A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PERSONAL-PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION A Dissorfahon for the Degree of pI'u. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Mary Louise Hulbert HoIIy 1977 ‘ MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. i751»; +3, -» ‘9 ur- (EA «‘5 .3 f. v {‘3 er ~y \_ j I ' ' JMH11 900000 ABSTRACT A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PERSONAL-PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION By Mary Louise Hulbert Holly The principal aim of this research is to establish a conceptual framework for personal, professional growth from Which implications for inservice education can be drawn. It is postulated that growth occurs when teachers are involved in meaningful activities, and, that an understand- ing of this process can have important implications for inservice education. Questions guiding the study are: 1. How do teachers personally-professionally grow? 2. How do practicing teachers feel about their own personal-professional growth with respect to; 3. Activities and experiences which have meaning, b. ‘With whom and/or from whom do meaningful activities and experiences take place, and c. Under what circumstances do these activities and experiences occur? 3. Within the context of a personal-professional growth framework, what changes in inservice education might enable it to be more effective? The first step in answering these questions was to Mary Louise Hulbert Holly establish a conceptual basis for personal-professional growth. Teacher growth and deve10pment from a phenomenolog- ical perspective are examined. Next, an open ended inter- view schedule of ten questions was designed and individually administered to 102 practicing teachers (kindergarten through grade twelve) who were engaged in continuing education through attendance in classes offered by the College of Edu- cation at Michigan State University the summer of 1976. Data were content analyzed and responses were classi- fied and summarized. No clear distinctions in response by grade level, sex, years of teaching experience, or amount of graduate education were detected. Respondents were pursuing personal, professional development with enthusiasm, but, inservice education was rarely considered as a part of the process. The last inter- view question was the only one to deal with inservice educa- tion specifically, and teachers usually sought to bring it in line with the types of experiences which they previously had identified as valuable. Teachers found meaning in self-chosen, informal, par- ticipatory activities, usually with other people. They emphasized the value of situations where they could "really get to know" peeple as individuals, and have others see them as individuals; where they felt free to be Mary Louise Hulbert Holly themselves in an accepting and non-threatening environment. Respondents indicated that they felt isolated from other teachers and many mentioned with regret that they had little opportunity for collegial activity. When asked "What do you think is your greatest skill as a teacher?" interpersonal skills such as empathy, under- standing, and relating to others, were by far the most fre- quently mentioned responses. Teachers reported other teachers to be: (1) a valu- able part of experiences which they felt beneficial, (2) their best source for ideas and practical information, (3) the most often used source for help with professional prob- lems, (4) the most highly valued source for help with per- sonal assessment, and (5) understanding allies. The conceptual basis and data analysis suggest that .effective inservice education would provide for: l. Attitude improvement through recognition of the value of professional growth, and trust and support in teacher ability to make decisions on their own personal- professional deve10pment; 2. A more optimal psychological climate which includes a non-threatening, informal, and accepting environment, hospitable to new ideas, change and experimentation; 3. Time which is regularly scheduled within the school day Mary Louise Hulbert Holly for individual and group activities, and specific pro- grams with provisions for follow up and evolution; 4. Content which is derived from individual and staff defined needs and wants, and local exigencies; 5. Organization which follows from the purposes it is to further. The measure of program success could be seen in the degree to which it provides for (1) individual growth, and (2) group, or staff development. A key component of the conceptual framework was sub- stantiated by the data: If teachers are to be active and self directing, provisions and programs for professional development should be based upon principles of human growth and development. A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PERSONAL-PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION BY Mary Louise Hulbert Holly A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1977 Copyright by MARY LOUISE HULBERT HOLLY 1977 © To Helen Louise Hulbert and in Memory of Kenneth Hudson Hulbert iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many peOple have made significant contributions to this research. Brian Holly has been a silent partner throughout this endeavor and his sustained encouragement and help made completion possible. Charles Blackman spent hours listening, discussing and sharing ideas with me, patiently and insistently helping me to find my way. Louise Sause generously gave of her time and through her understanding and encouragement impossibilities became possibilities. Peggy Riethmiller lent support throughout this study and provided valuable suggestions. For their kind assistance, I thank Professors Howard Hickey and George Barnett. I learned much from.my colleagues Jerry Halverson and Bill Mester; and from the teachers who shared their ideas and feelings in the interview. Acknowledgments are directed to Fran Fowler for her help, and to Joyce Harris who cheer- fully typed the final document. Special appreciation and affection are extended to Helen Hulbert Who has been a constant source of support and inspiration. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES O O O C C O O O C C O O O O O O O 0 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM . . . . Perspectives on Inservice Education . . . . Rationale for the Study . . . . . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . 2. TEACHER GROWTH AND INSERVICE EDUCATION . . . Increasing Interest In Inservice Education, Related Research . . . . . . . . . . . . Framework for Growth . . . . . . . . . . . Individualization . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circumstances Under Which Personal- Professional Growth Can Occur . . . . . Education for Teacher Growth . . . . . . . 3. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii l4 l6 l7 19 20 28 37 49 57 65 68 Research Questions and Instrument Design . . 68 Sample and Data Collection . . . . . . . . . 77 Data Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 87 4. DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Beneficial Activities and Experiences . . . . 89 With Whom Beneficial Activities Occur . . . . 131 From Whom Beneficial Activities Occur . . . . 135 Circumstances Under Which Perceived Beneficial Activities Occur . . . . . . . . 151 Teacher Perceptions of Their Own Teaching Skills 0 O O O O O O O C O O C O O O 0 O I 163 Teacher Suggestions for Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 5. PERSONAL PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: IMPLICATIONS FOR INSERVICE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Personal-Professional Growth and Teacher Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Elements of Good Inservice Education . . . 208 Conclusions and Implications . . . . . . . . 212 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Toward a Reconceptualization of Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Recommendations for Further Research . . . . 236 APPENDIX A: PERSONAL-PROFESSIONAL GROWTH INTERVIEW SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . 240 vi APPENDIX B: MOST FREQUENTLY CITED RESPONSE CATEGORIES BY INTERVIEW QUESTION WITH NUMBER OF RESPONSES AND PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . 244 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 vii Table 3-1 3-2 3-3 4-2 4-4 4-5 LIST OF TABLES Respondent's Teaching Location . . . . . . Sex of Respondents by Teaching Level . . . Number of Years Teaching Experience by Leve 1 C C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Graduate Education by Teaching Level . . . Year and Location of Respondent's Bachelor's Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A. What Are Some Activities in Which You Engage That You Find Are Beneficial to You in Your Teaching? . . . . . . . . . . 3B. In Terms of Getting Ideas and Insights on Your WOrk, Which of These Activities is the Most Useful? . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Do You Participate in Any Activities With Your Colleagues That You Find Beneficial to You in Your Role as a Teacher? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teaching Levels, Years Teaching Experience, and Responses for Teachers Specifying Inservice Education as a Beneficial Collegial Activity . . . . . . . . . . Inservice Education Responses and Possible Implications O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 viii 77 79 8O 81 83 91 99 102 112 114 Table 4-6 5. If You Were Given Ten Free Hours a Week to be Used for Your Own Profes- sional Growth, How do You Think You Might Use It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4-7 Beneficial Activities With Other People . . . . 133 4-8 Personal, Private Beneficial Activities . . . . 134 4-9 Attitude Response Categories For Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 4-10 Climate Response Categories For Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 4-11 Time Response Categories For Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 4-12 Content Response Categories For Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 4-13 Organizational Response Categories For Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . 191 4-14 Research Question 2A: How do Practicing Teachers Feel About Their Own Personal- Professional Growth With Respect to Meaningful Activities and Experiences? . . . 192 4-15 Research Question 2B: How do Practicing Teachers Feel About Their Own Personal- Professional Growth With Respect to With Whom and/or From Whom Meaningful Activities and Experiences Take Place? . . . 194 4-16 Research Question ZC: How do Practicing Teachers Define the Circumstances Under Which Meaningful Personal-Professional Growth Experiences and Activities Occur? . . 198 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1 The Individual Perceptual Field . . . . . . . . 44 4-1 Beneficial and MOst Highly Valued Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4-2 Desired Beneficial Activities . . . . . . . . . 123 4-3 Source(s) for New Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4-4 Where Teachers Go For Help . . . . . . . . . . 143 4-5 Help With Personal-Professional Assessment . . 148 4-6 Teacher Perceptions of Their Own Teaching Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 4-7 Teacher Suggestions for Improving Inservice Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM An increasing number of people are becoming aware that "Teachers must be more than technicians, must continue to be learners."1 Technical facility does not equal teach- 2 ing excellence nor does certification equip the teacher with all that she will demand of herself for the life of her teaching.3 Not only is there no specific time at which a per- son becomes a teacher, but there is no specific time at which a teacher stops becoming one. This is simply another way of saying that there is no such thing as the complete teacher. 1Kathleen Devaney and Lorraine Thorn, Exploring Teacher Centers (San Francisco, Calif.: Far West Labora- tory for Educational Research and Development, 1975), p. 5. 2Vincent R. Rogers, "Why Teacher Centers in the U.S.?" Educational Leadership 33 (March 1976): 406-12. 3J. Alden Vanderpool, "Relationships Between Certi- fication and 'In-Service' Education," in Rethinking In- Service Education, eds. R. Edelfelt and M. Johnson (Wash- ington, D.C.: National Educational Association, 1975), pp. 56-64. 4Philip W. Jackson, "Old Dogs and New Tricks," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 27. 2 Inservice education as a vehicle through which teach- ers may continually learn has been severely criticized as "impotent" and a ”routine exercise in futility."5 Although problem ridden, inservice education is perceived as a nec- essary and potentially vital aspect of education.6 How can inservice education more adequately serve the growing people that it is designed to benefit? What do teachers feel helps them in their personal and professional development? The purpose of this research is to establish a con- ceptual framework for personal, professional growth from Which implications for inservice education can be drawn. Perspectives on Inservice Education Upon what bases do inservice education practices rest? Why have inservice education? It is only after this ques- tion has been answered that programs and processes can be adequately planned and assessed. Only after such articula- tion can one begin to see where practices succeed and where they fail. 5Louis J. Rubin, "Teacher Growth in Perspective," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 245. 6Kathleen Devaney, "What's a Teacher's Center For?" Educational Leadership 33 (March 1976): 413-16. 3 After reviewing the 1973 and 1974 ERIC entries on inservice education, which numbered 256 entries, Edelfelt wrote, Obviously, there are a multitude of concerns being treated in inservice education programs. That fact is a plus . . . On the other hand, the reports reflect disarray, a hodgepodge. In most programs, little atten- tion is given to formulating a comprehensive concept of inservice education. Too often, objectives are narrow and unrelated to a larger purpose or rationale. The bulk of the programs are of short duration and attack a single topic. Most programs are either remedial-- . . or they introduce new wrinkles . . . When a rationale is not specified, it is easy to adopt a hit or miss procedure where the recipients are only occa- sionally satisfied with program results. "In the absence of a common, agreed upon program of teacher education, any effort . . . that has surface validity will be useful for some teachers and useless for others ."8 Taba felt that deficiencies in rationale formulation and specification accounted for many of the problems that planners had regarding curriculum deve10pment. The follow- ing statement by Taba has important implications for inser- vice education curriculum development. The 7Roy A. Edelfelt, "Inservice Teacher Education-- Sources in the ERIC System" (washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education, 1975), pp. 2-3. 8Louis Fischer, "In-Service Education," in Improv- ing In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 233. 4 . . tendency to rationalize a curriculum pattern in terms of a single principle, . . . while overlooking the relevance of other equally important considera- tions, is in effect a gross oversimplication [sic] which has many undesirable consequences. One is a kind of myopia in developing and implementing designs.9 Referring specifically to myopic treatment of inser-‘ vice education Meade writes: Frustrated by the magnitude of problems that deal with human wants and needs, we have turned to technical ques- tions, engineering questions, that lend themselves to rational solutions: hence our pre-occupation with mate- rials over people. Much of our activity is given to developing expertise and technical finess in our teach- ers. Previously, when inservice education was based upon narrowly defined objectives, which were understood and agreed upon by all persons involved in education, there were few problems and complaints about “need for" or "relevance of" inservice education practices. When students were in school for only a small portion of the day or for only a few days a week, they were to learn skills that they could not obtain outside the classroom, such as reading and writing. The rest of the day was spent learning in ordinary life situa- tions. Inservice education usually took the form of 9Hilda Taba, Curriculum.Development:Theory and Practice (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), pp. 414-15. 10Edward J. Mbade, Jr., "No Health In Us," in Improv- ingpIn-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 223. 5 institutes which lasted for two days or short courses that took place in the evenings. The primary reason for these institutes was ". . . to enable teachers to bridge the gap between what they were expected to do and . . . their level of knowledge and their teaching competencies ."11 As the roles of the teacher and the school slowly changed to include more functions: the addition of new courses of study, the training of more students, the concept of "education for all," and the education of immigrants who spoke little English, and brought with them attitudes, values, and habits that were at variance with traditional habits that had been taken for granted in the schools,12 the content of inservice education expanded to include more areas. Usually professional development was mandated, pre- scriptive, remedial, content oriented, and organized and implemented by persons in authority, for teachers. During the nineteenth century, inservice programs L/’ of teacher-training . . . reflected, above all else the prevailing and partially valid assumption that the immaturity, meager educational equipment, and inexperi- ence of the teacher rendered him unable to analyze or 11RalphW. Tyler, "In-Service Education of Teachers: A.Look.At the Past and Future," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 6. 12Ibid. 6 criticize his own teaching, or, unless given direction, to improve it. Today, the scope of inservice education has been */ greatly expanded but with this expansion has not come an evolving understanding of its larger purposes. Missing is the context through which current programs can be viewed and lacking this theoretical understanding, teachers are / /‘ deprived of much that continuing education has to offer.."r” Furthermore, often practices that are detrimental to the growth of teachers and to the growth of children whom they touch, are adopted. ". . . we have recently come to real- ize, with incredible lateness, that schools can teach chil- dren to be failures as well as successes."14 Just as studying food will not help a hungry child to be filled, training a teacher in new teaching techniques (although this can be helpful) is not enough. Teachers must be more than technicians, must con- tinue to be learners. Long-lasting improvements in education will come about through inservice programs 13Herman G. Richey, "Growth of the Mbdern Conception of In-Service Education," in In-Service Education for Teach- .ers,,Supervisors, and Administrators, in Fifty-Sixth Year- book of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 36. 14Louis J. Rubin, "The Case for Staff Development," in Professional Supervision for Professional Teachers, ed. T. J. Sergiovanni (washington, D.C.: Association for Super- vision and Curriculum Development, 1975), p. 34. ,. Ix! 0" In». 5 "'1, ‘-’ ' c. that identify individual starting points for learning ‘\ ,7 in each teacher; build on teachers' motivation to take ///” / more, not less, responsibility. . . .15 /////// a/. If the millions of dollars spent each year on inser- vice education, curriculum improvement, courses, workshops, seminars, lectures, new school structures, assessment devices, technological aids, innovations and instructional media were spent with a clear sense of purpose and an understanding of what was to be accomplished, the impact could be great. Yet, all of the resources being spent have little chance of offering substantive improvement if we continue to ignore the one ingredient necessary to improve education, the per- son in process. . . . really important changes will only come about as teachers change. Institutions are made up of people, and it is the behavior of teachers in classrooms that will finally determine whether or not our schools meet or fail to meet the challenge of our times. Accepting Postman and Weingartner's proposition that the "beliefs, feelings, and assumptions of teachers are the air of the learning environment"17 it follows that to improve inservice education, it is necessary to investigate how 15Devaney and Thorn, Explorinngeacher Centers, p. 7. 16Arthur w. Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1965), p. 5. 17Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner, Teaching As A Subversive Activity (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1969), p. 33. 8 teachers define and feel about their own personal, profes- sional growth. In order for teachers to experience growth, growth which will find its release in the classroom and significantly alter the lives of the learners within it, experiences must be meaningful to teachers. "Where there is meaning, there is involvement. When something has mean- ing, one is committed to it."18 ,‘ ,.;”w;Qr Rationale for the Study Over the past several years there has been a growing awareness of the need for the continuing education of teach- ers on the part of: teachers, who desire to be current in a time of rapidly changing information; parents who want to assure the quality of education that their children receive; administrators and boards of education who feel pressure to improve the quality of the schools while increasing effi- ciency in a time of accountability and economic retrench- ment; citizens who recognize that expansion of facilities and personnel do not necessarily equal a higher quality of instruction; universities who are questioning their raison d'etre as the demand for new teachers dwindles; and teacher associations whose interest is increasing with their desire 18Arthur T. Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), p. 78. 9 to identify and help meet the professional growth needs of their constituency. Inservice teacher education is recognized by many pro- fessionals as a key challenge to be addressed over the next - ( \)\;. decade. According to a study conducted by a Columbia Uni- ,'» versity professor, " . . teacher's performance increases (gfiggciwfi“fi during the first five years on the job, . . . levels off during the next fifteen years and steadily declines there- after."19 This not only represents a strong indictment of current inservice education and the obvious need for improve- ment, but, when combined with the current situation of more teachers than jobs and low turnover, a shift in emphasis from remediation to programs for professional growth becomes essential. Even if the turnover rate in a given location is high, and new ideas and perspectives are infused regularly, this alone would not be enough to provide sound renewal. Ener- getic teachers move into established environments where in all but unusual circumstances, they will be shaped by the setting more than they will shape it. It is for this rea- son that Dr. Lee Dean said, "If the role of a new teacher is largely restricted by the behavior of people already in 19M;§;U. News Bulletin, 8 May 1975, "Training Teach- ers In Service Is Key Education Challenge," p. 5. 10 the system, there is only one other answer." He continued, "We must depend upon teachers in-service to somehow want to bring about change."20 This study is undertaken in a critical period for teacher education. At a time of pressure from troubled economic conditions, accountability and devisiveness between educational groups, it is imperative that adequate starting points for the constructive improvement of professional development be identified. Various groups are evidencing their interest in publications and studies. Powell21 reported growing interest of university faculty; the Michi— gan Board of Education22 voiced its concern and support for increased recognition of the necessity for teacher profes- sional development; Ward23 and Edelfelt24 reported concerns 201b1d. 21Douglas R. Powell, Continuing Teacher Education: The University's Role (Evanston: The Center for the Teach- ing Professions, Northwestern University, Occasional Paper NUmber Six, April 1974). 22Michigan Department of Education, "Statement on Professional Development," (January 1976). 23Douglas ward, "The Role of Teacher Organizations in Professional Deve10pment and Instructional Improvement as Perceived by Selected Teacher Organization Leaders" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973). 24Roy A. Edelfelt, "The Role of Professional Organi- zations in Partnership in Teacher Education," in Partner- ship In Teacher Education (Washington, D.C.: American Asso- ciation of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1968). ll of teacher's associations; Ainsworthz5 related teacher interests. A review of the increasing amount of literature on professional development suggests a growing concern for inservice education; an expanding number of activities and processes; increased recognition of individual and group needs to be addressed through inservice education; increased attention on principles of learning applied to teacher edu- cation; expansion of teacher roles; and a readiness to try collaborative activities. The need for inservice education is clearly established and a discrepancy between what is happening and what people would like to see happening is indicated.26 Most studies arrive at a conclusion stating that inservice education lacks certain qualities or character- . W N _._,M istics. These conclusions are deduced from teacher com- M plaints about current practices. While this information is valuable, it is essentially negative. That is, past studies repeatedly focus on what is wrong with inservice , '. 3>><£3253arbara Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions of Teach— ers Regarding In-Service Programs" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, 1974). 26Roy A. Edelfelt and Gordon Lawrence, "In-Service Education: The State of the Art," in Rethinking In-Service Education, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1975), pp. 16-17. 12 education. This approach is remedial in that a problem is defined, weaknesses are identified and a prescription is offered. The prescriptions vary from slight modification of current practices (e.g. more teacher control, more work- shops, less formal coursework) to radical alterations (com- plete responsibility to teacher's organizations, or complete abolition of inservice education). I?) @VV; y A problem with the approaches outlined above is their" failure to explore the conceptualfland philosophicalflarderkflfl M pinnings of professional development. Currently, much of m_ia. is inservice education illustrates a view of the teacher as a ‘ \— .3.» r...- “‘- vehicle by which certain facts, concepts, and attitudes are transferred to children. This has often led to an emphasis on schooling teachers in the methods of transmitting these facts, concepts and attitudes with little regard for placing these within a broader context of growth and development. Personal-professional growth accruing to teachers has all too frequently been incidental. It might be argued that since this condition exists, the benefits of inservice edu- cation programs will be marginal, both to the teachers and to their students. Although there has been an increase in the number of studies on inservice education over the last few years, there has remained a paucity of research dealing with a l3 broad context for it. ". . . little attention is given to formulating a comprehensive concept of inservice educa- tion."27 Given the amount of time, effort, and money expended in the name of "inservice," and the dissatisfac- tion with current programs, it is time for a re-examination of purpose and a reconceptualization based upon new under- standing. Piecemeal, patchwork, haphazard, and ineffective are the harsh words we have used thus far in pressing our indictment of in-service education. The words suggest but do not clearly state, the fundamental problem: There has never been a broad scheme of inservice edu- cation with a clear concept of purpose, appropriate undergirding of policy, legitimacy in commitment . . A reconceptualization of inservice education must start with an understanding of the individual for whom the process is intended: the teacher. In this study, the teach- er's personal-professional growth serves as the basis upon which inservice education rests. 27Roy A. Edelfelt and Gordon Lawrence, "In-Service Education: The State of the Art," in Rethinking In-Service Education, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1975), pp. 16-17 0 281bid. l4 Assumptions This study proceeds from the following assumptions: All of a teacher's personal-professional growth needs are not met through inservice education All of a teacher's personal-professional growth needs cannot be met through inservice education More of'a teacher's personal-professional growth needs can be met through inservice education The identification of personal-professional growth activ- ities and experiences in which teachers engage has impor- tant implications for inservice education, and Some personal-professional growth experiences and activ- ities that occur outside inservice education can be incorporated into inservice education to strengthen current programs, i.e., to make them.more effective Researchgguestions The questions that guide this research are as follows: How do teachers personally-professional1y grow? How do practicing teachers feel about their own personal-professional growth with respect to 3. Activities and experiences which have meaning, b. With whom and/or from whom do meaningful activities and experiences take place, and 15 c. Under what circumstances do these activities and experiences occur? 3. Within the context of a personal-professional growth framework, what changes in inservice education might enable it to be more effective? Procedures The first step in answering the research questions was to establish a conceptual basis for personal-professional growth. Next, using this framework, an interview was designed and individually administered to 102 practicing teachers who were engaged actively in continuing education through attendance in classes offered by the College of Education at Michigan State University in the summer of 1976. The information obtained was content analyzed, cate- gorized, and frequency counts were compiled in order to identify meaningful activities and experiences, circum- stances under which they occurred, and to determine general trends or themes suggested by growth preferences. This information, along with the conceptual framework established in Chapter 2 forms the basis for discussion of possible implications for inservice education. 16 Definition of Terms Inservice education is "any professional development activity that a teacher undertakes singly or with other teachers after receiving her or his initial teaching certif- icate and after beginning professional practice."29 Personal-professional growth is defined as personal growth in: self understanding and self-acceptance, compe- tencies including skills, attitudes and knowledge pertaining to one's occupational responsibilities, singly and in con- cert with others, including pre teaching and teaching expe- rience. Inservice education is seen as a part of this pro- cess. I Profegsional development is the bringing out of capa- bilities and potentials; increasing competence pertaining to occupational responsibilities, including a strengthening of skills, conceptual understandings, and knowledge. Reconceptualization is rethinking and reformulating a rationale, careful identification and examination of issues, elements, and interrelationships, utimately leading to a new conceptual basis, perspective, and context. 29Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson, Rethinking In- Service Education, Introduction, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (washington, D.C.: National Education Associa- tion, 1975), p. 5. l7 Self-renewal is continuing personal growth. Under- standing of, acceptance of, and action upon the individual's responsibility for identifying her or his needs, and means for meeting these needs. Continuing education is viewed as processes for pro- fessional growth (including university course work and inservice education). Staff development is defined as professional develop- ment experiences pertaining to a specified group of people. Summary and Overview Most previous research on inservice education has centered around the structure of inservice education. Such study proceeds from the assumptions that inservice education is supposed to transmit skills, competencies, and knowledge to teachers, and on the basis of these assumptions, prac- tices are evaluated. This study proceeds from the premise that inservice education should be designed to promote personal-professional growth of teachers; that the development of skills, compe- tencies and knowledge will in part result from growth enhanc- ing inservice education. Growth is examined as the basis for inservice education. It is postulated that growth occurs as a result of experiences which have meaning for 18 teachers so that identifying perceptions of meaningful expe- riences is important in achieving a clearer understanding of the processes of growth. The question is raised: What kinds of experiences do teachers perceive as personally and pro- fessionally‘meaningful? Chapter 1 consists of: a description of the proposed study, the rationale, research questions and overview. Chapter 2 contains a presentation of the conceptual basis based upon a review of the literature in two areas, teacher growth and development, and current related research on inservice education. Chapter 3 contains the methodology: instrumentation, sample, limitations and analysis techniques. Chapter 4 consists of the presentation and analysis of the data. Chapter 5 contains the summary, conclusions and implications for continuing teacher education, reflections, and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER 2 TEACHER GROWTH AND INSERVICE EDUCATION This presentation is directed at gaining a better understanding of inservice education as a means for individ- ual and staff development. What is personal-professional growth, and what are the factors which contribute to it? What might inservice education for growth be like? In addressing these questions the following order of presentation is offered: 1. 2. Selected recent research on inservice education An examination of the purpose of inservice education as it is proposed in the current study Analyses of several aspects of inservice education as each: a. Theoretically applies b. Appears according to recent research c. Potentially applies Circumstances conducive to inservice education for personal-professional growth 19 20 Increasing Interest In Inservice Education, Related Research Recent research shows that inservice education is being given more attention as groups and individuals are becoming aware of the importance of teacher development. It is being elevated to a higher priority by many educators, although there is increasing evidence to suggest that the actual number of traditional programs is decreasing. For example, the number of school days allotted to inservice education in the state of Michigan has decreased. However, if one looks at inservice education from the perspective of enhancement of teacher development, it is attracting more attention. Powell1 found that teacher educators at several large universities are looking toward increased emphasis and a greater role in teacher development for universities; Ward“2 reports more attention and a higher priority from teacher 1Douglas R. Powell, Continuing Teacher Education: The University's Role (Evanston, 111.: The Center for the Teaching Professions, Northwestern University, Occasional Paper Number Six, April 1974). 2Douglas Ward, "The Role of Teacher Organizations in Professional Development and Instructional Improvement As Perceived by Selected Teacher Organization Leaders" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State university, 1973). 21 organization leaders; Edelfelt3 suggests a rationale for inservice education as a priority for the decade; and Ainsworth4 notes a shift in the purposes of inservice edu- cation. A workshop on inservice education sponsored by the United States Office of Education, several state teachers associations, and the National Education Association was held in Atlanta in 1975. Its stated purposes have been influential in the formulation of this study: 1. To enhance understanding and capabilities by sharing experiences, knowledge, and ideas on inservice teacher education. 2. To identify problems and issues in inservice teacher education. 3. To re-examine and redefine the purposes of inservice teacher education. 4. To examine the respective roles and responsibilities (including financing) of institutions, agencies and organizations involved in inservice teacher educa— tion. 5. To identify promising new approaches to and models for inservice teacher education. 6. To examine the requirements for and the structure, organization, and governance of inservice teacher education. 3Roy A- Edelfelt, "The Inservice Education of Teach- ers: Priority for the Next Decade," Journal of Teacher Edu- cation 3 (Fall 1974): 250-52. 4Barbara Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions of Teachers Regarding In-Service Programs" (Ph.D. dissertation, Univer- sity of Maryland, 1974). 22 7. To develop recommendations for the improvement of inservice teacher education.5 A visible product of the conference is the book, Rethinking In-Service Education, edited by Edelfelt and Johnson. The work represents a compilation and extension of the major papers presented and discussion groups held at the workshop. Calling for a more comprehensive look at inservice education, Edelfelt and Lawrence suggest that: . . . inservice education has been the weakest and moSgp‘-, haphazard component of teacher education. Even the most charitable would have to admit that it has not been nearly as effective as it might have been, considering the expenditure of time, effort, and resources. How- ever, to say that in-service education has been inade- quate is not to say that teachers can or want to do without it . . . teachers want quality in- service edu- cation; they also recognize a significant discrepancy between what exists and what they would lgke. , x‘ .n’" ~s.a.~.....“.l‘"‘ ’ . . . on a career-long continuum of in-service educa- tion, a conceptual framework will provide direction and a context for individuals and groups . . . develop- ment.6 The following concepts are identified as having deep historical roots and pose a strong force with which leaders 5Atlanta Conference Materials, WOrkshop on Recon- ceptualizing In-Service Education, February 1975, (Mimeo- graphed). 6Roy A. Edelfelt and Gordon Lawrence, "In-Service Education: The State of the Art," in Rethinking In-Service Education, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1975), pp. 16-17. ,/ q V 23 must contend if inservice education is to become responsive to current needs: 1. 10. 11. The primary role of the school is the giving and receiving of information. Learning is the receiving of information to be stored and used later. Curriculum and teaching are relatively fixed ele- ments in the school. The main business of teacher education is the quest of mastery of some relatively stable subject mat- ters and methods of teaching. In-service education is training that is designed, planned, and conducted for the teacher by persons in authority. The central purpose of in-service education is the remediation of teachers' deficiencies in subject matter. Leadership is 'direction from.above,' and motiva- tion is 'direction from outside.' Supervision is diagnosis, prescription, modeling, inspection, and rating. Teacher education in teacher preparation institu- tions and teacher education in schools are separate and discontinuous processes. Intellectual leadership in goal setting and planning for in-service appropriately comes from outside the school. The teacher is a solo practitioner (rather than a group member involved in c00perative planning of common goals and related actions). 24 12. Prescriptive legislation is an appropriate vehicle for improving the quality of teaching standards.7 Summarizing the recommendations of the 87 conference participants, Johnson lists several which are relevant: 7. In-service education should be recognized as an essential element of the educational process. 17. In-service education should reflect the same prin- ciples that educators endorse for students--e.g., the individualized instruction and freedom to choose among alternatives. 18. The changing role of the teacher should be recog- nized in designing in-service education. 19. In reconceptualizing in-service education, atten- tion should be given to research and development-- e.g., validating existing procedures and learning about change and renewal. 24. In-service education should be elevated in prior- ity at local, state, and national levels. In a recent study entitled,-"Teachers' Perceptions of Present Practices, Process-Needs, Alternative Delivery Sys- tems and Priority of Inservice Education," Edwards sug- gests that, among other things, teachers and administra- tors must cooperatewinnphe planning, directing, and imple- / 4" x.“ M .- 'm A. -.. -fl _._ ...-_..,__M ,___~__.~ ‘w‘ menting of inservice education; and that an open environ- 7.“. ment, one in which participants are encouraged to comment, 71bid., p. 9. 8M'argo Johnson, "Looking Back at Thinking Ahead: 87 Educators in Session," in Rethinking In-Service Education, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1975), p. 73. 25 question and exchange ideas, must be established. This study addressed teachers' perceptions of past and present inservice education. The respondents were provided with a list of thirty-four "process need statements" for their desired process needs, and offered eighteen alternative delivery systems, eight of which were identified by the respondents as desirable. In her concluding chapter Edwards cautioned, Teacher perceptions of the existing parameters coupled with their past and present experiences in inservice education will continue to hinder the development of inservice education as a means of positive professional growth experiences. Another study on teachers' perceptions was completed by Turner, who stated in his conclusions that: 1. [There is no single format for inservice education that is effective for all teachers; however, there are elements which would be incorporated into all programs if teachers are to perceive them as effec- tive.” Objectives must be closely related to the reality of the classroom; topics should be limited to those which can be extensively studied during the workshop; skills and information presented should be those which teachers can use immediately in their classrooms; and workshops should be con- cerned with resolving the kinds of problems which teachers encounter daily. 2. The climate in which inservice is conducted is a major ingredient in teachers' perceptions of 9Patsy Edwards, "Teacher Perceptions of Present Practices, Process-Needs, Alternative Delivery Systems and Priority of Inservice Education," (Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- versity of Michigan, 1975), p. 242. 26 effective inservice education. It must be a relaxed, nonthreatening atmosphere in which they can question and express opinions, try new teaching behaviors, share ideas with others, change the direction of the activities when needed, and eval- uate progress daily. 3. Teachers must be actively inyo_lved in the learning process-~not passive listeners. ‘ Bigelow conducted a survey of inservice education programs using administrator perceptions in six mid-westernf cities and found "Professional growth for teachers is enter-I ing a new era and teacher involvement is becoming an impor-:' tant part of the professional growth pattern."11 Jaquith compared perceptions of junior high/middle school teachers, principals, and university specialists. Some of his main findings were: (1) When teachers were involved in selecting objectives and organizing inservice education, they are more willing to participate in it, (2) '\ Inservice education at the building level was the most pre- f ferred method of inservice education, and (3) Since univer- 5 x! sity specialists seem to be reluctant to become involved 69 101. S. Turner, "A Study of Teachers' Perceptions of an In-Service Program in Three Southern Maryland Counties," (Ph.D. dissertation, The George Washington University, 1970). 11E. B. Bigelow, "A Survey, Analysis, and Proposed Program of In- Service Education in Selected School Districts in Six Midwestern States," (Ed. D. dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1969). ‘~ rel. tin cftt 27 with inservice education off campus, affective consultants might include experienced teachers, administrators, or spe- cific competency area university specialists.12 It has been suggested that since there may be over a quarter of a million persons in positions which are directly related to inservice education that practices could be rela- tively individualized, even "personalized." This is not often accomplished though, and "the diet prescribed or selected is highly questionable in many cases and often constrains against rather than enhances desired and expected teacher growth."13 Through a literature review Howey was able to define seven categories into which inservice education could be divided: 1. Transitional (from pre-to-in) 2. Comprehensive school renewal/role orientation 3. Content or skill specific development 4. Personal growth 5. Continuing graduate level education (i9 12Charles I. Jaquith, "An Analysis of Perceptions of Junior High/Middle School Teachers, Principals, and Univer- sity Specialists Concerning Inservice Education," (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1973). 13Kenneth R. Howey, "Putting Inservice Teacher Edu- cation Into Perspective,” Journal of Teacher Education 27 (Summer 1976): 101-5. 28 6. General professional growth 7. 'Career progression14 The current research is designed to focus upon the fourth category, personal growth, because it is felt that this is an essential preliminary step to examination, analy- sis, and discussion of the other six categories. It is proposed that in order for inservice education to be effective it should be based upon teacher personal- professional growth. Therefore, it is suggested that the major purpose of inservice education is to promote personal- professional growth. Framework for Growth According to Schober, ". . . the emphasis in contem- porary teacher education appears to be skewed toward educa- tion-as-end-resu1t-competencies, skills, accreditation, rather than to education as process of growth and deve10p- ment."15 It may be useful at this point to define "grow" and "develop." According to the Random House Dictionary, to grow is ". . . to increase by natural deve10pment . increase in . . . substance. To arise or issue as a 14Ibid. 15Edward J. Schober, "Essential Questions for Self— Professional Development: A Seminar on Meaning for Teacher Education," (Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1975). 29 natural development from an original happening, circum- stance, or source." To develop is ". . . to bring out the capabilities or possibilities of; bring to a more advanced or effective state . . . generate; evolve."16 When teacher growth and development are referred to in this study, they refer to the natural development of the individual, and to bringing out capabilities and possibili- ties. Individual "striving has a biological basis and is rooted in the distinct patterning of the human organism."17 Every experience in which the individual expresses him- self in a free, spontaneous manner contributes to the growth of the self . . . growth of the self which begins at birth, continues through life.18 How a person sees herself or himself is of great importance to the person's development. Perceptual psy- chology addresses this concept and it is to this area that the presentation now turns. From a phenomenological, or perceptual, view of the individual, "all behavior, without exception, is completely determined by, and pertinent to, the perceptual field of 16The Random House Dictionary of the English Lan- guage (New York: Random House, 1966), p. 626 and p. 394. 17Clark Moustakas, Teachinngs Learning (New York: Ballantine Books, 1972), p. 1. 181bid. 30 the behaving organism."19 A person acts upon what he or she perceives at a given moment, which is the result of: (1) how one sees oneself, (2) how one sees the situation in which one is involved, and (3) the interrelations of these two . 20 The perceptual field is the universe of naive experi- ence in which each individual lives, the everyday situ- ation of the self and its surroundings which each person takes to be reality. To each of us the perceptual field of another contains much error and illusion; it seems an interpretation of reality rather than reality itself; but to each individual, his phenomenal field is reality; it is the only reality he can know. This perceptual field is far richer and more meaningful than that of the objective, physical world. We do not live in a world of objects without meaning. On the contrary, we invest the things about us with all sorts of meanings; these mean- ings are for each of us the reality to which we respond.21 For example, a person may run from a perceived danger where there is no danger and not run when there is real danger that is not perceived. A person may confide in a perceived friend and react cautiously in the presence of a perceived enemy, when in fact, the reverse may be the case. If a person's perceptual field is constantly being 19Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behav- ior (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1959), p. 20. ZOArthur W. Combs, Donald L. Avila, and William w. Purkey, Helping Relationships (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 13. 21Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 21. iiCfifTE 9:213 ACCJI n' V I V .5“ 5'91! t r, “‘1- L; m 1 I.) <. ’ (L) 31 accommodated, it is altering her or his perceptions and consequently, behavior. The broader a person's knowledge base, the higher the probability that a decision made will be an intelligent one. According to Sharp, "Growing demands the use of critical intelligence and a continuous attempt to discover more and more apprOpriate and effective ways of acting that will give increasing control over the environment."22 Because growth demands continuous action, school systems and teacher education institutions provide various forms of support and encouragement for teachers by providing: consultants, released time from teaching duties, conferences and meet- ings, and pay incentives for graduate work. However, ". . . in the end it is the teacher himself who will decide whether "23 he is going to grow and, if so, how. The important question now is how can growing\be \. _, mw' encouraged? What are the factors that contribute to, or hinder growth? The most important element, the one which governs all other elements, and does the perceiving, is the "self." In this study, the personal in personal, 22George Sharp, Curriculum Development as Re- Education of the Teacher (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1951). 23Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior. prcfe: althcv from the t ccnce at O B’CI‘SI III? p M“ 32 professional stands for self. The concept of self, although individual, resides within, and is inextricable from a social milieu, which in this study is exemplified in the term, professional, in personal-professional. Neither concept can exist in the absence of the other. They can, at their operational best be complimentary, and at their worst, cause distortion and serve as a blockage to growth. From a phenomenological perspective, the self is an individual's unique and actualization-seeking inner voice. The self, it has been said, "is an unalterable source and base to which all growth is ultimately ascribed,"24 one which is continuously striving to reach its potentialities, no matter what obstacles are presented.25 Each person's self, although unique, includes universality. It is within the structure of universality and community that the self moves toward fulfillment and complete development. Though the self interacts with the environment and is manifest in the experience of reflected wholes or unified feelings and thoughts, it is only ". . . when the individ- ual comes to these awarenesses and feeling-insights through his own self-discovery is a real discovery made."26 Self —¥ 24Moustakas, Teaching As Learning, p. 3. 25Ibid. 26Ibid. ES 33 IE CC r-v- 33 realization can only be accomplished by the individual who must ". . . learn how to act from his own volition and pref- erence. He must learn to stand on his own two feet and assert the true nature of his experience."27 It is in a person's striving to be that meaning is ascribed, and since the individual is alone in this pursuit, it is the individual who is in the best "position to make responsible choices."28 Looking at the classroom, occupied by many persons who are striving toward self-actualization, with the further complication of student-student and teacher-student inter- action, one becomes aware of the complexity of teaching. Each situation with which the teacher is confronted has a myriad of experiences bearing upon it, and it is the teacher alone with situational perceptions who, at the time, must act. The importance of a teacher's self concept to his or her psychological growth is rarely overestimated. We want here to look at how the individual sees him- self . . . because it is how the person sees himself that is enabling or disabling. The crucial matter is not so much what you are, but what you think you are. . . . Perception is the stuff of growth for the 271bid. 28Ibid., p. 2. teac he 0 View earl) of ed or bi teach. knCWll endea ”.5101; need: Rec: CCRC 34 psychological self. The perceptive process is the only avenue by which the self can be fed. 9 It has long been recognized that the adequacy of a teacher's self concept has direct implications for the way he or she teaches, the manner in which the learner is viewed, the curriculum, and student achievement. In the early 19508, Jersild emphasized that an essential function of education was to help the child know and accept herself or himself, and that that could only come about if the teacher was also actively engaged in the pursuit of self knowledge and acceptance. "If he is not engaged in this endeavor, he will continue to see those whom he teaches through the bias and distortions of his own unrecognized needs, fears, desires, anxieties, hostile impulses . . ."30 Recognizing the personal dimension in operationalizing the concept, Jersild continues, "The process of gaining knowl- edge of self and the struggle for self-fulfillment and self- acceptance is not something an instructor teaches others. 29Earl C. Kelley, "The Fully Functioning Self," in Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, Yearbook, Association for Supervi- sion and Curriculum Development, 1962), pp. 9-14. 3OArthur T. Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), Pp. 13-14. Luau tic-r. €635 35 It is not something he does 59 or £23 them. It is something in which he himself must be involved."31 A recent study by Mills32 entitled, "The Effect of Teachers' Self Concept on Student Achievement in the Junior High School," lends substantiation to the correlation of teacher self concept and student achievement. It revealed that childrens' perceptions of their teachers' feelings toward them correlated positively and significantly with their self perception; that teacher warmth was signifi- cantly related to vocabulary and arithmetic achievement; and that there exists a positive relationship between levels of teacher self concept and the cognitive growth of students. The results "seem to suggest that institutions charged with the training and hiring of teachers should give more atten- tion to improving the self concept of teachers."33 It has been stated that "effective teaching is a pro- cess of sharing self with others,"34 and that persons with 311bid., p. 14. 32Herman A. Mills, "The Effects of Teachers' Self Concept on Student Achievement in the Junior High School," (Ph.D. dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1975). 33Ibid. 34Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 406. Rm V [382 sicn ence e63: itie gr: - :erc k‘iic Sea: to: 36 adequate self concepts are better able to involve and share themselves with their students. Like everyone else, teachers are seeking personal ade- quacy and their behavior will be deeply affected by the degree of adequacy they have achieved. Students are responsive to teachers' personalities and there is much evidence to show that well-adjusted teachers produce better-adjusted students while poorly adjusted teachers have negative effects upon those they teach. Granting the importance of personal growth to profes- sional development, one might well ask, what can be done to encourage growth? According to recent research, inservice education has slowly shifted from being comprised of activ- ities for teacher remediation to activities for enhancing growth. A study by Ainsworth was conducted to "assess the perceptions of affected parties in order to provide data which could be a basis for policy and planning of Prince George's County, Maryland in-service programs in relation to the needs of those involved."36 Through her literature review, Ainsworth was able to point out a definite shift in inservice education from remedial activities to growth enhancing ones, and to iden- tify eight categories or elements of "good" inservice edu- cation. -__ 351bid. 36Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions." 37 l. Practicality 2. Systematic development 3. Humanism 4. Teacher - sharing 5. Variety 6. Choice 7. Self - direction 8. Support and encouragement37 Several of these elements will now be examined along with three concepts which will provide the bases for inservice education as a process for personal-professional growth. Individualization and interaction, together with circumstances conducive to growth are now presented. Individualization Although a shift in the purposes of inservice educa- tion from remediation to growth has been noted, the change may be more apparent than real. The words growth, develop- ment, and individualization are liberally sprinkled through- out recent literature, but when one searches through them to their meanings it is often found that they are, rather than inner directed, outer directed and prescriptive, carrying with them the assumption that all people should learn a ‘ 37Ibid. 38 specified body of knowledge and skills to satisfy "needs" that an external source deems appropriate.38 Growth and development stand for growth and development toward someone else's goals with little if any regard for the nurturance of a person's own unique qualities and potentialities. Were a teacher able to acquire these skills and knowledges with— out serious consequences for self-development, it would not appear as damaging, but this is not the case. "Insistence upon a 'good' method for people who do not understand it or cannot use it may even have a negative effect by under- mining the teacher's self respect and confidence . ."39 Individualization, as it is often referred to, means "to learn at a person's own rate" or "self paced learning" of content external to the learner. Things to be learned take on greater emphasis than the processes of learning them. Individualization, as it is viewed from a personal growth perspective, can only be defined and experienced by the person. Contrary to much that is written, "individuali- zation" is not a particular phenomenon of the technological age. People have been striving for self knowledge, and creating and responding in life since civilization began. ¥ 38Moustakas, Teaching As Learning, pp. 16-17. 39Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, pp. 407—8. 39 "Know thyself" was not without meaning when it was first stated, nor is it likely to be in the foreseeable future. Perhaps it would remain truer to the person for whom individualization is designed if the "ization" was dropped and one looked instead at the "individual," at the self who is acting on her or his own behalf with a yes-feeling emerging from the inner system.40 iMuch research on inservice education is directed at measuring and specifying with more precision: actual teach- ing, methods of instruction, and teaching instruments, which precipitates a flurry of innovations for delivery and eval- uation. Where is the individual, the growing self, "creating" or "keeping up?" It seems apprOpriate at this point to dis- tinguish between wants and needs. wanting is an affirmative expression of the self related to something of intrinsic worth to the individual while needing often refers to lacks and gaps which the indi- vidual should fill or for which he must compensate. Only the person in his individuality and in the totality of his significant experience can know what he wants but others know what he needs. Wanting involves being and choosing but needing often means following a prescribed path and a predetermined goal to make up for deficits. A quality of the real self is wanting in terms of posi- tive growth4 not needing in terms of absences and weaknesses. 40John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1922). 41Moustakas, Teaching As Learning, pp. 16-17. 40 Growth, development, individualization, and renewal are all predicated on the assumption that the person is seeking to know one's self in the best way one can, acting at each moment on the basis of her or his perceptual field. Knowledge and information have meaning only as they organi- cally connect with the individual. From an external posi- tion it is highly unlikely that this connection can be seen or felt. If an experience has meaning for the self, one need not ask what it is good for. "This is a question which can be asked only about instrumental values, but some goods are not good in; anything; they are just goods. Any other notion leads to absurdity."42 Some people continue to talk about ”growth" in terms of remediation but often they do not recognize it as such. For example, it is doubtful if the authors of the following quotations would feel that they were being prescriptive or that they were suggesting that teachers (and others) need to continually catch up (to the exclusion of individually motivated activities). All teachers, administrators, and supervisors must constantly study in order to keep up with advances in subject matter and in the theory and practice of teaching. Continuous in-service education is needed 42Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 283. 41 in order to keep the profession abreast of new knowl- edge . . On the basis of perceived importance and willingness for inservice education, the most probable areas for successful inservice education would be in teachin strategy or diagnostic categories of competencies. The primary purpose of inservice education is to upgrade the teacher's classroom performance.45 Actually, the only new major purpose of inservice edu- cation since 1930 is to aid the school in implementing new educational programs by helping teachers acquire understanding, skills and attitudes essential to the roles they are to play in the new programs.46 Preservice education is only the beginning of profes- sional training. Professional development must con- tinue throughout a teacher's career if he is to keep up with changing conditions and new knowledge. 43Glen Hass, "In-Service Today," in In-Service Edu- cation for Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators in Fifty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 13. 44Jaquith, "An Analysis of Perceptions." 45Jack L. Brimm and Daniel J. Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel About In-Service Education?" Educational Leadership 31 (March 1974): 523. 46Ralph W. Tyler, ”In-Service Education of Teachers: A Look At the Past and Future," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), pp. 13-14. 47Ron Lippitt and Robert Fox, "Development and Main- tenance of Effective Classroom Learning," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), pp. 134-65. 42 . . . self renewal must occur if teachers are to stay in tune with the changing needs of their students. Many studies mention the importance of individual relevance and self direction for effective inservice educa- tion. In her recommendations for future research, Ains- __ “who“ N- ,- r" ’f "4“”) worth wrote: < ’ swan—— fir/a; a»? Self direction is an element of in-service programs which was found to be desirable in the view of the National Education Association and also in the opinion of forty percent of the interviewed secondary teachers. ’ In what ways can teachers be encouraged to take the . necessary responsibility for directing themselves in a I program in which they may determine necessary elements 1 to meet their own needs? 9 The priority need cited fourth by teachers in Smith's study of inservice education in Huntsville, Alabama was the "Provision for meeting the needs and interests of the par- ticipants,’ while the first was "Provision for the partici- pants affected by the in-service program to have an Oppor- tunity to participate in identifying objectives and planning activities."50 The latter is suggested in numerous other 48Brimmand Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel," p. 521. I 49Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptioniyy' 50John Carlton Smith, "An Assessment of the In- Service Education Program in Huntsville, Alabama Schools," (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Alabama, 1971). 43 studies, for example, Brimm and Tollett,51 James,52 Jaquith,53 and Edwards.54 Several recent studies have concluded that if a teacher is involved actively in a personally meaningful inservice education activity, she or he will be committed to it. "The closer an event is perceived to the self, the more intense will be the individual's experience."55 Information within which an individual comes in con- tact can be viewed along a continuum which is represented by YX in Figure 2-1. The closer that information comes to Y the greater is the relationship with the self and the more meaning it will have. The closer to X that informa- tion falls, the less relevance it will have. In order to live effectively in our society an indi- vidual will need to have information or data existing at all points along the continuum. Information at the extreme not-self end . . . has little or no effect upon behavior. This is the kind of information which 51Brimm and Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel." 52H. J. James, "Evaluation of a Junior High School In-Service Program Designed to Help Teachers Provide for Pupils' Individual Differences in Reading Abilities," (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Miami, 1969). 53Jaquith, "An Analysis of Perceptions." 54Edwards, "Teachers' Perceptions." 55Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 416. 44 Fig. 2-1. The Individual Perceptual Field Source: Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, 1959, p. 416. bombards us every day and which passes in one ear and out the other.5 The better able an individual is to discover relation- ships between the self, culture and society, the more satis- fying will be the person's relationship with the world around her or him.57 Teachers' active involvement in the planning of inser- vice education has been mentioned in several recent studies. In a state-wide investigation of inservice education in Tennessee, Brimm andalollett reported that: W An overwhelming majority (932) ofxthe respondents stated that teachers need to be involved in the i J 56Ibid. 571bid. 45 development of purposes, activities, and methods of evaluation for inservice programs. More than three- fourths of the teachers surveyed reported that such involvement would foster greater committment on the it part of their colleagues for in-service education / programs.5 \ .._.~ ...1__,, A. 'II ' .1." -- In a recent study conducted in Michigan, Edwards59 reported that 97.1 percent of the respondents indicated a desire to have input in the decision making process of . -ae“‘ inservice education. Participation in planning as an aspect of personal- professional growth has been found to help ensure relevance of programs, and additionally, to increase participation in actual inservice education experiences. As a manifestation of the search for personal relevancy in inservice education, studies of teachers' perception often find practicality a highly valued characteristic. One such study was conducted by Ainsworth, who found: The five qualities mentioned by more teachers were: practicality (79.5%), support and encouragement (56.2%), systematic program (46.8%6, variety (45.9%), and teacher sharing (42.5%). 58Brimm and Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel," p. 524. 59Edwards, "Teachers' Perceptions." 6OBarbara Ainsworth, "Teachers Talk About Inservice Education," Journal of Teacher Education 27 (Summer 1976): 108. She st vidual ticule gible note I educat on the nothit contei wortht t0 the taint: the o; rience Charl, 46 She stresses that, "the term practical referred to an indi- vidual idea of what would be considered helpful to that par- ticular teacher.”61 Practical application is not necessarily of a tan- gible order, although often it is. It is of interest to note that one of the most influential persons on modern educational thought, John Dewey, long ago placed emphasis on the importance of applicability to learning. There was nothing inherently good in "learning" unless put into the context of something else, something to learn. To be worthwhile, learning had to be applicable, and applicable to the learner's experience. "I assume that amid all uncer- tainties there is one permanent frame of reference: namely, the organic connection between education and personal expe- rience."62 The last elements of individualization to be addressed include choice and alternatives. The freedom to choose is, "something which exists within the individual, something phenomenological rather than external . . ."63 Rogers wnote, "I believe that this experience of freedom to choose * 61Ibid. 62Dewey, Democracy and Education. 63Carl Rogers, Freedom To Learn (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1969), p. 269. 47 is one of the deepest elements underlying'change."64 In order for people to make intelligent choices, they must be aware of their responsibility for doing so. For Dewey, freedom was, "intelligent, effective choice." ‘With freedom came responsibility. He did not feel that freedom was opposed to authority, but he did feel that certain kinds of authority killed freedom. The ques- tion then was to find what types of authority fostered the development of freedom and which forms retarded or restricted it. This appears to be a salient question for proponents of inservice education. In order for teachers to make responsible decisions they must first be aware of their obligation to do so and then they must be in a position where there are viable alternatives from which they can select. The freedom to choose from among alternatives may be considered a burden if one is unaccustomed to making decisions, even though one is constantly making choices. When one allows one's self to be conditioned and manipulated by others, the responsibility for decision-making has been relinquished. 64Ibid., p. 268. 48 In addition to being aware of one's decision-making, a teacher must be encouraged to choose from real alterna- tives. Active involvement in the planning of inservice education by all teachers can help insure this. The phrase, real alternative, does not mean allowing teachers to choose two out of five content area sessions to attend, an all too frequent interpretation of the concept of choice. Although choice has often been requested by teachers, as reported in surveys, this is not always the case. Ains- worth found that of the qualities which teachers felt were of importance to them, "Least frequently mentioned by the 146 interviewed teachers were choice (19.9%) and self- direction (24.0%)." She continued: The implication here is that these teachers want a structured program of other teachers presenting new and different ideas in a situation where choice and self-direction are not necessarily available. The danger in reaching such a conclusion is that the source of the statistics were teachers not usually familiar with alternative arrangements which encouraged choice or self-direction. Representative of a positive reaction to choice, Brimm and Tollett found from teachers' responses to the "Teacher Attitude Toward In-Service Education Inventory" (a thirty-four item Likert-type scale) that: 65Ainsworth, "Teachers Talk," p. 107. grow (0 C)- (N (D best and I grow a 301 it i: soci Othe Othe SEQU 49 (INC. .\ . . . the one which received the strongest endorsement; by teachers was, 'The teacher should have the oppor- tunity to select the kind of in-service activities which he feels will strengthen his professional com- petence.’ Eighty-nine percent of the teachers in the ’ sample agreed or strongly agreed with this statement, K\ while only four percent disagreed. This suggests that an overwhelming majority of teachers prefer some sort of individualized in-service education program. A program encouraging the personal-prefessional growth of its participants would be designed with the knowl- edge that the unique potentialities of unfolding self are best served through freedom.of choice. Removing options and narrowing choices frequently present obstacles to growth rather than providing foci. Interaction It has been said that, "The self . . . is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience . . . it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience."67 It is through relationships with others that one gains an understanding of one's self and of others. Although individual goals and group goals are often seen in opposition, some people feel that the two are 66Brimm and Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel," p. 523. 67George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934). temple Ainswc Whit 1 vidual mite were : and s. 50 complementary, even inextricable. Noting this dilemma, Ainsworth recommended that study be conducted to find, "In what ways can program.elements be applied to support indi- vidual efforts but still retain some group cohesion in united educational goals?"68 Some authors and teachers were found to view individual and group goals as distinct and separate entities. Dewey devoted considerable energy to articulating what he felt were the interdependencies between growth of the individual and society. To Dewey, society was a dynamic evolving community where, through socialization, individuals were free. "Community, common,‘ and "communication" were given comprehensive, but specific, definitions which were central to his phi1030phy. "Men live in a community by virtue of the things which they have in common; and commu- nication is the way in which they come to possess things in common."69 ‘Genuine social life was impossible without com- munication and all true communication was educative. Any- thing that presented a barrier to social communication, or give and take between individuals and among groups, stifled growth for both the individual and society. 68Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions." 69Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 4. 51 As a part of this intercommunication one learns much from others. They tell of their experiences and of the experiences which, in turn, have been told them. In so far as one is interested or concerned in these communi- cations, their matter becomes a part of one's own expe- rience. Active connections with others are such an intimate and vital part of our own concerns that it is impossible to draw sharp lines, such as would enable us to sayO 'Here my experience ends; there yours begins.' Turning to interpersonal relations from a perspective of the self, Jersild writes: The self is acquired. It is not ready made. It deve10ps as a person, with his inborn abilities and tendencies and all that is inherent in his makeup, meets with the experiences of life. The development is influenced itrongly . . . by his relationship with other people.7 Further, he felt that interpersonal relationships were at the "heart of anything that could be done at school to promote healthy self-development."72 Central to Sullivan's theory of personality, inter- personal relationships were seen to be based upon the inter- action of one's attitude toward self and toward others. "As one respects one's self so can one respect others . . . 7°Ibid., p. 186. 71Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952), p. 16. 721bid., p. 12. 52 It is not as ye judge so shall ye be judged, but as you judge yourself so shall you judge others."73 The ability to judge one's self and others derives in part from interaction which allows one to observe the behav- ior of others. A person is able to infer what another per- son is feeling through observation of behavior which helps one to more clearly understand the nature of the other's perceptual field. This ability to "feel like another" or to "place one's self in another's shoes" is termed, empathy. "It is a talent possessed in some degree by all of us although some of us have developed it far more than others. It is an important factor in communication and in objective human relations."74 According to Jersild, in order to understand a person we must: (1) be at home with our own emotions so that we can understand ourselves, and (2) "be able to realize not simply what he is thinking, but also what he is feeling."75 Through several studies of the helping professions (nurses, clergy, teachers, etc.) Combs and others discovered 73Harry Stack Sullivan, Conceptions of Modern Psy- chiatry (washington: The William Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation, 1947). 74Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, pp. 235-36. 75Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 128. that visor 3 st: persc felt for c acce; who c fully Costs invol A5 at anctt One': 1 te: safe; othe. teak 53 that individuals who were judged by their peers and super- visors as being highly effective helpers were those who felt a strong sense of identification with others. Conversely, persons who were deemed less effective were individuals who felt removed fromothers.76 Compassion for others has been linked to compassion for one's self. "Compassion involves self acceptance and acceptance of others in the profoundest sense. The person who can most fully accept himself is the one who can most fully accept others."77 From a sociological perspective, one of the greatest costs to be born by an individual who enters teaching involves becoming isolated. According to Lortie,78 teaching, as an occupation, is one which separates teachers from one another and from other adults. Without communication with one's peers growth is stifled, and when a teacher is iso- lated it becomes easy to develop defensive positions as a safeguard against the perceived thoughts and actions of others. Knoblock and Goldstein found that teachers often took on characteristics of a peer with their children and 76Combs, Avila, Purkey, Helping Relationships. 77Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 130. 78Dan C. Lortie, School Teacher: A Sociological Study (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1975). 54 were at times overly protective when conflict, or perceived conflict, arose outside the classroom. Often teachers who care for children are placed in the position of defending them. It is just a short step then until other staff members perceive such teachers and their children as having joined forces against the school and what it stands for! How devastating it is for some teachers to realize that they may be placed in the position of identifying with the child or with the school. Those who believe that schools are for the children are often disillusioned and frightened to be grouped with the children. That isn't what their caring was meant to do, but it is one of the outcomes. Once this happens and the battle lines are drawn, the lines of open communication are made even more diffi- cult.79 Also, ". . . teachers' group behavior with other adults in school closely parallels how they control group behavior in their classrooms."80 As teachers came to know and trust each other in a group setting, concomitantly they began to behave in self perceived more appropriate ways ‘within their classrooms. Improved staff relations with adults went hand-in-hand with improved student-teacher relationships. Many situations in school mitigate against positive teacher interaction and contribute to feelings of loneli- ness and isolation. ”What goes on in the name of 79Peter Knoblock and Arnold P. Goldstein, The Lonely Teacher (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1971), p. 15. 301bid., p. 36. k: SE BI Ed 55 discussion, faculty meetings, committee meetings, and the like often does not bring people emotionally together but keeps them emotionally apart . . ."81 The self contained classroom, rigid time scheduling, staggered lunch and recess times do not contribute to staff interaction. Over emphasis on quantifiable student achievement and the con- sequent neglect of emotional and social growth often encourages competition rather than sharing. In a recent review of research on inservice education prepared for the State Department of Education in Florida,‘ Lawrence, et al., reported a number of characteristics which appear to be associated with effective programs, one of which is: . Inservice education programs in which teachers share” L/// and provide mutual assistance to each other are more likely to accomplish their objectives than are 550- 3 grams in which each teacher does separate work. ' .1,“ fl. Teacher-sharing as an important element in inservice education was spontaneously mentioned by 42.9% of the 81Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 71. 82Gordon Lawrence, D. Baker, R. Elzie, and B. Hansen,> "Patterns of Effective Inservice Education: A State of the I .Art Summary of Research on Materials and Procedures for Changing Teacher Behaviors in Inservice Education" (Report prepared for the state of Florida, Department of Education, December 1974), p. 15. CCOC oesi idea teac IESE rent out 56 teachers in Ainsworth's study.83 Turner mentioned in a concluding statement that a non-threatening climate was desired, among other reasons, to allow teachers to "share ideas with others."84 With the exception of these studies, teacher-sharing was noticeably absent from most of the research reviewed. Even when sharing was implied in state- ments advocating "visitations, to see other teachers or programs, the intent was to gain ideas or techniques with- out mention of interaction or sharing. Any program of personal-professional growth would, by virtue of having growth as a goal, include provisions for teacher interaction. Commenting upon his revision of The Alive and Growing Teacher, Moustakas wrote that his most rewarding revelation: . . . was the way in which group life can contribute both to personal and professional growth, the way in which a group of people can achieve interpersonal depth while at the same time growing in awareness and skill in facing professional problems and activities . . . a group can be a blend of developing relations in depth and searching into professional issues . . . self- reflection and self-awareness, and dialogues with oneself and others still provide significant ways to growth. 83Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions." 84Turner, "A Study of Teachers' Perceptions." be a into filial plat cam Whi. ing not fine 57 Facing problems directly, with others of similar interest and concern, viewing effective teaching and learning, leads to new awareness and new attitudes. What are the circumstances under which "a group can be a blend of developing relations in depth and searching into professional issues,’ and "self-reflection and self- awareness, and dialogues with oneself" are possible? Circumstances Under Which Personal- Professional Growth Can Occur Contrary to the wishes of many inservice education planners, simple manipulation of external circumstances cannot guarantee individual growth. Growth is not something which can be "speeded up" or "added to" through external coercion or manipulation. This constitutes a primary reason for the failure of many new techniques, methods, and pro- cedures. They are unable to reach the inner self as mean- ingful experience. Inservice education programs which do not appear relevant to the individual have little chance of encouraging, or even permitting positive growth. In order for teachers to be free to grow there must be belief in freedom, "the belief that the learner himself is in the best position to make responsible choices."86 85Mloustakas, Teaching As Learning, p. xi. 86Ibid., p. 2. ch: 133': "It the £150 thi seI in Dr 58 Climate Although the climate cannot dictate growth it can help by controlling some circumstances which frequently stifle growth. By removing some of the roadblocks, teach- ers may be permitted to grow. It has been found that the climate in which inservice education takes place has a major impact on teachers' perceptions of quality programs; "It must be a relaxed, nonthreatening atmosphere in which they can question and express opinions . . ."87 Individuals must be free to express their feelings about things which have personal significance, and to do this first they must feel comfortable and secure with them- selves and second, with others in the group. Eventually each individual in the group helps to deter- mine whether real expression of the self will occur or whether fear, need for praise and approval, stereotype, and adherence to external standards will prevail. "Real expression of the self" is rarely encouraged in inservice education, so to permit it, one must "overcome the prevailing tendency in education to encourage the learner to understand everything except himself."89 One must strive to achieve a better integration of thinking and 87Turner, "A Study of Teachers' Perceptions." 88Moustakas, Teachinngs Learning, p. 25. 89Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 80. fee int pre be: RC? he ti Ii 59 feeling, and to pursue areas in which one has sincere interest, rather than those which are undertaken through prescription or coercion.90 These things are not easily accomplished. While the self is in a continuous process of becoming, it is both striving for growth and change, and working against them. Individuals guard their own self image even when that image is based upon distortion.91 When a person's self image is challenged or threatened he or she becomes defensive which usually leads to a restric— tion of one's perceptual field. "PeOple under threat are likely to behave rigidly and unquestioningly . . ."92 In an environment where the teacher trusts and respects others and feels free to express true feelings, the inclination to be defensive diminishes. People who feel self confident are less upset by adversity and conflict and are better able to evaluate incidents clearly and from a less challenged per- spective.93 They feel freer to seek advice and assistance and they are less overwhelmed by criticisms. When we are able to free the individual from defensive- ness, so that he is open to the wide range of his own 90Ibid., p. 81. 91Jersild, In Search of Self, p. 19. 92Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 189. 93Ibid., p. 242. ‘< 60 " needs, as well as the wide range of environmental and social demands, his reactions may be trusted to be positive, forward moving, constructive . . . one of his own deepest needs is for affiliation with and communica- tion with others.9 A free and ppen environment is essential if teachers are to feel free to share their resentments and failures as well as their joys and successes. Attitudes toward author- ity present a problem for teachers who are attempting to face themselves. Even if they are not aware of resentment, in an environment conducive to sharing concerns, interaction with others often leads to realization and resolution.95 The consequences of repressing anger are described by Jersild: If I am angry, an important fact is that it is I who feel anger. The anger is mine. It is something of me. It is an emotion in me that might provide a bridge . . . between me and another person. It is also an emotion that, if I could confront its meaning, might serve as a bridge that brings me closer to understanding myself. But if, instead of coming forth candidly with my anger, I project it; gripe about the weather, events or charac- ters in the day's political news, the principal, the size of classes . . . then it is not I who come with myself. I center attention on objective and external aspects of the situation and thereby immediately divorce myself even from my own anger and from any opportunity for sharing my anger (which means sharing something of me) with someone else. A climate which encourages teachers to be themselves, open to themselves and to others, also provides an 94Rogers, Freedom To Learn, p. 290. 95Jersild, In Search of Self, p. 119. 96Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves,2é> 72. OppO OIIO ore, the: SM (1011 61 opportunity for them to experiment, create, innovate, try on new experiences, tailor ideas to themselves, risk fail- ure, learn from mistakes, and grow in the ability to accept their own feelings as they empathize and grow in under- standing of others. "Growth occurs in a climate that wel- comes new ideas . . . such a climate is determined by . . . relationships."97 Continuous Development If inservice education is to contribute to personal- professional growth it must be ongoing. In order to release the potentialities of individuals, continuous opportunities for development are necessary. Like other forms of growth creativity is not easily harnessed. The creative process is often not responsive to con- scious efforts to initiate or control it. It does not proceed methodically or in programmatic fashion. It 'meanderg. It is unpredictable, digressive, capri- cious.9 .According to Gardner, "Creative minds are rarely tidy."99 It is not known whether individuals can be helped 97Charles A. Blackman, "Continual Improvement, The Keystone of An Effective School Program" (Prepared for Michigan School Board Journal, 1964), p. 3. 98John‘W. Gardner, Self-Renewal (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963), p. 41. 99Ibid. to a- that ther expl sons be: rea in she a 1 1i to h: 62 to acquire creativity or not, but it is generally accepted that "much can be done to release the potential that is there."100 An environment that permits an individual to explore self-potentialities with the benefit of other per- sons who are also engaged actively in the same pursuit, will be an atmosphere that is hospitable to innovation. As Gardner implies, growing takes time and it is not readily manipulated. Experimentation with self and others, in ordéi to be lasting and effective, requires time. "One- shot," "hit or miss" inservice education is unacceptable as a means of staff deve10pment. Such inservice education has little chance of providing a setting where teachers are able to derive much in the way of personal or collective meaning. Even when an activity is meaningful, without followeup, or being a part of a general direction for development, con- sequent constraints mitigate against lasting effects. If personal-professional growth is to be taken seri- ously, and there is much evidence to support the opposite condition, then time must be made available on a continuous and flexible basis. 1°°Ibid., p. 42. hooe ihgn in t hehi is. is the om 63 Time To Be Alone Time to be alone with one's self, when one can be "at "101 is an essential home with one's thoughts and feelings, ingredient for personal growth. "When introspection occurs in the dedicated teacher, positive growth is usually close behind."102 Teachers have often been referred to as "lonely” and "isolated." A distinction should be made then between what is meant by time to be alone and loneliness. In many cases the former may help prevent the latter. The awareness that one is responsible for one's decisions and actions, when one has the courage to be,103 means that one is alone. "The courage to be is a function of vitality."104 Loneliness, on the other hand, has been defined as: A condition that exists when a person needs human con- tact but cannot find it, seeks emotional closeness to someone else but does not receive it. A person in this condition is out of psychological communication with other important people. 101Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 75. 102E. Manera and R. Wright, ATE Bulletin #34 (1975), p. 26. 103Paul Tillich, The Courage To Be (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972). 104Ibid., p. 79. 105Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 76. upon . to te iipOi groor Tire exp: tiI ess fee an< in in 64 Time, then, for teachers to be alone and reflect upon events and situations at school, when they can come to terms with their own reactions and dispositions is an important element in a program for personal-professional growth . Time To Be With Others If people are to grow together, pursuing common goals, expanding and guiding school efforts in unified directions, time for them to interact must be provided. Time is nec- essary for communication, where teachers are free to "express feelings and opinions, to ask questions, to offer comments, and to share ideas."106 This means time for participation in activities and experiences in which they are personally involved by choice, because they are taking part in things that concern them. Just as it is within an interpersonal setting that one acquires most of the attitudes involved in one's view of oneself, so it is likely that only in an interper- sonal setting can a person be helped to come to grips ‘with some of the meanings of these attitudes. Time to be with others is time for discovery of resources within individuals who comprise the group. Un- touched talent may be tapped and developed. Outside sources 106Edwards, "Teachers' Perspections," p. 214. 107Jersild,‘When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 84. 1111 be as nece should agyggz of a f time i works aside able. reque inert brit RON the gr: [:9 i . 65 will be identified and recommended when they are perceived as necessary. To be really helpful, time for collaboration should be available on: (1) an ongoing basis, and (2) at apprOpriate times, usually within the school day. "The end of a full school day is not likely to be the most productive time for thoughtful work."108 Time for Specified Activities Time for specified programs or purposes (consultation, workshops, speciality sessions) should be regularly set aside, so that when programs are desired time will be avail- able. When programs are planned from interest, and upon request, the chances that they will be effective are greatly increased. Education for Teacher Growth If the desire to create an environment ". . . to bring out the capabilities or possibilities of; bring to a more advanced or effective state . . . generate; evolve . "109 individuals and professionals is a serious one, then the time has come to utilize what is known about growing. 108Blackman, "Continual Improvement," p. 4. 109The Random House Dictionary of the English Lan- guage (NeW'York: Random House, 1966), p. 394. inset greet oats It: a: 66 Growing is ongoing. If what goes on in the name of inservice education is static or stationary, it is not growth. If it is prescribed by persons for other individ- uals without their expressed interest, it is not growth. Every experience in which the individual expresses himself in a free, spontaneous manner contributes to the growth of the self . . . growth of the self which begins at birth continues through life.110 It cannot be done 53 or £93 individuals.111 Inservice education as a process to help teachers develop would possess several characteristics; the measure of its success could be seen in the degree to which it pro- vided for (1) individual growth, and (2) group, or staff development. Seeking to know one's self, one finds others. Finding others, one gains in understanding of one's self. Activities which are of individual relevance, in which teachers can discover personal implications are activities that teachers are involved in and committed to. Participation and practicality are consequences of self- direction where the individual is aware and acts upon choice from alternatives. 110Moustakas, Teachinngs Learning, p. 1. 111Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 14. vaIu COOC 381 are H 67 Activities which are cooperatively planned, which stem from individual dilemmas and have broad application are valued because they utilize personal awareness of common concerns. Activities where teachers are able to get to know each other as unique persons with potentialities and as a group sharing in feelings, thoughts and common goals are experiences of growing singly, and growing together. In order to achieve personal-professional growth in inservice education, there must be an accepting environment where teachers feel free to be themselves, to experiment, to make mistakes and to learn from their mistakes, and under- stand that they are not alone in their feelings and thoughts. Growing is its own incentive, but it needs time: time to be alone to reflect and act; time to be with others for discussion, to discover and plan together; and time for specified activities like workshops, visitations, consul- tants, during the school day, on an ongoing basis. PT' IE tt CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY How do teachers define and feel about their personal- professional growth? How does one inquire so that teachers respond with what they feel, rather than with what they think they should feel? In this chapter, the research ques- tions and instrument design, sample selection and data col- lection, limitations, and analysis techniques are presented. Research Questions and Instrument Design The interview questionnaire was designed in response to research questions two(a), two(b), and two(c). Gener- ally, how do teachers define and feel about activities and experiences which enhance their personal-professional growth? Each research question is now presented along with a description of the interview questions which were developed from them. Keeping with the theme, personal meaning from the teacher's point of view, the first two interview questions 68 69 were asked in order to (1) bring the respondent to a per- sonal opinion orientation, (2) establish rapport and put the respondent at ease, (3) convey the feeling that the inter- viewer was not seeking specific or "correct" answers, and (4) set a general free thinking tone for the questions that would follow. Question number one: "If you had the chance to bring about change in our public schools, what change, would you most want to make? Why?" adapted from Lortie,1 was general, while question number two: "Can you recall an occasion when you felt especially proud of something you achieved as a teacher? What was it? Why do you think that it made you feel proud?" which was similar to several questions asked by Lortie,2 was intended to bring the respondent to her or his own professional experience in a positive, self enhancing way. Research question two(a), How do practicing teachers feel about their own personaljprofessional growth with respect to activities and experiences which have meaning? was addressed by interview questions: three(A), three(B), four, five, and ten. Interview question ten, which deals 1Dan C. Lortie, School Teacher: A Sociological Study (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1975). 2Ibid. the late 31. 3B. _"_‘ 70 directly with inservice education, is treated separately later in the chapter. 3A. What are some activities in which you engage that you find are beneficial to you in your teaching? 38. In terms of getting ideas and insights on your work, which of these activities is the most useful? Why do you say that? 4. Do you participate in any activities with your col- leagues that you find beneficial to you in your role as a teacher? (if yes) What kinds? 5. If you were given ten free hours a week to be used for your own professional growth, how do you think you might use it? Why? Interview question three(A) was general and respon- dents were asked to think about personal-professional growth on a broad basis, including school and non school related activities; while interview question three(B) had the dual purpose of encouraging the respondent to add to, and think about valued activities, and then to put a priority on the most valuable activity, if any were perceived to be of greater value. In interview question four the interviewer wanted to know specifically if the respondent felt that (1) collegial relat PETE ques 1131 3A 71 relationships were valuable, and if they were, (2) why they were valued. Interview question five was derived from a similar question by Lortie,3 and modified through information gained in the pilot study.4 In answer to research question two(b), How do prac- ticing teachers feel about their own personalfiprofessional growth with respect to with whom and/or from whom.meaningful activities and experiences take place? interview questions: three, five, six, seven, nine, and ten were developed. The first part of the research question, with whom, was addressed by interview questions three(A) and five. 3A. What are some activities in which you engage that you find are beneficial to you in your teaching? 5. If you were given ten free hours a week to be used for your own professional growth, how do you think you might use it? Why? The second part of research question two(b), from whom, was treated by interview questions six, seven, and nine. 3Ibid. 4It was discovered that respondents freely gave sug- gestions and shared ideas when they were not led by terms such as "inservice education" or "professional development." ti 61' It 72 6. Looking back over your teaching career, where has been the best source or sources, of new ideas for teaching? 7. Where do you get help in analyzing specific problems that you encounter as a teacher? 9. If you wanted help in your own private assessment of your work, who would you most likely turn to? Why? Interview question six was intended to elicit qualita- tive responses based upon the teacher's classroom experi- ence. Similarly, interview questions seven and nine asked respondents for qualitative answers to find out who or what services they felt comfortable about and do or would actu- ally utilize in their teaching roles. Equally important to the researcher was whether anyone, or any service, was per- ceived by the teacher as valuable. How do teachers feel about going to others for help with everyday problems, and what reaction do teachers have to seeking help in assessment or evaluation for personal, professional improvement? Research question two(c), How do,practicing teachers define the circumstances under which meaningful personal- professional growth experiences and activities occur? was addressed through interview questions three, four, five, and ten. for 3.1181 one ser QUE the vi 0a (I'D 73 3A. What are some activities in which you engage that you find are beneficial to you in your teaching? 4. Do you participate in any activities with your col- leagues that you find beneficial to you in your role as a teacher? (if yes) What kinds? When? Why do you think that they are beneficial? 5. If you were given ten free hours a week to be used for your own professional growth, how do you think you might use it? Why? Do teachers feel that traditional activities designed for continuing teacher education, such as various forms of inservice education, university courses, workshops, confer- ences, professional association affiliations, consultant services, etc. are valuable? If so, which are most fre- quently mentioned, which are mentioned by teachers more than once, i.e., utilized in answer to more than one inter- view question; and, if the above programs are noticeably ommitted, what are valued activities and under what circum- stances do they occur? Are they school sponsored, teacher sponsored, community activities, travel activities, leisure, not directly school related, formal, informal, solitary, group or social activities? What then, are the circum- stances that permit or encourage teacher growth? Since the interviewer leaves the respondent free to cite experiences I635 ist or, tel 11' V g. a 74 that the teacher finds growth enhancing from both school and non school activities, the respondent is not restricted to sought after or pre categorized answers. Of particular interest, and in fact, one of the major reasons for this type of broad and open ended questioning, is the reasoning behind the respondents' responses. If a particular response is given often, are there characteris- tics commonly held in answer to why the activity is valued, or, is the reasoning as diverse as the number of respon- dents? The reasons why specific activities are perceived valuable might well provide significant information which will help clarify how and why certain circumstances enable (and in some cases encourage) teachers to grow. Related to growth but not directly in answer to the major research questions, interview question eight asks the resPendent to identify what is personally felt to be her or his greatest strength as a teacher. What do teachers value in themselves and feel to be their greatest assets? Infer- entjsally, what do teachers value in good teachers, that is, what characteristics do they cite as ones that they hope to haVe, or perhaps are striving toward? With the identifica- tion of these, more might be discovered about the possible directions of growth. Personal-professional growth toward what ? 75 8. What do you think is your greatest strength as a teacher? (Where do you get help in maintaining and developing this? or, How did you develop this? Why do you value this?) Interview question ten was designed to help answer research questions two(a), two(b), and two(c), and to direct the respondent to reflect and focus upon inservice education from the previously established perspective of personal- professional growth. 10. If you could bring about change in inservice education, what do you think could be done to improve it? The researcher wanted to determine whether the previ- ously mentioned teacher valued activities were mentioned as positive changes for inservice education. Did the respon- dents see a connection between their own valuable personal- professional growth and inservice education? Did they see a potential link? For example, interview question five called for respondents to elaborate upon activities in which they would engage if given time for professional growth; if respondents said that they would use time to "observe in other classrooms," did they also mention in response to interview question ten, that "time" or "oppor- tunity to observe others" would be a valuable activity for inservice education? what te about t vice e4 when t what t given ities free IESp' cati inte ers eat at 76 Number ten provided further opportunity to probe for what teachers Q value in inservice education. A great deal about the short comings and things that are wrong with inser- vice education is already known; and it is known in general when teachers are given a list of specific programs to rate what they will rate highly; but what will they say when given the chance to think freely about and discuss activ- ities and experiences which have actually been meaningful? As predicted, most teachers in the pilot study were free with criticism of inservice education. None of the respondents volunteered positive comments on inservice edu- cation, present or potential, without probing from the interviewer. It was difficult, often impossible, for teach- ers to free themselves from the inservice education experi- el’lces6 which they had "suffered through," and then to look at potentially meaningful aspects for improved programs. E 5This question was placed last because most teach- ers in the pilot study had an immediate negative reaction to 'tIIGE term "inservice" which narrowed responses markedly even t11<>ughthey were instructed to think of inservice education 5:5“ £1 broad concept encompassing any professional develop- ent activity engaged in alone or with others. 1,1? 6Patsy Edwards, "Teachers' Perceptions of Present Frictices, Process-Needs, Alternative Delivery Systems and ‘,€:]:?<>1:ity of Inservice Education" (Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- Edws ity of Michigan, 1975). This lends substantiation to Que ards who stated that teachers' past and present experi- ‘eiss in inservice education would continue to undermine it as éi- positive vehicle for professional growth. summer Hichig volunt the re of st‘ hman fessi Inn 6 futm dent came one Bin 77 Sample and Data Collection The sample was drawn from practicing teachers attending summer school courses offered by the College of Education at Michigan State University in 1976. The researcher solicited volunteers through a brief presentation of information about the research project in classes which were a cross section of students including: supervision of student teachers, and human growth and development; students taking required pro- fessional courses such as issues in education, and curricu- lum development; and voluntary or elected courses such as futuristics, open classroom, and language arts. Of the total sample, (Table 3-1), ninety-five respon- dents were from the state of Michigan, one respondent each caune from California, Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Oregon, and One each from the Netherlands, Japan, and Italy. Responses given by the individuals from other states and countries TABLE 3-1 RESPONDENT'S TEACHING LOCATION Location Number 'Within the state of Michigan 95 Outside Michigan, within the United States 4 Outside of the United States 3 Total 102 were n with t viewet repre: pie f Altho of ti nente 561101 with four seve tier Er CE 78 were not significantly different from Michigan respondents, with the exception of an individual from the Hague who viewed inservice education from a positive viewpoint.7 The percentages of respondents by grade level are representative of what one probably would find given a sam- ple from the population of Michigan teachers. (Table 3-2). Although teachers were credited with teaching at the level of their current assignment, several teachers from the ele- mentary level previously had taught at the middle or high school level. The majority of teachers in the sample were those with little, one to three years experience, or moderate, four to six years experience. Of elementary teachers, forty- seven teachers out of sixty had six years of teaching expe- rience or less. At the middle school level, experience was fairly evenly distributed from nine years to one year. Silnilar distribution was found at the high school level, 31 though sixteen percent had ten or more years of teaching experience. See Table 3-3. As far as amount of respondent's graduate education (Table 3-4), only slightly less than twenty percent \ 81-: 7Because of the high regard she had for their pro- eae-ul, when asked what she would do to improve inservice edu- tion, she was at a loss for words. 79 .moooouommwp wcaoaoou mo omomoon unmouom ooa Hones no: on maouou amufiwumzr r92: Noe o.mm Am o.mo no reason m.eN mm o.oa AH m.s m moosom swam o.oa AH m.a m o.m a manna: m.mm oo s.aa NH o.me me suoososoaw ucoohom Hoaasz udoouom Hmnasz unmouom Honanz Ho>oq mamuoa mam: mamaoh Am>mq UZHSUHA um mUZMHmmmxm UZHMUmg uzmmoama Am onsaoanm maaenamo mum mam