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BASIC CONCEPTUAL PROCEDURE
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A HOLISTIC PLAN
PROCESS FOR THE CASE OF IRAN

By

Iraj Eftekhari

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Social Science

1981

—u

 

C11/5E74’7'

COPYRIGHT BY
Iraj Eftekhari
1981

ABSTRACT
BASIC CONCEPTUAL PROCEDURE

FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPREHENSIVE
PLAN FOR THE IRANIAN ENVIRONMENT

By
Iraj Eftekhari

The normal environmental problems of a country are
always exaggerated in a developing country such as Iran.
The recent phenomena of urbanization, industrialization, and
modernization have fortunately given rise to the new science
of planning to combat the problems brought about by these
same phenomena. Unfortunately planning in Iran has had a
narrow focus. Planning has been based only on economical
considerations and has caused problems in the social,
political, and cultural sapects of the entire nation.
Although planning started with physical and economic goals
and objectives, the planning policy was not efficiently
forecast or predicted to answer the peOple's physical needs.
Also planning is difficult to deal with in a traditional
country such as Iran where there is such a range of people
and variety of geographical situations.

As a result Iran has experienced a plethora of
problems which may be divided into social probelms, politi-
cal.prob1ems, psychological problems, economic problems, .

cultural problems, and technological problems.

Iraj Eftekhari

The purposes of this study were:

1) To create and design a planning procedure to deal
with the Iranian people's needs, desires, aSpir-
ations, and welfare which coordinates the nation-
al, provincial, and local levels of planning.

2) To provide a model of participatory planning
based upon the holistic approach which will
alleviate Iran's social, political,psychological,
economical, cultural and technological problems.

3) To compare the holistic plan with the past
Iranian Fifth National Plan.

4) To consider and clarify more relations between
the holistic plan and national, provincial, and
local planning levels which have been missing
in previous National plans.

5) To examine the holistic model of planning based
upon selected Iranian villagers' expressed needs.

The discussion of National Plans, conclusions and

recommendations is based on the holistic approach method.

The most important and most crucial points are raised.

To Fatemeh, Fariba, Farivar,
whose encouragement and patience

made this study possible.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The researcher extends his sincere appreciation
to all individuals who helped make this study possible.

To Professor Myles Boylan, a sincere appreciation
is expressed for his help and encouragement as guidance
committee chairman and as dissertation co-director.

To Dr. ChristOpher Sower, Professor Sanford
Farness and Dr. Robert H. McKinley who served as members
of the guidance committee, and for always being available

when needed.

iv

PREFACE

This thesis is the result of thirty years of hard
work, study and experience with many different classes of
people whom I love with all my heart. I was born in a
small village called Khormabad in the western part of Iran
in 1938. Coming from a simple, religious, middle-class
family caused me to undergo lots of challenges and changes.
I was faced with many problems in my early years which
caused my thinking to become more humanistic and holistic.
More thinking and researching about peOple strengthened my
nationalist feeling. Therefore, I denoted all my intelli-
gence and effort to the development of a realistic solution
to peOple's problems. My desire is that these words will
be a little help to the poor peOple who have always been a
toy to the rich peOple.

As an Iranian young fellow, I had the dual responsi-
bility of supporting my large family and studying hard to
pass the competition to enter the University. Deepite
family opposition to continuing my education, I succeeded
in receiving my Master of Architecture Degree in 1968.

Eight years of study in the School of Architecture
had not only resulted in my success in this field, but it
also gave me the chance to travel all around my country and
study the relationship between architecture and peeple's
values. At the same time, I was training and practicing
architecture in different agencies. I Spent five more

years practicing architecture for the army, for the

government, and for myself in my own firm. These experiences
brought me to the question of whether I should use my creati-
vity to dictate to peOple or to advise them. In addition

to this question, I felt that I did not have an adequate
theoretical background to deal with decision making and
problem solving in my environment. Therefore, I left all

I had back in Iran and started a degree in urban planning

at Michigan State University because I felt planning was an
extension of architecture.

After two years I received my masters in urban plan-
ning in 1975. During that time I was exposed to sociology
and anthrOpology which were areas that attracted my atten-
tion and were complementary to my knowledge. I arrived at
a holistic approach at this stage and passed my comprehensive
examinations.

I then decided to go back to Iran for more research
and information. I spent three years in Iran (1975-1978)
teaching architecture and the planning process at the
National University. I also conducted a test of what I
had learned. I concentrated on villages because villages
are the major environment in Iran and I selected Ahmadabad
as a case study. My experiences while teaching, learning,
and traveling with my students in the villages caused me to
deeply believe every word of this dissertation.

In order to gain more insight I decided to interview
other peOple directly in their own languages. In addition
to spending months in Iranian villages, I made several

long trips to the Far East, Asia, the Philippines, Australia,
vi

South America, and North Africa. These trips gave me the
chance to compare Iranian villager problems with those of
other nations. As a result, I concluded that a broad
perspective view (holistic plan) is needed to face multiple
problems.

This dissertation was started during the Shah
Regime and all of the documents, information, and data
were collected between 1975 and 1978, before the Iranian
New Revolutionary Government. Basically this dissertation
is not a prescription for a specific government, but it is
a guideline for finding a better doctor to solve the pro-
blems of any environmental organization. It is a procedural
planning process which concentrates on Iran. Finally, this
thesis presents a formula for bringing a broad range of
human values under one framework for better evaluation.

The major goal of this attempt is to create future environ-
ments with more freedom, equality and justice.

Although this dissertation was begun in 1975 during
the previous Shah Regime, its theory is still applicable to
the new regime. This is especially true because of the
latter's strong religious values. My hope is that this
dissertation will be useful to my nation and to the new

regime.
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES.

CHAPTER I

Introduction .

Statement of Thesis.

Research Objectives.

Problem Statement .
Social Problems. . .
Political Problems . . .
Psychological Problems .

Economic Probleme.
Cultural Problems.

Geographical & Physical Problems .

Techno ogical Problems .

Limitations of the Study .
Assertions .

Research Design and Methodology.

Introduction .
Data Resources .

Zone I. .
Zone II .
Zone III. . . . .
Zone IV . . . . .

Data Collection Procedures .

Analysis of the Data .

' Summary. . .
CHAPTER II
Iran - Baseline Information. .

Geographic Characteristics .

viii

Page
xiv

xvi

23
24

Page
Regional Zones. . . . . . . . . 27
Zone I - The Caspian Sea
Coastal Region. . . . . . . . . . 30
Social Factors. . . . . . . . . 33
Psychological Factors . . . . . 33
Economic Factors. . . . . . 33
Zone II - The Mountain Region . . . 34
Social Factors. . . . . . . . . 34
Psycholo ical Factors . . . . . 35
Zone III - Tge Desert and
Semi-Arid Region. . . . . . . . 35
Geographical Factors. . . . . . 35
Social Factors. . . . . . . . 35
Psychological Factors . . . . . 36
Economic Factors. . . . . . . . 36
Cultural Factors. . . . . . 37
Zone IV - The Southern Coast
Region. . . . . . . . . . 37
Social Factors. . . . . . . . 37
Psychological Factors . . . . . 38
Economic Factors. . . . . . . . 38
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Social Systems . . . . . . . . 38
Levels of Governmental units . . . . . 44
Demography, Definition of Cities,
and Other Settlement Patterns. . . . . 44
Basic Structure of the Cities. . . . . . 49
Functions of Cities. . . . . . . . . 50
Structure of Other Communities . . . . . 51
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Iranian Social Class Structure . . . . . . . . 53
Introduction . . . . . . . 53
Iranian Social System Overview . . . . . 54
Upper Class of Elites. . . . . . . . . . 54
Middle Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lower Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Urban Lower Class . . . . . . . . . 56
Rural Lower Class . . . . . . 57
Overview of General Social
Structure . . . . 57
Significant Rural Worker Groups . . 58
Petty Landowners . . . . . . 60
Rural Tribal Groups & Nomad Groups . . . 63
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
The Political System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

ix

National Level. . . .
Province Level (Ostans); Local Levels .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Economic System . .

Introduction. . . . . . . .
Economics- Definition. . .
Industrial vs. Agricultural .
Imports-Exports . . . . .
Agriculture . . .

Summary . . . . .

The Cultural System .

Introduction. . . . . . .
Culture - Definition. .
Language as a Cultural Subsystem;
Religion as a Cultural Subsystem.
Kinship as a Cultural Subsystem .
Art, Architecture, and Planning
as a Cultural Subsystem .
Summary . .
Culture and.the Holistic Approach
to Planning . . . . . . .

The Psychological System" . . . .

Psychology - Definition .
Introduction. . .

The Technology System .

Introduction. . . .
Iranian Technology System .
Summary . .

CHAPTER III

A Concise History of Iranian Reform Plans
and a Listing of Problems Left Unsolved
in the Iranian Environment. . . . . .

Introduction - The Five National Plans. .
The First National Plan (September, 1948-

September, 1955) . . . .
Summary, Unsolved Problems.

Page

66
69
7O
7O
70
72
74
74
77
78
78
78
79
81
81

82
85

85
86

86
86

87
87
92

93
93

94
99

The Second Seven Year Plan (September,
1955 - September 1962). . .

Summary. .

The Third Development Plan (September
1962 - March 1968). . .

The White Revolution . .

The Twelve Points of Reform.

Major Characteristics. .

Summary, Unsolved Problems . .

The Fourth National Plan for Iran
(March, 1968 - March, 1973)

Summary.

The Fifth National Deve10pment Plan
(March, 1973 - March, 1978)

Major Objectives of the Fifth Plan:

Summary, Unsolved Problems .

CHAPTER IV
Holistic Planning, Theory Development.

Introduction .
Assumptions.

The Holistic Method: Evolutionary Phases .

Introduction . . . .
Phase One . . . .
Phase Two . . .
Phase Three .
Phase Four.

Phase Five.

Summary. . . .

Definitions of Significant Planning Terms.

Introduction . .
Plan . . . . . .
Plannin . . . . .
PhysicaI Planning.
Social Planning. .
Systematic Planning.
Urban Planning .
Master Plan. . . .
Holistic Planning.
Summary. .

xi

 

Page

100
102

103
103
105
107
108

109
117

119
119
133

134

134
135

135

135
136
136
137
139
140
142

143

143
145
146
148
150
152
153
154
155
156

Page

Principles of Holistic Planning. . . . . . . . 156

Introduction . . . . . . . 156
Relationship of Whole to Part. . . . . . 157
Procedural Planning Process. . . . . . . 158
Iran - A.Whole to Part Example . . . . . 160
Principle of Systems and Levels. . . . . 163
Principle of FUnction to Form. . . . . . 168
Principle of Time and Space. . . . . . . 170

Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Summary. . . . 175
Principles of Systematic Planning. . . . 176

Application of the Holistic Planning
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

CHAPTER V

Ahmadabad - A Descriptive Study. . . . . . . . 187
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Historical Background. . . . 188
The A rarian Village Physical Pattern. . 190
SociaI Structure . . . . . . 192

Population Features of Ahmadabad
Residents . . . . . . . . . 194
Shahsavand Shepherds Pattern . . . . . . 194
The Family Relation. . . . . . . . . . . 196
Emigration . . . . . . . 198
Housin as a Social Sub- -System . . . . . 200
Economics of the Village . . . . . . . . 202
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Qanat System . . . . 204

Social Collectivities and Structures . . 206
System of Justice. . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Researcher Observations. . . . 210

Economic Limitations of the Village
System. . . . . . . . . . 211
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

CHAPTER VI

Summary and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . 215
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Recommendations. . . . . . . . 217
Economic System Recommendations. . . . . 219
Housing Recommendations. . . . . . . . . 221

xii

Social System Recommendations.
Public Safety Components.
Government Management

Recommendations .
Migration Control as
Social Components . .

Cultural System Recommendations.

Religion. . . . . .

Language. .
Mass Media.

Conservation and Preservation .
Political System Recommendations .
Recommendations for Human Values]
Human Development .
Natural Resources Recommendations
Physical Recommendations .
Recommendations for Further Research .

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

xiii

O O O O O O

Page

222
222

223

224
225
225
226
226
227
227

227
228
228
230

232

Table
1. The Subsysteme of An Environmental Supersystem,
2 Horizontal Hierarchy of Levels.
3 The Regional Zones of Iran.
4. Iranian POpulation Increase in Three Decades.
5 Population Growth .
6 Regular Households and P0pu1ation Indicators
Urban and Rural 1976. . . . .
7. Estimated Urbanization Rate in Iran, 1949-1966.
8. Estimated Urbanization Rate in Iran 1967-1978 .
9. Allocation of Costs to Various Aspects
of Development. . . . . .
10. Revenue and Expenditure of F.S.Y.P.
11. Final Revenue and Expenditure under
the F. S. Y. P. . . . . . . .
12. Credit Allotments under the Second Seven
Year Plan 1956-1962 . . . . . . . . .
13. Summary of Revised Credit Allotments under
Second Seven Year Plan 1956-1962. . . .
14. Total Approved Credits and Disbursements by
Plan Chapters during the Third Plan Period.
15. Income and Expenditure of the Fourth
Development Plan. . . . . . . . .
16. Allocation of Plan Organization's Development
Budget During the Fourth Plan . . . .
17. Cost of Living Index 1338-1345.
18. Objectives of Major Economic Sectors Based
on Production Values. . . . . . . . . . .°.
19.

LIST OF TABLES

Fixed Investment in Rural Development
During the Fifth Plan . . . .

xiv

Page
25
26
32
39
40

41
48
49

95
97

98

. 100

. 101

. 104

. 111

. 112
. 115

. 116

. 128

Table Page

20. Fixed Investment in Urban Development

During the Fifth Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
21. The Holistic Planning Information Matrix . . . . . 164
22. The Supersystem.Systems, and Subsystems

The Planners Guide for Planning. . . . . . . . . 183
23. Family Size - House Size Comparison. . . . . . . . 195

XV

Figure

mummbum

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

17.
18.

19.
20.

LIST OF FIGURES

Map of Middle East.

Climatic Divisions of Iran.

The Geographical Zones Of Iran.
Circular Change and the POpulation.
State Divisions of Iran .

Major Cities of Iran.

Iranian Social Classification Pyramid .

Social Structure in the Rural Areas
After the Land Reform,

Language in Relation to Holistic
Plan Phenomena . . . .

Culture - Industry - Technology .

Mbn and Nature.

The Tri-Dimensions of Human Life.

Four Dimensions of Man's Complex Life .
Six Interacting Dimensions of Human Life.

The Human Life Complex as Viewed from
the Holistic Approach. . .

A Comparison of Social Planning and
Physical Planning. . . .

Circular Planning Process .

A Model of Governmental Levels in Iran
Based on the Whole to Part Principle .

The Molecular System of Complex Human Life.

The Hexagonal Complex of System Balance .

xvi

Page
28
29
31
42
45
46
54

61

80
89

. 137
. 138
. 139
. 140

. 142

. 151
. 159

. 162
. 166
. 168

Figure Page
21. Time and.the Human Complex. . . . . . . . . . . 172

22. Village and Regional Input-Output
Components of the Circular Planning Process. 180

23. The Holistic Circular Planning Process
Using Housing as an Example. ... . . . . . . 182

24. Holistic Planning Evaluation
and Feedback Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

25. Location of Ahmadabad. . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

26. A Typical Environmental PerSpective of
Ahmadabad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

27. Ahmadabad Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
28. Typical Family Household Diagram. . . . . . . . 197

29. Responsibilities and Time Consumption
of the Ahmadabad Villager by Sex . . . . . . 199

30. Khoshneshin Extended Family House . . . . . . . 201
31. A Typical Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
32. Market Town and its Satellites. . . . . . . . . 203
33. Holistic Schematic Recommendation . . . . . . . 210

34. Process of Change from Migration. . . . . . . . 213

xvii

CHAPTER I

Introduction

Modern men, no matter what his origin or nation,
finds himself faced by an increasingly complex dilemma.
Urbanization, industrialization and environmental deterior-
ation have thrust man's life-cycle into another stage of
evolution. Although reaping the benefits of technology,
man is simultaneously confronted by its overwhelming draw-
backs. Human societies in semi-industrialized countries
and particularly those living in countries currently under-
going rapid development, find themselves unable to deal with
these drawbacks. Technological advances seem to promise
happiness, but man appears to be unable to control the
massive negative effects of technology upon his life. This
inability leads to social, political, economic, cultural,
psychological and other human stresses or conflicts which
hamper the citizens of any society in fulfilling their
basic needs.

Historically, man's achievement of his basic needs

shows the following:

1. As man has evolved, the tendency has been to
move from the simple to the complex.

2. The "meaning" of man's being, which consists of
human values and ascribed significance, has
changed and is continually changing through the
process of human evolution.

1

2
3. The artifacts which man creates are influenced
by his changing meanings and values.

More than in any other century known to man, industrializa-
tion in this century has changed the values of man and thus
changed the "meaning" of his being. In order to grasp the
complex changes over time, man has divided his "meaning"
into several different sciences or disciplines. The problem
is that in the subdivisions there has been a lack of coordi-
nation and conscious interrelating between the component
sciences and disciplines in spite of their overlap.

Environmental planning may be applied to achieve an
overall design to combine human values and meaning within a
broad perspective. Planning strives to meet the demands
and needs of the people in one controllable framework.
Planning is concerned with the future of a peOple; therefore,
planning should include peoples' perceptions but should not
formulate arbitrary schemes for them. Lewis Mumford has
stated:

Civilizations have risen and fallen without

apparently receiving the full import of their

re ations with the earth....A11 good planning

must begin with a survey of actual resources:

The landscape, the people, the work-a-day activi-

ties in a community; it begins with a knowledge

of existing conditions and Opportunities....To

build intelligently today is to lay the founda-

tions for a new civilization....The final test

of an economic system is not the tons of iron,

the tanks of oil or the miles of textiles it

produces: the final test lies in its ultimate

products-~the sort of men and women it nurtures

and the order and beauty and sanity of their
communities.

 

1Lewis Mumford, Faith for Living. New York:
Harcourt, Brace & Co., Inc., 1940, p. 207.

 

 

3

In a country such as Iran, environmental planning is
needed which takes into consideration the current rapid
development of the country's human and material resources
and the multiple societal impacts this development has on
Iran‘s citizens.

These perceptions are based on the researcher's
personal observations and assessment of past and current
Iranian planning attempts at both the national and village
level. It is a perception of man's complex and evolving
creative process which influenced the development of the
holistic planning approach which is the subject of this
dissertation.

A holistic plan is defined as a plan which treats
as a whole entity or super system relevant social, political,
psychological, economic, cultural and technological system
elements. The scope of this plan is discussed in detail in
Chapter IV.

In selecting the tOpic of Iranian environmental
planning, the author engaged in the following processes:

1) A review and analysis of selected literature

on planning theory; national planning in Iran;
Iranian culture and customs, economics, history,
demography and census data, among others.

2) Identification, selection and organization of
the researcher's professional and practical
observations of Iranian environmental planning.

3) Several on-site visits to a variety of Iranian

villages and towns to assess previous planning

results.
4) An analysis of the information collected,
leading to the development of a holistic

planning model for the Iranian environment.

Statement of Thesis

Iran's problems seem to be the result of ineffective
past national planning strategies, governmental organizations
and institutions. In order to deal with them. Iran needs a
new planning orientation and a participatory organization
with enough political power to initiate and coordinate
planning across national, provincial and local levels. An
integration of levels of planning, both vertical and hori-

zontal, is essential for effective implementation.

Research Objectives
The philosophical framework as well as the purpose
of this study have emerged as a result of the researcher's
experiences. These have been evolutionary in nature.
Educational and professional experiences in the fields of
architecture, urban planning, anthrOpology, and sociology
have led to the formulation of these purposes.

1. To design a planning procedure which takes
into overall consideration Iranian social,
political, psychological, economic, cultural,
and technological phenomena, and coordinates
them at the national, provincial, and local

levels of planning.

5

2.. To evaluate the five past Iranian National Plans
and to contrast them with a holistic system of
planning.

3. To examine some crucial relationships between
holistic systems and the national, provincial,
and local planning attempts which have been
deficient under previous National Plans.

4. To provide a conceptual model of participatory
planning based upon the holistic approach where-
by a range of develOpment problems in Iran may
be alleviated.

5. To examine some of the basic features of the
holistic planning model through a descriptive

survey of selected Iranian villages.

Problem Statement

The normal environmental problems of a country are
always greater in a country such as Iran which is developing
rapidly because of new and increasing oil revenues. Addi-
tionally, there are the serious problems of Iran's natural
environment. The variety of terrains and climetes over a
small area and the arid ambience will continue to exist.
Contemporary phenomena of urbanization, industrialization,
and modernization compound the natural problems. These are
the problems that the new science of planning attempts to
moderate. Planning is difficult in a traditional country
such as Iran where there is such a variety of geographical

situations and ethnic groups. To date, planning in Iran has

6
had too narrow a focus. National planning started on econo-
mic considerations which limited its focus to the economy
and has caused problems in social, political, and cultural
areas for the entire nation. Additionally, since the first
National Plan in 1948, national planning has not adequately
included the needs of municipal or regional levels in policy
and programs planning decisions.

The neutral and geographical problems, much less the
problems of develOpment, cannot be solved by the Iranian
planning programs currently being implemented. These plans
and plans currently being contemplated do not consider the
country's physical and social needs as a whole. 'When per-
ceived as a whole, the most effective way to deal with
Iran's problems will be to consider the relationships
between the environment, basic social needs, values and
whatever other factors are relevant. Only activities
‘directed towards fulfilling the full range of human needs
through coordination of programs in urban planning, social
planning, economic planning, and the like will succeed,
because the needs they address overlap and impact on each
other. Confusion duplication and inefficiency result when
national planning ignores the need for articulation and
coordination of all the essential planning components.

This happened with the five national plans previously
implemented in Iran. Through a lack of coordination of
planning for stipulated goals, each government ministry or
department acted independently, with the result that none

of their plans succeeded in fulfilling stated aims and

7
and objectives. Cole summarized the resolution of the
problem in his discussion of integrated planning in Brazil,
a third world nation evidencing environmental planning
problems similar to those facing Iran.

At the national level of overnment, successive
urban development plans a ould embody a measure
of continuity sufficient to enable sub-national
governments, including city or local governments
as well as regional or provincial overnments,
to produce plans which are compatigle with
overall national objectives. At the same time,
urban development plans at all levels should
constantly be reviewed and amended in the light
of current research into demographic, social,
economic and technological chan es in city life
and growth. And.whi1e towns ang cities 3 ould
be willing to perform the economic and social
roles which are considered necessary from the
national and regional standpoints, they should
be permitted to take part in the formulation of
national and regional plans of direct concern
to them, and be assisted administratively and
financially to perform their allotted roles.

It follows that olicies and plans for urban
develOpment shouId be fully coordinated with
policies and plans for national development;
that physical planning (which in the past has
tended to dominate the sphere of urban develop—
ment) should be integrated with economic plan-
ning (which has tended to dominate the sphere of
national development); and that, at all levels
of government, develOpment plans should be
expressed geographically in terms of economic
activities, and socially in terms of peOple

and social infrastructure.2

These kinds of recommendations apply most relevantly

 

2Harry James Cole, "Integrated MetrOpolitan DevelOp-
ment in Brazil," Urbanization in Developing_Countries. The
Ha ue, Netherlands: Martinus Ni hoff for theFInternational
Un on of Local Authorities, 196 , pp. 166-167.

8
to processes needed for Iran. The previous national planning
in Iran has lacked the kind of comprehensive and coordinated
policies described in Cole's discussion. The negative fea-
tures of Iranian national planning to date are numerous:

1. Lack of coordination and communication between
planning agencies and other institutions for
achieving national, provincial and local goals.

2. Competition between agencies conducting any
planning. .

3. Lack of adequate public participation in the
planning process at every governmental level.

4. Lack of agency independence and authority to
formulate and implement planning schemes.

The following is offered as a preliminary identifi-
cation and assessment of the major shortcomings of Iran as
related to the context of comprehensive planning and manage-
ment. The points are listed according to the hierarchy of

problems discussed in Chapter IV, "The Holistic Plan Theory."

Social Problems

1. DisParity between social classes in a nation of
increasing population. There is little equality;
a few are rich and the bulk of the papulation
is very poor (see Figure 7 and detailed discus-
sion in Chapter II).

2. Lack of adequate educational facilities. While
physical educational facilities are growing,
educational quality is not keeping up; both are

needed.

9

3. Lack of effective papulation migration control.
Many poor, uneducated villagers are moving to
urban areas and creating ghettos of poverty.
While, wealthy, educated citizens are leaving
Iran.

4. Inadequate health services and facilities for
preventive and clinical care of the massive
population.

5. Lack of comprehensive planning for housing and
urban development.

6. Inadequate opportunities for public recreation.
There are insufficient municipal playgrounds
and other recreation resources in high papulation
concentration areas. Most parks and forests in
the country were restricted to use by the royal-
ty.

7. Insufficient consideration given to public
safety such as traffic flow, fire protection

and police protection.

Political Problems

 

The 1963 "White Revolution" initiatedsignificant
Iranian political reform. As decreed by the monarchy, it
created the one-party legislature. A parliament and senate
were established as will be described in detail in Chapter
' II and called for land reform. Political problems include
the following:

1. The judicial and executive systems have been

10
‘modeled after those of old France and are
insufficient to meet contemporary needs. Both
are overloaded with a backlog of work that is
not being done.
Most of the economic and political power is ‘
concentrated in the hands of a few peOple.
The House of Justice, a new village judicial
body, clashes with the traditional village

judicial systems.

Psychological Problems

As a result of all of the above stated problems,

there appears to be some obvious attitudinal stresses. Some

of the major emotional and behavioral problems are:

1.
2.

Lack of citizen trust in government.

Inadequate social and economic security for the
majority of the peOple.

Lack of citizen participation in political and
social activities due to the citizens fear of

government repression.

Economic Problems

Numerous economic problems exist in Iran because

holistic planning is not practiced. Systems of economic

distribution to date are woefully inadequate.

1.

Inflation is rampant in Iran due primarily to an
imbalance between the utilization of natural
resources and manpower. Fbremost, is a lack of

long-range planning concerning the use of oil

ll
revenue in ways that would best maximize the
development of the nation.

2. There is a scarcity of goods and materials. In
the beginning of the 1960's, grains and fruits
were eXported because there were surplus craps.
In 1976, most had to be imported. Building and
construction materials are scarce.

3. Scarcity of adequate housing; available housing
is expensive. Seventy percent of Iranian dwel-
lings are made of mud and straw and are of sub-
standard quality.

4. Inequitable distribution of wealth. The majority
of the papulation lives in poverty, especially
in the urban ghettos and small villages.

5. A high rate of unemployment exists gas; of the
year. In many regions work is only seasonal

contributing to a migrant problem in Tehran.

Cultural Problems

PeOple's alienation from themselves and from their
traditional cultural values are basic issues to be addressed
in this dissertation. Cultural values, such as customs,
mores, and traditional modes of behavior must be carefully
considered in planning since culture infiltrates the total

spectrum of lifestyles in Iran, and all the SPZECT areas.3

 

3SP2ECT is used to designate the Social, Political,
Psychological, Economic, Cultural and Technological system
elements which make up the whole national entity, or super-
system. From now on, SPZECT will be replaced to holistic
approach.

12

Cultural problems include:

1.

Religious problems where new changes in govern-
mental rules and laws conflict with traditional
religious rules and laws. This has caused deep
dissension and opposition to the new regulations
among those affected.

Language barriers which make communication diffi-
cult between geographical areas with a variety
of languages and dialects.

Mass media probleme due to the fact that radio-
television programs, newspapers, etc., have not
been directed toward the majority of peOple's
needs.

Rapid cultural changes which have affected cus-
toms, arts, folklores, kinship, family relations
and rituals. '
No adequate means or designs for preserving the
historical environment and buildings in such old

cities as Yazd, Kashan, Shush and other villages.

Geographical and Physical Problems

Iran's climate is variable and gives rise to a number

of problematic physical conditions at the extremes of the

weather spectrum. Some of these problems are:

1.

Lack of sufficient water. Rain clouds are
blocked from the desert area by the high moun-
tains that surround the Iranian plateau.
Occurrence of natural disasters such as earth-

quakes and floods.

13

3. Lack of equality and balance between urban and
rural deve10pment areas.

4. Inadequate knowledge of the frequent governmental
criteria, standards, rules and regulations for
physical development.

5. Insufficient technological machinery and programs
for improvement in agricultural, administrative,
industrial and other services.

6. Lack of adequate public facilities such as schools,
hospitals, health clinics, libraries, recreation
facilities, sanitary facilities, energy utilities,

sewage, drainage and other such facilities.

Technological Problems

 

Rapid urbanization and industrialization have brought
about problems in the cities such as:
l. Shortage of technicians.
2 Shortage of adequate engineers.
3. Shortage of skilled planners.
4 Shortage of technological instruments such as
computers.
5. Lack of sufficient building materials (i.e.
cement).
‘ 6. Lack of organized systems of purchase and
delivery.
In the rural areas there are problems such as:
1. Lack of farm equipment (i.e. plows).

2. Lack of training in agri-business techniques.

14
3. Natural resources of small villages destroyed
to provide for the needs of the urban areas.
4. No concentration on deve10pment in the small

villages.

Limitations of the Study
This study does not deal with this full array of
problems. Rather, it summarizes some of the dominant
difficulties evident to a researcher and revealed in Iranian
documents. This summary serves as the base for the planning

procedure system described later in this dissertation.

Assertions

The main assertions of the researcher are:

1. Environmental planning should result in improve-
ment in the lives of people and should not dis-
rupt their lives.

2. Environmental planning in traditional or culture-
bound countries should consider the multidimen-
sional aspects of holistic planning and recognize
that cultural traditions represent a potential
inpediment to progress in environmental planning.

3. Environmental planning should be responsive to
social changes such as urbanization, industrial-
ization and modernization. Goals and objectives
should be flexible enough to respond to holistic
approach change.

4. Environmental planning for Iran should evidence

strong relationships between the dimension of

15
holistic plan.

5. Environmental planning for Iran should empha-
size strengthening communication, coordination
and integration between the national, provincial
and local levels. ‘

6. Participatory environmental planning, in which
the public is encouraged to contribute and
planning officials are responsive to public
input, meets with greater public acceptance and
has a higher probability of being implemented
successfully.

7. Environmental planning has been more advantageous
and available to urban area residents than to
residents of rural areas.

8. Long-term and short-term environmental planning
must be designed on a cyclical basis in a tradi-
tional society like Iran where urbanization,
modernization and industrialization are preva-
lent components of change.

9. Holistic environmental planning is the most
effective means of resolving Iran's multiple

societal problems.

Research Design and Methodology

 

Introduction

 

The descriptive, rather than a quantitative, method
of inquiry was selected for this study since Iranian environ-

mental planning is such a complex tepic. The magnitude of

16
the entity, the Iranian environment and the breadth of
planning eliminates all but the descriptive approach as the
most productive method. This method best illustrates the
inter-relatedness of the pertinent factors. The study
commences with a summary of existing, primary and secondary
information concerning Iran: its geography, its papulation

and current national planning.

Data Resources

Data concerns both the national and village levels.
Secondary information was provided by an Iranian planning
organization, universities, private agencies, census data
and other secondary sources. Primary data, information from
its original source, was collected for the village scale of
social structure by interview, by personal observation, by
student's reports and by recorded descriptions of Iranian
villages.

Criteria for selecting these two scales for research

survey purposes include the following:

1. Village proximity to Tehran. A radius of 150
kilometers was drawn around the Iranian capital
city and the villages were then randomly selected
from each zone.

2. The existence of observable unique handicrafts,
industries, ancient architecture and city
planning patterns with significant Iranian
characteristics. Ahmadabad was selected as a
case study to show the impact of culture upon

the nature of environmental planning needs.

l7
3. Evidence of the impact of climate on the patterns
of the community and the materials and design of
the houses.

Iran is divided by the researcher into four distinct
zones based upon geographical and cultural factors. (See
Figure 3, page 31) This division is made because geography
has a distinct impact upon the evolution of the unique
cultures of each area. (This is discussed in detail in
Chapter II.) The zones follow with particular cities and
villages, representative of the area, noted. The villages
were selected on the basis of conformity to selected
standards in terms of papulation density, climate, location,
economic status, social hierarchy and political involvement.
Their zone location was one of the prime factors for selec-
tion. The main population surveyed was the 1,500 residents
of Ahmadabad, a village 126 kilometers south of Tehran and

6 kilometers from Saveh.

Zone 1.--The CasPian Sea Coastal Region is charac-
terized by a high degree of rainfall, forests, fertile soil,
agricultural production: rice, tea, cotton, oranges; many
cities and villages; high density population; recreation
areas. Masaleh was selected as a representative village of
Zone 1. The researcher spent five days there with thirty
students. Over 600 man-hours of data were collected con-
cerning the life-style of the inhabitants and the village

plan for comparison purposes.

18

Zone II.--The Mountain Region is characterized by
Mediterranean climate with four seasons; medium rain or snow
fall; rocky ground with some good soil and contain animal
husbandry, live stock areas; most of Iran's large cities
such as Tehran; high density pOpulation; popular summer
and winter recreation areas. Representative settlement
units are:

1. Hamedan: The first visit was with 65 architec-

ture-planning students for two days to research
Ramadan and its Comprehensive Plan and to study
Lalehjin, an old industrial village. Lalehjin
is characteristic of a primitive industrial
village due to geographical conditions. Each
family specializes in the production of a
product such as ceramics, carpets, and.other
small items.

2. Kolchjin, Khoramabad, Arak: Ten days were spent
in these areas with thirty architecture-planning
students examining the village and city patterns
and the life-styles of the peOple.

3. Firoozabad: The researcher spent three days
examining a relatively newly settled people in
Firoozabad who were former nomads.

Zone III.--The Desert and Semi-desert Arid Region is
characterized by slight differences between summer and winter
temperatures as well as between day and night temperatures.
Low rainfall; partially fertilized soil; an irrigation water

system in Qanat; agricultural production and dry plants were

19

noted. Traditional or old villages and cities with low

density population and no adequate recreation areas pre-

dominate.

1.

Cities and villages visited were the following:

Ahmadabad: This is the main subject or case

to support the dissertation. The village is

126 kilometers south of Tehran and 6 kilometers
east of Saveh on the edge of the desert. It

was visited four times with thirty students

over a four and a half month period. Thirty
students worked on the project of surveying and
studying the village; each student prepared a
project report. Such reports served as an
information resource and are so identified in
the body of this research report.

Yazd: This city was visited for four days with
thirty students. Photographs and interviews
were collected during this period. Distinct
centuries old urban development characteristics
were evident in this city. Many characteristics
of Iranian history and culture development were
also evident in Yazd.

Abianeh and Zavareh: These two villages were
visited for five days with twenty-six students.
Both villages are distant from normally traveled
roads. The ancient zoroasterian religious cus-
toms and beliefs in terms of dress, language
and behavior may still be observed in this

village.

20

Zone IV.--The Southern Coast Region is characterized
by hot humid weather; oil wells, ports, rocky and muddy soil,
low pOpulation density, low rainfall and inadequate recrea-
tion facilities. Settlement areas visited were Shush,
Dezful, Kolenjar and several other villages. Shush and
Dezful were major cities during the ancient royal dynasties
of Iran. Five days were spent with thirty-six students

gathering data.

Data Collection Procedures

Research information was gathered at the village
level using the Open-ended interview method. The rationale
for using this process was the lack of reliable secondary
data or adequate sources of information about the villagers
and the concommitant lack of data concerning their needs.
No census information was available. The Open-ended
dialogue method was adapted after it was determined that
a questionnaire was not apprOpriate with the illiterate
zenophobic villagers. Accordingly, the researcher could
work only with those villagers who were willing to dialogue
with him. There were a multitude of constraints to this
approach. The villagers were reluctant to provide infor-
mation that they felt could make them liable for more taxes.
Thus, economic information is limited, especially that
concerned with income. The data should be viewed only as
the perceived responses of peOple bound by culture, limited
knowledge and suspicious of strangers. Responses were

manually noted and recorded. In addition to the interviews,

21
observation was a major resource for primary data. Obser-
vations were recorded through sketches of village house
locations, public areas and house floor patterns. Photo-
graphs, slides and movies were taken in some of the villages.
Lalehjin and Ahmadabad were emphasized in the filming pro-
cess.

The data collection procedure was intended to
receive and to collect villager perceptions of existing
problems with as little interference from the researcher's
_perceptions as was possible.

Data for provincial and national levels were
selected from existing secondary sources which included,
among others, census data, ministry reports, journals and

the Iran Almanac. Statistics on production, economics,

 

papulation, income, 35 cetera, were compiled from the above

sources .

Analysis of the Data

After collecting the interview data and the secondary
data, the information was tabulated and analyzed in terms
of the various parameters of holistic planning. There was
an attempt to retain the values of the villagers in im-
personal datum. This analysis posed many difficulties
because any value, behavior, action or reaction; any factor
that helps determine the human environment differs from
situation to situation and from time to time. ReSponses
were compared and contrasted. Analysis was also accom-
plished through charts, tables, matrices and models.

Chapters II, III and V consist of detailed presentations

22
of that information.

During the interviewing, it was found that the data
available from the villagers was not responsive to the
interviewers' questions. They simply could not respond to
some questions. These contingencies made the results of
the surveying impossible to quantify, but in compensation
introduced many new aSpects which might be considered in

a broader perSpective.

Summary
Chapter I has provided an introduction to the

problems in Iran and the rationale, assertions, design
and methodology for a holistic approach to planning.
Chapter II provides an overview of general secondary
information which is important to a competent treatise on
the environmental planning process for Iran. Relevant
secondary information provides the basic foundation for
the summaries of the past national plans which are de-
scribed in Chapter III. The primary and secondary data
provide the catalyst for the holistic planning theory
described in Chapter IV and for the case study of
Ahmadabad in Chapter V. Chapter VI provides the summary

and recommendations of this study.

CHAPTER II

Iran - Baseline Information

Iran is a complex nation in its multiple dimensions.
Its tapography varies in altitude; its climate ranges from
arid to high altitude frigid; its people vary from.primitive
nomads to international cosmopolites; its culture ranges
frOm.the maintenance of ancient customs and traditions to
the practice of the most liberal contemporary mores and
values. The holistic planning theory (described in detail
in Chapter IV) is applicable to a nation like Iran because
the theory attempts to perceive and deal with the integra-
tion of those multiple factors in environmental planning.

In order to apply such a theory to the Iranian environment
on a continuing basis, a national level institution is
needed to establish and maintain a continuously revised
information system. .

The purpose of this dissertation is to develOp the
holistic planning theory. Chapter I provides a procedural
overview of the dissertation. Chapter II provides selected
basic information concerning Iran's geographical, demo-
graphic, political, economic, cultural, psychological and
technological factors. It is presented to provide an over-
view of Iran and to serve as a foundation for the theory
application in the case study presented in Chapter V.

In Chapter II national level information is presented
first, followed by village level information. This conforms

’ 23

24
to the holistic planning process of whole to part. Although
it is described in detail in Chapter IV, the theory per-
ceives data in matrix fashion. It is the author's assump-
tion that the Iranian environment, the supersystem. may
be analyzed by planners in terms of the following six
systems. They are the social, political, psychological,
economic, cultural, and technological systems; these are
the subsystems of an environmental supersystem.as shown in
Table l. The data which comprise the holistic theory can be
presented in matrix fashion with the vertical elements of
the matrix consisting of these six systems. These systems
were considered by the author to embrace the entire Spec-
trum of Iranian life and are, therefore, deemed entirely
valid for analytical purposes. It must be pointed out
that these are not discrete categories; each system is
interrelated with each of the other systems. The horizon-
tal data dimension examines information by level, i.e.
whether it is national, regional, provincial, metropolitan,
‘municipal (city) or village level data. These two dimen-
sions -- horizontal and vertical -- make up a matrix for
analyzing essential planning information. This is shown
in Table 2. The information which follows will be presented

within the realm of this conceptual framework.

Geographic Characteristics
Natural resources and demography influence every

dimension of the supersystem, although they impact most the

economic dimension. Therefore, geographic and demographic

25

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26

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27

information will be presented first. An attempt is made to
show the relationship between factors and to analyze these
relationships in order to clarify the planning requirements.

Iran, also called Persia, is a Middle Eastern
country with 628,000 square miles of land, which is about
one-sixth the size of the continental United States of
America. It is bounded by the Caspian Sea and the Soviet
Union on the north; it shares a 1,000 mile frontier with
Iraq and Turkey on the west; it is bounded on the east by
Afghanistan and Pakistan, and it is bounded on the south
by the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea.4
(See Figure 1)

Iran varies radically in its geographic geological
characteristics. It has a wide range of altitude and climate.

The 1977 Iran Almanac describes the country as follows:

 

Iran is vast plateau with various geograph-5
ical, geological composition and c imate
Iran has a wide variety of flora and fauna.
The richest region is the CaSpian littoral,
although Iran has som g of the most arid
deserts in the world.
Figure 2, a schematic of the "Climatic Division of
Iran" shows the extreme ranges of the Iranian climatic
environment.
Regional Zones
In order to show the diSparity of geographic and

climatic factors, as previously discussed, the author

 

4Harvey H. Smith, Area Handbook for Iran, Washington,
: U. .§. Printing Office, 1971, p.
Behruz, Jahangir, Director, Iran Almanac and Book of
Facts, 1 77, Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1977, p. 81.
Ibid., p. 83.

28

Figure 1

 

 

 

 

 

Echo of Iran, 1977, p. 81.

« boo.
.0

Map of Middle East7

0
O
.
O
. .u
., .
a w.
u. .,
u
.n
. "a
.u

Behruz, Jahangir, Director, Iran Almanac and Book

7
of Facts, 1977, Tehran:

 

 

29

Figure 2

Climatic Divisions of Iran

 

ctmuc amaze-s or nus

   

 

    
  
  
 
 

,-.

Q

o ioozooaoohoox. V.
a: '

 

 

Climate of Iran
Different types at arid climate: l.200,000 Sq.Xm. (approx.)

Moderate climate: 400,000 Squ. (appron.)

Cold mountainous climate: 40,000 Squ. (approx.)

 

a Extra Cold Mountainous Climate COM! Sui-0000?: Cit-ate

- Cold Mountainous Climate

 

- Vet Moderate Caspian Climate m Arid Desert Climate

"II Caspian Moderate Climate l W l Arid Hot 0...," Climate

a Hot Semi-Desert Climate

E Mediterranean Climate Vith Spring Rainfall Coastal Arid and Hot Climate

m Mediterranean Climate [11mm Coastal Arid Climate

 

81bid., p. 79.

30
divided the nation into four regions or zones based upon
natural physical characteristics. (See Figure 3.) The
four zones are referred to as The Caspian Sea Coastal
Region (Zone 1), The Mountain Region (Zone II), The Desert
and.Semi-Arid Region (Zone III), and The Southern Coast
Region (Zone IV). The country is viewed from a regional
perspective because the geography and climate have a dis-
tinct impact upon the social, psychological, economic,
cultural and technological characteristics of the inhabi-
tants of the different zones.

There are two major determinants which isolate the
four zones from each other. They are the geographic or
tapographic characteristic and the climate. Both affect
the economic productability of the population. Table 3
presents a brief description of the major differences of
each zone.

Zone I - The Caspian Sea Coastal Region

This region represents approximately one-tenth
of the Iranian land mass. It is bounded by the

Caspian Sea and Russia on the north, by the Alborz

Mountains on the south, by Mashad and Afghanistan on

the east, and by the mountain region of Zone II on

the west. The tolerable climate is humid due to a

high average annual rainfall of fifty inches. The

soil is fertile, the forests are verdant, and the
agricultural production is good. Raw materials and
minerals are abundant. There are many rivers in this

region which flow into the Caspian Sea. The CaSpian

31
Figure 3

The Geographical Zones of Iran

SECTION B-B

 

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32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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3:33 3: .32ch 33 finance ewe: Deacon ewe:
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oowue> ooeao oeaue> cadence haaeauuem Haom oawunom
ueons hum who: hhuenone unwed Hewuueaona one Heauueaona one
o>fluonooue uoom o>Huoaooue Hoom gumd o>auonooum anm< o>wuo=ooum
Sow 28 been comm e8 we: do... us. 33¢ smooch assume
Heo
muaodabm ewe: manomoo oau< nanoeumoou
Ba 385.8 33 23531 33 335.2 3: 28.5.2 ewe: 5.:
emeaonea eeeeonea someonea emeaonea
«announces ununouseounu enuneununom nuneuaono
>H anon HHH enON HH onON H onoN Henoawom
nowwom nowwom ofiu<uaaom nofiwem noawom Heumeoo

uaeoo nuanusom one

one unseen ssh

naeunnoz any

no: mo monoN Henoawom any

n messy

new neaneeu onH

LIJf-thx-IUE-‘(D

33
Sea provides for a good fishing industry, notably
caviar.

Social Factors - There are general cities with

 

high density papulation in this area. The people
are primarily of the elite and middle class, al-
though there is a support base of worker lower class.
Their lifestyle is comfortable due to a high rate of
employment in this agricultural and industrial re-
gion. There is a high rate of education across all
social classes in this area. Although several dia-
lects are spoken in this region, the similarity of
the dialects permits adequate communication.

Psychological Factors - Since rich natural re-
sources contribute to a relatively stable agricultur-
al-economic base, the people tend to have a greater
self-confidence. Their basic life needs, such as
adequate shelter, food and health, are met. The
peOple tend to be more stable and individualistic
than, for example, those in Zone III, who live in
the Semi-arid area. Their educational experiences
have resulted in an attitude which accepts the
change of urbanization, industrialization, and
modernization.

Economic Factors - The rich natural resources of
this region provide the best economic base when com-
pared to the other Iranian zones. Agricultural
production includes, among other products, rice, tea,

cotton and oranges. The fishing industry and related

34

port activities provide employment for many peOple.
This area provides transportation to Russia. The
lumber industry is developing along with other
natural resource related industries. Recreation
and tourism.are additional sources of income.

Mousaleh was selected as a representative
village of Zone 1.

Zone II - The Mountain Region

 

The MOuntain Region represents nearly four-
tenths or slightly less than half of Iran's land
"mass. It is predominantly a high altitude rocky
terrain. In one area near the slope of the moun-
tain range the soil is fertile. It has a four
season climate. There is a mid-range rainfall and
snowfall. Although there is a rocky terrain, there
is some good productive soil in the region which
supports some of Iran's most important crOps.

' Social Factors - Over half of the nation's pOpu-

 

lation inhabits major urban areas, like Tehran, which
is located in this region. Heavy industry and agri-
culture provide high employment. This zone absorbs
the migrating villagers. There is a sharp contrast
in the life-styles of the peOple. The social classes
range from the unskilled migrant worker to the most
saphisticated cosmopolite. The Opportunity for
higher education exists more in this region. Most

of the nation's universities are located in this

area .

35

Psychological Factors - This zone is the center
of complex social, political and technological change.
The peOple are under the stress of transition, and
the resultant rapid change in their life-style. The
intellectuals, since the turn of the century, have
tried to introduce Western concepts into this zone.
The results are the clash of modernism and tradition-
alism where people's value differences are immense.

Economic Factors - The nation's major industries
and agricultural production are carried on in this
zone. The capitol city of Tehran, located in this
zone, is the center of the nation's finance, business
and transportation.
Zone III - The Desert and Semi-Arid Region

Geographical Factors - This region, nearly one-
third of the nation's land area located in the center
of the country, is characterized by vast sandy deserts
and poor soil. The region is rimmed by three differ-
ent mountain ranges. Hot temperatures, high winds,
and the arid climate cause a scarcity of water and,
therefore, sparse vegetation. The average rainfall
is only five inches per year. The people use the
Qanats, an ancient underground canal system of miles
long, for bringing their water from the mountains to
their villages.

Social Factors - Population of this region is
sparse since there is very little water. Small vil-

lages are the predominant civil unit. Many of the

36
settlements are located near the mountains because this
places them nearer to the sources of rainfall. Since
there is virtually no modern industry to provide employ-
ment, the employable youth leave the villages to migrate
to the cities for jobs. This results in the nation's
largest migrant problem. Only the elderly and the
children remain in the villages. The older papulation
works on handcrafts and lies in the sun smoking, while
the children attend school half day and help with the
handcrafts during the balance of the day. The education
is poor and the result is a low literacy level. There
are many dialects in this area which complicates com-
munication.

Psychological Factors - The hot arid climate has

 

contributed to village decline and movement in order to
find water. The water level of a spring is directly
related to the location and longevity of a village.
Villagers move their settlements each time a Spring
dries. This need for mobility contributes to the
clannish dependency of the villagers. The climate
seems to affect the attitude and nature of the peOple.
The psychological solidarity of the peOple is repre-
sented by the design of their villages where the houses
are attached to each other. This will be shown in the
description of Ahmadabad in Chapter V.

Economic Factors - Economically the people of Zone

 

III are relatively poor. The natural resources are

gravely limited, the soil is not conducive to production,

37

and the manpower for development is mig: tory. Although
the peOple grow dry wheat and pistachios, they mainly
support themselves through their handcrafts. They weave
carpets, make silk, and sew clothes.

Cultural Factors - The inhabitants of this region

 

have retained some ancient social and religious tradi-
tions. The mosque serves as a social center for the
villagers. The structures of their artifacts, the
materials used in their creative designs, and the
variety of their customs make their culture distinct
in Iran.

The aridity of the climate and the poor conditions
keep the peeple from attaining any political or economic
importance in Iran.

Zone IV - The Southern Coast Region

 

This area is characterized by hot humid weather
because it is located near the equator. It is bounded
by mountains on the north, by the Persian Gulf on the
south, by the desert and Pakistan to the east and by
high mountains and Iraq in the west. The zone repre-
sents about one-fifth of the nation's land area. The
soil varies from rocky and infertile in some areas to
fertile and productive in other areas. The rainfall is
relatively low in this region. The major resource is
oil and oil related industries.

Social Factors - The region has a mid-density pepula-

 

tion. The peOple have a low to low-middle income which

has improved with the expansion of oil refineries and

38

the development of ports located along the Persian
Gulf. Ancient cities, port cities and villages are
the civil units. Compared to Zone I and II the
educational attainment of the population is low.

Psychological Factors - The peOple of this area are
characterized as inter-dependent, warm, and friendly.
The minority papulation is Arab and nomadic. They have
had a strong psychological-cultural influence on the
population.

Economic Factors - The area's major financial re-

 

source is oil with all of its attendant operational
activities. In addition, there are some industries

which provide employment for the region's manpower.

Summary

The foregoing discussion of Iranian zones has provided
a brief overview of the geography, climate, and related econo-
mic-social and psychological factors. In the holistic plan-
ning concept, (examined in detail in Chapter IV), the national
level is an important facet of the information universe. It
is referred to as the supersystem.in the hierarchy of essen-
tial information. Geography and climate impact papulation
distribution, as well as the availability of natural resources.
This influences the system factors, that is, the social,
political, psychological, economic, cultural and technological
phenomena of a nation. The discussion of regions or zones
requires an examination of the population and the civil units

created for governmental purposes. A discussion of the

39

nation's papulation will be followed by a description of the
civil units of Iran. In the holistic planning concept the
former is referred to as the social system, and the latter
is labelled the political system. An overview of the Iranian
cultural system concludes the description of basic informa-
tion about Iran.
Social Systems

Population figures are essential information for
planning and development projects. The Iranian national
census has been taken twice during the Shah Regime, in
1956 and 1966. Tehran, the nation's capitol, has a pOpula-
tion of 4,496,159. The nation's pOpulation is 33,591,875
million as of December, 1976. The number of peOple who live
in urban areas is 15,715,338, and 17,876,537 people live in
rural areas. Table 4 and Table 5 show the trend of Iranian

pOpulation growth.

Table 4

Iranian Papulation Increase In Three Decades9

 

 

 

Year 1956 1966 1976 Z
Total 18,954,706 25,078,923 33,591,875 100
Male --- 12,981,665 17,277,656 51.43
Female --- 12,097,258 16,314,219 48.57
Urban 5,900,000 9,789,000 15,715,338 46.78
Rural 13,054,704 16,078,923 17,876,537 53.22

 

 

 

 

9
Report of the Last Census Data 1976. Statistical
Report No. 1, p. 5.

 

40

Table 5

Papulation Growth10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Million
35
g Total Papulation
’A of Nation
Y
30 :
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
25 /
I
I
/
I
I
20 [I AA Rural Papulation
I I’
/ /
W Jr,
,1 / I’Urban Papulation
15 ’r‘ , ’
l
,/ x, I
I‘ ’l l
’M’ / .l
1”" ”r I,
10 " ,r ‘
, I
d ’I I
d", f /
.—"" /y
/
’4’
s ,l’
r" " — .-
19217'13'51—50 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 Year

10Statistical Census Data, Social, Economical
Evolution of Iran, 1973. Translated from’Farsi

and drawn by I. Eftekhari, 1977.

nation's papulation is literate.
rate of 47.9 in comparison with the female rate of 25.5

11
percent.

41

Thirty-six and.nine-tenths percent (36.9%) of the

Males have a higher literacy

of Iranian population and households.

Table 6

Regular Households and Papulation Indicators12
Urban and Rural 1976

Table 6 indicates the following characteristics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Average
Total Persons per
Region Households POpulation Male Female Household
Urban 3,256,187 15,715,338 8,185,218 7,530,120 4.83
Rural 3,459,927 17,876,537 9,092,438 8,784,099 5.17
Total 6,714,114 33,591,875 17,277,656 16,314,219 5.00
The trends appear to be:
1) The national population is growing rapidly. The
total population in 1966 was 25,078,923. In 1976

it was 33,591,875, an increase of 8,512,952 or
over 25 percent;

2) The growth of pOpulation in urban areas is greater
than that in rural areas; when male and female
data are examined, they reveal that men are migrat-
ing to cities more than women;

3) The total national urban papulation in 1966 was

 

11Report of the Last Census Data 1976.
Report No. 1, p. 5.

Translated from Farsi, Statistical Census Reports,
(S.C.R.), 1976.

Statistical

42
about forty percent of the total, and became
fifty percent in 1976. This indicates that
urbanization is growing at an increasing rate,
due mainly to immigration from rural areas.

An examination of Table 5, "Papulation Growth," shows
that the papulation has increased far more rapidly during the
1970's than in the previous two decades. An analysis of the
growth of cities shows that many villagers are migrating to
the cities. These migrants generally live in slums at the
edge of the cities. Mest tend to be young men with the
following characteristics: they provide manpower in the
unskilled work force; they have little or no education;
they leave their families and live among strangers; they
experience cultural conflict alienation from the urban life

patterns. Figure 4 shows the change cycle.

Figure 4

Circular Change and the Papulation

4

Migration and .-
{ Immigrant f’ 1
APOpulationA Cultural

Growth Change

t\- Slum area; A)
Physical --
\\_g Change

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The reasons for migration are shown on page 41,

Table 6 .

43

The negative consequences or disadvantages of this

substantial immigration include:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

Inadequate urban infrastructure (overloading);
Insufficient housing - overcrowding;

Poor health care;

Increased city crime;

Traffic congestion;

Lack of balance between agricultural and
industrial production as manpower resources;
Chaos in the social organization; .

Change in peOples' attitudes and characters upon
returning to their villages. They are psycholog-
ically distressed by the inherent value conflicts;
Imbalance in the numbers of each sex. The tables
show that the number of women is less than the
number of men. Therefore, sexual relations with
the religious limitation has caused an increase
in sexual assault; I

Lack of vocational education of the worker. He
has been left only to earn money by manual, un-

skilled labor.

The positive consequences or advantages of urban

immigration could include:

1)

2)

Citizens may earn some money on transferring from
the rural to the urban environment;
This money will be sent back to the family for

support or it may be Spent in the city.

44

Levels of Governmental Units

The nation of Iran is divided into many governmental
organization levels. Geographical factOrs seem to be one
influence upon the Iranian civil divisions. The Country is-
divided into twenty-two states or provinces called "Ostans."13
Ostans are the largest civil division in the nation. (See
Figure 5 for a list of Ostans and a map of their locations.)
The next governmental organizations in order of size are

"Shahrestan,' which constitutes large cities or towns.

(Figure 6 shows the names and locations of Iran's major
cities.14) Bakhshes are rural districts or townships. The
smallest unit is the Dehestan, which constitutes a village.
Iran's major concentration of pOpulation lies in cities,
towns, and villages. The cities function as centers of
finance, commerce, religion, and government.
Demography, Definition of Cities, and
Other Settlement Patterns

According to the description given in the census
taken in 1956, all the areas which have more than 5,000 in-
habitants are categorized as cities and communities. Those
areas with less pOpulation are villages. In 1932, it was
estimated that two-thirds or more of the total papulation
consisted of villagers and nomadic tribes. According to
the 1956 census, 31.4 percent of the pOpulation were

urbanized, and 68.6 percent were rural inhabitants. In

 

131bid., pp. 96-97.

laAmirie, Abbas and Hamilton Twitchell, Iran in 1980.
Tehran: Institute for Political and Economic Studies, 1978,
p. 399.

45
Figu 25

State Divisions of Iran

 

 

.- .- , .e-n..-~’
,- . .._-- -

STATE DIVISION, January 1977

 

 

 

No. of No. of ' No. of No. of Central
0!- thrmtam Bakhaha Dehestmn Municipalities of Oatan
_Qromcs) ’ ‘ ‘ °
1. Guild ('l'shnn) 14- 44 105 40 Tehran
2. (an 10 21 $6 30 Rash:
3. llazandam 10 34 123 44 San
4. But Amhaifin 10 33 86 39 Tahnz
5. West Azerbaijan 9 18 64 20 Raaiysh
6. New 5 17 60 13 Ksnmmhah
7. m , 11 30 109 24 Ahm
I. Fm: ' 11 31 112_ 28 Shiraz
9. Kaunas 6 17 122 19 Roman
10. thermal 15 $2 210 44 Maahad
11. Malian 9 21 68 43 Eafahan
12. Sun a mm 3 21 70 11 Zahsdan
13. Random 6 16 49 8 Sanandaj
14. W (”) 5 23 77 19 Bandu-Ahbaa
15. Hamsdan 4 11 34 ll Hamedan:
16. Lemma 3 17 63 10 Khonarnahad
17. Qannshal a Bakhdaty 2 8 23 6 Sasha Km!
18. lung-n 3 7 22 s Zanjan
19. Yazd 4 no 18 8 Yazd
zo. Saunas 3 8 ‘ 23 7 Seaman
21. llmn - 4 13 41 13 Ram
22. Bonn-Ahead! a Knhdloyah 2 7 l3 3 You;
I
TOTAL. 151 459 1.548 445 -

‘)Aaofllalch197$. ") QdCoanalPronnes.

46

Figure 6

Major Cities of Iran15

0"
/

- ... ..... anger Nailwaya
m Rood.

 

 

 

_ Oum

‘mm AFGHANISTAN

‘ ; ' Ardoatan CHI-M

.led
/

. Korman fi,/

0’.

2a -' .. éAKIsrAN

Banana Abbas

VMAL.

 

 

 

15Ibid.

47
1976, 48.6 percent were urbanized, and 51.4 percent were
rural inhabitants.

The central provinces are the most urbanized in the
nation. The rate of provincial urbanization includes
Esfahan at 62.9% (Zone V), Yazd (Zone III) at 61.2%, and
Khuzistan at 65.1% (Zone IV) urbanization. The least
urbanized provinces are Kahkohue and Baluchistan.

A simple conclusion is that in all provinces the
trend has been towards urbanization with gradual decrease
in the rate of rural pOpulation. This trend is not always
an indication of industrial growth, because in most un-
deve10ped countries one or two huge cities absorb the
largest prOportion of the citizens who benefit from the
services and comforts of city life. In 1956, Iran had
199 cities with a pOpulation of 5,996,000. In 1966, there
were 249 cities with a pOpulation of 9,789,000. In 1976,
there were 365 cities with an aggregate papulation of
15,715,338, plus 116 villages whose pOpulation approached
5,000 citizens. Tehran, the capitol of Iran, had about 13
percent of the total urban papulation and is increasing at
4.2 percent yearly. Esfahan, the nation's second major
city, has a 4.7 percent yearly papulation increase. Mashhad,
Tabriz and Shiraz are the other major cities.16

Like cities in other emergent or deveIOping nations,

the Iranian cities are in great transition. Births and

 

16Plan and Budget Organization Statistical Center of
Iran. Statistical Yearbook of Iran, Tehran: Plan and Budget
Organization, 1976, p. 75.

 

48

deaths are not the only variables affecting the demographic
changes. Modernization, urbanization, industrialization and
migration are significant variables, as is usually the case
in most countries where there is dynamic papulation change.
This centralization is an obstacle for the development and
growth of smaller cities.

Amani, in his dissertation concerned with Iranian
urban poPulation growth, has examined the rate of growth
and.then estimated the future urbanization rate as displayed

in the following tables:

 

Table 7
Estimated Urbanization Rate in Iran, 1949-196617
1295 Percentage of
POpulation (Urban)
1949-50 ....... 20.0
1955 ------- 31.4
1953 ------- 33.5
1964 ------- 36.0
1955 ------- 39.1

Based on these figures, Amani estimated in Table 8,
the percentage of increased urbanization rate has been

estimated as follows:

 

17Amani, p. 30. Dissertation, 1975.

49

 

Table 8
Estimated Urbanization Rate in Iran 1967-197818
Year Urbanization Rate
1967 --------- 40.3
1968 --------- 41.3
1969 --------- 42.1
1970 --------- 42.9
1971 --------- 43.8
1972 --------- 44.8
1973 --------- 45.7
1974 --------- 46.7
1975 --------- 47.6
1976 --------- 48.6
1977 --------- 49.7
1978 --------- 50.7

This indicates an average increase of one percent per

annum over the past ten years.

Basic Structure of the Cities

Some significant factors have played an important role
in shaping the locational factors of the present cities.
These can be grouped into five categories: 1. physical
(geographical) characteristics, 2. economic structure
(industrial suitability), 3. technology, 4. political power
structure and strategic conditions, 5. cultural value system
(religions). Among scholars over time there has been much
debate over which factors provide the most significant
influences on urban settlement, with most acknowledging a
single factor, but disagreeing on which factor. Some suggest

that economic structure caused the emergence of city life,

 

18Ibid.

50

but others believe that technology has played the prominent
role. There are others who feel religion is the dominant
force which determines a city's life. Despite the search
for a single force to explain the locational factors of a
city, this researcher believes that the factors are inter-
dependent and that no single one offers sufficient explana-
tion.

It should be pointed out here that in the planning
process attempts should be made to assess nearly every
shaping factor, including the functions and interactions

of each factor.

Functions of Cities

Physical environment has played a strong role in
shaping cities and setting limits to urban locations in
Iran. However, it has never been the major determinant.

The question of location of cities is interrelated
with the functions. Thus, one cannot talk about location
of an urban area unless he talks about the function as well.
The key functions of cities and towns in Iran are economic,
political, militaristic, religious, and educational. No
city serves only one function to the exclusion of all
others; rather, a city such as Tehran not only serves all
the mentioned functions, but others as well, such as re-
creational, technological and medical. It also functions
as the communications center of the country. Although Tehran
serves many functions, its political and administrative

structures seem to be the primary ones. Due to the nature

51

of the city's power elite, the citizens employed in those
functions command the largest share of goods and services,
both necessities and luxuries. Because of its power status,
Tehran, as the capitol city, attracts the "best of every-
thing"; it inevitably emerges as the nation's leading
commercial center.

In classifying the cities as far as economic function,
there are many small cities and towns which serve as trans-
fer points of produce on its way into large cities. These
centers are vital links between the peasantry in the vil-
lages and the peOple in the large cities.

In contrast, the small market towns are the commer-
cial cities which serve as intermediaries in "International
Commerce." Examples of such important centers are Bandar
Pahlavi in the north and Khorramshahr in the south, two of

the major ports of Iran.

Structure of Other Communities

The cities are the habitat of traders, bureaucrats,
and land owners. Each locality has a major economic source.
Prior to industrialization, the cities were the centers for
trade and craftmanship. Today, the villages and towns have
become the market towns or bazaar towns in Iran. The pre-
vailing economy was based upon rural agricultural produc-
tivity. The bazaar is the core of economic exchange and
also provides the center for social and cultural exchange.
All sorts of sports events, marital arrangements and other

social and political activities are performed in the bazaar.

52

Mbst towns in Iran are divided into many sections.
In each section, the practicing craftsmen or guilds congre-
gate in a "quarter." Each quarter has its unique inhabi-
tants and characteristics. One quarter contains the
mosque showing the predominant role of religion. This
quarter is usually called the Mahaleh. Members of a given
family usually live in a particular quarter. They are born
in a house and die in the same place with even a particular
cemetary for that quarter. Each part of the city or the
community has all of its own facilities. The structure of
one city is almost always similar to another. There is a
small market (bazaar), a mosque, a hall (takieh), and a
cemetary containing a special section for a few notable
inhabitants whose names are associated.with these quarters.
In some towns, where the crafts are practiced as the major
source of income, the quarters were named after the activity
of the guilds. The inhabits and the shaps are usually at
the same place and the professions are hereditary.

In Iran there are a few towns which are semi-
industrial. Their major industrial characteristics are the
productive activities of their population. Most of the
papulation is engaged in light industries, exceeding the
number of government agents (civil servants) in the towns.
Carpet weaving is an example of such a light industry. In
contemporary Iranian society some small towns are known as
agricultural centers because thirty-five percent of their
inhabitants are engaged in some kind of agricultural activity.

In other words, the peasants exceed the industrial laborers

53

or the civil servants. These towns are usually divided into
many quarters inhabited by particular groups.

Small villages in some parts of Iran are called Dehak.
In some villages there are holy shrines of Emams, descendants.
The atmosphere of these villages differs from.the others.
"Abadi" is referred to as a settlement where groups of peOple
live on the sides of main roads and provide tea houses, shops,
and inns (caravansaries). Their purpose is mainly to pro-

vide food and provisions for travellers.

Summagy

Population and papulation distribution and the
communities organized by that population are important
demographic factors for the holistic planner to consider.
However, there are other population patterns the planner
must observe. A centralized p0pulation usually creates a
hierarchy of relationships referred to as social strata. The
following discussion focuses on a brief overview of the

Iranian urban and rural social class structure.
Iranian Social Class Structure

Introduction

In every society, regardless of the stage of economic
develOpment, there are social position strata. This is
based upon some sociological determinant, such as job or
profession, earnings, level of education, and political
affiliation. Therefore, social class may be defined as a

socio-psychological phenomenon.

, 54

Iranian Social System Overview

An overview of the Iranian social system reveals an
identifiable class structure which has undergone some change
as a result of the White Revolution of 1963, a nationwide
social-political reform attempt at land reform. This
structure may be visualized as a pyramid of the upper class,
or elites; the middle class; and the lower class. The size
and relationship of these groups have undergone change as
a result of the land reform and the industrialization
policy which brought great transitions in the lives of the
people. The White Revolution contributed to immigration,
land speculation, and class transition. Figure 7 is a
conceptualization of the Iranian social class structure

before and after land reform and industrialization:

Figure 7

Iranian Social Classifigation Pyramid

Before 1963 After 1963

Elite 1%
Upper Middle 10%
Lower Middle 10%
Upper Lower 20%
Middle Lower 29%
Lower Lower 40%

     
 

Elite 1%
Middle 10%
Lower 89%

Before
1963

 

Upper Cl§§s of Elitgg
The upper class represents less than one percent of
the total population. This group is traditionally comprised

of the royal family, its relatives and associates. Despite

55

its smallness in size, this class has most of the economic,
political, and social power in its control. Top levels of
status, role, and position within the whole society are
occupied by this group's members, according to their person-
ality, education, wealth, and close relation to the royal

family. The positions they hold may be classified as

fOllows:
1. Political leaders and government administrators;
2. Military leaders;
3. Professional and high level technocrats;
4. Industrialists, merchants, and businessmen;
5. Farmer leader aristocrats;
6. Clergy and religious leaders (very few);
7. Tribal chiefs (very few).

This group experienced some change after the land
reform of 1963, when the government paid them for their
lands, which had been taken away for distribution to the
peasants. They either invested their money in industry or

took their money out of the country.

Middle Class

The middle class in Iran is divided into upper and
lower class strata as well as into modern and traditional
groups. The modern middle class has a tendency to adapt and
adapt to western materialistic culture values and patterns of
lifestyle. The tradition-oriented middle class tends to
retain the Shi'a religion, customs, and practices in the
home. This double strata provides a link between the masses

and the elite.

56
The members of the upper-middle-class stratum often

hold the same occupations as the elite class, but they do
not attain the political, economic or social standing of
the elite. Although they may occupy the same positions as
the elite class, they do not possess the same power and
prestige. As a result of urban immigration, a new group
within this class consists of those involved with the
building trades, such as land speculators, builders, con-
tractors and light industrial owners. This class also
includes the growing university student papulation.

The lower middle class is made up of small retailers,
craftsmen, low level government employees, and others.
They are generally less well-educated and less well-paid
than members of the upper middle class. They are involved
in a variety of occupations and they may be divided accord-

ing to other criteria into modern and traditional groups.

Lower Class

The Iranian lower class may be divided into the urban
and rural papulations.

Urban Lower Class

The urban lower class may be distinguished by its
distinctive linguistic usage, high rate of illiteracy, and
performance of manual labor. The members of this class are
generally uneducated and largely ignorant of the political
process. Indeed, they are more similar to rural peOple,
except that urban influences have disturbed their customary

social, economic, and cultural values.

57

The occupational hierarchy within the lower class
runs frmm the migrants and casual laborers at the bottom,
to the regularly employed factory workers and those in
government services, such as office boys, postal employees,
and low-ranking members of the police force, at the top.

In between, there are bazaar porters, street cleaners, car
washers, mechanics, domestic servants, gardeners, beggars,
newspaper boys, unskilled factory and service workers,
farmers, and farm laborers and the jobless.

Rural Lower Class

Overview of General Social Structure. The village
social structure is less rigidly organized than that in the
urban centers. About 65% of the country's inhabitants live
in about 55,000 villages scattered around the nation. The
villagers identify themselves strongly with their kin groups
and local relationships. The vast majority in village
societies are poor lower class workers who engage in agri-
culture, animal husbandry, craft work or public service.
'Many villagers have an increasing knowledge of life beyond
the village, although they are isolated from the outside
world.

Social organization of the villages when compared to
the cities is traditionally less stratified and represents a
more homogeneous unit of social, cultural and economic
aspects. A vast majority of villagers are relatively poor.
They tend to trust each other because of their small group
size; there is not the broad social class range of lower-

lower to elite as in the cities. Although they trust their

58

own, xenophobia is a problem. In rural areas the peOple are
basically united.

Some sociologists have discussed the villager peasants
in detail. Many of them believe that peasants are religious,
traditional, individualistic, and conservative. The peasants
are often perceived as dubious and pessimistic toward new
phenomena and strangers. Because of their constant encounter
with hard nature, they have a resigned attitude towards life.
They are tolerant and patient when facing problems.

Although agrarian societies may appear to be homo-
geneous in their poverty, they are in fact quite complex in
their community structure. In Iran, the peasants are divided
into groups according to their relations with and possession
of the land. If a family has a vast land area under cultiva-
tion, it enjoys better conditions and more respect. There
is a relationship between the land-owning system and the
lower-class social stratification.

Significant Rural Worker Groups. The rural inhabi-
tants are not a homogeneous social class; they are divided
into many groups and castes. The villagers differ according
to their geographical location and reflect their unique
lifestyles, cultural values, and economic conditions. The
peasants, or Zareh, are basically comprised of land owners,
or Nasaghdar, who hire farm workers, or Khosh Neshin, who do
not own land, and petty landowners who are different from
the Nasaghdar in that they own only enough land for their

family to work.

59

The Zareh are the major group of the rural social

structure who are engaged in agricultural activities. The

laws and traditions, or Hasgh gave the Zareh the right to

cultivate and irrigate the dry farming lands. The land

reform laws granted the land to the Zareh by two methods,

working the granted land for more than a year or inheriting

the land.

The social structure in rural areas since land reform

includes the following six significant worker groups:

1.

2.

3.

The Khosh_Neshins are the most prominent group
in the villages. Khosh Neshins are primarily

comprised of two groups: (See Figure 8)

Rural Traders (peddlers) is a large group
who are powerful in regards to their wealth.

Their major activities include trading,

*shopkeeping, purchasing and usury (loaning

money).

Rural Laborers (proletaria) is a group which
consists of all the day-laborers, including
the agricultural workers, the coolies, the
field watchers, and the carpet-weavers.
Mbdern technology has added other groups to
the laborers. They include the tractor
drivers and the technicians who work on the

modern equipment.

Petty Landowners consist of a group which may also

include the village headman.

The unemployed includes tramps and minstrels.

60

4. Farmers, water distributors, planters make
another group.

5. Bureaucrats consist of civil servants, health
education corps members, teachers, and other
governmental agents (gendarme).. The gendarme
is a governmental executive stationed in the
larger villages.

6. The superintendent group includes tenants, head-
man. and business managers who oversee the land.
Figure 8 shows the social structure in the rural
areas after the land reform.

In the past, before the peasants were allocated land,
they had an equal position of inferiority in regard to the
landowners' power. A sense of sympathy existed among them
until land reform distributed the land to the peasants
(Nasaghdar). This caused the deterioration of the mutually
supportive spirit and subjected the peasants to the jealousy
or envy of the Khosh Neshin. It has also caused a sort of
alienation among them in their community. Furthermore, they

refuse to c00perate in any develOpment programs.

Petty Landowners

Before the implementation of the land reform there
was a group of landowners who owned one to 100 acres of land;
they had peasants or farmers at their service and they were
called petty landowners. They formed a powerful group. The
petty landowners consisted of the following groups:

1. Landlords who had land and cultivated it by

themselves;

61

Figure 8

 

( Social Structure in the Rural Areas After the Land Reform19 '

 

ureaucrats

 
    
      

 

  

Super;
Intendants

 

 

 

 

 

Planters deter Distributor
-saistant

    
     

Hatch Distributor

 

 

 

 

 

 

19K. Khosravi. A Research for Iranian Rural Societ ,
Tehran: Piam, 1976, translated 5y Iraj EfteEEarI, Tehran:

University of Tehran, p. 134.

62

2. landlords who hired farmers to cultivate their
lands;

3. Landlords who had peasants and contracted their
farmlands to tenants.

Generally, petty landowners had either of the follow-

ing characteristics in common:

a. They had small plots of land in villages which
they cultivated themselves. They usually were
residents of their porperty. The basis of the
production was domestic family exploitation.

b. They were owners of small plots of land, but
were not residents on their property. Not
being of rural origin, these types of landlords
were created because of the hereditary system
of the landowning.

The other group of village landowners is the absentee
landlord. He inherited his prOperty and manages it through
tenants or superintendents.

Khosrovi20 studied four hundred and four petty land-
lord families in twelve rural areas of Iran. He found that
even after land reform these landlord's holdings did not
exceed ten acres of land. About sixty-three percent of the
households owned from four to eight acre meters of land;
twenty percent possessed three to four acres of land; and
sixteen percent owned eight to ten acres. (An acre is equal

to ten thousand square meters.) Khosrovi concludes that

 

zolbid.

63

fundamental obstacles exist on the way to creating a class
of well-off petty landowners.

In Ahmadabad, where the writer conducted his research,
and other villages around the desert, poor water resources
and barren soil meke cultivation unprofitable; therefore,
some of the rural papulation have resorted to handcrafting,
such as carpet and tent (cloth) weaving. In Khorassan, a
large province, thirty percent of the total papulation
consists of Khosh Neshins. In Kerman, an ancient and famous

city, carpet weaving is considered a major craft.

Rural Tribal Groups and Nomad Groups

Tribal groups and nomad groups are those Iranian
peOple who move about the country or live around mountain
cities. Their standards of living are below those of the
lower-lower class. The tribes in Iran are not totally and
completely nomadic. Some authorities maintain they are semi-
nomadic. They speak their own dialects. They have played
a strong role in Iranian politics. Adibi states:

The bulk of the tribes live in the western and

southern Zagros regions, migrating according

to the season from mountains to plain to mountains

in search of pasturage for their flocks. Because

the tribes are a great independent political

force, they have always been forced either to

move to some other region or to lose theif power

in order to obey the central government.

Livestock breeding is the major economic activity of
the tribes and nomads. They plant their seeds in a selected

mountain place, wander about in a great circle, and return to

 

21Adibi, Hossein, An Analysis of the Social, Economic,
and Physical Aspects of Ufbanization in Iran. United States
International university, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,
1972, p. 104.

 

64

the same place at harvest time.

The family has a Special structure amongst the tribes.
Immigration usually does not occur among these people because
the family links are tight. Polygamy is still practiced
among the tribes. In fact, it is quite natural for the first
wife to arrange for the second marriage of her husband in
order to lighten the burden of labor. Women and children
are considered the free laborers for men. The women play
a prominent role in the productivity of the tribes. The
men hold the economic power, but the women help in milking
the animals, weaving, and making handcrafts. Children are
also active in the production process. Because of migratory
lifestyles, the children are not sent to school, but they
are taught to be bold and chivalrous and to acquire the
spirit of bravery by studying about Iranian heroes. (By
contrast, children in the rural communities are sent to
Education Corps schools and as a result do not contribute
as much to the family economy even though the family has a
low standard. This has created discord between education
and the families' economic needs.) Hunger and disease,
hardship and dangers are facts of nomadic family life which
contribute to a high mortality rate.

The central governmental political power has reduced
the tribal powers and numbers of forcing them to settle in
the rural villages. During the Qajar (1779-1925) dynasty,
five million, or about fifty percent, of the Iranian papula-

tion was nomadic.

65

The power of tribes t.s always an unpleasant thought

for kings of recent L/nasties, and the tribal dis-

cipline and independent organizations were consi-
dered as thorns in the flesh of central government
during its efforts to unify the country. And

then, too, forceful settlement of tribes, as

was attributed to Reza Shah (1925-41), seemed

necessary because the existence of tribes was

considered to be the sign of backwardness, and

Reza Shah found this incompatible with his

"modernization" program.

The forced settlement, different laws and regulations
have eliminated essential pastural lands for the nomadic
livestock. The new pattern of settled life and technology
absorbs more and more of these peOple into city and town
life. This group is well-represented by the Shahsavan who
settled in Ahmadabad and will be discussed in detail in

Chapter V.

Summagy

The previous discussion focused on the primary sub-
systems of the Iranian social system. The civil units,
the demography and settlement patterns, the community
structures, and the social class structure were briefly
described in order to provide an informational base for a

description of the Iranian political system which follows.

The Political System
Introduction '
The framework of all national activities, which is

integrated.with all other segments of the supersystem, is

 

22Adibi, p. 105.

66
the nation's political system” Iran has a rich international
political history reaching into ancient times. The following
brief discussion will describe the contemporary levels of
Iranian government in order to provide a perceptual base
essential for the holistic planning approach and for the

case study in Chaper V.

National Level

Iran's constitution of 1906 established the male
hereditary monarchy and provided for the tripartite govern-
ment composed of the executive, legislative and judicial
branches. The Shahanshah is the powerful Chief of State.
The Monarch, as Commander in Chief of the armed forces,
confers military rank and may declare war or peace. The
Monarch may appoint or discharge ministers as well as call
Parliament into session or close it. _

Executive power resides in the Cabinet headed by the
Prime‘Mflnister, who is chosen by the Shahanshah and approved
by the Houses of Parliament. Cabinet ministers are chosen
by the Prime Minister and appointed by the Shahanshah. The
Cabinet has experienced frequent expansion and reorganiza-
tion. In addition to the Prime Minister, the Cabinet
included: Economy and Finance; Foreign Affairs; Interior;
Industry and Mines; Commerce; Energy; Labor and Social
Services; War; Art and Culture; Roads and Transport;
Justice; Housing and Town Planning; Education and Training;
Information and Tourism; Science and Higher Education;

Agriculture, Natural Resources; CoOperatives and Rural

67
Affairs; Post, Telegraph, and Telephone; Health and Social
welfare; Minister of State and Executive Deputy to Prime
Minister in Administrative Affairs; Minister of State and
Parliamentary Deputy to Prime Minister; Minister of State
and Director of Planning and Budget Organization; Minister
of State in Charge of Women Affairs; Minister of State and
Secretary General of Rastakhiz Political Party; Minister of
State in Charge of Economic Affairs, plus two other Ministers
without portfolio.

Iran has two Houses of Legislature: the National
Consultative Assembly, established shortly after the 1906
Constitutional Assembly, and the Senate, set up in 1950.

The Constitution began an era of reform from ancient Islamic
law and from.entrenched traditions. The change in the system
of government, both in organization and in the development
of legal codes, was based on the French model of government
blended with some aspects of old Islamic Religious Laws.23
The legislative bodies consist of an elected lower house
(Majlis) and a half-elected, half-royally-appointed Senate.
These legislative bodies together form the Parliament, and
their members serve for a term of four years. Prior to the
1963 White Revolution feudal landlords dominated the Majlis,
while women did not have the right to vote and farmers and
workers were seldom elected to the Parliament. After 1963
women received their franchise and by 1970, women, farmers,
workers and the intelligensia were members of the Parliament,

influencing the law and the financial bills.

 

23Smith, Harvey H. Area Handbook for Iran. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971.

68

The Judiciary function is to prevent crime and to
encourage law-abiding citizens. The judiciary judges as well
as other high government officials are appointed by royal
decree. The Judiciary is currently engaged in a significant
era of law reform in order to contend with the needs of

Iranian modernization. The 1977 Iran Almanac states:

 

The laws which will come up for review...
include legislation on the organizational
structure of the judiciary, the public
penal and civic codes and their procedures,
public registration and notary public
offices, employment affairs of judges and
judicial employees, the House of E uity,
the Public Coroner's Office, the o ficial
newspaper of the Government, bankruptcy
regulations, judicial and public registra-
tion quality and expenses. Adjudication
Councils and all legislation on the quali-
fications and workingi of the members of
the legal profession. 4

Province Level (Ostans); Local Levels

Local administration is conducted through a system of
twenty-two geographical provinces, ostans (as shown in Figure
5) and some governorates. They are further divided into
sections corre8ponding to counties, towns, and then into
districts and villages. At all levels below the national,
all executive, judicial, and legislative officials, except
in the small villages, were formerly centrally appointed,
but now they are pOpularly elected.

Each Province is headed by a Governor General, who

is nominated by the Ministry of Interior, approved by the

 

24Iran Almanac, p. 107.

69

Cabinet, and appointed by Imperial Decree. The Governor
General is directly responsible to the Ministry of Interior
in Tehran. An Ostan, or chief Gubernatorial is divided into
many Shahrestans (cities or towns), each with its own Gov-
ernor. The Shahrestan is divided into Bakshes (districts)
and the districts are sub-divided into Dehestans (villages).
The city or town Governors come under the jurisdiction of
the apprOpriate Ostan Governor Generals. They are nominated
by the relevant Governor General and approved by the Ministry
of Interior.25

The villages have their own organization and Kadkhoda
(headman). The villiage judicial system is the House of
Equity (described in Chapter V). Most of the decision
making in villages is done from the administrative center
or capitol. This centralized political system has been
established as a traditional and cultural pattern. The
royally-appointed executive head is designated as a Governor
rather than as a Governor General, as in the provinces. Any
changes in administrative divisions are made from time to
time by the central government in response to economic,
social and other conditions. In other words, most of the
power is centralized and the people have less power to

participate in and affect national or local decisions.

Summagy

The preceding discussion provided information con-

cerning the framework of the Iranian political system. It

 

251bid., p. 65.

70
briefly described the constitutionally-based national govern-
ment, the state government and local government. Since a
nation's economic system is closely related to the political

system, a description of Iran's economic system follows.

The Economic System
Introduction
When viewed from.the national perspective, the econo-
mic system is the most powerful phenomenon impacting the
population and the civil structures. The following material
focuses on the principal Iranian economic subsystems and
examines the interrelations of those subsystems. This

process is essential to the holistic planning approach.

Economics-Definition

Economics consists of many social institutions con-
cerned quantitatively with the goal of a country's economic
development. The Encyclopedia of Social Science explains
these institutions as follows:

Examples of such institutions are private
enterprises, public enterprises, markets,
social insurance schemes, tax systems,
monetary systems, and hierarchies of public
authorities. Institutions in turn are
characterized by certain rules of conduct
or as instruments of the society's economic
policy. Examples are tax rates and social
insurance benefits. Apart from a static
concept of an Optimum.order, there is a
continual rocess of striving for and
menaging the optimal ordgg, which we usual-
ly call economic policy.

Economic system.planning deals with the internal

 

26

1 EncyclOpedia of Social Science, "Economic Planning,"
p. 03.

71

relation of quantitative factors, such as gross national

product, incomes, prices, eXpenditures, input and output.
Planning should be seen as a.menifestation
of the evergrowing tendency consciously to
organize human activity. In this process
there is a continuous search for efficiency
in its broadest sense. In the particular
case of economic planning this means on the
one hand, that social or group needs are
increasingly recognized as aims and, on the
other han , that no means, including planning,
should be used where not positively contri-
buting to these aims. ...... Thus, town and
country planning are now becoming integrated
into national economic planning. 7

The economic system may be viewed as a series of
concentric circles, broadening in diameter to include larger
geographical areas at each level of planning. It would be
easy to consider economic planning at the village level a
single phenomenon, but, indeed, it is not. It is a part
of a whole national economic system.and is, therefore, as
complicated as other levels.

Village, city, region, and national economic planning
encompass extremely widespread forces, internally and ex-
ternally, which should be considered in one framework. Each
of these planning levels shares the need to channel existing
resources and infuse new ones to bring about desired results,
which relate to the obligation and attention of governmental
relations between levels and systems and the control over
distribution of resources.

Since 1949 the national government has develOped

radical seven and five year plans for improving the economy

 

27Ibid.

72
of the nation through effective development of industry
and utilization of natural resources. (These multi-year
plans are described in Chapter III.) In spite of the
planning attempts to invest public and private investments,
the nation continues to be plagued with inflation, scar-

cities of products and services, and budgetary problems.

Industrial vs. Agricultural

Previously, Iran's economy was agrarian-based, but
it is becoming increasingly industrialized in urban areas
and in regions with rich natural resources. The industrial
base develOped rapidly after 1968 as a result of national
planning. Iran is now recognized as an emergent industrial
nation. Industrial growth in recent years has been second
only to rising oil revenues in contributions to the Gross
National Product. As a result, agriculture, which had
virtually been the only economic activity for thousands of
years and which had been integral to the culture, has been
relegated to a secondary role in the economy. Agriculture
has been charged with providing foodstuffs for the rapidly
increasing population and for providing important raw
materials for the country's fast expanding industries.
Although Iran has vast sources of wealth in oil, plus
other mineral resources and agricultural productivity, the
standard of living for a great majority of citizens is still
quite low. The national average income, according to 1976
estimated data, is approximately $1707 annually. This is
insufficient in an economy experiencing rapid and increasing

inflation in cost of all goods and services.

73

Iran must develop a new approach to deve10pment of
industry for the following reasons: oil, the main current
source of revenue, will eventually dry out; agricultural
production is insufficient to supply the nation's needs;
therefore, industry and mining will be the major source of
national income.

The growing role of industry and the gradually
diminishing importance of agriculture in a relative sense
is, as mentioned, reflected in their respective contributions
to the country's Gross National Product (GNP).28 At the
beginning of the 1960's, agriculture provided sustenance for
about 60 percent of the economically active population and
accounted for about 40 percent of the Gross National Product.
Moreover, according to official preliminary figures for the
fiscal year 1969-70, agriculture was still providing a living
for about 46 percent of the labor force, but its contribution
to the Gross National Product had fallen to 19 percent. On
the other hand, industry, including oil, employed less than
10 percent of the labor force in 1969-70 and increased its
contribution to the GNP during this period from about 25
percent to 43 percent.

Besides agriculture and industry, other sectors of the
economy are contributing to the GNP are: public administra-
tion and defense, 11.8 percent; services, 11 percent;
domestic trade (wholesale and retail), 8.5 percent;
transportation, 6.8 percent; banking and insurance, 2.8

percent; and communication, 6 percent. (Official Iranian

 

28Harvey H. Smith, Area Handbook for Iran, 1971,
Second Edition, The American University, Washington, D.C.,~
pp. 35-372.

74

sources allow a 3.3 percent factor for statistical discrep-
ancies.) I

In the case of Iran, the per capital Gross National
Product should not be taken as a reliable indicator of an
improving economy because of the wide gap between the
incomes of different classes, essentially the rural and
urban inhabitants. The rural population, constituting
about 62 percent of the total, contributed only about 30
percent to the Gross National Product through agricultural

and home auxiliary industrial activities.

Imports-Exports

Iran imports meny commodities; among them are sugar,
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, iron and ironware, machinery,
automotive vehicles, paper products, foods and fabrics.
In 1972 total imports amounted to about 2.41 billion rials.
The main exports of Iran are oil, raw cotton, wool and
carpets: In 1972 total exports amounted to $2.96 billion
rials (United Nations estimation). The export of oil
accounts for the difference between import and eXport
amounts. The basic medium of exchange or currency in Iran
is the "rial," a nonconvertible paper currency. One United

States dollar was equal to 70.25 rials in 1977-1978.29

Agriculture
Agriculture is still the most important economic base

in the country, but its relative importance has been gradually

 

29Bank of Iran Census Data, 1964.

75

decreasing as a result of industrialization. The agri-
cultural production in 1970 was estimated at 19.9 percent
of the Gross National Product (GNP). In 1974 the total
was estimated at 9.4 percent of the GNP.3o The decreased
figure is an arithmetical reflection of increased industrial
production, and of the shrinking relative importance of
agricultural production. '

Agricultural production is not entirely of a sub-
sistence nature, and, with the exception of remote areas,
it is an integral and important part of the national economy.
In addition, most of the country's industry, such as the
textile and carpet factories and sugar refineries, depends
on the agricultural sector for its raw materials. Budget
specialists have estimated that about half of the total
government revenue, excluding revenue from the oil industry,
is derived from direct and indirect taxation on agriculture.

Before the 1963 land reform, 65 percent of the total
papulation, or about 15.5 million persons, inhabited 55,000
villages. According to 1962 agricultural statistics, the
total tilled land amounted to 11.3 million acres which were
cultivated by 2.4 million families,31 a ratio that factors
out to an average of about 417 acres per family. According
to the 1977 Iran Almanac, agricultural activities resulted

in 6.8 percent of the GNP.32

 

3oIran Almanac and Book of Facts, 1977, p. 200.
31Ministry of Agriculture Census Data, 1962.

32Bank of Iran Census Data, 1964.

76

During the several economic recessions of the last
two decades, the characteristics of different social classes
have been changed by reduction of income rates and by lowered
living conditions which have in some cases deteriorated to
an unimaginable degree. Even the "White Revolution" reform
was basically ineffective. Although it advocated equaliza-
tion and social welfare, the lack of coordination between
the different institutions, the lack of data for decisions,
the lack of clear goals, the lack-of significant planning
and, finally, the lack of a policy for national program
implementation foiled the success of the Revolution's goals
at most governmental levels.

In May, 1960, a land reform law provided for a
limitation of large land holdings in order to eliminate
excessive concentrations of land in the hands of a few
families. Such families were required to sell part of
their holdings to the government, which in turn was to
distribute them.to landless peasant families on easy terms.
Opponents of land reform severely criticized the law on the
grounds that, although it would affect only a few landlords
under its provisions, it would fail to raise the standard
of living of the large masses and would also disrupt the
economy. Some religious leaders Opposed it as contrary to
Islamic Laws. In the face of Opposition by landlords and
Muslim religious leaders a revised but stricter land reform
measure became law in January, 1962. It was approved by
Majles in 1963. The revised law of 1962 changed the owner-

ship limitation from a stated acreage to one village per

77
landlord. The precise determination of the amount of land
a landlord might retain was left to local committees on land
distribution. Land consisting of orchards, tea plantations
and forests, as well as lands farmed by mechanized means
without the labor of farmers, could also be retained by their
landlord owners. Some landlords, in order to evade the
reform edict, planted huge areas of crops or kept the land
uncultivated to prevent seizure. The Cabinet decreed in
late January 1963 that landlords were no longer allowed to
retain even a single village or section of several villages
totalling more than about 1,000 acres and were obliged to
distribute all their land above a determined amount which
varied, in the different parts of Iran.

Farmers may now own land, but these peOple were under
intense social and economic pressures and struggle with
natural problems, such as lack of water, seeds, loans, and
dependable laborers. The government has tried to provide
some roads and expand communication and other transportation,
but today farmers still have no transport facilities to take

their goods and products to central areas.

Summagy

The preceding information focused an Iran's dramatic-
ally changing economic system. It provided a definition of
economics and an overview of the industrial and agricultural
sub-systems in order to provide information which the holis-
tic planner must take into consideration in environmental

planning. The holistic planner perceives the fabric of a

78
nation as a tapestry of multiple threads. The following
section is a description of the Iranian Cultural System:
1. Enlightenment and refinement of taste acquired
by intellectual and aesthetic training.
2. A particular stage of advancement in civilization,

or the characteristic features of such a stage.
The Cultural System

Introduction

Culture is another major system of the supersystem.
It is a characteristic of society which permeates and influ-
ences human activity. The holistic planner must consider
the culture of a peOple as an essential component in the
develOpment of an environmental plan. The following discus-
sion focuses first on a definition of culture then moves to

an overview of the Iranian cultural system,

Culture - Definition

Culture consists of all learned forms of behavior
which derive from social contact and are common to the activ-
ities of a given social group. Culture in this framework is
the product of socialization, personality, environment,
-tradition, mores, beliefs, values and history.

Culture consists of many subsystems, which include,
among others, language, religion, art, philosophy, customs,
traditions, literature, folklore, and rituals. Culture is an
attribute of humanity which impacts and influences social,
political, economical, technological and psychological patterns

of the individual, the community and the nation. It is the

79
umbrella over the entire human entity.

Culture was once considered an attribute of a particu-
lar area, such as the clan or the tribe, but now it is
generalized to the local, state, national, or global level.
Each level has its own characteristics with its special
interrelations and correlations. Culture is multilinear.

Culture deals with past human advancement and with
present human enlightenment. The progress of culture is
additive and therefore accumulative. Culture is learned.
It develOps from the simple to the complex through differ-

entiation and diffusion of knowledge.

ngguage as a Cultural Subsystem

Iran means "the land of the Aryans." The Aryan peOple
'were among the first migrants from.somewhere in the Eurasian
plains of Southern Russia who migrated to the plateau south
of the Caspian Sea. They called the new region Iran.
Persian was the name of one of the Aryan tribes which
settled in the southern province of Fars and rose to great-
ness under Cyrus.

The main national language of modern Iran is Farsi,
an Indo-EurOpean language. Other Iranian languages and
dialects include Kurdish, Lurish, Turkish, Baluchi, Arabic,
Assyrian, Armenian, and Hebrew. Culture has contributed to
the variation in Iranian languages; in turn, language caused
great differentiation throughout the country in the peOples'
customs, behaviors, traditions, and culture. This variety
of language has reduced communication, since each part of

the country has a different language, values, art and

8O

architecture. Sweet states:
The language has today, as compared to
Persian, marked syntactical differences
as well as many of vocabulary and phonetics,
and speakers of the two languages cannot,
or can barely, and, most imperfectly,
understand each other. The Kurds as a
peOple form.an important group in western
Asia; they have never at any time coalesced
into a single united community, even though

prolific, till the eighteen-sixties, in
vigorous, short-lived local principalities.

33
Language as the main tool for commmnication has an
essential role in planning. Planning itself has different
ways to express its objectives, but, for initiating and
getting information, planners need to use language. Language
has an effective relation with the planning process; infor-
mation gathering, analysis, design and implementation may
not be accurately accomplished if there is not effective
communication with the people. From.the holistic point of
view, language interacts with all national phenomena and

contributes to regional differences. A paradigm of these

phenomena follows:

Figure 9

Language in Relation to Holistic Plan Phenomena

r—‘CLanguagef { Communication )——1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social Form) C Religion)
. L—C Ethnicity). C Custom Artfi).__J
33

Sweet, Louise, PeOplgs and Cultures of the Middle,
Garden City: Natural History Press, 1970, p. 119.

81
Figure 9 is a conceptual description of how language
affects communication, religion, custom, ethnicity, social
form, and how, in turn, each of these impacts language. The
holistic planner respects and communicates in the peOples'

language in develOping environmental plans for them”

Religion as a Cultural Subsystem

The role of Islam is unusually unique in Iran. About
ninety-eight percent of the Iranian pe0ple are Moslem. Ninety-
three percent of these are Shi'a. Other religious groups
include Nestorians, Christians, Bahaii and Jews. In every
part of the country the poorer peOple are more dependent
upon religion than are the rich. Although similar rituals
are practiced, there are different customs, traditions and
artistic expression in each section of the country.

Islam has had a profound effect upon Iranian life. It
has had a strong impact upon the language, the literature,
the family structure, the psychological behavior, and other
holistic approach phenomena. Over the past thirteen centur-
ies Islam.has succeeded in peacefully replacing the strong
Zoroastarian religion. Religion is a profound facet of the
peoples' lives and any effective planned change must consi-

der religion.

Kinship as a Cultural Subsystem

Kinship in Iran is defined as family relationships
and is religiously based on Islamic Law. It is based on
the patriarchial concept in which the dominance of the male

family member is emphasized. Although there are different

82

aspects of kinship, it is remarkable how much similarity
exists in the Iranian nations. The Persian kinship system
is categorized under the Middle Eastern pattern of family
relationships. These family relationships are important to
the Iranian society and culture.34 Despite the modernization
of Iran, the society is still strongly broken into differen-
tiation of sex and age, as it was in earlier culture.
Married men and women form two separate groups, and.both
outrank the children. The group of young married women
outranks only the children, and the young married men out-
rank young married women and children. Within each group
the one who is older than the others has the most status,
but the older women do not often try to give orders to any
men except the unmerried ones.

According to this system of kinship, each person has
a position within his or her family and this position
determines his or her social status. This becomes a crucial
social problem.when planning. Environmental management may
not be effectively accomplished without including a con-
sideration of Iranian family relationships. The holistic
planner carefully includes these values in environmental
designs.
Art, Architecture, and Planning
as a Cultural Subsystem

The art, architecture and environmental planning of a

peOple are created to meet the needs of the peOple. Generally

 

3l'Adibi, An Analysis of the Social, Econgmic, and
Physical Aspects ofiUrbafiization ianran. New York: United States
International university, UnpublisHEd'Doctoral Dissertation,
1972, pp. 108-111.

83
those creative processes were originally designed to be
functional rather than aesthetic; however, over time and
after cultural modifications, various standards or norms of
beauty or form.emerged with the function. In Iran the
villagers created handcraft items to subsidize agricultural
and husbandry income. The basic material was that which
was immediately available in the area. Shepherds used wool
to make carpets, fabric, and tents. Leather was used in
different shapes and different functions.

The handcrafts in Iran have these characteristics:

1. They have a pastoral or primitive character.

2. They are scattered all around the country, i.e.
each region has some form of expression.

3. They provide for domestic needs plus the
international market and a portion of foreign
exchange.

4. The factories are based in the locality of the
villages and create forced capital for the
national profitability and save the foreign
exchange.

5. They provide jobs for a large number of un-
employed and concealed unemployed.

6. They prevent the rural inhabitants from.emigrating
to the towns and cities, and they create a sort
of socio-political stability.

7. They create jobs for the villages during the

winter and the recreation time.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

84

They promote the rate of income on the part of
the villages, and consequently the buying power
increases. This buying power enables the rural
inhabitants to buy mechanical instruments and to
save their surplus income in order to increase
the level of the living standards.

They help the economic solidarity and link the
living economy to a monetary economy.

The raw material of crafts is supplied by
Iranian factories.

The surplus income will benefit the national
economy during the whole process.

The national traditional arts of the country
will survive in spite of industrialization.
There is no rival for the handcrafts in the
national level.

These factories could act as the basis for the
heavy industries.

The promotion and the support of the handcrafts
enables the country to avoid centralization and
the development of the cities at the loss of
rural areas.35
These factories could be adapted to mechanization.
Handcraft cooperatives were created and supported
from.l964.

About fifteen coOperatives have been established

in various areas of the nation.

 

35Farhang, Manuchaher, The Economic Life of Iran.
Tehran: National Library, 1975, pp. 135-140.

85

Summary

The characteristics of Iranian culture were described
in the previous section. The language, religion, kinship,
or family relationships, art and architecture were selected
for a brief representation of Iranian culture. The holistic
planner recognizes the significance of peOple's culture and
deals with the concerns of the people in environmental plan-
ning.

The psychological characteristics and technology of a
people are related to their culture. The following sections

discussed the psychological and technological system in Iran.

Culture and the Holistic Approach to Planning

Steward says that "cultural change cannot be consi-
dered without an historic approach."36 This statement would
seem very relevant to this study in that change, such as
industrialization, urbanization, or modernization, in any
country, but especially in Iran, will involve a certain
amount of cultural change. This leads to the conclusion
that it is important in innovating a holistic plan to
incorporate socio-cultural psychological aspects in acknow-
ledging human values. These aspects of culture will be
especially important in a study focusing on Iran, as this
country retains cultural factors, such as the authority of
the family unit and religious elements.

fi—
Steward, Chaplin F. Cultural Change, New York:

The Century Co., 1928.

86

The Psychological System
Psychology - Definition
Chaplin says psychology is:
The science of human and animal behavior;
the study of the organism in all its variety
and complexity as it responds to the flux
and flow of the physical and social events
which make up the environment.37
Psychology is a.knowledge system which is initiated at
conception and continues throughout every developmental stage.
Early learnings and behaviors are so rooted that they are
part of human life and are referred to as personality.
Murray's realistic definition is concerned with personality
as knowledge. Quoted as follows, Murray's definition is
emphasized in this research.
The continuity of functional forms and forces
‘manifested through sequences of organized
segment processgg and overt behaviors from
birth to death.
Introduction
In holistic planning theory, psychology is perceived
as a complex integral system highly related to all other
systems of the supersystem. Psychology is a very complex
system concerned with people's behavior, knowledge, attitudes,
and personalities as individuals in groups. PeOple's ability

to adapt to their environment, the nature of their intelli-

gence, the sources of their internal conflicts exhibited in

 

37J.P. Chaplin, Dictionarygof Psychology, New York:
Dell Publishing Co., 1968, p. 392.
38mm.

87

social activities, among others, are significant information
essential to the environmental planning process. The psycho-
logical system ultimately attempts to provide one perspec-
tive on the nature of Iranian peOple, that is, their hapes,
desires, fears, abilities, and limitations. Why they do
what they do and how their environment may be planned in
order to positively deal with psychological develOpment
is the concern of the holistic planner.

It is not the purpose of this dissertation to
examine even superficiallythe complex psychology of the
Iranian nation. The purpose is to acknowledge psychology
,as a significant planning concern and to approach the
analysis of the psychological system.in a future study

unrelated to this dissertation.
The Technology System

Introduction

Technology in Iran is the last system.to be examined
in the holistic planning process. The technology is related
to industrial power, innovation, and the practical arts as
well as to the evolutionary process of urbanization. A
favorable natural situation is often conducive to the
develOpment of a city. Adequate water resources and mild
temperatures are two important natural factors playing a
vital role in the choice of a location for construction of
a city and for the technology associated with that city.
When technology is combined with the exploitation of

resources of an area, cities emerge; roads, dwellings,

88

market places, and other facilities are developed to accom-
modate people's needs. A multitude of technologies contri-
butes to different developments, relationships, and qualities.
Each environment presents unique conditions for emergent
technical realities. The uniqueness of a community and the
preservation of the positive differences of that community
provide the challenge to the environmental planner. The
following discussion defines technology and some of the
characteristics of Iranian technology.

In this dissertation the definition of technology is
adapted as follows:

Technolo y in its broad meaning connotes the
practical arts. These arts range from hunting,
fishing, gathering, agriculture, animal hus-
bandry, and mining through manufacturing,
construction, transportation, provision of
food, power, heat, light, etc., to means of
communication, medicine, and military tech-
nology. Technologies are bodies of skills,
knowledge, and procedures for making, using,
and doing useful things. They are techniques
for every conceivable human activity and
purpose. The concept of technology centers
on processes that are primarily biological
and physical rather than on psychological or
social processes. Technologies are the
cultural traditions developed in human come
munities for dealing with the physical and
biological environmepg, including the human
biological organism.

As previously mentioned, technology permeates all systems,
but is arbitrarily segregated for examination purposes.
The influence of culture and its expressive arts is
particularly important. This is best described in the

following diagram. (Figure 10)

._______§_______.
3 Sills, David L. International EncyclOpedia of the
Social Sciences. New York: The MacMillan Company, VOIume 15,
pp. 576-577}

89

Figure 10
Culture — Industry - Technology

ARTS AND
CRAFTS

Iranian Technology System

 

Technological develOpment in Iran is in a radical
transition period. Only recently has the nation made a
concerted effort to develop an industrial infrastructure.
Iran is in transition from a solely agrarian to an industrial
society. The nation has only begun to emerge as an industrial
nation within the past fifty years due to governmental incen-
tives to encourage private industrial development through
low-cost loans, tax breaks, and land for plant sites. Growth
in Iranian industry has been financed through the country's
natural resources, primarily petroleum, which is a finite
resource.

In spite of the rapid technological changes, evidence
of a rich cultural history is recorded in concert with
westernization, modernization, and the corporation. Tech-
nology in Iran is reflected in many of the traditional
designs and techniques deve10ped as follows:

1. Qanats, the ancient canal irrigation system,

were developed as the best, though primitive,

way to carry water to the villages.

90

2. Environmental designs were masterpieces which
reflected the struggle with nature and natural
disaster.

3. Architectural techniques designed to solve the
climatic problem in homes and public buildings
have been of great value to Iranian lifestyle.

4. Handcrafts, carpet weaving, ceramics, pottery,
painting, miniatures, and silk are excellent
products of culture, but also reveal technical
develOpment. This must be considered in renewed
and.expanded environmental planning.

Just as in any other society, technological traditions
now include a desire to produce new technologies, new pro-
cesses, and.new products. In Iran the government provides
the leadership for creating industrial self-sufficiency
through deveIOping and utilizing the nation's resources.
The government established the Plan and Budget Organization
with the purpose of develOping national priorities, initia-
tives and incentives for transforming Iran from.an agrarian
to an industrial nation. Chapter III summarizes the multi-
year national plans designed for developing new technology
and renovating existing technology. Aririe and Twitchell
summarize some of the conscious technological change efforts
as follows:

In the past decade, we have seen a more concerted

and cohesive effort to tackle the issue. The most

i ortant measures which have been taken are the

fa lowing:

(l) introducing advanced technical subjects in
vocational schools and universities;

91

(2) establishing contact with technical and
scientific organizations of international
repute;

. (3) sending meny students and researchers to
institutions of higher education abroad in
the various branches of science and tech-
nology; and

(4) taking advantage of the country's industrial-
ization (which has been gathering momentum
within the past two decades) as a training
ground,

True industrialization is achieved not only through
production but also through the develOpment of
national design and application capability so that
an increasin number of products can be conce tual-
ized and realized in Iran. There are present y
many areas where such capability has already been
developed; progress is being made with acquired
maturity.

It may be opportune to point out that the course

of the transfer of technology has never been a
smooth one. Among the major obstacles that aspirants
to modern technology encounter are:

(1) lack of industrial infrastructure and an indus-
trial tradition;

(2) lack of skilled manpower, particularly on
Operational levels (e.g., skilled workers and
technicians); and

(3) the reluctance of many foreign companies to
cOOperate sincerely in the transfer of technology.
These companies desire to continue treating
countries such as Iran as markets for their
products.

As a developing country, Iran is attempting through

its technology system to move toward self-sufficiency by
creating industries which will ultimately substitute eXport

product earnings for oil earnings. Iran has progressed in

 

4021;111:112 and Twitchell, p. 165.

92
industrial and agricultural development; however, the
successful accomplishment of that goal requires environmental
planners who may combine the scientific goals with humanistic
concerns for the Iranian people. Hopefully, modern techno-
logical developments and.westernization will not be allowed
to dilute Iran's globally renowned philosophy, poetry,

literature, and intellectual knowledge.

Summary

Chapter 11 provides general information concerning
selected system.facets of the Iranian supersystem. The
holistic planning theory perceives the need for basic
information when creating for an improved living environ-
ment. The author divided the Iranian nation into four
zones in order to describe the geography and climate of the
nation. The general characteristics of the Iranian govern-
mental or civil units. The demography, and the primary
characteristics of the social and psychological system,
the political system, the cultural system.and technological
system were described in order to clarify some essential
planning requirements for Iran.

Chapter III provides more information about national
level planning in Iran by summarizing the major concepts of
the multi-year national plans. These plans will reveal
planners who focused only on economic concerns, thereby

contributing to the problems identified in Chapter I.

CHAPTER III

A Concise History of Iranian
Reform Plans and a Listing of Problems
Left Unsolved in the Iranian Environment

Introductipn.- The Five National Plans41

 

Iran is an advanced develOping country which is seeking
to maintain its independence and to protect for its interests.
Throughout their entire long history, Iranians have shown that
they refuse to serve the selfish ends of other nations. For
this reason, after several decades of absorption in external
crises, Iranian leaders in the Majlis (elected lower house)
and government turned their attention to more pressing inter-
nal problems. Their attention took the form of five national
plans - beginning in 1947 with the first national plan and
culminating with the fifth in 1973.

This chapter serves as an information bridge from
Chapter II, which provides some basic holistic planning
information about the Iranian nation. Chapter III provides
brief summaries of the environmental planning efforts in
Iran. The plans, which reflect the strong influence of
American engineers, focus on the economic system at the

national level. Little planning was devised for the

 

41Of the five plan organizations for Iran, some are
translated into English; others are in Persian and remain
untranslated.

Plan Organization; Economic Development and the United
Nations, 1973.

Plan Organization, Iran Statistical Center: National
Census of Papulation and Housing, Tehran, November, 1966.

Other information on the plans comes from: Lewis V.
Thomas and Richard N. Frye, The United States and Turkey and
Iran, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), andiThe Area
Handbook of Iran.

93

94

relationship between the regional and local levels.

The First National Plan (September, 1948 - September, 1955)

In 1948 the Majlis approved the first seven year plan
(FSYP) for industrial and agricultural development in Iran.
The initial allocation was 21 billion rials ($680 million),
later reduced to 6 billion rials. The original plan, pro-
posed in 1946, and announced by Prime Minister Ahmad Qavam.in
the Spring of 1947, was based on the recommendations of the
Morrison-Knudsen Report developed by a group of American
engineers and urban planners, who had been invited by the
government to study various planning prOposals. (See page
86.)

The objectives of the FSYP were:

Increasing the levels of production and exports;

providing the essential needs of the peOple within

the country; developing agriculture and industry;

exploring and exploiting mineral resources and
particularly oil; develOping means to transportation
and communication; improving public health; and taking
any measure for the development of the country for

the purpose of raising the level of living and the

level of education, improvingépublic welfare, and
lowering the cost of living.

Other major objectives of the program included
construction of railroads and small dams, and expansion of
the sugar industry.

Table 9 provides an overview of the allocations for
various aspects of development as originally proposed and

then revised in the first seven year plan under the assistance

 

42Report on Implementation of Second Seven Year Plan,
Tehran; Plan Organization, 1964, p. 2.

95

Table 9

Allocation of Costs to Va§&gus
ASpects of DevelOpmen

Morrison-Knudson International
Co., Inc., 1947

 

 

Description $500 Million $250 Million
- Program Program
Percent Percent
Agriculture 27 27
Industry , Mining ,
and Power 36 33
Communication l9 18
Health 9 19
Education 7 0
National Resources
Inventory 2 3
Totals 100 100

 

43Houssein Adibi, An Analysis of the Social, Economic

annghysical Aspects of Urbanization in Iran. United States

{ntgrnatignaiuniversity, UnpublishedDoctoral Dissertation,
97 , p. 11.

 

96

of the Morrison-Knudson International Co., Inc., of the
United States.

After the Morrison-Knudson Report (cited earlier)
was submitted to the government, a supreme planning board
‘was appointed by the Prime Minister to draw up a program
entitled "Overseas Consultants for Iran" (OCI). The OCI
‘was to be composed of eleven American engineering, construc-
tion and consulting companies, and.was to serve in a consul-
tative capacity only in order to assist in the implementation
of the first seven year plan until December 31, 1950.
Furthermore, the First Plan, described in the five volume
study entitled Report of the Seven Year Development Plan for
the Plan Organization of the Imperial Government of Iran, was
to be financed in large part by revenues derived from an
agreement with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Again,
American consultants - this time financial advisors - played
a major role. It would appear that American contributions
in the economic affairs of the First Plan were carried out
in order to keep Iran from falling into Soviet hands. Yet,
deSpite American aid, the Plan's cost - some 500 million
dollars - could not be met because the main source of revenues
was cut off by the nationalist revolutionary government
.during the Iranian oil-nationalization crisis. Table 11
shows the final revenue and expenditures under the FSYP.

The source of revenues and expenditures of the FSYP

are shown as follows:

97

Table 10

Revenue and Expenditure of F.S.Y.P.44
(in Billion Rials)

 

 

Revenue Amount Percent of
Total
Oil Revenue . 7.7 37.1
Sale of Government
PrOperty . l O 4.8
Private Participation . 1.0 8
Borrowing:
BMI. 4.5 21.4
IBRD . 6.7 31.9
Totals. 21.0 100.0
Expenditure
Agriculture . 5.3 25.0
Roads, Railways, and
Airports . . 5.0 23.8
Industry and Mines. 3.0 14.3
Oil Industry. 1.0 4 8
Communications. 0.7 3.6
Social Welfare Services . 6.0 28.5
Totals . 21.0 100.0

 

44Review of the Second
Iran, Tehran’Economic Bureau,

1960, p. 4

Seven Year Plan Program of
Plan Organization, March 10,

98

Table 11

Final Revenue and EXpenditure under the F.S.Y.P.45
(In Million Rials)

Percent of

 

 

Revenue Amount Total

Oil Royalties . . . . . . . . . . . 2,700 94
Loans from BMI. . . . . . . . . . . 180 6

Totals . . . . . . . . . . . 2,880 100

Expenditure
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 20
Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . 510 39
Industry and Mines. . . . . . . . . 440 34
Oil Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5
Social Welfare. . . . . . . . . . . 30 2

Totals . . . . . . . . . . . 1,300 100

 

assadri, 0p.cit., p. 148.

99

Summary, unsolved Problems

The FSYP experienced many difficulties in the

implementation phase. Among the reasons for failure of

the FSYP were: lack of reliable data and statistics, ill-

informed leadership, inadequately informed specialists,

and insufficient staff to design and to implement the plan

effectively.

In spite of this failure, the general principles of

the First Plan should serve as guidelines for any program

of aid to underdevelOped countries in the east:

1.

Any development effort must be applied to the
lowest level from the start, taking into con-
sideration its relationship to the entire

nation (whole to part concept).

Capital is not a substitute for skill or eXper-
ience and the power of capital has been exag-
gerated by Americans in dealing with other
countries. .
There is a need for coordination between tech-
nological production and the consumer's physical
needs, and such coordination must be based on
the particular economic and social values of

the community. In the case of the First Plan,
which had values reflecting the agricultural
focus on the country's economy, this principle
was observed. (In 1948 four-fifths of the Persian

peOple derived their living from the soil.)

100
In spite of the shortcomings of the FSYP, the specific
benefits to Iran included the beginning of the country's Plan
Organization and the develOpment of the foundations of agri-

culture, industry and manpower in the nation.

The Sepond Seven Year Plan (September, 1955 - September, 1962)
The second seven year plan (SSYP) covered the period
from 1955 to 1962. The objectives of the SSYP were:

..... raising production, improving and increasing
exports, supplying consumer goods from domestic
sources, developin agriculture and.industry,
prospecting for ans exploiting mineral resources,
improving and completing communications facili-
.ties, improvin public health and carrying out
other far-reacging measures.46

70 billion rials ($900 million) were allocated for
the plan designed to improve agriculture, construct main
roads, develOp industry and to introduce welfare services.
Table 12 shows the allotment of funds for the SSYP.

Table 12
Credit Allotments under the ngpnd

Seven Year Plan 1956-196
(In Billion Rials)

 

 

Title Total Percent
Amount of Total
Agriculture and Irrigation 18,218 26
Communications and TranSportation 22,821 32.6
Industries and Mines 10,560 15.1
Social Welfare Services 18,401 26.3
Totals 70,000 100.0

 

46Report on Implementation of Second Seven Year Plan,

“Ibid., p. 70.

101

However, the SSYP confronted problems with political
authorities, industrial financial weaknesses, undereducated
communities and a lack of expertise and skill among workers.
Furthermore, there was no cOOperation between the planning
organization and governmental ministries. Indeed, the
planning agency was powerless to supervise or control pro-
jects of the ministries, which often went contrary to plan
prOposals. For example, while the plan included programs
for the construction of new roads and airports (a transpor-
tation plan meant to be financed by oil revenues) citizen
needs were ultimately ignored as the ministries diverted
most of the budget into spending for military purposes.
Table 13 is a summary of the final allotments under the
SSYP.

Table 13

Second Seven Year Plan 1956-1962

Summary of Revised Credit Allotments xgder
(in Million Rials)a -

Credit Allotments

 

Source
Estimated Total Percentage
Disbursements of Total
Seven Years
Agriculture and Irrigation 18,857 22
Communication and Telecommunication 30,408 35
Industry and Mines 6,744 8
Social Welfare Services 11,668 13
Regional Development 12,192 14
New Programs 1,000 l

 

aaAdibi, p. 221.

102

 

Not Yet Classified Disbursement .193
Non-Program Disbursement 6,088 7
Totals 87,150 100

a
Figures are rounded to the nearest million rials

Summagy

The achievements of the second year plan include:

1. The goal of national economic develOpment based
on an organization (the Plan Organization)
responsible for mobilization of resources and
revenues;

2. The expansion of national self-reliance through
the establishment of Iranian consulting firms in
the fields of engineering and construction to
replace reliance on foreign specialists;

3. The successful implementation of construction
projects such as dams and roads, the establish-
ment of agricultural projects such as agro-
industries which include canning factories; the
expansion of telecommunications systems such as
telegraph and radio and public health projects
such as the successful campaign against malaria
and other infectious diseases.

In spite of these accomplishments, this plan did not

achieve its objectives.

103
The Third Development Plan (September 21, 1962 - March 20,
1968)

In 1960 a Third DevelOpment Plan (TDP) was prepared
to cover all major national activities in both the public
and private sectors. Among the objectives of the Third
Plan were the following:

1 - To continue and complete unfinished Second

Plan projects on the same basis as in the

Second Plan; 2 - To grant long-term loans

and in exceptional cases to make outright

grants to municipalities having the greatest

needs for new urban facilities; 3 - To

assist in the imprpyement of municipal admin-

istrative affairs.

517 billion rials were budgeted for plan implementa-
tion. Table 14 shows the total approved credits and dis-

bursements for the TDP.

The White Revolution50

In discussing reform movements in Iranian history, it
is important to mention the program.advanced by the Shah of
Iran. He was perhaps the first monarch in history to become
the leader of a peasant movement. In January, 1963, during
the period of the Third National Plan and on the occasion
of the Opening of a conference on rural c00peratives, he
unfolded a six-point revolutionary program, to which six more
points were added later.* Then, in a national referendum,

the"White Revolution" of the Shah was endorsed by a landslide.

 

49Third Development Plan, Final Report, pp. 149-50.

soDeadline Date on World Affairs, (Greenwich, Conn.:
DMS, Inc.)

*More points were added in 1975-76.

104

Table 14

Total Approved Credits and Disbursements
by Plan Chapters during the Third Plan51
Period (Billions of Rials)

Approved Credits Disbursements Percent of
Chapter Disbursements
Amount Percent Amount Percent to Approved
Credits

 

1-Agriculture and

irrigation 47.9 21.5 47.3 23.1 98.7
2-Industry and

mining 27.3 12.3 17.1 8.4 62.6
3-Power and fuel 35.1 15.8 32.0 15.6 91.2

4-Communications &

 

telecommunicationsS7.0 25.6 53.8 26.3 94.4
5-Education 17.6 7.9 17.3 8.5 98.3
6-Health 13.3 6.0 13.2 6.5 99.2
7-Manpower 2.9 1.3 2.8 1.4 96.6
8-Urban deve10pment 7.3 3.3 7.2 3.5 98.6
9-Statistics and

planning 1.6 0.7 1.5 0.7 93.8
10—Housing and con-
struction 12.4 5.6 12.2 6.0 98.4

Partial payments

to Ministry of

Finance in reSpect

to current develOp-

ment projects --- --- 0.2 --- ---

Totals 223.4 100.0 204.6 100.0 92.0

 

51Third Development Plan, Final Report, (Tehran, Plan
Organization, December, 1970), p. 13.

105

These far-reaching prOposals and reforms, which

advocated the implementation of land reform and the

enfranchisement of women, aroused the combined wrath of

landlords and reactionary clerics. But the election of

1965 also brought an entirely new group to the Majlis, the

‘majority of whom were committed to a program.of moderniza-

tion, to the Shah's White Revolution, and to the new Iran.

The Twelve Points of Reform are:

1.

Land reform to alter the peasant-landlord tenure
system and distribute the land of large landowners
to farmers. Basically, this was an ideal goal,
since the government had the ability to support
farmers in utilizing their farm.and lands.
Unfortunately, the result was not adequate, be-
cause the land reform program was poorly imple-
mented and lacked a holistic view.

The nationalization of forests and pastures for
better conservation and utilization of these
resources.

The public sale of state-owned factory shares as
security for land reform.

An increase in labor productivity by profit-
sharing arrangements between industrial workers
and owners up to an amount of 20 percent of net
corporate earnings.

Reform electoral law, providing for universal

suffrage, including women suffrage.

106
6. The formation of a literacy corps of high school
graduates who, during their military conscription
period, would act as primary-school teachers and
multi-purpose village-level workers in rural
areas to combat illiteracy, superstition and
ignorance.
These first six points were national goals represented
by the government for implementation during 1963. Six more
were confirmed into laws:
7. Improvement of health services in rural areas by
a health corps, similar to literacy corps.

8. The Reconstruction and Development Corps, made
up of educated conscriptees to promote agriculture
and reconstruction of villages.

9. Establishment of justice houses of equity in

villages.

10. Nationalization of water resources for better
conservation.

11. A program of urban and rural reconstruction.

12. Administrative and educational reform: re-
organization of all government units, administra-
tive decentralization and needed changes in
national education.

The Third Plan implemented the basic land reform
program, which was to end the peasant system, a major obstacle
in agricultural production. In addition, the industrial
sector, with an annual growth of over 12 percent, was fore-

casted to exceed 25 percent because of the proposed

107
expansion of light industry and beginning foundations for
heavy industry. All policies were created with the intention
of encouraging and helping merchant investment in the above-
‘mentioned areas. For example, the foundation of a gas
industry instigated oil exploiting and exporting by Iranian

investors - a development which also brought problems.

Major Characteristics

The creators of the Third Plan were experts frem
developed countries and economists from renowned universi-
ties. For this reason, the preparation and content of the
plan were totally different from the plans inaugurated in
the past. The characteristics of the plan were as follows:

1. A determination of the economy's annual growth
rate;

2. An increase in employment on the basis of pro-
ductive innovations; '

3. A redistribution of income, especially in the
agricultural sector, by means of land reform;

4. A redistribution of the factories' profits
especially to the laborers;

5. The development of a comprehensive plan;

6. The observation of harmony and coordination in
the develOpment plan and balance in the components
of each plan.

7. An emphasis on the infrastructural investment
and an avoidance of designing short-term plans.

8. The establishment of guiding committees to

108

determine priorities for the plans on the follow-
ing basis: (a) preference toward agricultural
planning as Opposed to develOpmental activities,
and (b) stress on industrialization of the
economy for the purpose of eliminating the
export's deficiency and preventing organiza-
tional difficulties.

9. Emphasis on the investment and the training of
experts for the purpose of facilitating indus-

trial investment.

Summary, Unsolved Problems

Yet, despite its ambitious goals, this Third Plan
also fell short. First of all, prOposals by various agencies
were not coordinated or comprehensively organized - there
was no interrelationship among separate proposals. Secondly,
proposals were undertaken without regard to the cultural
values of Iran and the real physical needs of the peOple.
Thirdly, foreign interference worked to the detriment of
the Iranians themselves. For example, during these seven
years, many dams were built for irrigation purposes, but
the irrigated land did not belong to the peOple for long.
Instead, foreign investors took out contracts on these lands
for their own aggrandizement. A fourth problem was the
unrealistic future forecast of project costs which resulted
insufficient funds and plan revisions.

The achievements of the TNP included:

1. The implementation of some uncoordinated housing

construction projects.

109

2. The beginning of land reform, the preservation
of national resources, the establishment of rural
cOOperatives and an increased control over plant
diseases and pests.

3. The continuation and expansion of irrigation
projects and repair of Qanat systems as well as
the development of surface water resources.

4. The establishment of basic industries such as
steel, petrochemicals, machine tool, tractor
and pipe construction, and aluminum smelting.

5. The expansion of communication systems, ports
and airports.

6. The establishment of the Literacy Corps to pro-
vide education for elementary and secondary-
school children. The establishment of Pahlavi
University to increase availability of higher
education.

7. The continued assault on infectious diseases
through control measures and through establish-

ment of new hOSpitals.

The Fourth National Plan for Iran, (March 21, 1968 - March
29, 1973)

The Iranian government officials promised that the
Fourth National DevelOpment Plan (FNDP) would effect a
glorious and.important transformation in the modern history
of Iran.

The FNDP objectives were stated as follows:

110

a--Rapid economic development and increased
national income as a result of a gradual
develOpment of the importance Of indus-
tries, augmen ntation Of the productivity
of capita , use of new methods in every
branch of activities, and expansion of
scientific and Operational research in or-
der to solve the problems Of economic
develOpment.

b--Fair distribution Of income by providing
jobs for everybody and amplification of
social welfare areas.

c--Reduction of dependency on nondomestic
sources.

d--Multidiversity of export material, expan-
sion Of existing markets and exploration
Of markets.

e--Amelioration of public administration,
extension of new methods in menagement
Of all ministries and public Offices and
strengthening of the country's defense
power in order to be able to carry out
drastic social and economic reforms.5

These achievements included the acceleration of the
rate of industrial growth and the wider application Of social
welfare. Massive shifts of pOpulation from the rural to
urban areas resulted in an extensive need for employment,
industrialization and recreation facilities, which this plan
‘was designed to meet. 610 million rials were budgeted for
the FNDP. See Table 15 for Income and Expenditure Of the

Fourth Development Plan.

 

52Principles and Objectives of the Country's Fourth
Development Plan, (Tehran, Plan Organization, 1968), p. l.

111
Table 15

Income and Expenditure of ghe Fourth
DevelOpment Plan
(in Million Rials)

 

 

 

Income Amount
011 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 O O 0 O O 385
Foreign Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Petrochemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Loan from Treasury. . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Other Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Expenditure

 

Development Projects and New

 

Cont nuing Expenditure. . . . . . . . . 530

Payment of the Loan and its
Interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Payment of Loan to Treasury . . . . . . . 15
Payment of Loan to BMI. . . . . . . . . . 13
Other Expenditures. . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

 

”Ibid., p. 57.

112

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113

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:: :: m.“ m.H campfire one wau< .Nfi

114

Iran's plan organization officials claimed all the
factors required for social, economic, and cultural develop-
ment had been brought together at this point of history in
an exceptional plan. These favorable circumstances should
have been the means for the attainment of the maximum
national growth, a rapid increase in the standard Of living
and the realization of the nation's long sought after hOpes
and goals. According to sources published by the plan
organization, the chief features of the Fourth Plan included
an emphasis, first, upon agricultural developments, a rise
in living standards and a promotion Of modern techniques Of
production in both urban and agricultural areas - and all
this despite the special attention being devoted to industry;
and, second, upon increases in social services and public
welfare (with special stress on the needs of low income
groups), upon improvement in professional and worker skills,
and upon slum.clearance and urban renewal.

This FOurth Plan called for a total investment of
910 billion rials, of which 50 percent was to come from
private sources. It also required some investments by the
oil consortium members and other foreign Oil companies
Operating in the country, and foreign loans and credits to
finance the foreign exchange costs of the investment projects.
In order to raise the finances required during the plan
period, the government adOpted a series of fiscal policy
Objectives, including an emphasis on Oil revenues, which
were to be increased to a total of 486.6 billion rials in

fiscal year 1972-73, and on raising revenues from.foreign

115
Inflation was one of the major continuing trends

during the period of the FNDP as evidenced in the following
table concerned with the Cost of Living Index 1959-1966

(1338-1345) .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 17
COST OF LIVING INDEX 1338-1345
Index 1338-100
130
’“a Food
:25 ,.-"'
r“'..
i
i
3
.’
120 ..‘l
.’
.i General Index
.i /
I?
.’.. F‘
115 ,i‘
0“,.
0"
a."
“I Cloth‘ng
I .d 1
./°‘ / .""""'".’
no T ’:’
:’ I’
! {ho-o—I-'-'-'.
i ."
.-’ 15¢:
:05 3 I ‘-
: 1’.) \\
.-’I.’ \ .
I I; \ ’a Housmg
. \ _ ,a
3% \\ ” --—a’
\\"I
40 4! 42 43 44 1345
62 63 64 65 1966

 

 

 

100
1333 39
1959 60 61

116
Table 18 shows the "Objectives Of Major Economic
Sectors Based on Production Values" in the FNDP. The table
evidences the lack of balance between the society's need for
water, power, and agricultural products compared with the

major improvements in industry and Oil production.

Table 18

OBJECT IVES OF MAJOR ECONOMIC SECTORS BASED ON
PRODUCTION VALUES
“Billion Rials

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Water and PM"

 

 

 

”an.-.

m so: cancerous-no-0-..- .-.-.-. Wining

13M 13%
1965 1967 1972

 

 

0 1351

117
trade, including customs, duties, commercial profits taxes,
and other fees, as well as the difference between the pur-
chase and foreign exchange. Moreover, the objectives of
the Plan were to be achieved through improved tax collec-
tion practices without the imposition of new or higher

taxes .

Summagy
Finally, the government stated the Fourth Plan had

been prepared as a "long range" scientific study to be
carried out by a special committee as a project called,

"A Procedure for Planning the Long-Term Future of Iran."
However, in reality it was a "short-term plan" - its socio-
economic prOposals were not comprehensive enough.

The achievements of the FNDP include:

1. The completion of several water develOpment
projects such as dams, extension Of water
installation systems, and implementation of
flood prevention;

2. The implementation of some safety projects in
some cities; 1

3. The improvement of agriculture products through
irrigation, and fertilization of land as well as
improved technologies in a few specific areas
such as Qazvin, Zone I CaSpian Sea area, and the
areas where dams were built. This resulted in
reduced manpower Optims. It also tended to

benefit only a wealthy few.

118
The expansion Of industrialization through the
encouragement of the private sectors' investment
in automotive factories, appliance factories,
food industries, soft drinks, etc. However, all
industries have been concentrated in the urban
areas and only urbanites benefited. In fact the
automobile has created greater stress because of
the traffic problems it has created.
The expansion Of efforts for oil export has
depleted investments in other areas increasing
the need to import basic commodities such as
wheat, meat and other similar food stuffs.
The expansion of the development of housing
projects and public service facilities such as
hospitals, universities, and public recreation
areas were for the benefit of the elite in the
very large cities.
The extension Of the transportation routes through-
out the country, however, most were only dirt
roads connecting the villages. Although this
was an improvement, meny villages still do not
have convenient access to the market towns.
This also included the completion of airports
and telecommunication systems.
The strengthening of the nation's defense power

at the expense of other national programs.

119

The Fifth National DevelOpment Plan (March 20, 1973 - March
20, 1978)

 

According to plan organization Officials, the goal in
the Fifth National Development Plan (FNDP) was to lay
particular stress on the twin policies of agricultural de-
velOpment and expanded social welfare. First, in implement-
ing increased living standards, especially among the lower
income groups, the desire to contribute to Iran's total
betterment would be inculcated in each Iranian who would
then feel deeply conscious of his responsibility to improve
his society and participate in his country's affairs, to
the best of his abilities - abilities made more Obvious
through the results of welfare programs.

Major Objectives of the Fifth Plan

In order of priority, were stated as follows:

1. to raise levels of knowledge, culture, health
and social welfare to the greatest extent
possible;

2. to ensure a more equitable distribution Of the
national income, emphasizing the standard of
living and welfare among low-income groups;

3. tO maintain a rapid and sustained rate of
economic growth, accompanied by relative price
stability and a healthy balance of payments;

4. to ensure productive employment in all regions
of the country, in order to absorb all new
entrants to the labor market and achieve a
considerable decrease in hidden and seasonal

unemployment;

120

5. to create a greate social and economic balance

between the various regions of the country;

6. to utilize fully the productive capacity

established in previous develOpment plans of
‘marketing and service activities of both the
public and the private sectors;

7. to improve the system.of administration in

keeping with the high national Objective, and
to strengthen the country's defenses;

8. to preserve, revive and improve the environment;

9. to increase Iran's share of international trade

and ensure a greater Iranian presence in new
markets, with due regard to the country's
recently acquired industrial specialization.
This policy will also be observed by non-
government organizations.

Despite these noble aims, the Fifth Plan still has not
completely achieved its goals; in fact, that is a criticism
of all of the plans. Thus, while the Fifth National Plan
is achieving many successes (as did other plans), there is
still a need for improvement. Successes are occurring in
the mass media, in military eXpansion, in industrialization,
and in foreign credits. There is still need for improve-
ment especially in the maintenance of price stability in
order to control inflation and the unwarranted price in-
crease which is occurring despite government supervision
and control. Citizens are losing faith in their government

because their real needs, many of which are physical, are

121
not being met. Despite promising ideology, the Fifth Plan
as implemented to date, as well as the previous plans,
contains no appreciation for cultural values or for any
interrelationship among the proposals aimed at Iran's
improvement.

The objectives sound good, but the goals are too
general. An examination of the FNDP accomplishments after
five years in the implementation phase shows meager, if any,
change.

A brief overview of each Objective of the FNDP
reveals the following:

1. The first objective was to raise national levels

of education and health. Although the goal is a
good one, observation and interviews with villa-
gers, along with an analysis of budgets and reports
of accomplishments, reveal little, if any, change-
in the educational attainments Of the peOple,

as shown in Table 19. An examination Of health
standards shows further evidence of little change.
Although there are doctors for peOple, hospitals
and clinics, are still concentrated only in the
urban areas. In visiting ten villages, this
researcher found one or two Literacy Corps
representatives functioning in each village.

They were reaching the elementary school children
up to the fourth grade level. After fourth grade

the children had to go to the nearest market town

122
for further education. Secondary education and
post-secondary education is available only in
the cities. Even more significant than the
lack of facilities is a concern that the content
of the educational program may be irrelevant and
that the quality Of contemporary programs needs
to be improved.
Although a more equitable distribution of income
was a goal of the FNDP, it is apparent that it
has yet to occur. In discussions with construc-
tion workers in an urban environment this re-
searcher learned that, although wages have
increased by seven or eight times the wages of
five years ago, the rate of inflation has reduced
their actual buying power to the point where they
cannot buy enough food for their families, they
cannot buy houses, and they cannot afford to buy
enough clothing. 1
Economic growth has obviously occurred in Iran
as evidenced through the oil renewal structure.
However, rapid inflation and lack of humanistic
expenditure priorities have caused considerable
disequilibrium in the economic dimension.
It was observed and documented that most immigrant
workers were engaged in construction-industrial
work sites. Most of the rural workers are still
engaged in seasonal, agriculturally related em-

ployment. Agriculture has not been organized to

123
favor the control of employment to ensure a con-
sistent income over the year. Even though wages
of the industrial worker have increased, the
concommitant psychological alienation has been
detrimental to their lives.
When Iran is examined in terms of the researcher's
geographical zones, the goal Of social and eco-
nomical balance objectives seem unrealistic.
When one considers that the natural resources of
one zone exceeds that of another, the only
alternative appears to be migration between zones
or impact investment in order to capacitate the
economic capabilities of the arid zones.
The productive capacity of previous plans rela-
tive to marketing and service activities has
indeed shown growth, but there is still a criti-
cal need to develOp the capacities for production
and distribution of goods, minerals, and products
as well as the expansion Of services. If these
activity areas received as much emphasis as
militaristic and strategic planning, the lives
Of citizens would be significantly improved.
Iran's governmental defense expenditures have
always indicated that defense has the principal
priority over any other national concern.
One area in which the Iranian government-has made
great strides is in the preservation of natural

resources and in water develOpment projects during

124
the period of FNDP. A significant improvement
has been the creation of an agency responsible for
environmental protection. .

9. The goal of supporting industrial capacity de-
velOpment of the private sector has been another
area Of significant improvement during the FNDP;
however, only a few have benefited from this
change. What good are luxurious electrical re-
frigerators, gas stoves, or cars in a rural
village where utilities and roadways are non--.
existent?

Analyzing the precise content of the Fifth National
DevelOpment Plan is beyond the scOpe and intent of the pur-
poses of this treatise. However, in order to provide a
framework for the theoretical and descriptive study presen-
tation, a brief discussion of the chapters concerned with
urban develOpment and rural development will follow.

Chapter Sixteen of the Fifth National Plan is titled
"Rural DevelOpment." It contains the Objectives, guidelines
and policies for authority, develOpment areas, coordination
of personnel, and expectations for local cOOperation as well
as specific objectives and programs for Iran's rural areas.
Nearly thirty-eight billion rials were spent "to develOp
full welfare services and facilities in rural areas.'.'55
There were two main Objectives for the rural areas. Each

will be listed and discussed separately. The first

 

55Plan Organization, The Fifth DevelOpment Plan,
Tehran: Plan Organization, 1973, Chapter Sixteen, p. l.

125
Objective was:

a) to distribute equitably investment and

services of a welfare and infrastructural

nature so as to ensure the greatest coverage

possible, reduce the vast number of villages

and lay the foundations of tomorrow's towns. 5

Equality is the superior goal for most societies,
especially for the villager who is pure in thought, and the
symbol of goodness in traditional society. Close scrutiny
of the first objective shows that the only equality among
the villagers in poverty. It is near the close of the
Fifth National Plan; yet after visiting ten different
villages in four different zones of the country, this re-
searcher concluded that there is still inadequate technology,
food, and facilities; no utilities such as electricity and
central plumbing and no sewer or drainage systems. Compari-
sons Of these elements over the past two decades show little,
if any, change in the rural Iranian village.

There is an internal contradiction in the first
Objective, because although there is a concern for the wel-
fare of the greatest number of peOple, the second statement
Of the first objective prOposes the obliteration of a "vast
number of villages" in order to lay the foundations of
tomorrow's towns."57 The question is: "Why eradicate such
beautiful existing entities?" Is it a progress or a pro-

gram? Is centralization of pOpulation better than decentral-

ization of population? Is uniformity better than uniqueness?

 

56Ibid.
57Ib1d.

126

The answers are that the Iranian peOple are better decen-
tralized and better served by maintaining their uniqueness.
Forced urbanization and industrialization are contrary to
the cultural history Of the peOple.

The second major objective Of the Fifth National Plan
was related to the first objective and stated as follows:

b) in achieving the above Objective, to

utilize existing facilities to the fullest by

expanding comprehensive educational programs

23333.33: 23 fifiiinsfifiéigtififii 3.33.35.

steady development of rural areas and strengthen

the basis of national culture and independence.58

The second Objective was well conceived. Education
is the key to introducing modern concepts and develOpment
to Iran's rural areas. The problem arose in the implemen-
tation of the objective. An Education Corps and a Health
Corps were created, manned by those who chose to educate
villages as an alternative to two years of military service.
Although this method was an excellent motivational approach,
the problemuwas in the selection and renumeration of the
individuals who served in both corps. Many were oriented
to urban values and standards. They were unable to adapt
to the villagers' customs and mores. Those who were sent
to educate and promote health did.not receive the same

psychological or financial benefits as their professional

colleagues who practiced in the cities. Therefore, with no

 

58Plan Organization, The Fifth Development Plan,
Tehran: Plan Organization, 1973, Chapter—Sixteen, p. l.

127
incentive to remain in the villages, they left at the end
of their military service.

Table 19 and Table 20 show that the distribution of ‘
the national budget between the rural and urban areas was
inequitable. There are contradictions between the two
tables and some doubt that the money was spent at all.

An examination Of the tables show that millions was allocated
for construction, education, and other services; however,

in total, the rural areas which have the larger pOpulations
and the greater needs were allocated only about 60% of the
program monies allocated to the urban area program.

Table 19 shows that education, budgeting for current
credits and develOpment credits has only one billion rials
for the rural areas compared to Table 20 which shows sixteen
and.one-half billion rials in develOpment credits and the
public sector investment for urban traffic improvement in
the urban areas. This evidences the lack of earlier quality
planning for industry as well as a lack of forecasting the
community change needs related to production. It is also
a visible declaration of national values when sixteen times
as much money is invested in the tranSportation convenience
of the few compared to the long-term investment in the
education of the many. The accountability concern is even
greater when one examines the lack of accomplishments
relative to the coordinated distribution of service person-
nel, the transfer of land, and the lack of local cOOperation
to create employment and income. Further evidence is seen

in the area of agricultural develOpment. How may one plant

.anH

 

 

128

 

 

 

 

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ucuaaoHo>oo ouo>Hua moouoooou unoaooHo>oo
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Houoom Ouo>HHm Mouooo OHHeom
Houoa uooaumo>cH oOxHh aouwoum

 

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129

Table 20

Fixed Investment in Urban Develo ment
During the Fifth Plan5
(In Billion Rials)

 

 

 

 

Program. Fixed public sector investment
From From the Total
development resources Of
credits public enterprises
(1) (2) (3)-(1+2)
1- TOW“ Planning 1.00 1.00 2.00
2. Construction and
expansion of
ur an potable
water supply system 7.50 6.50 14.00
3. Construction and
ex ansion of
ur an sewage system. 7.30 2.00 9.30
4. Urban traffic
improvement 10.75 5.75 16.50
5. Construction of
urban protective
works 2.50 1.55 4.05
6. Other urban
facilities 3.45 11.70 15.15
Total 32.50 28.50 61.00

 

60Ibid.

130

without seed, grow without sufficient water, ma 1tain with-
out adequate equipment, and harvest without these other
supports? A review of the Fifth National DevelOpment Plan
shows that "Fixed Investment in urban develOpment..."
exceeds "Fixed investment in rural develOpment" by 22.5
billion rials.

One of the statements pertinent to rural areas in
the FNDP follows:

About 57 percent of the total Opulation live

in 66,000 rural centers. Of t ese, 74 percent

live in 18,000 villages with a population of

over 250, while the remaining 26 percent live

in 48,000 villages with a pOpulation of under

250. By concentrating development activities in

the larger villages a larger.prOportion of the

rural pOpulation will be able to benefit from

welfare facilities.

POpulation migration from smaller villa es to

larger villages and towns will be stabi ized,

thus checking undesirable migration from rural

to urban areas. It is envisaged that this will

later lead to a favorable situation for the

natural amalgamation Of small centers into

larger ones. 1

According to the recent census there are about 55,000
rural centers. The appreciable reduction in numbers is not
due to the FNDP efforts. Rather the villages have either
died or declined because of the need for survival. Lack of
water, insufficient income, and a strong survival need
forced the peOple to move elsewhere rather than any signi-

ficant governmental program for amalgamation.

 

511mm, Chapter 17, p. 1.

131

This migratory trend of the villagers toward the
urban areas has resulted in a pOpulation decline in rural
areas of 1.6 percent and a pOpulation increase in urban
areas of 5.1 percent. This statistic shows the decline of
the rural pOpulation and the urbanization trend in the
nation. In 1966 Iran's urban population Of 9.7 million
lived in 249 towns. In 1972 it had risen to 13.2 million,
and the number of towns had increased to 2981 In 1976 after
ten years, the population has increased to over 15 million
peOple living in over 300 cities. Today about 47 percent
of the total pOpulation lives in urban centers.

This appears to be a progressive trend; however, the
following statement indicates some of the resultant dimen-
sions of the Iranian urban environment's increasing pro-
bleme as the FNDP is drawing near its end and the Sixth
National DevelOpment Plan is being designed.

This unevenness in the growth and distri-
bution of the urban pOpulation is explained

by the enormous pOpularity of life in the big

cities without regard for their capacity or

facilities, while constant migration has con-
tributed to excessive con estion in the

lar er cities. This tren has created severe

pro leme and.difficu1ties, such as over-

crowding, traffic congestion, water shortages,

air pollution, and a shortage of egficational,

health and other urban faci ities.

The FNDP clearly has identified this national pro-
blem; however, the FNDP Offers only remedies which will
lead to increasing problems rather than carefully coordinated
short-term/long-term planning.

Clearly one of the major problems in the Iranian

national develOpment planning effort is the policy that

 

62Ibid., p. 2.

132

serves as the basis of the planning. The Ministry of
Development and Housing, which is responsible for dealing
with the problems described, is handicapped in that it does
not have sufficient power to carry out its program plans.

Evidence of the limited planning perspective of the
FNDP, when examined in terms of the money allocated, shows
the impossible goals and some of the reasons for the urban
problems.

...the establishment of 1,200 development areas,

consisting Of 14,000 villages and a total pOpula-

tion of a out 10 million, is envisaged in the

Fifth Plan. 63

Further evidence is contained in the concept of
the "area centers." There is no evidence of the partici-
pation of the peOple in the plan, nor is the scOpe of the
plan realistic when one considers that even in Tehran there
is no electricity for five hours a day.

In develOpment area centers, projects will be

implemented simultaneously for a potable water

supply, a clinic, a primary and a secondary

school, rural crafts, institutes, a public

bath-house, simple sports facilities, electri-

city, a cOOperative warehouse, organizational

housing, housing for villagers, administ ative

Offices and other necessary facilities.6

The overall design of the plan and the implementation
shows evidence of foreign influence and a model remote from
the peOple. Change is better achieved through an accep-
tance and use of the peOples' experience. The First Seven

Year Plan required participation by local authorities at

village, urban, district, provincial and regional educational

 

53Ih1d., p. 3.
6"'Ibid.

133
councils and other local organizations in develOpment measures
affecting their region. This standard is essential to
change, but the villager has actually had little participa-
tion according to their reSponses to this researcher's
inquiries concerning their involvement in the planning-
implementing process. In fact, some villagers had never
heard of the process or activities. One of the missing
essential elements is education and/or training the peOple

for participation in national-level planning.

Summary, Unsolved Problems

 

This Chapter provides an information bridge between
Chaper II, which gives some basic information about the
Iranian nation, and Chapter IV. Chapter III summarizes the
Iranian national planning efforts through the five national
plans and raises several issues relative to each plan.
Chapter IV describes the Holistic Planning Theory which
provides a model for an approach to environmental planning
and management that may resolve some of the issues raised

in Chapter III.

CHAPTER IV
Holistic Planning - TheoryADevelOpment

Introduction

Creating and maintaining the ideal environment for
human life, is the ultimate goal of most environmental plan-
ners. Since human social orders are complex, planning for
that goal involves a complex network of issues and activi-
ties. In order to reach toward the idea, environmental
planners must address the multiple phenomena of human
society. This process requires broad assumptions from
which a theoretical base may be structured. An examina-
tion of some general anthropological, sociological,
architectural and urban planning concepts may provide such
an assumptive base for a theoretical experimental framework
for environmental planning in Iran. Such a theory can be
termed as holistic planning theory, and it may possibly be
generalized to apply to planning for other cultures. This ‘
substance of this chapter describes such a theory of
holistic environmental planning. A more concise definition
of "holistic" follows in this introduction. The text
provides the five developmental phases of man which serve
as the assumptive base Of the theory. Definitions of
several types of environmental planning collectively serve
as the basis for the presentation of the five fundamental
principles of holistic planning. The chapter concludes with
a description of the procedure for the application of the
holistic planning process.

134

135

A holistic plan is defined as one which apprOpriately
considers the inhabitants of social, political, psychological,
economic, cultural, and technological elements within a given
social-cultural system. It takes into consideration the
relationship of human values, human behavior, humans' inter-
actions, and humans' reactions to each other and to their
physical environment. A holistic plan acknowledges the
visible and non-physical evidence of complex human processes
and needs in creating new environments. There are humanis-
tic variables as well as scientific data which must be

examined in environmental planning.

Assumptions

A perception of the gradual movement of man from a
very simple primitive relationship to his environment to
the creation of a complex social order within his environ-
ment is significant to the factual analysis required in the
holistic planning method. The holistic planning approach
requires an examination of those evolutionary phases because,

as a process, it is evolutionary.
The Holistic Method: Evolutionagy Phases

Introduction

The holistic planning method perceives five develop-
mental phases Or approaches in the planning process, all of
which parallel historical human develOpment. Human develOp-
ment is evolutionary and related to environmental influences.

It is essential for the holistic planner to analyze those

136
environmental influences which can be described as magni-
‘tudes. Each evolving dimension was created by man over
an undefined immense period of time. Narrative and.paradigm
‘will be used to clarify the concept of men's movement from
a simple relationship with nature to the complex social or-
der created within the natural environment.

Phase One. Man began his evolutionary struggle with
nature in a mutual relationship. Man is powerfully affected
by nature, and, in turn, man affects nature more influen-
tially as evolution occurs. Figure 11 shows nature as a
resource for basic needs such as air, water, food, and
shelter. "T" represents the long span of time man was
struggling with nature and living very simply with nature
over eons Of time. "T" throughout this discussion represents
a period of time. "D" represents the two simple, but complex,
interacting variables or dimensions - man and.nature. Nature
is considered as an economic dimension, and man, with his
emergent symbolic meaning, is assumed as a second basic
dimension. Figure 11 portrays an overall integration of man
with nature. In primitive times, nature impacted man and
men impacted nature, but the interaction was relatively
simple. Man had develOped few implements to cOpe with the
powers of nature or to use the resources of the environment.

Phase Two. Man used his innate potential to improve
his physical and mental capacities and created "meanings"
and"symbols." Leslie A. White stated:

The ability to symbol is the ability freely

freely and arbitrarily to originate, determine,
and bestow meaning upon things and events in the

137
Figure 11

Man and Nature

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Overlap
* Ai
Man & Nature Wager
Meaning -EEEEEEEI?' Food
T1- Time Resources Shelter

Dz-Dimension

external worldssand the ability to comprehend
such meanings.

Through these "meanings" man creates artifacts and
progressively corrects them in qualitative and quantitative
form through the evolutionary process. Therefore, artifacts,
in broad definition, is the third dimension of human life.
Artifacts are of two levels - some are visualized like
tools for hunting and building; others are mentally visual-
ized and are not necessarily expressed as materials or
implements. By intuition, initiative, and innovation man
understood the need to get food, to make shelters, and to
develOp tools et cetera to meet his needs. Figure 12 shows
the Tri-Dimensions of Human Life, man, nature and artifacts
(technology).

Phase Three. Human beings in some evolutionary
periods became more isolated and divided in response to

the varieties of natural, geographical and climatic conditions.

 

65Leslie A. White, The Concept of Culture, Minneapolis,
Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Co., 1973, p. l.

 

_ 138
Figure 12

The Tri-Dimensions of Human Life
I

 

 

 

 

 

 

\-
1 Man .//
//
Time-T
2
, Artifact
Dimension-D '\ -\
3 Nature Technolog
conomic
/ .

His meanings have been differentiated and his artifacts

have been specialized according to his space or geographical
location. Because of such reasons, different cultures have
been created in different parts of the world.

"Culture" is a major phenomenon in human life. A
brief definition of culture accepted by social researchers
is that it is an umbrella which permeates human behavior.
Man has two existences. One is his physical being and the

other is his "meaning.' Culture influences meaning. Culture
is meaning (per White's definition), including concepts,
qualities, quantities, and elements. Culture is distin-
guished by some scholars as significant elements which
include, among others, language, religion, custom, kinship,
art, architecture. In this research, the tenet is applied

which states that man's meaning is in his "culture" and his

"economic" resources are nature and the geographical area

139
where he exists. The author accepts culture as a major
dimension which contributes totally to human motivations
and accomplishments. Figure 13 depicts the four dimensions

of man's increasingly complex existence.

Figure 13
Four Dimensions of Man's Complex Life
. - l

    
   
   
   

Nature

omics

Culture

i Comparison}
.Phase Four. There are characteristics, such as the

social and political dimensions, which are dependent upon

the economic and cultural dimensions. Social, political,

and economic dimensions are in reality sub-divisions of
culture, but for ease Of understanding, they are sorted into
separate dimensions for conceptual purposes, and they emerge
as humans and become more adapted to nature and more civilized;
as adaptation occurs, man becomes more differentiated and
more complex. As the complexity intensifies, the environment-
al planner must be concerned about preserving the unique
differences, or complex heterogeneity, in the attempts to
improve the future. Figure 14 shows man's complex inter-

action with environmental dimensions or systems.

 

140

Figure 14

Six Interacting Dimensions of Human Life

\, ./

1 Man

   

        
  

2 Nature

11"] (47‘ V

 

  
     

 

- Culth -— ——-

 

 

 

“\l' ,. A

Time - T
4

 

Dimension - D

Political 4 Social 5,6

/' '\

Phase Five. Over the past century, man became more
involved with technology and more concerned with behavior
as probed through psychology. Technological phenomena and
psychological phenomena have had different effects in
different societies and are generally accepted as signifi-
cant and related dimensions.

The main purpose of this explanation has been to
clarify several important factors or dimensions which are
evolutionary as man is evolutionary. This effort produces
paradigmatic descriptions of the assumptions which provide
the basis of the Holistic Planning Theory. In summary,
those assumptions are:

1. Human evolution or develOpment is from the

simple to the complex;

141
2. A relationship exists between the dimensions
of man and environment: natural, cultural,
technological, and psychological phenomena.
3. Time is a major factor in this whole complex;
4. Space, which may change, is a factor in the
whole complex;
5. The interactions of each of the dimensions,
systems, or phenomena create the final form of
complex structures, or supersystems, which can
be viewed as an abstraction of an entire nation.
All of these dimensions interact and are inter-
dependent upon each other; a change in one dimension forces
a change in one or all of the other dimensions or systems.

With this brief explanation, one may examine the
whole complex of human life in one paradigm, Figure 15. The
basis of the discussion which follows is premised upon the
concept of the human complex where the following abbrevia-
tions are used. .

S - Social organization - S a (Group Behavior, Action

and Reaction)
P1 - Politics - P - (Judicial Law, Legislative,
Enactive)

P2 - Psychology - P - (Personality, Mental)

E - Economics - (Natural Resources, Geographical
Climatic Conditions and Ecological Phenomena)

C - Culture - (Man, Physical organism and his Meanings)

T - Technology - T - (human artifacts)

142

Through the process all of these phenomena interact
and.are interdependent upon each other, and, together,
comprise a supersystema' As noted in Chapter IV, the come
bined dimensions are called the holistic approach. Figure
15 shows the human life complex with each of the major
influencing dimensions or systems. Culture is the dominant
dimension.

Figure 15
The Human Life Complex As Viewed Frem
the Holistic Approach.

HLC - Human Life
Complex
HLC - S+P+P+E+C+T

A
1‘ 0
\ . '0' HLC - spzsc'r

T

 

 

._ ‘. ....
,v 43‘
0a *

/ \

Summagy

As a consequence of these relationships and relative
dimensions, the holistic planning theory assumes that man as

'well as his supersystem.are in an evolutionary-develOpmental

143
process which may be divided into abstract factual dimensions
for analytical purposes, for problem solving purposes, and
for effective planning purposes.

In order to clarify the intent of this theory, sev-
eral terms which are pertinent to understanding the holistic
environmental planning method are defined in the following
section.

Definitions of Significant PlannipgyTerms

Introduction

MOdern urban life is complex and evolutionary. The
city shelters an enormous range of human systema and values
which are interrelated, circular and reinforced by the
environment. Unfortunately, there is no satisfactory means
devised to establish the ultimate primacy of any one system
(as previously discussed in the evolutionary phases or
conceptual dimensions). Each dimension, social, political,
psychological, economic, cultural, and technological pro-
vides valuable but incomplete information about urban
reality. Each dimension has a specialist with expertise
in that system, Just as man and his environment are
evolutionary so are the sciences which he devises to assist
in cOping with that environment. The perceptual bias of
the expert who examines urban life often limits the solu-
tions he designs for improving the quality of life which
is referred to at this time as urban planning.

Economists perceive the city as a system of exchange

which is a part of a larger organization. Economists define

144
the basic objective Of urban planning as that of obtaining
the same land use patterns that would emerge naturally from
the processes of the urban real estate market. Legal
scholars, social administrators, geographers, anthrOpolo-
gists, psychologists, and other social scientists have
special interests regarding the urban environment. Lawyers
seem to perceive environmental planning as the determination
by public authorities of the legal quality of land areas for
the purpose of adapting their use to community needs.
Sociologists recognize that urban communities are inseparable
from constituent and related elements, such as mechanisms,
aggregations of personalities, social structure and systems
of control. The architect's and engineer's definitions
emphasize the mechanistic, functional and designed. Often
the architect becomes so fascinated and so enamoured by his
.own design dreams that he ignores the goals of improving
the quality of life. The planner focuses primarily on the
comprehensive arrangement of land uses, land occupancy, and
the regulations governing the land's arrangement and occu-
pancy. The significant result of this variety of different
disciplines involved with different facets of a community
is that each component develOps its own emphasis; however,
their efforts overlap the boundaries of each other. There
is a common thread throughout the activities of all who
would improve the quality of urban life. There is insuffi-
cient knowledge and lack of coordination of efforts. Sparks
succinctly summarizes the complexity of the issues in his

discussion of land use information of American cities. He

145

states :

Despite the enormous significance of urban

life in our society, our knowledge of the

2353p33.331332531312233surbmzmm‘ ‘3

Planning, like man and his environment, is evolutionary
and may be perceived from multiple perspectives. The terms
a planner uses to describe the planning process help cate-
gorize the planner's values. It is essential to the
description of the holistic planning theory to discuss
some selected definitions of various types of planning.
The definitions of planning will move from.the general de-
scription of plan, to planning and various types of planning,
which include urban planning, social planning, master plan-
ning and comprehensive planning. A brief analytical state-
ment will be made about each definition's limitations and
contributions to the holistic planning definition. The
definitions and discussions will provide the foundation for

the definition of holistic planning.

Plan
Anderson defines "plan" as:
having an orientation to the future
and a focus on action rather than on
acquisition of knowledge.57
The prediction of the future is based on past

experience and the present situation. All are grounded in

the facts of time, space, and environmental conditions. The

 

66Spark, Uniform Land Use Classification, p. 175.

67A. Anderson, The Social Content of Education
Plannin . New York: International Institute for Educational
Planning, 1967, p. 10.

146
prediction of the future depends on a knowledge of past
experiences and an understanding of the parameters of the
present situation. All three, past, present, and future,
are grounded in the dimension of time which is accepted as
an important principle in planning. The significance of
Anderson's definition is the concept of action. Unless
effort is made to design implementation activities, as
the planning begins, the planning is in vain. The major
problem historically has been that the action phase of
planning has not been carried out with theinvolvement of
the peOple for whom the planning is being done. Alleviation
of community problems requires their direct involvement;
i.e. the planners working with the peOple who live with the
problems. They must engage in designing the alternative
solutions and activities for the resolution of their come
munity problema. Synergistic planning, involving the expert
problem solver and the citizen together in action, is the
only way of bridging the gap between practice and theory

for active and.effective environmental planning.

Planning
One of America's foremost legalist associated.with

planning, Donald Hagman, articulates planning very meaning-
fully. It should be noted that Hagman perceives the city
as an isolated, absolute entity. He is concerned with
planning for a municipality, but he does not see the
community in relation to regional or national design. He

defines planning as follows:

147

Planning connotes a systematic develOpment Of
a municipality to promote the general welfare
and prosperity of its peoqfie with greatest
efficiency and.economy...

Planning in the broad sense contemplates the
evolvement of an overall program or design

of the present and future physical develOpment
of the total area and services of the existing
or contemplated municipality. Planning... has
in view...the physical develOpment of the
community and its environs in relation to its
social and.economic well-being for the fulfill-
ment of the ri htful common destiny, according
to a 'master pIan' based on 'careful and compre-
hensive surveys and studies of present condi-
tions and the prospects of future rowth of the
municipality, and embodying scient fic teachings
and creative eXperience.59

In a nation such as Iran, planning for a municipality
‘must be perceived in the context of the region and the na-
tion. The municipal, regional and national entities are
referred to as "levels" which will be described in a later
section of this paper. Also, planning in Iran requires
examination of more than the physical. There are complex
phenomena, organizations, spaces and functions which must
be included in the comprehensive plan.

Hagman defines this planning process as follows:

A planner will often be heard to say that planning
is a process. This is to say, it is much more
than the drawing of multicolored maps showing an
idealized physical future for an area. The process
generally consists of studying what a locality
such as a city, village, town or county is now

and is becoming, determinin what the goals are,
stating those goals in the orm of maps, standards
and recommendations, formulating precise plans

for implementation, adOpting a prOpriate regula-
tions, making purchases (exerc sing eminent domain)
and preparing udgets and devising tax schemes as

 

68Donald Hagman, Urban Planning and Land DevelOpment,
Planning-gigarédplanning” p. 39.
i .

148

a means of implementation, and, finally

coordinating efforts and making evaluations.

The process is a continuous one $96 can be

started at any point in the cycle.

This cyclical process is part of the holistic planning
approach. What is important is the adaptation of this cycli-
cal process to the different holistic approach system levels
(national, regional, municipal, et cetera) and the inter-
relationship of the planning process across these levels.
Thus, for example, holistic planning would take into con-
sideration the economic system at the national, regional,
‘municipal, and village level and the interactions with the

other holistic approach dimensions within the supersystem

(Iran).

Physical Planning

Physical planning is associated with mmnicipalities.
It is concerned with Official city organizations and regula-
tions, such as zoning and renewal projects. It does not
take into consideration other dimensions of human needs or
other levels of planning, such as regional or national
levels. T.J. Kent examines physical planning, but his
parameters are narrow. He develOps a good definition for
general planning at the municipal level but his terms show
that he does not take into consideration social and cultural

values.

 

7°lbid., p. 39.

149

Kent asserts:

The general plan is the official statement

of a municipal legislative body which sets

forth its major policies concerniqg.desir-

able future physical develOpment.

Political powers employ this type of planning to implement
their purposes. Physical planning fails to take into con-
sideration the multiple social-psychological dimensions
which the holistic planning approach emphasizes.

Goodman's definition of planning emphasizes physical
planning concepts and provides the conceptual basis of this
.researcher's physical planning definition. Goodman suggests:

Planning is thought of as being concerned with

physical things rather than as a particular

Ody of techni ues. This has been the tradi-

tional scOpe o city planning and this view is

customarily held by planners with physical

design backgrounds.

This group recognizes the interdependence of

physical, social and economic factors in

community develOpment, and it concedes that

a physical plan must take into account objec-

tives, analyses and forecasts from the non-

physical realm. The distinction is sometimes

ard to pin down, but in general, a plan with

a physical develOpment scOpe will not emphasize

economic and social.

Thus, physical or environmental planning concentrates
only on the integration of the physical framework within the
bounds of place (location), time, and space (tri-dimensional
architecture). Although it takes into account available
natural resources, material resources, and manpower

resources, it does not take into account the accommodation

 

71T.J. Kent, Jr., The Urban General Plan, San Francisco:
Chandler Publishing Co., 1964, p. 18.

 

72William Goodman, Principles and Practices of Urban
Planning, Washington, D.C.: ITC.M.A., 1968, p. 348.

150
of human needs and aspirations. The holistic environmental
approach in urban anthrOpology holds promise for more effec-
tive thinking about heterogeneity than that which seems

typical of the older, more sociological approach.

Social Planning

In contrast to Kent and Goodman's definitions are
those of the social planners who focus on peOple's activi-
ties in groups, collectives, or corporate organizations.
Myrdal describes social planning in the following terms:

Social planning involves the drawing up of
plans for future action in regard to social
institutions and resources. A 'social'

plan is designed to meet the needs of a
society which means, in many cases an

entire nation. This usage, in which social
planning is equivalent to societal planningv,
is generally accepted by social scientists. 3

Gans extends the definition of social planning:

Some of the consequences of that change, such
as the disappearance of traditional patterns
of living, and increases in so-called 'indices
of social disorganization' such as delinquency
and suicide have created a demand for a plan-
ning process which would determine whether
certain social, cultural, psychological goals
should now have priortty over the goals of
economic development.

The discussion thusfar concerns a brief presentation
of definitions of physical planning and social planning. A
comparison of the implications of the elements of concern
may best be stated: physical planning implies the arrangement

and construction of material goals. The term physical

 

73Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped
Regions, London: Gerald Duckworth & Co., Ltd., 1957, p.120-

74Gans, Herbert J. Esssys on Urban Problems and Solu-
tions. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968, p.156.

151
planning refers to "quantity," the physical needs associated
with social goals. Also physical planning assumes more
concrete visible surface and form than the fundamental
human needs. Social planning meets qualitative needs, such
as freedom, leisure, and equality. The social, non-
material goals are additional components of concern with
which the social planner designs. understanding the social
needs of peOple provides information for physical designs.

Figure 16 portrays a summary comparison of social planning

and physical planning.

Figure 16

A Comparison of Social Planning and Physical Planning

 

   
  

Social I Function To ' Form
Social

Physical

    
   
 

  
     
 

Freedom Shelter Social

 
 

N -
11181222181 Equality Food Material
Plan Goals Leisure Park Goals '1anning

Health Hospital
Education School

Planners may be perceived as creative planners and
remedial planners. Both seek to improve the quality of
human environment, but achieve their goals differently.
Creative planners seem only to design theories which are
removed from the real world. Remedial planners deal with
the realities of the existing problems and function to

correct the planning theories with their practices. Gans

152
as a social planner, states:

Planning is a method of public decision-making
which emphasizes explicit goal-choice and
rational goals means determination, so that
decisions can be based on the goals peOple

are seeking and.q% the most effective programs
to achieve them.

After his experience in Boston (Urban Villager),
he suggests:

In theory, planning should be an application of
that method environment; but in practice it has
been an art plied by a Profession dedicated to
a set of narrow arc itectural goals and to land
use and design programs for realizing them.
Therefore planning 7has not paid much attention
to peOple's goals.

Systematic Planning,

Planning is a general term which may be used for
all human organizations, but they have to contribute to an
overall plan which is the concern Of this research. Stephen
D. Mittenthal describes planning as follows:

Planning is a process by which decisions are

reached in a systematic and deliberate fashion

with regard to allocation and utilization of

resources for certain agreed-upon goals. To

achieve these goals involves a rendering of

choices among various policy alternatives and

the mounting 07% specific forms of action to

satisfy them.

Mittenthal and Speigel emphasize that planning must
be systematic and deliberate to be effective. It is essen-

tial to practice the systematic planning model because

 

75Ibid.
7ftb1d.
‘Tktephen D. Mittenthal and Han H. C. Speigel, Urban

Confrontation, New York: Institute for Urban Environment,
1970, p. 2.

 

153

problems continue to increase in societies where remedial
short-term planning is practiced instead of systematic long-

term.planning.

Urban Planning,
Urban environmental planning seeks to integrate social
and physical planning as the following definition evidences:

Urban planning is concerned with the nature,
structure, and functioning of human collec-
tives in physical Space. It seeks to under-
stand how these get organized into more or
less enduring settlements and why they change.
Like sociology, urban plannin 'in its many
versions is an offshoot of cr sis and turmoil
in human affairs, most recently, the growing
inca acity of human7§eings to master the space
in w ich they live.

Urban policies and planning as individual, localized
processes must be an integral, explicit part of other larger
planning systems; namely, national, provincial, regional,
‘metrOpolitan and village develOpment plans. For the purposes
of this research it is assumed that there is a need for the
adaptation of the sector-oriented national plans to include
regional and urban planning objectives recognizing urbani-
zation as an essential element in the develOpment process..

John Friedmann stated:

As a form of human settlement, the city is a
social system located in geographic space that
occupies a precise position in a system of inter-
connected settlements, extending from hamlet

to megalpolis. National develOpment occurs
within this social interaction network stretched
out over the Landscape. But its occurrence in
the spatial system.is neither uniform nor
simultaneous. Impulses for develOpment originate
at certain localities and are relayed to other
localities in a definite sequence. The pattern
of Settlements creates a structure of potentials

 

7§ncyclopedia of Urban Planning, pp. 908-909.

154

for development that will eventually be re istered
in indices of regional performance and wil condi-
tion the evolving character of the Society.79
Friedmann's statement is a fundamental principle of
holistic planning in terms of the various civil levels the
planner must review for the impact of his solutions for the

environment.

Master Plan

 

Master plan is another narrow planning approach which
' focuses primarily on physical aSpects as the following de-
finition shows:

The typical master plan, which has changed
relatively little since the first one was
drafted in 1911, portrays a future ideal:

a city without slums, divided into zones for
each major land use, with efficient highway

and mass transit systems, vastly increased
amounts of Open recreational Space and other
public cultural facilities, and served by a
system of neighborhood, district, and downtown
retail and civic centers. The prOposals for
new facilities and rearranged land use and
transportation patterns are synthesized into

a master Elan map, with proposals for imple-
menting t is map through a zoning ordinance

to order land use as prescribed by the plan,
building codes to discourage slums, subdivision
regulations to guide the develOpment of vacant
land, and governmental reorganization schemes
to coordinate the ro osed changes (Bassett 1938;
Dunham 1958; Kent E96 )

No master plan has ever become a blueprint for
the growth of the city, although individual
recommendations have often been implemented.
Perhaps the main reason for the failure of the
master Ian was its assumption of environmental
or physical determinism” Like the nineteenth-

 

79John Friedmann, "The Role of Cities in National
DevelOpment," Urbanization Planning and National Development,
Beverly Hills: Sage Publication, 1973, p. 232

155

century reformers, the master planners assumed

that people's lives are shaped by their physical

surroundings and that the ideal city could be

realized by the provision of an ideal physical

environment. Since they were architects and

engineers, they believed the city was a system

of buildings and land uses that could be arranged

and rearranged through planning, without taking

account of the socia , economic, and political

structures and processes that determinedpeople's

behavior, including their use of land.8

Even though master planning primarily considers the
physical development of the city, many social planners make
a conscious effort to incorporate new social values in the
master planning process. City planners design facilities
for people which include neighborhood recreation areas
and convenient tranSportation systems. In Spite of this,
master planning efforts fail to perceive the integration
of the dynamic city structural organs, such as the economic,
political, and cultural elements, as well as the interaction

of the city with the countryside, region and the entire nation.

Holistic Planning

The term holistic assumes that the primitive condi-
tion of man, prior to the development of social order, was
the drive to be an orderly part of nature. The term holistic
assumes that natural forces instinctively synthesize units
into organized wholes throughout the universe. Holistic is
a general term which perceives (1) human life to be innately
orderly as is nature's universe; (2) the function of social

life to be orderly just as nature's other elements and

 

803ncyclogedia of Social Science

156
entities are orderly; (3) the synthesis of human knowledge
and culture in a unique, orderly framework to deal with all
facets of human systems.

Holistic planning is built upon the base of compre-
hensive planning where Goodman's definition will serve as
the researcher's definition for comprehensive planning:

'Comprehensive"means that the plan encompasses

all geographical parts of the community and all

functional elements which bear on physical

develOpment . 8
Goodman's definition is very general and seems to rely only
on the geographical and the physical elements while holistic
planning takes into consideration the relationship of humen
values, human behavior, human interaction, and human reac-
tions to each other and to their environment. A holistic
plan is defined as a plan which includes social, political,
psychological, economic, cultural, and technological

phenomena as an abstract of a whole nation called a super-

system.

Summary

The section provides definitions of several planning
approaches to show the background differences for the defin-
ition of holistic planning. The principles of holistic
planning will follow.

Principles of Holistic Planning

Introduction

There are five fundamental principles in the holistic

planning theory.

 

BlGoodman, p. 348.

157

1. Holistic planning begins with the whole entity
and moves to an analysis of its parts.'

2. Holistic planning analyzes data in terms of
systems and levels.

3. Holistic planning accepts time and space as the
essential orientation elements of human life.

4. Holistic planning requires function to be the
prime factor in the design of an environmental
form.

5. Holistic planning deals systematically with the
relationship of all component facts of an environ-
ment.

The following describes each principle.

Relationship of Whole to Part

,Planning concerns the future whether it is for indivi-
dual decisiondmaking, for neighborhood or community develOp-
ment, or for national comprehensive planning. All require
a broad examination at the initiation of the planning, that
is, planning must begin with a consideration of the total
system. The basic principle is that of the concept of
whole to part.

Whole to part is essential to systematic decision-
‘making. It is orderly as is other natural phenomena, such
as the atom in the nuclear system, the cell of the biological
system, the chemical of the ecological system, or the planet
of the solar system. Parts always have specific relation-
ships to the whole. People in each situation need to begin

by knowing the structure or the relations of the whole.

158
They move from.an evaluation of the whole elements to an
analysis of the parts and then back to the whole. It is a
cyclical process which initially examines the entire struc-
ture to examine the components and then returns to re-
examine the whole structure.

Whole, as defined in this research, means the internal
and external relationships of the holistic approach in the
human life complex. The significance of the holistic ap-
proach varies in relation to the purposes and intent of the
research or study to be conducted. Part means any molecular
phenomena of the holistic approach. (See Table 21, The

Supersystem, System, Subsystem).

Procedural Planning Process

According to the above, the whole to part principle

is considered in this research as follows:

1. Whole to part -- Planning must begin by
examining the entire framework. Planning
includes an examination of the relationship
between systems and levels of the whole.

2. Planning continues by knowing and evaluating
the parts and their relationship to each other
within the whole.

3. In order to insure that the parts are in dynamic
relationship to the whole, the initial step of
whole to part will be reversed and the process

shall proceed from part to whole.

159
This principle is described in criticism of special-
ized planning which deals only with parts or fragments of
a system and myopically fails to view the whole integrated
complex of human life. Focusing on one part or one element

is not sufficient or efficient in the planning process.

Figure 17

Circular Planning Process

. Small Units
Nation Holistic Approach to Village Level

to
Whole

  

Part

160 '

The advantages of this circular planning procedure
are: (1) It creates a process to understand.and classify
the basic problems in an orderly sense; (2) It creates a
clear persPective of the supersystem.and.the realization of
the priorities of each part in the whole system; (3) It makes
it easy for decision-making and implementation; (4) It
emphasizes the strength or weakness of the relation between
parts and each element in the whole complex.

One of the disadvantages of this concept is compli-
cation and confusion in the methodology of planning research
in dealing with infinite variables; however, the idea is
that planning will be more realistic when all of the
variables impacted by the plan are considered.

One of the serious planning problems is the lack of
coordination between each national system; for example, in
Iran each ministry is responsible for its own subject area,
but has little or no interaction with others. This causes
repetition among projects and confusion between their pro-
gramming. Each ministry tries to improve its own area with-
out a comprehensive outline and without adequate reliable
data and information about other ministries' planning

programs.

Iran - A Whole to Part Example

Iran is a centralized national governmental system.
It is particularly meaningful to examine the whole to part
principle in that society. The following discussion provides

an example of the whole to part principle. The consideration

161
is the concept of levels. An Iranian village which has
its own holistic plan is a part of the nation, the whole.
It may be examined as its own planning unit or as a part
of a national system. Another example, previously men-
tioned, is the educational system. The elementary school
facilities, the curriculum, and the faculty are parts of
the village and national education system, yet education
itself is a subsystem of the social system, and the social
system is part of the whole or supersystem.

No single factor has influenced the emergence of the
Iranian system. The factors considered to be dominant to
the emergence of Iran's cities are: (l) the physical en-
vironment, (2) the economic structure, (3) technology,

(4) the power structure, and (5) the cultural value system.82
There are political and economic factors which have influ-
enced the hierarchical urban-village patterns in the nations.
The hierarchy includes Tehran, the capitol; large cities,
such as Isfahan; market cities; and large and small villages.

Figure 18, a Model of Governmental Levels in Iran,
displays the centralized planning system where the capitol
city and large cities are dominant over the smaller market
towns and villages. (The weight of the connecting lines
show the strength.) The problem is little direct relation-

ship in environmental planning for manpower and resource

 

8zfiossein Adibi, An Analysis of the Social, Ecmomig,
and.Physical Aspects of Urbanization in Iran, unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, United States InternationalUniversity, 1972.

162

Figure 18

A Model of Governmental Levels in Iran
Based on the Whole to Part Principle

 

- o 0
”‘ \w 0 C - Capitol

L - Large City
‘9 MTh Market Town
V - Village

development between village and the capitol. This creates
'an imbalance and chaos in the nation.
Adaptation of the whole to part principle in Iranian
planning requires that:
1. Planning begin with National planning within
the framework of the holistic approach.
National planning is the Levels and System
Concepts. Their relationship to each other
are the same as the warp and the woof of
fabric. '
2. Planning for the lower levels, such as, provin-
cial or regional, metrOpolitan, city or village,

should be based on National Planning, the whole.

163
The lower levels must be considered in the
comprehensive planning model.
3. Planning must consider the interrelationship
between parts, villages, and their effects

on the whole of Iran.

Principle of Systems and Levels

The holistic planning approach requires a systematic
means for collecting complex interdependent information.
It requires collaboration with many civil agencies. In
order to clarify the data sources, the author provides a
‘matrix, the Holistic Planning Information Matrix shown in
Table 21, to show the supersystem dimensions or systems
which must be analyzed in terms of governmental levels.
It shows the combination of supersystems phenomena, placed
on the vertical plane, and governmental levels, placed on
the horizontal plane. Although this matrix may be done in
greater detail, it is shown here in introduction to display
the varieties of the main elements in two perspectives,
horizontal and vertical. It provides a comparison of the
standards of each level and.aystem. It is a tool to
consider the significant variables in one perspective.

Governmental levels provide an orderly approach to
observing, measuring, and classifying an environment for
planning purposes. The holistic planning approach classi-
fies the governmental structures of Iranian society into
the following categories: national, provincial, regional,

municipal (or city) and village. They may be compared to

164

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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165
the United States of America's categories of federal,
regional, state, county, metrOpolitan, township and munici-
pal. The governmental units may be viewed in terms of a
hierarchy organization where the village is the lowest
level of the hierarchy and the national government is the
highest level.

The supersystem is an abstract of the major elements
of human society: the social system, the political system,
the psychological system, the economical system, the cultural
system and the technological system. The supersystem
represents systems consolidation or the combination of all
of the systems. There is interaction and interdependence
between the systems, which may be visualized as a whole in
circular movement. The relation within each system and
among the systems is dependent upon governmental levels,
time, space, and functions of the environment to be planned.
Systems and levels information allow for more flexible
alternatives in planning the future because of the improved
data base. The complexity and activity of the supersystem
is shown in the schematic of Figure 19, "The Molecular
System of Complex Human Life."

In the matrix concept this means that each system is
under several governmental levels; it has a whole series of
relationships to several entities. Fer example, education,
a subsystem of the social system" in a centralized system
such as Iran is controlled at the national level. Education
is institutionalized in the Central Ministry in Tehran; it

has control over all elements of the education functions in

166

Figure 19

The Molecular System of Complex Human Life

  

oersystem

S stem

 

  
 

Subsystem

 

Comppnents

the country. By contrast, at the provincial level there is
inadequate planning for education. The provinces tend to
follow the National Plan, rather than develop curricula
applicable to their unique needs. At the village level

the education is very restricted, limited, and stOps at

the elementary school. Curriculum is dictated by the Gen-
tral Ministry without consideration for the village's
cultures and traditions. In future planning this should be
taken into consideration. It is the responsibility of the
planner to deal effectively with change with the participa-

tion of the people who live with the effects of change in

167

the complex system. Problems emerge in a societ where
unharnessed technological achievement develops beyond the
majority's knowledge. Alienation and confusion, compounded
by environmental problems, are characteristic of rapidly-
changing, technologically-dominated systeme.

Figure 20 shows schematic models that represent
three different complex social systems. Figure 20 (a)
represents an ideal society where all of the dimensions of
the holistic plan are balanced and equal within the super-
system. A balanced relationship where man, his created
social order, and the natural environment function effec-
tively and efficiently is the goal of holistic planning.
Figure 20 (b) represents a developed country where one
system dominates the society and creates an unbalanced social
order. The disorder or imbalance is recognized by the pro-
blems of disintegration, alienation, and inflation within
the society. Therefore, there are increased problems in
psychological, cultural, social, and political relations
which result in a distorted model. Figure 20 (c) represents
traditional countries which emphasize culture, natural
family relations, and the heritage of traditions. Countries
represented by this model tend to have less technology and
economics when compared with the other systems or models in
Figure 20. The models function to emphasize the need for
planners to balance the impacts of the dimensions of come
plex social systems in order to contribute to the quality of
life through balancing a network of activities and dimensions

of human social orders.

168

Figure 20

The Hexagonal Complex of System Balance

 

 

 

 

 

a) Ideal Society b) Developed Society c) Traditional
Society

Principle of Function to Form

 

The principle that form should be the result of
function is fundamental to holistic planning. It adapts
the contemporary architectural philosophy of Grapreis (1920),
which is rooted in the primary principle that "form follows
function." Form is defined as the outward visible shape of
a body, structure, or thing, and is distinguished from
substance, color, and texture. A formalist is one who
focuses only on spaces and physical form of the environment,
rather than upon social and emotional concerns or relations.
Function is related to the purpose, duty, or action that
will be conducted within a structure. Form and function are
interrelated, but function should be the priority in planning,
followed by the aesthetics of the form. A functionalist in
art, architective and.planning is one who holds function to
be of prime importance, modifying such factors as form and

structure so that they may contribute the utmost to the

169
effective functioning of the finished product.

Initially the purpose of environmental planning was
to resolve peOple's problems by improving their environment
through application of knowledge and science. Planning has
become limited and controlled by special purposes. Indeed,
some urban planners, social planners, and economic planners
lost sight of the people and became enamored.with their own
ideas, fascinated by schemes, or controlled by power struc-
tures, as evidenced in their designs. Too few comprehen-
sive plan designs revealed a humanitarian or functionalist
concern for the needs of people. In the initial stages of
planning, form has no meaning. First the function of the
change must be considered through process, and then form
will more logically follow.

Evidence of form resulting from.function is seen in
many rural Iranian villages. The unique and humanistic
villages in Iran are mostly created by the people who live
in them. These villages are designed to meet their needs
with understanding of geographical and climetic problems.
These peOple never had a pre-map, pre-form, or scheme of
the final production, but each individual house and the
total finished site pattern is perfect, visual, aesthetic,
humanistic and proportionate in scale. MOst of these vil-
lages are still functioning after thousands of years. Some
of the environmental problems in contemporary cities and in
develOped areas, such as crime, pollution, traffic conges-
tion, and poor space utilization, are due to the fact that

plans are not made by the majority of the peOple; rather,

170
they are designed by one person or a group acting for the
whole. Even the problem of growth does not allow everyone
to make his own individual design in his territory, but
each is given the Opportunity to contribute to the design.
Competent, relevant and functional planning strives to meet
the needs of the peOple in a coherent functional framework.
Louis Mumford has stated the real functional planner is as
follows:

Civilizations have risen and fallen without
apparently receiving the full import of their
relations with the earth ..... All good planning
must be in with a survey of actual resources:
the lan scape, the peOple, the work-a-day
activities in community. Good planning does
not begin with an abstract and arbitrary scheme
that it seeks to impose on a community; it
begins with a knowledge of existing conditions
and Opportunities ..... To build intelligently
today is to lay the foundations for a new
civilization-~the final test of an economic
system is not the tons of iron, the tanks of
oil, or the miles of textiles in products;

the final test lies in its ultimate products--
the sort of men and women it nurtures and the
order, beauty, and sanity of their communities.83 -

Principle of Time and Space
Time and Space are the main orienting elements of
social life. Both may be considered in a number of different

societal aSpects, such as physical, economical, social, and

political.

Time

Holistic planning takes into consideration three main
dimensions of time: past, present, and future. This includes
knowledge and information of the complex human system as

follows:

3Louis Mumford, Faith for Living, New York: Harcourt,
Brace, & Co., Inc., 1940, p. 207.

 

 

171

1. Getting information and data about each of

the holistic approach dimensions and each
level of the complex system in the past;

2. Considering the present situation, as an

evolving whole system; I

3. Designing for the control of the final form

of this complex system in the future.
Designing takes into consideration the
peOple's needs and assumes the control of
the speed of change. This requires short-
term and long-term planning with those who
will live with the plan.

Figure 21 diagrams the components of man, time, and
society, described previously as the five evolutionary phases
of the human complex. The human complex is schematically
described as an elevating plane.

Time is a tool to measure evidence within a certain
period; however, it is obvious that time assumes various
meanings in different societies. Past, present, and future
are sections of time which have and hold different meanings
and perspectives to men. It is clear that a solar year is
an unchangeable fact, but how cultures view the period within
that year and at what point that year begins and ends, are
factors which are at least partly responsible for the many
variations in culture and society throughout the world. For
example, the Iranian conception of a year is different from
the western calendar where the year begins in January. A

year to meat Iranians is the essence of the circulation of

Time and the Human Complex

 

172

Figure 21

Classic

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Renaissance

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18th & 19 Century

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Present Future

the universe, and most of their social organizations, cul-

tural factors, and religious customs, are based on a calendar

year beginning in March.

Many traditional concepts of time

have changed for the Iranians, but Iranian history is

important to the peOple.

Any major change in their rituals

173
or seasons would prove unacceptable. An example is the very
important Iranian New Year. It begins on the 20th of March
and signals the start of spring, the blossoming of flowers,
the onset of happiness, and the rearrangement of their
lives.

Time is related and dependent upon social spaces.
There is a variety of social practices in different areas
or spaces in Iran. The meaning of time is changeable. For
instance, "social time" is a combination of feeling, memor-
ies, customs, religious ceremonies, and historical evidence.
Furthermore, each social group, such as the fishermen,
shopkeepers, and the peasants, has different concepts of
time and consequently has created separate cultures.

Those who preserved and passed on the ancient history
of Iran relied heavily on the oral tradition. That contact
took place by social contact, from families to groups to
the whole society. That example of communication points to
the importance of social contact as a way of acquiring
knowledge. A knowledge of time and Space are also included
under the same category. One is not born with a knowledge of
what time and space happen to be. One learns through social
contact with tribes, clans, and others.

AS time is strongly related to the social structure,
there is also a distinction between urban and rural concep-
tions of time. To the agrarian-peasant cultures it is
based on religious rituals, such as Namaz (periodic worship).
Before sunrise, at noon, and again at sunset, the people

worship and must organize their work and rest periods

174

around that ritual. Time is further related to animal
movements and to songs. The fact that some animals, such
as sheep, who return from pasture in the morning, and
roosters, who crow at daybreak, seem to have an instinctual
concept of time has also had an influence on the Iranian view
of time. The movements of animals are vitally important to
the peasant and agrarian lifestyles; consequently, the peOple
have learned to schedule their time around that of their
_ animals.

In social categories, time is clearly important.
Birth and death are culturally related to many social and
physical aSpects of life. "The sunset shadow is on the edge
of the roof," indicates to an Iranian the end of existence
and also demonstrates a relationship between the natural
elements and man's existence on earth. Mohammed's birth is
to the Arabs the start of a new year, which shows the effect
of religion upon the concept of time. Many natural disasters,
Such as starvation or flooding, mark to some tribes the

beginning or end of an era.

Space

Space is a culmination and.collection of phenomena
which are dynamically interrelated to geography and created
environments. It is a place where humans live, relate, and
interact, such as the home Space, work space, and leisure
space. The distinction between urban and rural Space is
important. Rural spaces are built by peOple in order to

alleviate their needs; the building of urban spaces is

175
influenced by forces other than needs and desires, such as
economic, political, and institutional forces. Rural space
is formed with the villagers' occupational functions in
mind; in the cities, however, peasants are hired to work
at jobs which do not suit their previous backgrounds. Those
workers who migrate to the city too often become absorbed
into urban life and become alienated not only from their
previous environment but from themselves as well. Their new
experiences in their new Space (the urban area) are un-
related to their prior experiences. In the village, the
schools, shops, and factories are often grouped.within a
single dwelling. In one room, for instance, a woman might
be selling milk and yogurt, in another room in the same
building a person might be making and selling rugs, while
in another room a small classroom may be in session. That
type of living gives the villagers a senSe of working
together toward a common purpose. However, one of the first
things a villager encounters in a city is the fact that shOpS,
schools, and factories are far apart, giving the villager
very little sense of community. The cities have separate

facilities, while the villages do not.

Summary

The concepts of Space and time are related. This
principle should always be considered in national planning,
but, due to the relatively quick technological growth,
planners often fail to incorporate that change. It is

particularly important to consider that change when one

176
recognizes that each area has its own peculiar characteris-
tics. When planning buildings, one should take into account
all factors of social needs, experiences, and changes, in-
cluding the correlation between space and time. Long-term
planning requires a self-checking device in order to keep
the plan in tune with changing social needs. Related to
this point is that time is, of course, involved in the
production of a building from beginning to end. The pro-
gramming, projection, and construction of a large building
takes several years. Time and space should be considered
in the planning process and a good adaptive procedural policy
should govern construction in order to consider new policies
and objectives when their need becomes evident.

In conclusion, time and Space requires two major
reSponsibilities: one is recognition that information is
dated as it is collected for planning; the other is that the
solutions based on that information are for the future, when
change is the only constant. These facts require a constant
or circular approach to planning which will be the final

discussion in this chapter.

Principle of Systematic Planning

Holistic planning deals systematically with the
relationships of all components of an entity or an environ-
ment. The principle of systematic planning concerns the
methodology or procedure to deal with the empirical and
abstract elements in an environment. In a holistic planning
approach one is primarily concerned with combining and

interrelating the physical concerns with the humanistic,

177
the psychological and the philosophical concerns. In show-
ing those interrelations, one must also Show how they work
as a system or as a whole. Given the definition of a
"system" as a group of interdependent elements forming a
collective entity, it must follow that planning, as a
process, should deal systematically with all possible
variables which are important to the environment.’ White
states:

S stematic organization is encountered every-
w ere. By system we mean an aggregation of
things and events joined in interaction and
interdependence to form an integral whole.
In the physical realm systemic organization
is manifested in atoms, molecules, stars,
galaxies. The universe itself may be a
system.for ought we know. In the biological
realm cells and.multicellu1ar organisms are
systems. Associations of living beings
(societies) constitute system, and finally
there are cultural systems.34

The idea of system in this principle is to observe
planning as a whole organic unified form, that is to con-
sider the relation of the holistic approach, to an arrange-
ment of priority planning elements, which will include as
many environmental variables as possible. In this era of
automated data processing the holistic planner uses every
available electronic tool to Store and classify data as
well as to analyze and verify pertinent variables. The
immense dimensions of urbanization, modernization and

industrialization require computer data banks and computer

 

8“Leslie White, The Coppept of Cultural Systems,
New York: Columbia University Press, 1975, p. 3.

 

178

assisted decision-making for the creation of the most

effective plan for improving the quality of life.

Application of the Holistic Planning Process

 

Application of the principles of holistic planning

requires a systematic approach in order to syntheSize and

‘manage the infinite variables of human life. A sketch of

the implementation procedures of the holistic planning

process follows:

1.

To deal effectively with the multiple human
system dimensions and variables, holistic
planners need to have reliable data available
from different holistic planning or system areas.
The data should be available from one main insti-
tution ( a planning organization), which has de—
centralized offices at all governmental levels of
the nation.

The data should be computerized to permit banking
of the data, to permit systematic analysis, and
to permit simulation activities for innovative
approaches to planning.

After the analytical process is completed and
preliminary plans are designed, the planning
agencies should report their findings through the
mass media to the peOple for their reactions in
public hearings.

Representatives of the peOple who will be affected

by the planning designs should participate in the

179
decision-making process. Summaries of the
peOples' input should be included in the
implementation of a plan when it is feasible.
The holistic planning process deals with time
in continuous cyclical patterns. Previously
planning in Iran dealt with short-term (one to
seven years) planning, and long-term (twenty to
thirty years) planning. Holistic planning is
evolutionary, develOpmental and revisable as
new facts become evident due to changing condi-
tions in the villages, in the regions, and
ultimately in the nation.

Each governmental level, described earlier in this
chapter in the principle of levels and systems, must be
continuously assessed for new information. Figure 22,
Village and Regional Input and Output: Components of the
Circular Planning Process, diSplayS the village and region
as separate supersystems within the national supersystem.
Each has holistic planning that must be analyzed in order
to plan more effectively at the national level. Each pro-
vides input information that should affect the final output
or the national plan.

A concern with a subsystem or component is the time
required for planning. It depends on the values, on the
scale of universal study or on the inherent time demands of
a planning effort. For example, it takes more time to assess

the income of a nation than to assess the income of a village.

180

Figure 22
Village and Regional Input-Output

Components of the Circular Planning Process

Village Supersystem Re;ional Supers stem

    

TV - Circular Planning TR - Circular
Period Planning
Period

This exemplifies the time required in a supersystem, such
as the nation, versus a village, which is a level of a
system. The time differential is dependent upon the purpose
and intent of the study, but there are no time constraints
in the holistic planning process because of the cyclical
nature of the process. The goal is constant information
flow and utilization.

Another dimension in a holistic plan is initiating
priorities. Different societies have different priorities.
Each society has its own character and priorities. One
society may emphasize economics, while another society may
emphasize culture. Different governmental unit levels

within a nation may emphasize different values. As a result,

181
holistic planning has no Specific order. Order is inherent
in the process that emerges through the participation of
people. Priorities emerge through the desires and needs
of the peOple.

Priorities emerge with time. Priorities change with
time and may be perceived as circular periods. The entire
research takes place in different levels; for example, a
complete study of all systeme in a village level may take
place within six months but a metrOpolitan area like Tehran
needs two or three years to consider every essential plan-
ning element or dimension.

An examination of the procedure will clarify the
process. The whole procedure of action is related to the
system, subsystem, or component under Study and to the
purpose of that study. A recapitulation shows there are
six major phases in holistic planning. They consist of an
entity's social, political, psychological, economical,
cultural, and technological systems. Table 22 shows some
of the sub-systems of the six systems.

Phase I is the economic system.. In the economic
system there are four major subsystems. They are natural
resources, manpower, expenditures, and extra factors, each
of which has several components.

Phase II of holistic planning is the political system
which consists of three major subsystems. The subsystems
are the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The
fate of the entire nation rests upon the decisions made by

these three entities. In the decision-making, Phase I

182

Figure 23

The Holistic Circular Planning Process
Using Housing As An Example

 

 

Phase 5

     

External
Factor

 

ECONOMY ' SOCIAL CULTURE

NR - Natural Resource Edu - Education La - Language

MP - Man Power ch - Health Reg - Religions

EXP - Expenses Im - Immigration Cu - Custom

IN - Income S.é. - Social Class Kin - Kinship
Art - Art

POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Les - Le islation Tru - Trust

Ju - Ju icial S - Security

Exe - Executive H - Hate

PO - Private Organization

35...? 2392

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184
economic components must be examined in conjunction with
Phase II to determine if law and economics are balanced. If
they are, the holistic planner may move to the next phase.
If not, steps must be taken to correct the economics or
political system.

Phase III of holistic planning is the social system
that consists of four major components. There are twelve sub-
systems adapted from the United Nations classification. The
subsystems are social Structure, stratification, education,
health, income, pOpulation, employment, public safety, housing,
leisure and recreation, immigration, social organization
status, and role. Since Phase III entities always interact
‘with Phase I and II entities, the holistic planner must
examine the relation of the components to each other. Phase
I and Phase III systems have a stronger relationship than
Phase I and.II or Phase II and III. Most of the previous
planning philosophy and solutions have been placed in these
three systems.

Phases IV’and V of holistic planning are cultural
system and psychological system.and are the most important
phases of the process. Economic planning Should take into
consideration the impact of these two phases on the pOpulation.
The cultural and psychological variable elements are illus-
trated and examined in a case study presented in the next
chapter. The subsystem and components all interact with
other components as explained earlier.

Phase VI of holistic planning is the technical system

that plans for instruments, tools, machines, and methodologies

185
to improve the urban community. This phase is utilization
of data information analysis and.integration of the docu-
ments which come from all of the other phases. It requires
evaluation and feedback. It strives to match the ideology
of the peOple. Any final decisions by planners Should

serve the peOple. Figure 24 shows the process.

Figure 24

Holistic Planning Evaluation and Feedback Process

Expert ConsultaEE)

The change is always adaptive. The advantage of this cycli-

 
 
  

 

cal process is that the input is data and the final output
is the basis for implementation efforts. The supersystem
requires time for considering its consolidations in a
circular model. It must not be assumed that such a super-
system plan may be completely consolidated by one agency or
by one ministry, but it has to be implemented by a new

combination of institutions.

Summary

Chapter IV presents the theory of holistic environ-
mental planning. It is an attempt to systematically and
effectively deal with the complexities of a human social
order within a given environment in order to improve the

quality of life. Man's evolutionary movement from the

186
simple to the complex in his social environment serves as
the conceptual framework for presentation of a range of
planning definitions. The five fundamental principles of
holistic planning provide the bases for the description
of the application of the holistic planning process.

Chapter V is a case study of the village level
supersystem.which is a significant element in the holistic
environmental planning approach to national planning for
Iran. The village of Ahmadabad is one example of the 55,000
Iranian villages that are the heritage of years of hard work
by the innocent villagers. Ahmadabad is a sample of the
challenge of nature and the people who build all the excel-
lent human values with empty hands. Ahmadabad was selected
randomly as a case study, but according to the author's
knowledge and observation there are thousands of better or
more worthy situations in the whole nation which are at
variance with their natural locations. This village is
average. It is reasonable to portray villages in this
theory, and after considering national planning to end up

at the village level.

CHAPTER V
Ahmadabad - A Descriptive Study

Introduction

Ahmadabad will serve as the focus for the application
of the holistic planning theory. It is a microcosm of the
nation's villages because it is similar to approximately
55,000 other villages in Iran. It was randomly selected
from a list of villages within a 150 mile radius of Tehran.

Ahmadabad is located in Zone 3, a semi-desert region
126 kilometers south of Tehran and 6 kilometers east of
Saveh. It is also a neighbor to several surrounding villages

accessed by a dirt road.

Figure 25

I’M

Gazvin ID é?’
~\\\“.Zéé%%'ehran

 

’ A“,

0 ,m ZONE 3 / \
187 r

188
Historical Background

Ahmadabad is over four-hundred years old. Ahmadabad
was a possession of a landowner. He was forced during the
land reform.era to give one-half of his land to the permanent
village residents. Since only half of the land remained in
the owner's possession, agricultural production was no longer
profitable; marketing in another city (an option available
to a wealthy man) was more profitable, so the land was left
to lie fallow. The status or relationship of the villager
to the landowner changed from that of serf (or rayat) to
master to that of coerced cOOperatives.

The landowners responded by attempting to oppress the
villagers. The villagers no longer had the landowners to
subsidize agricultural production needs, such as buying seeds
or machinery, loaning money, or providing the necessary repairs
to the irrigation systems (called Qanat).

In villages where economic survival has depended on
agricultural production, animal husbandry, and handcrafts
(including ceramics and carpets), the recent high priorities
granted to national industrialization have had a severe im:
pact. There have been immense investments on a national
scale in industrialization for land areas and factories.

This has increased the price of land, forced village
migration to urban areas, and attracted the young male
villagers to serve as laborers in factories. These occur-
rences have reduced the menpower in the village and left
children and the elderly to carry on.

Thus Ahmadabad is a declining village because its

189

two strengths of agricultural production and manpower have
been eroded. Agricultural production of dry wheat and
pomegranates has declined because of the scarcity of water
and because its manpower has been drained off to the
factories.

Modernization in the urban areas, as evidenced by
technological improvements, such as electricity, central
plumbing, schools and parks, has attracted families away from

the village to the larger urban areas.

Figure 26
A Typical Environmental Perspective of Ahmadabad

 

190
The Agrarian Village Physical Pattern

During the last decade a river and ganat flowed through
Ahmedabad, but recently both dried up. The village prOper is‘
surrounded by the farmlands of dry wheat and pomegranate
orchards as well as by the grazing lands of the two distinct
pOpulations of the village.

The old section of the village belongs to the farmer
with a long history of village living. The village consists
of very narrow arterial shaped passageways connecting
characteristic old, traditional Iranian houses. The irregular
pattern of the village reflects the protective function and
the agricultural activities of the peasant farmers. There
is no distinctive geometric pattern to the design of the
passageways nor to the location of the houses. Homes have
been constructed for family, friendship, relations, conven-
ience, and occupation.

A farmer's house is usually two stories high for
functional purposes. The height has a psychological-
protective function. The height allows him to watch his
orchards and fields. It also permits a pleasing breeze to.
cool his terrace.

The rooms of the house serve several purposes. One
room is used as a kitchen, living room, dining room, guest
room, or bedroom. Usually there are two to four rooms in
the house, depending on the economic level of the farmer.

The only separate Space in the house is one storage room for

housing the farmer's tools, for milking animals or donkeys,

191

Figure 27
Ahmadabad Site Plan

 

   

N

l-Old Pattern
2-Shahsavan Pattern
3-Pomegranate
4-Dirt Road

5-Main Square

   

and for storing fuel (usually wood), as well as for pre-
serving food for winter.

Each house has a courtyard with specific functions.
It is used for water storage, animal storage, and toilet
functions. The toilet accommodates basic needs. It is
placed in the courtyard so the wind will blow noxious odors
away from the house. Trees and flowers are planted for
functional and aesthetic purposes. The trees provide shade
and circulate the cool breezes.

The architectural structure of the homes and streets
is complicated, but purposeful. The houses are like a puzzle

to outsiders, but the intent of the people who built them was

192
protective. The houses are also designed to protect against
the forces of recurrent natural disasters, such as sand
storms, earthquakes and other climatic weather conditions.
'Walls are built high to provide privacy and shade from the
intense sun.

Thus, irregular protective village passageways,
family patterns, and occupations influence the village's
physical form. One additional physical pattern, culturally
based in the religious subsystem» is the orientation of
house structures. All houses face and the windows open in
two directions: south because of Mecca, the holy city of
Islam, which is the focus of religious belief of all Mosleme;
and east because of the Meshad burial site of Emam Reza,
eighth Emam of the Shi'a sect. Fortunately, this exposure

allows the sun to shine light into the houses.

Social Structure

The social organization of Ahmadabad reflects the
fundamental social relationships, economic abilities, and
geographical conditions of Iranian villages. These three
factors are basic considerations in holistic planning. Most
of the Iranian villages were developed during the ancient
feudal system. Many villages are still located in the areas
designated by a former feudal lord (khan). Primitive produc-
tion techniques are still practiced.

Social structure in the village is based upon cooper-
ative collectivism. Irrigation as a means of economic

survival evidences the combined efforts of the villagers.

193

Ownership of neighboring lands (the rule of Nasgh) by a

group of peOple requires that they work cOOperatively to

irrigate the land. Each owner has some responsibility during

the semi-weekly water distributions (called abyari) as

follows:

1.

One person will guide the stream of water
from the river or Qanat to the village.

He will prevent waste of the water by
blocking the branch Qanat with mud.

Two people from.the village will see that the
water flows through the irrigation channels,
or Qanat, to their own lands.

Another reSponsible person may not be in-
volved in the water distribution, but has

the reaponsibility for obtaining food and
drinking water for all the families.

If the irrigation channels are damaged,
destroyed, or dirty, all will work together
in collective efforts to rectify the problem.
If one of the owners cannot actively work

in any of the previously listed efforts, he
‘will pay money to the other to work in his

place or hires a substitute.

The system of irrigation benefits the community by

creating a conscious knowledge of one's responsibility to

contribute to the need and good of the village. Thus, the

scarcity of water and the need to obtain water contributes

to the strongly-organized social-economic structural system

194
of the villages of Iran as exemplified in Ahmadabad. This
system is fundamental, humanistic, and logical. Holistic
planning would develOp and adapt these villager coOperative-
collective methods to the higher social settlement patterns

throughout the Iranian nation.

POpulation Features of Ahmadabad Residents

The pOpulation of Ahmadabad is 1,485 peOple distri-
buted across 190 households around a city square. This
includes 50 landowners (farmers), 50 workers (Khoshneshin),
and 90 shepherds (Damdar). The pOpulation consists of 235
men, 230 women, and 1,020 children (500 boys and 520 girls).
There are 20 old widows and 5 widowers.

Fifty percent of the village pOpulation owns all of
the livestock. The approximate livestock pOpulation is as
follows: 2,000 sheep, 200 cows, 400 goats, 20 donkeys,

2 horses, and 600 poultry.

Shahsavand Shepherds Pattern

Located across the dry river bed and distinctly
separated from.the older farmers' village are the dwellings
of the Shahsavan. The Shahsavan were nomadic people who
wandered with their livestock and tents. They were force-
fully settled in many Iranian villages, including Ahmadabad,
by Reza Shah about fifty years ago. Their past life of
shepherding and living in tents influenced the simplicity
of gridiron patterns of their settlement design. The
passageways among the row houses are wide to allow the herds

of sheep and cows to pass. The houses are designed to

195
accommodate the extended family of the patriarchal social
order and are surrounded by high walls.- Doors open to all
members of the family. Houses of the Shahsavan are obviously
larger and different from those of the agrarian farmers
across the river bed. Parts of the single story houses are
designed to accommodate the herds of livestock. The small
garden plots help meet family food needs.

Primarily because of their occupations, the Shahsavan
are economically poorer than their farmer neighbors. The
reduction of pastures, the practice of importing sheep from
Australia, which cut into their market and the high price of
hay contribute to their psychological insecurity. These
factors, along with the unreliable natural resources of
water and grazing lands, impact their security. The quality
of their homes is lower than that of the farmers. The number
of rooms in their houses is less, although their families
tend to be larger. Frequently eight to ten peOple live in
two to three room.houses. Like the rooms in farmers' houses,
the rooms are multipurpose. The chart below is a comparison
of house size to family size of the farmers, or old pattern,

and the Shahsavan, or new pattern.

Table 23
Family Size - House Size Comparison

 

 

Number of Rooms Number of Rooms
In old Pattern In new Pattern
2 Room - 7 persons 1 Room - 5 to 7 persons
3 Room - 8 persons 2 Room - 5 to 9 persons
4 Room - 7 to 9 persons 3 Room - 8 persons and

over

 

196

The Shahsavan's residential pattern still reflects
their nomadic history. They live in their houses only
during the winter season, then they move their herds to the
mountains for pasturing in the warner seasons.

The Shahsavan practice a different branch of Islamic
religion, called the Suni. Their houses, like the farmers,
face south and the windows Open east because of sun and

wind direction.

The Familngelation

The family is the core of Iranian social life. It
is an economic unit and the center for the exchange and
preservation of traditions, culture and education. Iranian
families are patriarchal, as is evidenced in the language,
the lineage, and the use of the paternal name, and the co-
habitation of children in the paternal home. Children are
reared to be dependent upon parental assistance, and, even
after the age of maturity is attained, are prevented from
becoming self-sufficient and creative in productivity. In
the rural areas the large family still exists, although the
Iranian family is in a transitional period due to urbaniza-
tion, modernization, and.industrialization; however,

...the Persian extended family is still the most

resolute social institution existing and will
continue for years to come.

 

85Adibi, Hossein. An Analysis of the Social, Economic,

and Physical Aspects of UrbanizatiOn in Iran. United States
InternationalUniversity, Unpublished Dactoral Dissertation,
1972, p. 116.

197

The organization of a Typical Family Household can

be represented by this diagram:

Figure 28

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O A Cf A
‘ = The head of the family
A = Male

(DanFemale

Many of these generalizations are evidenced in the
families of Ahmadabad. The family organization is another
sign of the collectivism.mentioned earlier in this discussion.
In the village the head of the household takes responsibility
for every family member. As an economic unit there are male
and female domains. The father and his sons are reSponsi-
ble.for the work out of doors, such as irrigation, agri-
culture production, animal husbandry, public activities

participation, and construction and maintenance of the houses.

198

The domain of the villager women and her daughters includes
cooking, cleaning, weaving, and child rearing. The elderly
are the responsibility of the son. Figure 29 shows the
responsibilities and time consumption of the Ahmadabad
villager by sex.

The villagers seem to have an inborn respect for
nature and aesthetics. In the design of their villages
they attempt to retain the lines of nature and design gardens
admired throughout the world.

I The origin of this coOperative family economic system
is lost in the past reaches of time. In any planning effort,
the power of the family structure must be taken into consid-
eration. The holistic planning approach recognizes the
impact of the family unit upon the rest of the components of

society because of the Iranian personality.

Emigration

Like many other villages in the region, Ahmadabad is
a declining village due to lack of water for agricultural
production, unemployment, low income, migration, lack of
urban utilities, poor educational facilities, poor health
care, and.1ack of adequate recreational facilities. Many
migrate to the city in the hope for better quality of life.
The probability of a reverse of the migration trend is
virtually non-existent. The only exception to this is for
those few families with the financial means to dig deep wells.
Of all the dissoluting influences on village vitality and

viability, water is the most crucial. AS‘Will be discussed

Responsibilities
and Time
Consumption of
the Ahmadabad
Villager by Sex.

199

 

 

 

 

Figure 29
Irrigation
Working Planting
b Time Shepherding
‘ Activities Harvesting
Public Service
Adult Leisure Tea House
finale b Time Chatting
Activities Folk Story
Pray in Mosque
. Ceremonies
Family Marriage
5 Ritual Religious
Time‘
Family Party
Family Problem Solving
.,Cooking
Hashing
yAdult Working Cleaning
Female ‘, Tine Child Bearing and Hearing
Activities Pomegranate Picking
Juice Making
Weaving carpet, sewing
Dairy, Hill
Chatting
Weaving and Sewing
Leisure
P’ Time Praying
Activities
Women Special Ritual
.Family
p Ritual IP Praying
Time
Helping fathers Eboys) or
mothers girls)
Work

 

} day in School

Leisure Playing around the Village

.200
in later sections of this chapter, adequate water supply is

essential for survival in the semi-arid.environment of Ahma-

dabad.

Housing as a Social sub-System

As previously noted, house design, structure, and
construction materials in a rural settlement such as Ahmadabad
reflects close-knit family structure and strong cultural
values. The economic base for rural living is also different.
The process for constructing a house is based on the family
growth potential and patterns. The head of the household,
the father, forecasts family growth and attempts to buy
enough land for his sons' future families' homes. When the
land is purchased, a small two-room structure of sticks,
straw, and sun-dried bricks is erected in his spare time on
a segment of the land. A wall is built around the house and
the balance of the land is planted. When a son reaches
maturity and marries, another small structure is erected
contiguous to the existing paternal home. This process con-
tinues until the property is completely built. When a son
is able to be financially independent, he purchases his own
land and the cycle continues. This process is generally
practiced throughout Iranian villages. A schematic of an
Ahmadabad extended family house follows:

201

Figure 30
Khoshneshin Extended Family House

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

  

\\
Figure 31
A Typical Plan
t """" ’ l
if a.
Run» 3
' I
>door
Cow-f .VMJ/ “"
,9 1 I
__ / 2 K...» 3’,
.__/ . ?
pf
Cow-f yam! --- ‘ J
Can-tide» ’ car
33).” " ',- .-,--------,E
¢ . (sway

“--—O-0o 4‘s“

202

Rental contracting, as in urban areas, is not practiced
in Iranian villages. A new arrival in the village is permit-
ted to stay in an existing home free of charge until his own
home is built. Therefore, housing is not an income source
for the villager as it is for the urbanite. Although it is
not a source of revenue, often the house is an expensive
item in the meager budgets of the villagers. Money must be
Spent to repair and.expand the houses for growing families
as well as for animal storage.

Homes in Ahmadabad are built with such poor materials
that the probability for endurance against the elements is
limited. The temporal structure reflects the psychological
perceptions of the people. There is a distrust of nature

meinly because of the dwindling water supply.

Economics of the Village

A comparison of the urban production system with the
rural system shows a sharp contrast. The urban economic
system is an open system.with a hierarchy of dependent
relationships with differentiation of labor, production,
professions and expertise. There is also wide differentia-
tion of social, cultural, and political characteristics.

By contrast, self-sufficiency and collectivism are
the primary economic and social characteristics of Ahmadabad.
The old women are responsible for baking the bread, the old
men are reaponsible for leading the family, the young men
are responsible for strenuous activities such as irrigation

and building, and children, especially the boys, are a main

203
economic resource. The opportunities for women are very
limited. Utilizing the energy of women outside of the house
is one of the future potential resources for Iran.

At one time, according to the villagers, Ahmadabad
farmers produced 200 tons of pomegranates per year. Now the
production level is only 40 tons per year. The lack of water
for the orchards influences production. Hay and wheat are
the only other agricultural products.

The production of Ahmadabad is related to other near-
by villages through a central settlement, or market town,
called Saveh. Saveh is six kilometers from Ahmadabad. The
villagers on market day take their crafts, agricultural
products, and animals to the market at Saveh for selling.
The diagram shows the general relationship of Iranian vil-
lages to the market town that is connected to the major
urban centers.

Figure 32

Market Town and its Satellites

   

M—T = Market Town
V = Village

204

Water

water is the most important resource to the existence

of the villagers. Unfortunately, the
and sub-surface water in Ahmadabad is
water is unusable. The peOple cannot
drilling deep wells so the women have
meters to the neighboring village for
water. The only other alternative is
rains in underground concrete storage
the research field visit, the storage
struction. The villages collectively

and worked on the construction of the

only available surface
salty. Shallow well
afford the expense of
to walk about two kilo-
drinking and cooking

to collect the winter
bins. At the time of
bins were under con-
purchased the materials

project.

The location of water and.the topography of the area

affect the very placement and pattern

'ways and houses.

of the village passage-

Ahmadabad is located on a small slape so

that when the once or twice weekly water distribution occurs

there is maximum water availability throughout the village.

Since there is no piping system, there is a primitive water

guide, called a joob, that distributes water throughout the

village passageways.

This water is used for washing the

dishes, doing the laundry, bathing the children, and.watering

the animals.

Since the joob is filled with animal offal,

street dust and cast-offs, the water is polluted and contri-

butes to health problems.

Qanat System

In the villages the sole means

of irrigation is by

Qanat, an underground channel with a slight flow used for

the tranSportation of the sub-terranean waters from

205
maintenance areas to the villages. The number of these Qanats
through Iran is estimated to be 301,000 of which QyQQQ_are
out of use. Most aquaducts have been abandoned because of
the wells.

However, the use of Qanats has been a major character-
istic of the Iranian agricultural irrigation system, They
have been the most economic means of irrigation, that is
to say, these underground channels prevent the water from
evaporation. Furthermore, no technical equipment is needed
for digging the channel and nothing can destroy them except
the earthquakes or floods. Since there is no central organ-
ization to administer the use of Qanats, the peasants have
an arrangement among themeelves. The repairing of Qanats is
easy, owing to the abundant manpower in the villages. Usually
four laborers are hired to clean the Qanat. The only major
problem is the vital investment in the creation of a Qanat,
which can be done over a long Span of time, even up to 30
years or more. That is why the Qanat system has been
created by generations. The management of the distribution
of the water requires a kind of cOOperative system (collectiv-
ism) in the irrigation of the fields. This system.is ex-
tended to other activities, too.

In addition to the Qanat is vegetation, trees parti-
cularly, which are important in a semi-desert area such as
that in which Ahmadabad is located. The trees provide shade
from the sun, fruit for sustenance, and a symbol for life.

The tree often indicates a nearby water supply.

206

Social Collectivities and Structures

Public facilities and irrigation systems in the Iranian
environment are numerous. Every village has a mosque, a
place for religious rituals and.and ceremonies called
Takieh, tea houses, public ovens, underground water storage,
primitive health aid stations, public baths, public toilets,
elementary schools, paved passageways, and waterways, Most
of the facilities, purchase, construction, and maintenance

are collectively accomplished by the villagers.

System of Justice
Village justice is met out by a kind of court system

9

called "Houses of Equity,’ which were created by the ninth
point of the White Revolution of 1963. One of the purposes
of the White Revolution was to create a system.which would
diSpense justice throughout the country by improving the
working of courts and by ensuring redress of wrongs in the
quickest time possible.

According to tradition and prior to the White Revolu-
tion, the oldest man in the village judged minor diSputes
between the villagers. 'Major civil and criminal cases were
judged in the cities. The simplicity of the villagers' lives,
their strong sense of reaponsibility to their neighbors,
and their belief in devoting their life to others made such
a basic system of justice sufficient. Such poor peOple were
religiously controlled, generally emotionally calm, politi-
cally uninvolved, and technologically unaware. Most disputes

that arose requiring adjudication were concerned with pro-

blems over land boundaries.

207

The principles participating in the White Revolution
deemed it necessary to create courts to function in the vil-
lages. These primary courts would be administered by local
peOple and would deal with minor cases of misdemeanor and
diapense justice at the village level or in the local region.
By 1972 there were 5,805 Houses Of Equity functioning in
over 10,000 Iranian villages.86

A House Of Equity is composed Of five Justices

of the Peace elected from among the reputable
citizens of the villa e. They Operate under the
general supervision o the district court. The
Justices Of Peace Operate in an honorary capacity
for a three year term. They try to solve cases
on the basis of common law, but when a more
serious or complicated case is referred to them
which is out Of their jurisdiction, they refer

it to the district court.

The main features of the Houses of Equity are
as follows:

* The judges, that is, Justices of the Peace,
are not government-appointed or employed.

* The justices come from the locality.
* Litigation costs no money.

* Litigants are not forced tO leave their
work and homes to travel long distances.

* Cases are heard rapidly, especially since,
if any witnesses are required, they are
immediately available.

* Because the justices have personal knowledge
of both sides, most cases end in out-of-
court settlement.

Where the elected Justices Of the Peace are
illiterate, the local Literacy Corpsmen takes

up the duties of the court clerk and helps in
the preparation of briefs. This is yet another
manifestation of the cOOperation between members
Of the Revolutionary Corps and basic organs of
public adminis tration . 3

 

8@cho Of Iran, Iran Almanac, 1972, Tehran: Echo Of
Iran, 1972, p. 130.
37Ibid.

208
Ahmadabad's system of justice functions under a House
of Equity. The advantage Of this new system is that instead
of one headman or elder dispensing judicial decisions, there
are now five elected people carrying out that reaponsibility.
The villagers did not accept the system immediately because
the justices do not carry any legal authority.

In March 1969, the Houses Of Equity Act Of
May 8, 1965, was amended, authorizing the
Ministry of Justice to set-up circuit courts
Of equity in required areas. Number 11 of
the amended article defines the jurisdiction
Of the Houses of Equity as follows:

1. To deal with financial litigation involving
both movable and immovable prOperty, pro-
vided that the claim does not exceed
10,000 rials. ,

2. To deal with movable prOperty involving
sums up to 50,000 ria 8 subject to the
consent of both parties.

3. TO deal with family cases, such as main-
tenance of wife and children, alimony,
and other cases concerning dependents.

4. To deal with cases concerning trespassing
and unlawful occupation, and disturbances
of the peace.

In such cases, the House Of Equity usually does not

concern itself with determining the ownership Of

the prOperty. Where a case concerns ownership of

land or prOperty, or endowments, or squatting, or

a dispute between two or more villages concerqépg

land, the issue is referred to higher courts.

The Houses Of Equity are part of a system of the
National Judiciary, which is designed with several judgemental
levels. The Houses of Equity function in the rural areas,

while towns and cities are served by Arbitration Councils

 

33mm.

209

which are organized similarly to Houses of Equity. If a
case cannot be resolved at the village or city courts, it is
moved to the central supreme court in Tehran. This court

is remote from the villager. This court is unfamiliar with
villagers' mores, values, customs, problems, and boundaries.
Under these conditions the holistic planning concept would
prOpose additional levels of courts, such as the regional
and/or provincial level. These courts would function at a
higher level, but would have knowledge Of local problems.

As the market town is the economic_center for the
villager, it could serve logically as the location where all
levels Of the national judiciary court system could function
for the villages. This means that villager diSputes could
be tried and settled by the apprOpriate level of jurisdiction
at court sites in market towns, including town, city, regional,
provincial, or central supreme court. Justice would be better
met under the conditions where the illiterate villager has
redress in less stressful, more familiar and convenient court
environments. A schematic concept of interrelationships
within different court jurisdictions within a holistic court

system.oan be portrayed as follows:

210

Figure 33

Holistic Schematic Recommendation

   
 

  

NO. Of
Provincials
23

 
   
       
 

National

Supreme Court
level

     

Researcher Observations

There seems to be an observable difference in human
relationships when the Iranian villager is compared to the
Iranian urbanite.

The collective communal or public structures referred
to as social collectives earlier in this treatise represent
"holistic" activities because Of the integration of actions,
services and enterprises. Nothing in the Iranian village
is isolated or independent. The home is designed for
'multiple activities. For example, a typical pattern of
activities carried on by the occupants of a village home

'would include milking, making cheese, weaving carpets,

3

211
selling milk to neighbors and preparing for the husband's
trip to the pastures.
Further evidence of collectivism of the village is
the system of public facilities for fulfilling basic villager
needs. These form significant contributing elements in the

collectives.

Economic Limitations Of the Village System

In the rural areas the economic base is so weak that
if forces the villages to rely on each other and to maximize
interdependent actions. Their poverty, lack of resources,
dwindling water supplies, deteriorating or unobtainable
expensive lands and shrinking manpower force collectivism
as a means of survival. Some examples of these dynamics in
Ahmadabad are irrigating the land, tilling the soil, planting
the seeds, harvesting the wheat and pomegranates, baking the
bread, Obtaining materials for construction, and maintaining
the public buildings and passageways. However, the two
distinct pOpulations of Ahmadabad do not work together; they
are united in their separate areas, but their unique cultural
background influences their behavior toward each other that
is essentially peaceful co-existence.

The fast-changing contemporary economic Iranian cul-
ture impacts the entire social behavior of the villager.
Since there is little business Opportunity, the young men
emigrate, leaving the Old men and old women in the village.

By contrast, the Iranian urbanite is self-dependent

or independent. The interdependence learned in earlier

212
village life has waned through the urban workers' ability
to buy goods and services with currency, the demands Of the
industrial social order, and the sheer city size or distance
in metrOpolitan areas. The price of the increased income
and the increased Options Offered by city living is the loss
of some significant cultural values and practices.

Ahmadabad is a microcosm.of the process of social
change. As economic conditions, such as in this case, low
level of education, lack Of jobs, and lack Of health care
change,the social system is forced to change. The young men
emigrate, and, as they are exposed to new Options or alter-
natives, their cultural values change. As a result, the
physical pattern of the village changes. For example, the
tranSplanted young city workers sometimes return to the
village to help at harvest time. Their new experiences and
new expectations are shared in the village. One young man
returned to live in Ahmadabad with a new bride and with a
different concept of house style. Instead of building the
traditional arched addition to his parent‘s home, he built
an iron beam supported structure. This visible physical
evidence was one Of the observable facets of change in the

rural remote village.

213
The process of social change may be diagrammed as
follows:
Figure 34

Process of Change from Migration

 
  

Alternative
Social
Experiences

 
   
    
 
 

  
 
    
 
 

Low .
-Villager
Income

Psychologies.
Persona1-~~~-
Change

    
   
 

Stmmnargg

Land Reform was one Of the decisions made as a result
of the few government policies Of the Shah. It took a non-
holistic approach to the majority of peOple, especially
villagers.

It was observed in Ahmadabad that farmers who had
been left with land through Land Reform were without the
essential subsidy and preparation. Farmers were asked about
their problems. They complained about the lack Of water,
seeds, and tools. They were forced tO live on barren lands

and many emigrated to cities to take cheap construction jobs.

214

The lack of balance between improving urban areas
more than rural Ones was another motivation for the farmers'
‘movement to urban areas. This movement reduced agricultural
production, plus it reduced the ability of the villagers to
preserve the villages that were the architectural heritage of
the nation.

The amazing thing abOut Ahmadabad and many other
villages and cities in Iran is that they have been built up
over thousands of years with simple tools, accommodating
great natural changes in the mountains or the desert areas,
to create fantastic magrastructural architecture. Not only
are they creating architecture in harmony with their environ-
ment, but they are creating collective social activities in
their villages. These cultural values, plus tied family
relationships and kinship, can be adjusted to new phenomena
in their lives without any strange and political pressure to
these peOple. Indeed collective life is a pattern that
accommodates and accomplishes the holistic approach.

The social structural discrimination between the Shah
and the original farmer has been ineffectively considered.

It will be resolved by considering the deep cultural, econom-
ical, and social problems in the holistic approach package.

_ The fact is that time, as mentioned previously, is a very
important aSpect for changes. Cultural changes between these
two groups, and even on the national level between Turke,
Kord and Blouch, will not be reconciled until all the other

factors come under consideration.

214a

Each of the villages in Iran has different significant
characteristics that can be researched in using the holistic
method to come up with a new planning design based on the
traditional cOOperative village pattern. Some of these tra-
ditional factors, such as irrigation, family structure,
collectivism. and architectural techniques, can be preserved
and adjusted to modernization. But it should be emphasized
that any new phenomena or changes, such as new techniques or
develOpments, must serve and improve the above traditional
factors, not destroy them as the past policies did. This
will be expanded in the recommendations for the village

level.

CHAPTER VI

Summary and Recommendations

Summary

The normal environmental problems of a country always
appear worse in a developing industrial country such as Iran.
The recent phenomena of urbanization, industrialization, and
'modernization have produced prodigious and complex problems.
To moderate these, the contemporary science of planning has
been drawn upon. Unfortunately, what planning has been
utilized in Iran has had a narrow focus, based only on
economic considerations. This limited focus has caused
problems in the social, political, and cultural aSpects of
the entire nation. Although planning started with physical
and economic goals and objectives, the planning policies were
not sufficiently formulated to answer even the probleme of
the peOples' physical develOpment. Also physical planning
is difficult to apply in a country such as Iran which has
been traditionally conservative and which has accommodated
such a range of peOple and variety of geographical situations.

It is impossible to avoid the serious problems gener-
ated by the Iranian natural environment. The variety of
climates and the widespread dryness will continue to exist.
The natural resources and geographical problems, among others,
will not be solved by the currently implemented Iranian
planning programs. Neither will the problems be resolved
by the currently contemplated plans because the plans do not

encompass the physical and social needs as whole sets of

215

216
issues. The most effective way to deal with Iran's problems
is to consider the relationships between basic social needs
and values. Only activities directed towards fulfilling the
range of human needs through coordination of the programs of
the fields of urban planning, social planning, and economic
planning will succeed because the needs they address overlap
and impact each other. Confusion results when the planner of
one mode ignores the need for a comprehensive scOpe with
syncronization and coordination of the component elements of
the overall planning process. Such an oversight occurred with
the five national plans previously implemented in Iran; there
‘was a lack of coordination of the basic planning components
‘with varying Objectives. Each government ministry or depart-
ment acted independently, with the result that none of these
plans succeeded in fulfilling all of the stated aims or Ob-
jectives. Cole summarized the resolution of the problem in
his discussion of integrated planning:

At the national level of overnment, successive
urban develOpment plans 8 ould embody a measure
of continuity sufficient to enable sub-national
governments, including city or local governments
as well as regional or provincial governments,

to produce plans which are compatible with over-
all national Objectives. At the same time, urban
develOpment plans at all levels should constantly
be reviewed.and amended in the light of current
research into demographic, social, economic and
technological chan es in cit life and rowth.
And while towns ang cities sgould be wi ling to
perform the economic and social roles which are
considered.necessary from.the national and region-
al standpoints, they should be permitted to take
part in the formulation of national and regional
plans of direct concern to them, and be assisted
administratively and financially to perform their
allotted roles.

217

It follows that olicies and plans for urban
development should be fully coordinated with
policies for national develOpment; that physical
planning (which in the past has tended to dominate
the Sphere of urban development) should be inte-
grated with economic planning (which has tended
to dominate the sphere of national develOpment);
and.that, at all levels of government, develOpment
plans should be expressed geographically in terms
of economic activities, and socialgy in terms of
peOple and social infrastructure.8
Thus the major planning problem in Iran is the lack
of a comprehensive coordinated planning policy. The holistic
planning approach is one means of addressing the Iranian

problem.

Recommendations
Based on the previous discussions and conclusions,
several strong recommendations are in order for the develOp-
ment of a comprehensive plan process for national and local
environments for meeting the crucial needs of develOpmental
requirements.
1. Since Iran functions under the direction of
twelve different ministries; and.each has a
responsibility for planning national programs
and projects; which.meny times overlap, it is
recommended that a new national planning organ-
ization be created to coordinate all activities
at all levels and to be reSponsible for gathering
research data for the holistic approach to plan-
ning. National level planning is an articulated

and coordinated approach with the provincial,

 

8’gH'arry James Cole, "Integrated MetrOpolitan DevelOpment
in Brazil,‘ Urbanization in Develo in Countries, The Hague,

Netherlands: artinus c or t e Intern ti
Local Authorities, 1968, pp. 166-167 a onal Union Of

218
regional, city or town, and village level. This
organization would also be responsible for tab-
ulation, storage and retrieval of all national,
regional, urban and rural develOpment information
so that all levels of government, whether provin-
cial, regional, city, town or village would have
access to that information.
Since the peOple of Iran are those who must live
with the national plan, it is recommended that a
commission or system be created which will provide
for the systematic participation of the representa-
tives of the province, region, city, town, and
village. These representatives will be reSponsible
for representing the voice of the peOple in de-
signing program decisions and implementation
approaches based on holistic planning concepts.
The final decision must be announced to the peOple
and voted on by the majority of the peOple. If
the plan is accepted by the majority, it should be
implemented by the executive agencies. If the
plan is rejected, revision of the process must be
carried out until it is acceptable to the peOple.
The planning agencies should have the political
power enabling the participants to act upon the
jointly designed holistic national plan which has
been formulated by representatives for all levels
of the national system. The Iranian Laws should

provide for decision making at the regional,

219

provincial, city, and village levels. It should
provide for a provincial planning agency, a
regional planning agency, a city or town planning
agency, and a village planning agency with an
organizational coordination under the national
planning organization agency. These lower agencies
must have their own legal boundaries of political
and economic power with mutual interrelation with
the upper levels of the planning hierarchy. Since
the holistic plan has been designed by the peOple's
representatives, it is assumed that no politician,
agency, or other power will tamper or reshape the

final decision develOped through the whole process.

Economic. System Recommendations

In order to control inflation, the total national
economic policy must include an emphasis on agriculture.
This will make the country more self-reliant by utilizing a
greater portion of rural manpower. Along with subsidy Of the
industrially produced cars there must be a greater subsidy
of the agricultural effort. This assumes a revised percep-
tion of the place and contribution of women and children to
the nation's manpower supply. The holistic planning approach
recommends decentralization of pOpulation in order to provide
greater access to natural resources, and in order to amelior-
ate urban congestion. The urban congestion has been one of
the major contributors to inflation because of the concen-
trated demands for goods and services, such as food and

housing. The planning policy should include a renewed

220
emphasis on agricultural production and animal husbandry
in order to increase the food and fiber supply.

A more equitable distribution of the wealth of the
nation to the majority of the peOple would be the recommenda-
tion based on this research. The prOposal of the Fifth
National Plan still needs to be carried out. Some of the
‘ways this could be improved would be expanding national
health insurance, increasing the wages of the agricultural
and industrial workers, expanding educational Opportunity,
and expanding technical skill training. Trial implementation
of recommendations must be experimentally tested in some
villages before proceeding across the nation.

In summary, this process of economic refOrm should
include distribution of co-political power across all class
structures and national planning. The latter is based on
good research processes, including data and the experimental
approach in which planning recommendations are applied,
tested, and evaluated in a few laboratory areas before
becoming part of a total national plan. The holistic
circular planning chart on page 182 provides the process in
which any problemumay be tested.

The needs of the peOple of each social level must be
taken into consideration in designing employment Opportuni-
ties. The agricultural workers, the industrial workers,
and the mineral workers have different aSpirations, needs and
desires which have to be considered within the framework of

the holistic approach.

221
All of these problems, policies, and programs must
be examined, analyzed, and resolved in conjunction with the

other phenomena of the Iranian society.

Housinngecommendations

The estimate that there are ten peOple for every
residential unit in Iran indicates a considerable housing
problem, It is recommended that an experimental program be
established to utilize rural manpower by encouraging workers
with free housing in exchange for rural building. The man-
power exists; it simply needs to be recruited, trained and
supplied. The houses built would more fully meet the cultural
values, expectations, and needs of the villagers than those
designed by architects and construction contractors in
isolation. This approach will also be included in the total
process. One of the severe problems in Iran is the lack of
building materials due to rapid pOpulation centralization and
concentration. Decentralization would eliminate this pro-
blem, The designing process would provide for the artist,
architect, and planner to travel to the people and to
communicate with the peOple, to advise the peOple, and to
plan with the peOple. This would prevent the occurrence of
serious difficulties, such as one problem experienced by
the author in which a housing project had been built for an
earthquake torn village. Upon completion of the housing,
which had been designed by a government-appointed architect,
the peOple refused to live in the develOpment. The villagers
explained to the author - that the rooms were too high and

could not be heated by the only means available to the

222
villagers. The villagers also said that they were not
accustomed to living in houses of the shape and form of the

new houses.

Social System Recommendations
Since most health support personnel and facilities are

concentrated in Iran's urban areas, it is essential that more
and greater national subsidies be provided for the education
of health professionals and for the building of health care
facilities and clinics be dispersed across the nation. This
concept must be designed in short-term and long-term planning
programs. Since illiteracy is still a major national pro-
blem, the Ministry of Education must coordinate planning at
all levels with the other Ministries. Curricula, personnel
develOpment and facilities must be designed to meet the
contemporary educational needs of the peOple while still
‘maintaining their cultural values and traditions. Every
level of schools must be distributed about the nation. The
form of school and university architecture must be planned
to support and advance the educational function and to
'maximize national learning.
A. Public Safety Components

Public safety must still be carefully addressed in Iran.

The holistic planning approach recommends considering

the need for fire safety support, emergency medical

support and survival techniques from earthquakes,

flooding, and other natural disasters. There must be

national appropriations and allocations to predict,

223
preplan, and renovate areas where local disaster brings
deSpair. Mest of the villages are faced with drought
and plagued with multiple related problems. Disease,
poverty, and natural destruction must be systematically
resolved. A national level planning agency would
develOp a system of facilities, equipment, and skilled
personnel for containing the negative impact of natural
and manmade disasters.
Government Management Recommendations
Implicit in all of the recommendations is the need for
a national bureaucratic system that serves the peOple
more efficiently, effectively, and adequately. Such
an organization must be adaptable, flexible, and.re-
newable as human needs emerge and evolve.

The organization system of Iran must be develOped in
relation to Iran's own unique characteristics. Knowledge
and culture must control the hierarchy develOped. The
national design may best be a combination of Herber's
bureaucratic theory and Marx's controlled biological
behavior concepts.

One of the points of the White Revolution was bureau-
cratic change. Part of the plan was to bring young new
ideas and young new personnel into the governmental
system, Some of the inherent probleme were the lack of
knowledge of these young bureaucrats, the dishonesty of
some, and the general lack of control over the actions of

all bureaucrats. Furthermore, the management organization

224
was not designed by the peOple for whom it was created to
serve.

The Constitution of Iran must be reSpected. The new
White Revolution must be revised by the peOple and
adapted piecemeal to action. The holistic planning and
its process must have enough authority to be able to
implement their goals across the Ministries. Planning
has three criteria: expertise in each area of the holis-
tic system, the ministries of each area, and the parti-
cipant in determining the distribution of budgetary
allocations. Prediction of the future for the Sixth
National Plan has to be based on more cultural and
psychological aSpects of the peOple as well as on the
insufficiencies identified in earlier plans. Finally,
the planning agencies must be decentralized from Tehran
to the different areas of the nation with careful
coordination of all agency efforts. Use of the computer
system to facilitate the planning would reduce errors
and maximize the prediction of the interaction of
variables.

Migration Control as Social Components

Immigration is a problem in Iran as it is for nearly all
Third WOrld nations because of modernization, urbanization
and industrialization. The rush of rural peOples to

urban centers for better paid jobs has caused over-
crowding ultimately resulting in many slum and ghetto

areas. The answer to this problem should be sought in

225
a more equitable distribution of wealth across the nation.
The holistic planning approach recommends that areas with
the potential for develOpment should have a concentration
of natural resources in order to develop light industry,
agriculture, and handcrafts, in order to retain the
villagers in their own environments.

Related to this approach there should be assistance
in family planning. This help should strengthen the
family network rather than weaken it. Thus the very
foundation of the nation's stability, the family struc-
ture, will not be eroded.

It is further recommended that more recreational and
business facilities be developed in the villages instead
of creating and designing parks and buildings in already
too congested Tehran. It would be better to spend less
and develOp village facilities than to spend more and

contribute to further a city congestion.

Cultural System Recommendations

A.

Religion

Cultural values must be carefully considered in planning

since culture overlaps every dimension of social order.

Planning must prevent the alienation of people. Planning

‘must bridge the gap between modern industrialization

and the traditional and cultural values of the society.
It is recommended that any change must be slowly

implemented through the educational process. Religious

rules, laws, and moral principles dominate the thinking

225

of meny peOple. Only education can reduce the inherent
conflict between modernization and religion. The posi-
tive facets of religion and the principles of Islam,
such as equality, friendship and honesty, have to be
strongly emphasized in the planning-educational process.
Religion is important because many cultural values are
steeped in religious phiIOSOphy. Therefore, the Islamic
soholar-philoSOpher must work with the planner so that
mutual adaptation may be integral to environmental
design for Iranian people.
Language
Since there are so many languages and dialects in Iran's
different geographical regions, it is recommended that
there be a greater emphasis on teaching Farsi, the
national language. This will ease mobility, promote
solidarity and further nationalism, At the same time,
local languages and dialects must be preserved.
Mass Media
Mass Media in Iran has emphasized western values and
culture in their productions, in both print and broad-
cast media. It is recommended that Iranian culture be
emphasized instead in these productions. Iranian family
traditions, Persian art and literature, Persian values
and culture, should be the educational themes of mass
'media productions.

The printed media must expand the scOpe of editorial
allowances to include the variety of the voices of the

peOple. Newspapers best serve when they are the in-

227
strument of communication of all of the nation' issues
whether they be negative or positive.

D. Conservation and Preservation of Environments
Preservation planning is recommended in order to retain
the physical environments of old cities. Municipal
building plans should be functional yet retain the
traditional architectural patterns. This includes
blending the new and the old in-terms of texture, color,

etc.

Political System Recommendations

Since Iranian political policies, decisions, and laws
strongly impact every facet of the society, it is recommended
that political activities be carefully adapted and coordinated
with the other social phenomena in order to maximize the .
develOpment of the Iranian peOple and nation. The recommend-
ations of the White Revolution should be re-examined and
revised with the input of the peOple. For example, the House
of Equity should be studied, its organizational structure
evaluated, and its effect upon the peOple measured to deter-
mine the Optimum approach to restructure it.
A. Recommendations for Human Values/Human Development

Since psychological phenomena are basic elements to the

individual, and thus to the society, planning must be

concerned with more than the physical environment. In

order to prevent psychological-social complexes, re-

search is needed on the dimensions of the educational

228

elements which shape and mold the personality, perSpec-
tives, and programs of the peOple. Efforts must be
implemented to generate trust among the peOple and
their institutions. This is one area that requires
considerable expertise and must become an integral
concern of the Iranian environmental planner.
Natural Resources Recommendations
Since the historical preoccupation of the Iranian people
has been a struggle with nature and natural disasters;
i.e. concern with the lack of water, lack of minerals,
earthquakes, etc., it is recommended that a new survey
be conducted to assess accurately the water and.mineral
capacity. The utilization of these waters, minerals,
lands, etc., should be scheduled for maximum return
over a long-term period as opposed to the current short-
term return based on the exploitation-profit motive.
FOr example, oil is a major source of national income;
its use should be considered and planned by more than
just one agency.

Another example is the need to study the tOpography
of the land, the natural resources of the areas, and the
existing Structure to determine the Optimum location of

towns and villages.

Physical Recommendations

It has been assumed that geographical and physical

phenomena are strongly interrelated with the nation's

economic system; however, for ease of discussion they have

been approached as separate categories. Holistic planning

229
attempts to address itself to all entities of the environment.
Physical aSpects are the final result of all of the previous
facets of society. Physical planning deals with buildings,
tranSportation, land use, etc., and should be the final
integration of social, economic, psychological, and techno-
logical phenomena in order to create the most suitable Iran-
ian environment. It is recommended that more energies and
resources be concentrated in collecting data and information
prior to decision making-implementation activities especial-
ly at the village level. For example, utilization of better
building materials and better building criteria for villager
homes would improve the peOple's lives.

Some of the planning instruments, such as zoning, have
been adapted to Iranian municipalities. It is recommended
that this practice be carefully examined for its impact upon
the villagers. For example, the multi-purpose use of the
home in Ahmadabad would be eliminated or prohibited if
zoning ordinances were implemented in that community. Further,
it is recommended that governmental physical develOpment cri-
teria, standards, rules, and regulations be reviewed and
revised according to the holistic planning philOSOphy.

It is essential that a more equitable balance be achieved
between distribution of resources across village and city
facilities. There must be greater national support for
public services for libraries, recreation facilities, san-
itary facilities, utilities, sewerage systems, etc., in the

nation's villages. Parallel to this there must be systematic

230

education of the peOple in utilizing these facilities. The

peOple must participate in national planning efforts.

Recommendations for Further Research

Several questions were raised by this study which could

serve as the foundation for further research. The findings

of this study would be supplemented if research were con-

ducted in the following areas:

1.

Since the holistic approach suggests comprehensive
collective participatory planning, further integra-
tive procedures need to be designed, refined and
tested in Iran and other develOping countries or
environments.

Planning in Iran and other nations must be carefully
examined in order to further examine the impact of
technology upon culture and human values. Environ-
mental planners need to provide for the cultural
dimension of human society.

Further data must be collected and analyzed concerning
the psychological dimensions in environmental plan-
ning. A methodology must be develOped for inte-
grating psychological variables with other social,
political, psychical, economic, cultural and
technological variables.

Since quantitative variables are more readily
assessed in planning, further research is needed

to assess the qualitative dimensions of human

reactions to the planned environment.

231
In order to develOp the optimum.planning structure
‘which will maximize the use of human and material
resources, research is needed to test the holistic
planning theory. For example, the restructure of
the Iranian planning organization needs to be
researched for the evaluation of the ramifications
of a supra-planning structure for all levels of the

Iranian environment.

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