A STUDY OF TEE CONCEPT 0F WAGE AND OF ”S APPLICFSEON 3'0 ORGANIZAWGNAL ANALYSlS Thesés for the Degree of Ph. D. MiCHiGAN STATE UNIVERSITY FERRkS FRANCiS ANTHONY 1.967 ,. 4.! .du‘m “cu-raw r‘..~\\a Y LIBRARY ‘1‘ \le “ M fiwumw -~- ; This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Study of the Concept of Image and of Its Application to Organizational Analysis presented by Ferris F. Anthony has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Eh . D. degree infidllcaLion Q'Vv CrCQ l3 . &Q&C {234, vs (Mr... Major professor Date CL“? . 1/". 1‘14- 7 0-169 ‘ N 9 x I g f 1‘: .. a. 1‘ '3 x 3. ‘h. . ' ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE CONCEPT OF IMAGE AND OF ITS APPLICATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS by Ferris Francis Anthony The purpose of this study is to define the concept of image and to translate that concept into elements that can be used for organizational analysis. The specific purpose of this study is to test an image- measuring device in an organizational setting. The object is to obtain concrete, quantifiable data about a specific organization at a specific time. An image is defined as an alterable state of sub- Jective knowledge which governs behavior. It is only what is believed by the possessor to be true. It is the result of all the past experiences of the possessor. It is the everyday situation of self and surroundings taken to be reality. The use of image theory suggests the use of an organizational theory based on individual perceptions of the organization. The attempt here is to analyze the organization on an internal rather than an external basis. Ferris Francis Anthony The information obtained from such an analysis is valuable for three reasons: (1) it gives us clues to the organization's internal structure and Operations; (2) if we understand the individual's image of the organ- ization, we may, within limits, predict his behavior toward the organization; (3) the more facets of an image we are aware of, the better we are able to modify the image in a direction that is likely to be constructive. Administrators, for example, can use the data collected from such an instrument as an indication of how the total membership of the organization perceives the organization. They can also get an indication of how various sub-groups within and without the organization perceive the organ—. ization in terms of goals, objectives, problems, and other variables. This information may cause the adminis- trator to modify his goals, to set about changing the goal images held by the sub-groups, or to set other goals. The specific purpose of this study is to measure the image of a specific organization-~the College of Education, Michigan State University. The instrument used for this study was adapted from an instrument deve10ped by Robert Anderson of Michigan State University. Briefly, this instrument consists of two parts: (1) an Open-Ended Questionnaire which is administered to a sample of the organization's members, and (2) a Rating Scale Device which is develOped from the OEQ and which is administered to the sub-groups chosen for study. Ferris Francis Anthony The following statistical models are used for analysis of the data collected from the Rating Scale Device: (1) means; (2) analysis of variance for un- equal sub-groups (3) F test; (A) t—test. The following analysis was made of the College of Education: 1. No significant image differences were found between five major internal sub-groups. How- ever, significant differences were found on 16 items, some of which may affect goal achievement. No significant image differences were found between 17 departmental sub-groups within the organization. However, significant differ- ences were found on some items, viz., goal statements. No significant image differences were found between the four teaching ranks within the organization. No significant image differences were found between tenured and non-tenured academic personnel. Significant image differences were found be- tween members of the College and school administrators in the County. These differ— ences were found in three areas: general Ferris Francis Anthony goal statements, specific programs, and specific problems. It was predicted that these differences would affect organizational goal achievement. A STUDY OF THE CONCEPT OF IMAGE AND OF ITS APPLICATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS By Ferris Francis Anthony A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1967 (@Copyright by ‘ FERRIS FRANCIS ANTHONY 1968 DEDICATED TO My Parents-— George and Monera Anthony Their sacrifices made all this possible iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Surely, my indebtedness will not be reflected in the brief words on this page. But I should like to mention those people who gave of their time, talent, and experience in contributing to this study. I should like to single out for special mention, Dr. Edward B. Blackman, my chairman and advisor. Dr. Blackman gave me more than advice and counsel during my studies; he gave me an example to emulate. He has had a profound impact on my life. Also, Mr. James Denison. He worked in the highest interests of the public relations profession by taking this novice in hand and by offering advice and counsel. I am grateful for the opportunities he provided for me. Dr. Craig Staudenbaur guided me through my philo— SOphy studies. He was always willing to offer advice and constructive criticism of my work. Dr. Richard Featherstone was kind enough to join my committee at a late stage in my career. He was generous with his time, and he offered sincere interest in my work. Dean John E. Ivey, Dr. John X. Jamrich, and Dr. Leland Dean gave me special permission to use the College iv of Education for this study. Dr. Jamrich and Dr. Dean were expecially helpful with their enthusiasm and com- ments. Dr. Robert C. Anderson helped me with the instru- ment and with the basic study design. He was always willing to help me out of the "tight spots." I owe a special debt to Steven I. Miller and Fr. Frederic Clark for reading and commenting on the manuscript. Also, to Sam and Paula Thomas for continued advice, counsel, and sympathy. Finally, but most definitely not least, to my brother, Joe, and his wife, Del, for continual encourage- ment and sincere faith in me. TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . Need. . . . . . . . . . . Problem. . . 2. LIT Purpose of This Study . . Hypotheses to Be Tested Theory to Be Used . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . ERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . Part I. --Introduction . Definitions . . . . . . The Nature of the Image . . . . Dimensions of the Image . . . The Image and Organization . . . The Image in Society . . . . . The University Subculture and the Image . . . Part II. --Organizational Theory and the Image. . . . Organizational Theory: The Natural System Model Versus the Rational Model . . . . Effectiveness Versus Survival Models Perceptual Theory Sower's Model. . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . vi Page iii iv viii xi l—‘ 00 OSKWNH 13 18 26 31 35 37 Chapter Page 3. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . 5A Introduction. . . 5A Underlying Theory for the Methodology . 5A Selection of Study Population . . . 55 Instrumentation. . . . 57 Instrument Development and Adminis- tration . . . . . 58 Administration of the Instrument . . . 60 Analysis and Classification of Responses. . . . . . . . 61 The Rating Scale Device . . . . 63 Administration of the Rating Scale Device. . . . . . . 63 Hypotheses to Be Tested . . . . . . 6A Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . 66 A. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . 70 Procedure. . . . . . . . . 70 Presentation of Data . . . . . . . 71 Study Findings Format. . . . . . . 74 Presentation of Data . . . . . . . 75 A Note on Tables . . . . . . . . 75 Hypothesis Number One. . . . 75v» Discussion of Hypothesis Number One . 82 Hypothesis Number Two. . . . 85 Discussion of Hypothesis Number Two . 96 Hypothesis Number Three . . 99 Discussion of Hypothesis Number Three 103 Hypothesis Number Four . . 103 Discussion of Hypothesis Number Four. 105 Hypothesis Number Five . . 105 Discussion of Hypothesis Number Five. 110 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 136 The College of Education Study. . . . 1A0 Study Findings . . . . . . . . 1A1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . 1A2 Practical Implications . . . . . 1A5 Suggestions for Further Research . . . 1A6 APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A7 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16A vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Main summary table for five internal sub— groups of the College of Education, Michigan State University . . . . . 115 2. Main summary table for 17 departmental sub-groups of the College of Education, Michigan State University. . 117 3. Main summary table of the four teaching ranks of the College of Education, Michigan State University . . . . . 121 A. Main summary table for tenured and non- tenured academic personnel of the College of Education, Michigan State University . . . . . . . 122 5. Main summary table for College of Education mean score totals and school administrator's mean scores. . . . . 123 6. Item comparison: Groups 1 & 2. . . . . 78 7. Item comparison: Groups 1 & 3. . . . . 125 8. Item comparison: Groups 1 & A. . . . . 125 9. Item comparison: Groups 1 & 5. . . . . 126 10. Item comparison: Groups 2 & 3. . . . . 126 11. Item comparison: Groups 2 & A. . . . . 126 12. Item comparison: Groups 2 & 5. . . . . 127 13. Item comparison: Groups 3 & A. . . . . 127 1A. Item comparison: Groups A & 5. . . . . 127 15. Item comparison: Groups 2 & 6. . . . . 128 viii Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item Item comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: comparison: Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups Groups ix |\) CDCDNN‘INQOONONN & 7. & 8. & 9. & 10 & A. & A. Page 128 129 129 129 130 130 131 131 132 132 133 133 13A 13A 135 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Item Comparisons for Five Sub—Groups . . 2. Item Comparisons for 6 of 17 Departmental Sub-Groups. . . . . . . . . 3. Item Comparisons for Four Teaching Ranks. Page 79 88 101 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Cover Letter of Open—Ended Questionnaire Sent to All Faculty Members . . . . 1A9 Cover Letter of Open-Ended Questionnaire Sent to School Administrators . . . 150 Open-Ended Questionnaire . . . . . . 151 B. Cover Letter of Rating Scale Device Sent to College and School Populations 156 Rating Scale Device. . . . . . . . 157 xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Need Self-identification-—finding out who and what we are --is one Of the perennial questions of mankind. Within the last century, organizational analysts applied similar questions to organizations. Organizations, in this sense, are viewed as an individual personality. People form Opinions of organizations in much the same way as they form Opinions about individual personalities. The industrial and corporate enterprises of the United States have long recognized the existence Of a corporate personality; the corporate personality is com- monly called the corporate image. The modern corporate executive cannot afford to scoff at images because people are continually acting toward his company on the basis of imagery—- not on the basis of facts and figures.1 The current popularity of the corporate image con- cept is believed to be related to the effort Of the modern corporation to identify itself. This effort to discover self—images has developed into a multi-million dollar business. Public relations, marketing, advertising, and related areas are filled with the language of the image. The emphasis is on continual evaluation and projection of the corporate image. As Riley points out, A corporate image is Of little value without con- tinuing and systematic information which tells the corporate manager something Of the extent to which the image is received and accepted by the various publics to which it is addressed.2 The major potential in the image concept, whether for corporations or any other organization, lies in the clues it can give to the organization's internal structure and Operations.3 The information gathered from organ- izational image research may provide a focus for specific public relations efforts; it may lead to a reconsideration of organizational Objectives and policies; it may provide administrators with systematic information Of the organ- ization's Operations. Yet the concept of an organizational image, for all the money spent on its development and for all its potential for organizational analysis, has not been adequately de- fined, nor has any attempt been made to link behavioral science theories with image research. The result, accord- ing to Riley, is a superficial interpretation Of the cor- porate image.Ll The need is for more theoretical guidelines. Problem However, the image researcher is beset with many problems. When he turns to behavioral science for theo- retical direction he discovers organization theories which do not lend themselves to image research. Further, the trend in organizational literature has been to assume that research findings are transferable, that is, results from study Of one organizational setting are applicable to any organization. However, there is little evidence available to determine the extent to which generalization is possible, either to other organizations performing the same functions or to other types Of organizations.5 With— in the behavioral sciences there is a problem of forging a closer link between theoretica1.and empirical analysis Of organizations. Classical organizational theory views organizations on the basis of a priori principles which, it turns out, cannot explain specific organizational Operations. The image researcher is also faced with another problem. His knowledge of the image indicates that images have component parts. Therefore, his major task is to develop methods of inquiry which will permit a detailing of these component parts. Purpose of This Study The general purpose Of this study is to define the concept of image and to translate that concept into elements that can be used for organizational analysis. The specific purpose of this study is to test an image measuring device in an organizational setting. The Object is to Obtain concrete, quantifiable data about a specific organization at a specific time. Hypotheses to Be Tested The organization selected for study is the College Of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. The hypotheses to be tested are: l. The image Of the College of Education held by five internal sub-groups will not vary signifi- cantly between groups. 2. Images Of the College of Education held by departmental sub—groups will not vary signifi— cantly between departments. 3. The image of the College of Education held by members Of the four teaching ranks will not vary significantly between ranks. A. The image Of the College Of Education held by tenured and non-tenured academic personnel will not vary significantly. 5. The image Of the College of Education held by members Of the College will not vary signifi- cantly from the image of the College held by school personnel in Ingham County (Michigan). Theory to Be Used Here is a summary of the theory used in this study.6 A more detailed explanation of this theory is included in Chapter 2. An organization, besides the reality of its physical structure, is only something in the minds Of men; it is an image. An image is an alterable state of knowledge which governs behavior (subjective knowledge). An image is what is believed by the possessor to be true. It is the result Of all the past experiences of the possessor. It is the everyday situations Of self and surroundings taken to be reality. It has no necessary connection with the possessor's judgment Of good or bad, accurate or in- accurate, adequate or inadequate; that is, it is not necessarily connected to epistemological problems. It is reality to its possessor, and, as such, it governs his behavior. In any instance, the possessor's behavior is purposeful, relevant, and pertinent to the situation as he understands it. The use of image theory suggests the use Of an organizational theory based on individual perceptions Of the organization. The attempt here is to analyze the organization on an internal rather than an external basis. The analyst attempts to view the situation from the point Of View Of the Specific organization in order to describe the operations of that one organization. Each individual within the organization perceives the organization with certain behavior expectations, that is, his behavior depends upon his perception of the organization. The individual perceives the organization on three levels. First, he views himself in a certain role within the organization. Second, he perceives the organization as a sub-part or division Of a larger organization. Third, he perceives the organization in a certain relationship to the larger society Of which it is a part. The organizational analyst must also consider at least three other levels of organizational perception. First, he must consider his own view. Second, he must consider the organization member's View. Third, he must consider the non-member's view. The properties included in all these many perceptions tend to vary depending upon the position from which the View was taken. Was the organization viewed from the total society view, from the organization self-view, or from the internal position incumbent View? These questions will be dealt with in the course Of this study. Overview The rest of this study is concerned with the theories and questions raised in this chapter. Here is a chapter breakdown: In Chapter 2 the concept Of image and the theory of organizations will be developed and explained by reference to pertinent literature. In Chapter 3 a methodology for organizational analysis is explained with specific refer- ence to the organization being studied here. In Chapter A the hypotheses to be tested are again presented along with the data collected from the study Of the College of Education. Chapter 5 includes a summary of the study with conclusions, implications, and recommendations for further study. In the next chapter, then, concepts and theories are explained along with pertinent literature. Citations--Chapter 1 Pierre Martineau, "The Corporate Personality," Developing the Corporate Image, ed. Lee H. Bristol, Jr. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. 11. John W. Riley, Jr. with Marguerite F. Levy (eds.), "The Nature Of the Problem," The Corporation and Its Publics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 3. Ibid., p. 187. Ibid., p. 183. Christopher Sower, "Ideas for Proposed Research," Mimeographed Paper, May 16, 1961, p. 3. The theory used in this study is presented in Chapter 2; this section is a summary Of that theory. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is divided into two sections. In Section I, the theory Of the image is presented and ex- plained. This includes some definitions Of the concept Of image, some considerations on the nature Of the image, a look at the image on various organizational levels, and a consideration of the images within the university sub-culture. It should be noted from the outset that most Of the theoretical considerations presented in Section I were taken from the works Of Kenneth Boulding (see appro- priate footnotes). The social scientists, as we shall see, have neglected the area Of image research. The other references in Section I were largely drawn from corporate image research or from public relations and advertising research. In Section II, certain organizational theories are presented and explained. Section II includes special reference to the work Of Christopher Sower. Sower's work is used to develOp the methodology Of this study and tO connect the image theory with organizational analysis. Part‘I.-AIntroduction In the sixth century A. D., Cosmas of Alexandria, an explorer, traveler, geographer, and later a monk, wrote a treatise on the universe. The purpose Of the treatise was to prove from common-sense arguments the literal accuracy Of Scripture regarding the nature of the uni- verse. In his work, Topographia Christiana,Cosmas said the universe is best illustrated in Scripture by the Tabernacle Of Moses. The universe, he said, is a rectangu- lar plane, covered by the firmament, above which is heaven. In the center of the plane is the uninhabited earth, sur- rounded by ocean, and beyond this the Paradise of Adam. The sun, much smaller than the earth, revolves around a conical mountain to the north and is thereby obscured at night. Cosmas's picture of the universe served mankind for nearly 900 years. When Christopher Columbus sailed around to the "Indies," man had to revise this mental picture of the world. Man had to picture the world as a sphere, and he had to base his behavior on this new picture. This process of creating mental pictures and re- vising them is not limited to geography; it is found in all human activity. For example, Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion, writes about an island which in 191A was inhabited by a few Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans.1 The island was cut off from civilization, so 10 the inhabitants had no idea Of what was going on in EurOpe. Six weeks after the outbreak of World War I they learned their countries were at war. Yet for six weeks they had acted as if they were friends, when, in fact, they were enemies. Therefore, they had to revise their mental picture of the world. This island, of course, was not much different from the rest Of the world. There was a moment before the War when the picture Of Europe on which men were conducting their business as usual did not correspond to the Europe which was about to make a jumble of their lives. Goods were manufactured that would not be shipped; goods were bought that would not be imported. People planned their lives, set off on careers, and drew up hopes and expec- tations all in the belief that the world as they knew it was the world as it was. "Men were writing books describ- ing that world. They trusted the picture in their heads."2 At other times in history, here in America for example, men pictured as evil and hanged some old women. In the 1920's men thought they could grow rich by always selling and never buying. This mental picture of the economic process led to economic depression. In science, to use another example, the nuclear physicist had to re— vise his mental picture Of the universe and make the transition from Newtonian physics to atomic physics. The nuclear physicists created models of the atom; they used 11 the models, the mental pictures, to describe physical phenomena. Yet the model was never complete, and with each bit of new knowledge the model was revised. Throughout history men have governed, fought, traded, reformed, dis- covered, and invented in the world as they imagined it to be; their efforts succeeded or failed in the world as it was. The process being described here--the change from a flat to a round picture of the world, the mental pictures held by the island inhabitants in 191A, the American witchhunts, the models of the physicist--is the process of image formation--the mental pictures in the minds of men which govern their behavior. Definitions The Greeks defined the image as a "phantom," or a "likeness."3 The image, according to the Romans, was an imitation, OOpy, likeness, picture, conception, thought, or idea.“ More abstractly, the Romans defined an image as a "mental representation of something not by direct per- ception, but by memory or imagination; a mental picture or impression; an idea, conception."5 A more recent description of the image concept by Kenneth Boulding is, The image is built up as a result Of all past experi- ences of the possessor of the image. Part of the image, I suppose, consists of little else than an undifferentiated blur and movement. From the moment Of birth, if not before, there is a constant stream 12 Of messages entering the organism from the senses. At first, these may merely be undifferentiated lights and noises. As the child grows, however, they gradually become distinguished into people and Objects. He begins to perceive himself as an object in the midst Of a world Of objects. The conscious image has begun. The image concept has also been defined by the business world. The cOrporate image, says Lee Bristol, is nothing essentially new. "It is, in its essentials, merely the picture which your organization has created in the minds of your various publics."7 Charles Winick says the corporate image is belated recognition by the marketing field what courts recognized over a century ago when they declared the corporation to be a legal person.8 Pierre Martineau reinforces Winick's statement. He says, ~"In law, the corporation is an entity, which can sue or be sued, just like an individual person. ."9 Another eXplanation Of the image is Offered by Professor Edward Robinson in his book Communication and Public Relations. Professor Robinson uses a definition developed by the Opinion Research Corporation. The concept of the Corporate Image may be defined as a kind of 'summing up' of how people perceive and react to companies--to their products, per- sonnel, policies, and prospects.1 The sum of these definitions, and others,11 is that an image is an alterable state of knowledge-~sub— jective knowledge-—which governs behavior. The emphasis in this definition is on the words "subjective knowledge." 13 It should be made clear from the outset that the image as conceived here has little connection with the great philosophical arguments Of epistemology. The con- cern here is not whether images are 2222 or how we know whether they are true. The image here is essentially an abstraction, so the problems Of truth and validity cannot be solved completely by the abstraction of the image. The concern is with the image concept and its relation to human behavior. The closest we might come to epistemology is to borrow a definition from Jacques Maritain. "Images are the internal likenesses of things . . . words directly signify ideas, at the same time evoking images."12 The Nature of the Image The image, then, is an alterable state of subjective knowledge which governs behavior. The fundamental propo- sition here is that knowledge is what somebody or something knows. "Without a knower, knowledge is an absurdity."l3 ‘ Subjective knowledge is what is believed to be true by the knower. It is this knowledge--this image—-that largely governs behavior. For example, the daily activities of a particular individual are based upon what he believes to be true.lu He goes to his Office on Monday morning in the belief that the Office is where he left it on Friday evening. He goes home in the evening to his family, has dinner with them, reads a book or watches television, and goes to bed. In 1A other words, he lives in a world of reasonably stable relationships based on his knowledge of that world. The individual in this example may predict his own behavior with a fair degree of accuracy because Of the knowledge-— the mental picture--he has Of his life. He knows where his home is, that his wife and children will be waiting for him when he returns from the office, that he has a certain amount of reading or television watching he wants to do, and that he needs sleep if he is to function properly as a human being. Of course many things may happen to change his mental pictures. New events may occur which alter his knowledge structure, but each new event will result in a revised image and a change of be- havior. The first proposition of this study, then, is that behavior depends on the image. Let us take a closer look at our example. We said that a new event may change our image of the world. The new event that reaches an individual is called a message. We must distinguish between the image and the messages that reach it. Messages consist of information, that is, structured experiences. The meaning of a message is the change which it produces in the image. Messages may be classified into signs and symbols. A sign is a message which alters the image of the immediate universe around the organism. In Pavlov's experiment with the salivating dog, the sound of a bell was used as a sign 15 for food. The dog, however, would not salivate if Pavlov told him a story about food. This can only be done to human beings. The symbol carrying capabilities Of human messages are what affect the human image. A symbol may not affect the image of the immediate universe around a person. The effect Of a symbol is that it produces a proliferation and elaboration of the image into a symbolic universe.15 For example, if one persons speaks in a room, another person may hear his words. The noise of the words confirms the second person's image of someone's presence in the room. It-would make no difference if the first per- son were talking sense or nonsense. His words produce a sign which confirms an image. However, if the first person were talking in a language foreign to the second person, then the second person experiences a symbolic change in his image; the change is not in the immediate universe around him but in the whole content of his imagination. This symbolic image and the communications which establish it and which change it are a peculiar quality of human society. It is plain, therefore, that communication in society is Of prime importance in establishing and changing images. Written and literary communication are of prime importance in this connection. The stock of images in a society is changed through this communication process. 16 Three things can happen when a message hits an image. First, the image may remain unaffected. The majority of the messages that reach the image are Of this type. As the man in our example reads his book at home he may hear noise from a passing car or he may hear the children play- ing in another part of the house, but he ignores these noises, these messages. His image is not affected. Second, an image may be changed by the addition Of new messages in a regular and well-defined way.’ Our man might be looking at a world map. Maybe he had some mental picture of the island of Cyprus as being Off the coast of Greece. Looking at the map he sees that Cyprus is Off the coast Of Turkey. His picture of the world has not changed completely. The vague picture he had of Cyprus is now somewhat clearer. Third, a change in the image might be revolutionary. Our man might hear a minister tell him of his evil and wicked ways, and he might convert to a particular religion. He reorganizes his image of himself and of the world. This reorganization happens in all our lives, but probably in much less spectacular ways than conversion. Our images of the world are somewhat resistant to change. When we re- ceive new messages which conflict with our image of the world, our first impulse is to reject the messages. As we receive more and more messages we may come to revise our image completely. 17 The image may be affected in still another way. The image has a certain dimension or quality of certainty or uncertainty, probability or improbability, clarity or vagueness. Our image of the world is not uniformly cer- tain, uniformly probable, uniformly clear.l6 Messages may, therefore, clarify or make something certain which was previously regarded as uncertain. On the other hand, messages may have a contrary effect. They may introduce doubt into the image. The man in our example may not find his wife and children at home when he returns from work. He may think he has returned from work too soon, and, possibly, his wife is meeting the children at school. He may think something happened to one of the children, and his wife took him to the doctor. Whatever he thinks, an element of doubt has crept into his stable image of the world. He does not know what to be- lieve. In sum, then, we conclude that the image is sub- jective knowledge about the world. It is, as Boulding says, organic knowldge, and the growth of knowledge is the growth of an organic structure.l7 By organic structure we mean that the image follows principles of growth and development similar to those with which we are familiar in complex organisms and organizations. In organisms and organizations there are internal and external factors affecting growth. The accumulation of knowledge is simply 18 not the difference between messages taken in and messages given out. We are not like reservoirs. Rather, there is an internal organizing principle much the same as the gene is a principle or entity organizing the growth of bodily structure. The gene serves as a model for bodily growth. Similar models exist for the growth of images. Knowledge grows because of internal models as well as outward mes- sages. A teacher, for example, does not penetrate the student's defenses with loud or violent messages. Rather, the teacher must cooperate with the student's own inward "teacher" and allow the student's image to grow in con— formity with that of his outward teacher. Public knowledge, in this sense, depends on certain basic similarities among men. Dimensions Of the Image It is possible to abstract the concept of image and to speak of it in a relatively few important dimensions. Boulding speaks of ten dimensions. These include: spatial, temporal, relational, personal, value, affectional or emotional, conscious, unconscious, and subconscious, cer- tainty or uncertainty, clarity or vagueness, reality or unreality, public-private.18 Boorstin lists five dimensions. of the image: synthetic, believable, passive, Vivid and concrete, and simplified.19 The spatial image, according to Boulding, is man's View of himself in space, on earth, in a continent. This ‘9 19 spatial image has only been changed in the last few hundred years. We have already seen that man once thought of the earth as a flat surface. The temporal image common to Western civilization is one-dimensional, that is, time is a stream flowing at a constant rate. Its main point is the present. This point divides the past from the future. The relational image governs man's stable relations. Put in hypothetical form, this might be described as: if A, then B. This relational image varies from one culture to another and even between subcultures within the same culture. The value_image is important in its effects but obs-' cure in its origins. Messages do not freely enter the image; the value system stands at the gate Of the image. "We see the world the way we see it because it pays us and has paid us to see it that way."20 Images consist not only Of "facts" but also Of "values." There is a certain differ- ence between the image Of a physical Object in space and time and the valuation which is put on these Objects or on the events which concern them. A professor may know that Michigan State University is located in East Lansing, Michi— gan, but this does not tell us what value he puts on the University. This does not tell us whether or not he thinks Michigan State University is "good" or "bad." 20 The value image is closely related to the image of fact, but there is some difference between them. The value image is concerned with rating various parts of our world according to some scale of better or worse. All of us, according to Boulding, possess these scales.21 Most people possess not only one scale Of valuation but many scales and for different purposes. Value scales exist in a hierarchy, and this hierarchy determines the effect of messages on the image. Our value image of clothing fashions is usually on a lower end of the scale than our value image of our religion. Boulding says, One of the most important propositions [of image, theory] is that the value scales of any individual or organization are perhaps the most important single element determining the effect of the messages it receives on its image of the world.22 A message that is perceived as neither good nor bad will have little or no effect on the image. If the message is bad or hostile to the image, there will be a resistance to accepting it. Further, we are learning that even sense data come through a value system. We do not perceive raw data. Facts come through a highly learned process of interpretation and acceptance. This means that there are no such things as facts for any individual. There are only messages filtered through a changeable value system. This does not mean that all knowledge is subjective. Part of our image of the world is the belief that this 21 image is shared by other peOple like ourselves who are» also part of our image of the world. In daily relations with others we behave as if we possess roughly the same image of the world as everyone else. When people are at a party together they behave as if there were other people in the room. This commonly shared knowledge is what we define as public knowledge as Opposed to private knowledge. The point here is that groups of people share similar images Of the world. At least their images are roughly identical. If this is the case, if these people have been exposed to much the same set of messages in building their images of the world, then their value systems must be approximately the same. Further, the human organism is not only capable of having an image of the world, but of talking about it. Human discourse makes the human image public. The "public image" is the shared images Of many individuals. A public image is a product of a universe Of discourse, that is, a process of sharing messages and experiences. PeOple con- versing do not perceive the situation exactly alike, but, nevertheless, they do get highly similar images. The affectional image is closely related to the value image. The view we hold of the universe is colored with affects and emotions. We like one thing; we dislike another. These emotions and affections, however, do not exist in a vacuum; we place certain values on our emotions. 22 For example, we put a high value on love in marriage, but we put a low value on love Of vice. Emotions by them- selves are not good or bad. Hate is generally considered bad, but it may be good and necessary for the soldier on the battlefield. "Man," according to Boulding, "Is ambi- 23 valent between his affections and his values." The certainty-uncertainty image means that we are sure Of some things and not sure of other things. Every aspect of the image, including the value and affectional images, is tinged with some degree Of certainty or un- certainty. This is especially true Of the relational image. Closely related to the certainty-uncertainty dimension is the reality—unreality dimension. We are sure that we live in a certain house, that we Own certain properties, and that we have certain friends. The "things" in our life are real; they are not products Of our imagination, and we are sure they will not disappear from the scene. This is not to take up the philosophical question of whether there is a real world outside of our perception. Reality and unreality here are simply properties of the image. The consciousness, unconsciousness, and subcon- sciousness dimensions Of the image are related to each other. There is something in the image that is analogous to a scanning mechanism. We are not conscious of all parts of the image at once with the same degree of intensity. By 23 scanning, we are able to obtain a clear mental picture of the whole universe around us. Likewise, a small part of our image is exposed to our internal view at any one time. We also have the property of recall, that is, we can call into conscious view parts of the image which lie in the unconscious. We have a capacity for giving ourselves examinations. The subconscious dimension might be traced to Sigmund Freud's work. The subconscious mind is a vast storehouse of forgotten memories and experiences; it is, moreoever, a genuine image affecting our conduct and behavior in ways that we as yet do not understand. Recognition of the subconscious image enables us to integrate the rational with the irrational. In this sense all behavior is governed by the image and its value system. Rational behavior is that part of the image which is accessible to consciousness. Irrational behavior is that part of the image which lies in the subconscious. Boorstin lists five other dimensions of the image which differ from Boulding's dimensions. Boorstin's emphasis is on the image as a pseudo-event, that is, an event which is planned and planted for the purpose Of being reported or reproduced. The image has little re- lation to the reality Of the situation; it is intended to be a self-fulfilling prophecy. The image, in this sense, is a fabrication. It exhibits five dimensions. 2A An image is synthetic. It is planned and created to serve a purpose or to make a certain kind of impression. The trademark is one of the older and more obvious illus- trations of this synthetic dimension. The use of the image as a symbol, trademark, or brand name has become important in the twentieth century. More abstract images are also in vogue. The abstract image is the synthesized or fabricated personality profile of an individual, corporation, product, or service. The abstract image, according to Boorstin, is tyrannical.2u It is shaped in three dimensions of synthetic material; it is fabri- cated and reinforced by new techniques in the graphic revolution. The emphasis is upon illusion. There is a distinction between what we see and what is really there; the reality of the situation is covered by the image. The image is also believable. It serves no purpose unless people believe it. An individual must make the image stand for the person or institution imaged. An image is passive. Since the image is syntheti- cally fabricated, then the producer of the image is sup- posed to fit the fabrication. The person who receives the image is supposed to fit into it showhow. These are passive relations; both subject and Object want to fit into the projected picture of the image. Both sub- ject and Object will assume that a portrait which is so persuasive and so popular is made from life.25 In the 25 beginning the image is a likeness of the organization. Then the organization becomes a likeness of the image. An image, therefore, is a kind of ideal which becomes real only when it has become public. A corporation which de- cides to rebuild its image has decided less on a change of heart than on a change Of face. Because of its passive nature the image has little to do with the activities Of the corporation itself. Image building is the building of reputations not of characters.26 An image is also ggggg and concrete. It serves its purpose best by appealing to the senses. Advertising is filled with appeals to the senses; "Use Dial Soap and feel refreshed." The point here is that the image is limited; it must be more graspable than any specific list of Ob- jectives. An individual or an organization must vividly portray their good qualities. An image is simple. The image must be simpler than the Object it represents in order to exclude undesired and undesirable aspects. So the most effective image is one that is simple and distinctive enough to be remembered. An image is ambiguous. It lies somewhere between the imagination and the senses, between expectation and reality. In another sense it is ambiguous, for it must not offend. Boorstin, then, sees the image in negative terms. He says the image is a creation of advertising and public 26 relations, and, to him, this is a negative force in society. This definition is what Riley has called "superficial."27 For our purposes here we will use Boulding's dimensions while being aware of Boorstin's dimensions, for Boorstin's work is valuable in explaining how images are projected. The Image and Organization28 When we speak Of organization we are speaking of structure, of anything that is not chaos, or, in other words, anything that is improbable. More specifically, when we speak of pp organization we are speaking Of a structure Of roles tied together with lines of communication. At the moment, this definition will serve to look at the image on seven levels Of organization.29 The first level of organization is called the level of static structures. In this level we put such things as jig-saw puzzles, statues, pictures, trees, houses, and roads. In short, this level is made up of things. The second level is the clockwork level, that is, the level of predetermined dynamic structure. The struc- ture repeats its movements because of some simple law governing the connection Of its parts. The clock is a good example of this organizational level. At the third level of organization--the thermostat level--the concept Of image begins in a rudimentary form. The thermostat has an image of the outside world in the shape of information regrading temperature. It also has 27 a value system, that is, it has a preset temperature which governs its behavior. The incoming information from the environment is measured by its scale Of values. The image of the environment and the preset scale are brought to- gether and proper adjustments are made in temperature. The cell makes up the fourth level Of organization. The cell is an Open-system; it maintains its structure in the midst of a "through-put" of chemical material.30 It is not merely a homeostatic control system; it is a self- maintaining system capable of metabolism and digestion. This taking in and excretion Of substances is the means of maintaining the structure. This behavior cannot be understood unless we assume that the cell has "knowledge" of its environment and that this knowledge is interpreted. On the fifth level of organizational structure the cells group into societies. This is the botanical level. A plant is a society of cells with an elaborate structure and extensive division of labor. The plant has a variety of cells which receive something from the others and give something to the others in a way that supports the continued existence of all of them. The behavior of plants, like that of one-celled ani- mals, can only be explained on the assumption that they build the messages which they receive from their environment into an image of a simple kind.31 The plant exhibits a regular behavior. It "knows" when to put out its leaves, when to flower, when to fruit, and when to die. 28 Animals make up the sixth level of organization. Animals not only have cell societies with assigned functions, they also have something like awareness and mobility, differentiation of sleep and waking, and even basic self- images. Specialized sensory apparatus enable the animal to take in enormous amounts of information. Along with the increase in information intake, there is also an in- crease in the complexity of the image and a greatly in— creased capacity for learning. Self-consciousness, value systems, and even emotions are exhibited at this level. g// The seventh level Of organization, and most impor— tant for our purposes here, is the level Of human beings. No significant change occurs on the human level with re— gard to increase in intake of information. In some cases human senses are not much better than those of lower ani- mals; in some cases they are worse. "It is the capacity for organizing information into large and complex images 32 The human which is the chief glory of our species." enjoys a much more extended image of space and time. The human is located in a temporal process; he has an image Of the past which extends far beyond the limits Of his experience, and he has an image of the future. He is also aware Of cause and effect, of the relations of one thing to another. There is also an increased awareness Of self-consciousness and of self-awareness. The human knows, and he knows that he knows.33 This is the 29 reflective character of the human image; it is what leads to philosophy.; All these human characteristics~-sense of time and spaceband sense of relationships—-enable man to have rational behavior, that is, the human response is not to an immediate stimulus but to an image of the *9! future filtered through an elaborate value systemIK The human image not only contains what is, but also what might be. "In rational behavior man contemplates the world of potentialities, evaluates them according to his value system, and chooses the 'best.'"3u f?//”” Man's image is also characterized by a phenomenal capacity for internal growth and development quite inde— pendent Of messages received from the environment. When this capacity runs amuck, as in the case Of the schizo- phrenic, the person builds up a whole imaginary universe out Of the multiplication of his own images without regard to any contradictory messages from the outside world. Lf/l Man's image is also characterized by the ability to have.an image of himself as well as an image of many others. This capacity enables man to enter into complex personal relationships, to build organizations, and to write novels. This capacity for abstract communication and language and the ability to enter in imagination in the lives of others enables man to build organizations Of a size and complexity far beyond those of the lower animals.35 Organization, which we loosely defined as a structure of roles tied 30 together with lines Of communication, are not men, but, in a sense, parts of men acting in a certain role. Be- cause Of this, each man is able to participate in many organizations in different roles and in different parts Of his time and activity. The organization maintains its role structure even though individuals occupying various roles are constantly changing positions. Organizations themselves exhibit characteristics similar to organisms. Organizations have a division of 3 labor, specialized roles, and a hierarchial structure of A communication and authority. Also, as in biological P structures, the organization has some "central agent," some executive or responsible agent whose decisions are of prime importance in determining the behavior of the organ- ization. The behavior Of the organization can be inter- preted as a result Of the image of the executive, directed by his value system.36 The executive, in this sense, is analogous to the control mechanism of the thermostat. He receives messages from the members Of the organization, and his job is to transform those messages into instructions or orders which go out into the organization. The execu- tive, however, is not merely a machine which takes in messages and sends out instructions. The messages which come in to the executive are filtered through his image. The outgoing messages are, therefore, a result of his image. and not of the incoming messages. The incoming messages 31 only modify the outgoing messages if they succeed in modify- ing the executive's image. Another part Of man's image is, as we have seen, a public image. Man has a public image Of the organization in which he plays a role or which comprises his environ- ment. This public image is, in many respects, a self- conscious image, and, consequently, the organization it- self may be said tO have self-consciousness. However, it is important to note that the image is always the property of the individual, not of the organization. It-is clear from all that has been said that as we proceed from lower to higher levels Of organization, the concept of image becomes an increasingly important part of any theoretical model, and the image itself becomes in- creasingly complex. At the first two levels of organization there is little, if any, concept of image. At the level of simple control mechanisms the image takes on a basic form. It is clearly exhibited at the next level--the cellular level of organization. As we ascend the biological ladder it grows in importance until we reach man where it is of overwhelming importance in the interpretation Of human behavior and of the dynamics of society. The Image in Society Images, it has been pointed out, are the property of the individual person. By way of metaphor and analogy we can speak of organizations or Of society as having an 32 image.37 Nevertheless, images of some individuals, and parts of the image of most individuals can properly be regarded as an image of the society itself even though the image is in the minds of the individual.38 Therefore, to discuss the image and its relation to society, it is necessary to think Of an inventory of indi- vidual images. We may, on a basic level, think of this as a simple list Of the images: the image Of person a, b, c, d . . . z. This inventory of images is maintained and changed by the processes of society. For example, the things which change individual images are also involved in changing societal images. The most basic thing which society uses for changing images is the learning process. The learning process is what has been referred to as the messages which impinge on the individual image. Society, then, is generally composed of individuals and also of organizations. Individuals are grouped into family organizations, unions, universities, churches, busi- nesses, and so on. The existence of these organizations depends upon the presence of a "public image" among those who participate in its roles. Of course every individual in an organization does not need to have an identical image of the organization. The image of a great organization which is possessed by the president Of the company is very different from the image of the same corporation possessed by the janitor. . . . images of the roles must be consistent with the over-all image of the organ— ization itself.39 33 The organization itself begins as an image in the mind of some individual. A Justin Morrill, for example, conceived the image of a land-grant university. Morrill's ability to implant this image or at least an approxi— mation in the minds of others depended upon his powers to communicate. As an organization grows and becomes more complex a division of labor begins and people assume different roles. The growth of the organization is at some point characterized by a breakdown in face-to-face communi- cation.”0 As the organization grows the image held by the central agent——the executive--becomes greatly superior in complexity and in content to that of any of the other members of the organization. However, the image of the organization is also held by the individuals composing the organization. Moreoever, the individual's image of his role in the organization is not passive. The role may impose itself on the individual but the individual also reorganizes the role itself through the Operations of his own images. This constant interaction between the role and the personality is one of the dominant characteristics of society and of organizations.“1 The organization does not, as was pointed out, have an image Of its own. But the organization does possess something analogous to the phenomenon of self-consciousness. 3A This self-consciousness is the property Of the public image of the organization which is shared by those who participate in it or are related to it.142 Organizations, like organisms, have both a pheno- A3 type and a genotype. The phenotype of a university is the form of the campus, the buildings, the academic calendar, the curriculum. Students and professors come and go but the university goes on. But in the case of organizations, the image resides in the genotype not in the phenotype. Because Of their hierarchical nature, there are some individuals in the organization whose images are of peculiar importance in the organization. The phenotype of a university moves more toward the image of the president than it does toward the image of the humble instructor. Nevertheless, in the dynamics of an organization all images are important and none can be neglected. We must always Operate with the concept of an inventory of images and we can never replace this inventory by a single image, not even of the most important person in the organization.M Leo B. Moore puts this same idea another way. As each in his own way contributes his bit to the mosaic that makes for the image so also it is true that each may contribute to that fund of know- ledge which provides assurance that we are stfiering by the right star and in the right direction. 5 The lower levels in the organizational structure, Moore insists, must not merely receive communications about what the image will be; they must participate to the limit of their capability in the formation and adjustment of the image.“6 35 The University Subculture and the Image A subculture may be defined as a group of people sharing a public image.)47 This pUblic image need not be a conscious image and the group need not be conscious that they are sharing it. If, however, there are basic similar- ities in the images of the different individuals in the group, the behavior of the group will, in general, rein- force the similarities. This is because the symbolic messages which are issued from individuals in the group reflect in some degree the image which they possess. When these messages are received by other individuals in the group they confirm the image which is held by the recipient. The university subculture is but one of many sub- cultures in our society. In medieval times the university subculture was dominated by philOSOphy and theology. This domination by theology held true in the American colleges in the early part of their develOpment. Today the uni- versity is dominated by science. The university enjoys a complex public image, and its main characteristic is specialization. Because of this high degree of specialization, how— ever, each specialist within the university sees the image from his own vantage point. The image of his own specialty is seen in great detail; related specialization is seen somewhat more vaguely; distant fields are sometimes hardly perceived. Within the university, then, there is no single 36 public image uniting the intellectual subculture. "Rather there is a series of departmental and specialized images which form some kind of an overlapping continuum")-l8 The continuous division of the intellectual subuniverse into sub-subuniverses or departments of discourse has be- come a serious problem. This problem is, to some extent, the result of the increasing size of the transcribed image of the intellectual universe which makes it impossible for any single individual to become familiar with it all.“9 The departmental organization also means that an individual may satisfy his need for gregariousness within the confines of his own department of specialization. Lines of communi- cation fall almost wholly within departments and very rarely extend from one department to another. The more this happens the harder it becomes to break through the departmental barriers; each department develops an image Of its own and a language of its own. Within the departf' mental walls the image grows, changes, develops, and decays almost with a life of its own. Each academic discipline Often develOps with little regard to what is happening in other disciplines or even in the outside world. The members of the departmental subculture turn inward and devote them— selves to the elaborate solution of problems which they themselves create. The university is also made up of many sub—cultures besides the departmental sub—cultures. For example, there 37 is a student sub-culture, a non—academic personnel sub- culture, and so forth. The purpose of this study is to focus on the college sub-culture within the university and to consider only the sub-cultures of the departments and administrative groupings within the college. Part II.--Organizationa1 Theory and the Image An organization, as we have seen in image theory, is the sum total of the individual images held by the members of the organization. This collective image of the organ- ization is reflected to the people outside the organization. Theoretically, there is a similarity between the internal and external organizational images. This view of organizations--as the sum total of indi- vidual images--suggests the use Of some sort of organ- izational perceptual theory. ChristOpher Sower is the prime exponent of looking at organizations in terms of an individual's perceptions.50 Sower does not use image theory for developing his organizational theory, but he uses a synthesis of several organizational models which lend themselves to image research. With some modifications Sower's model for organizational analysis can be used for linking image theory with organizational analysis. To understand Sower's model for organizational analysis it is necessary to briefly sketch some key 38 theoretical positions in organizational literature. Sower's work represents a synthesis of some Of these positions. Before sketching these positions, however, it would be helpful to give certain organizational definitions. Organizational theorists use technical terms, and an understanding of the literature must begin with an under— standing of these terms. To begin, then, an organization is called an arti— fact.51 An organization is a social group, but unlike a natural society, it has been assembled for a purpose. It is a bureaucratically arranged social group with at least one specifiable goal.52 This means the members of the organization have different functions which relate to a goal of the organization. The organizational goal is a state of affairs which the organization brings into being. Indeed, the organization exists for these goals. These goals, in image theory, are future states, future pictures of the organization, which may or may not be brought about. Once a goal is achieved, it becomes a part of the organ- ization or of its environment, so it is no longer an image guiding organizational activities; it is no longer a goal. A system is defined as a conventionally selected set of variables which are supposed to interact.53 These variables are defined in such a way that, given the state of the system at a specified time, its state at any other 39 given time can be predicted. This set of variables may be a part of a larger set of variables, that is, the system to be studied may be a part of a larger system. The elements of a system are the entities of the 5A system that reflect its substantive content. They are the descriptive terms of the system. Variables of the system are the conditions of these elements within an organization at given times.55 The value of the variables at any given time defines the state of the system at that time. They carry the implications of change or variation regardless of the precision with which this change can be measured. Parameters of the system are the condition of ele- ments outside the organization which act and interact upon 56 it as environmental variables. The parameters are the external organization variables which affect the organ— ization. Organizational change comes through a change in either the variables or the parameters of the system or both. An organizational model is best described by C. Wright Mills.57 Mills points out that most of the ideas of the classical social theorists are not of the sort that can be readily shaped for precise testing. Rather, they are interpretative ideas oriented to various ways of looking at social realities. The theorists attempt to state general historic trends of the main drift of societies. They AO attempt to make sense of what is happening in order to gauge or predict the probability of future events. They structure these "great ideas," which represent the vitality of the men in the classical social tradition, into working shapes which are called models. These models are described as follows: In these working models are contained statements Of (l) the elements to which attention must be paid if we are to understand some particular feature of society as a whole, and (2) the range of possible relations among these elements. The elements are not left merely to interact in some vague way. Rightly or wrongly, they are constructed in close specific inter-connection with one another, and causal weights are assigned to each. These imputed connections, and weights, of course, are specific theories.58 Organizational Theory: The Natural System Model versus the Rational Model Historical studies by Gouldner59 identify two distinct approaches taken by classical organizational analysts. The first is called the rational model. This model is best exemplified in the work of Saint-Simon, Gulick and Urwick, and Weber.60 In this model, the organization is conceived as a deliberately established structure-~an instrument, that is, the formally blueprinted patterns which are gener- ally subject to deliberate inspection and rational manipu- lation. The second model classified by Gouldner is called the Qatural systems model. This is best exemplified by the work of Comte, Michels, Selznick, and Parsons.61 Here, the A1 organization is conceived as a "natural whole" or a system. The organization goal is one of several important needs to which the organization is oriented. Its component struc- tures are seen as emergent institutions which are under- stood only in relation to the diverse needs of the total system.62 As such, the organization strives to survive and to maintain its equilibrium. This striving toward balance may go on even after the organization's eXplicitly held goals have been attained. Equilibrium becomes more important than rationality. The focus of organizational analysis, using this model, is not on deviations from rationality but on disruptions of organizational equilibrium, particularly on mechanisms by which equilibrium is maintained. Gouldner says that it is a major task of organizational analysts today to reconcile the "rational" and "natural system" models.63 He calls for a single synthesized model which will aid in analyzing: (1) the distinctive charac- teristics of modern organizations as rational bureaucracies, (2) the characteristics which bureaucratic organizations share with other kinds of social systems, and (3) the re- lationship of those characteristics to one another. Effectiveness versus Survival Models Etzioni, in his discussion of organizational effective- ness, identifies two other classical organizational models-- the "survival" model and the "effectiveness" model.“I A2 The survival model specifies a set of requirements which, if fulfilled, allow a system to exist. All conditions specified are necessary prerequisites for the functioning of the system; remove one of them and the system will disintegrate. The analytical test for this model demands only a yes or no answer to the question, "Is this specific relationship functional?" The "effectiveness model," in contrast, defines a pattern of interrelations among the elements of the system which make it most effective in the service of a given goal. GeorgOpoulos and Tannenbaum define organizational effectiveness as the extent to which an organization as a social system, given certain resources and means, fulfills its objectives without incapacitating its means and re- sources and without placing undue strain upon its members.65 This model indicates that although several functional alternatives satisfy a requirement (or a need) some are more effective in doing so than others. There is a first, second, and nth. choice. Only rarely are two patterns full alternatives in that they have the same effectiveness value. Perceptual Theory Perceptual theory is considered to be a phenomeno- logical approach to the study of human behavior.66 It is concerned with the Observation of behavior known through A3 the senses, that is, as sensed or reported by the one who is behaving. The observer attempts to View the situation from the point of View of a particular individual (the personal image) in order to predict what that individual will do in a given situation (the spatial, temporal, and relational images). This, then, is an internal rather than an external approach to the study of human behavior. Perceptual theory holds that reality for an indi- vidual is what that individual perceives reality to be, and that he acts in a manner that is consistent with that perception. Perceptual theory holds that awareness (the consciousness image) is a cause of behavior, that per- ception is affected by the individual's physiology, values, beliefs, and needs (value and affectional images), that perception is dependent upon opportunity, that an indi- vidual's perceptual field is unique to him, and, finally, that an individual's behavior is purposeful, relevant, and pertinent to the situation as he understands it.67 The entire perceptual field, the behaver's universe, includes the past, present, and future as he has experienced or inferred them. Perceptual theory also holds that an individual's behavior is predictable on the basis of postulated relation- ships between the perceptual field and the past behavior of an individual. Likewise, future perceptual fields and behavior may be projected.68 The perceptual theory also AA holds that change in a perceptual field does not occur through a process of differentiation, that is, of recog- nizing the emergence of new segments of the field in detail and the lapsing out of other segments Of the field into undifferentiated ground. Therefore, it is possible not only to predict behavior, but also to change behavior by bringing new perceptual fields into focus at the indi- vidual's awareness level. In sum, perceptual theory holds that an individual will behave in a manner consistent with his perceptions.69 The correctness of an individual's perception of reality is subject only to proof, that is, comparing it against the "social reality," or the public image, which, as we have indicated, is the overlapping of perceptual fields of different people. The perception most peOple seem to hold in common becomes the basis for this type of "proof." Sower's Model ChristOpher Sower addresses himself to the problem of synthesizing the rational, natural system, and effective- ness models. He also takes concepts from perceptual 7O theory. This synthesis is also compatible with Etzioni's suggestion that the system model is most appropriate for studying organizations.71 Sower's major assumptions are:72 l. The key to understanding and explaining the Operations of an organization and their A5 consequences is the organizational link between its subgroups. 2. The extent to which an organization achieves its goals is a consequence of certain internal vari- ables. These variables are subject to change upon decisions of persons who occupy specific positions in the organization. A corollary of this assumption is that these variables, when identified, are capable of being described and explained, and the relationship between them predicted. 3. The actions of the incumbent of a position within an organization will agree with his own expec— tations of behavior proper to that position and what he conceives the eXpectations of relevant others to be, whether they are shared by a majority or not, and whether or not his con- ceptions are accurate. The relationship between the organizational variables A are eXplained by Sower's "Model for EXplaining and Pre— dicting the Relationship Between Internal Organizational Variables and the Extent of Goal Achievement for a DevelOp-j ment Organization." Briefly, this model accounts for the 1 following internal relationships: 1. The extent to which the organization's members have a clearly defined conception of its purpose and goals. A6 2. The extent to which the organization imposes upon its members patterns of eXpected behavior that are congruent with their own behavior expectations. 3. The extent to which the organization's members are interested in achieving its goals. These relationships are the intervening variables of the model. Consensus among members of the organization on each variable selected directly determines the extent to which the organization is likely to achieve its goals. Postulates constructed from these three intervening vari- 73 ables may be expressed as follows: Postulate I The degree to which an organization will achieve its goals is directly related to the extent to which its members have a clear conception of the organization's purposes or goals. Postulate II The degree to which an organization will achieve its goals is directly related to the extent to which the organizational role is perceived as clearly defined by "relevant others." Postulate III The degree to which an organization will achieve its goals is directly related to the extent to which the organization imposes upon its members patterns of expected behavior that are congruent with their own behavior expectations. Postulate IV The degree to which an organization will achieve its goals is directly related to the extent to which its members are interested in achieving the goals of that organization. A7 Summary An image, according to what we have said here, is an alterable state of subjective knowledge. An image is what the possessor believes is true. It is the everyday situ- ations of self and surroundings taken to be reality. It is reality to the possessor, and, as such, it governs his behavior. The image exists on various organizational levels, beginning with the static level of organization, puzzles and inanimate objects, for example; it reaches an apex in the complex images possessed by the human being. The human image is composed of ten dimensions: --The Spatial Image; —-The Temporal Image; --The Relational Image; —-The Personal Image; --The Value Image; —-The Affectional or Emotional Image; --The Conscious, Unconscious, or Sub-conscious Images; --The Certainty-Uncertainty Image and the Reality- Unreality Image; and --The Public Image. Organizations, in terms of the image theory, are products of man's image. Organizations exhibit the ten human image dimensions. To say that an organization has an image, however, is to speak metaphorically or by way Of analogy. The organization, besides the reality of its structure, is actually made up of the images of individuals. If an organization is the sum total Of the individual images of its members, then image theory may be used for A8 organizational analysis. This means that organizations may be analyzed from an internal rather than an external viewpoint. The work of ChristOpher Sower is best suited for implementing the image concept for organizational analysis. Sower emphasizes a perceptual approach to organizational theory. His organizational model takes into account the perceptions of the position incumbents, that is, the members of the organization. Sower's model is also based on four predictive assumptions which make it possible to draw certain conclusions or measure organizational effectiveness in terms of image consensus. In the next chapter, a methodology is presented for operationalizing the theories presented here. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1A. A9 Citations--Chapter 2 Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1961), p. 3. Ibid., p. A. Stuart Jones and McKenzie (eds.), Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. 5: H-K (London: Oxford Uni- versity Press: Amen House, 1951), p. 51. Ibid. Ibid° Kenneth Boulding, The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1961), pp. 6-7. Lee H. Bristol ed., Developing the Corporate Image (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. xiii. Charles Winick, "How to Find Out What Kind of Image You Have," ed. Lee H. Bristol, DevelOping the Corporate Image (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. 23. Pierre Martineau, "The Corporate Personality," ed. Lee H. Bristol, Developing the Corporate Image (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. 3. Edward J. Robinson, Communication and Public Relations (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Ific., 1966), p. 386. See, for example, William Lynch S. J., The Image Industries (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1959), pp. 21-Al; Kenneth Henry, "Creating and Selling Your Corporate Image," Dun's Review and Modern Industry, July, 1958, p. 32; Pierre Martineau, "Sharper Focus for the Corporate Image," Harvard Business Review, Nov.-Dec., 1958, p. 51. Jacques Maritain, An Introduction to Philosophy (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1962), p. 108. Boulding, Op. cit., p. 16. This example is patterned after an example presented by Boulding, Op. cit., pp. 3-19. 15. 16. l7. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3A. 35. 36. SO 2919': p. A3. ngg., p. 10. gp;g., p. 16. £919.. pp. A7-63. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo— Events in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), Boulding, op. cit., p. 20. Ipid., p. 11. ERAS-a p. 7. Ipid., p. 52. Boorstin, op. cit., p. 186. Ibid., p. 188. Ibid., p. 189. John W. Riley, Jr. with Marguerite F. Levy (eds.), The Corporation and Its Publics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 187. This section summarizes the theory presented by Boulding, op. cit., Chap. 2, pp. 19-31. A more precise definition of an organization is given in Section II of this chapter under theories of organization. Boulding, op. cit., p. 22. gpig., p. 23. gp;g., p. 25. ibis. gp;g., p. 26. Ibid., p. 27. Ibid. 37. 38. 39. A0. A1. A2. A3. AA. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. 50. 51. 51 3331,, p. 5A. gppg. I_p_i_g_., p. 57. Gerhart Wiebe, "A Modern Parable," eds. John W. Riley, Jr., with Marguerite F. Levy, The COrpor- ation and Its Publics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 10. Leo B. Moore, "The Manager and the Image," ed. Lee H. Bristol, Developing the Corporate Image (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. 22. Boulding, op. cit., p. 60. Ipid., p. 62. 2219': p. 63. Moore, op. cit., p. 19. 1219.- Boulding, Op. cit., p. 133. Ibid., p. 136. Ibid., p. 137. Sower's theory is developed in the following works: Christopher Sower et al., "The Roles of Organ- izations in Achieving the Goals of Planned Change," Highway and Locality Change, Part IV, An Unpub- lished Research Report (East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University, 1962); Christopher Sower et al., Community Involvement (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1957); Christopher Sower, "The Land Grant University, Development Organization in Transition: The Case of the Cooperative Extension Service," Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Cooper- ative Administrative Seminar, Madison Extension Center for Advanced Study, University of Wisconsin, 1962. The definitions presented here are those generally develOped by Gwen Andrew, "An Analytic System Model for Organization Theory," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1961. 52. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 6A. 650 52 EEAQ': pp. A3-A5. gpig. ngd., p. 30. _I__tg_i_c_1_., p. A5. gppg. C. Wright Mills, Images of Man (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1960), pp. 1-17. Ibid., p. 3. Alvin W. Gouldner, "Organizational Analysis," ed. R. K. Merton et al., Sociology Today (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959), Chap. 18, pp. A00-A28. Emile Durkheim, Socialism and Saint-Simon, in A. W. Gouldner, ed.,—(Yellow Springs, Ohio: Antiock Press, 1958); L. H. Gulick, and L. Urwick (eds.), Papers on the Science of Administration (New York: n. p., 1937); J. P. Mayer, Max Weber and German Politics (London: Faber and Faber, 19A3). Auguste Comte, Early Essays on Social Philosophy, H. D. Hutten, trans. (London: George Routledge and Sons, n. d.), p. 325; Robert Mickels, Political Parties (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, l9A9)? Philip Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots (Berkeley: University Of California Press, 19A9); Talcott Parsons, "Suggestions for a Sociological Approach to the Theory of Organizations," Part I and Part II. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 1 and Vol. II, June and Sept. 1956, pp. 63-85, and pp. 225- 239. Gouldner, Sociology Today, Op. cit., p. A05. Ibid., pp. AO6-A07. Amitai Etzioni, Complex Organizations (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961), pp. 78-79. Basil S. Georgopoulos and Arnold S. Tannenbaum, "A Study Of Organizational Effectiveness," American Sociological Review, Vol. 22, October, 1957, pp. 534-5A0. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 53 Howard S. Bartley, Principles of Perception (New York: Harper Brothers, 1958), Chap. 1 and 2, pp. l-A6; James G. March, and Herbert A. Simon, Organizations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959), pp. 9-11, 50—65, 121-129. 'Donald Snygg and Arthur W. Combs, Individual Behavior (New York: Harper and Brothers, 19A9), p. 13. Ibid., p. 21. Robert E. Bills, "About People and Teaching," The Bulletin of the Bureau Of School Services (College of Education, University Of Kentucky, Vol. 28, December 1955), p. 13. Sower, Highway and Locality Change, op. cit., Part IV. Amitai Etzioni, "Two Approaches to Organizational Analysis: A Critizue and a Suggestion," Adminis- trative Science Quarterly, Vol. 5, 1960, pp. 257 278. See works cited under footnote 50. These intervening variables are summarized by Robert C. Anderson, "A Method and Instrument for Predicting the Consequences of Intra-Organizational Action," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963, Chpt. 3, pp. 32-62. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Introduction The methodology used in this study is presented and discussed in this chapter. The following topics are developed: (1) Underlying Theory for the Methodology; (2) Selection of Study Population; (3) Instrumentation; (A) Statistical Hypothesis; (5).Experimental Design; and (6) Statistical Models Used for Analysis. Underlying Theory for the Methodology The methodology used in this study is a modification and adaptation of a method developed by Robert Anderson.1 Anderson's methodology is based on Sower's theoretical model, viz., "Model for Explaining and Predicting the Relationships Between Internal Organizational Variables and the Extent of Goal Achievement for a Development Organization."2 Sower's model explains the relationship between the independent and dependent organizational vari- ables. This model is basically a consensus model in which the internal organizational relationships to be considered are consensus factors: 5A 55 The extent to which the role of the organization is perceived as clearly defined by its position incumbents. The extent to which the organization defines perceived congruent behavior expectations for its position incumbents. The extent to which the position incumbents are interested in achieving the goals of the organ- ization. Consensus among members of the organization under analysis directly determined the extent to which the goals of the organization will be achieved. Selection of Study Pppulation The population used in this study was defined in two ways: 1. All members of the College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, and All school superintendents, high school and elementary principals in Ingham County, Michigan.3 For purposes of this study the populations were treated in the following manner. A member of the College of Education was defined as anyone who held a position of either instructor, assistant professor, associate pro- fessor, or professor. The sample was broken down into 56 the following sub-samples: (l) deans (including Dean, Associate dean, and assistant deans), (2) department chair- men, (3) institute directors, (A) full-time faculty members, and (5) part-time faculty members. In addition to these five basic sub-groups, the College was also divided into departmental categories; this resulted in seventeen (l7) sub-group classifications. The total College population was further divided by rank—-instructor, assistant pro- fessor, associate professor, and professor. Finally, the total group was divided into those having tenure and those who were non-tenured. Because of this breakdown into various sub-groups, it was found necessary to sample the entire population. The total population was defined, therefore, as 209. Of this total population of 209, only 201 members of the College could be used for the study. Eight members Of the faculty were either on leaves-Of—absence, foreign ser- vice, or their contract had terminated with the College. This left an N of 201. The sample of school personnel selected from Ingham County was divided according to membership in a school district. These school districts included: --East Lansing, --Mason, -—Lansing, --Stockbridge, --Okemos, -—Webberville, —-Waver1y, -—Williamston. —-Dansville, --Has1ett, —-Holt, —-Leslie, 57 A total of 102 persons were selected for study from the County school population.“ Instrumentation The instrument used for this study is a modification and adaptation of an instrument developed by Anderson.5 The instrument is an attempt to meet the theoretical con- siderations set forth by Sower (see Chapter 2). Basically, the instrument considers the following variables. 1. Dppendent Variables.-—The goals of the organ- ization represent the dependent variables of the method- ology. 2. Independent Variables.-—The role of the organ- ization as perceived by incumbents of the organization. The role of the organization as perceived by relevant others who are not members of the organization. The per— ceived expectations impinged upon position incumbents in the organization by self and relevant others. The interest position incumbents express in achievement of the organ— ization's goals. 3. Control Variables.--The control variables include the following factors related to the position incumbents: (a) position in organization hierarchy, (b) position in special interest organizations, and (c) relevant other relationships. 58 Instrument Development and Administration The elements which make up the independent variables in the study organization are determined by administration of a question and answer device constructed along the lines develOped by Anderson.6 This device is called an Open-ended Questionnaire (OEQ). The OEQ consisted of the following questions: 1. What do you believe to be the purpose and goals of the College of Education, Michigan State University? 2. In your opinion what do school administrators now think are the goals and purposes of the College of Education, Michigan State University? 3. In your opinion what gr: the most important specific programs (teaching, research, service, etc.) engaged in by the College of Education, Michigan State University? A. In your Opinion what specific programs (teaching, research, service, etc.) should be acted upon by the College of Education, Michigan State Uni- versity? All members of the organization and all members of the Ingham County school district population received a COpy of the OEQ along with a letter of introduction and explan- ation (see Appendix A). Basically, the respondent was asked to write out his opinions and reactions to the four questions. No 59 limits were placed on the response. Respondents were told to write as much or as little as they wanted. OEQ: The following assumptions underlie the use of the The internal conception of an organization is related to the way position incumbents Of that organization act and identify themselves rela- tive to the identities attributed to them in the past (or to others in that position) by relevant others who hold authoritative position to ascribe roles (or the way in which relevant others act or have acted toward the position in- cumbent). This self-conception of an organization is assumed to be comprised of the organized past experience of its position incumbents. This self-concept leads to an organizational self— expectation that acts to guide the organization's ongoing social behavior. The self-organizational expectations have predictive utility. The important elements of an organization's self- conception are available at the awareness level through statements by its position incumbents, provided they can and are willing to state them. This comprises a direct approach to an organ- ization's self-conception. Position incumbent respondents are confronted with the problem of 6O identifying the organization of which they are a part. They must decide for themselves how this identification will be made.7 Obviously, an infinite number of descriptive state- ments could be made by position incumbents in a given organization. The OEQ device used, therefore, accounts for a very small fraction of all possible elements or descriptive statements that respondents might make. Research done utilizing the similar "Twenty-State- ment Problem" indicates that even a small sample of state- ments about the self is useful because it permits both stable differentiation among persons and reliable pre- dications about their behavior.8 It is held, therefore, that an analytic transfer of self-concept from an indivi- dual to an organization can be made without a significant loss in the reliability or predictive usefulness of the Twenty-Statement Problem methodology, or, in this case, the OEQ device. Administration of the Instrument Anderson suggests that the OEQ device may be adminis- tered in group situations, directly to single persons, or by mail.9 For this study the OEQ was administered by mail. Respondents were assured that they were free to express their concerns about the organization, that these concerns would be consciously considered in future decision-making, 61 and that no personal punishment or reward would result from their participation in the project. Analysis and Classification of Responses The information gathered from the OEQ would, in it— self, provide a sound base for qualitative and quantitative analysis of the organization. However, this study was not concerned with any direct analysis Of this information. Rather, the OEQ was used for generating and selecting significant elements or descriptive statements about the organization. The statements were numbered and classified according to their literal content by using sub ect as one criterion and action verb as a second criterion.lO This categorization not only satisfied the requirements set down by Anderson, but it also answers the plea of image- researchers that image research must consider both content and value of statements. A total of 110 OEQ devices were returned from the total population. This total represented a satisfactory amount of returns, since, according to Anderson, no statistical significance is placed on the returns of the OEQ device. The point of emphasis is to have the organ- izational members generate a number of descriptive state— ments about the organization. Each individual's responses were typed on separate cards; one card was used for each descriptive statement. 62 This resulted in approximately 600 separate response cards. The cards were first divided into subject categories. This resulted in approximately 150 categories from the initial 600 single responses. A frequency distribution was done on the 150 categories; the subject appearing the most was placed in the first deck, and the subject appear— ing least was placed in the last deck. The cards within each category were then classified according to the action of the verb, that is, the cards were classified according to the strength of the verb. The question here was, "How strongly does the respondent feel about the subject?" This classification and reclassification resulted in a rough draft of a device which contained the elements of the organization. This rough draft contained 1A7 indivi- dual statements. It became necessary at this point to weed out the unnecessary, repetitious, and non-significant statements. A panel of 12 graduate students was chosen to select significant items. The panel weeded out 66 items, leaving a total of 81 descriptive statements. These descriptive statements were developed into a rating-scale device. It should be noted that the items selected from the OEQ are edited as little as possible. This is to insure that the responses are kept as close 63 as possible to the original wording and intent Of the respondent. The researcher is, however, free to add de- scriptive statements which may have particular bearing on the study. For this study, goal statements were taken from an article which described the College of Education and its goals.11 This was done at the request of the Associate Dean, John X. Jamrich. The Rating Scale Device The Rating Scale device is based on the notion of consensus or variation of the elements as perceived by position incumbents of the organization under analysis. The Rating Scale device asks each respondent to what ex- tent he agrees with the elements (specific descriptive statements). This satisfies the theory Of Boulding and others that the image has a value dimension. The re- spondent chooses between the following response categories: 1. Strongly Agree 2. Moderately Agree 3. Not Sure A. Moderately Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree Administration of the Rating Scale Device The Rating Scale device was administered to the same pOpulation that received the OEQ (201 members of the 6A College and 102 school personnel). The Rating Scale device was administered by mail (see Appendix B). Hypotheses to Be Tested Responses obtained from the Rating Scale device were required to test the hypotheses set forth in Chapter 1. These hypotheses were stated in null form, that is, no differences were expected between the groups under study. The College of Education was assumed to be a stable organ- ization, that is, an organization with clearly defined goals, clearly defined role structures, an adequate communication network, a stable population, and good relations with outside groups and organizations. The hypotheses, then, are as follows: 1. The image of the College Of Education held by five internal sub-groups (deans, department chairmen, full-time faculty, part-time faculty) will not vary significantly between groups. 2. The image Of the College of Education held by 17 departmental sub-groups will not vary signifi- cantly between departments. 3. The image of the College Of Education held by the four teaching ranks (instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, professor) will not vary significantly between ranks. A. The image of the College of Education held by tunured and non-tenured academic personnel will not vary significantly. 5. The image of the College of Education held by members of the College will not vary signifi- cantly from the image of the College held by school administrators in Ingham County (Michigan). 65 These five hypotheses may be stated symbolically as: 1. HO = M = M = M = MA = M 1 2 3 5 H1¢M1¢M274M3¢Mu¢M5 2 Ho = M1 = . . Ml7 H1#M1# Ml7 In these symbolically stated hypotheses, the term Ho represents the null hypothesis; = means there is no difference; Hl represents the alternate hypothesis; # means there is a difference, and M represents the total mean scores for each group. If, for example, the total mean scores for groups 1, 2, 3, and A (hypothesis 1) are not found to be significantly different, then HO will be accepted and the alternate H will be rejected. 1 66 Analysis of Data In Anderson's original methodology, consensus was treated as a simple measurement of mean, variance, and chi- square. Such measurement was found inadequate for purposes of this study because they differentiate on a low level of significance. Therefore, besides the initial analysis suggested by Anderson, this study includes two additional statistical models--F test and t-test. In Anderson's original methodology, the ppgpp for each response were used to get a measure of central tendency for the response. Along with the means for each response, this study takes into account the total means for each group. The Standard Deviation was used to call attention to disagreements on each item rather than to indicate direction Of response patterns. Chi-square was used to point out significant differences at the 0.05 level of significance. All these basic statistical measures were Obtained on the Michigan State University 3600 Computer using the "Act 1.01 Program" developed by Alan M. Lesgold.l2 In addition to these measurements, an F-test was used to indicate significant difference at the 0.05 level of significance. The F test is the most powerful measure- ment in parametric statistics. Parametric statistics deal with populations of unequal number. The F test measurement and an analysis of variance was obtained by Il..ll l Ill-II! III. lull III! 67 using the program "One-Way Analysis of Variance with Unequal Number of Replications Permitted."l3 It should be noted that this program is designed to test variance and F test significance on heterogeneous populations of two or more groups. The program is designed to compen- sate for unequal sub-groups within the total population. The F test, then, was used to point out significant differences between groups and significant differences on each item. At this point all necessary calculations are com- plete; the hypotheses may be accepted or rejected. It is, however, helpful if one additional test is made. This test, called a postmortem test, is calculated on those items which were judged significantly different by the F test. A t-test was found most appropriate for this study. To summarize, the mean scores will be used to indi- cate central tendency, standard deviation will indicate disagreement, chi-square will indicate significance at the 0.05 level of significance. Analysis of variance with unequal sub-groups and F test will be used to indicate significant differences between total mean scores and on each item, and the t-test will indicate significant differ- ences between any two groups on single item responses. 10. 11. 68 Citations--Chapter 3 Robert C. Anderson, "A Method and Instrument for Predicting the Consequences of Intra-Organizational Action," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963. Christopher Sower, "The Land Grand University: Development Organization in Transition: The Case of the COOperative Extension Service," Unpublished report prepared for the Seventh National Cooperative Extension Administrative Seminar, University of Wisconsin, May 1, 1962. This population was drawn from Michigan Education Directory and Buyer's Guide: 196641967 (Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Education Directory, 1966-1967). The sample was drawn according to requirements set by Leslie Kish, "Selection of the Sample," Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz, (ed.) (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953), pp. 175-239. Approximately one—half of the Lansing group was selected for study; the other groups included the total population. Anderson, op. cit. Ibid., pp. 73—83. Ibid. Manford H. Kuhn and Thomas S. MacPortland, "An Empirical Investigation of Self Attitudes," American Sociological Review, Vol. 19, 195A, pp. 68—78. Anderson, op. cit., p. 75. Ibid., p. 78. "How DO We Learn?" The Michigan State University Alumni Magazine (East Lansing: December, 196A), n. p.; Also see John E. Ivey, Jr., "Program Directions for the College of Education," a speech presented at Michigan State University, December A, 1962. 69 12. Alan M. Lesgold, "Analysis of Contingency Tables," Technical Report No. 1A, Computer Institute for Social Science Research, Michigan State Uni— versity, April 17, 1967. 13. "One-Way Analysis of Variance with Unequal Number Of Replications Permitted," Michigan State Uni- versity: STAT Series Description No. 13, Jan. 1966. CHAPTER A PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the application and usefulness of the methodology presented in Chapter 3. The data presented here represent the re— sults obtained when the methodology was used to analyze a specific organization-—The College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. This chapter provides descriptive and explanatory data for that analysis, and, where possible, predictive conclusions based on the theory presented in Chapter 2. Procedure The methodology was carried out according to the procedure described in Chapter 3. The population sample of the College of Education included all members of the organization, with the exceptions noted in Chapter 3. The data presented here was obtained from the responses of 1AA members of the College. This represents 71% of the total population. The population sample of superintendents, high school, junior high school, and elementary principals included a 70 71 total of 102 members. The data presented here was ob- tained from 61 respondents. This represents 59.8% of the sample population. Both populations received the Open—Ended Question- naire and the Rating Scale device in the form Of mailed questionnaires. One follow-up letter was sent to members of both groups who did not respond to the Rating Scale device after one-and-a-half weeks of its initial adminis- tration. Responses to items on the Rating Scale device were recorded and verified on IBM Data Processing Cards. Specific items that were not scored by the respondent received a score of 0; thus, the response was not figured into the totals. Analysis Of each statement was conducted only on responses circled l-2-3—A-5. Group mean scores and variances were calculated for both row and column effects. Row effect consists of the total statement mean score and variance for each re- spondent, that is, a simple addition of responses for all 81 items. Column effect consists of the group mean scores and variances Obtained for each of the 81 items. Presentation of Data Study findings are reported by using the following measures of analysis: means (measure of central tendency), variance, F-test significance, and t-test significance (where applicable). The means and variances are related 72 to the degree of consensus about elements, that is, items selected by the position incumbents of the organization. The measure Of central tendency is the mean score of the respondent's scaled responses to the statements which made up the intervening variables Of the study. This score gives an over-all priority rating to each ele- ment or item included in the study. The grand mean score obtained from each item, and the mean score of all position incumbents, form the basis for ordering the items from a position of "strongly agree" (or high priority) to a position of "strongly disagree" (or low priority). When interpreting the results, a mean Of 1.00 indicates "strongly agree," while a mean of 5.00 indicates "strongly disagree." If a mean score is carried out to second and third places (2.Al for example), the second and third places are rounded Off to the nearest tenth. A mean of 2.A1 is interpreted as "moderately agree." A mean score of 2.50 is interpreted as "moderately agree" or "not sure." While the mean scores may be used to give an indi- cation Of level and direction of an item, they do not neces- sarily give a true measure of consensus. For example, the group mean scores of an item may fall within a very narrow range on the rating scale (2.50 and 2.60, for example). Such close distribution may lead to the conclusion that consensus between groups exists on that item, or consensus exists within the response group. It may be the case, 73 however, that the within group mean scores on a given item range from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." This represents a wide variation in intensity of responses on that item. If such a wide range within one or more groups does in fact occur, despite the fact the group means happen to fall within a narrow range, it would be an error to conclude that there is consensus on that item. A second measure, the measure of variance (or vari- ation in the responses from the grand mean score) must also be taken into account. The variance is necessary to get F test results. F test results are used to point out consensus or non-consensus on total mean scores or on individual items. The F test significance on total means or on individual items was set at the 0.05 level. This means that to be significantly different an item must have an F test re- sult of 0.05, 0.0A, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01, or 0.00. The t-test, although not necessary to the hypotheses of this study, is used when certain items called for deeper analysis. The t-test is used to locate significant differ— ences between two groups. It should be noted, therefore, that the t-test is not employed for all items or for all groups which were found to be significantly different by the F test. 7A Spudy Findings Format The data presented here is used to accept or reject the null hypotheses presented in Chapter 3. Interpretation of the study results is based on the theory presented in Chapter 2, especially Sower's four predictive postulates. These postulates were stated as: Postulate I Within an organization the degree to which organ- izational goals will be achieved is related directly to the extent to which the organization's role is perceived as clearly defined by position incumbents Of that organization. Postulate II Within an organization the degree to which organ- izational goals will be achieved is related directly to the extent to which the organizational role is perceived as clearly defined by "relevant others" (School Administrators). Postulate III Within an organization, the degree to which organ— izational goals will be achieved is directly related to the extent to which the organization defines congruent behavior expectations for its position incumbents. Postulate IV Within an organization, the degree to which organ- izational goals will be achieved is directly related to the extent to which the position incumbents, or members, of that organization are interested in achieving the goals of the organization. These four postulates were reflected in the method— ology in the four basic statements which made up the Open- Ended-Questionnaire. 75 Presentation'of Data The findings Of the study are presented under each hypothesis. Each hypothesis is stated along with signifi- cant data and a statement of acceptance or rejection. This is followed by presentation and analysis of items which were found significantly different by the F test. The t-test results are then presented and interpreted. A discussion of the results for each hypothesis is presented after all data have been presented for the hypothesis. A Note on Tables The major summary tables containing the data for this study are presented at the end of this chapter. In Tables 1, 2, 3, A, and 5, means scores for each group and for each item are presented with standard deviations, chi-squares, degress of freedom for each item, and F test significance. Tables 6 through 30 present item comparisons between two groups, that is, mean scores and t-test scores for each item that was judged significantly different by the F test. Hypothesis Number One.-- The image of the College of Education held by five internal sub—groups (deans, department chairmen, (institute directors, full-time faculty, part-time faculty) will not vary significantly between groups. HO = M = M = M = MA = M l 2 3 5 Hl # Ml # M2 # M3 a MA ¢ M5 76 To test this hypothesis, the total mean score for each group was computed, that is, the 81 items on the questionnaire were added up for each group. The total mean score for each group was compared with the scores of the other groups, using the one—way analysis of vari- ance for unequal sub-groups. Significance for the F test was set at the 0.05 level. The result of the F test was an F statistic of 0.09. Therefore, the null hypothesis (HO) was accepted; the alternate hypothesis (H1) was re- jected. Therefore, we conclude that no significant image differences exist between the five internal sub-groups. However, an item analysis revealed significant differ- ences on 16 items. These items include: Section I.—-The following statements ARE goals of the College. Please agree, disagree, etc. Item 10. A program of educational evaluation and assessment. 11. A program for the design, production, and testing of programmed materials and media for use in colleges and schools. 13. A continuing effort to improve the effectiveness and quality of the College's undergraduate and graduate instructional programs. The following statements SHOULD BE goals of the College 28. To put education on a scientific basis. Section II.—-Please indicate whether or not you think the following programs are important. A6. The Elementary Intern Program is probably the most important of all undergraduate teaching programs. Item A7. A9. 50. 51. 53. 56. 68. 71. 77 The Extern program of the Department of Administration is an important activity. We should cooperate with governmental agencies on such programs as Job Corps, Head Start, etc. Committee work by individual faculty members on College and departmental programs and policies is important. None of the programs of the College of Education are worthwhile. We SHOULD conduct research in the following areas: Subject matter research. Philosophy of education research. Section III.-—We SHOULD CARRY OUT the following pro— grams and activities. Also included in this section are problem statements. We should expand certain graduate programs, such as Higher Education. We must find ways to maintain smaller teaching sections at both undergraduate and graduate levels. We should reduce teaching loads on instructors by increasing faculty. We should cut back the number of our present programs. The structure of the College prohibits the effective use of many of its positive attributes. Looking at Table 1 (at the end of this chapter), we can check the mean score, standard deviation, chi—square, and F test for each of these items. Again, the F test is significant at the 0.05 level. The F test scores show that the 16 items listed above were significantly different between the five sub-groups. However, this does not tell us where the significant differences are, that is, between what scores. 78 A t—test was used to determine differences between any two groups in the five group sample. The t-test re— vealed differences between groups as shown in Item Compari- son Figure l on the next page. Figure 1 shows how the differences between the five sub-groups are distributed. The specific mean scores and t-test results for this distribution are presented at the end Of the chapter in Tables 6 through 1A. Table 6 is presented below as an example of how the tables are interpreted. TABLE 6.-—Item comparison: Groups 1 & 2. Item Group 1 Group 2 t-test 12 1.17 3.67 2.999 53 0.63 2.67 2.711 56 0.83 2.33 2.831 t-test significant at 2.015 In Table 6, then, we see a comparison between group 1 (deans) and group 2 (department chairmen) on three items which were found significantly different by the F test. Table 6 shows the mean score for each group on a particular item. The t-test is shown in the last column. T-test significance is determined by checking the t-test score results with a table of t-test significance. The t-test significance is shown at the bottom of each table. The 79 .mdsonwlozm o>Hm now mcomflanEoo EmpHII.H onswflm meadomm oEHBtpnmm u m osonu meadomm oefielaasm u : ozone mpOpoonHo mpzpfipmcH u m ozone coEnfimno pcoEpnwoom n m ozono meson n H ozonw ”chewed x x x m»: x x elm x x mum x x x 21m x x mum x x x x x mIH x x x x x x x x :IH x x x x x x mla x x x NIH efinm aim we as mm mm mm Hm om as a: c: mm ma NH OH masons mEopH figure 2. 80 015 means that the t-test score must equal or be greater than 2.015. Looking at Table 6, we see that the deans strongly agree on all three items, while the department chairmen are not sure or moderately disagree on items 12 and 53, and they moderately agree on item 56. The mean scores of 0.67 and 0.83 for the deans on items 53 and 56 indicate that one or more members of the group did not respond to the item. Again, the group 2 means Of 3.67 and 3.67 do not necessarily reflect within group consensus on items 12 and 53. There may be a wide range of agreement or non— agreement on these items. If we summarize the data on both Item Comparison Figure 1 and on Tables 6 through 1A, we see that the most significant differences exist on items 10, 12, 28, 53, and 56. On item 10 (A program of educational evaluation and analysis), differences were found between group 1 and These differences are shown in the SPOUPS 3, A, and 5. following mean distribution. Item 10: Group 1 5 A 3 Mean 1.00 1.89 2.15 2.67 Group 1 (deans) strongly agree that a program of educational evaluation is a goal of the College. Group 5 (part-time faculty) moderately agrees. Group A (full-time faculty) 81 moderately agrees. Group 3 (institute directors) moder- ately agrees or is not sure. On item 12 (A program for the design, production, and testing of programmed materials and media for use in colleges and schools), differences were found between group 1 and groups 2, 3, A, and 5. These differences are shown in the following mean distribution. Item 12: Gropp 1 5 A 3 2 Mean 1.17 2.37 2.59 3.57 3.67 Again, Group 1 (deans) strongly agrees with the item. Group 5 (part-time faculty) moderately agrees. Group A (full-time faculty) moderately agrees or is not sure. Group 3 (institute directors) and group 2 (department chairmen) is not sure or moderately disagrees. These mean scores show a range of image consensus and non— concensus. On item 28 (One goal of the College should be to put education on a scientific basis), differences were found between group 1 and groups A and 5. The mean distri- bution for this item is show below. Item 28: Group 1 A 5 Mean 1.33 2.28 2.32 Group 1 (deans) strongly agrees that one of the goals of the College should be to put education on a scientific basis. Group A (full-time faculty) and group 5 (part- time faculty) only moderately agrees. 82 On items 53 and 56 (We should conduct subject matter research and philosophy of education research), differences were found between group 1 and groups 2, 3, A, and 5. The mean distribution for these items is shown below. Item 53: Group, 1 A 3 5 2 Mean 0.67 1.8A 1.86 1.95 3.67 Item 56: Group 1 5 3 A 2 Mean 0.83 1.7A 1.86 1.07 2.33 Group 1 (deans) strongly agrees on both items, but the other groups only moderately agreed. On item 53, group 2 (department chairmen) was not sure or moderately dis- agreed. Discussion of Hypothesis Number One The grand mean scores, analysis of variance, and F test results for the five internal sub-groups of the College of Education indicate that no significant differences in image exist between the groups. This conclusion is sup- ported by the expectation presented in Chapter 3, that is, the College of Education was expected to be a stable organ- ization, and, as such, no image differences were expected within the organization. However, such a conclusion is misleading, because the item analysis revealed between- group differences on 16 items. I 1!... ll. 1|..- {Sill-Ill! l...- l 1!. l 10"!) {II-Ill ill! 83 The most serious differences existed on items 10 and 12 which are actual goal statements of the College. These statements are recognized by the deans as goals toward which the College is being directed. Yet the deans differed from all other groups in recognition of these statements. In some cases the statements were not recog— nized as goals of the College; in some cases there was only moderate recognition. If we apply Sower's predictive postulates to the findings on these two items, we conclude that the College will not achieve these two goals because the goals are not recognized by the members of the College. Applying image theory to the findings, we conclude that there is no image consensus on these items between the deans and the other sub—groups. If the deans want to achieve these goals, then they must change the images of the other groups. There was also a lack of image consensus on item 28. The deans strongly agree that one of the goals of the College should be to put education on a scientific basis. The full—time and part—time faculty do not agree with the deans. The deans view education as a science, and they feel that the College should be based on scientific principles, but they will not achieve this goal, because the faculty members view education in other ways. Their moderate agreement on this item shows that they are not strongly opposed to placing the College on a scientific basis, but they also want to place it on other bases. 8A There is also lack Of image consensus on items 53 and 58. Again, the deans strongly favor both subject matter and philoSOphical research, but the other groups either moderately agreed or were not sure that these types of research should be conducted. If subject matter and philoSOphical research are viewed as organizational goals by the deans, then they must change the images of the other groups. If these images are not changed, then we can predict that subject matter and philOSOphical research will not be achieved as organizational goals. We can generally conclude that the largest differences in image exist between the deans, the institute directors, and the full-time faculty. This conclusion is borne out by the fact that the deans differed with the institute direc- tors on six items, and they differed with the full-time faculty on seven items. However, the number of differences is not significant, but the areas of difference are signifi- cant. The institute directors and the full-time faculty do not agree with the deans on the goal statements of the College or on the research functions of the College. The differences between the other groups (2—3, 2-A, 2-5, 3—A, A-5) are so small they do not need eXplanation. We may, however, study these differences if we want to get a better understanding of the relationships between these groups. 85 Hypothesis Number Two.-- The image Of the College of Education held by 17 departmental sub-groups will not vary signifi— cantly between departments. HO = M = . . . M 1 l7 HlfMlaé...Ml7 The total mean score for each group, the one-way analysis of variance, and the F test indicate that no significant differences exist between the total mean scores of the 17 departmental sub-groups. The F test was calcu- lated at the 0.26 level of significance. Therefore, we accept the null hypothesis (Ho) and reject the alternate hypothesis (H1). However, an individual item analysis revealed significant differences on 19 items. These items include: Section I.--The following statements are goals of the College. Item 9. A program of subject matter analysis. The following statements should be goals of the College: 18. To conduct research—-pure, eXperimental, and action—- in all aspects of education. 19. To develop and implement research in teaching. 23. To have faculty members produce scholarly writing. 29. To "weed out" or screen those going into the pro- fession and separate the wheat from the chaff. 3A. To provide extension courses. Item 35. AA. A5. A6. A7. 58. 59. 68. 71. 2-18. 86 To train teachers and administrators to fit specific school systems. Section II.-—P1ease indicate whether or not you think the following programs are important. Research is important but we place too much emphasis on it so instruction and service suffer. The most important undergraduate programs are the opportunities for school visitations and participation in actual classroom situations. The Elementary Intern Program is probably the most important of all undergraduate teacher programs. The Extern program of the Department of Administration is an important activity. We should conduct federally supported research. The Institute for International Study is an important activity. Section III.-—Which Of the following programs and activities should be carried out by the College. We should expand certain graduate programs, such as Higher Education. We must find ways to maintain smaller teaching sections at both undergraduate and graduate levels. We should reduce teaching loads on instructors by increasing faculty. We should cut down the number of methods courses and offer more subject matter courses. We should give prospective teachers more experience in practical matters, such as how to handle discipline, how to interact with people, how to get along with co-workers, etc. The College should be based on a Behavioral Science foundation. 87 A t-test was calculated on these items for six of the 17 departmental sub-groups. These six sub—groups represented the largest groups within the departmental classification and are considered the main sub—divisions Of the College. The other 11 sub-groups had five or less members (one or two members in some cases). Therefore, in order to reveal significant differences on the t-test, and in order to protect the anonymity of the respondents in the smaller sub-groups, the t-test was only calculated on the larger groups (11 or more members). The six groups chosen for analysis include: stage 2 — School for Teacher Education 6 — Department of Administration and Higher Education 7 — Department of Counseling Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology 8 - Elementary and Special Education 9 — Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 10 - Secondary Education and Curriculum Results of the t—test for these groups are presented in Tables 15 through 28 at the end of this chapter. On the next page, in Item Comparison Figure 2, we can see the distribution of differences between the six groups. What follows is an interpretation of these differences as shown in Figure 2 and Tables 15 through 28. Only those items which show the most significant differ- ences are presented here. It should also be noted that .mozoswlnzm amazoEunmooo NH oo o poo mcomfinmoEoo Emlel.m onzwfio 88 Eszoannzo one compmoznm monocoOom u QM ozone :ofipmonoom ocm coapmozzm Macawmso .cuamox u m ozone coapmozem Hmflooom one zomuCOEmHm n m ozone mmoHocozmo HmcofioMozom new .mmoa>noo Moccomnoo .wcfiaomczoo u w ozone cofipmozem gamma: ocm :ofipmnumficfieo< u w ozonc coaomozom nonomme Loo Hoocom u m ozone ”zoomed M M on M M calm M M M M M M M M M M mlm M M M M M oals M v M M M M M M ole M M M M mlm M M M M M M M M calm M M M M M M M M mlw M V M M M M M mlo M M M M M M wlw M M M oalm M M M M M mlm M M M M M . mlm M M M M M M M M elm M M M M M M M M elm mzlm we as me mm mm as a: ma as mm am mm mm ma mo m masons mEouH 89 the mean scores of both deans and department chairmen are compared with the six sub-groups selected for study. On item 23 (One of the goals of the College should be to have faculty members produce scholarly writing), groups 6, 7, and 10 strongly to moderately agree, but groups 2 and 9 moderately agree or are not sure. Here is a distribution of means on this item (including the mean scores of deans [D] and department chairmen [D. C.]. Item 23 Group D 7 6 D.C. 10 9 2 Mean 1.50 1T61 1.62 1.67 1.91 2.A7 2.55 The deans strongly agree that scholarly writing should be one of the goals of the College, but the department chair- men fall between groups 6 and 10; they strongly to moder- ately agree. We have, according to this distribution, lack of image consensus between the five sub-groups and the deans and department chairmen. On item 3A (One of the goals of the College should be to provide extension courses), there are differences between five sub-groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a distribution of means for this item. Item 3A Group 2 6 D 10 8 7 D.C. Mean 1.73 1.81 1.83 1.83 2.20 2.7A 3.00 Groups 2, 6, the deans, and 10 strongly to moderately agree. Group 8 moderately agrees. Group 7 and the depart- ment chairmen are not sure. This shows a wide range of 90 images between the groups, hence, there is no image con— sensus. On item 35 (One of the goals of the College should be to train teachers and administrators to fit specific school systems), there are differences between five sub— groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a distribution of means for this item. Item 35 Group D 7 10 9 6 "8 D.C. Mean 2.33 2.7A 2.78 3.00 3.05 3.90 A.00 The deans moderately agree with the item. Groups 7, 10, 9, and 6 are not sure. Group 8 and the department chair- men moderately disagree. It is interesting to note that group 8 is the Department of Elementary and Special Edu- cation; they have the same image of this item as the de- partment chairmen. Only one department (7--Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology) is close to the deans, and even there we do not have complete con- sensus. On item AA (Research is important but we place too much emphasis on it so instruction and service suffer), there were differences between all six sub-groups and the deans and department chairmen. Here is a mean distri- bution for this item. Item AA Group 9 2 D.C. 7 6 8 D 10 Mean 2.27 2.A7 3.01 3.10 3.50 3.677 3.837 A.AO 91 Groups 9 and 2 moderately agree with this statement. The department chairmen and group 7 are not sure. Groups 6, 8, and the deans are not sure or moderately disagree. Group 10 disagrees. This distribution indicates that there is no clear picture of the College's research function. Some groups moderately agree that there is too much emphasis on research; some groups, the deans and group 10 especially, think research is not being over- emphasized. On item A5 (The most important undergraduate programs are the opportunities for school visitations and partici- pation in actual classroom situations), non-consensus was found between the six sub-groups, the deans, and the de- partment chairmen. Here is a mean distribution for this item. Item A5 Group 2 7 10 D D.C. 9 6 8 Mean 2.60 2.967 3.00 3.17 3.33 3.36 A.00 A.33 The interesting thing to note here is that group 2 (School for Teacher Education) is on opposite ends of the distri- bution from group 8 (Elementary and Special Education). Possibly group 8 does not think that some of the in— service programs are worthwhile. On item A6 (The Elementary Intern Program is probably the most important of all undergraduate teacher programs), there was non-consensus between the six-groups, the deans, 92 and department chairmen. Here is a distribution of means for this item. Item A6 Group D.C. 8 D 9 7 2' 10 6 Mean 1.33 1.67 1.83 2.18 2.62 2.87 3.00 3.50 The department chairmen strongly agree with this item. Group 8 and the deans strongly to moderately agree. Group 9 moderately agrees. Groups 7 and 2 moderately agree or are not sure. Group 10 is not sure. Group 6 is not sure or moderately disagrees. On item A7 (The Extern program of the Department of Administration is an important activity), non-consensus was found between five groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a mean distribution for this item. Item A7 Group D D.C. 8 10 9 6 7 Mean 1.00 1.00 1.33 1.80 2.00 2.50 2.53 There is strong agreement on this item between the deans, department chairmen, and group 8. Groups 10 and.9 moder- ately agree; groups 6 and 7 moderately agree or are not sure. The interesting thing to note here is that group 6 (Department of Administration and Higher Education) only moderately agreed or was not sure. Yet the item directly refers to a program sponsored by the Department. One possible explanation for this is that group 6 is made up of three sub-groups--Administration, Higher Education, and Adult Education. The Administration group may strongly 93 agree with this item, but the other two groups may not agree. On item 58 (We should conduct federally supported research), there was non—consensus between six groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a mean distribution for this item. Item 58 Group 6 7 8 2 '10 ’D 9 D.C. Means 1.50 2.1A 2.33 2.A0 2.60 2.83 3.09 3.33 Group 6 strongly to moderately agreed with this item. Groups 7, 8, and 2 moderately agreed. Group 10, and the deans moderately agreed or were not sure. Group 9 and the department chairmen were not sure. On item 68 (We should expand certain graduate pro— grams, such as Higher Education), non-consensus was found between six groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a distribution of means for this item. Item 68 Group D.C. 6 7 D 8 9 10 2 Means 1.37 1.67 2.13 2.17 2.65 2.67 2.7A 3.18 The department chairmen strongly agree with this item. Group 6 (Administration and Higher Education) strongly to moderately agrees. Yet the item makes direct reference to this group. Again, this might be eXplained by the fact that the Department is made up of three sub-groups. Group 7 and the deans moderately agree. Groups 8, 9, and 10 moderately agree or are not sure. Group 2 is not sure. 9A On item 71 (We must find ways to maintain smaller teaching sections at both undergraduate and graduate levels), non-consensus was found between six groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a distri- bution Of means for this item. Item 71 Group D.C. 8 9 2 D 10 7 6 Means 1.00 1.30 1.73 1.82 1.83 1.96 2fA3 2.67 The department chairmen and group 8 strongly agree with this item. We might hypothesize that since group 8 (Ele— mentary and Special Education) is the largest department in the College, they feel a stronger need to cut down the size of classes; hence, they strongly agree with the item. Groups 9, 2, the deans, and 10 strongly to moderately agree with the item. Group 7 moderately agrees; group 6 moderately agrees or is not sure. On item 72 (we should reduce teaching loads on in— structors by increasing faculty), non-consensus was found between the six groups, the deans, and the department chair- men. Here is a mean distribution for this item. Item 72 Group D.C. 8 D 9 2 10 6 7 Means 1.00 1.30 1.83 1.93 2.09 2.13 2.A3 2.65 Again, as in item 71, the department chairmen and group 8 strongly agree with this item. The deans and groups 9, 2, 10, and 6 moderately agree. Group 7 moderately agrees or is not sure. 95 On item 2—13 (we should cut down the number of methods courses and offer more subject matter courses), non-consensus was found between the six groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a mean distribution for this item. I Item 2-13 Group 9 7 6 10 D 2 8' D.C. Means 2.67 3.26 3.62 A.00 A.00 A.09 A.20 A.67 Group 9 moderately agrees or is not sure on this item. Group 7 is not sure; group 6 is not sure or moderately disagrees; group 10, the deans, group 2 and group 8 moder- ately disagree. The department chairmen moderately to strongly disagree. The department chairmen seem to picture the curriculum from a practical viewpoint. This conclusion is borne out by the fact that the department chairmen indi- cated disagreement with putting the College on a scientific basis. On item 2-18 (The College should be based on a be- havioral science foundation), non-censensus was found be- tween the five groups, the deans, and the department chairmen. Here is a mean distribution for this item. Item 2-18 Group D 6 7 8 9 2 D.C. Means 1.67 2.A8 2.57 2.60 3.20 3.36 3.67 The deans strongly agree with this item, but the depart- ment chairmen are not sure or moderately disagree. Group 96 6 moderately agrees. Groups 7 and 8 moderately agree or are not sure; groups 9 and 2 are not sure. Discussion of Hypothesis Number Two Taking all 16 items into account, we find that signifi— cant image differences exist between the six departmental sub-groups selected for study. These differences can be explained by the image theory of organizations. As the organization expands, and as the division of labor and specialization increase, there is a breakdown of the image between the various sub-groups within the organization. We have generally concluded, however, that no serious image breakdown has occurred within the departmental sub—groups of the College. The differences between the six departmental sub-groups and the deans and departmental chairmen may, however, have serious consequences. On item 2-18, for example, there is non-consensus about putting the College on a behavioral science foundation. In fact, the department chairmen are at Opposite ends of the continuum from the deans. The six sub-groups are "torn" between the two poles. Applying Sower's postulates and the image theory to this item, we conclude that the deans will not achieve this goal unless, of course, they change the images Of the other groups. Probably more important than the differances found on these 16 items is an analysis of statements 9, 10, 11, l2, 13, 1A, and 15. These statements are actual goal 97 statements of the College; they are goals toward which the deans Item 10. 11. 12. 13. 1A. 15. are striving.1 These statements are: Section I.--The following statements ARE goals of the College. Please agree, disagree, etc. A program of subject matter analysis. A program of educational evaluation and assessment. A program of cooperative service arrangements with local schools and other agencies. A program for the design, production, and testing of programmed materials and media for use in colleges and schools. A continuing effort to improve the effectiveness and quality of the College's undergraduate and graduate instructional programs. A broad—scale program of basic research in human learning and development. A program for translating basic research in human learning and development into proposed models for instructional and management systems. The following chart shows the mean distribution for the deans, department chairmen, and the six departmental sub- groups. Group D D.C. 2 6 7 8 9 10 Item 9. 1.50 2.67 2.36 2.A3 2.35 2.90 2.53 3.17 10. 1.00 1.67 1.73 1.95 2.0A 2.00 2.00 2.00 11. 1.33 2.00 1.A5 1.52 2.22 2.00 1.80 1.65 12. 1.17 3.67 2.33 1.00 2.38 2.65 3.00 2.33 13. 1.33 1.00 1.A5 1.29 1.52 1.25 1.A7 1.57 1A. 1.17 2.67 2.09 1.57 2.0A 2.05 1.80 2.09 15. 1.17 2.67 1.91 1.91 2.00 1.90 1.93 1.87 I ll III: . '1‘. l is l. l [1' I'll-Eli lull lllllllll {ll 98 We can see from the chart that the deans strongly agree with all the goal statements of the College (note exception in item 9 [1.50] strong to moderate agreement). The department chairmen strongly agree with only one item --l3; they moderately agree or are not sure on all the other items. The six sub—groups show varying degrees of consensus or non-consensus on the items. Despite the fact that the mean scores reported for each of these items are generally positive, that is, the mean scores do not fall below 3.00 on the rating scale, the data presented in the chart make it clear that there will be a low level of goal achievement on all the items. Applying Sower's postulates and the image theory, we conclude that if there is a lack of image consensus on the organizational goals, then the members of the organization either do not recognize the goals, or, if they do recognize them, they are not inter- ested in achieving them. We can also conclude that there is a breakdown in the internal socialization process, that is, the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the deans are not being transmitted to the departmental sub-groups. We can also conclude that the College is recruiting personnel who may have the "proper skills" for a position within the organization, but who lack the "proper attitude."2 l! ‘ I in it [ I'll Ill-I'll! il III-l“ I ll! Ill lull 99 Hypothesis Number Three.-— The image of the College of Education held by the four teaching ranks (instructor, assistant pro- fessor, associate professor, professor) will not vary significantly between ranks. HO = M1 = M2 = M3 = MA Hl # Ml # M2 # M3 # MA To test the null hypothesis, the total mean scores were computed for each of the four groups. A one—way analysis of variance and an F test were also computed. The F statistic was computed at the 0.50 level of signifi- cance. Therefore, we accept the null hypothesis, and we reject the alternate hypothesis. However, an individual item analysis revealed significant differences on eleven items. These items in- clude: One of the goals of the College should be: Item 21. To cooperate with behavioral scientists in research. 23. To have faculty members produce scholarly writing. 26. To promote the general security and economic security of the profession. 28. TO put education on a scientific basis. 30. To develop, evaluate, and disseminate innovation in education. A7. The Extern program of the Department of Administration is an important activity. 100 Item 56. We should conduct research in philosophy of education. 68. We should expand certain graduate programs, such as Higher Education. 2—10. Persons in teacher education or administration should be forced to spend one year out of five in elementary and secondary school classrooms and administration. 2-17. Most graduates of the College are not interested in the profession but only in how much money they are going to make. The differences between the four groups were distri- buted as shown in Figure 3 on the next page. Looking at Figure 3, we see that the greatest number of differences were found between group 1 (instructors), and group 2 (assistant professors), and group A (professors). Differences were found between group 1 and group A on items: 23, 28, A7, 56, 68, and 2-10 (see Table 29 at the end of the chapter). The instructors moderately agreed on items 23, A7, and 65. The professors strongly to moderately agreed on the same items. Item 23 is about the necessity of producing scholarly writing. We might hypothesize that a person who is beginning his academic career would not like to empha- size scholarly writing; an instructor is likely to emphasize teaching rather than research. On the other hand, the pro- fessor, who has already met promotional requirements, is no longer threatened by the requirement of scholarly writing. In short, the instructor may also be security conscious, 101 .mMcmn moanomop nzoo now mCOmanmoEoo Eolel.m onzmam nommomono u : ozone mnommooono oomaoomm< u m ozone mnommooono pcmpmamm< u m ozone mnOpoznpmcH n a ozone "ocomoa M M elm M M M M M M elm M mum M M M M M M :la M M mla M mla palm oalm we em em an em mm mm mm am mozone mEOpH 102 and, according to image theory, he may be threatened by a message which says he must do something in order to reach a higher rank. The instructors also moderately agreed or were not sure of item 68 (we should eXpand cer- tain graduate programs, such as Higher Education). The instructor's rank has some graduate students; they may think that the graduate school is already filled to capacity, or at least near capacity. The professors, on the other hand, strongly agreed with item 68. They may picture the graduate program as a source of rich teaching and research experiences. The assistant professors also differed from the professors on six items: 23, 26, 28, A7, 50, and 56 (see Table 30). The assistant professors were generally in moderate agreement on all six items, while the professors strongly to moderately agreed on the same items. Again, the professors strongly agreed that scholarly writing should be one of the goals of the College, while the assistant professors moderately agreed. The professors also strongly agreed that committee work (item 50) by individual faculty members on College and departmental programs and policies is important. The assistant pro- fessors moderately agreed. The assistant professors may not want to spend time on committee work, since this may take away time for other activities, such as teaching. In short, they may not see the value of committee work. 103 Discussion of Hypothesis Three We can generally conclude that teaching rank (in- structor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor) has no significant impact on the individual's image of the College. The differences that were found between the groups seem to be differences in aSpiration and job security. We also know that the instructors and assistant professors are usually a transient group, that is, they feel more flexibility in moving from one job to another. Therefore, there would not be any strong image consensus within these two groups. The professors, on the other hand, would feel a stronger commitment to the organization and would identify with its goals and ob- jectives. Hypothesis Number Four.-- The image of the College of Education held by tenured and non-tenured academic personnel will not vary significantly between the two groups. Hl ¢ Ml # M2 To test the null hypothesis, total mean scores were computed for the two groups. A one-way analysis of vari— ance and an F test were also computed. The F statistic was calculated at the 0.61 level of significance. Therefore, we accept the null Hypothesis (Ho) that there 10A is no significant image difference between the two groups, and we reject the alternate hypothesis (H1) that there are significant image differences between the groups. An individual item analysis revealed significant differences between the two groups on five items. These items are: The following statements should be goals of the College: Item 23. To have faculty members produce scholarly writing. 28. To put education on a scientific basis. 50. Committee work by individual faculty members on College and departmental programs and policies is important. 66. We should expand the program in comparative and international education. 2-A. We should cut back the number of our present pro- grams. On item 23 (One of the goals of the College should be to have faculty members produce scholarly writing), the tenured group (1) strongly agreed, while the non-tenured group (2) moderately agreed. This supports the conclusion reached on the same item for instructors, assistant pro- fessors, and professors. The tenured group also strongly agreed with item 50 (Committee work by individual faculty members on College and departmental programs and policies is important), while the non-tenured group moderately agreed. 105 Discussion of Hypothesis Four We can generally conclude that there is no signifi— cant image differences between the tenured and non—tenured academic personnel. The differences that do occur may be due to longevity and/or security consciousness. Hypothesis Number Five.-- The image of the College of Education held by the members of the College will not vary significantly from the image of the College held by school administrators in Ingham County, Michigan. Ho = M1 = M2 Hl # Ml # M2 To test the null hypothesis, total mean scores were computed for the two groups. A one-way analysis of vari- ance with unequal sub-groups and an F test were also com- puted. The F statistic was calculated at the 9:99 level of significance. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis, and we accept the alternate hypothesis; significant image differences do exist between the groups. An item analysis revealed significant image differ- ences on 30 items. These items include: Section I.-—The following statements ARE goals of the College. Item 9. A program of subject matter analysis. 10. A program of educational evaluation and assessment. 16. 21. 23. 2A. 27. 28. 29. 31. 33. 3A. 38. A0. A2. AA. A5. 51. 106 The following statements should be goals of the College. To prepare teachers for inner-city schools. To cooperate with behavioral scientists in research. To have faculty members produce scholarly writing. TO serve faculty members of other colleges and uni- versities both within and without the state. To work fOr unity among educators and to eradicate the threat Of unionization which promises to divide us. To put education on a scientific basis. To "weed out" or screen those going into the pro- fession and separate the "wheat from the chaff." To give prospective teachers a broad, general back- ground including: administration, higher education, special education, remedial education, music, arts, literature, etc. TO prepare and distribute educational materials to the schools in the state. To provide extension courses. To turn out practical-minded teachers who meet the school administrator's definition of what a good teacher should be. Section II.--Please indicate whether or not you think the following programs are important. The most important activity of the College is teach— ing undergraduates. Graduate education is our most important activity. Research is important but we place too much emphasis on it so instruction and service suffer. The most important undergraduate programs are the Opportunities for school visitations and participation in actual classroom situations. None of the programs of the College Of Education are worthwhile. Item 56. 62. 65. 70. 72. 73. 2-9. 107 We should conduct philosophy of education research. The Mott Institute for Community Improvement is an important activity. Section III.--The following programs and activities should be carried out by the College. This section also includes some problem statements. We should overhaul placement procedures and include a follow-up interview with school administrators and first jobbers. We should not have any new programs and should con- centrate on improving the programs we have. We should reduce teaching loads on instructors by increasing faculty. We should cut down the number of students admitted to both undergraduate and graduate programs. We need a well-organized, continuous in-service training program for faculty members in the College. Persons in teacher education or administration should be forced to spend one year out of five in elemen- tary and secondary school classrooms and administration. The College should explore the possibility of estab- lishing a small, experimental college of education. Research courses should be assigned to the School for Advanced Studies and taken away from departmental affiliations. We should give prospective teachers more experience in practical matters, such as how to handle disci— pline, how to interact with people, how to get along with co-workers, etc. Most graduates of the College are not interested in the profession but only in how much money they are going to make. A comparison of mean scores for these two groups is presented on the next page. 108 Mean Score Comparison: College of Education and School Administrators. College School Item Mean Administrator Mean 9 2.75 2.13 10 2.08 1.66 16 1.59 1.8A 21 1.60 1.90 23 1.91 3.32 2A 2.18 2.61 27 3.19 2.5A 28 2.25 2.66 29 2.12 1.75 31 2.27 1.66 33 2.70 1.8A 3A 2.0A 1.51 38 3.28 2.77 A0 2.90 2.A6 A2 3.16 3.72 AA 3.06 2.A9 A5 2.9A 2.36 51 A.80 A.52 56 1.89 2.21 62 2.22 1.93 65 2.17 1.5A 70 3.38 3.83 72 2.17 2.69 73 2.97 3.A9 2—9 1.97 1.69 2—10 3.56 2.21 2—11 2.73 2.36 2—12 3.72 2.70 2-1A 2.38 1.5A 2-17 3.98 3.6A F test significant 0.05 If we look at the 30 items which were found signifi— cantly different by the F test, we find that the items can be grouped into three areas: 109 1. Items which deal with general organizational goals: 9, 10, 21, 23, 28, 31, 33, A0, A2, AA, 56, 72, 73, 2-11, 2-12, and 2-1A. 2. Items which deal with specific programs: 16, 2A, 29, 3A, A5, 51, 62, 65, and 3. Items which deal with specific problems: 27, 2-9, 2-10, 2—17. In the first group(items which deal with general organ- izational goals), we see that the school administrators strongly to moderately agree with items 10, 21, 31, 33, and 2-1A, while the College group moderately agrees with the same items. Again, deSpite the fact that the grand mean scores for each Of these items are generally positive, that is, the mean scores do not fall below 3.00 on the rating scale, a prediction Of a low level of image consensus must be maintained, because the variance scores fround in Table 5 indicate non-consensus. On items 9, A0, AA, and 2—11 in the same group, the school administrators moderately agreed, while the College group moderately agreed or was not sure. On item 28 and 72, the school administrators moderately agreed or were not sure, while the College group moderately agreed. In the second group (items which deal with specific programs), the school administrators strongly to moder- ately agreed with items 16, 29, 3A, 62, and 65, while the College group moderately agreed with the same items. The 110 school administrators moderately agreed with item A5, but the College group was not sure. The school administrators were not sure or moderately disagreed with item 70, but the College group was not sure. In the third group (items which deal with specific problems), the school administrators moderately agreed with item 2—10 and moderately agreed or were not sure with item 27. The College group, on the other hand, moderately dis- agreed with item 2-10 and was not sure with item 27. The school administrators strongly to moderately agreed with item 2-9, but the College group moderately agreed. The school administrators were not sure or moderately disagreed with item 2-17, but the College group moderately disagreed. Discussion of Hypothesis Number Five Those items in group 1 (items which deal with general organizational goals) which were strongly or moderately favored by the school administrators, refer, in most cases, to Operational goals (practical goals). The school adminis— trators picture the College of Education as a "service" organization, that is, the College exists to meet the practical needs of the school system. The school adminis- trators moderately agreed with other items in this group which referred to general goals, such as, "A program of subject matter analysis," or "The most important activity of the College is teaching undergraduates." The school 111 administrators were not sure on broad goal statements, such as, "To put education on a scientific basis." We see here, then, an ordering Of the value image. School administrators picture the College: first as an organization which should meet their practical needs, than as an organization which should strive for some general goals, and then as an organization which should be concerned with the broad goals of the profession. The same pattern holds true for items in the second group (items which deal with specific programs). The administrators strongly to moderately agree that the College should prepare teachers for inner-city schools, that it should provide extension courses, that the Mott Institute is an important activity, and so forth. They moderately agreed that school visitation by prospective teachers is important. They moderately disagreed that the College should not have any new programs. Again, they view the College as an organization which should meet the needs of their school systems. Again, in the third group (items which deal with specific problems), the school administrators emphasize the practical items. They moderately agreed that per- sons in teacher education or administration should spend one year out of five in a school classroom or in school administration. They moderately agreed that one of the goals of the College should be to work for unity among educators and eradicate the threat of unionization. 112 The College group. on the other hand, only moder- ately agreed with the operational goals in group 1. In a few cases, however, they strongly to moderately agreed with specific, practical goals, such as, "To train teachers for inner-city schools." In general, they emphasize theoretical goals, that is, goals which do not deal with here-and-now practical situations. For example, they emphasized such things as cooperation with behavioral scientists, production Of scholarly writing, conducting philOSOphical research, and so forth. The College group did not, on the other hand, agree they should spend one out Of every five years in a school classroom or in school administration. And they only moderately agreed that they need a continuing, in-service training program. Therefore, we conclude that there is significant image differences between the College group and the school adminis- trators. Specifically, we conclude: 1. That the College Of Education is not projecting its image to the school administrators. 2. That the school administrators view the College of Education as a practical, "service" organ- ization; the function of the College is to meet the specific needs of the school systems. 3. That the College of Education views itself as a theoretically-oriented organization. A. That the College of Education may not be listening to what the school administrators are 113 saying; the College of Education may not be "reading" the needs of the times. In short, the College of Education is not relating to the schools. 11A Citations--Chapter A 1. See "How Do We Learn?" The Michigan State'University Alumni Magazine (East Lansing, December, 196A), n.p.; Also see John E. Ivey, Jr., "Program Directions for the College Of Education," a speech presegted at Michigan State University, December , 19 2. 2. W. Richard Scott, "Theory of Organizations," in Robert E. L. 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mN.H cm.m Hm.o mm.H mm.o Hm.H H=.H cc.m oo.o .oo.H :m.a 0:.N mm mo. omz.mm mm 00.0 cc.a om.o mm.H cc.a om.H oo.o cc.a m=.o mm.H oo.o cc.a 00.0 00. 00.0 cc.m mm mm.o HH:.HOH mm 00.0 00.0 mm.o cm.m H:.H cc.m cc.a om.H mH.H mm.N oo.o cc.m oo.o cc.a m: H cm.m am on.0 mmw.mm mm 00.0 00.0 om.o mm.m mm.o cc.m om.o mm.H no.0 mm.H H>.o om.H oo.o cc.a am 0 ca.a mm mo.o. =mm.>oa mm 00.0 cc.a om.o mm.a mw.H cm.m om.o mm.H 5m.o mw.H H>.o cm.m oo.o cc.a on.0 ca.a mm m©.o omm.am mm 00.0 cc.m oo.o cc.m oo.o 00.n oo.o cc.m ww.o Hw.z oo.o cc.m oo.o cc.m mm o oo.: Hm 121 TABLE 3.--Main summary table of the four teaching ranks of the College of Education, Michigan State UniVersity. Total 1 2 3 0 E a) g 8 so 8 SD M 00 M 50 8 so 0? x2 F 0 2.75 1.22 2.73 1.03 2.66 1.10 2.87 1.38 2.71 1.30 16 10.098 0.86 10 2.08 0.99 2.05 0.86 2.09 1.00 2.00 0.86 1.98 1.10 16 20.633 0.39 11 1.80 0.80 1.82 0.80 1.81 0.86 1.87 1.06 1.71 0.73 16 10.176 0.75 12 2.57 1.15 2.60 1.05 2.63 0.90 2.52 1.26 2.57 1.25 16 18.000 0.90 13 1.52 0.80 1.68 1.00 1.50 0.88 1.05 0. 2 1.06 0.91 12 18.007 0.09 10 2.00 1.13 2.18 1.05 2.38 1.31 1.81 1.19 1.80 0.98 16 22.017 0.11 15 1.93 0.95 2.10 0.77 2.03 1.03 1.80 0.97 1.82 0.97 16 16.901 0.59 16 1,60 0.60 1.55 0.51 1.59 0.71 1.70 0.51 1.50 0.69 12 20.900 0.08 17 1.60 0.82 1.50 0.67 1.63 0.71 1.90 1.16 1.05 0.69 16 16.321 0.13 18 1.00 0.73 1.59 0.73 1.59 0.87 1.26 0.00 1.38 0.73 12 17.921 0.18 19 1.03 0.70 1.50 0.80 1.56 0.76 1.39 0.62 1.30 0.60 12 11.933 0.58 20 0.06 0.9; 0.50 0.80 0.31 1.06 0.5 1.18 0.55 0.81 20 25.279 0.21 2 1.59 0.63 1.86 0.71 1.56 0.56 1.55 0.57 1.06 0.57 12 03.153 0.01 2" 2.30 1 00 2.09 0.92 2.38 0.87 2.58 1.12 2.27 0.96 16 23.572 0.01 93 1.91 0.93 2.05 1.10 2.16 0.99 1.80 0.93 1.61 0.68 16 19.687 0.00. 20 2.17 0.91 2.23 0.87 2.28 0.96 2. 2 0.98 1.98 0. 2 16 13.599 0.28 25 1.99 0.80 2.09 0.87 2.16 0.88 1.87 0.72 1.89 0.82 12 16.722 0.38 26 2.38 1.08 2.10 0.90 2.63 1.13 2.81 1.17 2.10 0.98 16 16.530 0.01 27 3.20 1.50 3.00 1.08 3.5 1.00 1 3.19 1.33 3.10 1.60 20 30.728 0.51 28 2.23 1.07 2.68 1.2) 2.56 1.08 2.10 1.11 1.95 0.86 16 21.813 0.00 29 2.15 1.00 2.05 0.90 2.31 1.06 2.39 1.12 1.96 0.87 16 16.818 0.16 30 1.08 0.61 1.55 0.51 1.59 0.56 1.52 0.77 1.30 0.08 12 07.991 0.00 31 2.: 1.10 2.23 1.23 2.25 0.98 2.23 1.12 2 36 1.23 16 7.920 0.86 32 2.05 1.01 2.32 1.00 2.56 1.05 2. 2 0.98 2.50 0.95 20 29.900 0.73 33 2.69 1.16 2.01 1.10 2.69 1.23 2.90 1.00 2.70 1.22 16 12.755 0.63 30 2.06 0.91 1.86 0.89 2.25 1.19 2. 2 1.08 1.91 0.77 16 17.208 0.11 35 3.08 1.1; 3.36 1.05 3.01 1.16 3.90 0.98 3.32 1.18 16 13.781 0.25 36 1.98 v.8r 2.00 0.93 1.97 0.78 2.03 0.75 1 93 0.95 16 13.875 0.92 37 3.15 1.19 3.09 1.23 2.97 1.28 3.19 1.17 3 25 1.16 16 8.397 0.92 38 3.29 1.29 3.18 1.22 3.28 1.30 3.39 1.08 3 29 1.25 20 11.568 0.93 39 0.60 0.80 0. 2 0.39 0.59 1.95 0.29 1.22 0 70 0.60 20 20.613 0 20 00 2.93 1.36 2.50 0.30 2.88 1.39 2.80 1.30 3 2 1.35 16 15.631 0.39 01 2.07 1.38 2.55 1.00 2.59 1.06 2.29 1.16 2.06 1.06 16 10.821 0.93 02 3.17 1.2 3.60 0.95 3.30 1.26 3.13 0.09 2.89 1.3“ 20 21.302 0.13 03 3.77 1.2 0.18 0.96 3.80 1.10 3.71 1.07 3.59 1.39 20 16.055 0.05 00 3.10 1.37 3.18 1.26 2.63 1.36 3.23 1.23 3.25 1.00 16 16.207 0.37 05 2.96 1.13 2.05 1.01 2.91 1.0b 3.35 1.11 2.96 1.17 20 22.187 0.13 06 2.62 1.15 2.37 1.18 2.59 1.21 2.87 0.99 2.61 1.20 20 15.807 0.53 07 2.03 0.81 2.32 0.72 2.16 0.81 2.13 0.81 1.79 0.80 12 15.759 0.03 08 1.92 0.83 1.86 0.89 2.00 0.80 1.90 0.83 1.89 0.82 12 7.376 0.9“ 09 2.19 0.83 2.09 1.02 2.28 0.8! 2.13 0.85 2 2 0.75 16 18.172 0.89 50 1.90 0.75 1.98 0.95 2.13 0.79 1.90 0.73 1.71 0.62 16 17.228 0.00 51 0.83 0.60 0.73 0.70 0.80 0.'2 0.87 0.50 0.86 0.62 16 32.978 0.60 52 1.75 1.00 2.05 1.09 1.88 0.91 1.65 1.02 1.63 1.10 20 19.021 0.07 53 1.85 0.9? 1.91 0.97 1.97 1.00 1.97 1.02 1.68 0.96 20 12.250 0.50 50 2.29 1.17 2.27 1.03 2.00 1.11 2.35 1.17 2.18 1.29 P 16.110 0.82 55 1.00 0.68 1.60 1.00 1.56 0.76 1.35 0.55 1.23 0.50 20 19.219 0.07 56 1.90 0.89 2.10 1.00 2.03 0.70 2.00 1.03 1 63 0.75 20 30.052 0.02 57 1.08 0.81 1.59 1.10 1.56 0.76 1.61 1. 2 1 30 0.50 20 10.500 0.21 58 2.10 1.09 2.27 1.20 2.25 0.98 1.80 0.97 2 18 1 16 20 10 500 0.53 59 1.90 0.93 2.00 1.02 2.16 0.88 1.90 0.77 1 80 1 00 2 15.087 0.05 60 2.12 0.95 2.18 1.05 2.19 0.86 2.13 0.88 2 05 1.02 20 11.089 0.93 61 1.99 0.93 2.05 0.95 2.13 0.91 2.10 0.83 1 80 0.98 16 18.802 0.15 62 2.20 1.00 2.00 0.93 2.31 1.00 2.02 0.89 2 18 1 10 20 18.570 0.63 63 1.93 1.03 1.50 0.60 2.06 1.11 1.87 0.81 2 05 1 18 20 21,628 0.30 60 1.96 0.98 1.05 0.70 2.13 0.68 2.06 0.93 2 00 1.06 20 20.396 0.15 . 65 2.17 1.02 2.18 1.10 2.28 0.89 2.13 1.09 2 .1 1 00 20 28.209 0.69 66 2.62 0.97 3.00 0.87 2.75 0.92 2.55 0.93 2 03 1.00 16 20.617 0.22 67 2.72 1.15 2.68 1.29 2.38 0.90 2.71 1.22 2 93 1 17 16 22.601 0.02 68 2.03 1.01 2.86 0.99 2.03 0.88 2.52 0.93 2 10 1 09 16 20.161 0.05 69 2.71 0.99 2.91 1.06 2.91 1.03 2.65 0.91 2.55 0.99 20 22.571 0.03 70 3.01 1.30 3.36 1.07 3.56 1.27 3.16 1.39 3.08 1.33 20 18.090 0.81 71 2.09 1.09 1.55 0.70 2.09 1.09 2.03 1.05 2.32 1.19 16 10.205 0.17 72 2.12 1.03 2.09 1.11 1.90 1.01 2.10 1 01 2.30 1.03 16 20 795 0.38 73 2.95 1.25 2.82 1.00 3.00 1.16 2.81 1.28 3.05 1.26 16 10.876 0.90 2-0 3.56 1.06 2.68 0.99 3.63 .18 3.65 0.80 3.05 1.16 2 20.565 0.72 2-5 3.80 1.29 3.32 1.39 3.81 1.35 0.03 1.8? 3.98 1.23 20 25.799 0.18 2-7 2.71 1.00 2.86 1.00 2.75 1.02 2.05 0.99 2.75 1.10 16 16.800 0.61 2-8 1080 OIBB 1082 0096 1I75 0e76 G 1077 1'18 . 1e80 0.72 20 161513 0.81 2-10 3.55 1.21 2.82 1.37 3.63 1.07 3.60 1.25 3.75 1.15 16 20.612 0.00 2-13 3.58 1.20 3.77 1.27 3.75 1.10 3.03 1.03 3.71 1.02 20 28.9 2 0.07 2-10 2.38 1.16 2.18 1.10 2.00 1.22 2.55 1.09 2.32 1.21 20 20.857 0.75 2-16 2.85 1.08 2.86 1.08 2.80 1.02 2.65 0.95 2.95 1.20 16 10.800 0.87 2-1 3.97 0.95 3.91 0.9 0.16 0.92 3.52 1.03 0.10 0. 16 17.6 5 0.03 2-1 2.70 1.09 2.86 1.0 2.72 0.92 2.65 1.20 2.75 1.15 16 10.9 7 0.97 2-19 2.68 1.27 2.77 1.27 2.56 1.19 2.77 1.26 2.60 1.37 16 13.717 0.92 Legend: I I neon; SD I Stenderd Deviotxon;-Gr I Degreee of Freedom; x2 I Chi-equere; P tee: I o 0.05. Group 1 I Inecruotor; Group 2 I Aeoletent Proreeeor; Group 3 I Aeeooiete Proteeeor; Group I I Proteeeor. 122 TABLE 0.-—Main summary table for tenured and non-tenured academic personnel of the College of Education, Michigan - State University. E Total 1 2 0 3 8 so i so i so or x2 F 9 2.75 1.22 2.80 1.32 2 69 1.03 8 10.150 0.69 10 2.08 0.99 2.02 1.02 2.20 0.96 8 5.003 0.51 11 1.80 0.80 1.70 0.76 1.92 0.98 8 6.578 0.38 12 2.57 1.15 2.60 1.25 2.05 0.97 8 7.756 0.70 13 1.52 0.89 1.00 0.83 1.63 0.90 6 5.790 0.36 10 2.00 1.13 1.80 1.05 2.20 1.18 8 10.159 0.70 15 1.93 0.95 1.81 0.92 2 12 0.97 8 9.500 0.16 16 1.60 0.60 1.60 0.63 1 57 0.57 6 23.063 0.12 17 1.59 0.82 1.55 0.83 1.69 0.80 8 5.720 0.57 18 1.00 0.73 1.03 0.77 1.07 0.67 6 5.655 0.88 19 1.03 0.70 1.3' 0.66 1.57 0.76 6 5.663 0.22 20 0.06 0.97 0.58 0.79 0.25 1.20 10 12.389 0.11 2 1.59 0.63 1.55 0.58 1.67 0.71 6 5.111 0.60 22 2.30 1.00 2.36 1.01 2.33 1.01 8 6.977 0.83 23 1.91 0.93 1.76 0.83 2.18 1.05 8 8.581 0.03 20 2.17 0.91 2.10 0.89 2.29 0.90 8 6.956 0.52 2. 1.99 0.80 1.90 0.78 2.10 0.92 6 0.200 0.19 26 2.36 1.08 2.29' 1.07 2.55 1.12 8 0.021 0.37 27 3.20 1.50 3.18 1.52 3.31 1.08 10 9.708 0.30 28 2.23 1.07 2.02 1.00 2.55 1.06 8 20.680 0.01 29 2.15 1.00 2.12 1.05 2.22 0.90 8 0.601 0.82 30 1.08 0.61 1.00 0.60 1.57 0.60 6 2.150 0.50 31 2.27 1.10 2.29 1.10 2 25 1.13 8 0.100 0.89 32 2.05 1.00 2.51 0.92 2.37 1.11 10 30.981 0.72 33 2.69 1.16 2.70 1.20 2.63 1.08 8 6.208 0.67 30 2.06 0.97 2.06 0.93 2.06 1.07 8 5.852 0.87 35 3.08 1.13 3.02 1.12 3.53 1.16 8 8.629 0.00 36 1.98 0.86 1.93 0.86 2.06 0.86 8 0.835 0.76 37 3.15 1.19 3.27 1.15 2.92 1.21 8 8.380 0.27 38 3.29 1.29 3.36 1.25 3.20 1.39 10 10.560 0.83 39 0.60 0.80 0.56 0.87 0.67 0.82 10 6.610 0.70 00 2.93 1.36 3.01 1.00 2.76 1.29 8 8.127 0.56 01 2.07 1.38 2.00 1 37 2.59 1.00 8 5.110 0.28 02 3.17 1.21 3.07 1 25 3.33 1.10 10 8.963 0.00 03 3.77 1.21 3.70 1.2 3.96 1.06 10 12.181 0.10 00 3.10 1.37 3.09 1 02 3.10 1.31 8 0.930 0.81 05 2.96 1.12 3.10 1.10 2.73 1.08 10 15.565 0.26 06 2.62 1.15 2.79 1.15 2.33 1.09 10 11.625 0.09 07 2.03 0.81 1.93 0.79 2.20 0.83 6 8.230 0.11 08 1.92 0.83 1.90 0.80 1.92 0.87 6 5.333 0.62 09 2.19 0.83 2.2 0.80 2.08 0.82 8 5.930 0.58 50 1.90 0.75 1.80 0.72 2.06 0.76 8 50.336 0.02 51 0.83 0.60 0.88 0.50 0.73 0.80 8 3.238 0.68 52 1.75 1.00 1.69 1.09 1:80 0.97 10 .17.312 0.62 53 1.85 0.97 1.79 0.99 1.90 0.95 10 7.309 0.60 50 2.29 1.17 2.26 1.25 2.33 1.07 10 10.233 0.90 55 1.00 0.60 1.30 0.62 1.53 0.78 10 7.007 0.10 56 1.90 0.89 1.81 0.88 2.08 0.93 10 0.601 0.23 57 1.08 0.81 1.38 0.72 1.67 0.93 10 26.285 0 09 58 2.10 1.09 2.10 1.08 2.20 1.11 10 10.309 0 53 59 1.90 0.93 1.90 0.92 1.96 0.90 10 12.257 0 11 60 2.12 0.95 2.02 0.93 2.20 0.97 10 9.652 0.10 61 1.99 0.93 1.97 0.91 2.00 0.90 8 10.363 0.01 62 2.20 1.00 2.29 1.01 2.18 0.99 10 .101 0.82 63 1.93 _1.03 2.02 1.06 1.78 0.97 10 10.225 0.02 6“ 1096 ' 0098 2.08 100“ 1078 0088 10 10e5u3 001“ 65 2.17 1.02 2.10 1.07 2.29 0.97 10 11.685 0.03 66 2.62 0.97 2.08 0.99 2.80 0.85 16.799 0 00 67 2.72 1.15 2.72 1.20 2.69 1.10 8 8.067 0 60 68 _ 2.03 1.01 2.29 1.02 2.69 0.97 8 10.327 0.08 69 2.71 0.99 2.56 1.00 2.96 0.90 10 11.755 0.07 70 3.01 1.30 3.09 1.32 3.31 1.36 10 7.780 0.32 71 2.09 1.09 2.19 1.09 8 1.03 10.518 0.26 72 2.17 1.03 2.18 1.01 2.20 1.10 8 5.833 0.37 73 2.95 1.25 3.02 1.22 2.86 1.25 8 8.698 0.50 2-0 3.56 1.06 3.61 1.07 3.61 0.92 10 39.077 0.00 2-5 3.80 1.29 3.99 1.23' 3.61 1.39 10 13.855 0.17 2-6 2033 1e20 2033 1029 2031 1005 8. e259 0087 2-7 2.71 1.00 2.63 1.05 2.82 1.03 8 6.706 0.67 2-8 1.80 0.88 1.82 0.85 1.76 0.95 10 5.203 0.96 2-9 1099 0090 2009- 0091 1e82 0089 8 5' 96 0026 2-10 3.55 1.21 3.71 1.15 3.31 1.30‘ 8 6.968 0.13 2-11 2.72 1.28 2.70 1.27 2.65 1.28 8 6.167 0.56 2-12 3071 1019 3'75 1025 3e67 1009 8 90 96 Oe53 2-13 3058 1e20 3.5“ 1023 3e65 1.18 10 he 18 0093 2'1“ 2:38 1016 2036 1019 20u3 1012 10 50239 0089 2-15 3e01 1e12 3007 1010 2088 1019 8 80696 0058 2-16 2.85 1.08' 2.87 1.11 2.80 1.05 8 6.002 0.73 2-1 3.97 0.95 3.98 0.95 0.00 0.90 8 5.500 0.50 2-1 207“ 1e09 2081 lel? 2067. 0095 8 110615 0.3“ 2-19 2.68 1.27 2.69 1.28 2.71 1.29 8 8.00 0.60 Legend: Hé- Mean; SD-Standard Deviation; D? 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N:.H mm. om.H mm. mm.H mm. 0:.H mm.o o=.H mm sN.o mHo.oH mH No. om.H 0H.H oo.N os. 0N.N oo.H NN.N Ho.H mo.N sH.H oN.N cm mono www.0H NH os. o:.H ms. os.H Nm. oo.N sm. ms.H ms. ms.H so.o mm.H mm mo.o amm.NH o os. ow.H mm. sm.H Na. om.H so. NN.N om. ws.H no.H ms.H Nm oo.o on.wH mH mm.H oo.: mm. :o.: oz.H oo.: mm.H mm.= mH.H oo.: no.0 mm.a Hm 125 TABLE 7.--Item comparison: Groups 1 & 3. Item Group 1 Group 3 t-test 10 1.00 2.67 2.803 12 1.17 3.57 3.998 47 1.00 2.U3 2.019 53 0.67 1.86 2.AOH 56 0.83 1.86 2.337 2-16 3.83 2.72 2.1U3 t-test significant at 2.015. TABLE 8.--Item comparison: Groups 1 & A. Item Group 1 Group H t-test 10 1.00 2.15 3.466 12 1.17 2.59 6.uu2 28 1.33 2.28 3.706 50 1.13 2.01 2.752 53 0.67 1.8“ 4.689 56 0.83 1.97 3.286 1—16 3.83 2.72 2.466 t-test significant at 2.015. 126 TABLE 9.--Item comparison: Groups 1 & 5. Item Group l Group 5 t-test 10 1.00 1.89 2.258 12 1.17 2.37 3.993 28 1.33 2.32 3.066 53 0.67 1.95 4.317 56 0.83 1.74 2.466 t-test significant at 2.015 TABLE lO.-—Item Comparison: Groups 2 & 3. Item Group 2 Group 3 t-test 71 1.00 2.79 2.054 2-4 1.67 3.71 2.436 t—test significant at 2.015 TABLE ll.--Item Comparison: Groups 2 & 4. Item Group 2 Group 4 t-test 46 1.33 2.78 3.413 68 1.33 2.56 2.930 2—4 1.67 3.42 2.392 t-test significant at 2.015 127 TABLE 12.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 5. Item Group 2 Group 5 t-test 46 1.33 2.42 2.327 71 1.00 2.79 2.397 t-test significant at 2.015. TABLE l3.--Item comparison: Groups 3 & 4. Item Group 3 Group 4 t-test 46 2.00 2.78 2.212 50 1.43 2.01 2.500 t-test significant at 2.015 TABLE l4.—-Item comparison: Groups 4 & 5. Item Group 4 Group 5 t-test 68 2.56 1.84 2.956 71 1.98 2.79 2.801 72 2.08 2.84 3.246 t-test significant at 2.015. 128 TABLE 15.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 6. Item Group 2 Group 6 I t—test 8 1.82 1.19 2.485 23 2.55 1.62 2.885 44 2.47 3.50 1.994 45 2.60 4.00 2.340 47 2.60 2.50 3.262 58 2.40 1.50 2.621 68 3.18 1.67 4.140 71 1.82 2.67 1.723 2-18 3.36 2.48 2.052 t-test significant at 1.684—1.658. TABLE 16.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 7. Item Group 2 Group 7 t-test 18 1.82 1.30 1.809 23 2.55 1.61 2.923 34 1.73 2.74 2.860 44 2.47 3.10 3.234 46 2.87 2.62 2.030 58 2.40 2.14 2.813 68 3.18 2.13 2.897 2-13 4.09 3.26 1.653 2-14 3.00 2.30 1.536 2-18 3.36 2.57 1.849 t-test significant between 1684-1658. 129 TABLE 17.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 8. Item Group 2 Group 8 t-test 8 1.82 1.35 1.790 34 1.73 2.20 1.707 35 3.64 3.90 2.794 47 2.60 1.33 3.568 72 2.09 1.30 1.831 2-18 3.36 2.60 1.747 t-test significant at 1684-1658 TABLE l8.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 9. Item ' Group 2 Group 9 t-test 19 1.45 2.07 1.765 45 2.60 3.36 1.787 47 2.60 2.00 2.137 72 2.09 1.93 2.637 2-13 4.09 2.67 2.816 t-test significant at 1684-1658. TABLE 19.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 10. Item Group 2 Group 10 t-test 23 2.55 1.91 1.923 46 2.87 3.00 2.285 58 2.40 2.60 1.869 t-test significant at 1684-1658. 130 TABLE 20.--Item comparison: Groups 6 & 7. Item Group 6 Group 7 t-test 34 1.81 2.74 2.620 35 3.05 3.83 2.350 45 4.00 2.96 2.475 46 3.50 2.62 3.199 47 2.50 2.03 2.996 68 1.67 2.13 1.779 t-test significant at 1.684—1.658. TABLE 21.--Item comparison: Groups 6 & 8. Item Group 6 Group 8 t—test 35 3.05 3.90 2.201 45 4.00 4.33 3.368 47 2.50 1.33 5.313 68 1.67 2.65 3.411 71 2.67 1.30 2.243 72 2.43 1.30 4.266 2—13 3.62 4.20 1.827 t-test significant at l.684-1.658. TABLE 22.--Item comparison: 131 Groups 6 & 9. Item Group 6 Group 9 t-test 18 1.19 2.07 2.863 19 1.38 2.07 2.322 23 1.62 2.47 2.287 46 3.50 2.18 2.986 47 2.50 2.00 5.869 59 1.71 2.53 2.894 68 1.67 2.67 2.939 2—13 3.62 2.67. 2.482 2—14 2.48 1.80 2.262 2-18 2.48 3.20 2.269 t-test significant at 1.684-1.658. TABLE 23.—~Item comparison: Groups 6 & 10. Item Group 6 Group 10 t-test 9 2.43 3.17 2.111 18 1.19 1.52 1.730 29 1.90 2.57 2.110 35 3.05 3.78 2.171 45 4.00 3.00 2.356 46 3.50 3.00 3.431 47 2.50 1.80 5.521 68 1.67 2.74 4.274 t-test significant at l.684—1.658. 132 TABLE 24.--Item comparison: Groups 7 & 8. Item Group 7 Group 8 t—test 46 2.62 1.67 1.892 71 2.43 1.30 3.905 72 2.65 1.30 5.464 2-13 3.26 4.20 2.813 t-test significant at l.684-l.658. TABLE 25.--Item comparison: Groups 7 & 9. Item Group 7 Group 9 t-test 18 1.30 2.07 2.297 19 1.39 2.07 2.075 23 1.61 2.47 2.366 35 3.83 3.00 2.611 44 3.10 2.27 2.262 47 1.86 2.60 2.851 59 1.83 2.53 2.974 72 2.65 1.93 2.055 t-test significant at 1.684—1.658. 133 TABLE 26.--Item comparison: Groups 7 & 10. Item Group 7 Group 10 t-test 9 2.35 3.17 2.467 34 2.74 1.83 2.649 44 3.10 4.40 2.070 68 2.13 2.74 2.483 2-13 3.26 4.00 2.256 t-test significant at 1.684-l.658. TABLE 27.-—Item comparison: Groups 8 & 9. Item Group 8 Group 9 t-test 18 1.35 2.07 2.287 19 1.25 2.07 2.796 35 3.90 3.00 2.415 44 3.67 2.27 1.961 45 4.33 3.36 2.729 58 2.33 3.09 1.720 59 2.10 2.53 1.725 71 1.30 1.73 1.715 72 1.30 1.93 1.958 2-13 4.20 2.67 3.909 t-test significant at 1.684-1.658. 134 TABLE 28.--Item comparison: Groups 8 & 10. Item Group 8 Group 10 t-test 29 1.95 2.57 2.266 46 1.67 3.00 2.198 58 2.33 2.60 2.511 71 1.30 1.96 2.441 72 1.30 2.13 3.392 t-test significant at 1.684—l.658. TABLE 29.--Item comparison: Groups 1 & 4. Item Group 1 Group 4 t-test 23 2.45 1.61 3.308 28 2.68 1.95 2.414 47 2.31 1.79 2.935 56 2.14 1.63 2.185 68 2.86 2.14 2.798 2-10 2.82 3.75 2.731 t-test significant at 2.132. 135 TABLE 30.--Item comparison: Groups 2 & 4. Item Group 2 Group 4 t-test 23 2.16 1.61 2.749 26 2.63 2.14 2.147 28 2.56 1.95 2.409 47 2.16 1.79 2.223 50 1.95 1.71 2.769 56 2.14 1.63 2.514 t—test significant at 2.132. CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study is an attempt to do two things: (1) to define the concept of image, and (2) to translate that concept into elements that can be used for organ- izational analysis. Specifically, this study applies an image measuring device to the analysis of a specific organization-Jthe College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. The image theory used here was largely based on the work of Kenneth Boulding; supplementary theories and con- cepts were taken from the works of Walter Lippmann, John Riley, Lee H. Bristol, Daniel Boorstin, and others. An image was defined as an alterable state of subjective knowledge which governs behavior. Man, according to this theory, views the world in terms of images; he judges others and is judged himself on the basis of images. Man does not react with reality; he reacts with his subjective knowledge of reality. This subjective knowledge--this image--has ten dimensions. These dimensions include: -—The Spatial Image, —-The Temporal Image, --The Relational Image, 136 137 --The Personal Image, --The Value Image, —-The Affectional Image, —-The Conscious, Unconsious, or Sub-conscious Image, --The Certainty—Uncertainty and Reality-Unreality Image, and --The Public Image. The image concept is also found on various organ- izational levels. On the basic level--the level of in- animate objects--the image exists in a rudimentary form. At a higher organizational level--the level of human be- ings--the image is complex, and it is of overwhelming importance in the interpretation of human behavior. Simply stated, the image is the sum of what we think we know; it makes us act the way we do. Further, the image concept is not confined to indi- viduals. Families, communities, groups, and organizations of all kinds, and even whole societies may be said to have images. Organizations, for example, may be thought of as simply an image in the minds of men. An organization is the sum total of the images held by its members--adminis- trators, employees, and relevant publics. Each individual within the organization perceives the organization with certain behavior expectations, that is, his behavior toward the organization depends upon his perception of the organ- ization. This theory of organizational images suggests the possibility of analyzing organizations in terms of the images held by its members. Such an analysis is helpful for several reasons: 138 --If we understand the individual's image of the organization, we may, within limits, predict his behavior toward the organization. --An understanding of the organization's image will give us clues to the organization's internal structure and Operations. --The organizational image allows us to look at the detailed characteristics which make up the organ- ization's goals and objectives. -—The more facets of an image we are aware of, the better we are able to modify the image in a direction that is likely to be constructive. However, the image researcher is faced with many problems. When he turns to behavioral science for theo- retical direction, he discovers organizational theories which do not lend themselves to image research. Classical organizational theory views organizations on the basis of a priori principles which, it turns out, cannot explain specific organizational operations. Further, the trend in organizational literature has been to assume that research findings are transferable, that is, results from study of one organization are applicable to any organization. How- ever, there is little evidence available to determine the extent to which generalization is possible, either to other organizations performing the same functions or to other types of organizations. Therefore, the need is to 139 forge a closer link between theoretical concepts and analysis of specific organizations. The image researcher also faces another problem. His knowledge of the image indicates that images have component parts or multiple dimensions. Therefore, his major task is to develOp methods of inquiry which will permit a detailing of these component parts. The work of Christopher Sower answers the problems of image research. Sower's theory of organizations is a synthesis of many key theoretical positions found in organizational literature. This synthesis is capable of lending itself to image research. Sower's model for organ- izational analysis is used to identify, abstract, and ex- plain three limiting factors of internal organization that relate to the extent of goal achievement for a specific organization. These limiting factors are called the inter- vening variables or elements of the organization. Sower's model for organizational analysis is a consensus model which systematically accounts for various perceptions of the organization under analysis. By itself, however, Sower's model cannot be used for organizational analysis; it is only a theoretical framework. The work of Robert Anderson makes it possible to apply Sower's theories to individual organizational analysis. Anderson developed an instrument--a tool-~for measuring the intervening variables in Sower's model. 140 This instrument is composed of two parts: --An Open-Ended Questionnaire: This relatively unstructured device allows the organizational members to identify and select elements of their organization which they perceive as being important to that organization. -—Rating Scale Device: This device is made up of the elements (items) selected by the organ- izational members. The Rating Scale device forces a scaled measurement of these elements. This allows the image researcher to calculate the results of this measurement on the basis of variation or consensus about those specific elements. The College of Education Study To apply the theories presented in this study, an adaptation of Anderson's instrument was tested on the College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. The sample population was defined as: —-all members of the College, and --school administrators in Ingham County, Michigan. Both these populations received mailed copies of the Open- Ended Questionnaire and the Rating Scale device. For purposes of analysis, the College population was divided into the following sub—groups: --five major sub-groups (deans, department chairmen, institute directors, full-time faculty, and part- time faculty), —-seventeen departmental sub-groups, -—four teaching rank sub-groups (instructors, assistant professors, associate professors, and professors), --tenured and non-tenured academic sub-groups. 141 The school administrator population, composed of superin- tendents, high school, elementary school, and junior high school principals was treated as a single group. The hypotheses tested in this study may be generally stated as: The image of the College of Education held by the various internal sub-groups was not expected to vary significantly between the various groups; and, the image of the College of Education held by members of the College was not eXpected to vary significantly from the image of the College held by the school administrators. ‘Study Findings The five general findings of this study are: 1. No significant image differences exist between the five major internal-sub-groups (deans, department chairmen, institute directors, full-time faculty, and part—time faculty). However, significant differences were found on 16 items. The most serious differences were found on goal state- ments and objectives of the College. 2. No significant image differences were found between the 17 departmental sub-groups within the College. For purposes of this study, six of the 17 depart- ments were chosen for specific analysis. The images held by these departments were also com- pared with the images held by the deans and de- partment chairmen. The most serious differences 142 between these groups were found on those items which dealt with the goals and objectives of the College, viz., items 9 through 15. No significant image differences were found between the four teaching ranks within the College (instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor). No significant image differences were found between tenured and non-tenured academic per- sonnel. Significant image differences were found between members of the College and school administrators. These differences were found on 30 items. These items were classified into three areas: --Items which dealt with general organizational goals, --Items which dealt with specific problems, and --Items which dealt with specific programs. Conclusions If we apply the image theory and Sower's postulates to the findings of this study, we can conclude the follow- ing: Within the College of Education there are some serious differences between the images held by the deans, department chairmen, institute directors, full-time faculty, and part-time 143 faculty. These differences are generally found on specific goal statements or in program areas. We conclude that the College will not achieve these goals, viz., a program of educational evaluation and assessment, and a program for the design, production, and testing of programmed materials and media for use in colleges and schools. The College will also have difficulty achieving two of its research goals, viz., sub- ject matter and philosophical research. The six departmental sub-groups selected for study had significant differences between departments on 16 items. More important, when the six groups were compared with the deans and department chairmen, significant differences were found on all seven goal statements. These differences lead us to conclude that the departmental sub-groups are not relating or identifying with the total organizational structure, that is, departmental specialization and proliferation within the organ- ization has caused an image breakdown. We also conclude that there is a breakdown in the internal socialization process; the deans are not projecting or communicating their values, beliefs, and atti— tudes to the departmental sub-groups. Finally, we conclude that the College is recruiting 144 personnel who may have the "proper skills" for a position within the organization, but who lack the "proper attitude" or commitment to the organizational goals. Image differences between the four teaching ranks and image differences between the tenured and non-tenured academic personnel may be due to individual aspirations, security needs, and longevity with the organization. In this con- nection, we conclude that full professors have a stronger commitment to the organizational goals and more loyalty to the organization than either instructors or assistant professors. The professor's image of the College is in line with the image held by the administrators. The significant differences between members of the College and school administrators lead us to conclude: --That the College of Education is not projecting its image to the school administrators; there is a possible communication breakdown between the two groups. -—That the school administrators picture the College as a practical, service organization; the function of the College is to meet the specific needs of the school systems. --That the members of the College view the College as a theoretical, broadly based organization. 145 --That the College may not be listening to what the school administrators are saying; the College may not be "reading" the needs of the times. In short, the College does not seem to be relating to the school districts in any direct, unified manner. Practical Implications There are both general and specific implications of the image theory and of the instrument used for measuring an organizational image. Generally: --Image research is valuable as a clue to the internal structure and operations of an organization. --If we are able to identify the facets of the image within a particular organization, then we are better able to modify the image in a direction that is likely to be constructive. Specifically: --The small college administrator, especially the public relations director, may use image theory and the methodology presented here as a quick, easy, and economical measure of the college's image with various publics. --Image research may be used as an evaluation technique to measure the results of a specific program, or it may be used for getting feedback on the total public relations program. —-Image research allows the administrator to focus on a specific issue or to measure the impact of a specific program on one, two, three, or more publics. ——Image research is an excellent way of allowing subordinates to participate in the organizational decision-making process. 146 Suggestions for'Further Research The possibilities that image research holds for analyzing all facets of human endeavor lead us to con- clude that: -—more work needs to be done on developing theoretical frameworks for image research, and —-more image studies should be conducted to test the image theory in various organizational settings, with different populations, and even between different cultures. APPENDICES 147 APPENDIX A Cover Letter of Open-Ended Question- naire Sent to All Faculty Members Cover Letter of Open-Ended Question- naire Sent to School Administrators Open-Ended Questionnaire 148 149 TO: All Faculty Members in the College of Education FROM: Ferris F. Anthony, Ph.D. Candidate, College of Education Dear Sirs: This is a request for your time, but I think it will be time well spent. Enclosed are four questions. Your responses to these questions should be unsigned. Compilation of results will be turned over to all staff members in the College for use in shaping future program development. For this reason I am asking you to write down your personal Opinions and evaluations of the entire scope of activities engaged in by the College of Education. I would like to leave the door of suggestion wide open. The important thing is that you express your opinion of what the College should be doing. Please return the completed questionnaire to me in 504 Erickson. You can use the enclosed address label and the envelope in which you received your questionnaire. Please take a few minutes right now and answer the questions. It will help us to gain a better understanding of the College. Thank you for your time. Sincerely, Ferris F. Anthony Approved by John E. Ivey, Jr., Dean 150 Ferris F. Anthony 504 Erickson Hall East Lansing, Michigan Dear Sir: I am conducting a study for the College of Education, Michigan State University, in an attempt to evaluate our program and activities. I am asking that you help in this study so we might be better aware of your needs. Enclosed are four questions. Responses to these questions will help us at the College of Education to evaluate our present programs and to shape future activities. We need your help. Please write down your personal opinions and evaluations of the activities engaged in by the College of Education. The door of suggestion is wide open. Please return the completed questionnaire to me in 504 Erickson Hall, East Lansing, Michigan 48823. A self- addressed envelope is enclosed for this purpose. Please take a few minutes right now and answer the questions. Your opinions and evaluations are of vital importance. Thank you for your time. Sincerely, Ferris F. Anthony 151 OPEN—ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE Please briefly write_your personal reactions to the following questions. Do not worry about how important, how many, or in what order you list your thoughts. Just jot down the ideas as they come to mind. A. What do you believe to be the purposes and goals of the College of Education, Michigan State University? 10. [Ill llllli III! [III I 10. B. 152 In your opinion, what do school administrators now think are the goals and purposes of the College of Education, Michigan State University? 10. 153 In your Opinion, what are the most important, specific programs (teaching, research, service, etc.) engaged in by the College of Education, Michigan State University? 10. 154 In your opinion what specific programs (teach- ing, research, service, etc.) should be acted upon by the College of Education, Michigan State University? APPENDIX B Cover Letter of Rating Scale Device Sent to College and School Populations Rating Scale Device 155 156 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY College of Education 504 Erickson Hall You have probably filled out enough questionnaires this year to last you a lifetime. I would not ask you to fill out this one unless it had some value for you. Please let me explain. The statements on the attached questionnaire were made by School Administrators and members of the College of Edu- cation. The statements are about the goals, activities, and problems of the College. Your response to these state- ments will help us to know ourselves better and to find better ways to serve you. Your response will take 10 minutes. That 10 minutes will help us to identify problems and point out future directions. Even if you have had no con- tact with the College your response is still valuable. No attempt will be made to identify you. Data will be pre— sented in group scores. Please give me 10 minutes of your time. Thank you. Sincerely, Ferris Anthony 157 RATING SCALE DEVICE MY PRESENT POSITION IN THE COLLEGE OR SCHOOL SYSTEM IS: Dean (01) Department Chairman (02) Institute Director (03) Full-time Faculty (04) Part-Time Faculty (05) Superintendent (06) High School Principal (07) ____ Elementary Principal (08) ;___ Other (Indicate) I AM IN ONE OF THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENTS OR INSTITUTES: School for Advanced Studies (01) School for Teacher Education (02) Office of International Programs (03) Office of Off-Campus Affairs (04) Special Projects (05) ____ Administration and Higher Education (06) ____ Counseling Personnel Services and Educational Psychology (07) Elementary and Special Education (08) Health, Physical Education and Recreation (09) Secondary Education and Curriculum (10) Student Teaching (11) ____ Human Learning Institute (12) Humanities Teaching Institute (13) Learning Systems Institute (14) Mott Institute for Community Improvement (15) Science-Mathematics Teaching Center (16) Social Science Teaching Institute (17) 158 7 MY RANK IS: Instructor (01) ____ Assistant Professor (02) Associate Professor (03) Professor (04) 8 I AM: Tenured (01) ____ Non-tenured (02) ____ The following statements were made by members and ob— servers of the college of Education. The first set of statements is about GOALS and PURPOSES. Please circle the number which best describes your feeling about the statement. 1 = Strongly Agree 3 = Not Sure 5 = Strongly 2 = Moderately Agree 4 = Moderately Disagree Disagree The following statements ARE goals of the College. Please Agree, disagree, etc. 9. 1 10. 1 11. 1 12. 1 13. 1 14. 1 15. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 A program of subject matter analysis. A program of educational evaluation and assessment. A program of cooperative service arrange- ments with local schools and other agencies. A program for the design, production and testing of programmed materials and media for use in colleges and schools. A continuing effort to improve the effec- tiveness and quality of the College's undergraduate and graduate instructional programs. A broad-scale program Of basic research in human learning and development. A program for translating basic research in human learning and development into proposed models for instructional and management systems. The following statements SHOULD BE goals of the College. Please indicate 1 strongly agree to 5 strongly disagree. 16. l 17. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 To prepare teachers for inner city schools. To provide in-service education for teachers. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. P.) 159 To conduct pure, experimental, and action research in all aspects of education. To develop and implement reSearch'in teaching. To conduct research that only applies to Michigan. To cooperate with behavioral scientists in research. To serve out-Of-state schools through consultation, advice, and study. To have faculty members produce scholarly writing. To serve faculty members of other colleges and universities both within and without the state. To assist developing nations in establishing and maintaining educational systems. To promote the general security and economic status of the profession. To work for unity among educators and to eradicate the threat of unionization which promises to divide us. To put education on a scientific basis. To "weed out" or screen those going into the profession and separate the "wheat from the chaff." To develOp, evaluate, and disseminate innovation in education. To give prospective teachers a broad, general background including: adminis- tration, higher education, special education, remedial education, music, arts, literature, etc. To become involved in and further Federal programs in education. To prepare and distribute educational materials to the schools in the state. 160 34. l 2 3 4 5 To provide extension courses. 35. l 2 3 4 5 To train teachers and administrators to fit specific school systems. 36. l 2 3 4 5 To use local school systems for experi— mentation. 37. l 2 3 4 5 To help school systems secure financial support from the Federal government. 38. l 2 3 4 5 To turn out practical—minded teachers who meet the School Administrator's definition of what a good teacher should be. 39. 1 2 3 4 5 To become an institution for turning out as many students as possible. SECTION II This section deals with the IMPORTANCE or VALUE of present programs. Please indicate whether or not you think the program is important by circling: 1 = Strongly Agree 3 = Not Sure 5 = Strongly 2 = Moderately Agree 4 = Moderately Disagree Disagree 40. 1 2 3 4 5 The most important activity of the College is teaching undergraduates. 41. l 2 3 4 5 Teaching, research, and service have equal importance. 42. l 2 3 4 5 Graduate education is our most important activity. 43. l 2 3 4 5 Research is the most important activity of the College and should form the basis for all other activities. 44. l 2 3 4 5 Research is important but we place too much emphasis on it so instruction and service suffer. 45. 1 2 3 4 5 The most important undergraduate programs are the opportunities for school visitations and participation in actual classroom situations (such as Student Educational Corps, "September Experience, etc.") 46. 1 2 3 4 5 47. 1 2 3 4 5 48. 1 2 3 4 5 49. l 2 3 4 5 50. 1 2 3 4 5 51. l 2 3 4 5 We SHOULD 52.12345 53.12345 54. 1 2 3 4 55. 1 2 3 4 5 56.12345 57. 1 2 3 4 5 58. 1 2 3 4 5 161 The Elementary Intern Program is probably the most important of all undergraduate teacher programs. The Extern program of the Department of Administration is an important activity. The Instructional Materials Center is an important function of the College. We should cooperate with governmental agencies on such programs as Job Corps, Head Start, etc. Committee work by individual faculty members on College and departmental pro- grams and policies is important. None of the programs of the College of Education are worthwhile. conduct research in the following areas: Psychological research. Subject matter research. Textbook studies. Learning research. PhilOSOphy of education research. Teaching methods, team teaching, upgraded primary, etc. We should conduct federally supported research. The activities of the following institutes are important. 59. 1 2 3 4 5 60. 1 2 3 4 5 61. 1 2 3 4 5 62. 1 2 3 4 5 63. 1 2 3 4 5 64. 1 2 3 4 5 The Institute for International Study. Research and Development Program in Vocational Education. National Science Foundation Institutes. Mott Institute for Community Improvement. Human Learning Research Institute. Learning Systems Institute. 162 LAST SECTION This section deals with programs and activities which SHOULD BE carried out by the College of Education. It also includes some statements on PROBLEMS. Please indicate: 1 2 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 2-4. 2-5. 2—6. Strongly Agree 3 Moderately Agree 4 1 2 3 4 5 = Not Sure 5 = Strongly = Moderately Disagree Disagree We should overhaul placement procedures and include a follow-up interview with school administrators and first jobbers. We should expand the program in compar- ative and international education. There is not enough recognition for faculty members who want to work on ser- vice activities with school systems. We should eXpand certain graduate programs, such as Higher Education. We should offer new graduate programs in other areas. We should not have any new programs and should concentrate on improving the programs we have. We must find ways to maintain smaller teaching sections at both undergraduate and graduate levels. We should reduce teaching loads on in- structors by increasing faculty. We should cut down the number of students admitted to both undergraduate and gradu- ate programs. We should cut back the number of our present programs. Student evaluations of professors should be made public by the College. Faculty members who have the most ability in the classroom and who give time and service to their students are not recog- nized and rewarded enough. 2-7. 2-8. 2-9. 163 We need a Research Newsletter to dis- seminate research and help us gain national prominance. We should find ways to increase the teach- ing competence of faculty members in the College so they can practice what they preach. We need a well-organized, continuous in— service training program for faculty members in the College. Persons in teacher education or adminis- tration should be forced to spend one year out of five in elementary and secondary school classrooms and administration. The College should explore the possibility of establishing a small, experimental college of education. Research courses should be assigned to the School for Advanced Studies and taken away from departmental affiliations. We should cut down the number of methods courses and Offer more subject matter courses. We should give prospective teachers more experience in practical matters, such as how to handle discipline, how to interact with peOple, how to get along with co- workers, etc. Our students do not learn to think critically. The structure of the College prohibits the effective use of many of its positive attributes. Most graduates of the College are not interested in the profession but only in how much money they are going to make. The College should be based on a Behavioral science foundation. 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