nuclear center of community
interaction and relative accessibility.

Since , as indicated in the Phase I methodology, each ACAR agent
represented two communities , it was possible to randOmly designate the
selection of either the successful or unsuccessful cormmmity. Only
one community per change agent was chosen; and, the final purposive
jUdgmental sample included nine successful and nine unsuccessful

communities .

A\.-

 

 

32

Selection of Respondents

Subjects were selected from within the 18 commmities on the
basis of the following criteria: (1) the major decision-maker for a
particular farm, (2) at least part owner of the land they tilled and
(3) absentee landowners were excluded from the sample. Research assis—
tants were sent to each of the sampled communities in order to both map
them and obtain a list of all farm land owners. These lists of names
were interviewer guides in selecting respondents . All those listed were
interviewed unless they were unavailable during the nine or ten days the
interviewing team was working in the community. Occasionally an imporh
tant farmer was absent during this period and, where possible, inter-
viewing teams returned to the commmmity at a later time to interview

such individuals. In other words, a virtual census was completed of

farm land owners who were household heads in the 18 selected communities.

Once the original 18 commmities had been selected, ACAR
notified the Project that they were planning a special program of "co-
ordinated communication" in several local offices outside the Phase II
sample. Included in their sample were several commities which had
been represented in the Phase I research effort. TWO of these, a
"successful" and "non-successf " commity were subsequently added to
the Phase II research design and respondents were sampled from them in
the same manner as in the original 18 communities. Thus, the number of
sampled communities was increased to 20, in which 1,307 respondents

were interviewed .

—.——‘--—- --——.‘-1
'-

. ,7.
m—n— -——

[—‘Hm‘ ‘. '.
3 n I)

 

:u

I..-

33

Respondent Profile

An introductory respondent profile is constructed in Table III-1
with typical or modal responses elicited from the large Brazilian sample
to a number of indices selected from a lengthy survey questionnaire.
This profile, based exclusively on frequency counts, provides a be-
ginning point of reference in orienting the sampled population in terms
of traditionality or progress toward modernity.

The "average" respondent is approximately an years old, has not
lived outside of his present community, earns less than $500 (U.S.) a
year, and owns less than 30 hectares" of land. He does own a radio,
stove, house with a wood or tile floor, a water filter and some kind of
farm machinery. He does not own a refrigerator, television set or

motorized vehicle. He does not have indoor plumbing, electricity or

an inside toilet .

Instrument Construction and Data-Gathering
Construction of the Phase II personal interview schedule was
greatly influenced by a working paper on modernization authored by
Keith and Rogers ( 1966) , which outlined variables in 17 conceptual
areas and suggested appropriate items for their measurement. Their
operational and conceptual definitions were culled from an extensive
survey of the literature on modernization and development .** Attention

was directed at such variables as: empathy, occupational achievement

:9:
One hectare equals 2A7 acres.

*5:
. The MSU/AID Brazilian project.was the focal point for a number
of investigations and working papers , including: Herzog and others
(1968), Whiting (1967) and Whiting and Winterton (1968).

_ A- T“?
="." T It‘d

Fr

Table III—l.

3”

General Respondent Profile

 

 

Respondent Percentage of
Stereotype Respondents
Age -- #3 years old or younger 50%
Localiteness -- never lived outside of present
community 6u%
have lived in other rural
communities 25%
have lived in a large (u0,000 or
more) city 10%
Income -- earns from $0 to $500 (U.S.) a year 51%
earns from.$500 to $1,000 (U.S.)
a year 18%
earns from $1,000 to $3,000 (U.S.)
a year 26%
earns in excess of %u,000 a
year 5%
land Ownership -- owns less than 10 hectares 32%
owns less than 30 but more than 10
hectares 53%
owns more than 100 hectares 18%
Ownership of
Commodities —- owns a radio 62%
owns a stove with Chimney 83%
owns house with.wood or tile floor 67%
owns a water filter 59%
owns some kind of farm.maChinery 50%
does not own a.refrigerator 92%
does not own a television set 95%
does not own a motorized vehicle 85%
does not have indoor plumbing 60%

does not have electricity or an
inside toilet

69%

[1.

35
motivation, political knowledge, opinionatedness, fatalism, inter-
personal trust and many others.

.A preliminary interview sChedule was developed, in Portuguese,
and pretested with a small group of'farmers. The results of this pre-
test were incorporated into a revised schedule which was utilized in a rw~
pilot study of 55 peasants, sampled from a community similar but out—
side of the 20 communities sample. From the results of this pilot study
scale analyses were conducted and the final instrument was considerably

shortened and tightened up.*

T1... ..
‘

Data-Analytic Strategy

The present researCh project has two major objectives: (1)
investigation of traditionalism, as a variable composed of an interre-
lated set of socio—psychological, attitudinal and economic elements, and
(2) examination of the relationship between traditionalism and Change—
oriented communication behavior. These two objectives were further
subdivided into a.number of research steps, eaCh requiring a different
method of data-analysis. An outline of the present project's researCh

Objectives and sequential data-analysis methods is seen in Table III-2.**

 

*In their conceptual and operational definitions of 17 inter-
related modernization variables Keith and Rogers (1966) cited.numerous
theoretical and empirical references, including: Lerner (1958), Rogers
(1966), Rogers and Herzog (1966), McClelland (1961), Deutschmann (1963),
Admond and Verba.(1963), DoCb (1968, 1965), Arensberg and Niehoff
(1964), Sen (1962), Banfield (1958), Pye (1963), Lewis (1951) and

many others.
**
.A comparison of findings culled via R-type factor analysis in

Fhe present researCh project with empirical results of similar researCh
1n other countries (India, Colombia, Kenya and the United States) is
P?esented in Chapter V. A.number of methodological dataeanalysis de-
cmsions, described in the present Chapter, have been influenced by our
desire for comparability of findings.

36

Table III~2;..DataeAnalysis Design

 

 

ResearCh
Objectives Method of’DataeAnalysis
1. Descriptive analysis of variables 1. Zero-order correlation
central to traditionalism. analysis, and
2. Regression analysis
la. Evaluation of factors important 1. Factor analysis (R-type)

in describing traditional life
lb. Evaluation of factors important 1. Factor analysis (P—type)
in describing traditional

typologies of people

2. Evaluation of the relationship 1. Zero—order correlation
between traditionalism.(both analysis, and
R- and P-type factors) and 2. Analysis of variance

communication behavior

 

The first analytic stage relied on both zero-order correlation
and regression statistical teChniques in descriptively analyzing trar
ditionalism, The inter-correlational.matrix aided decisions on retention
or deletion of variables for factor analysis. The regression analysis
provided rank-order importance of variables in describing traditionalism.
The second data—analysis juncture was concerned with determination, via
Retype factor analysis, of socio-psyChological and economic dimensions
important in describing traditional life. The third stage of the data-
analysis concerned construction of traditional typologies of people.

These typologies were extracted through the use of P—type factor analysis

 

I.“

 

a 1

V r

5.

A;

a .

0"

37
of a random sample of 100 of the 1,307 respondents. Characteristics
of each typology were determined by a WRAP computer program that analyzed
typology scores of 20 variables (selected for their participatioi in
describing R-type factors of 1raditionalism). Finally, the last stage
of the data-analysis dealt with examination of relationships between ;

traditionalism and communication behavior. At this point, zero-order

44:..."3"

correlation analysis was employed in testing hypotheses relating R-type

factors of traditionalism and indices of communication behavior.

Additionally, analysis of variance was used to test differences in

 

commmication behavior among traditional P-factor typologies . A com-

parison was also made of factors obtained in the P-type and R-type

factor analysis .

Data—Analysis: Stage I

The initial data analytic stage included two separate processes.
First, variables were selected on the basis of their suspected utility
in empirically describing traditional life and communication behavior.
Sixty-five such measures were tentatively chosen.* Second, these var-
iables were submitted to both a zero-order correlation and a regression
analysis.

A careful scrutiny of these statistical manipulations provided

a basis for deleting a number of variables from further study. This

 

9:

Appendix B contains a list of all 65 variables in the initial
Stage of the present analysis including their scores on each of the
four retention-deletion criteria .

38
screening of variables was based on four criteria, any of which, if
not passed, justify the exclusion of a measure:

1. A variable was deleted if it had a "no answer" rate exceeding
ten per cent, or 131 of the 1,307 respondents.

2. A variable was deleted if it did not correlate significantly
with at least three other of the 65 variables tentatively chosen.*

3 . A variable was dropped if it proved redundant with another
variable which offered a satisfactory measure of the concept.

1+. Finally, a variable was excluded if its correlation with
at least one other variable did not explain at least five per cent of
its variance.“

Each of the retention-deletion criteria represent arbitrary
stipulations designed to provide a point of reference for the inclusion
or rejection of variables. Their utility lies in the development of a
parsimonious list of measures, descriptive of traditional life, which

may be submitted to factor analysis.

Data-Analysis: Stage II
The second data—analytic operations sought to determine , via
factor analysis, whether a relatively large collection of variables were

reducable to a few identifiable clusters of measures which "go together."

 

*Non-significant correlation, at the ordinal level of measure-
ment, is any correlation of less than .134 (a correlation of .138 or
above is significantly different from zero at the .01 level of con-
fidence for an N of 1,307).

“One effect of arbitrarily setting the criteria as 5 per cent
of variance explained (which is a more conservative level of acceptance
1th significance at the 5 per cent level was to remove most of the var-
iables having lower coxnmmalities (h ) to lower and more corplex factor
.loadings. Cormmnaliicy refers to the proportion of variance of each var-
lable accounted for in a factor solution.

 

 

 

 

~ I

~*

O.

at
V.

(I)

N-
V.

"c

'-

39
Factor analysis is a statistical data reduction technique. It is a
method of analyzing the correlation matrix of a large number of vari-

ables in order to describe basic dimensions of a phenomenon under in—

vestigation. These dimensions or variable clusters are called factors.

A factor may be considered a hypothetical construct which is defined
by those variables sharing common variance with it. Variables which
survived Stage I screening, and excluding those related to communica-
tion behavior, were submitted to an R—type factor analysis.* This
analysis was designed to illuminate those factors most descriptive of
traditionalism within both an economic and socio-psychological frame-
work. At this juncture 26 variables were submitted to R-type factor

analysis .

Data-Analysis: Stage III

This stage of the data-analysis also depended on factor an-
alysis procedures in order to reduce a large number of individuals to
clusters which "band together" as typologies.** At this juncture 100
subjects (7.6 per cent), randomly selected from the 1,307 respondents,

comprised the sample.*** These 100 respondents served in a P—type

 

*R-type factor analysis refers to the correlation and factoring

of responses or tests of a sample of individuals.
Me
P-type factor analysis refers to the correlation and factoring

Of people for a sample of responses or tests.

*Only 100 subjects were submitted to P—type factor analysis due
to limitations in the number of Variables FACI‘ AN, a computer program
available at Michigan State University Computer Center and utilized in
the present analysis , could factor analyze. This program had a para-
meter limitation of 100 variables . Hence, when people replace variables ,
as in a P-type factor analysis, it had a 100 person limitation. There
was no such limitation on observations.

2 l
. "gar 1‘- It'd

{mu-n- ‘1‘:- or". .41 «fl -. "..~"-
‘ _ _ .

 

 

 

|II
l

(IP

H I

y-
Y;-
'u

v:

“a
V.

A.

V-

MO
factor analysis as variables, while, 20 measures of traditionalism,
selected on the basis of their high loading on three R—type traditional—
ism factors , served as observations . Factors culled from this analysis
represented groupings of individuals around a comon syndrore of char-

acteristics (in this case the 20 traditionalism measures). Thus, a

_R'
‘1” - Its.

____.._‘
,__.—

 

factor represented a type of person. A WRAP computer program assigned
weighted scores for each of the 20 variables for each subject assigned
with a given typology (factor). The higher the factor loading of a

subject the greater was the assigned weighted score. These weighted

Ian-u-"— 1".“ k” ‘ '1.-—
V .

values were summed across each variable separately, and, the arrays of

weighted values were converted to Z-scores .

Data-Analysis: Stage IV

At Stage IV attention was directed at the relationship between
dimensions of traditionalism and communication behavior, as well as
the relationship between traditional "people" typologies and communica-
tion behavior. At this juncture a zero-order correlation analysis was
conducted between R—type factors and a number of communication vari-
ables, such as mass media exposure and credibility, cosmopoliteness
and change agent contact. Analysis of variance was also employed in
order to measure differences in commmication behavior among typologies
of traditionals identified by the P—factors. In each of these analyses

R- and P-type factors served as variables .

Data-Analysis: Stage V
Stage V attended to the relationship between factors culled

from R-type and P-type factor analysis . Attention was also directed at

 

lb.

Ml

colparisons in the relationships that R-type and P—type factors ex-

hibited with indices of communication behavior.

Figure III-1 provides a diagrammatic illustration of the

different stages involved in the present

St I

Initial selection of 65 variables, and submission to
zero-order correlation and regression analyses.

St all

data analysis .

““‘T
- 1"- M“:

‘I'L’d— ‘I A"'Q¢'
,An—I—~__—

 

19 variables deleted

 

from further analysis. é I—)26 variables retained and

 

W

Stage III

100 variable P-type factor analysis utilizing a
random sample of 100 traditionals sampled from
the 1,307 respondents. Typologies are assigned
Z—scores, via WRAP program, for each of 20 tra- <—
ditionalism variables selected on the basis of
their high loading in factors culled from the
Stage II R—type factor analysis.

Stage IV

Zero-order correlation analysis

(serving as variables) and 20 communication var- 4

iables. Also, analysis of variance of differences
in communication behavior among P—type factor

typologies of traditionals .

Stage V

Conparison and contrast of the findings achieved
at each of the above data-analysis stages. 6

 

_.._...
II . r ..

submitted to R-type factor
analysis.

20 communication variables
retained for later analyses .

 

of R-f actors

 

 

Figure III-l. Flow chart of the data analysis methodologI.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: PART ONE

It is futile to attempt to treat this interaction
between communication and economic development as

a causal relationship and isolate the Chicken from
the egg. The interaction is constant and cumulative.

7*‘1!

-;«~ - n-K

l
(Rao, 1963, p. 35) l r

T !
DataeAnalysis: Traditionalism and Communication in Brazil 1

DatawAnalysis: Stage I

Sixty-five traditionalism.and communication variables were
used in the computation of suCh basic statistics as the mean, standard
deviation, skewness and kurtosis. .A zero-order correlation matrix and
a regression analysis (mass media exposure served as the dependent
variable) was also obtained for all of these variables. On the basis
of these statistical procedures and fOur retention-deletion criteria,
outlined in Chapternlll, 26 traditionalism.variables were submitted to
R-type factor analysis and 20 communication variables were retained

for use in later analysis.

DatawAnalysis: Stage II
A.three-factor solution.was obtained on the third rotation of

an R—type factor analysis utilizing principal axis varimax:rotations*

 

*
.A factor rotation is a mathematical means of viewing data

42

 

V-

I!“
,—

Ia

--

H

J

’l

“I

 

 

us

and a Kiel-Wrigley criterion of three for termination. * The selection
of the third rotation was based on three criteria: (1) maximization of
variance explained, (2) purity of factor loading and (3) conceptual
clarity.

The strongest factor, accounting for 19.81 per cent of the ex-
plained variance and entitled "socioeconomic-aChievements," included 11
variables: FUnctional literacy, use of agricultural facilities, po-
litical knowledge, farm income, commercialization, farmlsize, innova-
tiveness, adoption percentage, socioeconomic status, attitude toward
credit and status inconsistency. A second factor, accounting for 10.96
per cent of the explained variance and entitled "modern attitudes ,"
contained 8 variables: Occupational aspiration for son, economic know-
ledge, counterfactuality, opinionatedness, need aChievement, risk
orientation, social participation and empathy. The last factor, ac-
counting for 10.13 per cent of the explained variance and entitled
"community leadership," included only three variables: Mention as a
best friend, agricultural influence, and opinion leadership. Table

IV-l lists each variable, its factor loading and the proportion of

total variance explained by each factor.

K

. . . . . the
from.a variety of perspectives With the ultimate goal of reduc1ng .
data to its simplest factor structures. The present analy31s utilized
orthogonal rotations whiCh require independence between any two factors.
Thus, the correlation between any two factors was zero.
*The Kiel-wrigley criterion terminates the rotation of factors

When the last factor is comprised of only three variables. The cri-
terion of at least three variables in eaCh factor helped to insure

factor stability.

 

nu
Table IV—l. R-Factor Loadings on Traditionalism

 

 

Item.Correlation with Factors
I

 

II III
Traditionalism. Scale Socio-
Scale Itenl Item economic ' Modern Community
Number* (Abbreviated) .Achievements Attitudes' 'Leadership
1. Occupational aspiration
for son .2441 .4242 .0216
2. Functional literacy ‘ .4313 .2835" .0357
3. Economic knowledge .2916 .5081 .0702
4. Use of agricultural facilities -;l425 . .0838
5. Political knowledge .5808' .2753 .1100
6. Painlincome .7806' .1832 .1717
7. Commercialization .2753 .0670 .0239
8. Farm Size . 7184 -.1079 .1211
9. Mention as best friend .1818 .0852 .7966
10. Counterfactuality .2863 .7242 .0524
ll. Opinionatedness -.0330 .5440 -.0234
12. Innovativeness .5125 .1303 .2473
13. Adoption percentage .6269 .2649 .1215
14. Socioeconomic status .8013 .1454 .0492
15. Agricultural influence .2572 .0549 .9148
16. Status inconsistency .9346 .0913 .1387
17. Need adhievement -. .4992 .0126
18. Risk orientation .0530 .3333 .2338
19. Social artici ation .0654 . .
20..Attitudg towarg credit .6684 .0796" .1751
21. Opinion leadership .2394 .0694 .9080
22. Empathy .2488 .7080 .0704

Proportion of the total

variance e lained by eaCh 0
factor Xp 19.81% 10.96% 10.136

* 0
Three variables (age, attitude toward future, and source of'income)
failed to load highly on any factor and thus were dropped from further
analysis.

Figures IV-1, IV-2, and IV-3 present three traditionalism
factors obtained from the R-factor analysis of Brazilian farmers. The

factor in eaoh figure was diagrammed in.weblike faShion in order to

illustrate the interdependent relatedness of variables within the

 

45

 

/Ws»e of agricultural facilities <-.14‘>|
8

I)? '\

-.09

/Emidig;§um egg] \
.19 -l

.22

i t
[lmovativeness (.5l)1
1V r \
'3 '17 .40
. ¢
A7/‘1Ad0ptlonjercentage (,6371
f r

.35

l:/mat7m\:

LSocioeconorn102 status (. 80716—59 4LFarm income (. 7871

K3
:\’L8tatus incons15tency (. 9471A//6
.58
:\1 Attitude toward credit (. 67)1£/::

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.40
::\) thtical knowledge (. 5831/
.41

w
\LFunctional literacy ( .433] /2

 

 

Percentage of total variance explained = 19.8%

Figure IV—l. Factor I: Socioeconomic achievements.

 

46

\
\
‘\

 

 

.08...——-———--""“) [SomaIpartiCi ClEa‘tl on (.30)1<-.\\ 12 \\

 

 

 

 

L
25 ”[Oocupational aspiration for son (. 43)]
1 \30
.18
A5-————'“‘* LFconomic knowledge (. 5151<-~N~\- 36

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LCountertEctualig I. 7371< .59 __>, f a y
.22"1
8[\ [Opinionateciiess (. 55)1/
“F'
13
2N greed aanievement (. sun/'28
.16

 

1 . 19
21\) LRisk orientation (.4071/

Percentage of total variance explained = 11.0%

Figure IV-2. Factor II: Modern attitudes.

 

 

LAgricultural influenceT.927 <———. 92 -—->LUplnlon ieacEréiip (. 9D1
/I
.68 .64

/l
en ion as a Best friendeg

Percentage of total variance explained = 10.2%

 

Figure IV-3. Factor III: Community leadership.

47

factor. Thus , alteration of any variable is likely to result in changes
throughout the factor until a state of equilibrium is established. The
illustrative technique of presenting factors as "webs" was borrowed
from Ascroft's (1969, p. 334) study of the process of modernization in
traditional settings .* He noted:

Each system of variables within a factor is diagram—

matically analogous to a spider web with the zero-

order correlations representing juncture points in

the web , and the factor loadings representing the

distance of any juncture point from the center of

the web. One can envisage changes in the stresses

on all other strands that would be caused by alter-

ing the stress on any one strand.
In the three traditionalism factor webs, (socioeconomic achievements ,
modern attitudes and community leadership) 9 Variables with the highest
factor loadings were placed in the center of the web with variables
arranged around them in order of diminishing correlations with their
respective factors. The loading of each variable with its factor was

shown in parentheses. Also, zero-order correlation coefficients be-

tween many of the measures were presented.

Data-Analys is: Stage III
This juncture of the data-analysis focused on empirical ident-
ification of traditional typologies of individuals . A random sample of

100 subjects was drawn from the 1,307 respondents originally sampled.

These subjects, in terms of their scores on 20 to 22 measuresM which

 

:8

Ascroft (1969) used factorial webs to diagrammatically compare
and contrast modernization variables in traditional and in modern
Colombian villages.

Two of the 22 measmes utilized in the construction of three R-
WPe traditionalism factors were deleted from the P—type factor analysis

" avq”*s-"* .-_-_:l

l- ‘ ——bfi
'I

- i
i '1
Vflnwfl‘_‘u~‘-" m “murmlh.

48
comprise the core of the three previously—discussed R—type traditionalism
factors, were submitted to P-type factor analysis.

.A three factor orthogonal solution.Was obtained on the second
of nine varimax rotations. In this principal axis solution a Kiel—
Wrigley termination criterion of three was employed to insure factor
stability. Selection of the second rotation was based both on amount
of variance explained and purity of factor loadings. Tables IVLZ, IV—3,
and IV-4 give the assignments of subjects to each of the three factorial
typologies of traditionals.

Allocation of respondents to typologies was guided by two arbi-
trarily set criteria. .A sUbject was assigned to a factor if his loading
or factor coefficient, which may be viewed as a measure of correlation
with the typology score, exceeded .40 and was less than .40 on all other
factors. A subject was also assigned to a factor if his squared factor
loading approached his communality (hz) on all factors. Respondents
were allocated to specific factorial typologies if they met one or both
of these criteria. Respondents who did not meet one of these criteria
were considered indeterminant and are listed along with their factorial

loadings on eaCh factor in Table IV-S.

h

due to their peripheral loadings. The two variables deleted were (1)
use of agricultural facilities, and (2) commercialization'with factor
loadings of -.l475 and .2753, respectively, in Factor I, socioeconomic
aChievements.

 

i.
In. 11.1.. ‘.'_2-.._' " am.

[1’1“ L'Pt. ,'-' . '

49

Table IV-2. Highest Loading on Factor I in P-Type Three—Factor Solution

 

 

Subject Factor Highest Highest
Identifi- Loadings Other Other Commun-2
cation on Type I Loading, Type alitth
2 .5881 -.1570 II 37
3 .3956 -.O449 III 16
6 .5766 -.4126 III 67
8 -.4000 —.0851 III 17
12 .4460 .1231 II 22
14 .6327 —.3817 II 56
22 -.6387 .4061 III 61
24 .6377 -.4789 III 64
29 .4437 .3367 III 31
32 .4649 —.3071 III 31
34 -.5747 .3165 III 45
35 -.4276 -.2709 II 32
43 —.4304 —.1689 III 23
45 -.4350 .0884 III 20
46 -.6700 .3836 III 61
47 -.7555 .2427 III 64
50 -.4619 —.3534 II 35
51 -.7917* .2214 II 70
53 -.6301 .1897 III 43
57 -.5225 .2182 II 33
60 -.3550 .0984 III 14
64 -.3040 -.0508 II 11
67 -.6983 .1565 III 43
73 .4608 .2874 III 30
78 .4113 -.0141 III 17
79 —.4927 -.2341 II 31
80 .3053 -.1677 III 14
83 .5255 .1223 III 29
87 .7744 .1719 II 63
90 -.7512 -.2059 III 63
91 -.6392 .3133 III 54
92 —.6133 .3286 II 49
93 —.6889 -.3441 II 64
98 .3308 -.0508 III 12
99 .5147 .2905 III 37
N = 35

* .
Highest loading on Factor I.

Percentage of total variance explained = 14.8%

. I!

ra. nbfi_h-u‘—m ”ml-g- A..n.-—-L..____.l

50
Table IV-3. Highest Loading on Factor II in P-Type Three-Factor

 

 

Solution
Subject Factor Highest Highest
Identifi- Loadings Other Other Commun-2
cation on Type II Loadingpk Type ality h
1 .4969 .1711 I 28
4 .4359 -.2574 III 30
5 .7152 -.5356 III 80
9 -.5389 -.2526 I 40
13 -.5877 .0757 I 36
15 .3721 -.1905 III 20
20 .3566 -.2028 I 21
36 .3182 -.1555 III 13
41 .5836 .2428 III 45
42 .6387 .2100 III 46
48 -.6399 .2296 I 48
55 -.4988 -.2235 III 30
56 .4890 .3431 I 38
58 .4168 .1164 I 19
66 .6183 .4175 III 58
68 ~.3618 .1188 I 15
69 —.6087 -.0959 I 38
76 .6389 .4649 I 63
81 _ -.2922 .0949 I 14
82 .4422 .1307 I 22
84 .3023 -.1762 I 13
85 .3977 -.1000 I 17
86 -.6792 -.2275 I 52
89 .4314 .2554 III 25
94 .5442 .2719 I 41
95 -.7872* —.1932 I 66

N = 26

Percentage of total variance explained = 11.6%

 

*
Highest loading on Factor II.

51

Table IV-4. Highest Loading on Factor III in P-Type Three-Factor

 

 

Solution
Subject Factor Highest Highest
Identifi- Loadings Other Other Commun-2
cation on Type III Loading - Type ality h
18 -.7380 .2114 I 60
19 .6065 -.4532 II 58
23 -.5843 -.3964 II 54
25 -.6881 .1030 I 49
27 -.4576 -.2951 II 31
31 -.5654 .1755 I 36
38 -.4394 -.3315 I 31
40 .3061 .1715 I 13
49 .6111 .1999 I 43
63 .5111 .4090 I 51
65 -.5809 .2710 II 43
70 .4547 -.3625 II su
71 .6080 -.5187 I 65
72 .6539 -.4826 I 82
74 .6194 -.4354 II 69
75 .7547* .1174 II 59
77 .5633 -.4366 II 66
88 .3403 .1667 II 17
97 -.6814 -.1785 II 50
100 -.5662 .0716 II 33
N = 20

Percentage of total variance explained = 11.596

 

2:
Highest loading on Factor III.

On the basis of the two subject placement criteria, 19 out of the 100
randonly-selected subjects failed to load exclusively on any one of the
three factors. Table IV-5 lists these indeterminant subjects, their

. . 2
loadings on each of the three typologies and their communality (h

score) across all factors.

52

 

 

Table IV-S. Indeterminant Subject Loading in P-Type Three-Factor
Solution _

Subject

Identifi— Comm-

cation Iype I Type II Type III ality (112)

7 .2528 -.2332 -.2019 16
10 .2502 -.0131 -.2156 40
11 -.2867 .3412 -.2629 27
16 -.4579 -.2244 -.3735 40
17 .1283 .2466 -.0088 8
21 .2691 .2729 -.2455 21
26 .0481 -.1582 -.l877 6
28 -.1519 -.4438 -.4233 40
30 .0993 -.2447 -.1200 8
33 -.2227 -.3353 -.3263 27
37 .1837 —.3121 -.2453 19
39 .5650 —.4658 .0882 55
44 -.4087 .2631 .4760 46
52 -.0531 -.4688* .4639 44
54 -.3606 -.4536 .4911* 58
59 -.6565* -.3136 .4866 77
61 -.3037 -.2997 .0742 19
62 -.0566 .4543 .4635 43
96 .3016 -.0883 -.3639 23
N = 19

 

* o O 0
Highest factor loading, on eaCh typology, fOr indeterminant subjects.

Interpretation of P-Factor Typologies

.A oomputer*progran1(WRAP) was utilized in ascribing character-

istics to those individuals defining each of the three P—factor typ-

ologies.
variables, or observations used in assigning individuals to typologies,
for'each subject associated with a given factor. The higher the factor

loading of a respondent, the greater'was his weighted score.

The WRAP program.oomputed.weighted scores fOr eaCh of the 20

These

weighted values were summed across each variable separately, and these

. 11.43325]

arrays of weighted values were converted to Z—s cores .

53

Table IV—6 pro-

vided arrays of Z—scores for each of the P—factor typologies for the

20 variables .

 

 

Table IV-6 . WRAP Interpretation of P-Factor Typologies
Name of Variable Type I Type II Type III

1. Occupational aspira—

tion for son 1.11 (high) -0.45 (low) 0.56 (medium)
2. Functional literacy 0.88 (high) —2.12 (low) -0.66 (medium)
3. Economic knowledge -0.17 (low) 2.12 (high) 0.58 (medium)
4. Political knowledge -0.20 (high) -—0.52 (low) -0.30 (medium)
5. Family income -l.20 (low) -0.60 (high) -0.91 (medium)
6. Commercialization -0.99 (low) -0.22 (medium) -0.01 (high)
7. Mention as best

friend -0.33 (low) -0.05 (medium) 0.72 (high)
8. Counterfactuality 1.04 (high) 0.76 (medium) -0.72 (low)
9. Opinionatedness 1.11 (1cm) 1.18 (medium) 1.33 (high)
10. Innovativeness -0.93 (low) -0.25 (high) -0.66 (medium)
11. Adoption percentage -0.76 (medium) 0.86 (high) -l.27 (low)
12. Socioeconomic status -1.38 (low) —0.59 (high) -1.35 (medium)
13. Agricultural

influence -0.41 (low) 0.21 (medium) 0.62 (high)
14. Status inconsistency -l.45 (low) -0.55 (high) -l.05 (medium)
15. Need achievement 1.49 (high) -0.89 (low) 0.03 (medium)
16. Attitude toward

credit 1.45 (medium) 1.99 (high) 0.22 (low)
17. Rish orientation 0.31 (medium) -0.70 (low) 3.00 (high)
18. Social participation -0.67 (medium) -0.97 (low) -0.60 (high)
19. Opinion leadership —0.43 (low) 0.14 (medium) 0.62 (high)
20. Empathy 1.54 (high) 0.66 (medium) -0.15 (low)

 

On the basis of WRAP interpretations of P-type factors three

traditional typologies emerged .

Typology labels refer to the area in

which individuals defining each typology have progressed the farthest

toward modernity .

su

Type I: .Attitudinally Mbderns

 

Individuals defining this type were Characterized by high oc—
cupational aspirations for their eldest son, extensive political know-
ledge, and a high degree of empathy. They received the highest
fUnctional literacy scores, and.were high in need adhievement and
counterfactuality. On the other hand, they were low on economic
knowledge, family income and commercialization. They were the least
mentioned as a.best friend, and.were low in socioeconomic status,
agricultural influence and opinion leadership. They were also low in
opinionatedness, innovativeness and status inconsistency. They re-
ceived medium scores in adoption percentage, attitude toward credit,

risk orientation, and opinion leadership.

Type II: Economic.Achievers

 

Traditionals defining this type were distinguished by high
socioeconomic status, family income, adoption percentage and innova-
tiveness. They were high in attitude toward credit, economic know-
ledge and status inconsistency. HOwever, they had low scores on
functional literacy and political knowledge. They were also low in
risk orientation, need for achievement, social participation and oc—
cupational aspirations for eldest son. Their scores ranked medium on
mention as a best friend, agricultural influence, opinion leaderShip
and empathy. They were medium on degree of commercialization, ability

to hold contrary-to—fact inquiry, and opinion holdership.

55
Type III: CommunitLLeaders

 

Individuals describing this type were distinguished by high
agricultural influence, opinion leadership, social participation, and
mention as a best friend. They were also high on commercialization,
Opinionatedness , and ri sk orientation . Yet , they were low on adoption
percentage , attitude toward credit , empathy and counterfactuality.

Type III individuals were found in the middle range of the twenty vari-
ables more often than either of the other two types. They were ranked
medium in functional literacy, economic knowledge, and political know-
ledge. They were also medium on indices of socioeconomic status ,
family income, need for achievement, occupational aspirations for
eldest son, innovativeness, and status inconsistency.

The three P—factor typologies closely parallel the three de-
scriptive traditionalism dimensions arrived at by R-type factor analysis.
Table IV-7 illustrates the close relationship between the R-factors of
traditionalism and P—factor typologies of traditionals .

' Type I individuals were relatively high in modern attitudes,
especially in regard to measures of empathy and need for achievement,
but quite low in leadership. They were moderately low in socioeconomic
achievements. Type II individuals were moderately high on socioeconomic
achievements , moderately low on modern attitudes and quite low on the
leadership dimension. Type III individuals were quite high on the
leadership dimension , moderately high on characteristics indexing
H‘Odern attitudes , especially risk orientation , and moderately low on
socioeconomic achievements . The three typologies seemed to represent

about the same degree of tradi tionalism. However , they were character-

56

 

 

 

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mm.fiu 00.0: mm.flu A00.v mspmpm oneocoomOfloom .H vasomoowofloom .H
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mo mmgoom eoNHcAMUQMPm ompcMHmB new moapmahmwomnmcu HmcoapHcMLH Mo mcoamcmeam

.hl>H mHQMB

57
ized.by different modernization skills. Type I individuals were dis-
tinguished by modern attitudes, Type II individuals were high in socio-
economic aChievements, while Type III individuals excelled in community
leadership. Type I individuals were handicapped on leadership, Type II
individuals suffered the restraints of traditional attitudes and Type r‘”n

III individuals were characterized by low socioeconomic adhievements.

DatazAnalysis: Stage IV

This stage of the data-analysis attended to the relationship

{D -.uwgm“ merit-Iv r
\ . I

between communication behavior and both (1) traditionalism, and (2)
traditional typologies of individuals. In each case six general and
numerous empirical hypotheses were tested. Correlational analysis pro-
vides measures of relationship between two or more variables. Table IV-8
provides the results of a zero-order correlational analysis in which the
three traditionalism factor scores (socioeconomic adhievements, modern
attitudes and community leadership) were considered as independent vari-
ables. In this analysis 19 communication measures served as dependent
variables.

GH 1: Exposure to mass media communication channels
is negatively related to traditionalism,*

 

EH l-la: Newspaper readership is_positively
related to socioeconomic aChievements
factorHWEIghted scores.

 

Table IV-8 shows that newspaper readership is correlated .295

with the socioeconomic aChievements Retype factorial dimension of tra-

 

ditionalism. This correlation is greater than the .134 required for

Significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

 

*
. Support fer a general hypothesis depends on acceptance of a
majority of the empirical hypotheses which test it.

58

 

 

Table IV-8. Zero~0rder Correlations Among Dimensions of Traditionalism

and Communication Variables
Number of Socio— Com-
Empirical economic munity
HypotheSIS Communication Achieve- Modern Leader—
Tested Variables*** ments Attitudes ship
EH l—la-c Newspaper readership .295** .262** .105*
EH 1-2a—c Radio listening .309** .196** .146**
EH 1—3a-c Cinema viewing .159** .154** .083
EH l-4a-c Television viewing .319** .268** .125*
EH 1-5a—c Mass media exposure scores .222** .l87** .116*
EH 2-1a-c Cosmopoliteness scores .210** .132* .074
EH 3-la—c Change agent contact .293** .157** .182**
EH 4-1a-c Total number'of agricultural

news channels .506** .278** .285**
EH 5-la-c Channels of agricultural news:

radio .312** .l78** .156**
EH 5-2a—c Channels of agricultural news:

newspapers .346** .210** .144**
EH 5-3a—c Channels of agricultural news:

magazines .367** .253** .251**
EH 5-4a—c Channels of agricultural news:

.ACAR bulletin .385** .113* .204**
EH 5-5a—c Channels of agricultural news:

extension agent .348** .197** .238**
EH 5-6a—c Channels of agricultural news:

neighbor .156** .068 .094
EH 6-la-c Credibility of radio .084 .023 .082
EH 6-2a-c Credibility of newspaper .137** .019 .081
EH 6—3a—c Credibility of extension agent .375** .l85** .200**
EH 6-4a-c Credibility of neighbors .049 .018 -.057
EH 6-5a-c Crediblity scores of mass

media .155** .030 .121*

 

9:
kid:

positive correlations between communication variables and Retype factor

Significantly greater than zero at the 5 per cent level (a correlation
of .095 is significantly different from zero).

*
Significantly greater than zero at the 1 per cent level.

Eadh of the dimensions of traditionalism.is measured in terms of its
degree of progress toward modernity, from less to more modern. Hence,

scores of tradionalism, lends support to the posited hypotheses.

E

--_. w. ___.__.r ..—_x.. a u—‘I-n'
f

r.

 

 

59

EH l-lb: Newspaper readership is positively related
to modern attitudes factor-weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that newspaper readership is correlated .262 with
the modern attitudes R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This
correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the l
per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 1-1c: Newspaper readership is_positively related to
community leadership factor—weighted scores .

"——H
.3
I

Table IV-8 shows that newspaper readership is correlated .105 with
the community leadership R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .095 required for significance at

the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

[-.‘h IM“M um- L --

EH l-2a: Radio listening is positiver related to socio-
economic achievements Tactor—wei @ted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that radio listening is correlated .309 with the
socioeconomic achievements R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at
the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l-2b: Radio listening is positively related to
modern attitudes factor-weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that radio listening is correlated .196 with the
modern attitudes R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This cor-
relation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the 1 per

cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l-2c: Radio listening is positively related to
community leadership factor-wefghted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that radio listening is correlated .146 with the
community leadership R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This
correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the l

per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

60
EH l-3a: Cinema attendance is positively related _
to socioeconomic achievements factor-
weighted”sc0res.

 

Table IV-8 shows that cinema attendance is correlated .159 with
the socioeconomic achievements R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .134 required fOr significance at the
1 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l-3b: Cinema attendance is positively related
to modern attitudes factor-weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that cinema attendance is correlated .154 with
the modern attitudes R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This
correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the l

per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l—3c: Cinema attendance is positively related to
community leadership factoreweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that cinema attendance is correlated .083 with
the community leadership R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is not greater than.the .095 required for significance
at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH l-4a: Television viewing is_positively related to
socioeconomic achievements factoreweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that television viewing is correlated .319 with
the socioeconomic achievements Retype factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the
l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l-4b: Television viewing is pgsitively related to
modern attitudes factoreweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that television viewing is correlated .268 with

the modern attitudes R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This

r“.- rowan...»- _

_ — ‘ 7T-'_‘I"l_‘!

i ‘R [F’d

.-_ J‘ V_.

61
correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the
l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l-4c: Television viewing is positively related to
community leadershiLfactor—weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that television viewing is correlated .125 with
the community leadership R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .095 required fOr significance at
the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH l—Sa: Mass media exposure scores are_positively

relatetho soCIBeconomic achievements
factoreweighted scores.

 

Table IV-8 shows that mass media exposure scores are correlated
.222 with the socioeconomic achievements R-type factorial dimension of
traditionalism, This correlation is greater than the .134 required for
significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is
accepted.
EH l—5b: Mass media exposure scores are positively

related to modern attitudes factor-weighted
scores.

 

Table IV—8 shows that mass media exposure scores are correlated
.187 with the modern attitudes R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
This correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at the
l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.
EH l-5c: Mass media exposure scores are positively

related to community leadership factor-
weighted scores.

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that mass media exposure scores are correlated
.116 with the community leadership R-type factorial dimension of tra-

ditionalism, This correlation is greater than the .095 required fer

I m1 ‘fl R... ' s"?

62
significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is
accepted.
Fourteen of the 15 empirical hypotheses were accepted, so
General Hypothesis 1 is supported. Mass media exposure is negatively
related to traditionalism.

GH 2: Cosmopoliteness is negatively related to
traditionaliSm.

EH 2-la: Cosmopoliteness scores are positively
related to socioeconomic aChievements
factoreweighted scores.
Table IV-8 shows that cosmopoliteness scores are correlated

.210 with the socioeconomic achievements R-type factorial dimension of
traditionalismn This correlation is greater than the .134 required for
significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is
accepted.

EH 2-lb: Cosmopoliteness scores are positively
related to modern attitudes factor-
weighted scores.
Table IV-8 shows that cosmopoliteness scores are correlated
.132 with the modern attitudes Retype factorial dimension of traditional-
ism. This correlation is greater than the .095 required for significance

at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 2-lc: Cosmopoliteness scores are positively
related to communipy leadership factor-
weighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that cosmopoliteness scores are correlated
.074 with the community leadership R-type factorial dimension of tra-
ditionalismn This correlation is not greater than the .095 required

fer significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is

63
not accepted.
Two of the 3 empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General
Hypothesis 2 is supported. Cosmopoliteness is negatively related to
traditionalism.

GH 3: Change agent contact is negatively related to
traditionalism,

 

EH 3-la: Change agent contact is positively
related to socioeconomic achievements
factoreweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that change agent contact is correlated .293
with the socioeconomic achievements R-type factorial dimension of tra-
ditionalism. This correlation is greater than the .134 required for
significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is
accepted.

EH 3-lb: Change agent contact is positively
related to modern attitudes factor-
weighted scores.

Table IV—8 shows that change agent contact is correlated .152
with the modern attitudes R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism.
The correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance at
the 1 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 3-lc: Change agent contact is positively
related to community leadership
factoreweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that change agent contact is correlated .182
with the community leadership Retype factorial dimension of traditional-

ism. This correlation is greater than the .134 required for significance

at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

 

O,-

[)1

9‘

‘u

"I

l.

In;

4

64

.All three empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General Hypothesis
3 is supported. Change agent contact isnegatively related to traditionalism.

GH 4: The number'of communication channels used for
ppnovation information 18 negativer reIated to
traditionalhgp.

EH 4-la: The number of communication channels
used for*innovation information is

sitivel related to socioeconomic
a levements actor-weig te scores.

Table IV-8 shows that the number of communication channels used

 

 

 

fer innovation information is correlated .506 with the socioeconomic
achievements R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correla-
tion is greater than the .134 required for significance at the 1 per cent
level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 4-lb: The number'of communication channels

used for innovation information is
positively related to modern attitudes

factorbweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that the number of communication channels used
fer innovation infermation is correlated .278 with the modern attitudes
Retype factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is
greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level.

The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 4-lc: The number~of communication channels used
foriinnovation information is posrtively
related to community leadership factorh
weighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that the number of communication channels used
for innovation information is correlated .285 with the community leader—
Ship Retype factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is

greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level.

65
The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

.All three empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General
Hypothesis 4 is supported. The number of communication channels used
for innovation information is negatively related to traditionalism.

GH 5: Greater exposure to interpersonal, rather than

mass media, Channels in the communication of

innovations is positivély related to traditionalism.

EH 5-la: Radio exposure in the communication of
ihnovaiions is positively related to

socioeconomic achievements factor-
weighted scores.

 

Table IV—8 shows that radio exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .312 with the socioeconomic achievements
Retype factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is
greater than the .134 required fOr significance at the l per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5-1b: Radio exposure in the communication of
innovations is_positively related to
modern attitudes factorfweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that radio exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .178 with the modern attitudes R-type factorial
dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than the .134

required for significance at the 1 per cent level. The empiricalluw-

pothesis is accepted.

EH 5-lc: Radio expospre in the communication of
ihnovations is positively related to
community leadership—factoreweighfed
scores.

'Table IV—8 shows that radio exposure in the communication of

innovations is correlated .156 with the community leadership Retype

factorial dimension of traditionalism. The correlation is greater than

 

u L_51

m

a“

‘&

 

 

-
'l

.. .

66
the .134 required.for significance at the l per~cent level. The emr

pirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5—2a: Newapaper exposure in the communication
offlinnovations isipositively rElated to
socioeconomic achievements factor-II—
weighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that radio exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .346 with the socioeconomic achievements

R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This crrrelation is

I ~ — ~———-*-—--1
;—.A-.J-u:‘ a, ——-———-k

greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level.

frA‘c-thr: ‘I '.‘_ 1 ' -
.
u

The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5-2b: Newapaper egposure in the communication
6f"innovations:is positively related to
modarn attitudes factoreweighted'scores.

Table IV—8 shows that newspaper exposure in the communication of

innovations is correlated .210 with the modern attitudes Retype factor-

ial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than the

.134 required fOr significance at the l per cent level. The empirical

hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5—2c: Newspaper exposure in the communication of
of innovations is positively related to
community leadership factoreweighted scores.
Table IV—8 shows that newspaper eXposure in the communication
of innovations is correlated .144 with the community leadership dimension
Of traditionalism” This correlation is greater than the .134 required
fOr significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is

accepted. 1

EH 5—3a: Magazine exposure in the communication of
innovationsiisopositivaly related to soEio-
economic achievements factoreweighted scores.

 

67
Table IV—8 shows that magazine exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .367 with the socioeconomic achievements R-
type factorial dimension of tradtionalism. This correlation is greater

than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level. The

empirical hypothesis is accepted.

sun:

EH 5-3b: Magazine egposure in the communication of
innovations is positively related to modern
attitudes f actor-wei ghted scores .

17‘.—

m .1 I'“ “
a—-—__—!—

Table IV«8 shows that magazine exposure in the communication of

)
fig ‘1. I

innovations is correlated .253 with the modern attitudes R-type factorial

.0.-
,

dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than the .134

required for significance at the l per cent level. The empirical hy-

pothesis is accepted.

EH 5-3c: Magazine exposure in the communication of
innovations is positively related to come
munityileaderShiplfactordweighted’scores.

Table IV—8 shows that magazine exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .251.with the community leadership R-type fac-
torial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than
the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level. The eme
pirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5-4a: ACAR bulletin exposure in the communication
of innovations is positively related to
socioeconomic achievements factor-weighted
scores.

Table IV—8 shows that magazine exposure in the communication of
innovations is correlated .385 with the socioeconomic achievements R-
type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater
than the .134 required fOr significance at the l per cent level. The em-

Pirical hypothesis is accepted.

 

68

EH 5-4b: .ACAR.bulletin exposure in the communication
of innovations islpositively'related to
modern attitudes factoreweighted'scores.

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that ACAR.bulletin exposure in the communication
of innovations is correlated .113 with the modern attitudes R—type fac—
torial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than F”
the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The emr i a

pirical hypothesis is accepted. 5 .

.“i'!

EH 5—4c: ACAR bulletin egposure in the communication
of innovationsiis_positively related to come
munipy leadership factoreweighted scores.

 

 

 

"fi-L—Pu .4

Table IV-8 shows that ACAR bulletin exposure in the communication
of innovations is correlated .204 with the community leadership R-type
factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater
than the .134 required fer significance at the l per cent level. The
empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 5-5a: Extension agant exposure in the communica—
iion of innovations is nagatively related

to socioeconomic achievements factor-
weighteci scores .

 

 

 

Table IV—8 shows that extension agent exposure in the communica-
tion of innovations is correlated .348 with the socioeconomic achieve-
ments R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation
is greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent
level; however, the correlation is not in the predicted direction. The
empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 5-5b: Extension agent exposure in the communica-

tion of innovations is negaiively related
t6 modern attitudes“factorhweighted scores.

 

69
Table IV-8 shows that extension agent exposure in the communica—
tion of innovations is correlated .197 with the R—type factorial dimen-
sion of traditionalismn This correlation is greater than the .134
required for significance at the l per~cent level; however, the correlae
tion is not in the predicted direction. The empirical hypothesis is not
accepted.
EH 5-5c: Extension agent exposure in the communica-
tion of innovations is negatively related

to community leadership factoreweighted
scores.

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that extension agent exposure in the communica-
tion of innovations is correlated .238 with the P-type factorial dimen-
sion of traditionalism. The correlation is greater than the .134
required for significance at the l per cent level; however, the correla-
tion is not in the predicted direction. The empirical hypothesis is
not accepted.

EH 5-6a: Exposure to neighbors in the communicae
iion of innovations is negatively related

socioeconomic achievements factorameighted
scores.

 

Table IV-8 shows that exposure to neighbors in the communication
of innovations is correlated .156 with the socioeconomic achievements R-
type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater
than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level; however,
the correlation is not in the predicted direction. The empirical hy-
pothesis is not accepted.
EH 5—6b: Exposure to neighbors in the communica-

dfrinnovations is negatively related to
modern attitudes factorhweighted scores.

d.

(I)

v.--

‘i

(I)
a-

‘1‘}
9V4

 

 

 

.p-

’-

Q...

70
Table IV-8 shows that exposure to neighbors in the communication of inno-
vations is correlated .068 with the modern attitudes R—type factorial dimension
of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater than the .095 required for
significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 5-6c: Exposure to neighbors in the communication of innova-
tions is negatively related community leadership
factor-weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that exposure to neighbors in the communication of inno—
vations is correlated .094 with the community leadership R—type factorial dimen-
sion of 'traditionalism. This correlation is not greater than the .095 required
for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

Our test of General Hypothesis 5 was indirect, i.e. , no direct comparison
was made between the sets of correlations . However, we found strong support for
the predicted relationship between mass media exposure and the traditionalism
factor-weighted scores. All 12 tests were significant in the predicted direction.
In our examination of the relationship between interpersonal channel exposure and
the traditionalism scores, none of the correlations were in the predicted direc-
tion. Thus, we must reject that part of the general hypothesis that exposure to
interpersonal channels have higher correlates with traditionalism than eXposure
to mass media channels have with modernity.

GH 6: Higher credibilin for interpersonal channels, rather than mass

media channels , in the communication offiimovations is posi-

tiver reiat'eci to traditionalism.

EH 6-la: Radio credibility in the communication of innova-
tionsis po_sitiT/ely related to sodioeconomic
achievements f actor—weighted scores .

Table IV-8 shows that radio credibility in the commmmication of innovations
is correlated .084 with the socioeconomic achievement R-type factorial dimension

Of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater than the .095 required for

Significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

VV‘LT

"

71

EH 6-lb: Radio credibility in the communica-
tion of innovations is positively
rEIatedIto modern attitudes factor-
‘weighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that radio credibility in the communication of

innovations is correlated .023 with the modern attitudes R-type fac-

‘I‘i

torial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater

than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The

1-.“ «J-n- ~14

empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 6-lc: Radio credibility in the communica-
iiOn of innovations is positively
related to community_leadershlp
factoreweighted’scores.

$11 Int-A- .

Table IV—8 shows that radio credibility in the communication of
innovations is correlated .082 with the community leadership R-type
factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater
than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The
empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 6-2a: Newspapor credibility in the communica-

Iion ofiinnovations isxpositively related
to socioeconomic achievements factor-

weighted scores.

 

Table IV-8 shows that newspaper credibility in the communication
of innovations is correlated .137 with the socioeconomic achievements
R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is
greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent
level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 6-2b: Newspaper credibility in the communica-

tion ofiinnovations is positiVely related
to modern attitudes factoreweighted scores.

72
Table IV—8 shows that newspaper credibility in the communication
of innovations is correlated .019 with the modern attitudes R-type fac-
tional dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater
than the .134 required.for significance at the l per cent level. The
empirical hypothesis is not accepted.
EH 6-2c: Newspaper credibility in the communica-
tion of innovations is posiiively related

to community_leadershipfactorwweighted
scores.

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that newspaper credibility in the communication
of innovations is correlated .081 with the community leadership R-type
factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not greater
than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level. The
empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 6-3a: Extension agent credibility in the come
munication of innovations is negativer

related'to socioeconomic adhievements
factoreweighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV—8 shows that extension agent credibility in the commun-

ication of innovations is correlated .375 with the socioeconomic aChieve—

ments R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. The correlation is
greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level;
however, the correlation is not in the predicted direction. The eme
Pirical hypothesis is not accepted.
EH 6-3b: Extension agant credibility in the come
munication of innovationsiis negatiiely

related to modern attitudes factor-
weighted’scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that extension agent credibility in the commun-

ication of innovations is correlated .185 with the modern attitudes R-

:- Guy-1

tfi-‘WW'tm a .- .- =

m"

73
type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is
greater than the .13” required for significance at the l per cent
level; however, the correlation is not in the predicted direction.
The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.
EH 6-3c: Extension agent credibility in the com-
munication of innovations is negatively

related to community‘leadership factor-
weighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that extension agent credibility in the commun—
ication of innovations is correlated .200 with the modern attitudes R-
type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater
than the .lBH required for significance at the l per cent level; how-
ever, the correlation is not in.the predicted direction. The empirical
hypothesis is not accepted.
EH 6—ua: The credibility of neighbors in the come
munication of innovations is negatively

related to socioeconomic achievements
factorhweighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV—8 shows that the credibility of'neighbors in the commun-
ication of innovations is correlated -.0u9 with the socioeconomic aChieve-
nents R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is
not greater than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH B-Mb: The credibility of'neighbors in the come
nmfiicatiOn of innovations is negatively

related to modern attitudesfifactor-
waightEd scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that the credibility of neighbors in the commun-
ication of innovations is correlated -.018 with the modern attitudes R-

type factorial dimension of traditionalism. The correlation is not

 

7H
greater than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.
EH 6-uc: The credibility of neighbors in the can-
munication of innovations is negatively

related to connmmity leadership factor—
weighted scoreSJ

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that the credibility of neighbors in the commun- r‘T
ication of innovations is correlated -.057 with the community leadership
R-type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not 3
greater than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. i
The empirical hypothesis is not accepted. 3

EH 6-5a: The credibility scores of'mass media in
the communication of innovations is_posi-

tively related to socioeconomic achieve-
ments’factoreweighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV—8 shows that mass media credibility scores in the commun-
ication of innovations are correlated .155 with the socioeconomic achieve—

ments R—type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is

greater than the .134 required for significance at the l per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

EH 6-5b: The credibility scores of mass media in
the communication of innovations is_posi-
tively_related to modern attitudes factor-
weighted scores.

 

 

 

 

Table IV-8 shows that mass media.cmedibility scores in the commun-
ication of innovations are correlated .030 with the modern attitudes R-
type factorial dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is not
greater than the .095 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.

The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

 

WK “1.“. . ..

75
EH 6-5c The credibility scores of mass media in the com-
munication of innovations is positively related
to community leaderShipfifactorhweighted scores.

Table IV-8 shows that mass media credibility scores in the communication of
innovations are correlated .l2l.with the community leadership R—type factorial
dimension of traditionalism. This correlation is greater than the .095 required
for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is accepted.

Our test of General Hypothesis 6 was indirect, i.e., no direct comparison
was made between the sets of correlations (those for’credibility scores of mass
media and those for credibility scores for interpersonal communication Channels).
This was due to our lack of a single composite index of mass media Channel cred-
ibility and of interpersonal channel credibility. However, 12 of the 15 eme
pirical hypotheses were not accepted, so General Hypothesis 6 is not supported.
It was not found that higher credibility for interpersonal, rather than mass

media, Channel in the communication of innovations is positively related to

traditionalism,

Traditional Typologies (P-Factors) and Communication Behavior

Once traditional typologies are identified, attention may be directed at
similarities or differences in their communication behavior. Toward this end,
Kean scores were computed for eaCh of three categories of traditional people on
19 communication variables. The three traditional categories of individuals
were: (1) attitudinally moderns, (2) economic achievers and (3) community lead-
ers. A fourth group were indeterminant subjects.* These levels served to iden-

tify attributes most indicative of progress toward modernity in eaCh typology.

Table IV-9 presents the results of an analysis of variance performed to test

 

fication whiCh contains those

. - ' mixed classi . .

19 subjects who failed to load clearly on one o

76

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79
significance of differences among the neans on 19 communication vari-
ables forvthe three categories of traditionals, as well as the in-
determinate typology.

GH 7: Traditional typologies of individuals vary in
ness media expoSure.

 

 

EH 7-1: Traditional typologies of individuals 2“
varyiin newspaper readership.

 

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean newspaper readership is 3.8 fOr

type I, 5.1 for type II, 3.8 for type III and 0.6 for the indeterninant

"I ‘htk- o » ....'—.n I, A

typology. The F-ratio of difference in mean newspaper readErship among

Ralf ‘

the typologies is 1.13. This F is not greater than the 2.68 required
for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is

not accepted.

EH 7-2: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in radio listening.

 

 

Table IV—9 shows that mean radio listening is 2.0 for type I,
2.5 for type II, 2.2 for type II and 2.” for the indeterninant typology.
The F-reatio of difference in mean radio listening among the typologies
is 0.70. This F is not greater than the 2.68 required for significance
at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 7-3: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in ciEEma attendance.

 

 

Table IV-9 show that mean cinema attendance is 5.2 fer type I,
3.0 for type II, 1.1 fOr type III and 0.3 for the indeterndnant typ-
ology. The F-ratio of difference in mean cinema attendance among the
typologies is 1.17. This F is not greater than the 2.68 required for
significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not

accepted.

80

EH 7-0: Traditional typplOgies of individuals
“varyiin‘teleVision eXPOSUre.

 

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean television exposure is 0.0 for type I,
0.6 for'type II, 0.0 for type III and 0.3 fer the indeterninant typology.
The F—ratio of difference in mean television exposure among the typol-
ogies is 1.12. The F is not greater than the 2.68 required fer signif—
icance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not accepted.

EH 7-5: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in mass nedia exposure scores.

 

 

Table IV—9 shows that mean.mass media.exposure scores are 8.6
for type I, 8.0 for type II, 0.3 fer type III and 3.6 fer the indetermin-
ant typology. The F—ratio of difference in mean mass media exposure
scores among the typologies is 1.30. This F is not greater than the
2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical
hypothesis is not accepted.

None of the five empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General
Hypothesis 7 is not supported. It is feund that traditional typologies
of individuals do not vary in mass media exposure.

GH 8: Traditional_§ypologies of individuals varyyin
cosmopéliteness.

 

EH 8-1: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in cosmppoliteness scores.

 

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean cosmopoliteness scores are 2.7 for
type I, 1.0 fer type II, 1.0 for type III and 1.8 for the indeterninant
typology. The F-ratio of difference in mean cosmopoliteness scores
among the typologies is 2.21. This F is not greater than the 2.68 re-
quired for'significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis

is not accepted.

icammu 'I.--—.ft ’ -" - ‘

81
The single empirical.hypothesis was not accepted, so General
Hypothesis 8 is not supported. It is found that traditional typologies
of individuals do not vary in cosmopoliteness.

GH 9: Traditional typologies of individuals vary in
Change agent—cofitaCtT

 

EH 9-1: Traditional typologies of individuals r~a
vary in Change agent Contact. 5

 

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean Change agent contact is 7.5 fer~type

7.4 . s_ I

I, 10.5 for type II, 17.0 fer‘type III and 3.9 fer the indeterinant

typology. The F-ratio of difference in mean Change agent contact among

”an '1: Z a: “3' o N .

the typologies is 1.32. This F is not greater than the 2.68 required
for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is

not accepted.

The single empirical hypothesis was not accepted, so General
Hypothesis 9 is not supported. It is feund that traditional typologies
of individuals do not vary in Change agent contact.

GH 10: Traditional typologies of individuals vary in

the number officommuniEatiOn Channels used for
innovation information.

 

 

EH 10—1; Traditiona1_typologies of individuals
vary in the number of communiCation
channels used for innovation informaé
tion.

 

 

 

 

Table IV—9 shows that the mean number of communication channels
used for innovation information is 2.6 for type I, 3.1 fer type II, 2.5
for type III and 2.5 for the indeterminant typology. The F-ratio of
difference in mean number of communication Channels used for innovation
infermation is 0.57. This F is not greater than the 2.68 required fer
Significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not

accepted.

82

The single empirical hypothesis was not accepted, so General
Hypothesis 10 is not supported. It is found that traditional typologies
of individuals do not vary in the number of communication channels used
for innovation information .

GH 11: Traditional typologies of individuals vary in

exposure to interpersonal and mass media channels

in the commmication of innovation information .

EH ll-l: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in radio exposure in the communica-
ti on of innovation information.

Table IV-9 shows that mean radio exposure in the comrmmication
of innovation information is 1.0 for type I, 1.2 for type II, 1.1 for
type III and 1.5 for the indeterminant typology. The F-ratio of dif-
ference in mean radio exposure in the communication of innovation infor-
mation among the typologies is 0.60. This F is not greater than the
2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical

hypothesis is not supported.

EH 11-2: Traditional typologies of individuals vary
in newspaper extpsure in the comrmmication
of innovation information.

Table IV-9 shows that mean newspaper exposure in the comica—
tion of innovation information is 0.6 for type I, 0.6 for type II, 0.5
for type III and 0.2 for the indeterminant typology. The F-ratio is
not greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent
level. The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

EH 11-3: Traditional Mologies of individuals vary
ih magazine exposure in the communication
5? innovation information .

Table IV-9 shows that mean magazine exposure in the comImmica-

tion of innovation information is 0.8 for type I, 0.9 for type II, 0.6

”‘13 .E
7?
. ,{J 'A “.md

 

83
for type III and 0.3 fer the indeterminant typology. The F—ratio of
difference in mean magazine exposure in the communication of innovation
infbrmation among the typologies is 1.55. This F is not greater than
the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The empirical

hypothesis is not supported.

EH 11-0: Traditional typologies of individuals vary i ~
in ACAR bulletin exposure in the communica- '
tion of innovation ififbrnatibn.

 

Table IV—9 shows that mean ACAR bulletin exposure in the commun—

C—Kmi.“- “-'-- r_.r- ‘

ication of innovation infbrmation is 0.7 for type I, 1.1 fer type II,

!&5“

0.7 for typellfl and 0.8 for the indeterninant typology. The F—ratio of
difference in mean ACAR.bulletin exposure in the communication of inno-
vation information among the typologies is 0.90. This P is not greater
than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level. The
empirical hypothesis is not supported.

EH 11-5: Traditional typologies of individuals vary

in extension agent_exposure+in the commun-
ication of_innovationfinformation.

 

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean extension agent exposure in the come
munication of innovation information is 0.9 for*type I, 0.9 fer type II,
0.7 for type III and 0.9 for the indeterminant typology. The P-ratio
of difference in mean.extension agent exposure in the communication of
innovation information among the typologies is 0.12. This F is not
greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

EH 11-6: Traditional typologies of individuals vary

in exposure to neighbors in the communica-
tion of innovation information.

 

 

 

80

Table IV-9 shows that mean exposure to neighbors in the commun—
ication of innovation information is 1.0 for type I, 1.3 for type II,
1.3 for type III and 1.3 for the indeterminant typology. The F—ratio
of difference in mean exposure to neighbors in the communication of
innovation information among the typologies is 0.03. This F is not
greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

None of the six empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General
Hypothesis 11 is not supported. It is found that traditional typologies
of individuals do not vary in exposure to interpersonal and mass media
channels in the communication of innovation information.

GH 12: Traditional typologies of individuals vary in

their credibility for mass media andiinterfi

personal channels in the communication of

innovation infBrmation .

EH 12-1: Traditional tmologies of individuals
vary fii their credibility for radio in
thercommmication of innovation infor-
£11021-

Table IV—9 shows that mean credibility for radio in the commun-
ication of innovation information is 0.9 for type I, 0.8 for type II,
1.1 for type III and 0.8 for the indeterminant typology. The F-ratio
of difference in mean credibility for radio in the communication of
novation informatio n among the typologies is 0.59. This F is not
greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent level.
The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

EH 12-2: Traditional typologies of individuals
varyfiin their credibility for news-

papers in the communication of imova-é
tion information.

44‘1“ :‘V'Ia ' 1

'E—_ 75.77%. «5.»:
4
s A __

85
Table IV-9 shows that mean credibility forrnewspapers in the
communication of innovation infermation is 0.9 for type I, 0.0 fer type
II, 0.8 for type III and 0.6 fer the indeterminant typology. The F—
ratio of difference in mean credibility for radio in the communication
of innovation infbrmation among the typologies is 1.08. This is not . 1
greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per cent L i

level. The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

“mama. - . ." _
4—

EH 12-3: Traditional typologies of individuals ,
varyiin their~perceived credibility, 1
for extension agents in the communiCar
tion oflinnovations.

‘- ‘_

Table IV—9 shows that mean credibility fer extension agents in
the communication of innovation information is 2.1 for type I, 2.2 for
type II, 2.0 for type III and 1.8 for the indeterminant typology. The
F-ratio of difference in mean credibility for extension agents in the
communication of innovation information among the typologies is 0.50.
This F is not greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the
5 per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

EH 12-0: Traditional typologies of individuals
vary in their credibility for neighbors
in the communication of innovation

’infOrmatiEn.

' Table IV-9 shows that mean credibility fer neighbors in the
communication of innovation infbrmation is 1.3 for type I, 1.0 for
type II, 1.3 for type III and 1.6 for the indeterminant typology.

The F-ratio of difference in mean credibility fer neighbors in the com-
munication of innovation infbrmation among the typologies is 0.57. This

F is not greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per

cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not supported.

86

EH 12-5: Traditional typologies of individuals
varyin their credibilityfor the mass
media in the cormnmication of innova-
tion information .

 

Table IV-9 shows that mean credibility for mass media in the
communication of innovation information is 1.8 for type I, 1.2 for type

II, 1.9 for type III and 1.0 for the indeterminant typology. The F-

i:
a!

ratio of difference in mean credibility for mass media in the commmn- ;.

ication of innovation information among the typologies is 1.67. This

- .‘:,n1..u—‘I ’——— —“

F is not greater than the 2.68 required for significance at the 5 per i

cent level. The empirical hypothesis is not supported. 1
None of the five empirical hypotheses were accepted, so General

Hypothesis 12 is not supported. It is found that traditional typologies

of individuals do not vary in their credibility for mass media and

interpersonal channels in the communication of innovation information.
The overall similarity of the three traditional typologies, in

terms of progress toward modernity, may account for the similarity in

their communication behavior. Each typology excelled in some dimension

of modernity, either as attitudinally moderns, economic achievers or

community leaders. However, none of the _typologies were extremely more

traditional or modern than the others. Thus, perhaps it is not sur-

prising that the communication behavior of these typologies did not

differ. We return to this part in a later discussion.

CHAPTERV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: PART TWO

For the first time in history, a universal pattern
of modernity is emerging from the wide diversity of
traditional values and institutions, and people of
all nations are confronted with the challenge of

defining their attitudes toward fundamental changes
that are world-wide in scope.

(BlaCk, 1966, p. 17)

Traditionalism: A Comparative Analysis

In Chapter IV we saw that an R-type factor analysis of tra-
ditionalism produced three factors: (1) socioeconomic achievements ,
(2) modern attitudes and (3) community leadership. A P—type factor
analysis (based upon the 20 variables utilized to extract the three
traditional R-type factors) yielded three typologies of traditional
individuals: (1) Attitudinally modems, (2) Economic achievers and
( 3) Community leaders. Additionally, a number of hypotheses regard—
ing traditionalism and communication behavior were tested. It was
found that traditionalism was negatively related to mass media ex—
posure, cosmopoliteness , change agent contact and the number of com-
munication channels used for innovation information. Traditionalism
was related to greater exposure to interpersonal, rather than mass

media, channels in the communication of innovations. However, it was

found that traditionalism was not related to higher credibility for

interpersonal , rather than mass media, channels in the communication

87

88
of innovations. Additionally, it was found that the communication be-
havior of traditional typologies did not vary among the P—typologies.
The present Chapter seeks to compare these findings from.BraZilian
respondents with those culled from a number of behavioral investigations

of traditionalism.and communication behavior conducted in other‘nations.

:' r'r-J

'5‘..-ng ’1’
2&8er _' "flank—‘—

Emphasis will be placed upon researCh WhiCh utilized both field survey

data and factor analytic statistical teChniques, in order to enhance

"_ ‘ w‘l' - 3". .14: y

the comparability of findings with the present research project.

Six R-Type Factor'Analytic Studies of Traditionalism.Variables

Factor analysis, a statistical teChnique for data-reduction, is
very utilitarian in exploratory researCh. It provides a parsimonious
means of describing a phenomenon on the basis of the interrelated vari—
able clusters that constitute it, rather than from undifferentiated,
lengthy lists of descriptive measures.

Statistical tests of significance to determine similarities or
dissimilarities in traditionalism.in Brazil, Colombia, Kenya, India and
the United States will not be used. Distinctive interview sChedules,
data-collection and data—analysis techniques make suCh comparisons
difficult. However, the principal factors and their component vari-
ables extracted in eaCh study are reviewed in searCh of communalities,
Table V-l outlines eaCh of the investigations in terms of its author,
site, R—type factor analytic technique, number and nature of variables,
and main findings. Table V-2 provides a composite listing of all R-
type factors extracted in the six surveys along with their'highest

loading variables. These factors are categorically arranged in terms

89

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93
of similarity in their included variables and overall orientation. In

other words, a large number of factors extracted in widespread field
surveys of traditionalism are examined in searCh of common factorial
clusterings.

The data used in this comparison (Tables V-l and V-2) are drawn

from six survey investigations of modernizing traditional communities.

f-‘I..-M“‘T
- J

1. Rogers with Svenning (1969) factor—analyzed the personal
interview responses of 160 household heads in three relatively modern

peasant villages in Colombia. The three villages were all within an

1ri____q—r-luu_
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hour's bus ride from.Bogota, the country's capital.

2. Rogers with Svenning (1969) factorbanalyzed the personal
interview responses of 95 household heads in two relatively traditional
peasant villages in Colombia. The two villages were geographically
remote .

3. Ascroft (1966) analyzed data collected in personal inter~
views from.62u villagers in Kenya. He sampled the village areas of
Samia, Kabonda and Bomet, all located about 300 miles from Nair0bi.

He randomly selected his subjects frcnxheads of households in the three
agricultural village areas.

u. Don0hew (1967) factor-analyzed the responses of 238 Appala-
chian household heads in Knox County, Kentudky. This county has a per
capita income of $680, which is about one-f0urth of the U.S. average.
Personal interviews were conducted with heads of households and home-

makers randomly selected from two small remote communities: New Bethel

and Middle Fork.

9L;

5. Raju (1969) gathered data from.559 traditional farmers
purposively selected fran six Indian villages from the states of Andra
Pradesh, Maharashtra and west Bengal. subjects were less than 50 years
old and operated.farns of 2.5 acres or more.

6. The present study was based on personal interviews with
1,307 traditionals sampled from.rural villages in Minas Gerais,
Brazil.

Data collected in eaoh of the six field surveys were subjected
to factor analysis utilizing principal axis varimax rotations. How-
ever, numerous distinctions among the surveys are readily apparent.
For example, the number of variables submitted to factor analysis in
eaCh study varied greatly from the 72 analyzed by Rogers with
Svenning (1969) in their study of modern Colombian peasant villages,
to the 26 examined in the present analysis of traditionalism.in
Brazil. Although many variables, suCh as education, appeared through-
out the studies in a similar form, the nature of others, suCh as
family structure, were unique to specific investigations. Sample size

also varied greatly anong the six investigations, from the 1,307
Brazilian traditionals sampled to the 95 subjects surveyed in the
Colombian analysis of two traditional peasant villages. Additionally,
a number of other aspects were unique to eaCh of the surveys despite
their common interest in the modernizing of traditional life.

In Table V-2 four cross-national factor clusters are de-
scribed from.the categorization of 21 factors drawn from six field
surveys of traditional life. These factor groupings are named: (1)

communication contact, (2) economic resources, (3) modern attitudes

I.“ uM":-._-_—’. - "_"_ “"‘

I
t ‘ ill-x ._._..fl

\. ids—'— 1"

95

and (H) community leadership. Only one factor, Ascroft's (1966)
"fanily structure," failed to fit in one of the four factor groupings.
.Additionally, none of the 21 factors (isolated in the six studies)
appeared suitable for placement in more than one of the factor
groupings.

The results of the six studies, taken both individually and
collectively, led to several generalizations concerning traditional

life. First, traditionalism was repeatedly found to be a multi-

 

dimensional_phenomenon. Second, a series of fairly;homogeneous and
repetitive dimensions Characterized traditionalisnu wherever found.
Traditional styles of life were fOund in both more and less developed
countries.

Empirical evidence of the multi—dimensional nature of tra-
ditionalisnlwas found in eadh of the six factor analyses reviewed in
this chapter. None of the studies extracted less than three distinc-
tive dimensions; one investigation revealed five. A composite analysis
of all factors extracted in the studies suggested four basic components
of traditionalism. UnfOrtunately, the interrelationships and relative
importance of these dimensions remains someWhat unclear. Similar
factors explained different amounts of variance from study to study.

The degree to which the findings of several separate factor
analytic studies of traditionalism, conducted in widely different
settings, could be melded into a descriptive set of four relatively
stable factor groupings, supports the generalizability of certain di-
mensions of traditional life. These distinguishing elements of tra-

ditionalism are communication contact, economic resources, modern

“at 9'42“ . ~
.-

96
attitudes and community leadership.

Communication contact refers to both communication skills and
exposure. Measures of literacy, education and other variables indexed
attributes of communication skill, while numerous itens indexed ex-
posure to various mass media and interpersonal Channels. Economic re—
sources described occupational success in terms of size and value of
agricultural Operation or level of employment. Modern.attitudes, the
broadest of the factor clusters, indexed orientation toward Change in
terns of a number of attitudinal items suCh as empathy, aChievement
motivation, selfereliance and others. Finally, community leaderShip
described community interaction and opinion leadership. This di-
mension and communication contact were the most consistent of the four
factor'groupings in terns of'sinilaiity in factor composition across
the six field surveys. The other’two dimensions, modern attitudes and
economic resources, exhibited someWhat more variability in the items
defining the factors (whiCh comprise their factor clusters).

The present general conclusions are tentative. They are based
solely on a comparative examination of data drawn.from.six independent
studies of traditional life in whiCh different sampled populations
were interrogated with different personal interview sChedules. Ad-
ditionally, different variables were analyzed and different data-
collection teChniques were employed. The six field surveys all sought
to empirically describe traditionalism, and to this end, all of the
studies utilized factor analytic techniques.

The factors drawn from six surveys to define four traditional

 

factor clusters must be considered a function of the variables inputed

- ‘A‘HJ -

“nu—d . -‘~ D. ' .

‘I _,“ "' 5‘6:

97

in each factor analysis . In other words , investigative interest in

 

communication , economic, attitudinal and social psychological variables ,
was at least a partial explanation for the findings of these factor
analyses . Different data inputs would yield different factors . Future

descriptive research on traditionalism should seek to confirm dimensions

1',
already identified and to discover additional relevant elements . i
Accomplishment of the later goal will be enhanced when new variables i

are introduced in the analyses .

Three P-Type Factor Analytic Studies of Traditional Typologies

 

P-type factor analysis is a method of analyzing the correla-
tional matrix of a large number of 133913 in order to describe basic
typologies of people. Table V-3 provides a composite listing of nine
P-type factors extracted in three surveys of traditional respondents in
Brazil, India and the United States.

In the present study P-type factor analysis of 100 respondents
yielded three traditional typologies: attitudinally moderns, economic
achievers and community leaders. These typologies represented about
the same dgggg of traditionalism; however, each of them represented

movement toward modernity along a different path. Additionally, it

 

was found, via analysis of variance , that the communication behavior
of the traditional typologies did not vary significantly among the P-
typologies.

Raju (1969, p. 79) extracted three typologies of peasants in
a P-type factor analysis of 96 Indian respondents. He found a modern,

transitional and traditional typology on the basis of 17 socio-

98

 

 

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99
psydhological and economic variables. These typologies represented
different degrees of progress from traditional toward more.modern life
styles along a common path. He utilized analySis of variance to study
the communication behavior of'eaCh P-type, and found that levels of
extension agent contact and urban exposure were similar among both

the modern and traditional peasant types, but lower in the case of the

"l“l‘z

transitional peasant typology. No significant differences were found

among the three peasant types in mass media exposure.
Donohew (1967) fbund three traditional typologies in a P-type

[TR—"T7337:— -.- '71:". I’

factor analysis of 163 Appalaohian respondents. He feund an outgoing,
isolated and mass media typology. These typologies represented both
different levels of advancement from traditional to more modern life
styles, as well as, movement along different modernization paths. For
example, the mass media type, Which he considered the most modern, was
Characterized by traditional attitudes, While, the isolated type, which
he considered the most traditional, was characterized.by modern atti-
tudes.

Discrepancies in the composition of the three P-type factors
extracted in eaCh study may be a function of the variables imputed.
For example, it was not surprising to find that Raju (1969) did not
extract a typology similar to the one feund in the present study en-
titled attitudinally moderns because none of his 17 variables were
attitudinal. Also, Raju (1969) and Donohew (1967) utilized communicar
tion variables in both their Retype and P-type factor analyses, while
communication variables were withheld from.the R- and P-type factor

analyses in the present investigation. Thus, the present study did

100
not disclose a communication typology similar to Donohew's (1967)
mass media type.

It is also possible that a number of patterns of movement
along the modernization process distinguish different traditional
populations. Data called from six factor analytic studies of tra-
ditionalism, including the present investigation, suggest that sim-
ilarities exist in the basic dimensions of traditional life. However,
individual mastery of the many skills required as one proceeds toward
modernity may be uniform across all dimensions, or, the mastery of
these skills may occur haphazardly, one at a time, as individuals
put into play such specialized talents as community leaders , atti-
tudinally modems, economic achievers, mass media users or outgoing

individuals .

Ilrn. "mzfl i“ . v “r“ . n. .. .. my
h ' I
t

CHAPI'BRVI

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Let us now praise famous men. . . .
'Ihere be some of them, that have left a name
behind them, that their praise might be reported.
And some there be which have no memorial; who
perished, as though they had never been, and are
become as though they had never been born; and

their children after them.

But these were merciful men, whose righteousness
hath not been forgotten. . . .

Their bodies are buried in peace; but their name
liveth forevermore.

(Agee and Evans, 1936, p. H05)

Summary

The main objectives of the present thesis were to (l) em-
pirically describe both the basic dimensions of traditionalism as well
as the most prevalent typologies of traditional peoples in terms of
socio-psychological and economic elements and to (2) study the relation-
ship between traditionalism and ccmrmmication behavior. Measures of
communication behavior included mass media and interpersonal communica-
tion channel exposure and credibility, cosmopoliteness and change-
oriented communication behavior.

Traditionalism is defined as a statis life style, regardless of

 

occupational endeavor or place of residence. It is often characterized
by economic deprivation and such socic-psychclcgical elements as low
innovativeness , low risk orientation, localiteness , limited aspirations ,

low empathy, mutual distrust in interpersonal relations and fatalism.
lOl

102

A virtual census of household heads in 20 Minas Gerais (Brazil)
subsistence farming communities participated in a field survey of the
diffusion of innovations in rural societies. A total of 1,307 indi-
viduals who owned at least part of their land or made the major de—
cisions for a particular farm and who were not absentee landlords were
interviewed. Their responses were analyzed in the present investigation
of traditionalism and communication behavior.

The present exploratory analysis of traditionalism generated
two distinctive views of the phenomenon, one from the perspective of
descriptive clusters of elements indicative of static life styles, and
the other from the perspective of traditional typologies of individuals.
In each case, the data yielded three (R—type and P-type) factors. These
two sets of three factors were remarkably similar in nature, though de-

rived from divergent factor analysis techniques .

Traditionalism
R—type factor analysis of the responses of 1,307 Brazilian
farmers to 26 personal interview items produced three factors descriptive
of traditionalism: socioeconomic achievements , modern attitudes and

community leadership .

Socioeconomic Achievements

Factor I , socioeconomic achievements , accounted for 19 . 8 per
cent of the total variance explained , was characterized by relative
purity of factor loadings and internal conceptual consistency among the
ll variables describing it. The factor was defined by such variables

as socioeconomic status, farm size, farm income, adoption percentage,

103
status inconsistency3'attitudes toward credit and others. Similar
economic resources factors have been indexed in studies of tradition-
alismlby Raju (1969) in India, Ascroft (1966) in Kenya.and Dondhew
(1967) in the United States. The factor described traditional economic
marginality in terms of agricultural aChievement. It covered tradi-
tional disposition toward the use of credit, agricultural success and
innovativeness. The factor was similar to interpretations of tra-
ditionalism.characteristic of economic theorists who often determine

progress toward modernity on scales of commercialization.

Mbdern Attitudes

Factor II, modern attitudes, accounted for ll per cent of the
total variance explained, was distinguished by relative conceptual
consistency among the eight variables describing it. The factor'was
defined by such variables as counterfactuality, empathy, cpinonatedness,
economic knowledge, need aChievement and others. Similar factors have
been extracted in studies of traditionalism by Ascroft (1966) in Kenya,
Donohew (1967) in the United States, Rogers with Svenning (1969) in
Colombia and Raju (1969) in India. The factor described traditional
psychological and attitudinal dispositions. It focused on individual

psychological readiness fOr Change.

Community Leadership

Factor III, community leaderShip, accounted fcr 10.2 of the
total variance explained, was characterized by extremely pure;factor
loadings and internal conceptual consistency among the three variables

describing it, agricultural influence, opinion leadership and mention

1014

as a best friend. Similar leadership factors have been identified by
Rogers with Svenning (1969) in Colombia and Raju (1969) in India. The
factor described traditional socicmetric friendship and opinion leader—
ship patterns

These factors served to empirically describe three major di-
mensions of traditionalism in rural Brazil. Similar economic, attitudi-
nal and leadership factors have been extracted in widely different tra-
ditional settings . However, the interrelationship of these dimensions

remains unclear.

Traditional Typologies

P—type factor analysis of 100 subjects randomly selected from
1,307 respondents produced three typologies of traditional individuals .
Characteristics of each typologr were determined with scores derived
from 20 variables (observations in the P-type Factor analysis) selected
on the basis of their inclusion in three R—type traditionalism factors.
The three typologies were labeled, on the basis of their most modern
characteristics: attitudinally modems , economic achievers , and com-

munity leaders .

Attitudinally Modems

Factor I, attitudinally modems , accounted for 11+. 8 per cent of
the total variance explained and was the largest typology, including
35 respondents. It described individuals with limited farm and economic
resources who were high in such modern attitudes as empathy, need for
achievement, counterfactuality and others . They lacked leadership po-

tential and were not socially participative.

 

‘7 .A‘A—V -_

A..-

' “’2: $7.3?”- :—

FF

105

Economic.Achievers

 

Factor II, economic achievers, accounted fer 11.6 per cent of
the total variance explained and contained 26 subjects. This typology
described individuals relatively successful as farmers with moderately
high economic resources. Hewever, they were distinguished by very
traditional attitudes. They ranked between Factors I and III on all
variables which indexed leadership, and were lowest on social partici-

pation.

Community‘Leaders

 

Factor III, community leaders , accounted for 11.5 per cent of
the total variance explained and contained 20 respondents. It described
people who were socially participative and opinion leaders. They were
also relatively high on certain economic and attitudinal measures, suCh
as commercialization, Opinionatedness and risk orientation. However,
they were low on adoption percentage, attitude toward credit, empathy
and counterfactuality. They ranked between the other two factors on
all cther*indices. This factor was considered the most modern of the
three typologies.

The P-type factors described three typologies of traditional
individuals. The typologies were markedly similar to the dimensions of
traditionalism,extracted.in Retype factor analysis. In eaCh case

economic, attitudinal and leadership dimensions were extracted.

Traditionalism.and Communication Behavior
The communication.process of infOnmation transmission between

source and receiver is a focal point in.the modernization process.

.' . 38:51:?

 

106
Ctmmumication linkages join those Whowwould direct social and economic
change with potential clients. Successful transmission and reinfbrce-
ment of new ideas is tied to accurate audience analysis such that ap-
propriate sources, messages and communication channels are employed.
The present investigation, viewing traditionals as the world's most
pOpulous audience fer messages about social and economic change, focused
on traditional communication behavior.

The data indicated that traditionalism.was negatively related
to mass media exposure, cosmopoliteness, change agent contact and the
number of communication channels used for innovation information. The
data also disclosed that traditionalism was related to greater exposure
to interpersonal, rather than mass media, channels in the communication
of innovation infOrmation. However, it was found that traditionalism
was not related to higher credibility fer interpersonal, rather than
mass media, channels in the communication of innovations. Additionally,
it was f0und.that the communication behavior (in terms of mass media
exposure, cosmopoliteness, change agent contact, totaltnumber'of com-
munication channels used for innovation information, exposure to inter-
personal and mass media channels in the communication of innovations
and interpersonal and mass media channel credibility in the communica-

tion of innovations) did not vary among the P-typclogies.

Discussion: Paths Toward Modernization in Traditional Brazil
Traditionalism1
On the basis of an R-type factor analysis of 26 variables the

data yielded three distinct dimensions of traditionalism, socioeconomic

L~M'l
R

“l“.d'r‘za‘h'rth-CH‘ -.'-
,. . .

107
achievements , modern attitudes and oommmity leadership. Each dimension
represented a different pathway along which traditional people in Brazil
progress toward modernity. The three R—type factors suggest that tra—
ditionalism is a multi-dimensional phenamencn. This assumption is
supported in factor analytic studies of traditional life by Rogers with
Svenning (1969) in Colombia, Ascroft (1966) in Kenya, Raju (1969) in
India and Donohew (1967) in the United States.

The socioeconomic achievements path of traditional movement to-
ward modernity is defined in terms of higher incomes, larger farms, more
favorable attitudes toward credit , greater innovativeness , more commer—
cialization, higher socioeconomic status and other indices. The core
of this large factor, composed of 11 variables, revolved around socio-
economic achievements , while the periphery was composed of skills as-
sociated with modernity such as political knowledge and functional
literacy. Of the three dimensions of traditionalism this R—type factor
was associated with the heaviest interpersonal and mass media communica-
tion channel use. It was also associated with the highest credibility
for both interpersonal and mass media communication channels . These
findings suggest that increased communication inputs of directed
change messages are likely to first affect traditional progress along
the socioeconomic dimensions rather than either the modern attitudes or
community leadership dimensions, which are characteri zed by less com-
munication channel usage and less credibility for either interpersonal
or mass media channels.

The modern attitudes path of traditional movement toward

modernity is defined in terms of greater empathy, more opinionatedness,

m'i—‘WI - .__

a“ 71‘1”. 7.:

I‘—

108
greater’need fer achievement, more counterfactuality skills, greater
economic knowledge, higher'occupational aspirations for»son, greater
risk orientation and more social participation. The dimension of
modern attitudes indexed positive attitudes toward change. This R-
type factor was associated.with moderate interpersonal and mass media
channel use. However, it was also associated with the lowest credi-
bility fer either interpersonal or.mass media communication channels
of the three traditional dimensions. In fact, it showed a positive
significant correlation with credibility for only one of five channels,
extension agents.

The community leadership dimension of traditionalism.described
greater opinion leaderShip, agricultural influence and sociometric
friendship choice. The R—type factor indexed community influence;
however, it was not associated with any socioeconomic achievements or
modern attitudes. Traditional community leadership may well act as a
force in opposition to change. This Retype factor was associated with
the lowest levels of interpersonal and mass media channel use. It was
also associated with low positive credibility with but two of five coma
munication channels, mass media credibility scores and extension agents.
These findings suggest that community leadership in a traditional set-
ting is the last dimension likely to be affected by directed change
messages even though the dimension is not isolated from.interpersonal
and mass media communication- channel linkages.

Five of six general hypotheses testing relationships between R— -
type factor scores and indices of communication behavior were supported

by zero-order correlation analysis. In regards to the unsupported

109
general hypothesis as well as several unsupported empirical hypotheses
it may be useful to speculate as to why they were not confirmed.

It is possible that General Hypothesis 6 was unsupported in its
assumption of higher credibility for interpersonal, rather than mass
media, channels in the communication of innovations due to poor or in-
appropriate communication measures as dependent variables in the test—
ing of numerous empirical hypotheses. This may have been especially
true in regards to measurement of exposure and credibility fOr inter—
personal communication channels. For example, three empirical hy—
potheses predicted a negative relationship between each of three tra-
ditional paths toward modernity and extension agent credibility because
of the interpersonal nature of the communication channel. However,
three positive significant relationships were found. Yet, it should be
noted that extension agent contact is a communication channel associa-
ted.with modern communication behavior; therefOre, perhaps it is not
surprising that positive significant correlations were found between
credibility fer this channel and three R—type traditional paths toward
modernity.* A negative relationship was also predicted for1neighbor
credibility and the three R—type factors. It is interesting that in
this case correlations, though non-significant, were negative in the

predicted direction.

 

*The modern nature of extension agent contact may also account
for the failure to support three empirical hypotheses which predicted
a negative relationship between exposure to the channel and the three
traditional paths toward modernity. Thus, perhaps it is not surprising
that positive significant relations were fcund between exposure to ex-
tension agents and three traditional paths toward modernity.

110
Traditional Typologies
The Brazilian data.produced three distinct traditional typologies
in movement toward modernity. They were attitudinally moderns, economic
achievers and community leaders.* The three typologies represented
about the same degree of progress toward modernity; however, they ap-
peared to be traveling different paths toward more dynamic styles.

These findings support the assumption that traditionalismtis a.multi—

 

dimensional_phenomenon. This assumption is also supported in a P-type

 

factor analysis of traditional typologies by Donohew (1967) in the
United States.

Traditional individuals characterized by modern attitudes were
similar to Lerner”s (1968) informant (the grocerO in Balgat, Turkey.
They laCk friends and economic success though distinguished by modern
mentalities. This typology was restrained in their~progress toward
modernity by limited economic leverage and an inability to influence
others with their progressive ideas. These individuals were the highest
of the three typologies in mass media usage, especially in terms of
cinema viewing. They were also the most cosmopolite typology; however,
they exhibited the least contact with change agents, which may account

in part for their laCk of agricultural success and economic plight.

 

*Regardless of their*modern labels each of the three P—type
factors extracted in the present analysis represents a traditional
typology. First, it must be remembered that these typologies are con-
sidered relatively modern or relatively traditional only in terms of
comparison with other traditional peoples. For example, they are come
pared with rural Brazilians who are generally characterized by economic
deprivation and static life styles. Second, the modern labels apply only
to the one attribute of each typology in whiCh the greatest progress to-
ward modernity has been made. In the case of all three typologies rela-
tive progress in one dimension is coupled with relative lack of progress
in two others.

111

On the other hand , contact with the world outside the local commmfity,
via mass media and cosmopolite channels , may account for their pro-
gressive attitudes.

Traditional individuals characterized by economic achievement,
though high in agricultural skills and innovativeness, were often il-
literate , politically uninformed and attitudinally traditional. The
typology exhibited moderate social participation and community leader-
ship. It was characterized by fairly frequent mass media use, especially
in terms of television viewing and radio listening. However, the typ-
ology was also associated with the lowes t credibility ratings of the
three typologies for all mass media channels. The typology exhibited
moderate contact with change agents and low cosmopoliteness. Economic
achievers utilized the largest number of communication channels for
innovation information. This suggests that, as in the case of R-type
factors of traditionalism and communication behavior, inputs of directed
change information via either mass media or interpersonal channels are
likely to have their greatest affect in the economic path toward moderni-
ty. It is possible that movement of this typology toward modernity
would have been enhanced if they had been characterized by greater cred-
ibility for the mass media channels they use.

Traditional individuals characterized by heavy social participa-
tion and community le adership mirrored most traditional community norms .
The people described on this typology were close to the center position
on almost all of the 20 traditionalism measures used to describe tle
three typologies . They were very high on only the leadership, risk

orientation and social participation indices. This typology was dis-

112
distinguished by the least mass media usage cf the three typologies in
terms of newspaper readership , radio listening, TV viewing and cinema
attendance. They were also the least heavy users of mass media channels
for innovation information. However, their credibility for most mass
media channels , particularly radio, was not low. The typology was low
in cosmopoliteness but quite high in change agent contact. Tie data

suggest that messages of directed change for community leaders is best

1.. laa’J .-

sent via change agent channels.

All six of the general hypotheses te sting relationships between

E‘ M l _I.‘.£_"s Ian.

Fr"

P-type traditional typologies and numerous indices of communication be-
havior, were not supported. In regards to these unsupported general
hypotheses , and the numerous unsupported empirical hypotheses used to
test them, it may be useful to speculate as to why they were not confirmed.
First, we note that it was impossible to test hypotheses compar-
ing communication behavior of traditionals with the communication be-
havior of non-traditionals (relatively more modern individuals), which
was our original intent, due to the similarity of the three, extracted,
P-type traditional typologies in terms of overall position on a tra-
ditional—modernity continuum. The author had initially hoped that a
relatively traditional and relatively more modern typology would emerge
from the P-type factor analysis of 100 Brazilians. Instead, three typ-
ologies were extracted which were similar in progress toward modernity
though distinguished by their movement along different paths . The P-
type traditional typologies extracted by Raju (1969) from 94 Indian re-
spondents might have offered superior measures for testing the commun-

ication behavior of individuals at different levels of advancement

113
along a traditional-modernity continuum. However, Raju (1969‘) did not
find differences in communication behavior between his traditional and
modern typologies for mass media exposure, extension agent contact or
urban cortact.*

Second, it was possible that the six general hypotheses were un-
confirmed due to the extent to which the Brazilian sample had progressed
toward modern life styles, and hence did not demonstrate a wide range in
the variables of study. The two descriptive factor analyses (R-type and
P- type) offer some evidence that the modernization process has begun
to affect the sample population in terms of the acquisition of goods
(water filters , stoves with chimneys , radios, etc. were commonly owned
commodities) , agricultural productivity (including the reinvestment of
surplus resources in property or production) and especially tte increased
communication with the world outside the local community environment via
such communication channels as urban contact , mass media exposure or
contact with change agents .

Third, the six general hypotheses may have failed to receive em-
pirical support due to inadequately measured communication variables .
For example , both interpersonal channel exposure and interpersonal
channel credibility were slighted in favor of more comprehensive measures
of mass media exposure and credibility. The affect of inadequately
measuring interpersonal communication behavior was to impede the testing
of hypotheses comparing the mass media and interpersonal communication

behavior of traditionals . Also, a number of the communication indices

 

*
. Raju (1969) conducted an exploratory investigation of tra-
ditionalism and communication in India. No hypothesis were presented
or tested.

-' 1“?
rim-Mann;

0‘ ‘fl‘; - a’.‘

 

"‘0' ‘

111+
used as dependent variables in analysis of variance of the communication
behavior of traditional typologies had non-normal distributions . For
example, mean change agent contact was 7.9 while its standard deviation
was 17.1. This violation of a basic assumption of analysis of variance
may have accounted for several of the low F-ratio scores despite seemingly
great differences among the typologies in communication behavior scores. '7‘ r
A final communication indice measurement problem may reside in the mass 1
media exposure and credibility indexes. Low intercorrelations among
the items making up these indexes may have masked much higher or lower 3

correlations between the individual items and the traditional typologies .

 

The statistical manipulations of R- and P-type traditional fac-
tors and numerous communication variables, while confirming but 5 of 12
general hypotheses , did provide descriptive information on traditional
communication behavior. For example , the data indicated that Brazilian
traditionals utilized both mass media and interpersonal channels in
satisfaction of their informational needs. However, they did not credit
either mass media or most interpersonal channels with very high credi-
bility. Also, the data indicated that Brazilian traditionals make

regular use of cosmopolite and change agent channels .

Implications for Research
The outcome of the present study, while perhaps disappointing
from the standpoint of unconfirmed hypotheses , provided empirical de-
scriptions of traditionalism from the vantage points of two perspectives ,
one descriptive of dimensions of traditionalism and the other descrip-
tive of traditional typologies. The results of the investigation also

suggested a number of important leads for future research.

115

1. Does repeated use of "standard" modernizatior variables such
as literacy, family incoxe, cosmopoliteness, empathy, communicatim be-
havior and others in multi-variate descriptive factor analysis of tra-
ditionalism produce a complete profile of the phenomenon? Additional
factor analytic research on traditionalism should seek the inclusion of
novel economic, socio-psychological and other measures such as employ-
ment selection, social system mobility, level of aggression or other
variables in order to determine whether the major dimensions of tradi-
tionalism have all been empirically identified.

2. Does the communication behavior of individuals change as
they proceed from traditional through transitional to modern life styles?
Corparative analysis of the communication behavior of two sets of re—
spondents , purposively selected on the basis of their relative tradition
alism, should yield clearer distinctions between traditional and modern
communication behavior than was possible in the present analysis. The
Brazilian typologies of traditionals were not clearly split along tra-
ditional-modernity lines , which clouded the analysis of communication
behavior.

3 . What is the time-order of alterations of various components
in a traditional communication system which is proceeding through the
modernization process? For example, Lerner (1958) notes that tradition-
als depend solely on oral communication channels , transitionals on both
oral and mass media and modern individuals rely on the mass media.
Also, our data suggest that exposure to diverse communication channels
precedes high credibility of these channels. Panel studies, which aid

in the analysis of time-order relationships, might be conducted in

"E'

.n:—...n_.rs : .— -b

 

#17- fin _

 

‘\
‘41-.

116
traditional communities experiencing the modernization process.‘ In-
vestigation might then focus on alterations in communication behavior
in these communities over time.

u. In the diffusion of new ideas, are certain communication
Channels, message strategies and sources more likely than others to en-
hance adoption of innovations? Field studies in traditional settings
Which matCh different communication teChniques, sources and channels
while measuring the adoption and retention of innovations should lead

to suggestions fOr improving change agency programs of communication

 

 

IT

directed to traditional clients.

5. What are the major dimensions of traditional communication
behavior? .Also, what types of individuals interact in traditional
communication systems? Retype factor analysis of numerous indices of
traditional communication behavior should yield parsimonious dimensions
of traditional communication behavior. 'Additionally, individuals
identified as participants in traditional communication systems might
be submitted to a P-type factor analysis in search of typologies of
traditional communicators.

Clearly, this was not an eXhaustive list of researCh suggestions,
but merely select points guidingthe.direction of some of the many po-
tentially fruitful areas of inquiry on traditionalism.and communication

behavior.

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Villages , Hyderabad ,7ndia:N\TatfonaI InEtitute of Community
velopment. ‘

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121

Sen, Lalit K. andProdipto Roy (1966) ,‘ Awareness of Commmipy Development.
in Village India, Hyderabad, India: National Institute of Commun-
ity Development.

 

Stanfield, J. David (1968) , Inteppersonal Trust and Modernization in Rural
Brazil, East Lansing, Michigan State Universiiy, Department of
Communication, Diffusion of Innovations Technical Report 9.

 

Stycos, J. Mayone (1952), "Patterns of Communication in a Rural Greek
Village," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 16, pp. 59-70.

 

T‘ukey, John W. (1969), "Analyzing Data: Sanctification or Detective
Work?," American Psychologist, Vol. 21+, pp. 83092.

 

Valentine, Charles A. (1968) , Culture and Poverty: Critique and Counter—
RIP—02088.18, Chicago: The Uhiversity of Chicago Press.

 

Weller, Jack E. (1965), Yesterday's Pegople: Life in Contemporary
Appalachia, Lexington Kentucky: University 6f Kantu3<y P‘ress.

 

 

Whiting, Gordon C. (1967), mathngMass Media, and Modernization in
' Rural Brazil, East IIansing,‘Michigan State University,
Department of Communication, Diffusion of Innovations Technical
Report 1.

 

Whiting, Gordon C. and John A. Winterton (1968) , Methodological Background

 

of the Phase I L MSU-AID-Brazil Diffusion Projgct, East Lansfig,
Michiganitate University, Department of CWcation, Diffusion
of Innovations Technical Report 6.

 

X, Malcolm with Joseph Haley (1965) , The Autobiographygaf Malcolm X,
New York: Random House .

 

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APPENDICIES

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APPENDIX A

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TRADITIONALISM AND
COMMUNICATION VARIABLES

This appendix outlines the operational procedures used to
measure 25 traditionalism variables submitted to R—type factor analysis

and 20 communication variables submitted to zero—order, correlation

analysis and analysis of variance.

Tradi tionali sm Measures

1. fige refers to either the actual age of the respondent or

his estimated year of birth.

2. Level of aspiration is the level of occupational prestige

that parents desire for their children. It refers to the occupational

aspirations the respondent holds for his eldest son. These were graded

as low, middle and high status aspirations.

3. Attitude toward future is the degree of attention directed

at planning for one's future. It refers to attitude toward teaching

modern ideas in school and attitude toward planning for the future in
general.

14. Functional literacy is mastery over symbols in their

written form. It refers to the respondent's ability to read 140 or more

words out of a 50 word message.

5. Economic knowledge is the degree of comprehension of basic

economic factors relevant to one 's occupational endeavor. It refers to

123

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the sum of scores obtained from a six item economic knowledge test
which utilized questions such as: "Do you think you could make more
money if you had more knowledge about the variation of the demand for
agricultural products?" A correct answer had to be right for the
economically correct reason.

6. Use of agricultural facilities refers to the use of an

 

agricultural post, store or cooperative for the largest purchase of
materials for farming or cattle raising.

7. Political knovledg is possession of basic political in-

 

formation about one 's region and country so as to enable one to func-
tion as a citizen. It refers to the sum of right answers to a five
item political knowledge test which utilized such items as: "Who was
the President of Brazil who was deposed two years ago?"

8. Family income is the respondent's approximation of his

 

total family income during the previous year.

9. Commercialization is the degree of reinvestment of one's

 

agricultural operation. It refers to the percentage of income invested
in property and/or production.
10. Farm size refers to the total area of the respondent's
property in hectares.*

ll. Source of income refers to the principle source of a re-

 

spondent's income from renting or landowning.

12. Mention as best friend is a sociometric friendship score.

 

It refers to the number of times the respondent was mentioned by others

 

a:
One hectare equals 2A7 acres.

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125
in his community as a best friend.

13. Counterfactuality is the degree of skill one has in re-

 

structuring reality via the manipulation of symbols. It refers to
interviewer rating of the respondent's ability to answer 2L: contrary—
to-fact questions . Included were such items as: "If you were the
person in charge of a factory , what would you do? "

11+. goinionatedness is individual disposition toward opinion-

 

holding in diverse topic areas. It refers to the total number of
opinion questions on which respondent expressed any opinion at all.
Included were such items as: "Do you think that the majority of men
are naturally dishonest or honest? "

15. "Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is

 

relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of his
social system" (Rogers, 1962, p. 19). It refers to the sum of
normalized years of adoptions are retained divided by the total
number of practices available to be adopted.

16. Adoption percentpge* is the degree to which an individual

 

is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas promoted by change agents
than other members of his social system. It refers to the number of
practices adopted divided by the total number of practices promoted
in the respondent's community.

17. §t_a_t_u§_ is the relaiive desirability of a social-economic

position in a social system in relation to others in the system. It

 

* .
. Adoption percentage refers to the number of practices adopted
in relation to the number promoted; while innovativeness refers to the
length of time adoptions are retained.

126

refers to the sum of six standa'd scores based on factor analysis for
such items as sum of home and farm equipment improvements and approx-
imate total family income.

18. Agricultural influence is a sociometric agricultural
opinion leadership score. It refers to the number of times respondent
was mentioned by others as being influential in regard to agriculture.

19. Status inconsistengy is the relative lack of similarity in
one‘s ranking on various indicators of social status. It refers to
the relative disparity of scores among six measures of status.

20. Need for achievement "is a social value that emphasizes a
desire for excellence in order for an individual to develop a sense of
personal accomplishment" (Rogers with Svenning, 1969, p. 31+). It
refers to the sum of raw scores on such items (selected by factor
analysis) as: "What do you intend to do in the next three years?"

21. Risk orientation is one's relative capacity for measurable

 

uncertainty in decision-making. It refers to the sum of raw scores
calculated by factor analysis of items indexing hypothetical risk-
taking.

22. Social participation is one's relative propensity for

 

interpersonal involvement in social and economic organizations . It
refers to membership in a cooperative or other clubs, organizations or

societies.

23. Attitude toward credit is the position one holds on

 

lending and borrowing practices. It refers to the sum of raw scores
selected by factor analysis indexing general attitude toward credit.

Included were such items as: "Borrowing money to increase his property

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127
is the best thing a farmer can do nowdays (agree, doesn't know or no
response, disagree)?"

21+. Opinion leadership is one's relative ability to influence

 

other individuals' attitudes in a desired way. It refers to an over-
all Opinion leadership score derived from the number of times a re-
spondent was mentioned by others as being: (a) best friend, (b) in-
fluential in agriculture, and (c) influential in regard to specific
innovations.

25. Expathy is one's relative ability to see oneself in di-
verse roles. It refers to respondent's ability to conceptualize himself
in such roles as: mayor of the municipio (county), director of a

factory, President of Brazil, or an ACAR supervisor.

Communication Measures*

1. Newspapgr readership is the number of newspapers the re-

 

spondent reads monthly .

2. Radio listening is the degree of communication contact by

 

the respondent to radio. This variable was operationalized by asking
the following question, and scoring the response as follows:

"How often do you listen to the radio?"

0 -- no; 1 -- almost never, doesn't know, no response;

2 -- sometimes; 3 -- more or less an hour per day

3. Television viewing is the degree of communication contact

 

by the respondent to television. This variable was operationalized by

 

*Although 20 communication measures were retained as dependent
or independent variables, a number are component parts of a common vari-
able. Thus, 13 coqunication measures are defined and operationalized
in the present Appendix.

128
asking the following question, and scoring the response as follows:
"Do you watch TV?"
0 -- never see it; 1 -- sometimes see it, in some other place,
doesn't know, no response; 3 -- more or less regularly

1+. Cinema viewng is the frequency with which the individual

 

visits the movies yearly.

5. Letter writing refers to both the respondent's ability to

 

write letters and his frequency of doing so in terms of one a year, one

a month or one a week.

6. Source of agricultural news refers to the "usual" or most

 

often used sources from which agricultural news is received. Included
as sources from which respondents may indicate having received agri-
cultural news are such communication channels as radio, newsprint,
magazines, ACAR bulletins, extension agents and neighbors. For example,
the question was asked, and scored as follows:

"Do you usually receive news about agriculture through radio?"

0 -- no; 1 -- doesn't know, no response; 2 -- yes

7.‘ Number of channels of pgricultural news refers to the total

 

number of sources utilized to receive agricultural news. This variable
was Operationalized as 0 to 7 positive responses to the use of radio,
television, newspaper, magazine, ACAR bulletin, extension agent and/or
neighbor as channels for the regular reception of agricultural news.

8. Channel credibility is the degree of perceived trustworthi-

 

ness and competence in communication channels. It refers to the rela-
tive channel credibility of radio, newspaper, extension agent and

neighbor for new ideas about farming and cattle raising. It refers to

129
the number of choices each channel receives in comparison with every
other channel in pairwise choice items measuring most credible channel.
For example the question was asked, and scored as follows:
"Whom do you trust most when it comes to new ideas about
farming and cattle in general? In those you learn through."
0 -- doesn't know; 1 -- newspaper or 2. —-1 extension agent

9. Higpest and second highest channel credibility refers to

 

the rank-ordering of the first and second choices among radio, news-

paper, extension agents and neighbors for agricultural news .

10. Change agent-client contact is the degree of interaction be-

 

tween professional representatives of change agencies , who seek to in-
fluence innovation decisions in a desirable direction, and their
clients. It refers to the number of times the respondent talked with
the ACAR agent during the past year.

11. Mass media credibility is the perceived trustworthiness and

 

conpetence of mass media comrmmication. It refers to the respondent's
overall mass media channel credibility score for radio and newspaper
channels .

l2. Cosmopoliteness is the degree to which one is oriented out-

 

side his immediate environment, his social system. Operationally, the
degree of cosmopoliteness was measured by asking the following questions
and summing the scores across four items, including:

"Have you ever lived away from this community?"

0 -- never lived outside community; 1 -- lived outside but not

in a large city, doesn't know, no response; 2 -- lived in a

large city

130
"Did you visit a large city last year? (One with more than
40,000 inhabitants)"
0 -— did not visit a large city in the past year; 1 -- one
visit to a large city in past year; 2 -- two visits to a large
city in past year; 3 -- three or more visits to a large city in
past year.
"Do you have any relative who lives in a large city? (More
than ”0,000 inhabitants)"
0 -— does not have relative living in a large city; 1 -- one
contact per'year with relative living in a large city; 2 -- two
contacts per year with relative living in a large city; 3 --
three or more contacts pernyear with relative living in a large
city.
"If you were starting your life now and were young, healthy,
and in good condition, Where would you like to start?"
0 —- chooses to begin again in country; 1 -— doesn't answer,
doesn't know; 2 -— Chooses to begin again in city.

13. Mass media exposure index is the degree of communication

 

contact by the respondent to radio, television, newspaper and/or cinema
communication. Stanfield (1968, p. HO) created the present mass media
index fer the study of'mass media exposure of the presently sampled
Brazilian population. He notes that the intercorrelations of these
measures fOr the 1,307 respondents are all low but positive: newspaper
and radio .171, newspaper and TV .337, newspaper and cinema .390, radio
and TV .226, radio and cinema .127 and TV and cinema .273. The four
operations used to measure these concepts have previously been mentioned

in the present Appendix.

131

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