WWW A WWAMSEC WW1 0E" SCEHOGL ' @RGANEZHIQIN DEVEWPHEWT Them 9% file Emma «:5 pk D. MIEEEGA‘N 313m “WWW 7 Leflamfi W. Howe ' 1‘96»? llflllllllllllzlllljfllllll WI: minim THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled TOWARD A HUMANISTIC MODEL OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT presented by Leland W. Howe has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph 0 D a degree in Curriculum :kmax V. flak Major professor Date August 29, 1969 0-169 ABSTRACT TOWARD A HUMANISTIC MODEL OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT BY Leland W. Howe This study advocates the humanization of our educational institutions through planned change. This calls for a sys— tematic method of moving a school organization from where it is to where it can be. To accomplish this end, a framework for delineating humanizing practices from dehumanizing practices is needed. It is to this problem, the develOpment of a framework for delineating humanizing practices from de- humanizing practices that this study first addresses itself. The framework developed postulates six hypothetical organiz— ation behavior orientations as a result of combining two key organization variables, 1) the character of individual pur- poses in the organization, and 2) individual commitment to the organization. These six hypothetical orientations are thought to be characteristic of the range of organizations. Each of the six orientations is characterized along seven dimensions-—i) input, 2) output, 5) support, 4) communication, 5) feedback, 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolution. Leland W. Howe The study then moves on to consider a number of forces which serve to promote and block school organization develop- ment. These are characterized as internal forces—-needs, beliefs, values, perceptions, training, and external forces—— organizational pressures of peers, superiors, and subordi— nates, norms, customs, and laws. These forces provide the backdrOp, against which a model for school organization development is proposed. The model proposes development simultaneously at three levels, 1) the individual level, 2) the organization level, and 5) the organization linkage level in an attempt to free up the structural complexities of individual and organization relationships which so often block organization develOpment. This is accomplished with a series of instruments which help organization members and key controllers in influential linking organizations 1) understand the humanizing and dehumanizing consequances of their be- havior on themselves and others, 2) analyze the organization conditions which tend to promote and block individual develOpa ment, and 5) plan for personal and organization develOpment by mapping out change strategies and entering into on-going evaluation activities. The study makes the following conclusions each of which must be empirically tested: 1. The humanistic view of organization development pro— vides a sound philosophical basis for developing educational excellence. Leland W. Howe 2. Seven conditions for organization development to occur must be met, 1) input, 2) output, 5) communication, 4) support, 5) feedback, 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolu- tion. 5. The approach to organization deveIOpment set forth in this study is an efficient and effective means of develop- ing humanistic oriented persons and educational institutions. TOWARD A HUMANISTIC MODEL OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT By A \ Leland W5 Howe A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1969 copyright by LELAND W° HOWE 1969 ii to Mary Martha iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude to all those persons who offered encouragement and guidance in carrying out this study. He is especially indebted to Dr. Dale V. Alam, advisor and committee chairman, for his continuous support throughout the undertaking of this study. Appreciation is also eXpressed to the other members of the committee, Drs. Charles A. Blackman, Marvin Grandstaff, and Mason E. Miller. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF BOXES. . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem. . . Need for the Study. . . . . . Significance of the Problem . Statement of Scope and Limitations. Methodology . . . . . . . . . Organization of the Study . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . The General Trend in Organization Theory DevelOpment . . . . . . . . Two Theories of Organization Development. The T—Group Approach to Organization DevelOpment . . . . . . . The Grid Approach to Organization DevelOp- ment. . . . . . . . . . . Further Review of the Literature. Summary . . . . . . . . . . O 0 PAGE 10 10 11 12 15 15 18 19 20 21 25 TABLE OF CONTENTS—-Continued CHAPTER III. DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYZING ORGANIZA- TION BEHAVIOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deve10ping the Framework . . . . . . . . . . Needs and Organization Behavior. . . . . . Beliefs and Organization Behavior. . . . . The Freedom-Control Continuum. . . . . . . . Commitment and Organization Behavior . . . Further Dimensions of Organization Behavior Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Organization Behavior Orientations . . . The High Commitment, Control Orientation . The Low Commitment, Control Orientation. . The High Commitment, Guidance Orientation. The Low Commitment, Guidance Orientation . The High Commitment, Freeing Orientation . The Low Commitment, Freeing Orientation. . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. DEVELOPING A MODEL FOR SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces Affecting Individual Development of Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . External Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi PAGE 27 27 27 5O 57 4O 41 45 45 49 55 57 61 65 68 7O 71 71 75 TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER PAGE Implications for Developing a Model for School Organization DevelOpment. . . . . 76 Comparison of the Emergent and Grid Organ- ization Development Approaches . . . . . 79 The Grid Approach to Organization Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 The Emergent Approach to Organization Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8O Behaviorism versus Phenomenology . . . . 81 A Plan for School Organization DevelOpment 84 Description of Stage I Seminar Activi- ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Description of Stage II Workshop Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Description of Stage III On-going WOrk- shop Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Description of Stage IV Workshop Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . 92 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER Page Concluding Statement. . . . . . . . . . . 101 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 viii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Organization Behavior Matrix . . . . . . . . . 6 2. Freedom-Control Continuum. . . . . . . . . . . 59 5. Organization Behavior Matrix II. . . . . . . . 41 ix LIST OF BOXES BOX PAGE 1. Six Behavior Orientations. . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. How The Six Phases of Grid Organization Development Contribute to Corporate Excel- lence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5. The Emergent Model for School Organization Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There is presently a "flower of hope" in this troubled time which holds the possibility of bringing forth the best in men. Like the exciting discoveries of the enlightened 17th century, the new ideas may cause a second and more powerful emergence of economic, political, and social free- dom, one which will not only insure the Opportunity for each man to be free, but will guarantee him the reSpect, love, and affection he needs to become adequate, worthy, and thus, truly free. The new force is called humanistic psychology and philosophy. It encompasses a number of American psycholo- gists--men like Maslow, Rogers, Fromm, and a host of world- wide, formal and informal organizations, ranging from the Esalen Institute at Big Sur, to the journal of Humanistic Judaism. (Maslow, 1962) The new movement's potential for freeing men's minds from a concern for safety, control, authority, guilt, and fear to a concern for health, love, spontaneity, affection, and self-realization is immense, but it will have to be nurtUred. Men will have to come to believe, often only through eXperience, that humanistic psychology and philos- ophy can make a difference, that they can help put meaning and purpose back into lives entrenched in security as a defense against an indifferent and sometimes hostile world. This means that humanistic psychology and philosophy will have to go on the offensive. It means developing pro- grams, organizations, and eXperiences which have the practical consequences of helping those who participate in them feel better about themselves. For this study, it means develOping a theory of school organization develOpment which will have real implications and consequences for humanizing our educational institutions. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is to develop a theoretical model for a program of planned change aimed at humanizing educational institutions. The study will attempt to set forth a framework designed to help those involved in the planning and implementation of school organization change to 1) systematically analyze and diagnose current organization conditions, 2) plan for increased effectiveness in such areas as communication, conflict resolution, and goal real— ization, and 5) evaluate change in terms of its humanizing effect upon the individual member and the organization as a whole. The concern for developing the model arose during a 1968 conversation with Dan Davis, Managerial Grid instructor for Scientific Methods, Inc. At that time, he reported that the Managerial Grid approach to organization deveIOpment had been applied by Blake and Mouton, the Grid creators, to the educational setting but without much success. On the other hand, government and business application of the Grid as an instrument for successful organization development is rapid— ly expanding. (Blake and Mouton, 1968) Analysis of the situation seems to suggest that peOple in business and government are faced with more clearly defined ”people— production" problems than are those people employed in our schools.1 As a result, the Grid approach as it is presently structured appeals more to business and government than to schools. To explicate the point, the Grid seminar stresses the "people-production dilemma" so prevalent in our competi— tive society. During competitive team exercises assigned by the Grid instructors, participants learn to identify and critique those behaviors which block productive team inter— action and reduce their problem solving effectiveness as measured by task completion scores supplied by the instruc— tors. Although meaningful and well suited for the 1Blake and Mouton have develOped five theories of man— agerial behavior, each based on a different assumption about how to resolve the seemingly inherent contradiction between organization members“ needs on the one hand, and the organ- ization's concern for production on the other, termed the "people-production dilemma." businessman who invariably works on assigned tasks with direct hierarchical supervision, under time pressure and performance standards, the experience tends to be foreign to teachers and school administrators who most often work under indirect SUpervision, attempting to accomplish tasks not clearly defined, nor assigned, nor measurable, with minimum time pressures and performance standards. It became quite apparent that if the Grid approach to organization development was to have significant applica- bility to our educational institutions, as Blake and Mouton claim, then some alterations in the rationale and implemen- tation of the change program were in order. This problem initially led the author to evaluate the usefulness of the behavioral theories outlined by Blake and Mouton in The Managerial Grid (1964) as they specifically relate to our schools. During the process, a basic question arose con- cerning one of the fundamental assumptions of the Grid approach: is hierarchy, as Blake and Mouton claim, a neces- sary and indispensible function of human organization? It is the negation of this assumption that led to the present study. Although this study does not question the age old and almost universal use of hierarchy in human organizations as an effective means to maintain control and accountability, it does question its value and necessity in a society which professes to free men to govern their own efforts for self—fulfillment. It questions its usefulness in our schools which have as their express purpose for being, the development of character and skills in our young condu- cive to the maintenance of a free society. It especially questions its absolute necessity based upon the growing evidence against the use of external authority to help human beings develop into self-actualizing individuals as reported by such perceptual psychologists as Rogers (1961), and Allport (1961). This study then formulates a theory of organization behavior which puts hierarchy, as a characteristic of organi- zations, into a humanistic perspective. Specifically, it identifies two key variables, 1) the characteristic control- freeing dimension of an individual's organization purposes, and 2) the degree of commitment an individual holds for the organization. Using these two variables it is possible to develop an organization behavior matrix which may be used to delineate and characterize six observable organization behavior patterns. See Figure 1 on page 6. The rationale for creating the organization behavior matrix and the six behavior orientations it produces is set forth in Chapter III. The remainder of Chapter III is an analysis and characterization of the six organization be— havior orientations. Box 1 on page 6 briefly describes each orientation. PURPOSES Control Guidance Freeing High 1 I C high commitment, lhigh commitment, lhigh commitment, 0 control orienta— [guidance orienta— [freeing orienta- tion tion tion M | | M I —— ——————— -I ————————— + ——————— — T low commitment, llow commitment, llow commitment, M control orienta- [guidance orienta— [freeing orienta- E tion tion tion N I s T | I Low FIGURE 1 ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR MATRIX Orientation I; High Commitment, Control. Person is highly committed to the organization; attempts to achieve purposes through methods of hierarchial regulation of organization"s resources. Orientation II; Low Commitment, Control. Person is not committed to the organization; attempts to achieve purposes through methods of hierarchial regulation of organization‘s resources. Orientation III: High Commitment, Control. Person is high- ly committed to the organization; attempts to achieve pur- poses through methods of group regulation of organization's resources. Orientation Iy: Low Commitment, Guidance. Person is not committed to the organization; attempts to achieve purposes through methods of group regulation of organization's resources. Orientation y; High Commitment, Freeing. Person is highly committed to the organization; attempts to achieve purposes through methods of individual regulation of organization"s resources. Orientation XI; Low Commitment, Freeing. Person is not committed to the organization; attempts to achieve purposes through methods of individual regulation of organization's resources. BOX 1 SIX BEHAVIOR ORIENTATIONS Chapter IV contributes a theoretical model for the systematic develOpment of school organizations. Briefly, the model consists of three levels of development, 1) in- dividual development, 2) organization development, and 5) organization linkage development. These three levels of development are to be carried on simultaneously by the general membership and key controllers of the school organ— ization. A Specific plan for implementing the model is also proposed. Chapter V is a statement of recommendations for further theory development and research. The remainder of Chapter V sets forth the need for the study, states the significance, sc0pe and limitations, and methodology of the study, and reviews the literature on organization behavior and deveIOp- ment. NEED FOR THE STUDY This study was prompted in part by the failure of pres— ent organization theories to take a stance consistent with humanistic psychology and philosophy and thus provide the insights and understandings necessary to truly ”free up“ our educational institutions. Even the newer theories of McGregor (1960), Argyris (1957), Likert (1961), and Blake and Mouton (1968), all of which have a human relations base, are still concerned with developing more effective management practices as a means of ”freeing up” the organization rather than providing the conditions necessary to develop organ- izational commitment which in turn might reduce the need for control and allow organization members to manage their own affairs. The study was also prompted by the fact that few edu— cational institutions in the country have deveIOped a perceptual view in dealing with their membership. Even those which give some indication that they understand or have adopted the newer theories of human relations management seem unable to view certain behaviors as anything but anti- organizational. Demonstrations, strikes, and riots tend to be automatically viewed as disruptive to the system. Administrators and influentials in the organization who are Operating under this view attempt to quell the behavior either through overt and covert pressure, or through negotiations to get things back to normal as soon as possible. For ex— ample, witness the recent demonstrations at San Francisco State College, Columbia University, and the University of California at Berkeley. In each case the influentials of both the administration and the demonstrating membership are intent on forcing each other to desist. However, as this study demonstrates, these behaviors may be viewed from another perspective, not as necessarily anti—organizational, but as, essentially in many cases, a drive toward health on the part of the demonstrators. (Maslow, 1962) In this view, the demonstrations are simply highly visible indications that the organization is not meeting the needs Of at least those persons who are demon- strating. It is also assumed that a return to normalcy will probably not be the solution since it makes no attempt to meet the needs Of the demonstrators. Administrative officials and influentials in the organization who take this view are more apt to attempt to ”free-up" the organization so that the needs Of the demonstrating membership as well as the general membership will be met rather than frustrated. In fact, when this View is taken, it is highly likely that the demonstrations would not have occurred in the first place since the influential membership and the general membership will more than likely be in "tune”. In any case, when so viewed, the behavior is more likely to be perceived as ”self- renewing" and thus prized, at least in the long run, as healthy for the organization. (Gardner, 1965) It is believed that such a theory and its implications are badly needed at a time when our educational institutions are being besieged by students and faculty who, because Of changing values, desire more out Of life and the formal school experience than a guarantee for simple economic se- curity and Opportunity. It is thus hoped that the theory set forth here will provide a framework for the development Of humanistic educational institutions—-that is to say, provide a source Of insight and understanding for actions aimed at truly freeing students, staff, and faculty tO become spon- taneous, exciting, creative, and loving human beings. 10 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM Some possible outcomes resulting from this study are that it may: A. Provide a sound rationale for school organization de— velopment. B. Provide educators with a model for school organization develOpment. C. Produce a number Of hypotheses concerning school organ— ization develOpment, each of which will need validating by empirical research. D. Produce a number Of hypotheses concerning organization behavior, each Of which will need validating by empir— ical research. E. Provide educators with a tool applicable to specific school organization diagnosis and analysis. F. Provide educators with a general framework to evaluate current educational problems and practices and estab- lish priorities. G. Provide a teaching tOOl designed tO help students of education gain insights and understanding into the nature and practices Of our school organizations. STATEMENT OF SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS This study is an attempt to make sense and draw logical implications for a theory Of school organization development out Of a mass Of data about organization behavior by using the normative and conceptual framework supplied in part by principles Of group dynamics, and in general by humanistic psychology and philosophy. In this sense, it contains all the built—in limitations and shortcomings Of both the author's own perceptions and judgments about what is 11 meaningful for research and analysis, and the lack Of pre— cision due to its adolesence in comparison with other normative and conceptual frameworks, Of the humanistic field Of inquiry. NO attempt is made tO generalize the theoretical model developed in this study beyond the educational setting, although it may have many implications for business, commun- ity, church, and family. Nor do the examples provided validate the theory. The enormous task Of testing the theory by empirical research remains. METHODOLOGY This study proceeds throughout on two interrelated levels, 1) a rational level—-that is tO say, given certain assumptions derived from humanistic psychology and philosophy about the nature Of man and the purpose Of being, what are the suggestions for a theory Of school organization develop— ment, and 2) a limited empirical level-—that is, given these logically deduced generalizations about organization behavior and development, do they fit with the accumulated evidence Of the author's past perceptions and experiences? Finally, the study asks, are the logically deduced generalizations supported by the literature? This method Of research may be termed philosophical, develOpmental, and theoretical. 12 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY In Chapter I, the problem has been presented and de- veloped. Chapter II reviews the literature on organization theory and development. Chapter III develops a framework to be used in analyzing and diagnosing organization behavior. Chapter IV develops a theoretical model for school organ- ization development. Chapter V is a statement of summary, conclusions, and recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review Of the literature is divided into three sections. Section one reviews the general trends in organ~ ization theory develOpment. The second section reviews two current theories Of organization development upon which the theory set forth in this study draws heavily. Section three reviews the literature from which the author has abstracted seven key variables Of organization develOpment believed necessary to the building of the theory set forth in this study. THE GENERAL TREND IN ORGANIZATION THEORY DEVELOPMENT The purpose Of this section is tO 1) place the study in perspective by noting its relationship tO the general trend in organization theory development, and 2) indicate some of the important concepts used by different theorists to explain organization behavior. Before proceeding, it should be pointed out that there is no attempt here tO include all the writings of important theorists, nor does this section intend to but touch lightly 15 14 upon each Of the theories included. A number Of the theo- rists (McGregor, Likert, Argyris, and Blake for example) have exerted profound influence upon the development Of this study, and will be noted later in the text. The recent trend in organization develOpment is in the direction Of placing less emphasis on analysis of control and efficiency measures, and more emphasis on understanding human needs and motivation as they relate to organization Objectives. For the analysis, and purposes Of simplifica- tion, organization theory development can be conveniently divided into three phases, 1) the classical phase, 2) the human relations phase, and 5) the humanistic phase. In reality these phases overlap to a considerable extent. The classical organization theorists were concerned with such concepts as efficiency, control, authority, and hier— archy. Implicit in their writings are assumptions about the nature Of man--that human beings in general are born and remain lazy and irresponsible, that they desire security above all things, and that, therefore, they must be coerced, controlled and directed if organization Objectives are to be achieved by those who have risen above the masses and have thus become ambitious and responsible. (McGregor, 1960) Taylor (1911) developed a theory Of "scientific manage- ment.“ His concern was with arranging the task activities Of the organization in such a way as to insure that members would produce at peak efficiency. Little concern was paid 15 to the needs or motivations Of the members. They were ex- pected to produce, and were simply removed from the job if they did not meet the organization standards established by "time and motion studies." Gulick and Urwick (1957) and others went on to suggest the advantages Of grouping organization activities by depart— ments with direct lines Of control established through hierarchial arrangements Of authority. In this way, the organization head could keep his finger on the pulse of the organization and thus insure control and efficiency through exercise Of his power. (Summarized in Eddy, 1962.) Max Weber (1947) was concerned with the development Of a rational strategy Of administration which would control and coordinate the activities Of an organization in the most efficient manner possible. Key concepts in his analysis were 1) direct lines Of control through spelled out ”hier— archy and graded levels Of authority," 1) impersonality in establishing written rules and regulations, and in adminis- tering them, and 5) technical competence Of the administrator, specialization and division Of labor. (Summarized in Presthus, 1962.) The human relations or group dynamic theorists were also concerned with the concepts of efficiency, control, authority, and hierarchy, but from another perspective. These concepts were viewed as sometimes in basic conflict with a prime source of motivation, man's needs for belonging, 16 recognition, support, and approval. Here the assumption was that control and efficiency would be more effectively achieved through member participation in group decision- making, problem-solving, and goal-setting since these activities would provide the setting for secondary need satisfaction (belonging, recognition, support, and approval as differentiated by Maslow from primary needs for safety and self-preservation). Thus the principles Of group dynamics were added tO the list Of important organization concepts for inclusion in a theory of organization behavior-- such concepts as group norms, pressure, and leadership. Argyris (1957) and McGregor (1960) postulate two similar theories built on the assumption that here is an inherent conflict between the individual member and the organization—— the individual member striving for self—development while the organization demands conformity. They argue that the conflict may be resolved by administrative methods based on an understanding Of human motivation-—that is to say, the use Of an approach which allows the individual member to contribute to his own self—development by being involved in deciding the goals and procedures under which he and the' organization are tO function. Likert (1961) suggests the need for ”supportive rela- tionships" in organizations which will contribute to the member's feelings Of self-worth and importance thus increas— ing their effectiveness at every level. It is argued that 17 the increased feelings of self—worth will lead to greater control and efficiency of the organization as members" decisions tend to be in turn, based on sound data rather than power—plays, insecurities, and other conditions resulting from feelings Of inadequacy. The humanistic theorists play down the importance of such concepts as efficiency, control, authority, and hier- archy. They suggest that these concepts are perhaps helpful to organization heads in achieving their short-range and limited organization Objectives, but essentially irrelevant and Often restrictive to man's highest level needs for self- realization and fulfillment of his own unique being. The humanistic theorists assume that if men are guaranteed a basic standard Of living aimed at satisfaction Of their primary needs, given respect, recognition, support, and approval by others aimed at satisfaction Of their secondary needs, and freed tO participate in a stimulating and Open organizational environment aimed at satisfaction Of their highest level needs, then the long range Objectives and purposes Of the organization for creativity, growth, and self-renewal will best be served. Paul Goodman, in The Community Q: Scholars (1962), sets forth a number Of elements and ideas consistent with the humanistic approach. He emphasizes such important concepts as commitment, community, and self-determination. The "community Of scholars“ is pictured as an autonomous 18 organization of teachers and learners dedicated to defining themselves through mutually beneficial relationships based on the principle Of free choice. John Gardner (1965), in keeping with the humanistic approach, looks at society and organization from the view- point Of the individual. He emphasizes concepts Of creativ- ity, growth, self-renewal, commitment, love, and versatility. Organization, like the individual, may die symbolically Of rigidity before its existence is formally ended. If it is to escape, self-renewal will have to be built—in to the organization structure by way Of experiences which keep the membership Open, versatile, and creative. The theory set forth in this study is in keeping with the general trend toward a more humanistic analysis Of organ— ization behavior. TWO THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT The intent Of this section is tO review two theories Of organization development which have recently attracted wide attention, and upon which the theory set forth in this study draws heavily: 1) the T (for training) Group model, and 2) the Grid Organization Development model. Both theories may be classified as human relations theories. Both are the two primary competitors in the human relations-behavioral change approach to organization develOpment. 19 As yet, a humanistic theory of organization develOpment has not emerged, although this study is an attempt to develOp one. Necessarily then, the author must draw heavily upon what has been done in the closely related human relations phase Of organization theory building, accepting those ideas which seem to be consistent with the perceptual and growth assumptions to which the theory is wedded, and rejecting those which seem inconsistent and mechanistic. The T-Group Approach :2 Organization Development The T-Group approach to organization develOpment, founded by the National Training Laboratories, attempts to bring about organization develOpment through methods Of individual member behavior changes. The theory is that, as individuals, viewed as the primarv_parts Of the organization, 1) develop more effective communication skills, 2) better understand group processes, and 5) become more sensitive to themselves and others, so the organization which is the sum Of its parts, will also develop, as did each individual, into a more Open, flexible, and vibrant organism. (Bradford, Gibb, and Benne, 1964) Individual development, as the theory runs, is best accomplished in a residential laboratory setting where the participant is freed from the normal pressures Of working and living, to 1) experiment with new modes Of behavior, and 2) evaluate his effectiveness in relating to others. The T-Group provides the instrument for learning and evaluating 20 new and current modes Of behavior. It consists Of seven to fifteen individuals, including at least one expert trained in the behavioral sciences, who attempts to build a produc— tive group from scratch while at the same time Observing and studying the process and member behavior. Personal feedback and critiques Of group action are used to gain and insure learnings. Implicit in this theory is the notion that organization develOpment will occur automatically if enough Of the mem- bership participate in a T-Group eXperience. (For a thorough treatment Of the T-Group approach to organization development, see Bradford, Gibb, and Benne, 1964.) The Grid Approach £9_Organization DevelOpment The founders Of the Grid, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, were also the first to use the T—Group approach to organiza— tion development. However, finding the approach unable to deal with certain development problems, the two founded their own organization to promote and develop what they consider to be a more effective approach, Grid Organization DevelOp- ment. (Blake and Mouton, 1968) The Grid model adds a number Of dimensions to the T- Group approach. One, it replaces the T-Group trainers with instruments designed tO facilitate personal growth and the acquisition Of desired behavioral skills. In this way, the trainer, argue Blake and Mouton (1962) is unable to block important learnings. (For examples Of the instruments used 21 to facilitate learning, see Blake and Mouton in Issues IE Training, 1962.) Two, it focuses attention on the organ- ization's cultural barriers--traditions, norms, customs, time worn practices--as well as on the individual barriers-- beliefs, perceptions, values, assumptions--to development. Three, the model utilizes the organization setting as the place for learning to proceed rather than the residential laboratory. Thus learnings are more easily translated to the actual work situation. Four, the model requires the organ“ ization as a whole to formulate an ideal corporate model h toward which it wishes to move. Five, systematic methods for moving the organization from its actual state Of affairs to the ideal corporate model are mapped out, implemented, and evaluated. The T—Group approach leaves these two final dimensions Of development to emerge as a result Of individual development, a process which Blake and Mouton (1969) believe does not automatically follow. (For a thorough treatment Of the Grid approach to organization development, see Blake and Mouton, 1968.) FURTHER REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This section reviews the literature from which seven concepts used in the study to analyze organization behavior and characterize six hypothetical organization behavior orientations are abstracted. The seven concepts-~1) input, 2) output, 5) communication, 4) feedback, 5) support, 22 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolution-—become key variables for developing a theoretical model Of school organization development presented in Chapter IV. The concepts of input and output as used in this study were formulated from Stogdill (1959) and Combs (1962). Stogdill (1959) developed a theory Of organization which views the organization as a physical system in which inputs (member performances, expectations and interactions) control structure and Operations (functions, purpose, norms, respon— sibilities) resulting in outputs (productivity, morale, and integration). His aim was to demonstrate that relationships between inputs and structure and Operations can be used to predict outputs. (Summarized in Eddy, 1962.) Combs (1962) discusses the implications Of some research completed in the field Of perceptual psychology. ”Rich perceptual fields” are believed by Combs, to be the prime source Of individual growth and development. These are individually acquired, says Combs, as a result Of the ”kinds Of Opportunities an individual has been exposed to." The effects Of a "rich and available perceptual field,” he main- tains, is "more effective, efficient behavior.” Communication has long been recognized as a key concept necessary for a complete understanding of organization and organization behavior, especially by the National Training Laboratories, one of the first organizations to begin extensive analysis Of communication barriers in groups and 25 organizations. Communication as a tOpic Of concern prevades the NTL literature. The concept Of communication (the sending and receiving Of messages and meanings) formulated for this study arises out Of the National Training Laboratories' readings from the following sources, Selected Readingijeries, I through VI, (1961-62L Bradford, Gibb, and Benne (1964), and Nylen, Mitchell, and Stout (1967). Feedback (defined in Bradford, Gibb, and Benne 1964, as verbal and nonverbal responses to a unit Of behavior) as an important function for correcting communication distortion in groups and organizations, was also formulated from the National Training Laboratories literature. In particular, see Benne, Bradford, and Lippitt (1964). Two sources, Gibb (1964) and Likert (1961), provide the basis for formulating the concept Of support as used in this study. Gibb (1964) points to the need for the establishment of “climates of trust” in grOUps and organizations if indi— viduals are to grow and develOp fully. The primary respons- ibility for creating these climates, says Gibb, rests with each individual member of the group or organization. Individual creation Of the climates can best be facilitated, in this View, by providing the member with an understanding Of the dynamics involved in developing "interpersonal situ— ations which will help him to accept himself and others.” 24 Likert (1961) reports a number Of research findings which he believes point to the need for organizations to develop "supportive relationships" if they hOpe to effec— tively harness the full energy potential Of their member- ship. These "supportive relationships" must be developed, thinks Likert, by management at the work group level to reduce possible frictions among members which can block productiveness. The concept Of choice as used in this study was formu— lated from Raths, Harmin, and Simon (1966) and Goodman (1962). Raths, Harmin, and Simon (1966) view the "crucial criterion Of choice" as necessary for helping individuals develop clear and consistent sets Of values. They point out that unless the individual is freed tO choose from among real alternatives with knowledge of each alternative's consequences, he cannot be expected to develOp a set Of values which will lead him tO live a zestful and integrated life. Goodman (1962) holds free choice as a condition neces— sary for individual self—determination, an end, he thinks, toward which those committed to maintaining a free society ought to move. He argues for, and introduces, several plans which have free choice Of faculty and students involved in the learning-teaching process to determine themselves as a primary condition. 25 The concept of conflict resolution as utilized in this study was abstracted from Blake, Shepard, and Mouton (1964). and Horwitz (1964). Blake, Shepard, and Mouton (1964) describe nine possible methods for dealing with conflict in the organizational setting. These range from win/lost techniques to problems solving strategies. Each of the nine methods is then ana— lyzed by the authors in terms of its effect upon the organ- ization's Objectives and goals. Horwitz describes and analyzes the T (training) Group method for resolving conflict. The method involves group members coming to grips in a personal way with the differ— ences between each member's needs and the establishment Of a common group goal. Summary Section one Of this study reviewed a representative number Of classical, human relations, and humanistic theorists to indicate the general trend in organization theory development. As indicated, there is a general trend in the direction Of placing less emphasis on analysis Of control and efficiency measures and more emphasis on under~ standing human needs and motivation as they relate to organ- ization Objectives. Section two reviewed two of the recent human relations theories which have attracted wide attention, and upon which the theory set forth in this study draws 26 heavily. Section three reviewed the literature from which seven concepts used in the study to analyze the behavior orientations were drawn. CHAPTER III DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYZING ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR DEVELOPING THE FRAMEWORK Needs and Organization Behavior Men join organizations for a number Of reasons, 1) voluntarinr-that is to say, the individual recognizes that it is to his advantage to unite with others to satisfy his need(s) for food, shelter, protection, belonging, recog— nition, and self—realization, 2) involuntarilye—because a situation threatens to deprive the individual Of his need(s) for safety, rest, exercise, status, approval, autonomy, and self-fulfillment, he joins an organization in an attempt to remove the threat, and 5) voluntarily-involuntarily-— that is, the individual joins the organization voluntarily but finds himself forced to remain against his wishes be- cause Of a lack Of known or real alternatives for need satis~ faction. Note that underpinning men's associations is the concept Of need satisfaction. Needs are recognized in this study to be'a continuous and unending source Of motivation for human behavior. As a need or several needs are satisfied, 27 28 and thus no longer motivate behavior, other higher needs replace them. Needs are thought to be arranged in a series of hierarchial levels with realization of a higher level need dependent upon the satisfaction Of appropriate lower level needs. (Maslow, 1962) Physiological needs. Prime motivators Of human behavior are the physiological needs of man-—needs for safety, food, rest, exercise, shelter. When these needs are not satisfied, man will go to great lengths to fulfill them. Once satis- fied, they have little effect upon his behavior other than to allow him to seek satisfaction of other higher level re~ placement needs Of a social and self-realizing character. If not satisfied, they will ultimately result in physical crippling or extinction Of the individual, depending upon how serious the deprivation is. (Maslow, 1962) Social needs. Social needs for belonging, recognition, acceptance, support, and approval are strong motivators Of human behavior once the basic physiological needs are met to at least some degree. Here, the individual is dependent upon others to provide the needed satisfactions by extending him association, friendship, and status. As with the satis- faction Of his physical needs, man will go tO great lengths, attempting new and different ways Of behaving, tO receive satisfaction Of his social needs. Like the physiological needs, lengthy deprivation can cause serious crippling, however, here the damage is done to the psychic rather than 29 physical being--in effect, the individual's self—concept is diminished to the point Of making him feel inadequate and unworthy Of his fellowmen. The resultant behavior is that Of neurosis rather than health. However, if an environment is created in which the satisfaction of their needs is pro— moted, then the individual can ultimately move on to a third and higher level--needs for autonomy, self—determination, self-realization, and self—fulfillment. (Kelley, 1962) Self-realization needs. These needs are viewed as es— sentially a drive on the part of the individual for spon— taneity, autonomy, creativity, and realization Of his own unique talents, potentialities, and capacities. As such, they are tremendous motivators Of human behavior once the physiological and social needs are met and maintained at con- sistently high levels. These needs are viewed as constant-- that is to say, they are insatiable. In fact, they are thought to increase in strength as fulfillment occurs. (Maslow, 1962) The point is that as long as men join organizations voluntarily under conditions where they can act as equals with authority and influence dependent upon knowledge, skills, and concern for others (thus producing the greatest amount of need satisfaction for all) knowledge Of motivation and its relationship to human behavior is Of little consequence. However, reality does not suggest the develOpment Of many Of these kinds of organizations. Given the fact that men can 50 be forced, or are willing, to act as inferior beings, sub— ordinating themselves to others who are assumed to be superior beings, knowledge of motivation and its relation to behavior is of supreme importance. Individuals who possess it Often possess the potential power to enslave or free men-- hopefully, to free them. Thus, this section will set forth some Of the general ways men have thought about and utilized motivation to effect organization behavior to realize organization purposes. Beliefs and Organization Behavior As was stated, man will gO to great lengths to satisfy his needs. These lengths--that is to say, man's need satis— fying behaviors-—are most Often determined by 1) what he believes about how to go about the task of need satisfaction, 2) what he believes is possible, and 5) what he believes is right. A man raised in the ghetto will tend tO have far dif- ferent beliefs about how to keep from getting hungry, how to make friends, whom tO trust, and what is right behavior than a man reared in the suburbs. These differing views, when applied to the organizational setting, each have far different effects upon organization behavior. (Rokeach, 1968) The following are three different ways men have come to believe about how man should and can be organized. The control View pI man. Organizations founded on the control view Of man are primarily involuntary or voluntary- involuntary structures for the satisfaction Of human needs. 51 Members are either impressed or propagandized into service. This view is reflected in the following belief statements typical Of those held by persons who advocate control (McGregor, 1960): 1. The mass Of human beings are inferior creatures—- lazy and irresponsible--who, because of security needs, desire direction and control by those who have risen above the natural base condition Of man and are therefore, superior human beings. 2. Security, safety, and physiological needs are the prime, and frequently, only source Of motivation for the mass of humanity. 5. Right behavior must be based on a system Of reward and punishment directly related to man's physio— logical needs; this to be administered by a hierarchy of superior control persons. Typically, due to need deprivation, the individual comes to believe that he is lucky to be where he is in the organ- ization hierarchy, especially if those at the top keep tell- ing him this is the case. The result is that the organization moves along smoothly with those in control remaining there unchallenged. However, as more organization members move toward afflu- ence and the satisfaction of their physiological needs either out of 1) choice of the organization, 2) need on the part of the hierarchy for their services, or 5) pressure on the organization (unionism for example), these needs no longer motivate their behavior. At this point, the hierarchy has three choices, 1) they can maintain their basic beliefs and practices which will put them out Of business or into combat with the general membership, 2) alter their basic beliefs 52 about motivation but not the general condition of man, or 5) alter their basic beliefs about both motivation and the general condition Of man. Number two, an alteration of beliefs about motivation but not the general condition of man, is most Often the choice since it requires less change in the individual's belief system. (Rokeach, 1968) This is most Often accom— plished by the hierarchy moving from a "direct control View” to a "benevolent control View." In effect, the hierarchy maintains its belief that the average individual is lazy, irresponsible, and desirous of security through direction and control, but modifies its View Of motivation. It is con- ceded that the mass Of humanity also has a few social needs which motivate behavior-—needs for status, recognition, and approval. As a result, a ”softer" system Of rewards and punishments is set up based on the hierarchial giving and withholding Of privileges, promotions, honors, and bonuses. The effect is indirect control through benevolence. The "benevolent View" can Often lead tO an alteration on the part Of hierarchy Of their basic beliefs about the general condition Of man. It may be recognized that more peOple are capable and willing to assume responsibility than was previously hypothesized. Thus a system of advancement is set up to promote those individuals who have skills and competence needed to more effectively contribute to organ- ization goals at higher levels Of task complexity, and 55 responsibility. However, control and hierarchy are still believed to be required tO insure that those promoted to higher positions do not misuse their new found status. The underlying assumption here is that every man has basic tendencies toward laziness and irresponsibility and must, therefore be constantly supervised. (If he is on tOp Of the heap, he must be on guard himself to fight them Off.) In this view, termed "bureaucratic", control is still based on the deprivation Of man's needs-—primarily those of a social nature (Presthus, 1962). It is only a short step from this view to the "democratic" or "guidance" view Of man in which the control Of behavior through social need depriva- tion is transferred from hierarchy tO the general membership Of the organization. (This is not to imply that the "bureau— cratic" view must necessarily precede the "democratic” View, nor that the "democratic" View need to be set up on the basis of need deprivation--it just so happens that widespread use Of majority vote and consensus decision making, is the way most organizations choose to define democratic.) The guidance view Of man. Organizations formed under this View tend to be Of a voluntary_and voluntaryeinvoluntary variety. The emphasis is on control; however, in the guid— ance view, the general organization membership rather than hierarchy manage the control system. This system is based on the following beliefs. 54 1. .Most human beings can become hard working and re- sponsible peOple if guided by others in the right direction. 2. Man's social and egoistic needs for belonging, acceptance, SUpport, self—enhancement, and status with his fellowmen are prime motivators Of his behavior. 5. Individuals may take the wrong path at times, but the majority Of peOple in the organization will move in the right direction most Of the time. Thus, right behavior is group determined--preferably by consensus, minimally by majority vote (majority vote as it is practiced in most organizations may be considered a consensus technique since the minority is expected to support the majority, at least until the next vote). 4. Control Of deviant members is the collective responsibility Of the organization members. Social sanctions based on deprivation Of the individual's needs for belonging, self-enhancement, recognition, -and status with his fellows are the primary means Of control employed by the group. 5. Hierarchy, if needed, is only a temporary condition with primary responsibility for organizational maintenance tasks too trivial for group considera- tions. Three types Of guidance views are worth mentioning here-- the "professional association" view, the "pressure group" view, and the "general association” view. These approaches to organization differ primarily to the extent that social sanctions imposed by each have diminishing control conse— quences for the individual members. In the latter two ap- proaches, the individual member may deviate from the norm considerably further than in the "professional association" approach and still remain a member in good standing, although undoubtedly labeled an "Odd ball". In the "professional 55 association", social sanctions, if imposed, can result in serious loss of practice and prestige.1 There are numerous and Specific ways organizations impose group sanctions. For the purposes of this study, they may be thought of as a formal or informal attempt on the part of the general membership to deny recognition, support, approval, status, associations, and/or friendship to the deviant individual(s) until conformity to the group standards is achieved. However, as individual members receive gratification Of their social and egoistic needs, and thus require but small maintenance doses from time to time, they are much less motivated by social strivings and may be freed to move on to higher needs for self—realization and self-fulfillment. (Maslow, 1962) When this situation becomes widespread, that is-—individuals can no longer be controlled simply by imposing group sanctions--then a new View of the general condition Of man, motivation and need satisfaction, human behavior, and organization is needed. The freeing View pI_m§p, There are currently two major views or philOSOphies on the scene, both Of which attempt to "free" man by redefining his general condition in the world. lProfessional associations, pressure groups, and general associations labeled so, but really controlled by a hierarchy are not to be confused with those controlled by the general membership. 56 One is the Old "classical liberal” view based on nautral law, and the other is the "humanistic" view based on a new psycho— logical conception Of man's motivational and need satis- faction system. Both views are grounded upon the following beliefs 1. .All men can become responsible and worthwhile to the extent that their natural talents, capacities, and potentialities can be developed under appro- priate conditions. 2. Man's talents, capacities, and potentialities are infinitely larger than control or guidance philos- ophies have hypothesized. 5. Man's needs for self—determination, self-realiza- tion, and self—fulfillment can be a prime source of motivation for human behavior if freed tO Operate. 4. Right behavior must be determined by the individual if he is to maintain his freedom and realize his own unique talents, capacities, and potentialities. Both Of these freeing views of man are logically dependent upon an implied ”goodness" expressed as natural law in terms Of the classical liberal and a drive toward health on the part Of the humanist, which will naturally guide man in the right direction, thus allowing the smooth func— tioning of organization and society. Although "free organizations" have been relatively rare in western civilization, there are some indications as to what they might lOOk like. Based on the scattered existence of a few organizations which seem to have practices consistent with those logically derived from the basic assumptions of the freeing vieWpOint, the author tentatively postulates three types Of freeing organizations. 57 The "free-network community" consists Of individuals who, although not in close physical proximity, continue to support each other psychologically for increased realization Of their own unique talents and abilities or self—interests. The Eupsychian network outlined by Maslow (1962) is an example Of the humanistic type Of freeing organization. A "free movement" consisting Of individuals who band together to develop a "free community" is the second type. The hippy movement is an example, although this type Of free— ing organization need not take on the dimensions of passivity and drug use which seems tO characterize the present hippy movement. A third type, the "free community", consists Of indi— viduals who truly move toward self-realization and self- fulfillment, and who support each other in this effort. Probably the best known example is the Summerhill school. (Neill, 1960) However, Neill's description of the school and its activities leads the author to believe that it lacked a number Of elements needed to make it a truly humanistic "free community"-—the most notable Of which were 1) a solid support condition among the membership, and 2) new input into the system. THE FREEDOM-CONTROL CONTINUUM The three views Of man and sub—types may be arranged along a continuum to illustrate their relationship. The 58 continuum is framed in terms Of a single outstanding charac- teristic Of organization--the degree Of necessary control-- with a high degree Of control at one end and a high degree Of freedom at the other. See Figure 2 on page 59. For purposes of this study, the sub—types will not be treated any further here, but lumped together under the general headings Of control pupposes, guidance purposes, and freeing purposes.l 1It is interesting to note that the actual purposes to- ward which most organizations move tend to be consistent with their views Of reality. For example, control organizations usually dedicate themselves to the single over-riding pur_ pose of economic profit making. This is consistent with their View Of motivation (average man desires security above all; security results from the satisfaction Of his physical needs which in turn, is dependent upon his prowess as a wage earner). Thus these organizations value capital and economic resources as the things which will control man and insure the organ- ization's survival and stability. Guidance organizations tend to have both economic and social concerns. Often they are dedicated to the prOposition Of serving and improving the public condition Of man. Con- sistent with their views Of motivation (man's social needs for belonging, acceptance, and status are prime motivators Of his behavior) these organizations value the possession Of a repu- tation which draws men in search of "good will" and satisfac— tion Of their social needs (the guidance organization in essence can confer its status to the individual thus helping to satisfy his needs for status) as essential for insuring their survival and stability. Freeing organizations on the other hand, tend to have a multiplicity Of economic, social, and individual purposes. Since motivation in these organizations is viewed in terms Of man's growth needs for autonomy, self-realization, and self— fulfillment, a multiplicity Of organization purposes is con— sistent with the development of the individual member, thus insuring the survival and stability Of the organization. 59 MMMWQOE ZDDZHBZOU QomBZOUIEOQmmmm momomwsm mcflmmum wowomnsm mocmoflso N mmDOHm _ _ psoEo>OE _wcoflumfloowmm mCOHDMHOOmmm _ Houucoo ooum _ Hmuocom Hmzoflmmomonm _ ucoao>ocofl — _ v 1 _ _ _ I _ L %Dfl:DEEOO SDHmDEEOO _ mmsoum _ Houucoo Houucoo ovum MHOBDOQIoOHm _ OHDmmoum _ oeumuosmousn DOOHHO . _ womomusm HOHDCOO 002904.054 4O Commitment and Organization Behavior If we are to fully understand the dynamics of organiza- tion behavior, it is important that we look at individual commitment to the organization-—by commitment is meant a genuine concern on the part of the individual for the general welfare Of the organization membership. For instance, under the control view, the resultant behavior on the part of the administrator will vary greatly depending upon whether he has a high or low level of commitment to the organization. An administrator with a high level of organization commitment will tend to utilize control methods in an impartial, fair manner for the good Of the entire organization. On the other hand, an administrator with a low level Of commitment may tend to utilize control methods in a stop-gap, haphazard. and unsystematic manner to achieve his own advantage. Under the high level approach, subordinates know where they stand and what to expect in the organization. Under the low level approach, subordinates may be unsure Of where they stand and what to expect. Quite different behaviors on the part Of the subordinates will naturally result. Thus, a second dimension—-individual commitment to the organization——may be added tO the freedom—control continuum to form an organization behavior matrix. See Figure 5 on page 41. The theories of organization behavior set forth in this study arise out Of this matrix. 41 The organization behavior matrix identifies six hypo- thetical types Of organization behavior. These six types result from combining, in various ways, two organization variables, 1) the character of purposes toward which indi- vidual members move in the organization along a control- freedom dimension, and 2) the level of commitment or concern individual members hold for the organization. W Autocratic/Control Democratic/Guidance Autonomous/Freein l High | C high commitment, lhigh commitment, lhigh commitment, O control orienta- Iguidance orienta- [freeing orienta- M tion Ition ltion M I _________ ' ________ I T F‘ I " _| “““““ "‘ M low commitment, llow commitment, low commitment, E control orienta- guidance orienta- Ifreeing orienta- N tion tion [tion T I I LOW 1 L FIGURE 5 ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR MATRIX II Further Dimensions 9; Organization Behavior Defined The following are a number Of organization concepts along which the analysis and characterization of organization behavior orientations set forth above, will proceed. They are selected on the basis of their 1) descriptiveness and usefulness in setting forth the theories Of organization 42 behavior, 2) logical functionality to the theoretical model set forth in this study, and 5) importance in understanding organization behavior. Treatment is limited to a definition Of each concept. Communication. Central to the effective functioning Of an organization is the quality Of its communication--that is to say, the sending and receiving of accurate messages and meanings among the organization members and with those outside Of the organization. Important is the notion of conditions which facilitate communication. Non-facilitating conditions tend to result from a lack of trust on the part Of the membership and Often block and distort messages; people look for hidden meanings, add their own interpretations as messages are passed on, or refuse to send or receive certain messages. Facilitating conditions, on the other hand, tend tO result from a high level Of trust which allows the intro- duction Of feedback as a corrective measure. Under these conditions, accurate meanings get conveyed. Also important is the notion Of linkage--that is, the lines of communication between peOple in and outside the organization. Linkages determine who can and will receive what messages. (Nylen, Mitchell, and Stout, 1967) Support. The concept of support refers to the develOp— ment Of conditions Of mutual confidence and trust among organization members. Such conditions may be widespread or nonexistent in the organization. The quality Of communica- tions, level Of commitment, and degree of realized 45 organization purposes are often coversly related to the quality of SUpport conditions in the organization, and many times dependent upon it. (Gibb, 1964) Feedback. If organization members are to move in the direction of realizing their shared and unique organization purposes, free of blockage and frustration caused by other members working at cross purposes, then conditions Of infor- mation exchange involving content about personal behavior, goals, beliefs, and values must be set up and maintained in the organization. The exchange process is called feedback; its intent is to modify behavior. Conditions Of trust and confidence in the organization tend to greatly increase the chances that feedback will be perceived by members as helpful rather than threatening. (Nylen, Mitchell, and Stout, 1967) Input. Essential tO organization is input-~the raw data which organization members utilize to determine, process, and achieve their shared and unique organization purposes. It consists Of information, member performances, expectations, and interactions. Input conditions in an organization may be wide Open or narrowly restricted. The degree Of creativity in the organizations is Often dependent upon the degree Of high level, Open input. If input is low, the creativity tends to be low. (Stogdill, 1959) Output. Output is the end purpose toward which organ- ization members move; it is the realiZed goals and Objectives. Output may be thought Of as products, attitudes, or 44 interactions. The quality Of organization output is dependent upon a host Of factors in the organization--input, communica— tions, support, resources, leadership. As with input, it may be wide Open or tightly regulated. (Stogdill, 1959) Choice. -A crucial determinent Of organization behavior, especially in the areas Of morale and commitment, is the conditions Of choice in an organization. One can normally expect that far different behaviors will result depending upon whether choice conditions are regulated by 1) the organ- ization hierarchy, 2) a general consensus Of the membership, or 5) the individual member. Choice, as it is used in this study, may be thought Of as the actual possibility on the part of the organization members to select alternative inputs, communication linkages, modes of action and interaction, and outputs. Conflict. The capacity to air and Openly resolve con— flict—-defined here as overt disagreement between two or more people—-to the mutual benefit Of those involved is important to the effective and efficient functioning Of an organization. Often, conditions for conflict resolution in the organization range from avoidance and SUppression techniques to out and out win/lose struggles and power plays. These may have detrimental consequences upon the organization's ability to achieve its goals and Objectives. (Blake, Shepard, and Mouton, 1964) 4:5 SIX ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR ORIENTATIONS The High Commitment, Control Orientation Individuals with a high commitment, control orientation attempt to achieve their own and the organization's advantage through hierarchial regulation of organization's activities and relationships. The following beliefs are the basis Of their behavior: 1. .The mass Of organization members are like children-- lazy, selfish, and irresponsible—-who must be di- rected and controlled if there is to be any order, stability, and purpose in the organization. 2. Like children, the average organization member must be cared for, looked after, protected from himself and others, and rewarded and punished to steer him in the right direction in the organization. 5. This direction and control must come from those few .individuals in the organization who have achieved human superiority by methods Of self-contrOl--denying their own natural‘and childish impulses toward sloth, selfishness, and irresponsibility, and substituting the mature virtues Of hard work, determination, ambition, and concern for others. 4. Right behavior in the organization is determined by tradition which has at its base the notion Of "SUper human" achievement; behavior is right behavior if it is in line with the ideal. Input. Under the high commitment, control orientation the individual believes that those at the tOp Of the organ- ization hierarchy know what is best and is therefore content to leave decisions about what kinds Of information, raw ma- terials, member performances, eXpectations, and interactions are to be fed into the organization to them. Those at the top Of the hierarchy make all of the policy decisions taking 46 into account both their own Objectives and what they think will be good for the general membership. In reality, what is good for the general membership is thought to be order and stability. These are achieved by providing subordinates with a high degree Of data about organizational eXpectations, performance standards, and consequences in case of failure to perform at appropriate levels. There is little question as far as the subordinate is concerned about his place and task in the organization, how he is tO perform, and what will happen to him if he does not. This gives him security and leads tO increased order, stability, and control within the organization. Communication. Under the high commitment, control orientation the individual believes his role to be one Of accepting orders from his superiors and carrying them out eXplicitly. This is the extent Of communication. Little information goes back up the chain Of command except reports or results. Messages which come down the organization hier- archy are usually written so that there is less chance Of misinterpretation. If the subordinate is not clear about the meaning Of the communique, he attempts tO clear it up before acting. Interaction between subordinates is viewed, by individuals holding this orientation, to be wasteful and time consuming. It is not needed and cuts into one's pro- ductiveness. Thus, there is little attempt to communicate informally in the organization. 47 Support. Under the high commitment, control orienta- tion the individual believes he must always support his direct superior except in cases where a higher authority is involved, in which case he is expected to side with the high— est authority. In the same vein, he expects his boss to support him except in cases where a higher authority directly orders to the contrary. Other supportive relationships, especially those between subordinates, are thought to be in- efficient and nonproductive, and are thus avoided. The belief at the base Of this is that social and self-realization needs are not part of the make-up Of the average man and thus little attention need be paid to setting up supportive conditions in the organization to satisfy these needs. Conflict. Conflict under this orientation is believed to be inefficient, unproductive, and a threat tO the stabil- ity and order Of the organization. As a result, individuals holding this orientation attempt to arrange organization con— ditions in such a way as to discourage conflict. Each indi— vidual in the organization answers to only one immediate superior. Orders are tO come down the chain Of command. Each individual knows his place and task in the organization. Rules for grievance procedures are clearly Spelled out, etc. When conflict does appear, it is arbitrated by the authority Of hierarchy. Choice. Under the high commitment, control orientation the individual rules out choice as an important concept since 48 if the average man had his choice, he would always choose to do the minimum required. Only those at the top Of the organization who have overcome their natural condition Of irresponsibility are thought to have the right to make choices. Feedback. Since the individual with this orientation assumes that the average individual in the organization has little tO Offer in terms Of intelligent decision making, feedback provisions are almost totally lacking. The only feedback that tOp level authority receives is whether the job was completed as ordered or not. It is also assumed under this orientation, that the average individual in the organization does not know what is really gOOd for him. As a result, there is little reality testing on the part Of hier— archy in the organization--that is to say, the tOp level authorities rarely check out with subordinates whether their actions were appropriate in really satisfying the needs and interests of the membership to which the superiors thought they were addressing themselves. Output. Under this orientation, the individual believes that output without efficiency is in the long run unproductive and wasteful. Thus, organizational conditions are arranged so that the most output can be achieved with the least direct social and economic cost. Indirect costs are seldom con- sidered because it is believed speculation Of what might occur is inefficient. A "pragmatic" attitude Of, "We'll face the 49 problems when they actually arise,‘ prevails. It is believed that a pyramid organization with one Of a few men in control is the most efficient means Of running an organization. Thus, it is the top level authority Of the organization who must decide the nature and level Of output. Subordinates simply carry out orders to achieve the superiors' expecta- tions. The Low Commitment, Control Orientation Individuals Operating with a low commitment, control orientation attempt to achieve their own advantage through hierarchial regulation Of organization activities and rela- tionships. Often, this means advantage at others or the organization's expense. The following beliefs are the basis Of their behavior. 1. The mass Of organization members are inferior crea- tures--stupid, lazy, selfish, irresponsible, and untrustworthy--who must be directed and controlled by coercion if there is tO be any order, stability, and purpose in the organization. 2. There is little hOpe that the average organization member can ever become anything more than stupid, lazy, etc., since these are inherent character traits which are impossible to change. 5. Those who control the organization are born superior and thus have the right to manipulate others to their own advantage. Right behavior is determined by power—-"might makes right". Input. Under the low commitment, control orientation the individual believes the less input the better. A sub- ordinate can thus remain emotionally inert in the organiza- tion, only doing what is absolutely required. As long as he 50 keeps out Of the superior's sight and does exactly as he is told, he is not likely to upset the superior and can thus achieve his own advantage, whether it be withdrawal into a fantasy world or receiving a paycheck in return for minimum energy expenditure. From the superior's viewpoint, it is believed that the best way to control an organization is to keep people on the defensive. This is accomplished by feed- ing into the organization only minimum data about eXpecta- tions, performance standards, and consequences of failure to perform. This condition keeps subordinates who want tO please the boss or avoid punishment in a constant state Of anxiety. Fearful that they are not meeting organization standards and expectations, they are highly susceptible to control and manipulation through threat tactics. Communication. Individuals holding a low commitment, control orientation discourage communication except as mere message sending. Subordinates try to stay out of the main— stream Of interaction as much as possible. The more incon- spicuous the subordinate can make himself, the less likely the axe Of authority is to fall on him. Since one word to anybody but one's own direct supervisor may be interpreted by others as plotting against them, informal communication is rare. From the superior's viewpoint, minimum communication frought with ambiguities, double and covert meanings, keeps subordinates on the defensive, and also provides the superior with an out—-the subordinate did not understand and carry 51 out orders, therefore, naturally he is to blame, not the superior. For this reason, messages are rarely written but handed down the chain Of command verbally. This allows the superior tO rationalize that his message was clear without being confronted with written proof that it was not. Support. Support is almost a non-existent concept for the individual Operating with a low commitment, control orientation. Since, he does not really trust anyone but himself, support is viewed with suspicion. Individuals who attempt to be SUpportive Of the person with this orientation are thought tO have evil intentions cloaked behind a front Of love, affection, and sweetness. Individuals who form supportive relationships in the organization are perceived as automatically plotting the seeds Of conspiracy. Fear, and distrust pervade the emotional make—up Of the person with this orientation. Conflict. Under this orientation, conflict is something to be avoided or suppressed. From the subordinate's view- point, it is something to be avoided since expression Of it may bring down the axe Of authority. Thus, should fight conditions appear, the low commitment, control men will with— draw, or if that is not possible, stay neutral in the situa- tion. From the superior's viewpoint, conflict may be something tO be avoided or suppressed depending upOn how much it threatens his own position in the hierarchy. If getting involved in the fight might mean loss Of power and 52 control, he is likely to turn his back on it, and let it burn itself out, or let someone else put out the fire by ducking responsibility for the problem. However, in most cases, the superior simply supresses the conflict by posing consequences for failure to terminate the fight which are far worse than the tensions which originally produced it, or by simply separating the parties involved. Choice. The concept Of choice is nonexistent under the low commitment, control orientation for everyone in the organization except those few at the top who control it. Subordinates see their place in the organization as one Of accepting orders, doing what they are told, and giving no "back lip". The essential difference between the high and low commitment, control orientations is that the choices made by tOp level Officials with high commitment, control orientations tend to reflect much more concern for the welfare Of the general membership than do the choices Of the tOp level Officials operating with low commitment, control orientations. Feedback. Feedback under this orientation is non- existent. Since the individual with a low commitment, control orientation is only concerned for his own advantage, he has little concern for how his behavior affects others. Output. Individuals with a low commitment, control orientation attempt to regulate output to their own advantage. From the subordinate‘s point Of view, it means expending the 55 least amount Of energy to stay in the organization with the least direct cost to himself. This means that output is low unless the authority in the organization is willing to coerce members with this orientation to produce at high levels. Superiors may View output from one Of two perspec- tives, depending upon their Objectives in the organization. If their Objective is one Of high profit and productivity, then members are coerced by threat and punishment to produce at high levels. Since input is also low under this orien- tation, the general membership may be burning themselves out especially if they are working without proper rest, nourishment, or under conditions Of high emotional stress and strain. On the other hand, if their Objective is to main- tain power in the organization with little concern for ef- ficiency, then the general membership may be coerced to produce at lowest levels thus keeping activity in the organization to a minimum. Here, the assumption is that with minimum activity, one also minimizes those activities which might ultimately undermine authority. The High Commitment, Guidance Orientation Individuals Operating with high commitment, guidance orientations attempt to achieve their own and the organiza- tion's advantage simultaneously through arrangements in which the general membership regulate organization activities and relationships. The following are basic beliefs: 54 1. Most organization members can become responsible, worthwhile people if given the right kind Of support and guidance from others. 2. Influence and status among one's fellows--that is to say, those who provide the support and guidance--is to be determined by group agreement according to such criteria as ability, knowledge, and commitment to others. 5. Since the develOpment Of organization members is based on receiving the proper support and guidance from others who have influence and status in the organization, right behavior is to be group deter- mined according tO the dictum, "each member helping to contribute tO the development Of his fellows.” Input. Under the high commitment, guidance orientation the individual believes that the general membership, through consensus or majority vote, should be the judge of what kinds Of information, performance standards, expectations, sanc- tions, and interactions are to be fed into the organization to achieve their common purposes. The individual Operating with this orientation displays a genuine concern for the maintenance and satisfaction Of the general membership's physiological and social needs. Since he views a high level Of input as essential tO reduce anxiety and meet and maintain needs, considerable emphasis is placed on providing suppor— tive relationships and spelling out membership performance requirements and expectations conducive to the harmonious functioning Of the organization. Communication. The individual with a high commitment, guidance orientation participates in three types Of commun- ication activities. 1) He enters into informal social con- versation designed to share thoughts, feelings, and 55 eXperiences which raise his and other's credibility, status, and influence in the group; 2) he enters into situations in which the communication is designed to align forces over an impending issue; 5) he enters into formal debate and dis- cussion on issues which arise in the general assembly. Each Of the communication activities is characterized by a high degree Of respect for the collective Opinion Of his fellows. even if they are his direct adversaries. Support. Under this orientation, support from one's fellow members is viewed as essential to the maintenance of order, stability and achievement Of purpose in the organiza- tion. Social need satisfaction for support, status, recogn nition, etc., is believed to be the prime source Of motivation in the organization. As a result, members with a high com- mitment, guidance orientation are often engaged in looking out for their fellow's interests, helping others achieve their goals, and being helped. Conflict. The individual Operating with a high commit— ment, guidance orientation views conflict with apprehension. Fearful that it may rip the membership apart and split the organization, he spends tremendous energies mobilizing the group to discuss, debate and settle the conflict without injustice tO either side. Candor prevails in the confron- tation but disagreement is most generally worked out by compromise. The higher his commitment to the organization, the more likely he is to stay at it until the conflict is 56 worked out to every member's satisfaction. This Often requires hours Of debate and negotiations, and a tremendous outlay of group energies. Choice. Choice is a reality for the individual who subscribes to group regulation of organization activities and relationships, but it is restricted to those choices which the general membership can agree upon and thus sanction. The individual member is provided the Opportunity to influence the decision-making by voicing his Opinion, mobilizing sup- port, and voting for his choices, but if they are defeated by the majority he must refrain from them or be ostracized by his fellows. Feedback. Feedback requires considerable confidence and trust among organization members if it is not to be distorted or viewed as personal attack. Since, under the high commitment, guidance orientation, the individual places his trust in the majority Of the membership rather than in Single individuals in the organization, individual feedback is likely to be viewed with suspicion or as inaccurate, and thus misinterpreted or disregarded. Only feedback resulting from a collective Opinion Of the general membership carries any weight, and this is listened tO with intensity. Output. Under this orientation, the individual believes that output should be regulated by the general membership. His task is tO participate in formally and informally setting the norms and standard for conduct and performance, 57 but he and others must ultimately abide by the group decision. Deviations are corrected by the imposition of social sanc— tions ranging from covert disapproval to overt rejection and exclusion from membership in the organization. As need sat— isfaction under this orientation is high, the output level also tends to be high. The Low Commitment, Guidance Orientation Individuals Operating with a low commitment, guidance orientation attempt to achieve their own advantage through arrangement in which the general membership regulates organ— ization activities and relationships. Often this means achieving their advantage even at the expense Of the organi- zation. The following are basic beliefs: 1. The average individual in the organization can become worthwhile if he develops the skills and abilities to rise in influence and status among his fellows in the organization. 2. Influence and status are simply fronts which one must acquire to gain his advantage and are depend- ent upon one's ability to manipulate group norms and purposes to his own advantage without being recog- nized. 5. Right behavior is that which gets one ahead Of others in the organization while at the same time, maintain- ing acceptable relations with one's fellows. (See Berne's Games People Play, 1964.) Input. The individual Operating under the low commitment, guidance orientation believes that no one in the organization is going to look out for his interest but himself. As a result, little attention is paid to meeting or maintaining other's needs unless he gets something in return. 58 The individual under this orientation learns to be an expert "game player." (Berne, 1964) If one is tO be successful in the organization, he must be able to psyche others out and beat them at their own game. Thus the whole Of social inter- action is viewed by a person with this orientation as a series Of deceptive fronts which cloak one's real desires to win by putting others down. Trust under this orientation is almost nonexistent. As a result, little attention is paid to providing the kinds Of input necessary to build supportive and healthy relationships or reduce anxieties and frustrations by spelling out clear performance standards and expectations. It is simply assumed that everyone is playing a deceptive game, and the best at it wins the rewards Of moving the organization to his advantage without its realization. Communication. "Game playing" is carried on in communi- cation activities under the low commitment, guidance orien- tation. Unlike the high commitment, guidance orientation, little candor typifies the face to face relations between those with low commitment to the organization. The individ~ ual is always trying to second guess what needs to be communicated to achieve his own advantage and "stay in good with the boys." As a result, high attention is paid to receiving and interpreting non-verbal communications such as gestures, facial expressions, etc., and seeking the double and implied meanings Of verbal or written communications. However, the individual must always be on guard not tO reveal 59 his own thoughts and feelings which if uncovered might do him in among his fellows. Deception is the key to under— standing the communication behavior of the individual under this orientation. SUpport. Individuals under this orientation attempt to create a front of supportive behavior in their face to face relationships; but behind the back, these supportive relations all but cease to exist as they attempt to work their own advantage by aligning forces, destroying credibility, and driving wedges between members who might work to COOpt their own credibility. Support is based on the "immediency Of need" rather than rational tenets of friendship or mutual trust and advantage. Conflict. The individual with a low commitment, guidance orientation fears conflict because it might force him to take a public stand or choose sides, both Of which could easily destroy his cover and end his "game". When conflict does occur, the individual with this orientation attempts to smother it with sweetness and pleasantries. If successful, he buries it beneath benevolence. The attempt is always to turn the conflict to his own advantage through social manipu- lation. The game player may be likened to a marshmallow. When conflict hits him, he is able to absorb the shock, gives little indication he has a center, and come out Of the con- flict just as soft and "marshmallowy" as when he went in. 6O Choice. Since each man is to look after himself in the social mix, the individual who Operates under the low com- mitment, guidance orientation has only those choices Open to him which he can create through social manipulation. In reality, his choices are most Often dictated by the situa- tion--tO keep his cover he must do what is apprOpriate. Feedback. Feedback does not exist for the individual with this orientation. He tends to distrust for two reasons, 1) it leads to Openness which would uncover his real motives in the organization, and (from his perception) end his membership, and 2) those who give it are assumed to be play— ing their own game. The person under this orientation seldom tests reality. In this sense he is somewhat Of an honest game player since he believes that this is the only way intelligent people behave. If people behave Openly, then in his View, they are "poor, stupid, imbeciles" who deserve being taken advantage of. Output. As in the high commitment, guidance orienta— tion the individual assumes that the general membership will set the norms and standards for production. If he is to get his share Of the pie, it is up to him to manipulate things to his advantage. Since most Of his energies are consumed behind the scene activities, actual output under this orien— tation is low.1 lThe "game player" may exhibit much more passive be- havior than has been described here, in which "conformity“ is the key descriptive term used to characterize the orien— tation. The cover the "conformist game player" must protect 61 The High Cpmmitment, Freeing Orientation Individuals Operating with a high commitment, freeing orientation attempt to achieve their own and the organiza- tion's advantage through individual initiation and regulation of organization activities and relationships. The following are basic beliefs: 1. Every member Of the organization is worthwhile just because he is a human being, but can become irre- sponsible, and selfish--the symptoms Of ill mental health--as a result Of need deprivation. 2. -Each organization member has unique talents, capaci- ties, and potentialities which, to be develOped fully, are dependent Upon the fulfillment of his psychological, social, egoistic, and self-realization needs in that order. 5. Growth toward health does not proceed automatically. Although there is a strong drive toward health in every individual, it may be blocked by need depriva— tion; if the individual is to "grow forward" he will need an Open and supportive environment con- ducive to total need satisfaction. 4. Right behavior can be individually determined when conditions Of need deprivation have been eliminated since man's innate drive toward health serves to guide the direction Of his actions in a positive, constructive vein. Input. Under the high commitment, freeing orientation the individual is responsible for determining input into the organization. It is assumed by those with a high commitment, freeing orientation, that only the individual can know what kinds Of information, performance standards, eXpectations, is that of always wanting tO be on the winning side. Convic— tion, principle, and forthrightness are completely lacking in his personal make-up due to the fact that they may cause him to be on the defensive thus producing deep anxiety. 62 etc., are appropriate for his own development in the organi- zation. However, the individual is not left solely to his own resources to determine these things. Since input is believed tO be essential for the maintenance of a free choice situation conducive to realization Of man's highest needs for self—fulfillment, individuals with this orientation take the initiative tO provide rich and varied resources, continuously high levels of information, and intense and quality interactions needed to promote learning and growth. Communication. Individuals with a high commitment, free— ing orientation View communication with others as essential for the maintenance Of an environment conducive tO their own personal development. Linkage with others and Open informa» tion flow are maintained at the highest possible levels. Empathetic listening is one Of the most practiced skills. Debate is thought to be an outmoded concept since it serves to block communication by providing winners and losers. Communication which achieves understanding Of another's posi- tion is the aim. It is then up to the individual to change or modify his beliefs or values. He is not ostracized by others or pressured to conform as in the guidance orienta— tions. His own unique way Of being is fully accepted. SUpport. Under this orientation, the individual does not Often need support since he is ”fully functioning” and little dependent upon others except for maintenance doses Of love and affection. However, he is always supportive Of 65 others if they need it. And he seeks support from others when he needs it. .Support under this orientation is a latent powerhouse Of energy--it comes in full force only when it is needed, but it is always there. Conflict. Unlike the guidance orientation which almost forces the individual to choose sides and enter into the confrontation when conflict arises, conflict when it arises under this orientation is settled by and between the parties involved. Others are simply eXpected to stay out of the situation unless the parties involved cannot seem to resolve it, and need the Observations and feedback from impartial parties not involved in the conflict for clarification Of the difficulties. Choice. The individual holding a high commitment, freeing orientation initiates organization activities and relationships conducive tO his own development in a free choice setting based on his own needs. Free choice is be- lieved tO be an essential and key concept for the individual realization of one's own unique talents, capacities, and potentialities. Free choice under this orientation is a reality since, not only does the individual have his own highly developed "ways and means" as important avenues Of choice, but also the Opportunity to tie into the "ways and means" of others which multiply and increase manyfold the avenues Of activity Open to him. 64 .Feedback. The individual with a high commitment, free- ing orientation views feedback as a key and essential ingredient for correcting belief and perceptual distortions which can inhibit his movement toward health. Feedback becomes, under this orientation, a vital on-going activity as organization members constantly check out the effects Of their behavior on others. Since trust is high under this orientation, feedback is seldom if ever viewed as a personal attack. Rather it is welcomed by the individual who re- ceives it as helpful information which he may utilize to change his beliefs, values, and behavior, or disregard as inapprOpriate to his own unique needs and situation. Since the individual giving the feedback has no stake in the recipient other than to see him develop to his fullest po- tential, the feedback is only Offered when asked for, and then without qualification. If it is helpful to the recipient, SO much the better. If it is disregarded, it does not hurt his feelings or prestige. The assumption is always that the individual knows what is best for himself. The responsibility Of others in the organization is to re- flect their concern and caring for his being, but not to direct or attempt to control him. Output. Under the high commitment, freeing orientation the individual rather than the group as in the guidance orientations, decides what activities, products, and end states Of existence he will devote himself to, and then 65 expends the entirety of his energies to their realization. Since resources are abundant, and he can bring his own unique talents to bear Upon them, his output is extremely high. The Low Commitment, Freeing Orientation Individuals Operating with a low commitment, freeing orientation attempt to achieve their own advantage through individual initiative and regulation Of the organization activities and relationships. This may mean achievement Of their own advantage even at the expense Of the organization. The following are basic beliefs: 1. All organization members ought to have equal Oppor- tunities to develop their own unique talents, capa— cities and potentialities. However, others are not to interfere in any way with their natural development. 2. Organization, therefore, is an unnatural condition of man, but one that is necessary to protect the individual from those who would interfere in his natural develOpment. 5. The condition Of freedom for self—development is best promoted in those organizations which leave the members to self-regulation based on the natural laws Of self-interest. Organization interference in man's affairs should be minimized to let natural law, i.e., SUpply and demand, survival of the fit— test, etc., determine right behavior. Input. Under the low commitment, freeing orientation the individual believes the "least organization is the best organization." Although he believes that some organization is necessary for his own protection from others who would 66 control him.if they could, he has fears that even the organi- zation designed solely to protect his natural rights may become coercive. He fears that a collection Of individuals within the organization may begin to develOp the power to restrict his freedom. As a result, he is always on the defensive and distrustful of the organization. With the emphasis on "watch dogging" the organization, little atten— tion is paid to input. Except for protection of one's natural rights, it is assumed that everyone is on his own in the organization. An attitude Of laissez-faire prevails under this orientation. Communication. Under this orientation, no subject is Off limits, nor is the formal or informal communication net- work denied to any member. However, because of the individ— uals's attempt to decrease and keep to a minimum, organiza- tional structuring, communication linkage is low--members simply do not interact with each other frequently--which in turn tends to restrict both the quantity and quality Of information flow. The individual in this orientation tends to be a loner, dependent upon only his own resources for existence. In addition, Since the individual under this orientation is really only interested in his own interests, there is very little real listening. Empathy is a little understood and less used concept. SUpport. The person with a low commitment, freeing orientation the individual rarely requires SUpport except 67 when his safety is threatened, or when it is to his advantage to ally himself for a short time with another. However, the alliance is viewed as terminal and is dropped as soon as it begins to control or direct his existence. Independence and self-sufficiency are key values under this orientation. Conflict. The individual with this orientation stays out Of conflict as long as it does not directly concern his well-being. When it occurs between others, he is more will- ing to let it run its course and settle itself. Under no conditions is he willing to get involved if it is not his fight or to his direct advantage to dO so. TO get involved, especially in a feud between other individuals with low com- mitment, freeing orientation means finding oneself the brunt Of the hostility for interfering. Likewise, he eXpects others to stay out of his fights unless it is directly to his ad- vantage for them to join. When he is involved in conflict-- usually stimulated by tOO much regulation Of his natural rights--he is willing to let the chips fall where they may. Confident that he will come out the winner, he little fears conflict. Choice. Under the low commitment, freeing orientation choice is Open but because Of the stress on independence and self-sufficiency choices tend to be restricted to those activities and end states of existence which require little involvement Of others. In reality, this may tend to restrict 68 free choice.1 Feedback. With the individual's lack Of trust for the organization under this orientation, it is natural that feedback is almost nonexistent. The individual with a low commitment, freeing orientation is likely to view feedback as outside interference and an encroachment Upon his freedom to do as he pleases. In this View, feedback is automatically interpreted as an attempt by organization tO pressure him into changing against his wishes. Output. .As in the high commitment, freeing orientation the individual determines the nature and extent Of his pro- ductivity. However, unlike the high commitment, freeing orientation, the individual under this orientation has only his own resources and those he can muster individually in his support to realize his Objectives. As a result, output is Often considerably lower than under the high commitment, freeing orientation. Summary This chapter, identified and described two key variables found in all organization, 1) the character of purposes 1We are reminded Of an eXperimental teacher education program which Offered free choice to its participant. However, the dictum in the program was, "DO whatever you want, but do it yourself." The experience became so frustrating that many participants "drOpped out" either physically or in spirit. Free choice under these conditions“actually meant two bhoices, 1) do it yourself, or 2) drop out. 69 toward which organization members move, and 2) the level Of commitment or concern which members hold for the organiza- tion. These two variables were combined to postulate and characterize six organization behavior orientations, 1) high commitment, control, 2) low commitment, control, 5) high commitment, guidance, 4) low commitment, guidance, 5) high commitment, freeing, and 6) low commitment, freeing. Seven concepts used in the analysis Of the six orientations were identified and defined. They were 1) communication, 2) support, 5) feedback, 4) input, 5) output, 6) choice, and 7) conflict. (See Appendix on page 105 for summary chart comparing each Of the six behavior orientations.) CHAPTER IV DEVELOPING A MODEL FOR SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT The six orientations described in Chapter II are pppe types--that is, we would not expect to find individuals in the organization who believe and behave exactly as the orientations are characterized. Behavior is much more com- plex and fluid than these descriptions indicate. It is also important that we do not view these orientations as fixed personality types. Quite the contrary; in many cases, individuals in organizations change, sometimes rapidly, from one orientation to another as a result of new experiences, alterations Of beliefs, purposes, values, and assumptions about organization behavior.l 1In fact, there is a common organization phenomenon which the author has Observed many times over that needs to be treated here. The phenomenon is the ability Of an individual within the same organization to hold simultaneously two or more orientations. The author is reminded Of numerous high school coaches who utilized a "control” orientation in the class- room and a "guidance" or "freeing" orientation on the foot- ball field Or vice—versa. They, seemingly with little diffi— culty, were able to switch from one view Of students in the classroom as unmotivated and irresponsible to a second view Of students on the football field as highly motivated and responsible. In one instance they attempt to instill dis- cipline by controlling behavior; in the other they attempt 7O 71 FORCES AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ORIENTATIONS Let us set forth some of the forces within 1) the individual, 2) the organization Of which he is a member, and 5) the culture surrounding the organization which help to contribute to the development Of individual behavior orientations. Those may be thought Of as 1) internal forces—- personality, needs, beliefs, training, and 2) external forces--role expectations, traditions, pressure groups, norms, environmental pressures. The intent is tO set forth briefly those forces which a model Of school organization development must contend with if it is to be successful. The school as an organization is used, in some instances, for illustrative purposes. Internal Forces The individual member's personality as developed by childhood rearing practices tends tO predispose him to adopt certain behavior orientations. If as a child he is reared in a controlled fashion-—that is, his behavior is regulated to develop leadership and self—initiative by freeing behavior. In many cases the same students who are freed on the football field are controlled in their classrooms. TO understand the phenomenon, we take a perceptual ap- proach. We must understand that the person does not see the situations, i.e., football field with freedom and classroom with control as inconsistent. For him they are two unrelated environments which call for different kinds Of assumptions and behavior. As long as he focuses on the situations and not on the end results, he need never see his beliefs and be— haviors as inconsistent and working at cross purposes. 72 by others through the use Of positive and negative reen- forcements--under conditions Of concern and caring for his well-being, then the chances are that he will adopt the same high commitment, control attitude and behavior toward others. On the other hand, if he is reared in a free environment-- that is, others encourage him to make his own decisions and assume responsibility for his own behavior--under conditions Of concern and caring for his well-being, then the chances are that he will adOpt a concerned, freeing attitude toward others, and so on. (Blake and Mouton, 1964) The individual member's needs affect his behavior. If a teacher or student is Operating under conditions Of physio- logical, social, Or egoistic need deprivation, then he will be less able to determine his behavior rationally than under conditions in which these needs are fulfilled. (Maslow, 1962) Beliefs (defined as internal ”states Of eXpectancy con— cerning reality," Rokeach, 1968), especially about oneself and his relationship to others, tend to predispose the adop- tion of certain orientations. If a teacher believes that he is a very worthwhile and adequate person, then he will tend tO behave toward others as though he has something to Offer them. On the other hand, if he views himself as worth— less and inadequate, then he will tend to withdraw from others, Often be unable to receive or give love, support, etc. (Rokeach, 1968) 75 Perceptions affect behavior. If an administrator per— ceives that significant others dislike him the way he is, even though in reality they may like his natural and spon- taneous behavior, he will tend to restrain his natural im- pulses and attempt tO behave in ways which he thinks they will prefer. (Combs, 1962) A member's training in schools and colleges affect his behavior. Training in only one mode or system Of thought, action, and values tends to restrict a teacher's or student's awareness Of what is possible, and as a result, his creativ— ity and willingness to experiment with new modes Of thought and behavior. On the other hand, a wide exposure to con- trasting models will tend to encourage experimentation. (Blake and Mouton, 1964) External Forces A number Of intra—organizational forces come into play to contribute to the development of particular behavior orientations. For instance, if those who are influential or in control Of the school, i.e., administrators, supervisors, department chairmen, hold a high commitment, control orien— tation, then subordinates or less influentials, i.e., teachers and students will tend to receive a good deal of pressure to adopt the same orientation. (See Rokeach, 1968, on the principle of belief congruence.) Peer groups and peers also tend to put a good deal of pressure on each other to adOpt a particular orientation. 74 If the majority Of the school faculty utilize a "subject- centered" control approach in their classrooms, then the "student-centered" guidance approach and "choice-centered" freeing approaches tend to be frowned upon. Those who employ them are subjected to criticism and vice-versa. Subordinates, i.e., students and teachers, provide not SO Obvious but just as real pressures upward as do the administrators downward. If the majority Of the students in a classroom or the teachers in a building believe that the curriculum ought to be prescribed rather than allowed tO develop or emerge out of the students' interests, then the guidance and emergent methodologies will tend to be met with resistance. Apathy, indifference, refusals to partici— pate, non-cooperation, and outright rebellion may come to pervade the classroom or school building. Norms, traditions, and cultural values within the school tend to discourage change. Fearful that change may bring with it more bad than good, an attitude Of l'we have always done things this way,” can prevail against the most efficient and effective of new practices. (Blake and Mouton, 1969) A number Of inter—organizational forces also come into play. For instance, institutions Of higher learning tend to put pressure on school by setting entrance requirements which reflect a particular orientation, Often Of a control nature. Thus if secondary schools want to send a good number of their students on to college, they are encouraged to conform. 75 Lawmakers place requirements on schools which make it mandatory or against the law to engage in certain activities. These requirements significantly affect the develOpment Of one organization behavior orientation over another, Often Of a control nature. Vocal community members who are influential with the school board, administration, or teachers Often have vested interests in an orientation which they would like the school tO adOpt. Self-made businessmen, small company managers, and some professionals Often reflect the tough "puritan task- master" control orientation and push for schools to adopt curricula and teaching practices which help children learn the necessity for Obedience to authority. On the other hand. others in the community--Often college educated mothers, psychologists, social workers, etc.—-react negatively tO the control approach and counter by advocating a "meet the needs Of the child” guidance or freeing approach. The result is that often the school works out a compromise situation to appease both factions. (Curry, 1969) Environmental conditions surrounding the school such as poverty, racial strife, lack Of human resources, can be barriers and sometimes aids in the development Of one orien— tation over another. 76 IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPING A MODEL FOR SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Above, three sets Of forces which affect organization development efforts have been indicated, 1) individual forces, 2) external intra-organization forces, 5) external inter- organizational forces. Logically it can be inferred then, that if those who desire organization change and development really expect change and development to occur, plans must include strategies to alter 1) the internal individual forces which ready the individual for change, 2) the external intra— organization forces which actually permit the individual to change, and 5) the external inter-organizational forces which allow the develOping organization to modify its structural and cultural components. Blake and Mouton (1969) support this view. They have pointed out that individual behavior change is extremely difficult, if not impossible, unless the organization culture Of which the individual is a part is willing to accept the change. It is imperative, they point out, for those involved in the planning Of change, to realize that the organization, i.e., the school, develops a characteristic cultural orien— tation; having develOped the orientation, the organization tends tO discourage, through formal and informal means, those who would behave differently from the established norms, customs, traditions, and values from doing so. 77 The following is taken from their most recent publica- tion: (Blake and Mouton, 1969) In our view, reliance on cultural knowns is the largest single block to organization progress. Corp— orate culture, perhaps more than any other aspect Of organization life, is the cause Of organization illness. Men see only what they know and they place greatest re- liance on what they see. Cultural values shape their awareness and prevailing cultural norms heavily influ— ence their conduct. Alchin (1969) also supports these perceptions, and goes on tO suggest that key controllers in linking organizations Often impinge upon the organization's ability to alter its cultural values and norms. He points out that most organi- zations in our society are interdependent——in many cases dependent upon each other. For example, the school is de- pendent upon local community support for financial stability, interdependent with the colleges and universities, and dependent upon certifying agencies for accreditation. In his view, it is unrealistic to expect change to occur if consider— ation has not been paid to these forces, and especially, the key controllers Of organizations which help to mobilize these forces for or against change. Since the three sets Of forces, 1) individual, 2) intra- organization, and 5) inter—organizational, are interrelated in the change process, it logically follows that a change model must simultaneously Operate at all three levels. Not only must the individual be encouraged and helped to change, but the entire organization membership, and in some cases, the key controllers of linking influential organizations, 78 must simultaneously, participate in a combined effort tO see the school organization differently-~to redefine those cul- tural practices and norms which are not in keeping with knowledge and beliefs of a verified scientific nature. The approach suggested here, and which is outlined in some detail later in this Chapter, is a combined effort on the part Of the organization membership, i.e., teachers, administrators, students, and key controllers in influential linking organizations, to improve seven conditions in the school--input, output, support, choice, communication, feed— back, and conflict resolution. This approach is based on a hypothesis that, if the above seven conditions are raised to higher functional levels within the school organization, individual commitment tO the organization will increase; with increased commitment to the organization, there will be less need for control, thus allowing control measures to be de—emphasized and freedom to be accentuated. The approach also asks organization members to begin to 1) understand their own behavior in terms Of its humanizing and dehumanizing effects on themselves and others, and 2) map out plans for entering into personal growth eXperiences and activities. This second part of the approach is based on a hypothesis that individuals within the organization will need tO learn and relearn ways of perceiving reality before they can per— sonally begin to make effective use Of higher functional levels Of input, output, communication, support, feedback, 79 choice, and conflict resolution, to satisfy their needs which in turn will have the effect of increasing commitment to the organization. COMPARISON OF THE EMERGENT AND GRID ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES Perhaps the above Emergent approach (as the author has termed it) can best be understood by comparing it with Blake and Mouton's Grid approach. The Grid Approach pp Organization Development The Grid approach requires organization members to formulate an agreed-upon 1) "ideal strategic model" Of what the organization "should be," and 2) appraisal Of what Ip actually the case. The five Grid theories Of managerial behavior develOped by Blake and Mouton (1964) are utilized to provide a framework for the formulation Of both the IgegI and actual. Then participants compare the IdegI_with the actual to gain an awareness of "gaps and discrepancies,” and plan strategies aimed at closing the "gaps and discrep- ancies." The result, say Blake and Mouton, is organization excellence. (Blake and Mouton, 1968) Box 2 on page 80 is a summary statement Of the six phase Grid approach as presented in Corporate Excellence Through Grid Organization Development. (Blake and Mouton, 1968) 80 1. Grid Seminar 5. Planning and Implemen— Organization members tation learn theories Of behavior For each definable on a one-by-One basis. business segment, planning teams use 2. Teamwork DevelOpment management science Work teams apply Grid and technology to de- theories to increase sign and line organi— their effectiveness. zation to change its Operations by imple— 5. Intergroup Development menting the Operational Organized units that must specifications for each COOperate to achieve re— business segment. sults apply Grid theories to increase effectiveness 6. Systematic Critique with which they coordinate The total effort is effort. evaluated in order to review and consolidate 4. DevelOping gp_Ideal progress made and to Strategic Model plan next steps Of Executive leaders specify development. in terms Of business logic the intellectual founda- tions Of the firm. BOX 2 HOW THE SIX PHASES OF GRID ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT CONTRIBUTE TO CORPORATE EXCELLENCE The Emergent Approach pp_Organization Development The Emergent approach, unlike the Grid approach which requires "executive leaders" to formulate and agree upon an "ideal strategic model", simply asks all of the participants in the developmental effort, i.e., students, administrators, faculty, and key controllers Of linking organizations to share their 1) images of an ideal school organization, and 2) perceptions of the current conditions Of the school 81 organization. Like the Grid approach, six hypothetical organization behavior orientations developed in Chapter III of this study provide the framework for formulation of the images and perceptions. These shared images and perceptions provide the organization members with input and feedback respectively, two Of the organization conditions which, it is hypothesized, must be improved if organization growth and development are to occur. Upon completion of the sharing stage, development teams begin to map out plans to improve the functional levels Of the seven organization conditions-- input, output, communication, support, feedback, choice, and conflict resolution. See Box 5 on page 85. Behaviorism versus Phenomenology The essential difference between the two models may be likened to the key difference between behaviorism and phen- omenology-—that Of acceptance and rejection of behavioral Objective for guiding human development. The behaviorlists argue that human develOpment may be likened to travel. If one wants to arrive at a given destination the most efficient method for getting there is get a road map and determine the best route. Human develOpment can thus be specified in terms Of Objectives-—the destination—-and routes-—the road map. Phenomenologists or perceptualists as they are vari- ously called, reject this approach as too mechanistic. The process Of human growth and development, they argue, is not, as the analogy goes, one Of arriving at given destination in 82 the most efficient manner possible, but one Of exploring the landscape and pursuing interests as one goes along. This requires a rich environment for exploration and the freedom for natural curiosity to function. (Wann, 1964) Organization development can also be approach mechan- istically, or humanistically. The mechanistic approach to organization develOpment may be thought of as an attempt to remodel a house. The remodeler formulates an ideal model Of what the house "should be", lOOks at what the house actually is, and maps out a plan or "blue print" to change the house. On the other hand, humanistic approach to organ- ization development may be likened to helping a tree grow. First, the notion Of a healthy tree is formulated so that the grower may 1) analyze and assess what soil, climatic, and environmental conditions are needed to help facilitate growth, and 2) determine the kinds Of help any given tree may actually need. Once this is formulated, analysis pro- ceeds and the right conditions for proper growth are provided. It appears to this author, that the Grid Organization DevelOpment approach follows the format Of ”house remodel— ing". Blake and Mouton (1969) actually refer to their "ideal strategic model" as a "blueprint" of what ”should be". On the other hand, the Emergent approach developed in this study, seems to follow more closely the format Of "tree growing". Each Of seven conditions believed necessary for growth and development are improved by the general member- ship Of the developing organization. 85 1. Introductory Seminar 5. Implementing Change Organization members uti- Strategies lize an inductive team Individuals, groups, approach to characterize and teams attempt and understand the dynamics change within the of the six organization school. behavior orientations identified by the Organiza- 6. Evaluation tion Behavior Matrix. Teams evaluate change and change strategies 2. Diagnosigg Individual by analyzing the hu— Behavior Orientations manizing and dehuman- Participants analyze and izing effects upon characterize their own be- the school member- havior orientations, and ship. identify possible modes and directions for change. 7. Individual Assessment Organization members 5. Diagnosing The School Ag analyze their own per- Ap Organization sonal growth and de- Members analyze and charac- velopment. and plan terize the functional level new growth experiences Of seven conditions within and activities. the school organization. 8. Model Development And 4. DevelOping_Strategies For Revision Improving_Conditions The school organiza- Teams identify and develOp tion model itself is strategies for improving subjected to criti- the input, output, communi- cism, developed and cation, support, feedback, revised. choice, and conflict resolu— tion conditions in the school. 9. Model Re-cycling Steps two through eight are repeated to become an on-going cycle of school organ- ization development. BOX 5 THE EMERGENT MODEL FOR SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT 84 It is the author's view that organizations are more like trees than houses—-that is to say, they are themselves "living things." To treat organizations as Objects which can be remodeled at will by simple manipulation Of their interior and exterior parts is to desensitize and dehumanize them. Perhaps the reason organization growth and develOp- ment, or as John Gardner (1965) calls it, "self—renewal", has been so difficult in the past is that those who would change the organizations have used "hammer and nails" instead of "fertilizer." The remainder of this Chapter sets forth a general plan for implementing the Emergent model. A PLAN FOR SCHOOL ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT Robert Kennedy once said, "Some men see things as they are and say 'why'? I dream Of things that never were and say 'why not'?" SO the following proposed program for planned educational change dreams Of things that never were and says 'why not'?"1 With roots deep in perceptual psy- chology, it is intended not to look at what is to determine future goals, objectives, and priorities, for what is may severely limit our ability to see and dream of what can be, nor is it intended to solve those identifiable problems which seem to plague us in the "here and now" for without lTime, June 12, 1968. 85 dreaming we may address ourselves to the wrong problems. Rather, its intent is to focus attention on what can be, so that we may look at what is from a new perspective. The task then is to determine and bring about the necessary con- ditions to get us from where we are to where we wish to be. The proposed program is divided into four stages. Stage I focuses on setting forth a framework designed to help organization members analyze what is and dream about what can be. Stage II is a planning and sharing phase with the primary emphasis on member exchange of images of the school organization.and plans to improve those conditions necessary for growth to occur. Stage III is an on-going attempt to implement and evaluate change strategies as well as resolve conflict situations which arise with change. Stage IV is a critique and feedback phase with emphasis on providing members with further insights into their organization be— havior patterns and functions, and the functional level of those conditions necessary for growth. The four stages are then repeated to become an on-going cycle of planned school organization develOpment. The following is a description of the activities of each stage.1 Description pI_Stage I Seminar Activities Participants in the Stage I seminar consist of admin- istrators, faculty, and key student and controllers in 1Information about specific instruments referred to in the description Of activities is available from the author. 86 linking organizations as identified by the administration and faculty. These three groups are divided heterogeneously into teams of between five and seven persons with at least one administrator (supervisors and department chairmen may be classified as administrators), teacher, student, and key controllers on each team if possible. Each team engages in five activities during the five to seven day seminar. Activity I: Developing g_Framework for School Organi- zation Development. The teams are given the task of charac- terizing the six organization behavior orientations produced by the Organization Behavior Matrix outlined in Chapter II of this study. Upon completion Of the task, teams exchange their written descriptions for critique and ranking Of qual- ity. Then, the written descriptions are rated against an external standard--Chapter II Section II of this study-—to gain further insights into the six behavior orientations. Activity 2; Self-assessment. Each team divides into triads to complete the self-assessment activity. Two rules govern the triad interactions. 1) Each person in the triad is to have the focus for a specified amount of time during which time he is to identify and characterize his own be— havior orientation and assumptions about human nature and organizations. Other members of the triad are to help by asking clarifying questions and drawing him out; however, they are not to take the focus away from the focus person. 2) The helpers are to restrict any verbal or non-verbal 87 negative feedback which they might otherwise give to the focus person during the activity. Upon completion of the self-assessment, team members rate each other on the ability to use a number of previously defined human relations skills, i.e., clarifying, keying in, drawing out. The ratings and self-assessments are then shared and discussed by the full team. .Activity 5: Human Relations Skills Sessions. Teams engage in a number of structured group exercises designed to increase the participants' skill in carrying on meaningful and constructive dialogue. These skills have applicability to both the ensuing workshops and developmental activities, and the teaching-learning activities toward which they are setting out to improve. .Activity 4: Focus pp_Innovative School Projects. This activity is on-going throughout the entire seminar. It con- sists of presentations by noted and local leaders of inno- vative school projects. Discussion groups follow the presentations. Activity 5: "Frontier Seeking." This activity con- sists of dream sessions in which teams are to act as consult- ing firms who have accepted the responsibility of designing the ideal school for their community. They are to assume unlimited resources and freedom to carry out their projected school. Cross team sharing of the ideal school designs follows. 88 Description pI Stage II WOrkshOp Activities The same seminar participants continue into the Stage II Workshop; however, teams are composed of member choice rather than by heterogeneous assignment. Teams may vary in size from three to fifteen persons. Each team engages in six activities in the five to seven day workshOp. Activity I; Diagnosing the School. Teams analyze vari— ous school units, i.e., the faculty group, the student group, the administrative group, departments, along seven dimensions of organization--input, output, choice, communication, feed— back, support, and conflict resolution-~to arrive at a diag— nostic statement about organizational state of the school. Activity 2; Presentation pI_Case Studies. Teams are presented with case studies in which "eXperts" have diagnosed and mapped out change strategies to improve organizational conditions, i.e., input, output, support, communication, feedback, choice, and conflict resolution. Discussion follows the presentations to insure understanding and help partici- pants gain further insights in the diagnostic and planning activities. Activity 5; Mapping Out Change Strategies. Each team identifies one Of the seven organization conditions—-input, output, support, communication, feedback, choice, conflict resolution—-which it thinks most needs to be developed and maps out an action plan to increase its functional level. The plan and strategy for implementation of the plan is 89 written up in detail with a rationale. The report is to deal with 1) what, 2) why, 5) who, 4) how, and 5) when. Activity I; Sharing Images and Plans. Each team pre- sents its images formulated in Activity 1 and plans formu- lated in Activity 5 to the other teams. Following the presen- tations, each team critiques in front of the other teams, the presentations of images and plans noting perceived strengths and weaknesses, and areas of needed information. Planning time to prepare these critiques is provided. Activity 5; Reconnaissance Study 9; Key Controllers Ip Linking Organizations. Teams identify outside organization forces which might impinge upon the change plans and enter the linking organizations to do a reconnaissance study of the key controllers' images and plans as they relate tO the school. Activity e; Strengthenipg Plans and Change Strategies. Teams utilize the feedback received in Activities 4 and 5 to strengthen and revise their plans and change strategies. Description 9: Stage III On-gping Workshop,Activities Stage III activities are on-going in the sense that they continue in the organizational setting over an extended period of time and are non-sequential in occurrence. Teams formulated in Stage II carry on the activities. Activity I; Implementation pI Change Strategies. Teams attempt to implement plans Of who, why, what, how and when to bring about desired changes. Detailed notes Of what actions 90 are taken, and immediate results are recorded in team kept journals. These are kept Open for inspection by other teams. Activity 2; Ontgoing Assessment pI_Change Strategies. Periodic meetings are held in which teams critique their own and other's plans and action programs by sharing images of on—going events. The journals provide the basic data for team formulation Of image statements. Activity 5; Conflict Resolution. As conflicts are identified, those members directly involved in outcomes meet in an attempt to resolve their differences. The meetings are a series Of small groups with rotating membership for each session so that perceptions may be shared a number of times. Resolution is gained by reference to knowledge and facts rather than Opinions or authority. Description pI_Stage Iy WOrkshop Activities Participants in Stage IV are assigned to new groups composed Of a cross-section Of administrators, teachers, students, and key controllers in a two tO three day workshOp. Activity I; Internal Ogganization Critigue. Using a series Of feedback instruments, team members provide each other with perceptions about on-going activities and behav- iors. These are discussed in the team setting to gain insights and understanding Of what has occurred during the change period. 91 Activity 2; External Organization Critique. Selected personnel outside the school organization who are skilled at organization diagnosis are invited to critique the organ- ization development. The critiques are discussed in the team setting to gain further insights. Activity 5; Summary Report. Each team provides the organization with a detailed summary report evaluating the progress made during the change period, and recommendations for future action. These are then reviewed by the teams, critiqued, and used as a basis for develOping new images and plans. Summary This chapter has identified a number of internal and external forces which effect individual and organization de— velOpment. These forces provided the basis for the develop- ment Of a three-pronged school organization develOpment model aimed at building commitment and freedom within the school organization. The model simultaneously works at three levels of development, 1) the individual, 2) the organization, and 5) the environment of which the organization is a part. The final section of the chapter sets forth a general plan for implementing the model in the school setting. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY The problem to which this study addressed itself was to develop a model of organization development which might serve as a basis for truly humanizing our educational institutions. The primary Objectives of this study were to develOp 1) a framework for examining and analyzing organization be- havior, and 2) a change model for organization develOpment-- both of which are consistent with the findings of humanistic psychology and philOSOphy. The framework was to be developed to help organization members delineate humanizing behavior and practices from dehumanizing behavior and practice so that appropriate directions for personal growth might be identified. The change model was to be developed to provide guidelines for developing the organization as a whole--as something more than simply the sum Of its parts. The framework which was develOped in Chapter III, postu- lates six hypothetical behavior orientations as a result of combining two key organization variables, 1) the character of individual purposes in the organization, and 2) individual 92 95 commitment to the organization. Each of the six orientations was characterized along seven dimensions-—1) input, 2) output, 5) support, 4) communication, 5) feedback, 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolution. Briefly, each orientation was described as follows: Orientation I; This person, highly concerned for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his and the organizations purposes through methods of hierarchial control of the organization's human and non-human resources. Strict accountability and arbitration of conflict by authority typify behavior under this orientation. It was termed the high commitment, control approach to achieving purpose through organization. Orientation II. This person, lacking concern for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his own purposes through methods of hierarchial control of the organ- ization's human and non-human resources. Minimum account— ability and avoidance of conflict typify the passive behavior dimension of this orientation, while overt and covert manip- ulation the organization control mechanisms and suppression of conflict typify the active behavior dimension. The orientation was termed low commitment, control. Orientation III. This person, highly concerned for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his and the organization's purposes through methods Of group (defined as the general membership Of the organization) regulation of the 94 organization's human and non-human resources. Restriction Of undesirable behavior through the use of group determined social sanctions and arbitration of conflict by majority vote typify behavior under this orientation. It was termed the high commitment, guidance approach to achieving purpose through organization. Orientation Iy; This person, lacking concern for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his own purposes through methods of group regulation of the organi- zation's human and non-human resources. Conformity to the majority Opinion or tradition and avoidance of conflict typi— fy the passive behavior dimension of this orientation, while "game playing," social manipulation of group norms, and "fence straddling" in conflict situations typify the active behavior dimension. The orientation was termed low commit- ment, guidance. -Orientation y. This person, highly concerned for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his and the organizations purposes through methods Of individual regula- tion of the organization's human and non-human resources. Creativity, spontaneity, and self-renewal, and candor in dealing with conflict typify the behavior under this orien— tation. It was termed the high commitment freeing approach to achieving purpose through organization. Orientation XI. This person, lacking concern for the welfare of the organization, attempts to achieve his own purposes through methods of individual regulation of the 95 organization's human and non—human resources. Permissiveness, freedom from interference in one's own affairs, and an atti- tude of "letting conflict run its course" typify both the passive and active behavior dimensions under this orienta- tion. It was termed low commitment, freeing. The change model develOped in Chapter IV, identified three sets of forces which were believed to impinge upon individual and organization development. These were charac- terized as 1) internal individual forces--needs, beliefs, values, perceptions, training, 2) external intraeorganization forces--peer group pressure, customs, norms, traditions, and 5) external inter—organizational forces-—community pressure grOUps, linking organizations, laws, accrediting agencies. Logic dictated that if organization development efforts were to be successful, a change model must necessarily take into account these three sets or levels Of forces. In keeping with the principles of humanistic psychology and philosophy upon which this study is predicated, the change model develOped, identified seven conditions which were hypothesized to be instrumental in promoting or blocking develOpment depending Upon their functional level in the developing organization. The seven conditions were 1) input, 2) output, 5) support, 4) communication, 5) feedback, 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolution. Each, it was hypothe- sized, must be improved to a high functional level in the organization if maximum development is to occur. 96 The change model was then compared with the Grid Organi- zation DevelOpment approach develOped by Blake and Mouton, to point up the essential differences between the two models-- one being characterized as humanistic, the other as mechan- istic. The final section of Chapter IV presented a general plan for implementing the humanistic model. Briefly the plan was outlined as follows: Introductogy Seminar. Seminar participants utilize an inductive team approach to characterize and understand the dynamics Of the six organization behavior orientations identified by the commitment, control-freeing matrix. Diagnosing Individual Behavior Orientations. Utilizing a positive focus group structure, participants analyze and characterize their own behavior orientations, and identify possible modes and directions for change. Diagnosing the School Organization. Participants uti- lize a team approach to analyze and characterize adminis— trative, teacher, student, departmental, and school organiza— tion behavior. Developipg Strategies for Change. Utilizing teams composed of a diagonal slice of the school organization general membership—-administrators, staff, teachers, students-- participants identify and develop strategies for improving the communication, input, output, support, choice, feedback, and conflict resolution conditions in the school. 97 Implementation pI_Change Strategies. Individuals, groups, and teams attempt change within the school. Intra- group sharing of images and plans of the school are a vital part of this phase. Evaluating Change. Teams composed Of a diagonal slice of the school organization membership utilize an in/Out (discussion/Observation) grOUp structure to evaluate change in the school and the change strategies. Evaluation pI Individual Behavior Changes. Utilizing a focus group structure designed to provide personal feedback, participants analyze their own and each other's behavioral changes. Evaluation 5; the School Organization Develgpment Program. Teams evaluate the functional levels of input, output, support, communication, feedback, choice, and conflict resolution in the organization. CONCLUS IONS 1. The humanistic view of organization development, as set forth in this study, with its emphasis on need recogni— tion and satisfaction, free-choice, and involvement is, in conclusion, believed to be a sound philOSOphical basis for developing educational excellence in our schools. It is especially well-suited for those public and private institu- tions which have as their eXpress purpose for being, the develOpment of persons commited to maintaining a free and 98 democratic society. The mechanistic or behavioralistic view with its emphasis on control, efficiency, and product defini- tion is rejected as a sound basis for developing educational excellence. 2. This study recognizes that, although individuals and organization have a strong "internal drive toward health and self-renewal", this drive may be blocked. The study con— cludes that knowledge of those barriers which block develop- ment and the skills to remove them are essential if the individual and organization are to once again begin to grow and become "fully-functioning" organisms. It is believed that the model Of school organization development set forth in this study will provide such knowledge and skills. 5. This study concludes that if schools are to move in the direction of health and self—renewal, seven organization conditions must be met, 1) input, 2) output, 5) support, 4) communication, 5) feedback, 6) choice, and 7) conflict resolution. If these conditions are provided at high func- tional levels, it is hypothesized that individual commitment to the organization will develOp; in turn, control of the membership can be de-emphasized and freedom to grow accentu- ated. 4. The Emergent approach to organization development set forth in this study, is in conclusion, an efficient and effective means of developing humanistic behavior. Partici- pants are encouraged to model a number of humanistic 99 behaviors as they proceed through the development program and observe the results. Having seen firsthand, the advan- tages Of such behavior, they often become motivated to adOpt the behaviors as their own. RECOMMENDATIONS The theoretical model Of organization development set forth in this study needs to be validated in a number of ways. First, the six hypothetical organization behavior orienta— tions need to be researched to determine 1) if they are accurate characterizations, and 2) if they are inclusive. Second, the seven organization concepts Of input, output, support, communication, feedback, choice, and conflict resolu— tion need to be examined empirically in terms Of their utility in diagnosing school organization difficulties and differentiating between schools with humanizing practices and schools with dehumanizing practices. Third, the two major assumptions of this study must be tested; 1) combined effort on the part of the organization membership to improve the seven organization conditions of input, output, support, communication, feedback, choice, and conflict resolution will serve to increase individual member commitment to the organization; 2) the increased commitment will in turn have a freeing effect upon the organization since it will tend to reduce the need for control. The test- ing of these two assumptions might be accomplished by 100 enlisting a school interested in organization development to undertake the development program set forth in this study. Fourth, ways and means must be found to institutionalize the develOpment program to make it an on—going, continuing cycle of self-renewal. Beyond the empirical research there are two issues raised by the study which need further treatment, each of which is beyond the SCOpe and limitations of this study. One is the problem of "flattening out" the hierarchy of an organization. It is within the realm of probability that the consultants or change agents attempting to implement the change model developed in this study, may well find them- selves unwittingly controlling or guiding the organization members' activities rather than freeing them to become self- directing. Instead of breaking the bonds Of hierarchy, they may simply shift member allegiance to themselves. Some con— sideration will need to be given to finding ways to avoid this entrapment. The second problem is that the study tends to imply that member commitment to the developing organiza— tion is always desirable. However, it is recognized that there may be times when member commitment to an organization which is addressing itself to wrong purposes is simply in- appropriate. The basis for deciding when personal conviction must take precedence over organizational eXpectations needs to be examined. 101 Concluding,Statement What has been presented as a model for school organiza- tion development, resulted from over three years of Observing, participating in, and studying school organization develop- ment efforts. One Of these three years was spent A) attempt- ing to bring about organization develOpment in a public high school, and B) studying the consequences Of a specific change strategy, the T-Group consultant approach. ~A second year was spent searching for more effective and viable alternatives to school organization develOpment; this period resulted in investigation of the Grid Organization Development approach. The third year was Spent formulating the model set forth in this study. 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TOp/High ........... Top/Low Communication ......... TOp/Low ............ Top/Low Support ............... Top/High ........... TOp/Low Conflict Resolution...Top/Low ...... . ..... TOP/Low Choice ................ Top/Low... ......... TOp/Low Feedback..... ..... ....TOp/Low.... ........ Top/Low Output ................ Top/High... ..... ...TOp/High to Low Input ................. Group/High ......... Group/Low Communication ......... Group/High ......... Group/Low Support...............Group/High ......... Group/Low Conflict Resolution...GrOUp.High ......... Group/Low Choice ........ ........Group/High to Low..Group/Low Feedback. ............. Group/Low ........ ..Group/Low Output ................ Group/High ......... Group/Low Input ................. Self/High .......... Self/Low Communication ....... ..Self/High .......... Self/Low Support ............... Self/High .......... Self/Low Conflict Resolution...Self/High .......... Self/High to Low Choice..... ..... . ..... Self/High .......... Self/High -Feedback .............. Self/High... ....... Self/Low Output........ ........ Self/High .......... Self/High to Low ”lllllllllllIll“