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RELATIONSHIP OF HUSBAND/WIFE ECOCONSCIOUSNESS
VALUE TO DIRECT HOUSEHOLD

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

BY

Nancy Hungerford

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Family Ecology

1978

ABSTRACT

RELATIONSHIP OF HUSBAND/WIFE ECOCONSCIOUSNESS
VALUE TO DIRECT HOUSEHOLD
ENERGY CONSUMPTION

BY

Nancy Hungerford

The basic premise underlying this study was that
values have a directive impact on family managerial
behavior. Conservation of energy resources was viewed
as critical to the survival of society and to a satisfy-
ing life for families. The purpose of the research was
to examine the linkages between the ecoconsciousness value,
that perception of the interlinking of people and nature,
and residential energy consumption. Congruency of husband-
wife commitment to the ecoconsciousness value and con-
textual factors were explored in relation to energy
consumption.

Longitudinal data were obtained in surveys con-
ducted in 1974 and 1976 by researchers for the Michigan
Agricultural Experiment Station project, "Functioning of
the Family Ecosystem in a World of Changing Energy Avail-
ability." With families' permissions, energy consumption

data for 1973 to 1976 were obtained from utility companies

Nancy Hungerford

and converted to a common unit of measurement, the British
Thermal Unit (BTU). Sixty families with complete energy
consumption data and complete survey data for both spouses
were selected for the study. Families in the sample were
affluent and well educated. Most had children in the
home. Half of the husbands and half of the wives were
over 45 years of age.

Husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness measures
were adapted from Likert-type scales included in the
larger project's survey instruments. Scores on the six-
item 1974 scale and on the eight-item 1976 scale were
standardized for purposes of comparison. Absolute change
in ecoconsciousness was obtained by subtracting 1974
from 1976 standardized scores.

A family typology of husband-wife commitment to
ecoconsciousness was developed by assigning each spouse
a high, medium or low commitment level. The result was
nine intra-familial patterns ranging from a husband-high
and wife-high pattern to a husband-low and wife-low
pattern. Congruent patterns were those in which both
spouses had similar commitment levels.

The behavioral, technological and demographic
contextual variables investigated included belief in the
energy crisis, family effectiveness, education and employ-
ment of husbands and wives, and the presence of insulation
in ceilings and/or walls, number of people, family income

and number of rooms in the house.

Nancy Hungerford

A high level of commitment to ecoconsciousness
in 1976 by at least one spouse was associated with a
large (12%) and important (-26.11 million BTUs) reduction
in energy use. Low commitment to ecoconsciousness by
husbands appeared to be related to small reductions in
energy consumption between 1974 and 1976.

Changes in the ecoconsciousness value made by
husbands and wives between 1974 and 1976 were negatively
related to the 1976 level of energy consumption. Wives'
value change had a greater impact on level of consumption
than did husbands' value change.

Added together husbands' and wives' changes in
ecoconsciousness were not related to changes in resi-
dential energy consumption from 1974 to 1976. An increase
in ecoconsciousness by husbands was associated with
either a small reduction or an increase in energy con-
sumption.

Congruency of husband-wife ecoconsciousness com-
mitment level did not appear to have an impact on resi-
dential energy consumption patterns. Those couples who
increased ecoconsciousness, compared to those who
decreased, had lower levels of consumption in both 1974
and 1976.

The relationships among contextual variables that
impact on residential energy consumption have shifted

between 1974 and 1976. Belief in the energy crisis and

Nancy Hungerford

ecoconsciousness were not clustered together for husbands
and wives in 1974, but in 1976 they seemed to be con-
verging.

Based on the findings, it appears that the linkage
of values and resource use in families is complex. There
was support for believing that values alone do not direct
behavior; rather a reciprocal relationship between value
change and resource use appeared to be occurring.

It was recommended that further research on value-
resource linkages be conducted in areas of energy use
other than residential, over longer time periods and with
contrasting levels of family affluence. Alternative
research methodologies such as experimental and partici-
pant observation were suggested for further understanding

the ecoconsciousness value and its links to resource use.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to many people who contributed in
many ways to the quality of my graduate program. Because
of their supportiveness and unselfish sharing of ideas,
pursuing the Ph.D. has been a pleasant and broadening
experience.

Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, chairperson of the guidance
committee and research director, provided inspiration
and enthusiasm as well as countless hours of guidance
in developing and implementing the study. Her profes-
sional and personal assistance has meant a great deal to
me.

Dr. Peter Gladhart and Dr. Mary Andrews were
unfailingly supportive. They patiently taught me com-
puting skills and analysis techniques. Their familiarity
with the data and their insights were invaluable.

Hours of statistical assistance were generously
given by Dr. Patricia Busk. Her encouragement and helpful
comments on several drafts of the manuscript were truly

appreciated.

ii

Dr. Margaret Bubolz and Dr. Collette Moser con-
tributed helpful ideas in developing the program of study
and the research. I am grateful for their support and
encouragement.

In addition to these special people, my friends,
family and colleagues at Michigan State University and
at Colorado State University have been unselfish with
their time and support. Their thoughtfulness and consid-

eration have helped me complete a challenging endeavor.

iii

I.

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study. . . .
Conceptual Framework. . . .

Assumptions. . . . . . .
Limitations. . . . . . .
Definitions. . . . . . .

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . .

Residential Energy Use . . .
Values and Resources in Family
Making. . . .

Values and Value Patterns . .

Decision

Values and Resource Use and Behavior

Value-Resource Linkages. . .
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . .
Data Collection Procedures. .
The Sample . . . . . . .
Research Subsample . . . .

Subsample Selection . . .
Description of Subsample. .

Measurement 0 O O O O O 0

Energy Consumption Variables
Value Variables. . . . .

Behavioral Contextual Variables
Technological Contextual Variables
Demographic Contextual Variables .

Data Analysis Procedures . .
FINDINGS O O O O O O O O

Hypotheses Tested. . .

Assumptions for Statistical Models

Results of Hypothesis Testing.

iv

Page

l-‘

OKOkDU'l-b

ll

19
22
30
34

37

37
39
43

43
46

52

53
56
63
71
72

73
77
77

79
82

Consumption Levels, 1973-74 and
1975-76 . . . . . . . . . .
Commitment to Ecoconsciousness . .
Change in Ecoconsciousness, 1974-76
Congruency of Husband-Wife Commitment
to Ecoconsciousness . . . . . .
Patterns of Husband-Wife Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness . . . . . .
Contextual Factors, Ecoconsciousness
and Energy Consumption . . . .

Summary of Hypotheses Testing . . . .
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . .
Summary of Findings . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . .

Implications. . . . . . . . . .

Research . . . . . . .
Education . . . . . . .

APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A. CONSUMPTION VARIABLES . . . .

B. SAMPLE SELECTION AND ESTIMATION OF
DATA . C O O C C C O O

C. ECOCONSCIOUSNESS VALUE SCALES. .
D. FAMILY EFFECTIVENESS SCALES . .

E. STRESS MEASURE (CRISIS 76). . .

MISSING

F. SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS AND REGRESSION

TABLES O O O O O O O O O

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . .

Page

82
85
88
96
97
124
128
133
133
137
139
145

145
148

149

152
155
158

160

161

175

LI ST OF TABLES
Table Page

1. Family Energy Project Sample Comparisons,
1974, 1976 and Research Subsample . . . . 42

2. Selected Household Characteristics: 1976
Family Energy Project Sample and Research
Subsample (Lansing, Michigan, 1976) . . . 47

3. Selected Characteristics of Respondents for
Family Energy Project Sample in 1976
and the Research Subsample (Lansing,
Michigan, 1976) . . . . . . . . . . 48

4. Selected Characteristics of Dwelling Units
for Family Energy Project Sample in 1976
and the Research Subsample (Lansing,
Michigan, 1976) . . . . . . . . . . 49

5. Families with Energy Conserving Features,
1976 and Families Reporting Addition of
Energy Conserving Features, 1974-76 (N=60) . 52

6. Descriptive Data for the Ecoconsciousness
Measures in 1974 and 1976 for Husbands and
Wives (N=60) . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7. Scores Included in Each Level of Ecocon-
sciousness Commitment, Husbands and
Wives, 1974 and 1976 . . . . . . . . 61

8. Number of Couples in Each Pattern of Con-
gruency and Commitment to Ecoconsciousness
Values, 1974 and 1976 . . . . . . . . 61

9. Husbands' and Wives' Family Effectiveness,
1974 and 1976 (N=60) . . . . . . . . 65

10. Levels of Stress Experienced in 1975-76
(N=60) o o o o o o o o o o o o o 68

11. Responses to Belief in the Energy Crisis for
1974 and 1976 (N=60) . . . . . . . . 69

vi

Table

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Page

Reported Adoption and Increase of Household
Energy Conserving Practices, 1976 (N=60) . . 70

Employment Status of Husbands and Wives in
1974 and 1976 (N=60). . . . . . . . . 74

Number of Persons in the Household in 1974
and 1976 (N=60) . . . . . . . . . . 74

Results for T-Test of Difference between
Annual Means of Millions of BTUs Consumed
for 1973-74 and 1975-76 (N=60) . . . . . 83

Results of T-Test for Difference between
Annual Means of Millions of BTUs Consumed
in Natural Gas, Fuel Oil and Electricity
in 1973-74 and 1975-76 . . . . . . . . 84

Levels of Husbands' and Wives' Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness in 1974 and 1976 (N=60) . . 86

Changes in Husbands' and Wives' Levels of Com-
mitment to Ecoconsciousness, 1974 to 1976
(N=60) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Results for T-Tests on Differences in Means of
Annual Consumption (1974-76) for Husbands
and/or Wives Who Had High Ecoconsciousness
Commitment in 1974 . . . . . . . . . 89

Results of T-Test on Differences in Means of
Annual Consumption (1974-76) for Husbands
and/or Wives Who Had High Ecoconsciousness
Commitment in 1976 . . . . . . . . . 90

Mean Consumption Levels for Those with Low
and High Ecoconsciousness Commitment in
1974 and 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Results of Regression Analysis with Change in
Energy Consumption 1974-76 as the Dependent
Variable and Change (1974-76) in Husbands
and/or Wives Ecoconsciousness as Indepen-
dent Variable (N=60). . . . . . . . . 93

Results of Regression Analysis for 1976 Level
of Energy Consumption as Dependent Variable
and Change (1974-76) in Husbands and/or
Wives Ecoconsciousness as Independent
Variable (N=60) . . . . . . . . . . 95

vii

Table

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Page

Difference in 1974 and 1976 Congruency of
Husband-Wife Ecoconsciousness Values
(N=60) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Shifts Made by Husbands, Wives and Couples in
Patterns of Congruency in Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness (1974-76) (N=60) . . . . 98

Type of Shift Made by Husbands, Wives and
Couples in Patterns of Congruency in Com-
mitment to Ecoconsciousness (1974-76). . . 99

Types of Changes in Congruency of Value
Patterns Made by Couples (N=60). . . . . 99

Results for the Regression Analysis with
Change in Consumption (1974-76) as the
Dependent Variable and 1974 Congruency
and Incongruency of Husbands' and Wives'
Commitment to Ecoconsciousness as the
Independent Variables (N=60). . . . . . 102

Results for the Regression Analysis with
Change in Consumption (1974-76) as the
Dependent Variable and 1976 Congruency
and Incongruency of Husbands' and Wives'
Commitment to Ecoconsciousness as the
Independent Variables (N=60). . . . . . 103

Results of the Regression Analysis with
1976 Level of Consumption as the Depen-
dent Variable and 1974 Congruency and
Incongruency of Husbands' and Wives'
Commitment to Ecoconsciousness as the
Independent Variables (N=60). . . . . . 104

Results of the Regression Analysis with 1976
Level of Consumption as the Dependent
Variable and 1976 Congruency and Incon-
gruency of Husbands' and Wives' Commitment
to Ecoconsciousness as the Independent
Variables (N=60). . . . . . . . . . 105

Results for the One-Way Analysis of Variance

of Change in Consumption for 1974-76

(N=59) o o o o o o o o o o o o o 107
Results for the One-Way Analysis of Variance

of 1976 Level of Consumption (N=59) . . . 108

viii

Table

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Page

Frequencies for Regrouped Patterns of Con-
gruency of Husband-Wife Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness (N=60) . . . . . . . 109

Results for the One-Way Analysis of Variance
of Change in Consumption for 1974-76 with
Five 1976 Patterns of Husband-Wife Com-
mitment to Ecoconsciousness as the Inde-
pendent Variable (N=59) . . . . . . . 110

Results of the One-Way Analysis of Variance
for 1976 Level of Commitment with Five
1976 Patterns of Husband-Wife Commitment
to Ecoconsciousness as the Independent
Variable (N=59). . . . . . . . . . 111

Independent T-Tests for Change in Consump-
tion (1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of
Consumption with Low Versus High or
Medium Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment
by Husbands in 1974 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Independent T-Tests for Change in Consump-
tion (1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of
Consumption with Low Versus High or
Medium Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment
by Husbands in 1974 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Independent T-Tests for Change in Consump-
tion (1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of
Consumption with Low Versus Medium Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1974 as the Independent Variable . . . 116

Independent T-Tests for Change in Consump-
tion (1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of
Consumption with Low Versus Medium Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1976 as the Independent Variable . . . 117

Independent T-Tests for Change in Consump-
tion (1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of
Consumption with Low Versus High Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1974 as the Independent Variable . . . 118

ix

Table Page

42. Independent T-Tests for Change in Consumption
(1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of Con-
sumption with Low Versus High Ecoconscious-
ness Value Commitment by Husbands in 1976
as the Independent Variable . . . . . . 119

43. Independent T—Tests for Change in Consumption
(1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of Con-
sumption with Congruent Above Versus Below
Average Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment
of Couples in Both 1974 and 1976 as the
Independent Variable . . . . . . . . 121

44. Independent T-Tests for Change in Consumption
(1974-76), 1974 and 1976 Levels of Con-
sumption with Husbands and Wives Who Both
Increased or Both Decreased Ecoconscious-
ness Commitment 1974—76 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

45. Clusters for the 1974 Contextual Factors,
Consumption Change for 1974-76 and 1974
Levels of Consumption . . . . . . . . 125

46. Clusters for the 1976 Contextual Factors,
Consumption Change for 1974-76 and 1976
Levels of Consumption . . . . . . . . 126

47. Summary of Hypotheses Testing . . . . . . 129

F-l. Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus High or
Medium Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment
by Husbands in 1974 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

F-2. Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus High or
Medium Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment
by Husbands in 1976 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

F—3. Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus Medium Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1974 as the Independent Variable. . . . 163

Table

Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus Medium
Ecoconsciousness Value Commitment by
Husbands in 1976 as the Independent
Variable . . . . . . . . . . . .

Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus High Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1974 as the Independent Variable . .

Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Low Versus High Eco-
consciousness Value Commitment by Husbands
in 1976 as the Independent Variable . .

Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Congruent Above Average
or Below Average Ecoconsciousness Value
Commitment of Couples in Both 1974 and 1976
as the Independent Variable . . . . .

Independent T-Tests for 1974 and 1976 Levels
of Consumption with Husbands and Wives
Who Both Increased or Both Decreased Eco-
consciousness Commitment 1974-76 as the
Independent Variable . . . . . . . .

Clusters for the 1974 Contextual Factors
and Consumption Change 1974-76. . . .

Clusters for the 1976 Contextual Factors and
Consumption Change 1974-76 . . . . . .

Clusters for 1974 Consumption Level and the
1974 Contextual Factors . . . . . .

Clusters for 1976 Consumption Level and
1976 Contextual Factors . . . . . . .

Clusters for 1974 Consumption Level,
Adjusted for Electricity Lost in
Transmission and 1974 Contextual Factors

Clusters for 1976 Consumption Level,

Adjusted for Electricity Lost in
Transmission and 1976 Contextual Factors .

xi

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169

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174

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Since the oil embargo of 1973-74, there has been
a growing awareness of the finite nature of fossil fuel
resources. Everyday living depends on fossil fuels.
Although studies done as early as the 19505 predicted
the impacts of a growing population on a fixed supply of
energy, the public gave little attention to the pending
scarcity problems. In general, the media exhibited little
awareness of the problem.

With the oil embargo, the gasoline lines and the
government's efforts to formulate a comprehensive energy
program, much more media attention was given to energy
supplies, controls, conservation, distribution, sources
and relationships to the power of nations. Numerous pro-
grams involving a variety of solutions have been suggested
since 1974. Solutions usually involve in various combi-
nations finding new, renewable sources of energy, exploit-
ing more intensively the existing forms of energy,
striving for technological innovation and conservation

of existing supplies. Different programs place differing

emphases on these thrusts. Many advocate several simul-
taneous thrusts to provide for the lead time necessary

to discover, develop and distribute "new" forms of energy.
The ultimate goal is to find a new form of energy that

is always renewable.

A number of the suggestions emphasize the great
amount of energy that could be saved through conservation
in the United States (Fritsch, 1974; Hannon, 1975; Koenig
& Edens, 1976). Estimates are that about one-third of
the energy presently consumed could be saved by conser-
vation efforts (Ophuls, 1977). Hayes (1976) asserts that
the potential conservation may be as high as 50% if we
could save in equal proportion to what we waste. These
savings could occur without major technological break—
throughs.

Families would have a large share of the responsi-
bility in any conservation effort. It is estimated that
19% of the energy consumed in the United States is con-
sumed directly by families. This consumption is primarily
in four areas: transportation, household heating and
cooling, home lighting and household appliances (Fritsch,
1974). Because households have many metal and plastic
products--dishwashers, ranges, portable appliances, cars--
they also ultimately consume much more energy. That is,
they indirectly consume the energy used in the manufacture

and distribution of these products. Food, clothing and

other consumable items also have indirect energy costs.
Estimates are that this indirect consumption in combination
with direct consumption amounts to as much as 70% of the
energy consumed in our economy (Winters, 1976).

Because so much of total energy consumption is
directly and indirectly due to the behavior of families,
conservation action undertaken by these units can have
an important impact. Choice behavior of families within
the household and in the marketplace will either promote
or defeat conservation programs. Some writers have sug—
gested that families' choices are so constrained by their
basic housing arrangements and location that they have
little Opportunity to change their level of energy con-
sumption (Fried, Havens, & Thall, 1977; Koenig, Edens, &
Cooper, 1975; Morrison & Gladhart, 1976; Newman & Day,
1975). Hot water heaters, ranges and refrigerators are
costly to change and are often present in homes when
they are occupied. Others feel that families can indeed
exercise some control over their level of energy con-
sumption by the way they use appliances, control heating
and purchase consumable items, i.e., energy resource
management practices. There is evidence that supports
this belief (Hirst & Carney, 1978; Hogan, 1976; Keith,
1977). When Grot and Socolow (1974) carefully controlled
for structural and technological variables in residences,

they found considerable unexplained variation in energy

consumption. They concluded that lifestyle differences
among families were responsible for the variation. Life-
style is a reflection of how people behave and the values
they hold.

Energy is recognized as a prerequisite not only
to the survival of human ecosystems but also to the growth
and adaptation of these systems (Boulding, 1968; Buckley,
1968). The critical linkage between values and energy
resources was elaborated more than 20 years ago by Cot-
trell (1955) when he stated that:

The preservation of a system of values requires a
continuous supply of energy equal to the demands
imposed by that system of values. Conversely . . .
changes in the amount or form of energy available
give rise to conditions likely to result in changes
in values. . . . (p. 4)
Changes in resource availability and quality seem to move
along with changes in values. Shifts are highly inter-
related as elaborated by Cottrell (1955) ". . . the
probability of predicting change depends as much on a
knowledge of the physical potentialities in a situation
as it does on a knowledge of the values men hold" (p. 5).
Clearly the relationship of values to fossil fuel energy

use must be understood if we are to survive in a world of

increasing scarcity.

Purpose of the Study

 

The purpose of the study was to examine the

relationship of value commitment to residential energy

use. A secondary purpose was to explore the effect of
husband and wife congruency in value commitment on energy
use.

Specific research objectives were:

1. To examine changes in families' residential
energy consumption from 1974 to 1976.

2. If change had occurred, to explore its
relationship to husbands', wives' and couples' ecocon-
sciousness value.

3. To examine the pattern of relationships among
contextual factors, commitment to the ecoconsciousness
value and residential energy consumption in 1974 and in

1976.

Conceptual Framework

 

Management in the family is directed toward
mediating values and achieving goals. It is an essential
function of families. The purpose of this function is
to help the family achieve satisfaction through the
choices it makes about the use of resources. The basic
premise underlying management is that events can be con-
trolled.

Purposive decision making is critical to managing.
It provides a mechanism through which families can adapt
to change occurring in their environment. Values have a
primary influence on family decisions (Paolucci, Hall,

& Axinn, 1977). Values, as preferences and beliefs about

what is desirable, provide the criteria against which
goals are selected and choices are made. When families
implement their choices, their values are reflected in
their behavior.

Resources are the "means" that are used to achieve
family goals. Values help families select resources for
goals. Vickers (1970) notes that some selections are
multivalued. He suggests that several values often under-
lie a single decision. Selection of a family residence
is an example of a multivalued choice. While many family
values may be involved in choosing a residence, one of
these values may impact on many other family choices also.

In managing, families may allocate the same
resources to several end uses (Nickell, Rice, & Tucker,
1976). For example, they may use money to reach social,
psychological or economic goals. The family may be
satisfied or dissatisfied with the result. If satisfied,
the family may continue a new pattern of resource use.

If dissatisfied, another resource may be sought.

It is an oversimplification to view values as
operating in isolation. Williams (1970) contends that
values are not independent of context. They are altered
by

. . . support or stress, abundant or scanty resources.
In their beginnings, values develop from repeated
drastic experiences with desperate exigencies; they

will change as basic life-sustaining and life threaten—
ing conditions change. (p. 7)

Choices made by families are constrained by the
resources available to them. When families perceive
their resources as limited, they may make more effort to
use resources efficiently. This involves them in maxi-
mizing, i.e., in conscious attempts to obtain the greatest
satisfaction for the least investment of resources (Gross,
Crandall, & Knoll, 1973). The amount of satisfaction that
results depends on the degree to which needs can be met
and values realized.

Theoretically, the decisionmaker needs complete
information about resources to maximize their use. In
reality, decisionmakers must function with imperfect
information. Information may be limited or unavailable.
The information received may be inaccurate. Even when
available, information may not be perceived by a decision-
maker. Thus, the completeness of a family's resource
information affects its ability to maximize satisfactions.

At times, the cost of searching for and processing
information may appear too great or the time available
too short. In these instances, families may search until
they find an alternative that provides them with an
acceptable, though not maximum, level of satisfaction
(Simon, 1957). Willingness to do this implies an order-
ing or ranking of values relative to the decision situ-

ation, though the hierarchy may not be generally applicable

(Magrabi, 1966). Satisfaction is derived from realization
of those values most important relative to the decision
situation.

Families may experience conflict when the scarcity
of their resources becomes evident. They find that they
cannot meet all the resource demands of their goals.

Some of the conflict may be due to differences in family
members' perceptions of the desirable and of goals to be
reached with the limited resources. It is believed that
some level of congruency on values is more likely to
result in the achievement of a family's goals (Paolucci,
1966). When conflict is present, values are brought to

a level of awareness. When values are made explicit
relative to a decision, they may be redefined, retained

as is, reordered or discarded (Rescher, 1969). Conscious
mediation of values allows the family to reduce the stress
involved in difficult choices among competing goals.
Through such choices, some family values are strengthened
and others are weakened. Webster (1969) describes the
process as one in which family value patterns are developed
through the continuously changing structure of opportuni-
ties, resources, outputs, evaluative judgments and expec-
tations within the family unit and between that unit and
other systems. To the extent that the mix of resources
available to the family affects decisions, resources

shape values. Subsequent family decisions and behaviors

reflect the values.

This study will examine the relationship of value
commitment and congruency of value commitment between
husbands and wives to resource use, i.e., residential

energy consumption.

Assumptions

 

1. Values can be determined through the use of
self-administered scales.

2. Structural, behavioral and demographic infor-
mation can be reliably obtained using survey research.

3. The British Thermal Unit provides a reliable
way of converting fuel oil, natural gas and electricity

to a standard measure of energy consumption.

Limitations

 

l. The subsample employed in this study under-
represented young families and families with low levels
of income and education. Single parent families were
not included in the study. Therefore, generalization to
these kinds of families was not possible.

2. The need for complete energy consumption
data necessitated selection of families who had lived
in the same dwelling for three years. Consequently,
renters and people who move frequently were under—
represented.

3. Only one value, ecoconsciousness, was examined.
Individuals have a system of values that influence

behavior.

10

Definitions

 

Values.--A generalized conception of a preference
field (Hogan, 1976) that develops from the interplay of
people and their environments, human and material, and
that influences their choices among alternative courses

of action (Jacob & Flink, 1962; Magrabi, 1966).

Ecoconsciousness Value.—-"Interrelationship of

 

man-nature, interlinked with the earth's capacity to

sustain lifestyle of man" (Hogan, 1976, p. 11).

Resources.--Those goods, services, materials and

 

human attributes that families use to obtain the ends

they desire.

Energy.-—That which produces heat and work. For
this research, it was limited to fossil fuel energy in
the forms used in residences--electricity, natural gas

and fuel oil.

Stress.--Tension produced in the family system
that requires a response that is a deviation from the
system's routine operation, i.e., a decision that will
bring about a change in routine behavior (Perlman &

Warren, 1977).

Congruency.--A similar level of value commitment

 

for two or more people. Incongruency involves dissimilar

levels of value commitment.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of research and related literature is
presented in five sections: residential energy use,
values and resources in family decision making, values
and value patterns, values and behavior and resource use,

and value-resources linkages.

Residential Energy Use

 

Research literature on residential energy con-
sumption indicates that most of the research in this
area has been conducted since 1972 and has been of four
general types. These include simulations based on models
of energy consumption under different conditions (Heren-
deen & Sebald, 1975; Hirst & Carney, 1978), experimental
designs aimed at changing behavior and utilizing actual
energy consumption information (Grot & Socolow, 1974;
Heberlein, 1975; Zuiches, 1978), surveys of attitudes
and self-reports of consumption or conservation behavior
(Hogan, 1975; Kilkeary & Thompson, 1975; Murray et al.,

1974; Perlman & Warren, 1977) and surveys that obtained

11

12

self-reports of attitudes and behaviors as well as actual
direct energy consumption data (Gladhart, Zuiches, &
Morrison, 1978; Grier, 1975; Keith, 1977; Morrison &
Gladhart, 1976; Newman & Day, 1975).

Did the advent of the "energy crisis" result in
energy consumption changes in households? For the period
1972-73 to 1974-75, several researchers reported reduc—
tions in total direct residential energy consumption.
Both Grier (1976) and Williams, Kurvant and Newman (1976)
found a 1.8% reduction. Perlman and Warren (1977)
estimated that households in their study made a 12%
reduction in energy consumption in the year following
the oil embargo (1972-73 to 1973-74). Michigan researchers
(Morrison, Keith, & Zuiches, 1978) found a 6.3% reduction
for the period 1973-74 to 1975-76. The research team
believed that this figure was conservative. It was not
adjusted for weather differences during the 1974 and 1976
heating seasons. The latter season was colder; as a
result, families in the Lansing area made an actual
reduction in residential energy use of 7.5%. Half of
the Michigan sample had reductions of 5% or more and a
third reduced by 10% or more. About one-fourth of the
families increased consumption. Accounting for about 80%
of direct residential energy consumption, space heating
fuels (natural gas and fuel oil), in aggregate, were the

primary sources of reductions. Electricity consumption

13

increased by about 2% (Morrison et al., 1978). Grier
(1976) and Williams et a1. (1976) reported similar find-
ings of a 1.9% increase in electricity and 3.9% reduction
in natural gas from 1973 to 1975.

Levels of energy consumption have been closely
related to the relative affluence of families. Newman
and Day (1975) concluded that "the more money you have,
the more energy you use at home and in your automobile"
(p. xxiii). This finding held regardless of family demo-
graphic factors or structural features of dwellings,
e.g., size or presence of insulation. Others have also
found that family income, although indirect, is an excel-
lent predictor of residential energy consumption (Morrison
& Gladhart, 1976). In response to the "energy crisis,"
many families in all income levels reduced consumption.
An important question is how many maintained the behaviors
that lead to reduction. Perlman and Warren (1977)
reported that by the end of their study in 1975 pr0por—
tionately more lower income families than higher income
families were still reporting maintenance of conserving
behaviors and making still further reductions.

The burden of the energy crisis fell heavily on
the poor. Although the poor use less energy, they spend
a higher proportion of their income on energy. Newman
and Day (1975) reported that in 1972-73 the poor spent
15% of their income on energy, while the low middle

income groups spent 7% and the well-off spent 4%.

14

Energy is consumed directly by families in heating
and illumination and indirectly in the form of goods and
services. Indirect energy costs are incurred in each
step of production and distribution. Hannon (1975)
noted that lower income groups used about two-thirds of
their energy directly and that just the opposite was
true of upper income groups. From his research, he con-
cluded that ". . . modification of the behavior of the
upper middle income class would be the most fertile area
for energy conservation" (Hannon, 1975, p. 97).

One way to change the real income of families is
to change price. Do price increases result in reductions
in residential energy consumption? In Michigan, Gladhart
et a1. (1978) found modest short-run negative price
elasticities for total residential energy consumption.
The families studied had experienced a 126% increase in
fuel oil cost, an 81% increase in natural gas cost and a
50% increase in electricity cost between 1974 and 1976.
The researchers cautioned readers that the relationship
between price and consumption behavior is complex. Using
1975-76 data, they found no evidence of lower rates of
energy use per room or higher rates of conservation
practice adoption for families with more rapidly rising
or higher fuel prices. They explained that "both price
and cost are dramatically different between oil users and

other consumers, but there is neither practical nor

15

statistical difference between the rate of energy con-
sumption for the two groups" (Gladhart et al., 1978,
P- 4).

No matter what prices families have experienced,
many authors felt that the energy reductions that could
be achieved were constrained by the physical character-
istics of the family's dwelling (Gladhart et al., 1978;
Morrison, 1977; Newman & Day, 1975; Rudd & Longstreth,
1977). They recognized that the home had minimum fixed
costs of operation. Prominant among these costs are
those generated by the furnace and hot water heater that
account for 75% of residential energy consumption (Morri-
son & Gladhart, 1976). These along with many other con—
sumer durables such as air conditioners, ranges, refriger-
ators and television sets are infrequently purchased. In
the past, life-cycle energy costs of these items have
not been prime factors in their selection.

In spite of the constraints imposed by previous
choices of dwelling design and durable goods, families
have been able to reduce energy consumption. In the
Princeton Twin Rivers project, Socolow (1975) found
evidence of variation in consumption in nearly identical
townhouses. Substantial variation occurred in both
winter and summer. The Princeton researchers attributed
these results to lifestyle rather than technological

factors.

16

Keith (1977) analyzed the relationship between
structural and behavioral factors and level of energy
consumption for the families. She found the most sig-
nificant variables to be the installation of a new
furnace, a collective measure of conservation practices
and the installation of insulation in the ceilings. The
importance of the conservation practices measure provided
additional evidence that variations in lifestyle, in
family behaviors, have significant impacts on consumption
levels, regardless of the constraints of structural
factors.

Additional evidence was found by Gladhart et a1.
(1978). These researchers developed a Human Responsi-
bility scale and Ecosystem Awareness scale and found that
both were negatively related to the rate of energy con-
sumption per room. People who had higher levels of
awareness and concern had a less energy intensive life-
style.

Experimenting with different levels of conserva-
tion-oriented information, delivered by mail and in person,
Zuiches (1978) found that families who had received
infrared heat-loss information about their homes had
extremely responsive attitudes compared to noninfrared
groups who had received information pamphlets or the
"In the Bank or Up the Chimney" computer program. No

significant differences were found in treatments or

17

information delivery method for completed or planned
conservation actions. The researchers noted that per-
sonal delivery seemed to be associated with an increase
in belief in the energy problem and that the treatment
effect in this natural experiment may have been masked
by one of the coldest winters in Michigan's history.

Most of the preceding discussion has dealt with
short-run changes in practices, in beliefs and in resi-
dential energy consumption. In the long run, not only
changes in lifestyle but also changes in attributes of
our stock of housing and consumer durables are possible.
Based on projections to the year 2000, Hirst and Carney
(1978) suggested that of three programs--appliance
efficiency standards, thermal performance standards for
new construction and retrofitting existing housing units--
the last would result in the largest energy and economic
benefits. Motivation to make such changes can develOp
from previous short-run changes in lifestyle. The period
need not be so long as from now to the year 2000. Harrje,
Socolow and Sonderegger (1977) obtained a 10% electrical
savings and a 25% gas savings in a retrofit experiment
at the Twin Rivers Project. The payback period was
estimated at approximately three years. From this, it
can be concluded that the potential for changing the
constraining features of housing exists and it does not,

in the long run, need to result in economic hardship.

18

Finding equitable ways to motivate families in these
directions and to implement related public policies will
be critical. At this point in time, according to Morri—
son, Keith and Zuiches (1976), "household respondents
seem to be doing things which are not disruptive of their
lifestyles and which probably do not reduce energy con—
sumption a great deal" (p. 15).

A number of contextual factors, in addition to
affluence, price and conservation practices, have been
related to levels of residential energy consumption.
Families with children at home and large families used
more energy than those without children or small families
(Morrison, 1975). Number of rooms, number of persons in
the household, presence of insulation in ceilings and
walls and climatic conditions have been used to explain
consumption variation (Cohen, 1976; Gladhart et al., 1978;
Morrison et al., 1976; Perlman & Warren, 1977). Presence
of energy-using appliances has also been related to con-
sumption. The latter has been closely linked to income
level also (Morrison & Gladhart, 1976; Newman & Day,
1975). Klausner (1977) found a relationship between
social complexity and energy consumption. Greater resi-
dential energy use was associated with greater complexity
in family functioning. Morrison et a1. (1978) noted that
belief in the reality of the energy crisis was not related

to reduction in energy use. They reported some decline

19

in belief from 1974 to 1976 as did Perlman and Warren
(1977) from 1974 to 1975. The latter researchers cited
considerable confusion about who was responsible and what
were credible sources of information about the "energy
crisis." Despite price increases a majority of families
did not believe the "energy crisis" to be real (Morrison
et al., 1976).

Values and Resources in Family
Decision Making

 

 

Tension is produced in the family system when an
event occurs that can only be met by a change in the
routine operation of the family (Burr, 1973). Paolucci
(1966) identified such an occurrence as a decision event,
while Burr (1973) and Perlman and Warren (1977) called it
a stressor event.

The event may arise from change in the environ-
ment or within the family system. Burr (1973) provides
a more formal definition, "Anything that changes some
aspect of the system such as the boundaries, structure,
goals, processes, roles, or values can produce what has
been conceptualized . . . as some amount of crisis in
the system" (p. 201). The decision event is unusual to
the extent that the system changes as a response to its
occurrence. The tension or stress produced may range
from mild to great. Fried et a1. (1977) have asserted

that there is a certain amount of "adaptive stress"

20

associated with change itself and that greater decision
making strain is involved in major adaptations because
these involve more risks and uncertainties. Paolucci
(1966) has suggested that discrepancies between family
members' values or between those of the family and
others outside the household were often the bases of
conflict. In response to conflict, the family system's
changes in behavior represent adjustments. Conscious
adjustments are management behaviors (Paolucci, 1966).

According to Deacon and Firebaugh (1975),
resources of some kind are essential to the solution of
every management problem. Several writers have suggested
that the influence of values is mediated by the con-
straints and potentialities of resources (Cottrell, 1955;
Deacon & Heltsey, 1977; Dixon, Hungerford, & Paolucci,
1977). Values are continually interrelated with resource
use patterns through energy flows. A stressful event
triggers specific changes in resource use patterns
(Perlman & Warren, 1977). Changes occur as decision-
making processes are applied to the demands of the event.
Exploration of alternatives and experimentation occurs.
Selected alternatives are tried. Evaluations of effec-
tiveness occur and additional decisions are made (Deacon
& Firebaugh, 1975; Gross, Crandall, & Knoll, 1973).

Satisfactory alternatives are confirmed.

21

The resulting adjustments may be temporary or
permanent. The changes made to absorb or throw off the
impacts of the situation may be sustained through time
or invoked on a temporary basis. Those changes that are
permanent represent a stable new pattern of resource use.
Accompanying a shift in resource use patterns may be a
shift in the pattern or importance of related values
(Graves, 1970). Temporary adjustments in the family
system may be accompanied by temporary shifts in resource
allocations but little change in value patterns (Paolucci
et al., 1977).

When resources are perceived to be scarce, less
important values must be sacrificed in order to continue
to realize treasured values. Scarcity is a relative term.
According to Bymers (1976), "Scarcity will come through
when people note that goods and services are available
on less favorable real terms than they have grown to
expect" (p. 42). Human and nonhuman resources are
inextricably tied. Limits on material resources may be
alleviated by increased application of human resources
(Nickell et al., 1976). Likewise, limited human resources
may result in increased material resource needs. Scarcity
highlights values and allows the testing of relationships
between values and resources.

Changes made in family systems have repercussive

impacts on other systems (Deacon & Firebaugh, 1975;

22

Perlman & Warren, 1977). The mix of resources used by
and exported from the family changes. Other systems may
suffer or benefit as a result.

Once the family system has recovered from a stress
experience, it has a new mix of resources. It may be
more or less able to handle another event that is stress-
ful. If a value change has occurred that enhances
resource use and development, families may be better
able to cope in the future (McCubbin, 1977). For example,
if human resources are increased by the experience of
coping with a past event, new stresses may be handled
more effectively. On the other hand, if material
resources are depleted in the process of coping with one
stressful experience, the family may not have the time
or ability to replenish the stock of resources needed
to meet another crisis (Perlman & Warren, 1977).

Technical improvements made in a family home may
assist the family in meeting the impact of one energy
crisis. Once these have been made they are no longer
available as viable adjustments to reduce the negative
impacts of future energy crises. Thus, technical changes
may be possible part of the time. Managerial behaviors

are potentially available in any situation.

Values and Value Patterns

 

Decision making has been identified as the main

adaptive feature of the family system (Keith, 1977;

23

Paolucci et al., 1977). A variety of factors seem to
shape family decisions. Primary influences have been
identified as goals and values (Deacon & Firebauth, 1975;
Edwards, 1970; Paolucci et al., 1977). In the family
management literature, definitions of values have ranged
from values as simple preferences to values as concepts
of ideal states of being (Nickell et al., 1976). "Values
provide the underlying meanings that give continuity to
all decisions and actions" (Deacon & Firebaugh, 1975,
p. 140). Exploring methodological questions related to
values and decision, Magrabi (1966) adopted the definition
developed by Jacob and Flink (1962). They proposed that
values were "Normative standards by which human beings
are influenced in their choice among the alternative
courses of action which they perceive" (Jacob & Flink,
1962, p. 10). At approximately the same time, Gross and
Crandall (1963) had stated that a value was a concept of
the desirable ". . . which governs our choice of methods,
modes, or goals of action" (p. 22). Magrabi felt that
the term "govern" implied more control than she was
willing to accept and that the Jacob and Flink definition
was especially useful because of its explicit and pre—
cise linkage of choice behavior to perceived alternatives.
Axtelle (1966) has declared that values may be

facts or they may be oughts. Referring to controversies

24

in social science literature about the meanings of such
terms as norms, values, needs, aims and purposes, Rucker
(1970) suggested that

Increasingly, behavioral scientists are turning to

this age-old term (values) as a semantic bedrock

for classifying the meanings and for describing

the core of man's nature as well as the substance

of what is communicated in human relations. (p. 81)

Some writers view the family as a transformation
system. Bubolz and Paolucci (1976) suggested that the
family transformation system includes five processes--
valuing, goal—setting, decision making, acting and inter-
acting. One of these, valuing, was viewed as exclusively
an information transforming process. Environmental
inputs, including existing family members' values, supply
the information. The processing of the information
forges and reshapes the values of individuals and the
value complexion of the family unit.
"Shared meaning" in values is an apparent goal

in the family transformation system. It is widely
asserted in family management and family relationships
that this contributes to cohesiveness of the unit and
coordinated and effective unit functioning (Paolucci et
al., 1977; Stevens, 1964; Weick, 1971). The need for a
thorough understanding of the kind and form of shared
values in families has been recognized. Ater and Deacon

(1972) conducted research on standards as situationally

specific expressions of values and concluded that "The

25

nature of shared meaning needs to be identified in terms
of the contribution of agreements to satisfaction in the
allocation of family resources" (p. 262). Rucker (1970)
identified value sharing as the "most basic criterion
for facilitating the procedures of cooperation (or
socialization) . . ." (p. 85).

The literature that deals directly with value
sharing among family members appears relatively small.
In the early fifties, Strodtbeck (1951) used a technique
of revealed differences to examine the sharing of meaning
in families. Husbands and wives were asked to make inde-
pendent rankings of three designated families on a number
of dimensions. Then husbands and wives were brought
together and asked to reconcile their differences. The
result was a family choice on each dimension describing
one of the other families. No attempt was made to
explicate the content or underlying meanings in the
shared decisions of each couple. Through recordings of
conversations, a determination was made of who won
decisions and the amount of talking done by winners and
losers. Subsequently in studies of Navaho Indians, dry
farmers from Texas and Mormons, the technique was used
to verify predictions, derived from cultural expectations,
about the balance of power between husbands and wives.
Strodtbeck (1951) concluded that "the disposition of

these reconciled decisions is related to both power

26

elements in the larger social and cultural organization
and amount of participation in the small group situation"
(p. 473).

In an exploratory study, Ketchum (1961) searched
for value content in reasons given for time use during
the previous day. Consistency of values and reported
behavior were assessed by comparing the discerned value
content with homemakers' rankings of 12 selected values.
The reasons given for time use reflected five values:
helpfulness, workmanship, freedom, family life and
orderliness. The relationship between values reflected
in reported reasons for activities and values selected in
a forced-choice values test was statistically significant.

Later, Dyer (1962) used homemakers' verbalized
reasons and the ranking of nine selected values to
identify values underlying daily activities. Values
were ranked using a rank order test, projective stories
and a mechanical device for the categorizing of reasons
by homemakers. Health and family centrism values were
highly ranked regardless of the technique used. Dyer
found that the rationalization given for activities did
reflect values.

Several researchers have developed family value
profiles and tested them in relationship to dependent
variables (Conner, Greene, & Walters, 1958; Cutler, 1947;

Fisher, 1948; Kohn, 1959; Motz, 1952). Martin (1965)

27

researched the commonality of values in families. She
used a constructed typology of values to analyze data
obtained from a projective story-completion instrument.
Individual composite value profiles were devised to
"indicate value types (traditional, autonomous, social
and change-prone) coded for each individual and the
relative amounts of each type" (p. 47). Composite value
profiles for each member of a family were placed on a
continuum and pairwise (H-W, H-Son, W—Son, H-Daughter,
W-Daughter) comparisons were made. A value was considered
held in common if coded identically (for the same theme
and story) for two or more family members. Ten to 35%
of each family's total values were common to the entire
family. Martin concluded that there appeared to be a
network of common values.

Some families, especially the larger ones, had few

values common to the entire family, but had many

common to pairs or groups of three or more. Each

member seems to have some individually held values,

but each has some in common with each other member

of his family. Also, certain values seem to be

more frequently common to specific role pairs.

(p. 120)
It appears that families vary widely in number and type
of values and that one family member's values are not
representative of the family's values.

Williams (1970) in clarifying the concept of con-

sensus pointed out that consensus involves not only the

content of items but also "the affective intensity and

evaluative weights attached to them. Two persons may

28

have identical sets of beliefs but disagree as to their
relative importance, and such disagreement can be highly
consequential" (p. 3).

In 1972, Kerckhoff investigated level of value
consensus as it related to status. He hypothesized a
higher level of value consensus between spouses in an
interactional, conjugal role pattern than in a parallel
role pattern. To the extent that the interactional pat-
tern is associated with higher social status, he expected
to find greater value consensus among higher status
couples. Each spouse ranked eight statements of criteria
for evaluating the success of a marriage. The statements
were designed, a priori, to reflect affection, inclusion,
control and achievement values. Kerckhoff reported a
"clear tendency for consensus to be higher among the pro—
fessional couples . . . but there is no difference
between working-class and middle-class couples" (p. 106).
Part of his study was devoted to examining alternative
pair rankings and exploring results that provided non-
linear support for the hypothesis. He concluded that "it
appears that the consensus measure reflects both level of
general accord between husbands and wives and degree to
which particular issues are salient in the marital exper-
ience of these young couples" (p. 109).

Calonico and Thomas (1973) proposed that accurate

role-taking ability was a function of value similarity

29

and affect in the nuclear family. The affect variable
was rooted in cognitive balance theory (perception of

the other as similar or dissimilar to oneself) and the
value similarity variable employed the idea of cognitive
consistency. They pr0posed that "two persons sharing
similar value systems will advocate similar responses in
behavioral problem solving situations" (p. 655). Family
members' scores were compared and absolute differences in
scores obtained. The researchers felt that this "global"
method of comparing individuals was justified in explora-
tory research. Similarity of value systems was, they
concluded, the most important variable for predicting
parental role—taking ability. Children's role-taking
accuracy was predicted by the interaction between affect
and value system similarity.

Values have a transactional property and this
leads to their change over time (Hogan, 1976). Value
change is closely related to changes in context (Rescher,
1969). Generally, such a change is relatively slow.
Inferring values from short-term overt behavior such as
the revealed-differences decision technique used by
Strodtbeck (1951) may mask the inherent stability of
basic values (Jacob & Flink, 1962).

By obtaining preference rankings, Rokeach (1974)
examined value stability in a three-year national survey.

He dichotomized values as "terminal"--ideal end states

30

of being--and "instrumental"--desirable modes of behavior.
As a consequence of his research, he suggested that those
values specifically connected to societal issues undergo
change while other values remain relatively stable.
Younger respondents seemed to show more value change

than persons over 30.

Values and Resource Use and Behavior

 

Value content, change in values and family value
patterns have been widely investigated (Cutler, 1947;
Dyer, 1962; Engebretson, 1965; Kluckholn, 1954; Martin,
1965; Rescher, 1969; Rokeach, 1974). Less attention has
been given to the linkages between values and reported
practices or actual behavior (Field, 1973; Hogan, 1976;
Kimball, 1960).

Field (1973) explored beliefs, practices and
their impact on actual consumption of water.

No relationship was discerned . . . between the
amount of water used by families and the way in
which they performed selected activities, belief
in fate of husbands and wives, level of water
awareness of husbands and wives, or attempts to
conserve water in the household. (Field, 1973,
p. 67)
The awareness of water as a scarce resource and attempts
to conserve water were related. Water consumption was
related to income, age of oldest child and possession of
water using equipment and fixtures.

Several researchers have examined values and

housing and home-furnishing resources (Downer, Smith, &

31

Lynch, 1968; Meeks & Deacon, 1972; Ramsland, 1967).
Based on two values measures and the researcher's obser—
vations of home furnishings, Ramsland (1967) found that
young couples viewed their home furnishings as having
primarily economic value. A few selected furnishings
were viewed as having religious, social, aesthetic or
theoretical value.

Downer et a1. (1968) concluded that dominant
housing values change as the family moves through the
life cycle. Family centrism was dominant for preschool
families, individuality, privacy and equality for school
age families and personal and social orientation for
retirees.

Meeks and Deacon (1972) focused on the process
of planning in the selection of a living environment.
They found evidence that the same value was measured in
each of the elements of planning, e.g., in information,
forecasts, alternatives and evaluation. Also they
observed a lack of association between values as deter—
mined by explicit ranking and value orientations measured
by scales. " . . . Although a value is generally ranked
high it may not be the important one in a specific situ—
ation" (Meeks & Deacon, 1972, p. 15).

Testing for the adoption of innovative household
and farm practices, Kimball (1960) examined the relation-

ship between husbands' and wives' value patterns. He

32

suggested that those couples with more similar value
patterns would have more practice adoption. He found
very dissimilar value patterns associated with very low
practice adOption. As value similarity increased,
practice adoption increased. Beyond a certain level,
however, this increase dropped off. This relationship
of couple's value similarity to their practice adoption
was curvilinear.

Hogan (1976) proposed that there were differences
in household energy conservation practices among couples
with differing patterns of congruency and commitment to
values. Patterns of congruency were obtained for four
values: self-esteem, familism, social responsiveness
and ecoconsciousness. Values were studied separately
rather than in composite. Straightforward prediction of
adoption of energy conservation practices was obtained
with the ecoconsciousness value scale. Congruent high
commitment for husband and wife was related to high
adoption and congruent low commitment was related to
low adoption. Differences in husband-wife patterns for
the other values did not successfully predict rates of
adoption of conservation practices.

Perlman and Warren (1977) linked reported prac-
tices with estimated energy consumption. Values, per se,
were not a part of this research. However, they reported

that "Not an inconsiderable number of respondents

33

perceived the energy "crisis" in normative terms" (Perl-
man & Warren, 1977, p. 70). Thirty-eight percent of the
families, in their survey of Mobile, Hartford and Salem,
reported that they reduced the temperatures in their homes
because of a "sense of duty." Sense of duty is a norma-
tive idea similar to Hogan's (1976) conceptualization of
the ecoconsciousness value. In response to the mild
stress associated with the energy "crisis," a substantial
proportion of the families made resource use adjustments
in conducting internal family tasks. One family in five
had not made consumption purchases because of the energy
crisis. There was some move toward car pooling and sizable
adjustments were reported in use of the family car for
recreation. A small proportion of the families reported
losing jobs because of the energy crisis. Perlman and
Warren felt that the adjustments made by most of the
families did not have serious impacts on the viability
of the family as a social unit.

Dermine (1969) studied values and behavior using
an experimental design. Initially, children were given
a forced choice instrument on which they had to choose
between honesty and intelligence values. Later, in a
normal classroom setting, they were given an "intelligence"
test by a second experimenter. One week later, they were
allowed in a very permissive atmosphere to "correct" the

intelligence test. Cheating and noncheating were compared

34

with value choices. A definite relationship between
values and behavior was found. ". . . Children who
valued honesty over intelligence tended to cheat sig—
nificantly less than those who valued intelligence over
honesty" (Dermine, 1969, p. 206). Dermine also found
that when she lowered the salience of intelligence in a
situation the relationship disappeared. She concluded
that situational factors, such as salience of competing
values may be very important in determining specific

behavior.

Value-Resource Linkages

 

The importance of recognizing value-resource
relations was discussed in a recent paper by Deacon and
Heltsey (1977). Dixon et a1. (1977) concurred and called
attention to the need to examine holistically value-
resource relationships in family decision making. "With
a unitary approach values and resources can be examined
as integrative links that take into account the reciprocal
effects of the family system with its environment, i.e.,
feedback effects" (Dixon et al., 1977, p. 3).

Graves (1970) proposed that values depend on con—
ditions of existence. As the availability of resources
changes, different levels of existence are achieved and
different values emerge. Graves feels that most people
make the error of assuming that man's nature and there-

fore his values are fixed. Rather, he suggests that

35

". . . man's nature is an open, constantly evolving sys-
tem, a system which proceeds by quantum jumps from one
steady state system to the next through a hierarchy of
ordered systems" (Graves, 1974, p. 72). To make the
quantum leaps, man requires excess energy resources and
a conflict between conditions of existence and current
value emphases.

Research evidence that supports Graves' theory
was obtained by Inglehart (1977) in an international
study of changing values. His first hypothesis was that
those needs that people are least able to satisfy will
receive high priority. Inglehart observed that for a
number of years Western publics have experienced high
levels of physical and economic security. As a result
he predicted that they are beginning to give increasing
emphasis to nonmaterial needs. Both hypotheses were sup-
ported. Individual's value emphases reflected needs
that were most critical during valuing forming (pre—adult)
years. More of the young who had not experienced the
Great Depression or World War II, compared to the old,
exhibited the Post Materialist versus Materialist values.
Between country variations were as predicted, based on
the timing of each country's experiences of war and
economic well-being.

An economist, Rescher (1969), linked value change

to the finiteness of resources. He proposed that pursuing

36

a value has costs and benefits. Costs are in the form
of goods, time, effort and attention. When these are
limited, the balance between costs and benefits may
shift and the value may be placed in lower priority or
dropped. Rescher warns that a thorough understanding of
values requires information about the degree to which
overt behavior reflects a person's rationalization.
Recognizing the direct linkage of human values
and fossil fuel energy, Cottrell (1955) described how a
value system imposes demands on resources. He was one
of the first authors to elaborate carefully the mutual
shaping relationships of energy and values. Change in
human values leads to change in energy use patterns.
Once energy use changes, conditions arise that increase
the probability of value change. According to Cottrell,
a continuous supply of energy must be available to sup-
port a system of values. When the supply dwindles, the

value system cannot be preserved.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Data used in this investigation were gathered as
part of a larger study, "Functioning of the Family Eco—
system in a World of Changing Energy Availability,"
funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.1
In the greater metropolitan area of Lansing, Michigan,
field surveys were conducted in May and June of 1974 and
repeated in May and June of 1976. The survey unit, the
"family," was defined as two or more related individuals
living together, one of whom is 18 years of age or older

(Zuiches, Morrison, & Gladhart, 1976).

Data Collection Procedures

 

Data were gathered by trained interviewers in
both 1974 and 1976. Comparable procedures were used
during both data gathering waves. The male or female
head of household was contacted and screened for eligi-

bility as a "family" unit. If heads of households agreed

 

1Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Project
Number 3152.

37

38

to participate in the study, the following data were
obtained from each family: (1) responses to a self-
administered questionnaire for the male and female heads
of household and for the oldest child between the age of
12 and 20 years and (2) responses to interviewer-adminis-
tered questions about the demographic characteristics of
the family and the structural features of their residence
for either the male or female head of household.

To obtain the data, two half—hour personal inter-
views were completed with one household head from each
sampled family; one interview was conducted on initial
contact and the other when the interviewer returned to
the residence to pick up the self—administered question-
naires. The self-administered questionnaire was used to
gather information about beliefs, attitudes, knowledge,
practices and values related to energy as a resource.

The interviewer-administered instrument was designed to
collect information about the residence and its contents
and about the composition of the household and demographic
characteristics of the family. Permission was requested

to allow investigators to obtain household energy con-
sumption data from the utility and oil companies serving
each family. Following completion of both the interviewer-
administered and self-administered instruments, a $10
honorarium was given to each family.

The possibility of collaboration between family

members on self-administered portions of the instrument

39

was considered. To minimize the effects of any possible
collusion, separate color-coded materials for each family
member were distributed by the interviewer and indepen-
dence of response was encouraged. The interviewer and
project director made cursory checks of the instrument
for collusion before payment of the honorarium was made.
After data were coded, self-administered sections of the
instrument were again evaluated for similarity in hand-

writing and answers.

The Sample

 

The 1974 sample was drawn from the Lansing,
Michigan Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA),
which is considered a well-defined metropolitan area with
a diversity of functions. The state government, a major
university and light and heavy industry are located in
Lansing. It is an area of commercial endeavor surrounded
by an agricultural sector. A two-stage probability
sample was drawn from the 89,610 families counted in
the 1970 census of the Lansing SMSA. All of Clinton,
Eaton and Ingham Counties are within the Lansing SMSA.
Census tracts were selected randomly. Each had a proba-
bility proportionate to the number of households it con-
tained. Within each of the 10 selected census tracts,
blocks also were selected proportionate to population

weights. From the 34 selected blocks, more than 600

40

house addresses were chosen using the Polk City Directory
(1973). This constituted a 20% sample.

In choosing the rural portion of the final sample,
ruralness was maximized at the expense of geographical
completeness. Two rural townships were randomly chosen
from 12 townships containing no incorporated city or
village. Selection probabilities were proportional to
population size of each township. For each selected
township, the 36 sections were used as the primary
sampling frame. From each row of six, one section was
randomly chosen. Every second residence was sampled.
Thus a sample of 150 urban and 50 rural families was
assured by the sampling procedures. A final sample of
217 families,1 160 urban and 57 rural was obtained.

In 1976, interviewers placed priority on obtaining
interviews from families surveyed in 1974. A sample
equivalent in size to the 1974 sample was desired in
1976. Since panel attrition occurred, additional house-
holds were chosen for eligibility screening. Households
were screened from the same tracts, blocks, and township
sections as the original households. The additional
addresses consisted of the 228 households not contacted,

not at home, or listed as vacant addresses in 1974.

 

1One family (case id = 170) was dropped from the
study in 1976 because no children were present and one
member of the couple died between 1974 and 1976. The
resulting 1974 sample size was 216.

41

All households not originally selected from the desig-
nated two rural townships were included in the new rural
sample.

When interviewing was completed, the 1976 sample
included 263 families. There were 135 new families and
129 families who had been interviewed in 1974 and reinter-
viewed in 1976, which constitutes a follow-up rate of 59%.
A comparison of the 1974 and 1976 samples and the research
subsample on respondent types is presented in Table l.

The 1974 sample and the Lansing SMSA were compared
using projections from the 1970 census. Results of the
comparison indicated that the sample and the data col-
lection procedures did not produce a sample of families
who were dissimilar from the population of families in
the Lansing SMSA. Other than single member households,
there was no under representation of any significant
socio-economic, housing or marital groups (Zuiches et al.,
1976).

Since the correlation between demographic char-
acteristics in the first and the second interviews is
higher than chance and the sampling error is smaller than
with two completely different random samples (Lansing &
Morgan, 1971), the 1976 sample was judged as not dis-
similar from the Lansing SMSA. The median family income
of the 1976 sample was $15,000. The 1975 U.S. Census

reported that in outlying metropolitan areas of Michigan

42

 

 

 

 

 

OOH om ooa mom ooa mam Hmpoe
I- u- m.v Ama 1 m.o 14H 1 unmocommmu unmumm mamcflm
.. .. H.G rod 1 ~.m In 1 mucmucoamwu
pawno pom usmumm mamcflm

A.Hq Ammo ~.mm law 1 m.o~ 1mm 1 mucmecommmu
cafino can mamfimm\mHmz
m.mm Ammo m.mm Amway v.mm Ahmav mucmcnommmu mamsmm can mam:

w z w z w z

mwflaflamm whoa vhma maze uswocommmm
ma Emmnsm

nonwwmwm mwflaflfimm mpsum meumn

 

.wamfimmnom noummmmm paw whoa

.vhma

.mGOmHHmmfiou mamfimm

uownoum mmumcm waaEMMII.H magma

43

husband-wife households with children under 18 had an

income of $16,539 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1977).

Research Subsample

 

Subsample Selection

 

The criteria for selection of the research sub-
sample were: (1) presence of both a husband and wife
respondent in each family in 1974 and in 1976, (2) com-
pleteness of the data for the 1974- and the 1976-value
and family-effectiveness items and for the 1976-conserva—
tion-behavior items, (3) independence among husbands and
wives in responses on the value and the behavioral-
contextual items, (4) residence in the same dwelling
from 1973 through 1976 and (5) completeness of household
energy consumption data for June, 1973 to May, 1974 and
for June, 1975 to May, 1976.

In order to look at shifts in value-resource
relationships over time comparable data for 1974 and 1976
were required. There were 129 families who were inter-
viewed and who completed self-administered questionnaires
both years and, thus, met this requirement.

Eighty of these families met the fifth criterion
of complete household energy consumption data and the
fourth criterion of the same residence from 1973 through
1976. If not more than four months of electricity and
natural gas data were missing and both winter heating

seasons (November-March) had complete data for the fuel

44

used in space heating, then energy data were judged com—
plete for a household. In the larger study, estimation
was necessary for 2% of the monthly data (Keith, 1977)
(see Appendix A for a description of the procedures used
in calculating and estimating household energy consump-
tion).

To meet the first criterion, husband and wife
respondents in each family in 1974 and in 1976, seven
single-parent families with complete energy data were
eliminated from the subsample. At this point, there was
a subsample of 73 families.

Completeness of data on the 1974 and the 1976
ecoconsciousness value and family-effectiveness items,
criterion two, was determined by a check of all eight
husband and wife variables for these items. If four or
more variables for any family had missing data, then that
case was excluded from the subsample. Four families
were dropped for this reason leaving a subsample of 69
families. No husband or wife retained in the subsample
had more than 16% of the items missing on each of the
ecoconsciousness-value scales nor more than 35% of the
items missing on the family-effectiveness scales.
Appendix B describes the procedure used in applying
subsample selection criteria and in estimating data for
those families who had missing data and were retained

in the subsample. Estimation was needed for 0.6% of the

45

1974 and 0.5% of the 1976 items in the ecoconsciousness-
value scales and for 1.3% of each year's family-effective-
ness items.
Completeness of data on reported conservation

behaviors was judged using Keith's (1977) criterion.
Data were considered complete if at least one household
member, husband or wife, had given a response.

Less than one-half of one percent of the items were

not answered by either husband or wife [in Keith's

sample]. These items were examined and given an

appropriate value based on other questionnaire

information or were assumed not to have increased

in the two years prior to the (1976) survey.

(Keith, 1977, p. 47)
No families in the research subsample were eliminated
because they had not met the criterion of complete data
on the l976-reported-conservation behaviors. Six percent
or four of the subsample families were assumed to have
not increased conservation behavior from 1974 to 1976.

The third criterion, independence of response,

resulted in the exclusion of nine families. Husbands and
wives were considered collaborators and families excluded:
if husband and wife had identical responses to all items
in a section of the self-administered questionnaire from
which the ecoconsciousness-value or family—effectiveness
scales were derived or if handwriting appeared identical
on the husband and the wife questionnaires.

Missing data and collaboration were not mutually

exclusive criteria. One family with too much missing

46

data was also judged as collaborating. This family was
rejected first on the missing data criterion. One family
was found to have collaborated both years. Four families
collaborated only in 1974 or only in 1976. After appli-
cation of all selection criteria, the final size of the
research subsample was 60 families.

Summarizing, there were 129 families who completed
both the 1974 and 1976 surveys. From this number, 49 were
dropped because they did not reside in the same dwelling
from 1973 through 1976 and/or did not have complete
energy consumption data. Another seven families were
dropped because they were single-parent families. Finally,
13 families who had collaborated in responses or who had
missing data in one or both years were dropped resulting

in a research subsample of 60 families.

Description of Subsample

Demographic characteristics of families and
selected structural characteristics of their residences
have been included for the research subsample and the
1976 larger area probability sample in Tables 2, 3 and 4.
These comparisons provided a basis for judging the simi-
larity of the research subsample and the Lansing SMSA.

Median family income was $19,071 in the research
subsample. Twenty-five percent had incomes of $25,000
or more. Ninety percent of the families owned their

dwellings and nearly three-fourths lived in urban areas.

47

Table 2.--Selected Household Characteristics: 1976 Family
Energy Project Sample and Research Subsample
(Lansing, Michigan, 1976).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family Energy Research
Household Characteristic Project Sample Subsample
N=263 % N=60 %

Family Type

Husband/wife with children (159) 60.5 (45) 75.0

Husband/wife no children ( 77) 29.3 (15) 25.0

Female heads with children ( 26) 9.9 ( 0) 0.0

Male heads with children ( l) .4 ( 0) 0.0
Household Income, 1975

Less than $4,999 ( 20) 7.6 ( 1) 1.7

$ 5,000 - $ 9,999 ( 40) 15.2 ( 7) 11.7

$10,000 - $14,999 ( 63) 24.0 (13) 21.7

$15,000 - $24,999 ( 90) 34.2 (23) 38.3

$25,000 or more ( 37) 14.1 (15) 25.0

Missing ( 13) 4.9 ( l) 1.7

Median Income $15,100 $19,071

Housing Tenure

Owner (207) 78.7 ‘ (54) 90.0

Renter ( 54) 20.5 ( 6) 10.0

Missing ( 2) .8 ( O) 0.0
Residential Location

Urban (171) 65.0 (43) 71.7

Rural ( 92) 35.0 (17) 28.3

 

48

Table 3.--Se1ected Characteristics of Respondents for
Family Energy Project Sample in 1976 and the
Research Subsample (Lansing, Michigan, 1976).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family Energy Research
Respondent Characteristic Project Sample Subsample
N=263 % N=60 %
Male Respondents
Age level:
18-29 years (44) 18.6 ( 4) 6.7
30-44 years (98) 41.5 (26) 43.3
45-64 years (63) 26.7 (26) 43.3
65 years or more (28) 11.9 ( 4) 6.7
Missing ( 3) 1.2 ( 0) 0.0
Educational level:
Less than high school (47) 19.9 ( 8) 13.3
High school graduate (76) 32.2 (14) 23.4
1-3 years of college (50) 21.2 (18) 30.0
College graduate (63) 26.7 (20) 33.3
Female Respondents
Age level:
18-29 years (73) 28.0 ( 7) 12.5
30-44 years (84) 32.2 (25) 35.2
45-64 years (76) 29.1 (24) 38.3
65 years or more (23) 8.8 ( 4) 12.5
Missing ( 5) 1.9 ( 0) 1.6
Educational level:
Less than high school (47) 18.0 ( 8) 13.3
High school graduate (110) 42.1 (26) 43.4
1-3 years of college (64) 24.5 (14) 23.3

College graduate (40) 15.3 (12) 20.0

 

49

Table 4.--Selected Characteristics of Dwelling Units for
Family Energy Project Sample in 1976 and the
Research Subsample (Lansing, Michigan, 1976).

 

Family Energy Research

Dwelling Unit Characteristic PrOJeCt Sample Subsample

 

 

N=263 % N=60 %

 

Type of Dwelling Unit

 

Single family dwelling (223) 84.8 (58) 96.7
Single converted to multiple ( 4) 1.5 ( 0) 0.0
Mobile Home ( 10) 3.8 ( O) 0.0
Duplex ( 7) 2.7 ( 2) 3.3
Apartment ( 18) 6.8 ( 0) 0.0
Missing ( l) .4 ( 0) 0.0

Number of Rooms

 

l - 5 ( 93) 35.4 ( 8) 13.3
6 - 7 (104) 39.5 (32) 53.4
8 or more ( 66) 25.1 (20) 33.3

Type of Energy Used in Home

 

(Primary source)

Natural gas (156) 59.3 (41) 68.0
Fuel Oil ( 83) 31.6 (18) 30.0
Electricity ( 9) 3.4 ( l) 2.0
L.P. gas ( 9) 3.4 ( 0) 0.0

Wood ( 6) 2.3 ( 0) 0.0

 

50

Two-thirds of husbands had some college work and 43.3%
of wives had attended college. Half the men and women
were 45 or older. Three-fourths of the families had
children living in the home.

Compared to the larger sample, research subsample
families had higher incomes and were more likely to be
home owners and to live in urban areas. Educational
levels of males were slightly higher in the research
subsample than those for males in the larger sample.
Females' educational levels were comparable in both
samples. Men and women in the research subsample were
older than those in the larger sample. In the larger
sample, 67% of husband-wife families had children living
at home while in the subsample 75% of two parent families
had children at home.

Structural aspects of residences have been shown
to be critical constraints in energy consumption. Type
and size of dwelling and types of fuels used have been
presented in Table 4. All but two families (96.7%) in
the research subsample lived in single family dwellings.
The remaining families lived in duplexes. One—third of
the dwellings had eight or more rooms. Natural gas and
fuel oil were the primary sources of energy used to heat
these dwellings.

In contrast, slightly fewer families in the

larger sample lived in single family dwellings. There

51

was a greater mixture of dwelling types in the larger
sample than in the research subsample. Dwellings had
fewer rooms. Primary sources of energy for space heating
were similar in both samples.

The criteria of three years in the same residence
and intact husband-wife families probably acted selectively
to cause over representation of older home owners and
single family households with higher incomes in the
research subsample. A few families in the larger study
used wood as their primary fuel. All were eliminated
from the research subsample by the complete energy con—
sumption data criterion. Research sample families were
those who were relatively stable in their living patterns.
They had relatively more human and material resources
with which to implement their lifestyle decisions.
Families in the research sample differed from those in
the larger study in directions expected when selection
criteria were developed.

Most research sample families owned the common
household appliances and few reported the addition of
major appliances between 1974 and 1976 (Keith, 1977).
More than three-fourths of the families reported having
dwellings with insulation in the ceilings and walls in
1976. Less than one-fourth had added insulation to

either ceilings or walls from 1974 to 1976 (see Table 5).

52

Table 5.--Families with Energy Conserving Features, 1976
and Families Reporting Addition of Energy Con-
serving Features, 1974-76 (N=60).

 

Present in Added

Energy C°nserV1ng Household 1976 July '74-June '76

 

 

 

 

Feature
N % N %
Ceiling Insulation 56 93.0 14 23.3
Wall Insulation 49 82.0 10 16.7
New Furnace, 74-76 - - 4 6.7
Measurement

 

The research was concerned with variables of
energy consumption, ecoconsciousness value and contextual
factors of a behavioral, technological and demographic
nature. Energy consumption variables were measured in
BTUsl consumed by the family unit. Values were derived
individually for husbands and wives. Patterns of husband-
wife value congruency and commitment were developed based
on a typology developed by Hogan (1976). Contextual
variables were either family unit data or individual data
depending on the nature of the variable. Each of the
measures and scoring procedures are described in the dis-

cussion that follows.

 

1A British Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of
energy needed to increase the temperature of one pound
of water one Fahrenheit degree when the water is 39.2
degrees originally (Murray, 1976).

53

Energy Consumption Variables
Annual direct residential energypconsumption.
The amount of energy consumed in each dwelling in the
form of cubic feet of natural gas, gallons of fuel oil,
cubic feet of liquid propane and kilowatt hours of elec-
tricity was obtained and converted to BTUs (see Appendix A).
The following conversion factors developed by the

Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation (1974) were

 

 

used:
Fuel Ty e Conversion Factors
9 in BTUs
Natural Gas - 1 cubic foot = 1,032
Electricity - l kilowatt hour = 3,4121 or
10,9102
Fuel Oil - 1 gallon = 138,800
Liquid propane - 1 cubic foot = 2,572

For electricity, two different conversion factors
have been included. Energy is lost in converting and
transmitting any fuel, but the loss with electricity is
so great that studies often have used the factors that
include conversion and transmission loss. Unless otherwise

indicated, in this study, electricity was not adjusted

 

1BTUs consumed ip the home.

2BTUs used to create electricity in a power plant

and transport it, as well as energy used in the home.

54

for conversion and transmission loss because the focus
of this research is only the energy consumed within the
home.

The resulting distributions of each source of
energy and the total across all sources for each year

were used in the analyses reported in Chapter IV.

Weather adjusted direct residential energy con-
sumption. Variation in the severity of winter weather
would influence the total number of BTUs used for space
heating in each dwelling, if all other factors were held
constant. In the Lansing area in 1975-76, there were 1.8%
more heating degree days1 between September 1 and May 31
than for the same period during 1973-74.

The largest single end use of energy in homes is
space heating. Varying with geographical area, national
estimates have ranged from 57% (Stanford Research Insti-
tute, 1972) to 68% (Department of the Interior, 1975).

In the larger study, the fuel used for space heat-

ing (natural gas, oil, electricity) was 80% of the total

 

lUsually heating is not needed in buildings when
the outdoor average daily temperature is greater than 65°.
Heating degree days are calculated by subtracting the
average daily temperature below 65° from 65° (the base).
The result, in number of degrees, is called heating degree
days. The heating degree days for this study were ob—
tained from the Guardian 011 Company, Lansing, Michigan.
The Johnson Degree Day System used by the oil company
measured temperature, wind and sun effects in calculating
the degree days. From September 1 through May 31 there
were 7,579 heating degree days in 1973—74; 7,712 in 1975-
76.

55

energy consumed (this includes some use of natural gas
for cooking, hot water heating and clothes drying). If
electricity is adjusted for conversion and transmission,
the mean is 56%, which is comparable to the national
averages reported above (Keith, 1977).

Percentage increase (decrease) in heating degree
days multiplied by the proportion of direct household
energy used for heating gave an approximation of the
amount of increase (decrease) in consumption that could
be attributed to weather. Thus, holding all other factors
constant, increased energy consumption of approximately
1.4% BTUs for 1975-76 compared to 1973—74 could have been
expected due to more severe weather. Therefore, a longi-
tudinal comparison in the research understates the degree

of change in energy consumption.

Change in total annual direct residential energy

 

consumption. For each household, change in total energy

 

consumption from 1973-74 to 1975-76, was measured by sub-
tracting the total BTUs consumed from all sources for
1973-74 from the comparable figure for 1975-76. A nega-
tive figure indicated a reduction in total household
energy consumption. The change variables were used in

the analysis reported in Chapter IV.

Percentage change in annual consumption. For

 

each household, the percentage difference between BTUs

56

consumed during 1973-74 and 1975-76 was computed. This
was used for descriptive purposes to estimate the relative
extent to which the consumption of each household had
changed, given the previous level of consumption. Eighty
percent of the research subsample families had some
reduction in energy consumption. Approximately 24% of

the families had reductions of 10 to 20%. Thirteen per-

cent had reduced energy consumption 20% or more.

Value Variables

 

Ecoconsciousness 1974 and 1976. For both years,

 

1974 and 1976, the ecoconsciousness value measures were
adapted from Likert-type scales. An attempt was made to
replicate the scale developed by Hogan (1976). She con-
ceptualized this value as an index of "ecological linkages
to the energy situation" (p. 57). Ecoconsciousness was
defined as "the perception of the interrelationship of
man-nature" (Hogan, 1976, p. 57). Scale items used to
measure this value were selected from scales in each
year's self-administered instrument (Appendix C). Five
of those items utilized by Hogan (1976) were repeated
both years and were automatically selected. One item
not repeated in 1976 was adopted for the 1974 measure.
Three items, which appeared to be components of the
singular 1974 item, were adopted for the 1976 measure.
Both measures, when submitted to a panel of experts,

were judged conceptually similar.

57

Coefficient alpha, an index of internal consis-
tency reliability was determined for both value scales
(Mehrens & Ebel, 1967; Specht, 1978). The final 1974
six-item measure had a coefficient alpha of .76519 for
husbands and .71820 for wives. The final 1976 eight-item
measure had a coefficient alpha of .71193 for husbands
and .80251 for wives.

Because of the differences in the number of items
in each year's scale, the 1974 and 1976 raw ecoconscious-
ness scores were not comparable. Mean scores for husbands
and for wives were slightly different in 1974, but were
similar in 1976. Table 6 presents the husbands' and wives'
means, modes and standard deviations in scales for each
year.

Table 6.--Descriptive Data for the Ecoconsciousness

Measures in 1974 and 1976 for Husbands and
Wives (N=60).

 

 

 

 

 

Ecoconsciousness
. . a
Statist1c 1974 1976

Husbands Wives Husbands Wives
Mean 28.877 23.103 20.383 21.350
Mode 20.000 26.000 18.000 18.000
Standard Deviation 4.146 4.505 3.309 3.409
Range 11 - 30 5 - 30 14 - 28 12 - 28
Range Possible 0 - 30 0 - 30 0 - 28 0 — 28
Missing Cases 0 0 0 0

 

aMeans and medians were calculated on raw rather
than standardized scores.

58

Scores on ecoconsciousness measures were standardized1
for purposes of comparison, for use in construction of a
typology of patterns of husband-wife value commitment

and congruency and for use in the analysis reported in
Chapter IV. Frequency distributions of 1974 and 1976
standardized ecoconsciousness scores are presented in
Figure l for husbands and for wives. These distributions
have a mean of zero and are expressed in standard devi-

ations around the mean.

Typology of husband-wife value patterns. A

 

typology of family-value patterns similar to Hogan's
(1976) was constructed for each year from husband-wife
patterns of congruency and commitment. Each year's
(family) typology was developed using a four-step pro-
cedure.

First, total scores for each respondent were
calculated. Second, each respondent's scores were
standardized. Third, each year's distributions of
husbands' and wives' standardized scores were computed
separately. The last step in developing each year's

typology was classification of husband-wife scores into

 

l . .
Scores were standard1zed us1ng:

where: X = raw scale score

 

mean of all scale scores

xl
II

S = standard deviation of
scale scores

59

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

20 d
I HUSBANDS 1974 Median = .04
15 i 1976 Median = -.11
Frequency :
10 -
J
5 i
1
v 1 ‘,"' u 1“
-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Standard Deviation Units
20 J
i WIVES 1974 Median = .18
15.: ‘1976 Median = -.07
Frequency 2
.J
10-
4
d
5.:
j \
L” ‘~L \
l 1 I ] l T r f I r . l ' j I j r T

 

-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -l.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Standard Deviation Units

------ 1974
——————1976

Figure l.--Distributions of Husbands' and Wives' 1974 and
1976 Standardized Ecoconsciousness Scores.

60

one of nine intrafamilial categories. The classification
was based on the partitioned distributions reported in
Table 7. The "medium commitment" category was comprised
of approximately 30% of the scores on each side of the
mean in each distribution. Scores higher than those 30%
above the mean were defined as "high commitment" and
scores lower than the 30% below the mean were designated
as "low commitment." The typology of nine intrafamilial

categories constructed was:

 

 

 

Cate or Husband's Wife's
————9——X Comm1tment Comm1tment
1. high high
2. medium medium
3. low low
4. high medium
5. high low
6. medium high
7. medium low
8. low high
9. low medium

The first three patterns reflected congruency
between husbands and wives in either high, medium or
low commitments to the value. Frequencies for the
typology are presented in Table 8.

Half the sample families had congruent commitment
to ecoconsciousness. Because the distributions were
intentionally segmented to discriminate high and low
commitment, the medium commitment patterns for both

husbands and wives have a large number of observations.

61

Table 7.--Scores Included in Each Level of Ecoconsciousness Commit-
ment, Husbands and Wives, 1974 and 1976.

 

a
Scores to
Level of Be Included Percentage

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Commitment
Husbands Wives Husbands Wives
Ecoconsciousness
1974
High .76 - 1.72 .84 - 1.53 18.3 23.3
Medium - .90 - .75 - .81 - .83 55.0 60.0
Low —2.86 - -.89 —4.02 - -.80 26.7 16.7
Ecoconsciousness
1976
High .81 - 2.30 .80 - 1.95 18.3 20.0
Medium -1.0l - .80 ~ .96 - .79 66.7 58.3
Low -1.93 - -l.02 -2.75 - -.97 15.0 21.7

 

aScores are standardized from raw scores for each year.

Table 8.--Number of Couples in Each Pattern of Congruency and Commit-
ment to Ecoconsciousness Values, 1974 and 1976.

 

 

 

 

 

Ecoconsciousness
Fam1ly Pattern 1974 1976

N % N %
1. Husband high, wife high ( 5) 8.3 ( 5) 8.3
2. Husband medium, wife medium (22) 36.7 (26) 43.3
3. Husband low, wife low ( 6) 10.0 ( 5) 8.3
4. Husband high, wife medium ( 5) 8.3 ( 5) 8.3
S. Husband high, wife low ( 1) 1.7 ( 1) 1.7
6. Husband medium, wife high ( 8) 13.3 ( 7) 11.7
7. Husband medium, wife 10w ( 3) 5.0 ( 7) 11.7
8. Husband low, wife high ( l) 1.7 ( 0) 0.0
9. Husband low, wife medium ( 9) 15.0 ( 4) 6.7

60 100 60 100

 

62

As a result, more than one-third of the couples had a
congruent medium commitment to ecoconsciousness in 1974.
Two-fifths had a similar pattern in 1976.

The greatest incongruency in husband and wife
patterns of commitment were those in which one spouse was
at each extreme; patterns 5 and 8, husband high and wife
low and vice versa. Only two couples in 1974 and one
couple in 1976 were in one of the extremely incongruent
ecoconsciousness commitment patterns.

Highest commitment was reflected in pattern 1,
husband high and wife high. Pattern 3 represented lowest
commitment. Approximately the same proportion of each
year's sample were in a congruent high or congruent low
commitment pattern.

As Hogan (1976, p. 62) noted, "While there is
hierarchical order to the patterns, the typology is a
nominal measurement, i.e., all the numbers assigned to
the patterns cannot be ordered or added." There is no
conceptual basis for weighting the pattern. Chi-square
tests were used to examine shifts in patterns of con-
gruency and commitment from 1974 to 1976. Stepwise
regressions were employed to examine the impact of change
in ecoconsciousness on consumption. Change in ecocon-
sciousness was measured by subtracting the 1974 standard-
ized score from the comparable 1976 score. Each year's

pattern variables and energy consumption variables were

63

submitted to analysis of variance to see which patterns
were more closely associated with levels of energy con-
sumption. Finally, each year's ecoconsciousness variables,
energy consumption variables and contextual variables were

clustered separately.

Behavioral Contextual Variables

 

Behavioral influences expected to impact on
families' abilities to translate the ecoconsciousness
value into energy conservation were overall effectiveness
of family functioning, level of stress in the family sys-
tem and the degree of energy crisis experience. The last
factor was examined using two measures: belief in the
reality of the energy crisis and self-reports of increase
in attempts to carry out conserving activities (conser-
vation intensity). These behavioral measures are

described below.

Family effectiveness 1974 and 1976. The family-

 

effectiveness measure was developed by F. van der Veen,
and Huebner (1974) and van der Veen and Novak (1974) to
measure family members' concepts of the real and the
ideal family. First a Q sort of 80 items was constructed
to determine the importance of the family unit for the
individual's perception of well—being. Family effective-
ness, a 48-item measure, was the result of 27 clinicians'

high agreement with these items as being characteristic

64

or uncharacteristic of the "ideal family." The score
assumes that the clinicians' judgments comprise an expert
assessment of qualities necessary for effective family
living (van der Veen et al., 1974).

Researchers on the larger family energy study
adapted the measure by selecting 20 items based on item
discrimination scores developed by Imig (1971). The
scale was converted from a Q-sort to a Likert-type scale
for use in the self-administered instrument with a large
sample. The complete 20-item scale was included in both
the 1974 and the 1976 survey (see Appendix D).

In the subsample, the 1974 coefficient alpha
measuring reliability was .87218 for husbands and .89830
for wives. The same reliability coefficient on the 1976
data was .96506 for husbands and .93336 for wives. Data
on family effectiveness for the research subsample are
presented in Table 9. Scores on family effectiveness
scales were very similar for husbands and wives in both
years. A slight increase in means occurred from 1974 to
1976.

Family effectiveness scores were standardized for
inclusion in the cluster analysis reported in Chapter IV.
When standardized, all data used in the clustering pro-

cedure were expressed in comparable units.

65

Table 9.--Husbands' and Wives' Family Effectiveness, 1974
and 1976 (N=60).

 

 

 

 

a 1974 1976
Statistic

Husbands Wives Husbands Wives
Mean 56.2 55.6 58.4 58.7
Standard Deviation 8.5 8.9 8.2 10.7
Mode 59.0 V 59.0 60.0 60.0
Range 32 - 72 27 - 70 37 - 77 28 - 80
Missing Cases 0 0 1 l

 

aStatistics were based on raw rather than standard-
ized scores.

Stress. A rough estimate of the level of stress
in the family system was obtained using an adaption of the
Social Readjustment Scale (SRS) (Holmes & Rahe, 1967) and
the Life Change Units Scale (LCUS) (Rahe, Mekean, &
Arthur, 1967). The 43-item SRS measure is a cluster of
life events that require ongoing life adjustment and have
been associated with the onset of illness (Holmes & Rahe,
1967; Masuda & Holmes, 1967). Some events are "stressful"
even if socially desirable. Outstanding personal achieve-
ment is an example. Holmes and Rahe (1967) noted that
one these seemed common to all of the life events. "The
occurrence of each usually evoked or was associated with
some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the
involved individual" (p. 217). The measure was con-

structed from life events with this common theme. The

66

underlying basis for the measure, from psychophysics, is
that an observer's subjective assessment (of quality,
quantity, magnitude or intensity of physical phenomena)
plotted against the physical dimension being perceived
". . . provides a reliable delineation of man's ability
to quantify certain of his experiences" (Holmes & Rahe,
1967, p. 217). Holmes and Rahe (1967) concluded that
individuals in their sample were able to make these judg-
ments about psychosocial as well as psychophysical phe-
nomena. They found a high degree of consensus between
groups and individuals. They feel that this suggests "a
universal agreement between groups and individuals about
the significance of the life events under study that
transcends differences in age, sex, marital status, edu-
cation, social class, generation American, religion and
race" (p. 217).

In a longitudinal study of life-change and illness
patterns, Rahe et a1. (1967) used recall information and
objective records. Their 4l-item measure (LCUS) was
similar to the SRS (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).

For the Family Energy Research Project, 28 events
derived from the SRS and LCUS were included in the instru-
ment. Slight changes in wording were made in several
items to make these less anxiety evoking for respondents.
Values assigned to each event were those developed for

the original scales (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Rahe et al.,

67

1967). When slight differences in the two sources
occurred, a group of faculty (and this researcher) chose
a value that was between those in the SRS and LCUS. For
this research, the entire stress scale used in the larger
project was utilized as a rough index of the relative
level of stress experienced by families in the study

(see Appendix E for listing of events). Comparable
indexes were not included in the 1974 survey instruments.

Researchers vary as to what magnitude on the
scales indicates "high risk" of illness. Rahe et a1.
(1967) found a LCUS mean score of 130 one year prior to
a minor health change and a LCUS mean score of 164 one
year prior to a major health change. When scores exceeded
300, about 70% of the cases experienced illness. For
this research, concern was not with exact magnitudes but
the relative experiences of families with the stressful
events.

In this research, the maximum magnitude possible,
experiencing all 28 events, was 1071. Sixteen percent
of the families reported none of the events as having
occurred. Half the families had levels between one and
100. Just over 20% had levels between 101 and 200.

Three families reported events that taken together
resulted in stress levels between 201 and 251 (see

Table 10).

68

Table 10.--Levels of Stress Experienced in 1975-76a (N=60).

 

Approximate Magnitude of

 

Stress in Family Systemb N %
None (10) 16.7
1-100 (33) 55.0
101-200 (14) 23.3
201-251 ( 3) 5.0
Above 251 ( 0) 0.0
Total 60 100

 

aThe highest magnitude possible was 1071.

bValues based on those developed by Holmes and
Rahe (1967), Rahe et a1. (1967) and judgment of expert
panel.

Belief in the energy crisis 1974 and 1976. To
obtain an idea of how salient the energy crisis was for
families, a question designed to elicit this information
was asked in both 1974 and 1976. Responses reflected
whether or not families perceived the energy situation as
stressing. Some recoding was done to make codes and
direction of codes comparable for each year.

In 1974, 68% of wives and 45% of husbands
believed in the reality of the energy problem. By 1976,
belief in the energy crisis had drOpped to 47% of wives.
The same proportion of husbands in 1976 as in 1974, 45%,

reported they believed in the energy crisis (see Table 11).

69

Table 11.—-Responses to Belief in the Energy Crisis for
1974 and 1976 (N=60).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Husbands Wives
N % N %
1974 Believe Energy Problem
is Real
Yes (27) 45.0 (41) 68.4
No (33) 55.0 (19) 31.6
60 100 60 100
1976 Believe in Energy Crisis
Now
Yes (27) 45.0 (28) 46.7
No (33) 55.0 (30) 50.0
Missing ( 0) 0.0 ( 2) 3.3
60 100 60 100

 

Conservation intensity. The index of repetitive

 

household-conservation practices developed by Keith (1977)
was used without alteration in this research. An array
of items (see Table 12) concerning conservation practices
was presented to each husband and wife in 1976. For each
item, two questions were asked: "To what extent did the
family practice the behavior and had they increased the
practice from 1974 to 1976."

Family scores were formulated by assigning each
spouse's response a score of one if they reported an
increase in the practice to the extent of all or most of
the time. A zero was assigned to those who did not

report an increase or did not report doing the practice

70

Table 12.--Reported Adoption and Increase of Household Energy Conserv-
ing Practices, 1976a (N=60).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ener Conser in Adoptionb Increasec
9y . V g 1976 1974-1976
Pract1ce
N % N %
Cover or seal windows and doors
with storm windows or plastic (54) 90 (23) 38
Both adults (45) 75 (13) 22
One adult ( 9) 15 (10) 17
Have heating equipment cleaned
and serviced (51) 83 (23) 38
Both adults (41) 68 (10) 22
One adult (10) 15 (l3) 17
Turn gown thermostat while sleeping
to 60 or less in the winter (34) 57 (30) 50
Both adults (15) 25 (12) 20
One adult (19) 32 (18) 3O
Maintain daytime temperature at
68° or less in the winter (46) 77 (39) 65
Both adults (32) 53 (27) 45
One adult (19) 32 (12) 20
Do not heat some rooms in winter (39) 65 (26) 43
Both adults (30) 50 (13) 22
One adult . ( 9) 15 (13) 22
Turn off lights not in use (60) 100 (52) 87
Both adults (56) 93 (30) 50
One adult ( 4) 7 (22) 37
Dry clothes on clothesline rather
than in dryer (20) 33 ( 9) 15
Both adults . ( 9) 15 ( 2) 3
One adult (11) 18 ( 7) l2
Limit amount of hot water for bathing,
dishwashing and washing clothes (40) 67 (32) 53
Both adults (17) 28 ( 9) 15
One adult (23) 38 (23) 38
Cook several dishes in oven at
same time (47) 78 (28) 47
Both adults (29) 48 (13) 22
One adult (18) 30 (15) 25

 

aFigures have been rounded.
b . .
Includes categories all/most of the t1me.

c . . . .
Includes categorles increased 1n the preceding two years to
the extent of all/most of the time.

71

all or most of the time. Family scores for each item
ranged from zero to two. A final scale score was
obtained by summing across the nine items. The resulting
family score was designated increased intensity of con-
servation behavior. The reader is referred to Keith
(1977) for a full description of the scale development.

Table 12 presents the data for the research sub-
sample. More than 75% of the families reported covering
or sealing windows, having heating equipment cleaned and
serviced, maintaining daytime temperature at 68° or less
in winter, turning off lights not in use and cooking
several dishes in the oven at the same time.

Those practices that had received increased
attention from more than one-half of the families were:
turning off lights not in use, maintaining daytime tem-
perature at 68° or less in the winter and limiting the
amount of hot water for bathing, dishwashing and washing
clothes.

Summing across items, families' scores ranged
from 0 to 15 with a mean of 6.5. Keith (1977) reported

a range of 0 to 17 and a mean of 6.4.

Technological Contextual Variables

 

Technological variables that have been found to
be related to energy consumption included in this research
were the addition of a new furnace between 1974-76, the

presence of insulation in walls and ceilings in 1974 and

72

1976 and the number of rooms in the house. The first
two variables were measured by a yes - no question and
the last by a request for the number of rooms in the
house not including bathrooms. With the exception of
the addition of a new furnace, each of the preceding
variables was measured in both 1974 and 1976 surveys.
The appropriate year's technological variables were used
in the cluster analysis of contextual variables and
energy consumption. The same new furnace variable was
used in both years' analyses. Table 5 presents descrip-
tive information for the first three variables. Number
of rooms in the house in 1976 is presented in Table 4.

A fifth of the sample added insulation to ceilings between
1974 and 1976 and 16% added wall insulation. Four fami-

lies installed a new furnace.

Demographic Contextual Variables

 

Several demographic characteristics of husbands
and wives and families were included in the cluster analy-
ses of contextual factors and energy consumption. These
included number of people in the household in 1974 and
1976, income in 1974 and 1976, husband's and wife's edu—
cation in 1974 and 1976 and husband's and wife's employ-
ment in 1974 and 1976. The latter was included as a
yes - no measure to provide a rough index of presence
or absence from the household during some part of the

day. Income and education data for the research sample

73

were discussed previously (see Tables 3 and 4). Employ-
ment information and number in the household are pre-
sented in Tables 13 and 14.

A similar number of husbands were employed in
1974 and 1976. The number of wives employed dropped
between 1974 and 1976. This may reflect the impact of

the economic slowdown that occurred during that period.

Data Analysis Procedures

 

Hypothesis testing was conducted using parametric
and nonparametric statistical techniques. An alpha level
of .05 was selected. This represents the probability
of a Type I error, i.e., the likelihood that the null
hypothesis will be rejected when, in fact, it is true.

The Chi-square test, a nonparametric test of sta-
tistical significance, was employed to examine indepen—
dence of (l) ecoconsciousness commitment levels (1974 and
1976), (2) husbands' and wives' changes in ecoconscious-
ness commitment and (3) 1974 and 1976 congruency/
incongruency in husband-wife commitment.

Multiple regression analysis was used to examine
the relationships between consumption patterns (1976
level and change in consumption 1974-76) and changes in
ecoconsciousness and congruency or incongruency of
husbands' and wives' commitment to ecoconsciousneSs.

The collective and individual impacts of the independent

variables on variance in each dependent variable were

Table l3.--Employment Status of Husbands and Wives in 1974

and 1976 (N=60).

 

1974

 

Spouse Yes

1976

 

 

N %

 

Yes No

 

N % N %

 

Husbands (53) 88.3

Wives (36) 60.0

(54) 90.0 ( 6) 10.0
(22) 36.7 (38) 63.3

 

Table 14.--Number of Persons in the Household in 1974 and

1976 (N=60).

 

 

 

 

1976
Number in Household
% N %
2 - 4 58.3 (37) 61.6
5 - 6 33.3 (18) 30.0
7 - 9 8.3 ( 5) 8.3

 

75

examined. Explanation of variance, however, was not a
primary objective. Instead the multiple regression was
employed as a descriptive tool to explore the relative
contributions of the independent variables and the
direction of their relationship to each dependent
variable.

Dependent t tests were used to test for signifi-
cant differences in annual consumption means (1973-74 and
1975-76). Independent t tests were employed to contrast
groups that had different levels of ecoconsciousness com-
mitment.

Contextual factors and consumption patterns were
clustered for 1974 and 1976 by a hierarchical clustering
routine. The diameter method used in this process spe;
cified that the most highly correlated pair of variables
would be selected first. In each succeeding step, the
next most highly correlated pair is chosen. One variable
may be highly correlated with another that has already
gone into the cluster. If this is the case, the new
variable is joined with the grouping already in the
cluster. A criterion diameter of not less than a .30
correlation was selected for the determination of the
partition that best represented the structure in the
data. These partitions (1974 and 1976) were computed
and compared. The reader is referred to Johnson (1967)
for a more detailed description of the hierarchical

clustering procedure.

76

Analysis was completed using a Control Data
Corporation 6500 Computer, the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences and a hierarchical clustering program
(Program STRUCTR), which was written in the Computer

Science Department, Michigan State University.1

 

1Contact Professor Richard C. Dubes for further
information.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

This chapter contains a list of the hypotheses
tested, assumptions related to the statistical models
employed, findings related to each hypothesis test and

summary of hypothesis testing.

Hypotheses Tested
The following research hypotheses were formulated

and tested:

Hypothesis 1:

 

Families have reduced their residential energy con-
sumption from 1974 to 1976.

Hypothesis 2

 

The levels of husbands' and wives' 1974 and 1976
commitment to ecoconsciousness are related.

Hypothesis 3:

 

There is a relationship between husbands' and wives'

changes in levels of commitment to ecoconsciousness
in 1974-76.

77

78

Hypothesis 4:

 

Families in which husbands or wives have high commit-
ment to ecoconsciousness in 1974 or in 1976 have
reduced residential energy consumption from 1974

to 1976.

Hypothesis 5:

 

Husbands' and wives' change in ecoconsciousness is
inversely related to their residential energy con—
sumption.

5.1. There is a negative relationship between change
in husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness value
(1974-76) and change in residential energy con-
sumption (1974-76).

5.2. There is a negative relationship between change
in husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness value
(1974-76) and 1976 level of residential energy
consumption.

Hypothesis 6:

 

There is a difference in congruency/incongruency of
husband-wife ecoconsciousness value patterns in 1974
and 1976.

6.1. Families have shifted in their pattern of com-
mitment to ecoconsciousness from 1974 to 1976.

6.2. Congruency of husbands' and wives' commitment
to the ecoconsciousness value is related to
change in consumption (1974-76) and to 1976
level of consumption.

6.2.1. There are differences among husband-wife
ecoconsciousness value commitment pat-
terns for change in consumption from
1974-76 and for 1976 level of consumption.

6.2.2. Families in which the husband has a low
commitment to ecoconsciousness differ
in consumption patterns from those in
which the husband has a medium and/or a
high level of commitment.

79

6.2.3. Families in which both the husband and
the wife were below average in ecocon-
sciousness in both 1974 and 1976 differ
from those who were above average in
their levels of consumption and in
change in consumption.

6.2.4. Families in which the husband and the
wife increased ecoconsciousness from
1974 to 1976 differ from those who
decreased in their levels of consumption
and in change in consumption.

Hypothesis 7:

 

The underlying relationship among contextual factors
related to families' residential energy consumption
changed from 1974 to 1976.

Assumptions for Statistical Models

 

A variety of assumptions were necessary for the
statistical models employed in this research. If assump-
tions could not be met, the planned statistical model was
not employed or inferences were limited to the sample.

For the two sample independent t test, normality
of the underlying populations, random selection of the
sample and homogeneity of population variances were
assumed. Selection of the larger sample was random,
inferences based on subsample data can only be made to
the population with similar characteristics (relatively
affluent families). This was discussed previously as a
limitation of the study (Chapter I). With a sample of
60, violation of the normality assumption was not con-
sidered a problem. In addition, t tests are considered

robust to violation of the normality assumption (Hays,

80

1973). When independent t tests were used, the F test
for homogeneity of populations variances was applied. The
T value was calculated with an adjustment in degrees of
freedom when homogeneity could not be assumed.

The related samples dependent t test did not
require the assumption of homogeneity of population
variances, but it was necessary to assume that the factor
used in matching introduced a strong relationship between
means. Since the same family's mean levels of consumption
for two years were compared, this assumption was met.
Also, normality of the population of differences in means
and randomness were assumed.

In order to make inferences to populations from
multiple regression analyses, the following assumptions
are necessary: random sample selection and independence
of observations, a normal distribution of the dependent
variable for a given combination of the independent vari—
ables, a linear relationship between independent and
dependent variables and homogeneity of error variance for
the dependent variable (Hays, 1973).

As noted previously, randomness and normality
assumptions were satisfactorily met. Residuals were
examined for evidence of violation of the linearity and
homogeneity assumptions. Violations of these two assump—
tions were viewed as restrictions on inferences that
could be made to the underlying population. As Hays

(1973) explains,

81

It is not necessary to make any assumption at all
about the form of the distribution, the variability
of Y scores within X columns, or "arrays," or the
true level of measurement represented by the scores
in order to employ linear regression and correlation
indices to describe a given set of data. So long

as there are N distinct cases, each have two numeri-
cal scores, X and Y, then the descriptive statistics
of correlations and regression may be used. (p. 636)

 

For the Chi-square test, mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories for each variable are required. In
addition, a theoretical cell frequency of less than five
is considered undesirable for the Chi-square test (Isaac &
Michael, 1971). Caution was used in interpreting results
when cells contained few observations.

In applying the fixed effects analysis of variance
model, one assumes independently drawn observations from
normal populations each with the same variance and inde—
pendence of error components across all pairs of obser-
vations. Statistical independence of error components
was assured by the random and independently drawn sample.
As with t tests, the analysis of variance procedure is
robust to violation of the normality assumption. This
procedure was used to examine groups who had different
patterns of commitment to ecoconsciousness. The number
in each group differed. Thus, the test would not be
robust with respect to violation of the assumption of
homogeneity of population variances. When this happened,
the results were interpreted with caution. It was pos-
sible that a larger than expected Type I error may have

occurred.

82

Results of Hypothesis Testing

 

Each hypothesis is presented along with a report
of findings. Hypotheses are grouped to emphasize: con-
sumption levels 1973-74 and 1975-76, commitment to eco-
consciousness, change in ecoconsciousness 1974-76, con-
gruency of husband-wife ecoconsciousness and patterning
of contextual factors, ecoconsciousness and energy con-
sumption.

Consumption Levels, 1973-74 and
1975-76

 

Hypothesis 1:

 

Families have reduced their residential energy
consumption from 1974 to 1976.
This hypothesis was tested using the dependent

t test. Results are reported in Tables 15 and 16.

Findings. The hypothesis was supported. Resi—
dential energy consumption from all sources was reduced
by an average of 20.820 million BTUs from 1973-74 to
1975-76, a 9.4% reduction overall. Similar results were
obtained when total energy consumed was adjusted for
electricity lost in transmission; an average reduction
of 21.347 million BTUs (7.3%) occurred.

Further analysis revealed that families reduced
fuel oil and natural gas consumption, but did not reduce

electrical consumption from 1973-74 to 1975-76.

83

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mocmuommao

 

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mDBm mo mcoflaaflz mo mammz Hmscca cmmzumn mocwummwwo MOM ummale mo muaammmlu.ma manna

85

Specifically natural gas consumption was reduced 9% and
fuel oil was reduced 15.6%. The latter reduction may
have been related to the fact that fuel oil consumers
experienced the greatest price increases (Gladhart et al.,
1978). For electricity, there was a slight but not sig-
nificant decrease in BTUs consumed whether or not elec—

tricity was adjusted for transmission loss.

Commitment to Ecoconsciousness

 

Hypothesis 2:

 

The levels of husbands' and wives' 1974 and 1976
commitment to ecoconsciousness are related.
Kendall's Tau (Kendall, 1970) was employed to
measure the strength of the relationship between levels
of husbands' and wives' 1974 and 1976 commitment to eco-

consciousness. Results are presented in Table 17.

Findings. The hypothesis was supported for both
husbands and wives. Significance levels were less than
.001 for both groups. The measure of association Tau
indicated a weak relationship between previous level of
commitment and 1976 commitment level for both husbands
and wives. Several cells contained no observation.
Therefore, caution was used in making inferences as a

result of this hypothesis test.

86

Table l7.—-Levels of Husbands' and Wives' Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness in 1974 and 1976 (N=60).

 

1976 Level of Commitment to

 

 

 

 

Ecoconsciousness
Low Medium High
1974 Level of Commitment Husbandsa
to Ecoconsciousness (number)
Husbands
Low 6 10 0
Medium 3 25 5
High 0 5 6
Wivesb
(number)
Wives
Low 6 4 0
Medium 7 21 8
High 0 10 4

 

aKendall's Tau .08, p < .oooos

bKendall's Tau

.06, p < .001

87

Hypothesis 3:

 

There is a relationship between husbands' and wives'
changes in levels of commitment to ecoconsciousness
in 1974 and 1976.

In order to measure the strength of relationship
between husbands' and wives' changes in levels of commit-
ment to ecoconsciousness, Goodman-Kruskal's Lambda (Hays,
1973) was used (see Table 18).

Table 18.--Changes in Husbands' and Wives' Levels of Com-
mitment to Ecoconsciousness, 1974 to 1976

 

 

 

(N=60).
Change in Level of Commitment to
- _ a
Spouse Ecoconsc1ousness, 1974 1976
No Change +Change -Change
Husbands 37 15 8
Wives 31 12 17

 

aGoodman-Kruskal's Lambda = .08, p < .0002

Findings. Husbands' and wives' changes in level
of commitment from 1974-76 were weakly related. Inspec-
tion of the data indicated that while more husbands moved
up at least one level (e.g., medium to high) more wives
dropped at least one level. More husbands than wives

made no change in a level.

Hypothesis 4:

Families in which husbands or wives have high commit-
ment to ecoconsciousness in 1974 or in 1976 have
reduced residential energy consumption from 1974 to
1976.

88

This hypothesis was tested using the dependent
t test on differences in annual consumption means. Results

are reported in Tables 19 and 20.

Findings. The hypothesis was supported for both
1974 and 1976. Those who had high commitment to ecocon-
sciousness in 1976 had greater change in consumption than
those who had a similar commitment level in 1974. The
same finding resulted when total consumption was adjusted
for electricity lost in transmission.

High 1976 commitment was associated with an
unadjusted reduction of 12% and an adjusted reduction of
10.8%. The comparable 1974 figures were 6.7% and 5%.
Among those with high versus low commitment, mean 1973—74
levels of consumption were highest for the group with
high 1974 ecoconsciousness commitment. This group began
the 1974-76 period with higher consumption levels and
had less change over that period than the group who had
high 1976 ecoconsciousness commitment (see Table 21).

Change in Ecoconsciousness,
1974-76

 

Hypothesis 5:

 

Husbands' and wives' change in ecoconsciousness is
inversely related to their residential energy con-
sumption.

Stepwise multiple regression was used to investi-

gate all of the subhypotheses under this major hypothesis.

89

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91

 

 

 

 

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92

Correlation between previous level of consumption (1973—
74) and present (1975—76) level of consumption was high
(r=.92). A moderate correlation was found between
previous level of consumption (1973-74) and change in
consumption from 1974-76 (r=-.42). Keith (1977) also
found that previous level of consumption was a powerful
predictor of current level of consumption. Thus, in any
regression analysis, these two factors would account for
most of the variance. Therefore, regression analysis was
used, in this study, as a descriptive tool to provide
insight into the direction of relationships and the rela-
tive impact of independent variables on dependent

variables.

Hypothesis 5.1:

 

There is a negative relationship between changes in
husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness value (1974-
76) and change in residential energy consumption
(1974-76) (e.g., as the value increased consumption
was reduced).
Results of the test of Hypothesis 5.1 are given
in Table 22. There was no pattern in the plot of

residuals. Thus assumptions of linearity and homogeneity

could be judged as having been met.

Findings. Because of the way the dependent
variable was specified (reduction had a negative sign),

a negative regression coefficient was expected. Results

93

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94

differed from the expected for husbands but not for

wives. Given the wives' changes in ecoconsciousness,
husbands' changes had an impact on the dependent variable
that was significant (p < .02), although in the opposite
direction than expected. Husbands' change in ecoconscious-
ness was positively related to change in consumption and
had nearly twice the impact of wives' change; the regres-
sion coefficient for husbands was 10.7 and for wives
-6.123. The F for the additive effects of both indepen-
dent variables was significant (p < .03). These results
indicate that together the husbands' and wives' changes

in ecoconsciousness had an impact on change in consumption.
Examination of the regression coefficients indicated that
a unit increase in husbands' ecoconsciousness value was
associated with a 10.7 million BTU increase in consumption
and a unit increase in wives' ecoconsciousness value with
a 6.1 million BTU decrease in consumption. Eleven percent
of the variance in change in consumption was explained

by husbands' and wives' changes in ecoconsciousness.

Thus the hypothesis was not supported, since there was

a positive relationship for husbands, which was not the

hypothesized direction.

Hyppthesis 5.2:

 

There is a negative relationship between change in
husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness value (1974-
76) and 1976 level of residential energy consumption.

Results are presented in Table 23.

95

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96

Findings. In contrast to the previous regression
when 1976 level of consumption was the dependent variable
examined, wives' change in ecoconsciousness was the
variable with significant impact. The signs of the
regression coefficient were in the expected direction
for both husbands' and wives' value changes. The magni-
tude of the regression coefficient for wives was three
times that for husbands. The F for the multiple regression
equation was significant. Thus the dependent variables
were additive in their impact on 1976 consumption level.
Thirteen percent of the variation in 1976 consumption was
accounted for by husbands' and wives' changes in ecocon-
sciousness. The hypothesis was supported.

Congruency of Husband-Wife Commitment
to Ecoconsciousness

 

Hypothesis 6:

 

There is a difference in congruency/incongruency of
husband-wife ecoconsciousness value patterns in
1974 and 1976.

To test this hypothesis, a Chi—square test for

independence was employed (see Table 24).

Findings. Proportions of husband-wife congruency
in ecoconsciousness commitment were not statistically
different for 1974 and 1976. For that period, there was
a slight increase in the number of congruent patterns and

a slight decrease in incongruent patterns.

97

Table 24.—-Difference in 1974 and 1976 Congruency of
Husband-Wife Ecoconsciousness Values (N=60).

 

Husband-Wife Value Pattern

 

 

 

Year
Congruent Incongruent
Number
1974 33 27
1976 36 24
Note. Chi-square = .3069, df = 1, Significance:
Not sign1ficant at a = .05.

Patterns of Husband-Wife Commitment
to Ecoconsciousness

 

 

Hypothesis 6.1:

 

Families have shifted in their patterns of commitment
to ecoconsciousness from 1974 to 1976.

Results are presented in Table 25. The cross tabu-
lation had many empty cells. For this reason, a Chi-square
test of differences was not applied. A comparison of the
frequencies for spouse commitment change and a comparison
of the direction was undertaken. A summary of this com-
parison is presented in Table 26. Changes by couples with
congruent versus those with incongruent patterns are pre-

sented in Table 27.

Findings. No statistical test was made. An
inspection of data in Table 27 indicated that if changes

were made they were slightly more likely to result in a

98

 

 

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99

Table 26.-—Type of Shift Made by Husbands, Wives and
Couples in Patterns of Congruency in Commit-
ment to Ecoconsciousness (1974-76).

 

Change Made in Congruence People Who Changed

 

 

 

 

 

 

. Total
of Comm1tment to Ecocon- Peo le
sciousness, 1974-76 Husband Wife Couples (N=120)
(N=60) (N=60) (N=60)
Moved Higher ll 8 4 27
Moved Lower _5 14 _3 25
Total Who Changed: 16 22 7 52
Both Spouses Stayed
the Same 0 0 21 42
One Sppuse Changed lg 19 _p_ gg
Total People: 32 32 56 120

 

Table 27.--Types of Changes in Congruency of Value Patterns
Made by Couples (N=60).

 

Type of Change, 1974—76 Number of

 

Couples

Moved from congruent pattern to

incongruent pattern 12
Moved from incongruent pattern to

congruent pattern 15
Moved from one congruent pattern

to another congruent pattern 7
Moved from one incongruent pattern

to another incongruent pattern 5
Stayed in the same congruent pattern ' l4

Stayed in the same incongruent pattern 7

 

100

congruent pattern of commitment to ecoconsciousness.
Twenty-two couples in which one or both spouses made
changes were in a congruent commitment pattern in 1976.
This compares with the 17 couples for which spouses had
changed who had incongruent commitment patterns in 1976.
Couples seem to be moving toward value congruency.
Further examination of the data was made by
exploring the change in degree of congruency using
weights. Husbands and wives in congruent patterns in
both 1974 and 1976 were assigned a weight of 5339.
Spouses who moved from a perfectly congruent pattern
to an extremely incongruent pattern (Husband - High,
Wife - Low) received a weight of Egg. Those who changed
gag degree moved apart by one commitment level, e.g.,
high to medium. When the overall pattern of commitment
did not change even if spouses reversed their commitment
levels, the degree of congruency change was weighted as
ggpg. Approaching the data using this system of weighting
yielded more support for believing that a movement toward
congruency had occurred. The weighted degree of change
was 17 toward congruency and 13 away from congruency.
By this measure, the sample was four degrees closer to

being perfectly congruent in 1976 than in 1974.

Hyppthesis 6.2:

 

Congruency of husbands' and wives' commitment to the
ecoconsciousness value is related to change in con-
sumption (1974-76) and to 1976 level of consumption.

101

For this analysis, all nine patterns of husband—
wife commitment to ecoconsciousness were used. They were
recoded into a group of congruent patterns (high, medium
or low) and a group that contained all the incongruent
(mixed) patterns. Regressions using a dummy independent
variable for congruency and for incongruency were com-
puted. Results are presented in Tables 28, 29, 30 and 31.
For these regressions, the residuals had distinct patterns
indicating that there was another variable accounting for
the variation in the dependent variable. As reported
earlier, the previous level of consumption was highly
correlated with 1976 level of consumption and moderately
correlated with change in consumption (1974-76). This
variable probably is the one causing the pattern in the

residuals.

Findings. The hypothesis was not supported for
either dependent variable--change in consumption (1974-76)
or 1976 level of consumption--when tested with either 1974
or 1976 congruency and incongruency. None of the four
multiple regression equations met the criterion signifi-
cance level of a = .05. In addition, neither year's
independent variables—-congruency, incongruency--had a
significant impact on change in consumption or 1976 level
of consumption. Less than 2% of the variance in either
independent variable was accounted for-by either year's

patterns of congruency and incongruency.

102

 

 

 

 

 

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103

 

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104

 

 

 

 

 

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105

 

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106

Hypothesis 6.2.1:

 

There are differences among husband-wife ecoconscious-
ness value commitment patterns for change in con-
sumption from 1974-76 and for 1976 level of con—
sumption.

This hypothesis was tested in two stages using a
one-way analysis of variance. Examination of frequencies
indicated that the two extreme incongruent value patterns--
husband-high, wife-low and wife-high, husband-low--had one
or zero observations per pattern. It was decided not to
use these patterns in subsequent analysis. The results
of the analysis of variance for the remaining seven
patterns are reported in Tables 32 and 33. The seven
husband-wife patterns of value commitment were regrouped
into five patterns ranging from husband-high, wife-high
to husband-low, wife-low. Table 34 presents the patterns
as they were regrouped and the respective frequencies.

To explore further the impact of congruency, the regrouped

patterns were used in a second analysis of variance; the

results of which are given in Tables 35 and 36.

Findings. There was no support for the hypothesis
of change in consumption or for the hypothesis of 1976
level of consumption. The same result was obtained when
the original patterns were regrouped into the five pat—
terns.

When the seven patterns were examined, greatest

consumption reduction was made by those in the

107

Table 32.--Results for the One-Way Analysis of Variance of
Change in Consumptiona for 1974-76 (N=59).

 

 

Patternb Number Mean gzgggiign
Husband-High, Wife-High 5 -18.415 22.533
Husband-Medium, Wife-Medium 26 -20.216 27.002
Husband-Low, Wife-Low 5 -4.068 17.168
Husband-High, Wife-Medium 5 -21.847 22.984
Husband-Medium, Wife-High 7 —38.791 35.978
Husband-Medium, Wife-Low 7 -27.790 40.256
Husband-Low, Wife-Medium 4 -9.674 13.387

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Sum of Mean F F
§QE£EE 9E Sguares Sguares Ratio Prob.
Between groups 6 4535.114 755.852 .9453 .4711

Within groups. 52 41577.754 799.572
Total 58 46112.869

 

3Consumption is expressed in BTUs x 106.

bSeven 1976 patterns of husband-wife commitment to
ecoconsciousness as the independent variable.

108

Table 33.--Results for the One-Way Analysis of Variance of
1976 Level of Consumptiona (N=59).

 

 

Patternb Number Mean Standard

DeV1atlon
Husband-High, Wife-High 5 159.476 57.500
Husband-Medium, Wife-Medium 26 204.796 70.741
Husband-Low, Wife-Low 5 215.858 21.857
Husband-High, Wife-Medium 5 195.517 67.338
Husband-Medium, Wife-High 7 195.384 64.124
Husband—Medium, Wife-Low 7 219.991 83.528
Husband-Low, Wife-Medium 4 165.128 35.088

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Sum of Mean F F
§93£99 Qfi Sguares Sguares Ratio Prab.

Between groups 6 17930.210 2988.368 .6797 .6666
Within groups 52 228607.701 4396.302

Total 58 246537.910

 

aConsumption is expressed in BTUs x 106.

bSeven 1976 patterns of husband-wife commitment to
ecoconsciousness as the independent variable.

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mnu “Ammm3 n 3 .ocmnwsn u my mmoomm mucmmmmmmm mama m GA moumoa ummmm mnem

 

109

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mIz .zIm o
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m.m Ame m.m Ame some .eomm m mIz .mIm m

 

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w 2 w Z

 

 

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ammummm nomm om mommsou

 

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ucmsmmEEou mmszocmnmom mo >ocmsmmaoo mo mommmumm Ummnommmm mow mmwocwswommII.vm magma

w

110

Table 35.-~Resu1ts for the One-Way Analysis of Variance of
Change in Consumptiona for 1974-76 with Five
1976 Patterns of Husband-Wife Commitment to
Ecoconsciousness as the Independent Variable

 

 

b Standard
Pattern Number Mean Deviation
High, High 5 -18.415 22.533
High, Medium 12 -31.731 31.214
Medium, Medium 26 -20.216 27.002
Medium, Low 11 -21.202 33.311
Low, Low - 5 - 4.068 17.168
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source df Sum 0f Mean Square F F

 

__. Sguares Ratio Prab.
Between groups 4 2862.305 715.576 .8934 .4743
Within groups 54 43250.564 800.936

Total 58 46112.869

 

aConsumption is expressed in BTUs x 106.

bAny combination of spouses' commitment, e.g., for

the High, Medium pattern either spouse may have either
level of commitment.

111

Table 36.-—Resu1ts of the One-Way Analysis of Variance for
1976 Level of Commitmenta with Five 1976 Patterns
of Husband-Wife Commitment to Ecoconsciousness as
the Independent Variable (N=59).

 

 

Patternb Number Mean Standard
DeV1at1on
High, High 5 159.476 57.500
High, Medium 12 195.440 62.384
Medium, Medium 26 204.796 70.741
Medium, Low 11 200.796 72.950
Low, Low 5 215.858 21.857

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

 

Sum of F F
———S°“rce 1“; T—gmares Mean Square Ratio prob.
Between groups 4 10268.394 2567.099 .5867 .6736

Within groups 54 236269.516 4375.361

Total 58 246537.910

 

aConsumption is expressed in BTUs x 106.

bAny combination of spouses' commitment, e.g., for

the High-Medium pattern either spouse may have either
level of commitment.

112

husband-medium, wife-high group (—38.79 BTUs x 10°).
Collapsing the groups to five patterns yielded a similar
result; the high, medium commitment group had the greatest
reduction (-31.73 BTUs x 106).

Among the seven patterns, the lowest 1976 level
of consumption was in the husband-high, wife-high group.
Collapsing the groups to five value-commitment combinations
did not change the result. Levels of consumption in 1976
increased as the five commitment patterns were ordered
from high to low (see Table 36).

The least change in consumption was made by those
in the husband-low, wife-low group (-4.07 BTUs x 106).
This remained the same when the groups were combined.
Generally, these findings were in the expected direction.

Some unexpected results that occurred were (1) the
relatively large change in consumption made by those in
the husband-medium, wife-low group (-27.79 BTUs x 106) in
comparison to the husband-low, wife-medium group (-9.67
BTUs x 106) and (2) the large differences in 1976 level
of consumption of these groups (165.13 BTUs x 106 compared
to 219.99 BTUs x 106). These unexpected findings were

explored further by Hypothesis 6.2.2.

Hypothesis 6.2.2:

 

Families in which the husband has a low commitment
to ecoconsciousness differ in consumption patterns
for those in which the husband has a medium and/or
a high level of commitment.

113

The hypothesis was tested using independent
t tests for differences in means for both 1974 and 1976
commitment levels. Results are presented in Tables 37,
38, 39, 40, 41 and 42. Similar analyses on consumption,
adjusted for electricity lost in transmission, produced
findings that were in the same direction as those for

unadjusted consumption. These are included in Appendix F.

Findings. The hypothesis was accepted for change
in consumption (1974-76) when husbands who had a medium
or high ecoconsciousness commitment were compared with
those with a low commitment. The finding was true for
both the 1974 and 1976 levels of commitment. A similar
result was obtained for both years when husbands with
low versus medium commitment to ecoconsciousness were
compared. For both years, comparisons of groups in which
husbands had low versus high levels of commitment did not
yield support for the hypothesis. None of the 1974 or
1976 comparisons yielded results in the predicted direc-
tion when either 1974 or 1976 level of consumption was
considered. At the beginning of the study (1974), the
standard deviations for consumption variables were simi-
lar for the group which had high ecoconsciousness and
for the group which had low ecoconsciousness (see Table 41).
In 1976, the standard deviations of the low ecoconscious-
ness group were much less than those of the high eco-

consciousness group. Similar relationships were observed

114

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n

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115

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116

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c

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117

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118

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119

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aaMBIo3B h 50am 30a

 

 

 

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GOaumfiomcoo

m

 

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120

for all other 1976 comparisons (see Tables 38, 40 and 42).
These findings provided further support for believing
that by 1976 families in the high and medium ecocon-
sciousness commitment groups were making changes in

their energy consumption patterns.

Hypothesis 6.2.3:

 

Families in which both the husband and the wife were
below average in ecoconsciousness in both 1974 and
1976 differ from those who were above average in
their levels of consumption and in change in con-
sumption.

Differences in consumption patterns for above and
below average ecoconsciousness groups were examined for
statistical significance using independent t tests. Find—
ings for this analysis are presented in Table 43. Results
for consumption levels, adjusted for electricity lost in

transmission, were similar to those for unadjusted con-

sumption and can be found in Appendix F.

Findings. The hypothesis was not supported.
Large differences in mean changes in consumption existed
between the two groups. Both groups had similar 1976
levels of consumption and dissimilar 1974 levels. The
group with above average ecoconsciousness commitment in
1974 and 1976 had the greatest change in consumption from
1974 to 1976. When sources of fuel were considered,
those families who were fuel oil consumers had the

greatest reduction in consumption (see Table 16). They

121

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c

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122

also experienced the largest increases in prices (Glad-
hart et al., 1978). Since the energy reduction made by
families with above average ecoconsciousness was com—
parable to that made by fuel oil users (-28.099 million
BTUs), a check was made to see if the former group was
dominated by fuel oil users. Only three of the 12
families were fuel oil consumers. This finding yielded
support for the belief that the ecoconsciousness value

rather than price was impacting on consumption change.

Hypothesis 6.2.4:

 

Families in which the husband and the wife increased
ecoconsciousness from 1974 to 1976 differ from those
who decreased in their levels of consumption and in
change in consumption.
Independent t tests were used to test this hypothe-
sis statistically. Results are reported in Table 44.

Similar results were found for adjusted consumption.

These are provided in Appendix F.

Findings. Significant differences for 1974 and
1976 levels of consumption were found between the group
who increased and the group who decreased ecoconsciousness.
There were no statistically significant differences between
the two groups for change in consumption. With respect to
levels of consumption, standard deviations were much
smaller for the group who increased ecoconsciousness

compared to the group who decreased ecoconsciousness.

123

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124

In addition to lower standard deviations, the former group

had lower levels of consumption in both 1974 and 1976.

Contextual Factors, Ecoconsciousness
and Energy Consumption

 

 

Hypothesis 7:

 

The underlying relationship among contextual factors

related to families' residential energy consumption

changed from 1974 to 1976.

Two hierarchical clusterings were performed (one

for the 1974 data and one for the 1976 data) using 21
comparable variables in each clustering. The diameter
clustering method was used. In the first step of this
procedure, the diameter equals the highest correlation
between any two variables in the entire group. In each
succeeding step, the highest correlation between any
other two variables, either within or outside of a pre-
vious grouping, is sought. Higher diameter indicates
more closely related pairs or groupings. The best par-
titions selected as the ones that represent the underlying
structure for the contextual variables and consumption
variables are given in Tables 45 and 46. Partitions for
additional clustering with only one energy consumption

variable per year are reported in Appendix F.

Findings. Inspection of correlations between
pairs of variables indicated change had occurred from

1974 to 1976. For instance, the correlation between

125

Table 45.——Clusters for the 1974 Contextual Factors, Consumption

Change for 1974-76 and 1974 Levels of Consumption.

 

 

 

 

 

Order Diameter
Cluster Variables Groups of . . Groups of
. Inltlal .
Grouped Var1ables Grou in Var1ables
Initially Joined p 9 Joined

Variable Groupingsa at
Diameter = .308
Insulation Ceiling 1974 8 .340
Insulation Walls 1974 8 .340
Husband-Family Effectiveness

1974 3 .534
Wife-Family Effectiveness

1974 3 .534
Husband-Education 1974 2 .717
Wife-Education 1974 2 .717

7 .360

Wife-Belief in Energy Crisis

1974 4 .409
Wife-Ecoconsciousness Value

1974 4 .409
Income 1974 6 .363
Number of Rooms in House

1974 6 .363
Husband-Belief in Energy

Crisis 1974 10 .308
Husband—Ecoconsciousness

Value 1974 10 .308
Husband-Employment 1974 9 .319
New Furnace 1974-76 9 .319
Level of Consumption 1974 l .923
Level of Consumption 1974,

adjusted 1 .923
Change in Consumption

1974-76 5 .371

 

aIn the first step diameter equals the highest correlation

between any two variables in the entire group.

In each succeeding

step, the highest correlation between any two variables either within

or outside of a previous grouping is sought.
cates more closely related pairs or groupings.

Higher diameter indi-
Variables not included

in partition at criterion diameter were wife's 1974 employment, number
of people in the house, conservation intensity 1974-76 and the stress

level in 1976.

126

Table 46.--Clusters for the 1976 Contextual Factors, Consumption

Change for 1974-76 and 1976 Levels of Consumption.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Order Diameter
Cluster Variables Groups of Initial Groups of
Grouped Variables Grou in Variables
Initially Joined p 9 Joined

Variable Groupingsa at
Diameter = .349
Husband—Belief in Energy

Crisis 1976 4 .622
Wife-Belief in Energy

Crisis 1976 4 .622
Change in Consumption,

1974-76 9 .398
Husband-Employment 1976 9 .398
New Furnace 1974—76 7 .464
Insulation Ceiling 1976 7 .464
Husband-Ecoconsciousness

Value 1976 5 .556
Wife-Ecoconsciousness

Value 1976 5 .556
Wife-Employment 1976 10 .349
Husband-Family Effectiveness

1976 2 .742
Wife-Family Effectiveness

1976 2 .742
Income 1976 8 .402
Husband-Education 1976 3 .677
Wife-Education 1976 3 .677
Level of Consumption 1976 l .918
Level of Consumption 1976,

adjusted 1 .918
Number of Rooms in House

1976 6 .484

 

aIn the first step, diameter equals the highest correlation

between any two variables in the entire group.

In each succeeding

step, the highest correlation between any two variables either within

or outside of a previous grouping is sought.
cates more closely related pairs or groupings.

Higher diameter indi-
Variables not included

in partition at criterion diameter were conservation intensity (1974-
76), stress level 1976, insulation in walls and the number of people

in the house.

127

husband's 1974 belief in the energy crisis and 1974 eco-
consciousness value was .308. This compares to a cor-
relation of .008 for the same two variables in 1976. The
same pair of variables for wives had a correlation of .409
in 1974 and .021 in 1976. These results indicate a lack
of relationship between belief in the energy crisis in
1974 and 1976 ecoconsciousness value.

Noticeable shifts in the ways variables grouped
together within each year's clusters can also be detected
(see Tables 45 and 46). Of particular interest were the
groupings for the belief and value variables. In 1974,
wife's belief in the energy crisis grouped first with
wife's ecoconsciousness value and later with husband's
and wife's education. By 1976, the patterns shifted so
that wife's belief was grouped with husband's belief and
wife's ecoconsciousness with husband's ecoconsciousness.
Income and number of rooms in the house were grouped
together in 1974. In 1976, income grouped with husband's
and wife's education and number of rooms in the house
grouped with unadjusted and adjusted levels of 1976 con-
sumption. Wife's employment was associated with husband's
and wife's family effectiveness in 1976, but not included
in the same cluster in 1974. In summary, behavioral
variables--belief in the energy crisis and ecoconscious-

ness value--seemed to converge for spouses by 1976.

128

Summary of Hypotheses Testing

 

Table 47 was constructed to present an overview
of the results of hypotheses testing. It should be noted
that statistical significance is one form of evidence.

In some cases, findings may have practical importance
even though statistical significance is not obtained.
The reverse is also true. The reader is referred to

Chapter V for a more complete discussion of results.

129

.w.z man ceamowmao
pomoomxo ca mI
mcmoamacmam cam
m.m no man» mesa»

 

moms» mucosa m.3I :OammESmcou maanOaumaom
.m ommocm mo ao>ma comaI m>ammmoz oom ca omcmnu 3 com m «.mum
.m.z moo COamoomac
couoomxo ca 3|
m mow mangOammaom
m>amamom mcooamacmamI coIcoma .COammEom manmcoaumaom
.m.z Icou ommoam ca omGM£UI m>ammmoz oom :a mmcmnu 3 com : a.m":
Am.m cam a.mo :OauoESmcoo macmCOauMaom
mmOQQSm amaummm ommocm amaucoCamomI ommm>ca oom ca omcmcu 3 can a mum
coma mo coma mo
coma ea moosuaasoo oom some coma ea camshassoo can some
spas 3 mO\ccm m omonm mow memo: sma3 3 m0\oco m mmonu mom
.m coIcoma .ao>oa scammeoueooI ea monomoccao coImoma .am>wa coauosouooo cum
coIcoma coIcoma
.m .mcmEmaEEou 3 ca momcmsOI 20amma00mmc .mcofimaEEoo x Ga momcmnu mu:
.m mooEuaEEou coma mo ao>oaI o0amma00mm¢ momfiuaeeou coma mo ao>oa mum
coIcoma memo: coImoma
.m .am>oa coauoeomcouI ca mocommmmao .ao>ma coauoESmcou aum
Amzo mcmoacacmam moz moaQMamm> COauMaUOmm4 moanmamm> .
\amo ucmoacacmam mcoccmmoo \oacmCOaUMawm momcaommoca n.:

 

ambaumma mmwocmomom mo mmMEEomII.oc cance

130

 

.m.z ceammsomooo mo ao>oa comaI
AcoIcoo
.m.z ocaumsomcoo ea mononoI unmoummo cocoommom o>am
.m.z coaumESmcou mo am>oa comaI
“coIcoo
.m.z ceaumeomcou ca omGMSUI mcmommmm cm>om
mammmmmm mCOEE
ouaaaooamo> ca moosmaesoo
mmocomommaa oom 3 com x no mcmommmm a.m.cum
.m.z c0ammsomcoo mo ao>oa comaI
Acolcov com
.m.z COammEdmcou ca momcmnuI concamm 3 com x no oocmsmmcou m.c”m
cmmoo mammummm
accommcoo mam
omczom mmanm oEomI oom om ucoauaEEou com 0» ucmEmaEEou
.oaommmmm moz 3 com m mo mcmomucm comaI ceammaUOmmc 3 com m mo camouumm coma a.cum
00m 3 com m mo mucosmm 00m 3 can 2 mo oocozmm
.m.z Icooca\oocmommcoo comaI coaumaUOmmc Icoo:H\oo:osmmcoo coma cum
Amzv ucmoamacmam moz moaQMamm> GOaumaoomm4 moanmamm> .
\Amv mcmoamacmam mcoccwmoo \manmCOammaom unoccmmocca n.m

 

oooeauoooII.oc manna

131

AcoIcoo
ceammeowcou ca mmcmnOI

scammESmcoo
co ao>oa coma mo comaI

AcoIcov
COammEsmcou ca omcmSUI

COammESmcou
mo ao>oa coma mo comaI

AcoIcov
coaumeomcou ca mmcanI

ceammsomcoo
co ao>ma coma mo comaI

acoIcov
ceammfismcou ca mmGMSUI

ceammESmcoo
mo ao>ma coma mo comaI

AcoIcoo
COaUQEomGOO Ca mmcanI

ceamQESmcou
co ao>0a coma mo comaI

mmoomc :ooBmom

Edacoe mommo> 30a

eoacoz mo smam mommo> 30a
coma

 

cman mommo> 30a

Edacofi m9mmo> 30a

Soapoz mo nmam mammo> 30a
coma

 

00m om ucmEHaEEOO m.m

 

memo: :a co mao>oa mo scammcaneou
moocmmocmao com mam>oa mo mummmucou N.m.cum
Amzv ucmoacacmam moz mammamm> ceamMaUOmmm moaQMamm> .
\Amv ucmoacacmam mampcmmoo \magmGOamMaom unoccmmocca 3.x

 

coocaucooII.oc cance

132

monasz mamonmommm u "an

.m0>..n3 H 3 s .mUCMQmaam " m .mmwflmaaOHUmGOUOUfl H GUNm

 

mcmommmm ca mamasm
commoapca COauommmcaI
.pmummm moz

mmoomm coo3uon

mmoumoao
coammEdmcou m.mwmw comm scammEdmcov
ommocm com moanmamm> canma3 wcmommmm ommocm cam moanmamm>
amsmxoucoo mo cmoummm comaI ca mmocmmommao amsmxomcou mo omomumm coma on:
acoIcoo
:Oammaomcou ca omcmnuI manomc coma om coma eomm 00m
GOaumESmcou cmwzmom momma comcmmowo 0&3 mmosm mommo>

co ao>oa coma mo comaI ca monommmwao oom commomosa 3 com m zoom c.~.c"m

 

ounomoccao ommoaI AcoIcoo
.m.z aoaoaaoueoo ea omeocUI mooomo coma can coma soon ea
coaumfiomoou coo3uom memo: 00m mmmmm>< zoaom mommm>
.m.z co aoooa coma mo comaI ea ooeomocmao omomoea o>onc 3 com o zoom m.~.c"m
1coIcoo
.m ceammESmcou ca omcmnoI
GOaumESmcou
.m.z mo aw>oa coma mo comaI smas mammm> 30a
amzv ucmoamacmam uoz moanmamm> COaumaUOmm¢ moanmamm> .
\Amo uoooacaomam oeooeoamo \oanuooauoaom oeooemoooca n.m

 

cmoGaHCOUII.oc magma

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This chapter includes a summary of findings,

statement of conclusions, discussion and implications

for education and research.

Summary of Findings

 

Families reduced their residential energy con-
sumption from 1974 to 1976. The reduction was greater
(9.4%, -20.82 million BTUs) than that observed by Keith
(1977) in the larger study (6.3%). Families in the latter
group were less affluent than those in this study. Fami-
lies in which one, but not necessarily both spouses, had
a high 1976 level of commitment to ecoconsciousness had
a 12% reduction in consumption (~26.ll million BTUs).

The comparable 1974 group made a 6.7% reduction. The
group with high 1974 ecoconsciousness commitment began
the 1974-76 period with a higher level of consumption
than the group who had high 1976 ecoconsciousness and

made less change during that period.

133

134

Significant reductions in fuel oil and natural
gas consumption, but not in electricity consumption,
were observed when consumption was subdivided by fuel
types.

Examination of mean levels of consumption for
four groups--husband and/or wife high (1974, 1976) 9;
low (1974, 1976) commitment to ecoconsciousness—-indicated
that those with high 1974 commitment had the highest con—
sumption levels. These levels were only slightly higher
than those observed for the 1976 low commitment group.

Although not strong, a relationship between 1974
Egg 1976 levels of commitment to ecoconsciousness was
observed for husbands and for wives. Similarly, a weak
relationship was found between husbands' BBQ wives'
changes in ecoconsciousness commitment from 1974 to 1976.

Absolute changes in ecoconsciousness (1974-1976)
made by husbands and wives were negatively related to
1976 levels of consumption. The relationship was sig-
nificant. By itself, wives' change in ecoconsciousness
had a significant impact on 1976 consumption level that
was nearly three times as great as that of husbands.

The hypothesis that change in the ecoconsciousness
value by husbands and wives would be negatively related
to change in consumption (1974—76) was not supported,
since the coefficients in the multiple regression

equation were not significant. Alone, husbands' change

135

was significantly related to consumption change and had
nearly twice the impact of wives', but this relationship
was in the opposite direction from that which was pre-
dicted.

Patterns of husband-wife commitment to ecocon-
sciousness were examined. There was no difference in
husband-wife congruency/incongruency patterns from 1974
to 1976. Examination of shifts in couples' patterns of
ecoconsciousness commitment indicated that, if changes
were made, the results were in the direction of a con—
gruent pattern.

Specific patterns of husbands' and wives' commit-
ment to ecoconsciousness in either 1974 or 1976 were not
related to change in consumption or to 1976 level of
consumption. Investigation of the nine familial commit-
ment patterns was originally intended. These were
changed to seven patterns when too few observations were
found in the extreme patterns, i.e., husband — high,
wife - low and husband - low, wife - high.

Two analyses were conducted: one with the
original seven-pattern typology and a second with a five-
pattern typology, which was created by a regrouping of
the original seven patterns. No differences in the 1976
levels of consumption or in change in consumption (1974-
76) were found using either typology. Although statisti-

cal tests were not significant, consumption means were

136

generally in the expected directions relative to the
other ecoconsciousness commitment patterns. For example,
the least change in consumption was made by those in
the husband - low, wife - low group. The unexpected
findings of a large change in consumption by one medium -
low group (H-M, W-L) and very small change by the other
medium - low group (H-L, W-M) resulted in the hypothesis
that families in which husbands have low commitment to
ecoconsciousness differ in consumption patterns from
those in which husbands have a medium or a medium or high
level of commitment. Partial support for the hypothesis
was found. The group in which husbands had a low commit-
ment and wives had any other commitment level versus
those groups in which husbands had a medium or a medium
or high commitment were significantly different in the
changes they made in consumption. The previous finding
was true for either 1976 or 1974 commitment to ecocon-
sciousness. The results were not significant when 1974
or 1976 levels of consumption were the dependent variables.
A contrast of husbands with low versus husbands with high
commitment did not yield significant results for either
consumption change, 1974 or 1976 levels of consumption.
Contrasts of groups in which both husband and
wife had below average versus above average commitment
to ecoconsciousness in both 1974 and 1976 yielded no

significant results. Inspection of mean changes in

137

consumption (1974-76) indicated a large difference
between the below average (-9.97 million BTUs) and above
average (-27.28 million BTUs) groups. The large reduc-
tion made by the above average ecoconsciousness group
was similar to that made by the fuel oil consumers who
experienced a 126% increase in fuel prices. A check

was made to see if the group was primarily composed of
fuel oil users. Contrary to what was expected, only
three of the families used fuel oil.

Significant differences for 1974 and 1976 levels
of consumption were found when families in which both
husband and wife increased ecoconsciousness were compared
with those in which both spouses decreased their commit-
ment to the value. For the same groups, changes in con-
sumption (1974-76) were not significantly different.

Hierarchical clusters of variables were created
for 1974 and 1976 to investigate the patterning of con-
textual factors, ecoconsciousness and energy consumption.
Patterns seemed to have shifted from 1974 to 1976. By
1976, spouses' beliefs in the energy crisis and ecocon-

sciousness values seemed to be converging.

Conclusions

 

1. Families, especially affluent families, have
reduced residential energy consumption since 1973-74.
The reduction has practical importance (9.4%; 20.82 million

BTUs).

138

2. A high level of commitment to ecoconscious-
ness, by at least one spouse, was associated with a large
(12%) and important (—26.113 million BTUs) reduction in

energy use.

3. Changes in the ecoconsciousness value made
by husbands and wives between 1974 and 1976 were negatively
related to the 1976 level of residential energy consump-
tion. Wives' value change had a greater impact on level

of consumption than husbands' value change.

4. Added together husbands' and wives' changes
in ecoconsciousness were not related to changes in resi-
dential energy consumption from 1974 to 1976. An
increase in ecoconsciousness by husbands was associated
with either a small reduction or an increase in energy

consumption.

5. Congruency of husband-wife ecoconsciousness
commitment level did not appear to have an impact on

residential energy consumption patterns.

6. Low commitment to ecoconsciousness by husbands
appeared to be related to small reductions in energy con-

sumption between 1974 and 1976.

7. Those couples who increased ecoconsciousness,
compared to those who decreased, had lower levels of

consumption in both 1974 and 1976.

139

8. The relationships among contextual variables
that impact on residential energy consumption have
shifted between 1974 and 1976. Belief in the energy
crisis and ecoconsciousness were not clustered together
for husbands and wives in 1974, but in 1976 they seemed

to be converging.

Discussion

 

While the whole sample made a reduction in energy
consumption, those families in which at least one spouse
had high 1976 commitment to ecoconsciousness made a
greater reduction. Reductions were made by relatively
affluent families, a group known to have high levels of
residential energy consumption. These families were in
a position to implement conservation choices. As Denton
Morrison (1977) has noted, with increase in income there
is a monotonic increase in average household energy use.
The increase is exponential for income and indirect
energy use--which is captured in the production and dis—
tribution of goods and services. To be equitable, public
policies must avoid the regressive impacts on the poor
of blanket price increases and conservation programs.

The knowledge that affluent families can make reductions
in residential energy consumption is important to
identifying conservation target groups. However, as
Hannon (1975) has warned, saving energy increases real

income and may lead to greater indirect energy use in

140

the form of more spending for goods and services. Ways
of countering this kind of effect will need to be found.

Energy consumption behavior was measured in only
one area of choice, residential energy use. On the one
hand, changing the physical characteristics of a residence
involves large short-run investments of resources. Once
families have added weather stripping, insulation and
storm windows there may be few things that they can do
to the structure that will help them save more energy.

The rate of reduction in energy consumption may drop off
after feasible dwelling alterations have been accomplished.
Persons with high ecoconsciousness may have found it

easier to pursue that value in areas of choice less sub-
ject to constraint, e.g., food use or transportation.

On the other hand, those high in ecoconsciousness who did
show energy reductions may not be able to maintain similar
rates of reduction in the future. In spite of these possi-
bilities, for the period studied, high ecoconsciousness was
associated with lower levels of 1976 residential energy
consumption and greater consumption reductions from 1974

to 1976.

The positive rather than negative relationship
between husbands' changes in ecoconsciousness and con-
sumption change as well as the larger impact of wives'
change in ecoconsciousness on 1976 level of consumption

may indicate that husbands are lagging behind wives in

141

adoption of an ecoconsciousness value. Another possible
explanation is that husbands may be implementing the eco-
consciousness value in areas of choice not associated
with residential energy. Inspection of the data indi-
cated that those couples who increased ecoconsciousness
(1974-76) had lower initial (1973-74) consumption levels
than those who decreased ecoconsciousness. In these
families, adjustments leading to energy conservation may
have been made prior to the period of study.

The ecoconsciousness value has been viewed as
though it was impacting pp consumption, however, the
reverse may be happening. As people drOp their consump-
tion levels, they may be confirming for themselves an
emerging ecoconsciousness value.

Past experience with shortage may influence both
the importance of ecoconsciousness to people and their
conservation behavior. Field (1973) found that persons
who had experienced a prior period of time when their
water consumption has been restricted recognized ". . .
that people could get along with less water than they
were accustomed to using" (p. 72). Others in her sample
did not have similar feelings. Past experience with
resource scarcity was not measured in the present study.
It may have provided a valuable discrimination tool for
sorting those more likely to have high ecoconsciousness

and related conservation behaviors.

142

An international study of value change conducted
by Inglehart (1977) revealed the importance of resources
to commitment to particular values. He hypothesized that
values placed in high priority would reflect unmet needs.
Findings supported this belief. A "materialist" value
was held by those who were less affluent. The "post
materialist" value, which is very similar to ecoconscious-
ness as conceptualized in this study, was held by persons
who had had little or no experience with physical and
economic insecurity. One might expect that affluent
persons would be more likely to attach importance to eco—
consciousness, also. Relative affluence may mean that
families have more opportunities to implement this value.
Since Inglehart found that experiences during the forma-
tive years of 9 - 12 were highly related to adult values,
one might find that those who gave a high rating to eco-
consciousness have been raised in more affluent families
than those who gave ecoconsciousness a low rating.

Rokeach (1973) found that people attempt to main-
tain consistency between their values and their percep-
tions of their own behaviors, i.e., what they think they
are doing. Hogan's (1976) finding of a relationship
between the ecoconsciousness value and self-reports of
conservation practices is compatible with Rokeach's
hypothesis. The findings of negative relationships

between ecoconsciousness and levels of consumption

143

indicate that, for these families, not only are their
values and beliefs about their behavior consistent, but
also their values and behaviors are consistent.

The finding that those who had above average eco-
consciousness had achieved large energy reductions and
were not those who experienced the greatest price
increases provided additional support-for believing that
the ecoconsciousness value was influencing consumption.

The family typology of ecoconsciousness commit-
ment was not useful in detecting differences in consump-
tion patterns. Several possible explanations exist.

One spouse's level of commitment may be more important
relative to the two consumption variables. Some support
for this existed in the finding for 1974 and 1976 that
no matter what the wife's commitment, husbands with low
versus medium or low versus medium/high commitment were
different in their changes in consumption from 1974 to
1976. The sample was small. Larger numbers in each of
the husband-wife commitment patterns might have yielded
different results.

Congruent versus incongruent ecoconsciousness
commitment patterns were not related to the consumption
variables. However, families in which both spouses
had increased their commitment compared to those in which
both decreased had significantly lower levels of con—

sumption in both 1974 and 1976. For resource use, it

144

may be more important for couples to be congruent in the
process and direction of their value changes than in
their levels of commitment.

The time period of the study, 1974 - 1976, may
have been too short to capture the impact on consumption
behavior of what appeared to be a movement toward con—
gruency of husbands' and wives' ecoconsciousness values
and beliefs in the energy crisis.

From a methodological point of view, measurement
of ecoconsciousness was weakened by the use of scales
constructed from existing instruments and applied to
secondary data. Choice of scale items was limited.
Although the ecoconsciousness value scale had high
internal reliability, no assessment of external relia-
bility was made. In survey research, a large number of
respondents are needed to detect small differences in
variables. Relationships between consumption patterns
and ecoconsciousness may not have been detected due to
the small size of the research sample. To begin with,
the change in consumption was relatively small (9.4%
reduction). Difficulty in detecting effects related to
such a small change was anticipated. Given these diffi-
culties, the fact that relationships were detected pro-
vides additional evidence of the linkage of the ecocon-

sciousness value and residential energy consumption.

145

Implications

 

Exploring the impact of husbands' and wives' eco-
consciousness value on residential energy consumption
patterns has highlighted the complexity of value—resource
linkages in family management. Implications for further

research and education have been generated.

Research

The apparent support for the belief that affluent
families can have an important role in conservation pro-
grams coupled with the evidence of the impact of ecocon-
sciousness on energy reduction raises the question: Is
subscription to high levels of ecoconsciousness among
families with few resources associated with greater
reduction than occurs in similar families who do not
subscribe to high levels of the value? Research directed
toward this question could be useful in planning conser-
vation programs and in refining theoretical understanding
of value-resource relationships in families.

Congruency of husband's and wife's value commit—
ment and its impact on behavior needs further investiga-
tion. Sharing values is often assumed to mean having
like meaning-~agreements in meaning. It is, however,
possible that a family who disagree about a meaning and

who understand that they disagree, have "shared meaning."

 

Scheff (1967) identifies two distinct meanings for

146

consensus. These are agreement and co-orientation. The
former has been taken to mean simple agreement in a
group, while the latter stresses

. . . co-orientation of individuals in a group

toward a statement, rather than the individual

orientations of the members of the group. . . .

The agreement definition of consensus makes no

provision for perception of agreement, which may

be independent of actual agreement, and affect

behavior. (p. 33)
Scheff suggests that degree of consensus be measured by
levels of co-orientation. Agreement is suggested as zero
level of co-orientation. The first level is "perception
of the other's feeling . . . and perception of the other's
perception is the second-level of co-orientation" (Scheff,
1967, p. 36). Thus, the conceptualization of consensus
is of an "infinite series of reciprocating understandings
between the members of a group" (Scheff, 1967, p. 45).
Scheff's ideas provide an alternate way of conceptualizing
and measuring degree of congruency.

Williams (1970) has stated that dissensus is not

"merely lack of concurrence, rather it includes active
rejection, dissent or opposition" (p. 3). Further investi-
gations of ecoconsciousness that differentiate active
agreement-active rejection from simple similarity or
dissimilarity might also provide greater insight into
the role of value congruency in family management. The

data could be obtained using the survey method, but

might be more successfully acquired using a revealed

147

difference technique (Strodtbeck, 1951) or a combination
of participant observations and personal interviews.

Exploration of the ecoconsciousness value and
its impact on energy use is needed in areas other than
residential energy consumption. Selection of areas in
which day-to-day control of energy use is possible is
recommended. These might include management of family
food behaviors or family transportation behaviors.

Further validation of the ecoconsciousness value
scale is recommended. Greater confidence in this measure
and knowledge of its limitations could be achieved through
a check of external reliability and through selection
of samples from different geographical areas with con-
trasting levels of affluence. In addition, exploration
of the value using other research methodologies is
needed. Carefully controlled experimental designs might
yield helpful insights. Observational methods that
provide in-depth data on ecoconsciousness and family
behavior could prove fruitful.

Finally, the relationships examined need to be
re-examined several times over a longer time period.
To capture the complex and interrelated changes that
appear to be occurring, husbands' and wives' ecocon-
sciousness values need to be plotted against consumption
patterns over an extended period of time. Similarly,
the changing relationships among contextual variables

need to be assessed periodically.

148

Education

 

Understanding how families shift resource use
and value patterns in response to mildly stressing events,
like the energy crisis of 1973-74, allows professionals
to anticipate the educational needs of families.

This study and others (Hannon, 1975; Keith, 1977;
Morrison D., 1977) have demonstrated that affluent fami—
lies have made reductions in residential energy use.
Their reductions can be of a large magnitude. Conse-
quently, they can have a significant role in conservation
efforts. Therefore, conservation education efforts
should have affluent families as prime targets. Ingle-
hart's (1977) finding that more affluent persons held
the other-directed, "post materialist" value suggests
that affluent families might be open to adoption of the
ecoconsciousness value. This potential should not be
overlooked in educational endeavors. Since, in this
study, families in which a spouse had high ecoconscious-
ness made the largest energy reductions, the payoffs

could be significant.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

CONSUMPTION VARIABLES

APPENDIX A

CONSUMPTION VARIABLES

Keith (1977) presented a detailed description of the methods used
in calculating residential energ consumption variables (see Keith,

1977, Appendix A). Her. description is presented here in its entirety.

Fuel Oil Calculations

 

Fuel oil was delivered at irregular intervals; it was necessary

to determine the amounts of fuel oil that were used during the years
under study and not to include amounts from the preceding or succeeding
heating seasons. The heating season was determined to be from Septan-
her 1 through May 31; that period included 96 percent of the heating
degree days for this section of Michigan. To determine what amounts
were used during 1973-714 and 1975-76, the following decision rules
were implemented:

If the first oil fill-up in the fall of 1973 was preceded
by a fill-up in the summer, the fall fill-up was the usage from Septem-
ber 1 until the date of the fill-up.

If the first fill-up of the fall occurred without a preceding
sunmer fill-up, the amount used between Septanber l and the first
recorded fill-up was calculated on a unit-per-degree-day measure

derived in the following manner:

149

150
F1 2 Gallons of fuel oil for first fill-up, Fall 1973

F2 2 Gallons of fuel oil for second fill-up, Fall 1973

DD = NMmber of degree days from 9/1/73 to date of
first fill-up (Fl)

DD2 a Number of degree days between first fill—up and
second fill-up, Fall 1973

PDD 2 Fuel used per degree day for second period PDD =
F2/DD2

Fl 8 PDD x DDl Calculated fuel usage for September 1
until date of first fill-up

F1 was then considered fill l and put into the date of the first fill-

up.

For each succeeding period from one fill to the next, the
fuel oil was distributed on a fuel-per-degree-day basis by the number
of degree days between the fill-up dates, excluding the months of June,
July and.August. Heating degree days were recorded for those months
but including these heating degree days made the estimate per degree
day unstable; it seemed probable that people did not heat their houses
even though heating degrees were recorded occasionally.

If the first fill-up in the spring of 1976 was followed by
a fill-up in the summer, that fill was considered the usage frcm the
last spring fill-up to May 31, 1976.

If there was not a summer fill-up recorded, a fuel estimate
'was calculated on a degree day usage in the following manner:

Fr 2 Gallons of fuel oil fer final fill-up, spring 1976

Ef_1 a Gallons of fuel oil for next to the last fill-up,
spring 1976

DD = Number of degree days from date of Ff-1 to F

f-l
DDf = Number of degree days from Ff to 5/31/76

f

151
PDDf_ = Fuel oil per degree day calculated for next to last
period

This was considered the final fill-up and put into the date of May 31,
1976.
The one household using liquid propane was treated in the

same manner. The fuel oil and liquid propane were converted to Btu's.

Natural Gas and Electricity Calculations

Consumers' Power of Lansing, Michigan, and the Board of Water
and Light, Lansing, Michigan, were the utility companies which provided
the monthly natural. gas and electricity data for the respondent house-
holds, from July 1973 through June 1976. These data were converted
to Btu's.

The data were collected at different points in time and inad-
vertently the month of July 1973 or June 19714 was missing for some
respondents; also, some families moved into the houses between July 1,
1973, and November 1, 1973; this missing data equaled less than 2 per-
cent of the monthly data. The missing data were estimated by using the
following proportion:

M1 M21; + M3t

t

 

Mlt+1 I“gt-+1. "’ M3t+1

where

C‘"
I

year data was missing

t+1

year following 1:.
Mlt - the missing. data month

M2, M3 = the two months innnediately following missing data

APPENDIX B

SAMPLE SELECTION AND ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA

APPENDIX B

SAMPLE SELECTION AND ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA

 

Initial sample 1216_ 1214_
263 216
Research Subsample Selection Criteria Number
Interview Data for Both Years 129 129
Complete Energy Consumption Data 80 80
Both Husband and Wife Present 73 73

Independence of Responses of Husband and
Wife 64 64

Complete data on Ecoconsciousness and

Family Effectiveness Scales (less than

four items with missing data for

husband's and wife's data) 60 60
Final Subsample 6O 60

Identification Numbers of Cases Selected for Research Subsample

1 81 151

3 82 152

8 83 157

9 86 159
16 87 162
19 93 166
22 94 167
23 101 168
27 104 17S
30 115 179
32 116 180
33 117 181
34 118 184
38 119 190
41 125 194
50 126 196
53 127 200
60 136 204
65 145 205
71 146 207

152

153

Cases dropped from sample of two parent families with survey data for
both 1974 and 1976 and with complete energy consumption data (N=73).

 

Dropped because of missing data on Ecoconsciousness
and Family Effectiveness Items: Case I.D.

84

133

186

195

Dropped because of missing data (as above) and
apparent collusion between Husband and Wife in
Responses to Self-Administered Instrument items
(judged by handwriting checks and examination of
patterns of response): Case I.D.

46

68

73

189

214

Dropped because of apparent collusion between Husband
and Wife in responses to Self-Administered
Instrument Questions: Case I.D.
54
98
99
103

Estimation of Missing Data

 

Appendix A contains a description of estimation procedures
used with consumption data.

The reader is referred to Keith (1977) for a full description
of estimation used in construction of the conservation intensity scale.

Ecoconsciousness 1974 and 1976. If a respondent had only one

 

item missing from among the six items in the 1974 ecoconsciousness scale
(eight items in 1976), then the average value of the responses to the
remaining five items was added to the total in calculating the overall

scale score. When more than one item had missing data, only the values

154

of those items with data were summed in obtaining the total scale

score .

Family Effectiveness Items. The same general procedure, used

 

with ecoconsciousness scales, was used in obtaining Family Effective-
ness scale totals. Average values were added if a respondent had
missing data for seven or fewer of the 20 items (1974 and 1976).

Data were not estimated for variables not discussed in this

section.

APPENDIX C

ECOCONSCIOUSNESS VALUE SCALES

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157

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APPENDIX D

FAMILY EFFECTIVENESS SCALES

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APPENDIX E

STRESS MEASURE
(CRISIS 76)

APPENDIX E

STRESS MEASURE
(CRISIS 76)

If a respondent checked "yes" for any of the following, the
value in the right hand column was assigned. Values were based
on those used in the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes
and Rahe, 1967), the Life-Change Units Scale (Rahe et al.,
1967) and the Schedule of Recent Experience (Casey et al.,
1967).

Has your family experienced any of the following events during
the past year?

 

 

 

 

 

Value
Change in marital status: Assigned
1. marriage or remarfiage 50
2. divorce 73
3. marital separation 65
4. marital reconciliation 45
Change in employment:
5. wife taking a new job 26
6. husband taking new job 26
7. demotion (lower job position) 39
8. promotion (higher job position) 39
9. retirement 45
10. major change in working schedule 20
ll. temporary loss of job 39
Have any of thesegproblems occurred in your family?
12. trouble with drugs or alcholism 44
13. trouble with the law 30
14. foreclosure of mortgage or large loan 30
15. need to borrow more money than usual 38
16. trouble with relatives or neighbors 29
Change in number of family members:
1?. pregnancy or birth of a child 40
18. addition to household (other than a birth) 39
19. marriage of son or daughter 29
20. son or daughter leaving home (other than marriage) 29
21. death in the family 63
Change in health or living patterns:
22. personal injury 53
23. major illness or surgery 53
24. change in general health 44
25. new school 20
26. new recreation patterns 19
27. new social activities 18
28. child begins or ends school 26
TOTAL POSSIBLE: 1071

160

APPENDIX F

SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS AND REGRESSION TABLES

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