ESTABLISHING A TEACHER ROLE “PERCEPTION
BASED ON INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND BELIEFS

Thesis. for the Degree of Ph. D. .
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
JOHN E. LOPIS
1971

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ABSTRACT

ESTABLISHING A TEACHER ROLE PERCEPTION
BASED ON INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND BELIEFS

BY

John E. Lopis

The focus of this study is to design an experience
for students in teacher education which will allow
students: to establish a teacher role derived from careful

self assessment of values and beliefs; to assist the student

 

in developing a conscious belief system; and, to promote
consistency in what the potential teacher professes and
how he will behave.

In Chapter I, the author presents the problem and
develops the intent and structure of the study. The study
proceeds on two interrelated levels, (1) a limited

empirical level--that is, identifying the existing situa-

 

tion and establishing feasible means for effecting change
through examining the empirical literature available.

Using this base to up-date the author's assumptions, and
(2) suggestions are made and an experience is designed to
individualize the perceived teacher role. In detail, the

experience is intended to allow students to select a

John E. Lopis

learning theory most consistent with their personal
belief system and to promote a more accepting attitude
toward personal differences.

In Chapter II, the review of the literature, the
study concentrates on the existing situation. Studies
reviewed indicate an attempt being made to closely define
the specifics of the teacher's role and that the teacher
role perceptions of the education student are being brought
in line with those held by established teachers. In the
second half of the literature review, the study deals with
alternative experiences which could be used to allow
education students an opportunity to examine their motives,
feelings, and strategies, and to adopt a teacher role
perception based on their personal value and belief
systems. It was found that one alternative would be to
design an encounter group experience which would deal with
these concerns.

In Chapter III, the study presents some guidelines
for setting up a working experience which could be
incorporated in existing teacher education programs and
also outlines some strategies which could be used in that
experience. The strategies are arranged in an order which
requires greater degrees of risk taking as the experience
progresses. Also, the design of the experience sets the

expectation for the group to become self directive as the

John E. Lopis

group members relate honestly and openly with empathic
behavior.

In Chapter IV, summary, conclusions, and recommenda-
tions, the study is drawn to a close. The study concludes:
(1) teacher education programs do not stress flexibility
in establishing the "teacher role"; (2) it is possible
for individuals to change attitudes and values, and to
increase levels of acceptance both for self and others
in an encounter group; and (3) given the existing situation,
it is possible to design a small group experience which
will deal directly with educational concerns and specifi-

cally with the role of the teacher.

ESTABLISHING A TEACHER ROLE PERCEPTION

BASED ON INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND BELIEFS

BY

John E. Lopis

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1971

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated
to the students who have so
often been my teachers.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to all
those persons who offered encouragement and guidance in
carrying out this study. He is especially indebted to
Dr. Dale V. Alam, advisor and committee chairman, for his
support and friendship throughout all phases of the
doctoral program. Appreciation is also expressed to the
other members of the committee, Drs. Charles A. Blackman,
K. Patrick Rode, and James B. McKee.

A special thanks to my parents and very close

friends for their confidence and faith.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Problem . . . . . . . . . . 3

Need for the Study . . . . . . . . 5

Significance of the Problem . . . . . 6

Sc0pe and Limitations . . . . . . . 8

Methodology . . . . . . . . 9

Organization of the Study . . . . . . 10

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . ll
Significance of the Teacher Role

Perception . . . . . . . . . . 12

Perceptions of the Teacher Role . . . . l7

Situational Assumptions . . . . . . . 24

Intent of the Experience . . _. . . . 26

Nature of the Experience . . . . . . 28

Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . 36

III. PROPOSED EXPERIENCE . . . . . . . . . 38

Intention O I O O O O O O O I I 38

Exercise Selection . . . . . . . . 39

Selected Strategies . . . . . . . . 41

Introductions . . . . . . . . . 42

First Names, First Impressions . . . . 44

Kerner Report . . . . . . . . . 47

Island Game . . . . . . . . . . 51

Value Continuum . . . . . . . . . 54

Trust Walk . . . . . . . . . . 57

Body Talk . . . . . . . . . . . 6O

ROle Play 0 O O I O O O O O O O 63

Classroom Incidents . . . . . . . 65

Open Chairs . . . . . . . . . 69

Double Ring Fish Bowl . . . . . . . 72

iv

Chapter

Identifying Concerns
Forming Strategies .
Star Power . . .
Prisoners' Dilemma .
One-to-One . . .
One-on-One . . .

IV. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
Summary . . . . .

Conclusions . . . .
Recommendations . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . .

RECOMMENDATIONS

Page

74
76
78
85
89
92

93
93

97
97

100

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

However stated, education clearly has the basic
responsibility of assisting human beings in the process
of acquiring information and skills that are necessary for
a productive, satisfying life. Problems seem to arise
when attempting to define words such as assisting, pro-
ductive, satisfying, and most of all, necessary. Postman
and Weingartner1 address this ambiguity,

. . . the tendency seems to be for most educational
systems, from patterns of training in primitive
tribal societies to school systems in technological
societies, to fall imperceptibly into a role devoted
exclusively to the conservation of old ideas, con-
cepts, attitudes, skills, and perceptions.

This practice, of nurturing the known, seems to
be an obvious pitfall for our students in teacher educa-
tion programs. The behavior of student teachers and
recently certified teachers seems to deviate very little
from the products of our teacher preparation programs
in years past.

Perhaps a personal experience of the author could

best express this dilemma and account for his concern

 

1N. Postman and C. Weingartner, Teaching as a
Subversive Activity (New York: Delacorte Press, 1969).

l

with the singularity and rigidity of the teacher's role

as perceived by students in teacher education. At the
time of this occurrence, the author was employed as an
administrator in a secondary school building. Just as
there are particular expectations of teachers, it is safe
to say that certain perceptions have also been internalized
concerning administrators. It should be pointed out that
the author did not fit these expectations either in
appearance or behavior. Walking the halls between
classes, a must for any "good" administrator, brought the
author to a ping-pong game outside the gymnasium door.

He quickly cashed in on the opportunity to get some
exercise and enjoy the students' company. A heated
doubles game was underway--Enter The Student Teacher.

The student teacher had arrived at the school that morning
and had been familiarized with the administrative staff in
name only. The author's paddle was snatched from his

hand and the golden words of a seasoned teacher rang out
loud and clear. "Where are you supposed to be?" Not
wanting to spoil a good on-the-job learning experience,
the situation was permitted to develop. Unable to
identify what class he was in and unable to produce a

hall pass, the author soon found himself being escorted

to his office by the student teacher. Further down the
hall, the author was greeted by name from some passing

students. Exit The Student Teacher.

It is assumed that teacher preparation programs
do not stress this kind of controlling behavior. However,
it would be difficult to assume that our young teachers
are permitted to develop a conscious belief system and
encouraged to adopt a teacher role consistent with that
belief system. A cursory observation might leave one with
the feeling that the teacher role, or behavior, is static
and it is the young teacher's beliefs that are left to be

manipulated and brought into line.

Problem

Our teacher training programs are dated. Whether
or not they once served the intended task of preparing
individuals to function as mediums in epistomological
endeavors is of little concern. Do they now serve? Do
these programs allow for creation as might be expected
from the artist's brush or do they require uniformity and
control? Our most severe art critic allows for personal
taste or preference but such is not the case with a
quality control agency. We are truly a mechanized
technological society. Our teacher training programs are
taking on the appearance of gigantic punch presses and
assembly lines. If we have predetermined what experiences
a future teacher must have, what the frequency of these
experiences will be, and what we will accept as satis-
factory performance, it is safe to assume that the

products of such a rigid_mold will be of limited variety.

In most cases, the existing teacher education
programs are doing a great deal to reinforce the singu-
larity of a "teacher role." When considering modeling as
an accepted way of influencing behavior, it is not very
surprising to find our future teachers locked into the
f5conceptual role of the teachers they themselves had for
many years. Regardless of what new information is given
them in their undergraduate experience, the method of
delivery closely resembles the same control model they
once learned under.

The problem addressed in this work is primarily a,
concern for the teacher role perception internalized by
students in teacher education. This role determination
is made over a long period of time as our future teachers
are subjected to a control model throughout their school
experience. The problem takes on a greater magnitude
when considering the need for a variety of teaching
approaches in future educational systems committed to
change and innovation through evaluation and up-dating.
It seems paradoxical that we intend for schools to keep
abreast of shifting emphasis in society and that our
young educators, a part of these alterations, are not
encouraged to project those attitudinal differences.
Instead, we make great efforts to maintain a sterilization

process.

Need for the Study
The teacher's role proposed in this study is
humanistic to the extent of encouraging students in teacher
education to decide what learning theory is most consistent
with their belief system. In more detail, it is a role

derived from careful self assessment of values and beliefs

 

designed to permit the student to establish a conscious
belief system and to promote consistency in what the
potential teacher professes and how he will behave. The
author's intention is to avoid the existing traps of pre-
determining what the "new teacher role" will be and
instead, he intends to present an experience which will
allow future teachers to make their own role determination.
The author realizes certain limits which must be imposed
in establishing acceptable teacher behavior. For example,
enforcing school rules by hitting children can not be
tolerated either ethically or legally. Beyond these
limitations, personal role adOption should improve the
teacher's effectiveness and involvement since he will
behave in a way he believes best, not in a way he believes
is expected.

Also, this study is intended to make suggestions
for humanizing teacher education programs which are
presently Operating. To present a complete restructuring
of an existing program is often beyond the scope of

management. However, to complement that program or at

least to introduce material which is intended to
broaden the operating program should be more realistic
and more easily accepted. This in turn should lead to
other innovations toward further humanizing teacher
education.

Finally, this work is being done for the benefit
of the author. This opportunity is being taken to tie
together many experiences and some intuitions about our
teacher education programs. The author finds himself at
a point in his growth when these concerns should be closely
considered and realistic assumptions should be made. He
further intends to draw from these assumptions an experience
allowing our future teachers the opportunity to look at
themselves and at education and to decide how the two

best go together or if in fact there is any match to be

 

made.

Significance of the Problem

 

Some of the considerations which lend significance
to the problem are:

A. Educational changes are being attempted and
their failure in many cases can be directly attributed to
a lack of flexibility in the staff. Ideally, a staff
should represent a variety of teaching approaches to
complement the variety of learning experiences possible.
Teacher education must deal directly with acceptance of

differing teaching styles.

B. The control model used by most teachers does
not provide alternative learning experiences for individual
students. This style may satisfy the needs of some of the
students, but certainly others are frustrated without
recourse.

C. Many potential teachers never assess themselves
in relation to education, or have the Opportunity to do so,
until they are well into a study program. Often, the time
investment is justification for staying in education. A
self assessment eXperience prior to this kind of time
investment could serve the purpose of self screening for
many persons.

D. Accepting others and understanding one's own
values is critical in a learning situation. In his teach-
ing role, the teacher influences his students' values
through projecting his own. Unless the teacher is fully
aware of his belief system and his values, he cannot be
sure what information is being transmitted to his students.
Often, without intent, a teacher will condemn a student's
position only because it is dichotomous to his own.

Unless the teacher is able to "accept" the student's
position and offer constructive comments, he must be con-
tent with threatening students' beliefs rather than helping

students develop their own belief system.

E. It seems grossly ignorant to identify inter-
personal skills which teachers should have, and not to
approach the acquisition of these skills through actual
practice, such as providing the opportunity for students
to deal with the skills of communication in encounter
groups. Too often these skills are merely outlined by
the instructor, hoping that the student has some "feeling"

for what is being said.

SCOpe and Limitations

 

This study assumes the existence of a perceived
teacher role. The study is intended to design an experi-
ence which will enable the student to look closely at his
own values and beliefs and to establish a personal teacher
role expectation that will make his behavior complementary
to that conscious belief system. The author admits his
own bias Of the existing teacher role as being one of
structure and control. In this sense, the study contains
all the limitations and shortcomings of the author's
perceptions and judgments.

In developing the relationship of a conscious
belief system and a teaching style, the author has assumed
the need for disposition to change, the need to view the
teacher's role as Open to many styles, and the advantage
of having many teaching approaches available to our
learners. Each of these assumptions could serve as t0pics

for study in themselVes, but the author will confine his

research to the primary problem stated. Testing of the
assumptions made is left for future study.

There is no attempt made to validate the theory
Offered by empirical research. The author's foundation
for proposing such an experience is solely dependent on
existing literature and his personal axiological position.

Although humanizing other types of training pro-
grams may be desirable for the same reasons stated in this
study, no attempt is made to generalize this theoretical

model beyond the educational setting.

Methodology

 

This study proceeds on two interrelated levels,

(1) a limited empirical level--that is, relying on the

 

author's past perceptions and experiences, inferences or
assumptions have been made about the perceived teacher
role of students in teacher education. These assumptions
will be tested with the existing literature to more
clearly define the beliefs, attitudes, and teacher role
perceptions education students hold. This study is
empirical only in relation to the empirical literature
used as a basis on which the author presents the existing
situation. Using this base to up-date the author's
assumptions (2) a rational level will be developed. That
is to say, given certain assumptions supported by the

existing literature, suggestions will be presented for

10

an experience designed to "humanize" teacher education.
The "humanization" is intended to allow students to
select a learning theory most consistent with their per-
sonal belief system. Also, this experience must include
the acceptance of differences which will be recognized as
individual belief systems are expressed. The pedantic
perception of the teacher's role supported by our

existing programs does not allow this freedom.

Organization of the Study

 

In Chapter I, the problem was presented and
developed. Chapter II, the review of the literature,
will be divided into two distinct areas--first, how
students in education perceive the role of the teacher,
and second, what kind of experience is feasible where
students can create their own teacher role perception
based on a conscious belief system. Also, each area
will contain assumptions validated by the literature and
used as a foundation to formulate a working experience to
be used in our teacher preparation programs. Chapter III
will develop an experience which might be incorporated
into existing programs to allow the student to study his
own belief system and based on his findings, adOpt a
learning theory best suited for him personally. Chapter
IV will be a statement of summary, conclusions, and

recommendations.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of the literature will be divided into
two distinct areas--first, how students in education per-
ceive the role of the teacher, and second, what experiences
are feasible for students to create their own teacher role
perception based on a conscious belief system. Each of
these areas will also contain assumptions made by the
author based on the literature reviewed. The assumptions
are intended to describe the existing situation and to set
a foundation on which the author will present the proposed
experience.

When addressing the role of the teacher, we are
speaking of two broad fields of research.~SOn the one
hand, role refers to behavior, yielding studies of teacher-
role-performance in which actual behavior of teachers is
observed.2%0n the other hand, role refers to expectations
for behavior, resulting in studies of teacher role expecta-
tions in which expectations maintained for teachers by
teachers and others are investigated. This study clearly
is intended to concentrate on the second type, i.e., the

perceptions that dictate particular behavior rather than

11

12

the behavior itself. It should be pointed out that in
reviewing the literature, the author found many studies
which were directed at answering the same basic question
but which varied in terminology. It is therefore necessary
to understand that dealing with the student's "perception"
of the teacher role, or his "conception," or even his

"expectation,' for the purpose of this work will be

regarded as one in the same.

Significance of the Teacher
Role Perception

 

 

The importance of studying the teacher role per-
ception has been expressed by many researchers for as many
reasons. The range of concerns meanders from usefulness
in selecting future teachers to evaluating teacher effec-
tiveness.”fMiller1 suggested that student teachers fail
because of a lack of role conceptualization rather than
due to poor ability. He makes a strong recommendation
for morefemphasis on teaching role-awareness and suggested
this area would be useful in the selection and screening
procedures. Soon after, Strauss2 emphasized that "necessary

roles" must be learned and this could not simply be left as

 

1H. Miller, "Role-Awareness As an Object of Group
Work in Teacher Education," Journal of Teacher Education
VI (1955), 128-133.

2A. L. Strauss, "The Learning of Roles and of
Concepts as Twin Processes," Journal of Genetic Psychology,
LXXXVIII (1956), 211-217.

13

a matter of interpersonal contact but also one of adequate
linguistic development. The importance here being that
individuals were willing to establish "necessary roles"
which the teacher should learn. This position is exemplary
of a movement to closely define what the role of the teacher
should be, and after establishing the specifics, to teach
these role expectations to educators. At the same time,
others were less intent on identifying such limited role
expectations and instead were looking to broaden the
teacher role perception. Brookover3 suggested that as
teachers were more aware of the possible variety of
expectations that students have of their performance, they
would be in a better positicn to communicate effectively
with their students, and make better continuous integra-
tion and adjustment.

It must be stated that the major effort being made
in looking at the teacher's role was one of defining
rather than expanding. Bible and McComas4 found that
teacherVeffectiveness seemed to indicate a strong sense of
obligation for assuming the role expectations of a given

position. For their purposes, the role expectation would

 

3W. Brookover, "Research on Teacher and Administra-
tive Roles," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXIX (1955),
2-13.

 

4B. L. Bible and J. D. McComas, "Role Consensus
and Teacher Effectiveness," Social Forces, XLII (1963),
225-233.

 

14

have to be clearly defined. Sorenson, Husek, and Yu,5

again concerned with teacher effectiveness, suggested
using role expectations as a measure of "significant
traits" or as proper criteria for teacher evaluations.
Here too, teacher role would have to be explicitly
defined. The extent to which educators concerned them-
selves with the teacher role concept might be illustrated
by Grossack's work6 where he advised that role-playing
should receive more attention in student teaching programs
so that role conflicts could be anticipated and resolved.
It should not be interpreted that educators were
isolated in their concern about role expectations or
actual role behavior. Studies in other professions
closely resembled the attempts being made in education
to define the specific professional role in question and
to indoctrinate the young professional accordingly. In a
study of nursing, Kilbrick7 tried to relate to the dropout

problem the existing conceptual framework employed to

 

5A. G. Sorenson, T. R. Husek, and C. Yu, "Divergent
Concepts of Teacher Role: An Approach to the Measurement
of Teacher Effectiveness," Journal of Educational
Psychology, LIV (1963), 287-294.

6M. M. Grossack, "Effects of Variation in Teacher
Role Behavior and Student Teacher Relationships," Journal
of Educational Psychology, XLVI (1955), 433-436.

7A. K. Kilbrick, "Dropouts in Schools of Nursing:
The Effect of Self and Role Perception," Nursing Research,
XII (1963), 140-149.

 

15

train nurses. Conflicts causing the problem were attributed
to ambiguous role expectations. Ehrlick and Preiss8 tried
to stress the negative effects of leaving role formation

to chance. They hypothesized that to leave the discussion
of certain role segments out of the formal training program
for state police, the develOpment of these perceptions
would be left to other reference groups, for example,
influential citizen groups. This may in effect be negating
the desired role patterns which the police department is
attempting to instill. Finally, Hughes9 expressed in his
study Of the medical student, that being initiated into a
new role is equal in importance to the learning of
techniques in the total training program.

The concerns brought out by studies of other pro-
fessions are Obviously transferable to the concerns
expressed about our future teachers.

Many Of these studies hint at the close correla-
tion between role expectations and actual role behavior.

As researchers continue to look at the teacher's role,
they attempt to focus on a variety of concerns, but there

seems to be an underlying thread which pulls these studies

 

8H. J. Ehrlick and J. J. Preiss, An Examination of
Role Theory (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966f.

9E. C. Hughes, "The Making of a Physician," Human
Organization, XIV (1960), 21-25.

 

 

16

together. Regardless of what the stated hypothesis,
always there exists the preoccupation with the teacher's
behavior. Soles10 professed that knowledge of teacher
role expectations would be useful in predicting actual
role behavior.

Even as this work is developed and designed to
deal with the students' perceptions of the teacher's role,
the author must admit his interest in how the student's
perceptions will effect his actual behavior as a classroom
teacher. Perhaps this is more closely expressed by Biddle,
Fraser, and Jellisonll in their study.

In part the behavior of the teacher must respond

to the environmental pressures, to situations in

which the teacher is involved and to the demands

placed on the teachers by others. In part, how-

ever, the teacher's behavior must also be caused

by internal processes, by motives, attitudes,

needs, and role conceptions held by the teacher.
Later in their study, Biddle, Fraser, and Jellison restate
their contention of a teacher's behavior being at least
in part derived from the teacher's role conception. They
also make reference to the teacher education program and

how the teacher's role conception is regarded as part of

the formal training for prospective teachers.

 

10$. Soles, "Teacher Role Expectations and the
Internal Organization Of Secondary Schools," Journal of
Educational Research, LVII (1964), 227-235.

11B. J. Biddle, C. S. Fraser, and J. M. Jellison,
"Teacher and Role: Conceptions and Beharior," in Essa s
on the Social Systems of Education, ed. by B. J. BiddIe
(New York: Holt, 1968), p. 300.

l7

. . . there can be little doubt that teacher-held
role conceptions are a major determinant of teacher
behavior. Not only is this proposition suggested
by role theory, but a major tenet of most teacher
education curricula is that through inculcating

an appropriate conceptual framework, youthful
teachers can be prepared to carry on vital work

in education.12

Perceptions of the Teacher Role

 

The studies presented are selected on the basis of
the questions which are dealt with and also the methodology
employed. An attempt has been made to view the perceived
teacher's role from a variety of positions. Biddle,
Twyman, and Rankinl3 employed responses via the descriptive
and prescriptive modalities in an investigation into the
relationship between the role of the public school teacher
and recruitment into the profession. Responses of educa-
tion students, non-education students and teachers were
compared on a variety of role elements. 3On an item dealing
with co-operation between teacher and principal, both
education and non-education students approved to a lesser
extent teacher co-operation with the principal than
teachers did. When viewing pupil freedom, the education
students advocated more freedom than did the other two

groups. And, items dealing with maintaining rules of the

 

12Ibid., p. 356.

13B. J. Biddle, J. P. Twyman, and E. F. Ranking,
"The Role of the Teacher and Occupational Choice," School
Research, LXX (1962), 191-206.

18

school showed no significant difference between the three
groups. The total analysis of the data collected placed
education students between non-education students and
teachers on norms held for teachers. The authors state,
"it is probably reasonable to assume that in these areas
the processes of teacher education will gradually shift
the norms held by education students toward a more
realistic outlook" (p. 203). This is interpreted to mean
that those views of the education student will be more

in line with the perceptions held by teachers.

This study introduces one of the most critical
variables when considering teacher role formation, the
dimension of time. To emphasize the importance of this
factor, the author would like to cite a study conducted
by Reitz, Very, and Guthrie.l4 Using a 75 item Q sort,
this study asked an "experienced" and "novice" group of
college teachers to describe the undergraduate teacher-
student relationship they considered ideal. Respondents
were selected from six colleges within Pennsylvania State
University--(Liberal Arts, Education, Agriculture,
Engineering, Home Economics, and Chemistry-Physics).
Findings of interest were: that experienced teachers'

scores correlated more highly with each other across

 

14W. E. Reitz, P. S. Very, and G. M. Guthrie,
"Experience, Expertness, and Ideal Teaching Relationships,‘
Educational and Psychological Measurements, XXV (1965),
1051-1066}

 

19

colleges than did the scores earned by experienced teachers
of a given college with novices within the same college;
the scores of the experienced correlated more highly among
themselves than did the scores of inexperienced teachers
among themselves. It would appear from this study that

the actual time spent in education is an important factor
in forming teacher role expectations.

Findlayson and Cohen15 did a comparative study of
the perceptions of female education students at various
levels in the training program. Their aim was

. . . to examine the changes which took place in

student teachers' conceptions of the teacher's

role as they progressed through their course of

professional training and to compare the expecta-

tions of the student teachers with those of the

head teachers (p. 22).
The authors constructed a role definition instrument (RDI)
which contained a number of statements about teacher
behavior. The four role segments that were dealt with
were "organization," "general aims," "motivation," and
"classroom behavior." Subjects were asked to rate twenty-
two items on a five-point scale ranging from "absolutely
must" to "absolutely must not." (The study invOlved 268

female students and 183 head teachers from primary and

secondary schools.)

 

15D. S. Findlayson and L. Cohen, "The Teacher's
Role: A Comparative Study of the Conceptions of College
of Education Students and Head Teachers," British Journal
of Educational Psychology, XXXVII (1967), 22-31.

 

20

The students training to teach older children
showed more authoritarian attitudes than those preparing
to teach elementary children as evidenced by responses
related to classroom management. Expectancies changed as
the students progressed through the College of Education:
in the "general aims" segment, students regarded basic
subjects as increasingly important; in the area of class-
room behavior there was a general peak of permissiveness
during the second year, i.e., there was general growing
liberality from the first to the second year followed by
a giving way to more traditional views during the third
year. The disparity between role perceptions held by the
students (combined levels) and the head teachers was
extremely widespread in all four role segments with the
head teachers generally being more in favor of peripheral
duties, more traditional in aims, less sensitive in motiva-
tional techniques, and more rigid and firm in classroom
behavior.

Butcherl6 operating under the general assumption
that younger people, in general, and university students,
in particular, would be likely to possess more "progressive,"
more "radical" and more "humanitarian" attitudes than older
people, hypothesized that student teachers would obtain

higher scores on naturalism (N), radicalism (R), and

 

16H. J. Butcher, "The Attitudes of Student Teachers
to Education," British Journal of Sociology and Clinical
Psychology, IV (1965), I7-24. E

 

21

tender-mindedness (T) in education than serving teacher.
Radicalism is said to be the opposite of conservatism,
tender-minded that of tough-mindedness, and naturalism
that of idealism.

In the study the Manchester Scales of Opinion
about education17 were administered to fifty seven male
and female first year training college students, 118 male
and female graduate students taking the graduate certificate
in education, and 300 experienced teacher stratified by
sex, age, and type of school, with a test-retest design.
General results indicated that there was a fairly con-
sistent change in the directions of increased naturalism,
radicalism, and tender-mindedness among the teachers in
training but that these trends are reversed after the
teacher has spent some time in full-time teaching.

Morrison and McIntyre18 administered the Manchester
Scales of Opinion to 100 Scottish teachers prior to and
after their first year of training and again after one
year of teaching. The results showed that changes in the

direction of naturalism, radicalism, and tender-mindedness

 

17R. A. C. Oliver and H. J. Butcher, "Teachers'
Attitudes to Education During the First Year of Training,"
British Journal of Sociology and Clinical Psychology, I

18A. Morrison and D. McIntyre, "Changes in Opinions
About Education During the First Year of Teaching,"
British Journal of Sociology and Clinical Psychology, VI
(I967), 1615163.

 

22

are to varying degrees being reversed after a single year
of teaching.

Another study which points out this reversal effect
and offers some insight for its occurrence was conducted by
Wiersma.19 His investigation was designed to look at how
education students and beginning students differ in their
role conceptions; how education students and beginning
teachers differ in their values; and how education students
and beginning teachers differ in their norms. Question-
naires were used to arrive at tentative answers, working
with an N of 405.

In general, the findings showed students in educa-
tion to differ from beginning teachers in concepts which
were more progressive, more liberal, and more permissive.
The students reached their strongest point in identifying
with progressivism rather than traditionalism in their
junior year. This was followed by a tapering off toward
a point of consistency with teachers' conceptions.
Possibly, the main determinant of role perception is the
group with which the person forming the perception
identifies. The College of Education staff and the educa-
tion students are relatively detached from everyday working
of the school. Their concern is perhaps more with child

develOpment while the school staff is locked into the

 

ng. Wiersma, "A Study of Teacher Role Perception
in Education Students and Teachers" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Iowa, 1968), pp. 115-131.

23

added responsibilities of running the school plant. The
norms presented by the teachers are more "reality" oriented,
while those of the students are more "theoretical."

Also pointed out in the study is the identification
made with the faculty and institutional bias by the stu-
dents. The university and its faculty again represent a
child development concern with administrative concerns
being secondary. The movement of students toward faculty

20 in his investigation of

training programs, and again by Findlayson and Cohen21 in

positions is intimated by Brim

their study. They suggest that there is evidence to
support the thesis that college professors are more
similar to senior education students in their role per-
ceptions than they are to practitioners in elementary and
secondary schools.

Just as these studies present the reversal in
teacher role perception occurring during the latter part
of the sophomore year and junior year, they also identify
a shift in the students' association with the College of
Education at this point in his study. During this period,
the student begins his formal training and methods courses

driving toward his student teaching (on-the-job) experience.

 

208. J. Brim, "Attitude Change in Teacher Educa-
tion Students," Journal of Educational Research, LIX
(1966), 441-445.

2102. cit., pp. 22-31.

24

McAulay22 studied the extent to which student teachers

were influenced in regard to methods of teaching and
relations with children by their supervising teachers.

In his study, the student teacher seemed greatly influenced
by his supervisor.

Looking more closely at the role perception of the
student teachers and how it is influenced during student
teaching, Sigburn23 recorded how student teachers look at
roles of the teacher before and after student teaching.

His work showed that supervising teachers greatly influenced
the role perception of the student teacher and also that
there was a shift in perception toward that of methods
course instructors.

It seems appropriate at this point to mention the
fact that the student teaching experience, being graded
and necessary for successful completion of the under-
graduate's course of study, demands consistency merely

for the student's survival.

Situational Assumptions

 

The following assumptions are drawn from the

literature to portray the existing situation and to point

 

22J. D. McAulay, "How Much Influence Has a C0-
Operating Teacher?" Journal of Teacher Education, XI
(1960), 79-83.

23F. J. Sigburn, "A Study of Student Teachers'
Perceptions of Teacher Roles," Dissertation Abstracts,

 

 

25

out the need for considering alternatives to our teacher
education programs.

1. There is an attempt to closely define the
specifics of the teacher's role. This causes very little
flexibility in acceptable behavior for teachers (Miller,
Strauss, Bible, McComas, Sorenson, Husek, Yu).

2. The teacher's behavior can partly be attributed
to the role conceptions held by the teacher. Teacher role
conception is regarded as part of the formal training for
prospective teachers (Biddle, Fraser, Jellison). There
seems to be a greater emphasis on conformity than on
creativity.

3. There is a definite expectation for teacher
training programs to bring the education students' role
perceptions more in line with the perceptions held by
teachers (Biddle, Twyman, Rankin).

4. As student teachers progress through their
course of professional training, there is a high point
for disparity between role perceptions held by students
and those held by teachers occurring in the second or
third year. Perceptions of the students, then, begin to
slant in the direction of the teacherS'. In most institu-
tions, it is the second and third year when education
students begin their formal education classes, i.e.,

methods, etc. Students seem to be encouraged to have more

26

"realistic" expectations by their evaluators (Findlayson,
Cohen, Butcher, Wiersma).

5. There are strong pressures brought to bear on
the student in education who does not profess and behave
in a way which is consistent with established policies.
Students have been denied the Opportunity to student teach
for reasons which are obviously value laden. There appears
to be an overt attempt at promoting singularity in our

educators.

Intent of the Experience

 

As described in the organization of the study, this
area is intended to search the literature in order to
establish what kind of experience is feasible where stu-
dents can create their own teacher role perception based
on a conscious belief system. More specifically, an
experience is needed where the student will be able to
develop an accepting attitude about himself and others.

It should include an opportunity for attitude evaluation
and change; value evaluation and change, how he perceives
others and how he is perceived by others; what prejudices
he holds and how accepting he is of differences; and to be
aware of his own motives, feelings, and strategies in
dealing with others.

The expected outcome of such a self-assessment

experience would be for the student to establish his role

27

as a teacher for himself, and also that he will understand
and accept deviant perceptions and behavior.

Again, the author feels obligated to point out the
problem encountered when reviewing the literature, created
by a lack of uniformity in the terminology of the many
studies examined. The primary consideration of the author
was the relevance of the material and not the label
attached. The reader is requested to put aside any per-
sonal connotations which may accompany terms such as
T-qroup or sensitivity training. Weschler and Schein24
address this problem when discussing intensive group
experiences--designated in the literature by a number of
terms, all of which are synonymous--sensitivity training,
T-group, and basic encounter groups. All are unique but
all have certain general things in common. A major
characteristic of the training is a "vigorous concern for
the building of bridges between the world of the human
sciences and that of practical affairs."

Bradford, Gibb, and Benne25 state precisely what
the outcome of such a training session might be. From
their work, a T-group is a relatively unstructured group

in which individuals participate as learners. The data

 

24

 

I. Weschler and E. Schein, eds., Five Issues in
Training (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association,
1962), p. 5.
25

L. Bradford, J. Gibb, and K. Benne, eds., T-Grou
Theory and LaboratoryMethod, Innovation in Re-Education
(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964), pp. 1-2.

 

28

are the transactions among members and their own behavior
in the group as they struggle to create a productive and
viable organization, a miniature society; and as they work
to stimulate and support one another's learning within
that society, each individual may learn about his own
feelings, motives and strategies in dealing with other
persons. He learns also of the reactions he produces in

others as he interacts with them.

Nature of the Experience
The early 60's brought a plea from many for a more

intellectually rigorous teacher training experience. In
retort, James Conant,26 Arthur Bestor,27 and others
argued that too much time was devoted to professional
courses. A trend to meet their demands became increasingly
evident. A greater concern with teacher attitudes was
realized. Klausmeier and Goodwin28 stressed this increas-
ing concern with teacher attitudes. They state:

. . . warm and understanding behavior on the part

of the teacher is more effective in securing

better student attitudes toward subject matter

and the teacher; in develOping favorable inter-

personal attitudes, group cohesiveness, and

social skills, and in securing achievement in
the subject matter . . . .

 

26J. B. Conant, The Education of American Teachers
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963).

27A. Bestor, "Aimlessness in Education," in‘Form
and Focus, ed. by R. F. McDonald and W. E. Morris (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and WOrld, 1961), p. 184.

28H. J. Klausmeier and W. Goodwin, "Learning and

Human Ability," Educational Ps‘cholo (2d ed; New York:
Harper and Row, 1966), p. I82.

29

This leads us directly to one of the concerns for
the task at hand. If there is a need to develop warm and
accepting attitudes in teachers about self and others;
and if this involves value clarification or change, is it
possible to effect students' values? Jacob29 conducted a
study of the impact of college teaching on college stu-
dents. His work indicates that "student values do change
to some extent in college." The study also showed that
the distinctive climate of a few institutions and the
sensitivity Of some teachers did have a significant impact
on the values of some students.

It appears that the question Of student attitudes
has been dealt with by many educators. This area of
interest is directly tied to the perceptions a student

30 regarded

will have about his role as a teacher. Combs
this area as one of the most important components of the
school experience. Combs' statement that, "what a teacher
believes about the nature of his students will have a most
important effect on how he behaves toward them," has two
significant implications. The first is that teacher educa-

tion programs should be concerned with fostering appro-

priate teacher attitude toward students. Secondly, a

 

29F. E. Jacob, Changing Values in College, An
Ex loratory Studyygf the Impact ofIColIege Teaéhing (New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), p. 11.

30A. W. Combs, "The Personal Approach to Good
Teaching," Educational Leadership, II (March, 1964), 369.

 

3O

knOwledge of attitudinal changes and developments which
can take place in a pupil's formal education should be
instilled in the would-be teacher, who will be in a
position to influence these changes and developments.

In dealing directly with this dimension of per-
sonal growth, Hall31 clearly states that one approach would
be to incorporate the use of sensitivity groups (encounter
groups, T-groups, etc.), in teacher training. The chief
purpose of these groups would be to develop increased
self-knowledge and self-acceptance on the part of the
potential teacher which would result in a more tolerant
attitude toward the student. Although little or no use
of these groups has been built in teacher preparation
programs, as Ottaway32 has noted, "It is the most obvious
place for this type of training to occur."

Rogers33 suggests that "if a group of people are
willing to devote their time together, and if a facilitator
trained in group dynamics and human behavior is available

to these people, then both the self-acceptance of each

individual as well as his trust and acceptance of others

 

31M. H. Hall, "Carl Rogers Speaks Out on Groups and
the Lack of a Human Science," Psychology Today, I, NO. 7
(1967), 19-20.

32A. K. Ottaway, Learning Througg_Group Experience
(New York: The Humanities Press, 1966): P. 155.

33C. Rogers, "Dealing With Psychological Tensions,"
The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, I, No. l (1965),

31

can be developed." In his work two years later, Rogers34

elaborates on this idea.

. . . with much freedom and little structure, the

individual will gradually feel safe enough to drop

some of his defenses and facades; he will relate

more directly on a feeling basis (come into basic

encounter) with other members Of the group; he

will come to understand himself and his relation,

subsequently relate more effectively to others in

his everyday life situation, will move from con-

fusion fractionation, and discontinuity to a

climate of greater trust and coherence.

Will this small group approach satisfy the criteria

established for the intended experience of this study?
When considering attitudinal change, what are the forces
that bring about this change or what are the circumstances
necessary for people most likely to change? Allport3S
points out that it is quite common for individuals to take
on the same attitudes and values held by their close
associates. Influence of parents, teachers, and friends
is significant. Edwards36 goes one step further to write
that attitudes are developed in a social context and that
"it is much easier to change the attitudes of individuals

formed into groups of their own choosing than it is to

 

34C. Rogers, "The Process Of the Basic Encounter
Group," in Challenges of Humanistic Psychology, ed. by
J. F. R. Bugentual (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), p. 262.

356. Allport, "Attitudes," in A Handbook of Social
Psychology, ed. by C. Murchison (New York: Murray and—'
Murray,71935), p. 28.

36R. Edwards, "Development and Modification of the
Elusive Attitude," Educational Forum, XXVIII (1966),
355-358.

 

32

change the attitudes of people without group affiliation."
Further support for Edward's idea is provided by Reiter,37
who concluded that certain changes he discovered in
college students could be attributed in part to the effects
of an orientation program which employed small discussion
groups.

The attitudinal shift expected from the group
experience would have little meaning unless it was also
expected that the behavior would be similarly effected.
Bowers and Soar38 looked at the effect of training on
teachers. They explored behavioral and attitudinal
changes of teachers after three weeks Of half-day training
sessions. They utilized measures of teacher personality
and attitudes and teacher behavior in the classroom before
and after the training sessions. The post training test
showed that the teachers who had experienced training made
significant changes in their attitudes toward pupils and
democratic leadership. The effect of the training was to

help the teacher realize his potential--to maximize the

translation of his potentiality into actuality. Stated

 

37H. Reiter, "Small Group Discussion and Modifica-
tion of Attitudes," Improving College and University
Teaching, XII (Winter, 1964), 24-25.

38M. D. Bowers and R. S. Soar, "Evaluation of
Laboratory Human Relations Training for Classroom Teachers,
Studies of Human Relations in the Teaching-Learning
Processes,pFinal Report, V (1961).

 

33

differently, the teachers perceived themselves and their
role differently.
Dealing more directly with perceptions, Burke

39 tested their hypothesis that sensitivity

and Bennis
training increases the accuracy of a person's perception
of himself and his perception of others. The authors
measured 84 persons in six (6) T-groups. It was found
that the perceived actual self and the perceived ideal
self were much closer to each other at the end of the
training than at the beginning. It is also interesting

to note that the shift was primarily in the ideal self
which indirectly accounts for greater acceptance of the
perceived actual self.

In one study, Bunker4o analyzed long range effects
of sensitivity training sessions at Bethel, Maine. He
sent an open-ended perceived change questionnaire to
experimental associates one year after the experimental
group had experienced the training. He used a matched
control group. Responses were coded for the number and

kind of changes mentioned. Changes were considered verified

when two or more associates mentioned the same change.

 

39R. Burke and W. Bennis, "Changes in Perception
of Self and Others During Human Relations Training,"
Human Relations, XIV (1961), 165-182.

40D. Bunker, "Individual Application of Laboratory
Training," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, I, No. 2
(1965), 131-148.

 

34

Responses revealed that two-thirds of the experi-
mental subjects and one-third of the control subjects made
significant on-the-job changes. The verified change score
correlated .32 with a trainer rating of change taken at
the laboratory. There were three clusters of change
affected by the training: increased Openness, receptivity,
and tolerance of differences, increased operational skill
in interpersonal relations; improved understanding and
diagnostic awareness of self, others, and interactive
processes in groups.

It appears feasible that learning which takes place
in the group experience could be carried into the work
experience of the individual. Oshray and Harrison41
attempted to relate the learning of the T-group to the
person's work. They concluded that the diagnostic orienta-
tiOns learned about the self in relation to the T-group
do transfer to learnings about the self in relation to
work. In a footnote the authors point out that their
findings were replicated at a second management conference,
but not at a T-group conference. They suggest that
changes are most likely to come about in programs where
the individual's own behavior is a legitimate object of

study.

 

41B. Oshray and R. Harrison, "Transfer from Here-
and-Now to There-and-Then: Changes in Organizational
Problem Diagnosis Stemming from T-group Training," Journal
of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 2 (1966), 185-188.

35

A final requirement of the intended experience is
the ability to deal with prejudice and the Opportunity to
develop an acceptance of differences. Rubin42 explored
the question of whether or not sensitivity training is
effective in reducing prejudice. His hypothesis was that
increases in self-acceptance resulting from sensitivity
training, have the theoretically predictable but indirect
effect of reducing an individual's level of ethnic
prejudice. He studied participants in a two week summer
program in sensitivity training sponsored by Boston
University. The subjects served as their own controls
throughout the use of tests administered for a two-week
period before the training. A measure was made of the
effect of sensitivity training on an individual's level
of self-acceptance. A scale to measure acceptance of
others was also used.

Pre- and post-test data included significant
change at the .01 level of significance. One result of
the study concerned the kind of sensitivity training most
effective in reducing prejudice. The study showed that
training which emphasized "personal development" rather
than "group process" had greater influence on prejudice

reduction.

 

421. Rubin, "The Reduction Of Prejudice Through
Laboratory Training," Journal of Applied Behavioral
Science, III, No. l (1967f, 29-50.

 

36

Design Assumptions

 

The following assumptions, some drawn directly
from the literature, others by inference, will be used as
a foundation in designing a teacher training experience
as described in Chapter I.

1. There is a need for an experience which deals
directly with attitudes and values; which develops warm
and understanding behavior, which allows a student to
assess his perceptions of self and others, and to assess
his behavior in terms of his perceptions; which will foster
greater acceptance of self and others (Conant, Bestor,
Combs, Rogers).

2. Attitudes and values can be changed with a
small group/encounter group/T-group/or sensitivity
training experience (Jacob, Rogers, Edwards, Reiter).

3. A group experience allows the group members an
opportunity to examine their motives, feelings, and
strategies in dealing with others. He learns also of the
reactions he produces in others as he interacts with them
(Bradford, Gibb, and Benne).

4. A group experience allows the group members to
relate to their working role in relation to their self-
assessment experience (Bowers, Soar, Bunker, Oshray,

Harrison).

37

5. A group experience is effective in reducing
prejudice and increasing an individual's level of acceptance
both for self and others (Rubin, Burke, Bennis).

6. The principles of a sensitivity experience
could be applied to teacher training programs allowing
the students an opportunity to look closely at their own
values and beliefs and to establish a personal teacher
role expectation that will make their behavior comple-
mentary to a conscious belief system. Furthermore, the
student will be more accepting of differences and will be
able to deal more effectively with others due to improved

interpersonal skills.

CHAPTER III

PROPOSED EXPERIENCE

Intention

 

It is with apprehension that the author proposes
specific exercises to be used for students in teacher
education as they undertake a self-assessment experience.
Far too often, a reader misunderstands the intention of
the author and prepares to internalize "the best way."

For the author and his students, at the time of this
writing, the exercises suggested were very effective.
In Offering this experience to twelve different classes,
the need for flexibility and sensing on the needs of
each individual group is fully understood by the author.

The most important considerations, such as when to
use a particular task or simulation, when to focus on
group trust or on listening skills, when to deal with
positive and negative feedback, etc., are the responsi-
bility of the instructor and his students. Always, the
group should be working toward the time when the group
will evolve as self directive. If at the end of the
experience the group members are unable to relate honestly

and openly with empathic behavior unless someone is there

38

39

.tO "facilitate" that behavior, it should not be expected
that they have internalized the skills desired.

What is not shown in the experiences suggested is
the feeling of frustration as the group accepts the
responsibilities for the class activities. The instructor
must keep the atmosphere positive enough for the group to
continue building their conscious belief system and yet
allow for the dissonance and questions which often
accompany a learning adventure. The instructor must pick
and choose from the exercises available, adding new,
changing old, and always altering the exercises to
satisfy the particular concerns at hand. In reviewing
the list of exercises included in this work, the author
finds many, equally as effective for examining beliefs
and values, which have not been recorded. It is the
kind of experiences, the feeling of what could occur, the
excitement and warmth in finding yourself through others
which the author hopes to convey and not the "exacting"

mechanics of a particular experience.

Exercise Selection

 

The author recalls spending many hours with a
student designing the exercise, "One-on-One," which
appears in this work. Not long after, he found what could
be the same design published in a journal. Laying claim

to the originality of the exercises offered certainly seems

40

foolish, if not at least trivial. The author would like
to point out that the exercises "Kerner Report," "First
Names," "First Impressions," "Open Chairs," and "Prisoners
Dilemma“ were adapted from J. William Pffeiffer and John E.

Jones in their Handbook of Structured Experiences for

 

Human Training. Whether or not they would still desire

 

recognition as these exercises appear in their bastardized
form is questionable. The same should be said for L. A.

Longfellow, author of Body Talk, and R. Garry Shirts for

 

Star Power.

 

In making the decision of which exercises to
include, the author considered focus and involvement. The
author first focused on skills such as giving and receiving
feedback, listening, empathy, trust, honesty, etc. He
set out to design or find exercises dealing with these
concerns and after using them with his students, made
selection based on student evaluations. The involvement
or risk necessary to complete an exercise was again
evaluated by the students and used in ordering the
experiences. The "Island Game," for example, is intended
to gradually shift an emphasis to the individual's values
allowing him to project his beliefs through fictitious
characters. The risk is small. Later, the "Double Ring
Fish Bowl" requires a much more personal involvement and

finally, the "One-on-One" exercise expects participants

41

to deal only with their honest feelings. The author has
also made allowance for both verbal and nonverbal forms of

communication to be experienced by the students.

Selected Strategies

 

The author feels he must put particular emphasis
on the following points: (1) The experience presented in

this work represents one" approach to the problem but
should not be considered the "only" approach. (2) Although
in some of the strategies which follow the students are
placed in a competitive situation, the author does not
intend that competition is an enviable motivator. This

should be clearly stated when critiquing apprOpriate

strategies.

42

INTRODUCTIONS

Assessment: This may be the first experience for many

 

Goals:

students where they are expected to participate
in the class. Students are nervous about talking
to the group and will tend to "freeze" or have
nothing to say.
I. To allow each member to introduce himself

to the group.

II. To set the group atmosphere as one where
the members are responsible for most of the input.

III. To begin to relate on an interpersonal

level.

Materials: Egg timer.

 

Physical Setting: A room is needed that will permit the

 

Process:

group to sit in a circle. The facilitator joins
the group in the circle as one of the members.

I. The facilitator briefly describes the
goals. He elaborates on the atmosphere necessary
for a meaningful class experience.

II. He explains that the person with the egg
timer will use the three minutes to tell the group
about himself. An attempt should be made to
explore some of the feelings the person has or
expectations he may have for the class. If the

person chooses to stop talking with part of the

43

three minutes remaining, that time is used for
other members to ask questions.

III. The facilitator turns over the egg timer
and begins introducing himself to the class.
Others follow in turn.

Critique: I. Did anyone feel uncomfortable? (Deal
with why.)
II. What are the expectations of the
experience ahead?

III. Is a conscious effort made by teachers
to gain class rapport or is that left to chance?

IV. Is it good or even necessary that students
and teachers relate outside the subject material

being presented?

*Note: The facilitator should make every effort to
know the group members, at least by first names,
at the end of the introductions. The effect this

has on the group is well worth the effort.

44

FIRST NAMES, FIRST IMPRESSIONS

Assessment: The group is aware of the expectation that
they participate and share the responsibility for
what happens in class. They understand the level
of communication to be open and honest as opposed
to superficial. They are aware of giving and
receiving feedback both positive and negative.

Egalg: I.‘ To continue getting acquainted with other
members.

II. To explore one's initial impact on others.
III. To study phenomena related to first
impressions--their accuracy, their effects, etc.

Materials: One sheet of paper, a class list, and a pencil

 

for each participant.

Physical Setting: Group is seated in a circle.

 

Process: I. The members have already introduced them-
selves during the previous class meeting. To
refresh memories, the facilitator suggests that
each person in the circle gives his first name and
one or two facts about himself.

II. Members then turn their chairs around,
away from the circle, so that they cannot see the
other group participants. They are asked to
write down as many of the first names as they can

remember.

45

III. When finished, they turn their chairs
back toward the group and find out whose names
they forgot. They ask for additional information
to attach to the names that they find difficult to
remember.

IV. The group discusses names, feelings
attached to them, difficulties that they experi-
ence in remembering them, their reactions to not
being remembered, etc.

V. The facilitator hands out a class list and
asks each member to note briefly their first
impressions of every group member.

VI. The facilitator collects these sheets and
reads them aloud anonymously. He reads all of the
impressions that members have of the first partici-
pant. The first participant is asked to react to
the accuracy of the impressions, his feelings
while hearing them, what surprised him, etc. This
is done with each member. (Variation: Each
person reads alond the impressions he has written
about each other member.)

Critique: I. The group discusses the accuracy of first
impression data, the effects of first impressions,
and their reactions to this experience.

II. How are first impressions formed by
teachers and what effect do they have on student

teacher reactions?

46

III. Can impressions be formed before a teacher
meets his students or students meet their teacher?
IV. What effect can first impressions have on

staff, administrator, parents, peers, etc.?

47

KERNER REPORT

Assessment: The group has started to experience Openness

 

Goals:

in a relatively safe way. There has been no con-
frontation for leadership roles or threat of
rejection. Before going further into self
assessment, they should experience more of a
"group feeling" since the thrust they build will
be prOportionate to the risks they take in being
open and honest.

I. To compare the results of individual
decision-making with the results of group decision-
making.

II. To experience how others react to what you
have to say.
III. To give and receive criticism in a

productive way.

Materials: Worksheets and pencils.

 

Physical Settipg: A room large enough for groups of five

Process:

or less to discuss without disrupting other small
groups.

I. Each member is given a worksheet and
allowed fifteen minutes to complete the task which
will be explained on the worksheet. He must work

independently during this phase.

48

II. The large group is broken down into small
groups of five. The task on the worksheet is
repeated with the group recording the correct
answers. Group answers are arrived at by group
consensus. All members of the group must agree
before it becomes part of the group decision.
(One hour.)

III. The facilitator announces the actual
ranking sheet from the Kerner Report and directs
the scoring process.

Critique: I. How did your individual score compare with
the group score?

II. Who in the group was given the leadership
role?

III. Was everyone encouraged to contribute?
Were all contributions given equal consideration?

IV. Have any personal feelings surfaced
because of the way members in the group acted?

V. Can teachers make some students feel that
they have little to offer?

VI. What responsibilities does each person
have in relation to the total group and to each

member?

49

Kerner Report: Actual Ranking
First Level of Intensity
1. D Police practices
2. J Unemployment and underemployment
3. E Inadequate housing

Second Level of Intensity

 

4. H Inadequate education

5. C Poor recreation facilities and programs

6. K Ineffective political structure and
grievance mechanisms

Third Level of Intensity

7. B Disrespectful white attitudes
8. F Discriminatory administration of justice
9. I Inadequacy of federal programs
10. L Inadequacy of municipal services
11. A Discriminatory consumer and credit
practices
12. G Inadequate welfare programs

*It is not necessary to have the exact order, only

the correct level of intensity.
Kerner Report Scoring

The facilitator will read the correct answers.
Individuals will write these in the column provided on the
work sheet. For every correct answer in the first level,
the individual receives three (3) points. Each correct
answer in the second level is worth two (2) and the third

level one (1).

50

KERNER REPORT WORKSHEET

Introduction:

The U.S. Riot Commission Report (Kerner Report), in
gathering data on twenty-four disorders in twenty-three
cities, found that "although specific grievances varied
from city to city, at least twelve deeply held grievances
can be identified and ranked into three levels of relative
intensity."

Instructions:

 

You are part of an evaluation team for the U.S.
Riot Commission. Among the data gathered are twelve basic
grievances of the blacks involved in the rioting. Having
reviewed all the data, you must rank the grievances under
three levels of intensity

Individual Group Correct ’
First Level 1 ‘l‘ l'
2 2 2‘
3 '3* 3'
Second Level 4 4 4
5 5 5
6 6 6
Third Level 7 7 7
8 8 8
9 9 9
10 10 10
11 ll 11
12 12 12

List of Grievances to be Ranked

Discriminatory consumer and credit practices
Disrespectful white attitudes

Poor recreation facilities and programs
Police practices

Inadequate housing

Discriminatory administration of justice
Inadequate welfare programs

Inadequate education

Inadequacy of federal programs
Unemployment and underemployment
Ineffectiveness of political structure and
grievance mechanism

Inadequacy of municipal services

I." NHHEQWMUOWF‘

51

ISLAND GAME

Assessment: The group is aware of the need for Open

 

communications as necessary to better understand
others and themselves. The experience should
start to shift to a more personal situation.
Members will be expected to take greater risks in
trusting and believing in others. The task Offered
will allow members to support certain values with-
out overtly claiming them as their own.
Egals: I. To present and support beliefs openly to
other group members.
II. To listen and understand the position
taken by other group members.
III. To look at group decision-making.
IV. To better understand others by the values
they support.
V. To accept the position of others without
rejection merely because it may be different from
their own.

Materials: Chalk board.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough to break into

 

small groups with some privacy.
Process: I. The facilitator draws two islands on the
board with some distance apart to represent water.

On one island, he puts the letters B, M, and D.

52

(Representing Bertha, her mother, and David.)
On the other island, the letters C and S.
(Representing Charlie and Sam.)

II. The facilitator relates the following
story to the group:

I have illustrated two islands far enough apart
so that it is impossible to swim from one to the
other. On this island lives Bertha, her mother,
and David. On the other island are Charlie and
Sam. At one time, Bertha and Charlie were very
much in love. Somehow they were separated and
ever since, Bertha has been very sad. She feels
her future is doomed to sorrow until one day she
finds David living on the island. She tells David
of her situation and he confides in Bertha about
having a boat that could take her to the other
island and Charlie. The price he expects for this
is that Bertha should sleep with him the night
before they leave. Bertha is very unsure about
what to do and goes to her mother to ask for advice.
Her mother tells her to make her own decisions
since she will have to live with the consequences.
Bertha decides to comply with David's terms and is
delivered to Charlie. Soon after arriving, guilt
brings Bertha to share the entire story with
Charlie. He refuses to accept her behavior and
tells her to leave. Put out by Charlie, Bertha
wanders around until she meets Sam. Sam Offers
her companionship and they decide to live together
and make the most of the situation.

III.‘ The facilitator asks everyone individually
to rank the five characters in the story with one
(1) being the best rating and five (5) the poorest.
All five people are used and each number (1-5) can
only be used once.

IV. The facilitator asks one of the members to
choose another member whom he thinks will have a

list very similar to his onw. This is done until

53

the group has broken down to dyads. The pairs
are given ten‘minutes to reach consensus and form
a single rating list.

V. The facilitator has one pair select another
dyad to form a group of four and reach consensus.
Time is left open.

VI. The facilitator can either continue to
combine groups and work toward consensus or
critique the experience at this point.

Critique: (Make a chart on the board to show the dif-
ferent rank-orders of each group. Have each
group give a one word descriptor of each character
and write that next to each character.)

I. Using the descriptor, what value is
expressed as most important? Least? (It is
interesting to note that because the mother allows
Bertha to make her own decision, she is often
ranked quite high. The descriptor often given
the mother is "indifference." Charlie or David,
often described as honest are rated low. When
looking only at the descriptor column, we have
indifference above honesty.)

II. Was everyone open to others' Opinions?

III. Was anyone threatened by people coming on
too strong?

IV. Didflmembers work at getting everyone to

contribute and not dominate?

54

VALUE CONT INUUM

Assessment: The group has shared feelings both directly
and indirectly. They are aware of the other
members' sensitivity and are willing to proceed
with self-assessment. This experience should
remove ambiguity or defenses and provide an
opportunity for members to display more trust.

Egalg: I. To have the members honestly evaluate
themselves and share their feelings with the
group.

II. To give and receive feedback construc-
tively.
III. To be open and honest in what you say at
a "feeling" level rather than a "thinking" level.
IV. To be empathic to what is being said
about other members.

Materials: One sheet of paper per group.

Physical Setting: Enough room for small groups to talk
without disturbing the other groups.

Process: I. The facilitator breaks the large group
into smaller groups with no more than four to a
group.

II. Each person is asked to think of two
words which are opposites and deal with feelings,

i.e., happy and sad, love and hate, etc.

55

III. Each person in turn shares with his small
group his two words and gives a brief description
of the feelings.

IV. Each small group selects one of the pairs
of words which they would like to discuss.

V. The facilitator gives each group a sheet
of paper with a continuum already drawn and marked
off. (A straight line with one (1) at one end and
ten (10) at the other.) The group writes one of
the words at one end and the other is placed at
the Opposite end.

VI. The facilitator asks that the paper be
circulated in the group and each person place his
name where he sees himself. No discussion is made
at this time.

VII. When everyone has placed himself, each
member takes his turn explaining why he has placed
himself in the position marked on the continuum.
Following his explanation, members may ask questions.

VIII. Each group takes a turn introducing its
members to the large group. One person introduces
another describing the words used and where he,
placed himself and why.

Critique: I. How Open were the members?
II. What could be done to help peOple move

toward the positive end of the continuum?

56

III. How well did people listen?

IV. Does it help to know what people feel

I

about themselves?

57
TRUST WALK

Assessment: The students have experienced some trust on
a verbal level of communication. This exercise
serves to round out their exposure by relating
trust on a non-verbal level and to introduce the
next area of communications. Namely, nonverbal
communication.

Goals: I. To experience the degree of difficulty one
has in relying on another person for his/her own
welfare.

II. To provide comfort to another person by
understanding and removing their fears.

III. To recognize the degree of trust we can
put in others and they in us and the gradual
develOpment of that trust.

IV. To exhibit perception with senses other
than sight of self and others.

Materials: None.

 

Physical Setting: It would be advantageous to hold this
exercise at a time when the weather will permit
the students to go out-of-doors. If not, the
members should be allowed to "roam" the building.

Process: I. Time allowed--about one hour. Each member
of the group chooses a partner. Taking turns, one
person leads the other who closes his eyes (note--

remove contact lenses. They hurt closed eyes.)

58

Leader introduces his partner to as many different
kinds of experiences through touching, hearing,
smelling, tasting, running, walking, as possible.
After 15 minutes, switch roles and repeat for
other partner.

II. After both partners have experiences being
led and leading, sit down together and talk about
your experiences.

III. Return to group and share experiences and
feelings about them with the others.

IV. Members may want to initially talk to each
other as they experience the trust walk. They
should spend at least 10 minutes with total non-
verbal communications.

Critique: While Being Blind:

1. What kinds of realities did you perceive
from your senses?

2. What sensations did you have while being
led? How did you feel about putting your
physical trust in someone else?

3. Did your feelings change from the beginning
to the end?

4. What did your leader communicate to you

non-verbally and how did he do it?

59

While Being Leader:
1. How did you feel about being entrusted
with someone else?
2. What did you try to communicate non-
verbally?
3. What did you sense about your partner
non-verbally?
Which experience did you prefer, being the
leader or being led?
Did you learn anything about your partner
that you hadn't known before?
How was this relevant to the teacher-student

relationship?

60

BODY TALK

Assessment: The group has experienced some of the verbal

Goals:

communication skills necessary to operate in the
affective domain. Before proceeding with more
encounters, the group should have further exposure
to nonverbal communications.
I. To experience nonverbal sharing of

feelings.

II. Remove some inhibitions Of expressing
yourself to others.

II. Become aware of communicating meaning to
others, either intentionally or unintentionally

nonverbally.

‘Materials: A deck of cards, chalk board.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough to permit free

Process:

movement. \

I. The facilitator should briefly review the
goals of the game to the group.
II. Describe the game to the group

Body talk is designed to express emotions in
nonverbal forms. Often, unknowingly, these move-
ments accompany or replace our verbal communication.
In this game, the suit on the cards will determine
the mode of expression, and the card will determine
what emotion is to be expressed.

(a) Clubs (hand)--when a card has a club on it,
you may use only hands and arms to express the
emotion. You may touch others, but not use your
voice, body posture or facial messages.

61

(b) Diamonds (head)--when a card has a diamond
on it, you may use facial expression, head move-
ment and any form of nonverbal vocalization. Growl,
hum, scream or purr, but do not use words. ~

(c) Hearts (interpersonal)--when a card has a
heart on it, you express the emotion by involving
another person or persons. You may move the other
person to an appropriate posture, but you may not
speak. He does not respond. You may use sounds
and your whole body.

(d) Spades (whole body)--when a card has a
spade on it, you may use your whole self, but not
your voice.

III. List the cards used on the board, i.e., 8,
9, 10, Jack, Queen, etc., and have the group assign
emotions they wish to deal with. More than one
card could represent the same emotion, i.e., if
the group decides to work only with joy, hope,
anger, love, and hate, the cards should be divided
evenly for these emotions. If the 8 and 9 have
been assigned joy, and a player holds the 8 of
clubs, he would communicate joy with his hands only.

IV.- To play:

(a) Players sit in a chair.

(b) Cards are dealt to the left, dealing the
same number to all players, and leaving at least
three cards. The remaining cards, the draw deck,
are placed face down in the circle.

(c) The player on the dealer's left selects a
card from his own hand and lays it face down in
front of him. He is the expresser, the remaining
players are the receivers. He uses the part of
his body described by the suit to express the
emotion assigned to the card. When you hold two

or three cards of the same emotion, you must play
all if you play one.

62

(d) Each member checks his hand to see if hs
has a card that matches the emotion (the suit need
not match) that was expressed. If so, the receiver
calls by laying that card (or cards) face down in
front of him. If not, he passes.

(e) When all have played, cards are turned
face up. If one or more receiver matches the
expressers card, he puts it and all matching cards
on the bottom of the draw-deck. Any receiver who
puts down a wrong card or cards must return it to
his hand and draw the same number of penalty cards.
If no receiver matched the expresser's card, then
the expresser failed to communicate. He returns
his card or cards to his hand and draws the same
number of penalty cards.

(f) The first person to get rid of all his
cards is the winner. Variations of the rules
described usually improve the game and make it
more meaningful for a particular group. Example:
rather than having each person pick the emotion
they express, have the person next to them make
the selection. This keeps players from avoiding
the more difficult expressions.

Critique: I. How accurate can nonverbal communications
be?

II. Would it be easy for educators to use this
form of communication in their interpersonal
dealings? WOuld it be easy to misuse?

III. Do children use nonverbal communications

more Often/differently/more freely than adults?

IV. How did this experience make you feel?

63

ROLE PLAY

Assessment: The group has experienced both verbal and

 

nonverbal forms of communication. Discussion has
allowed opportunities to express feelings about
how students, teachers, and administrators behave
in educational institutions.

qulg: I. To act out the role perceptions students
in teacher education have.

II. To stimulate discussion concerning how
closely educators' behavior complements their
professed beliefs.

III. TO examine some of the values and beliefs
expressed by students comparatively to student
behavior.

IV. To begin to focus, through the critique,
on the need for a "conscious beliefs system" to
better evaluate our behavior.

Materials: Paper for each small group.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough for small groups,
to meet for planning and to move about freely.

Process: I. The facilitator breaks the group into
smaller groups of three. (Larger groups tend to
exclude some participants when the role playing

starts.)

64

II. Each group is given a piece of paper and
asked to construct a situation where a student and
staff member are having a confrontation. For
example: "A student is brought to the principal's
office by his English teacher for refusing to
memorize the Declaration of Independence."

III. Collect the papers and redistribute them to
different groups. Allow the groups ten to fifteen
minutes to plan their presentation. (Group members
will each take a role and act out the confrontation.)
Caution the participants to behave not as they would,
but as they perceive the people who normally fill
the roles behave.

Critique: I. Were the roles realistic?

II. Do authoritarian figures use logic and
reason in dealing with subordinates or merely
their authority?

III. Does the student see himself behaving
differently if given the opportunity to fill a
position of authority?

IV. Can students give examples of administrators
and teachers who behaved in a positive way if the
presentation was negative or in a negative way if

the presentation was positive?

65

CLASSROOM INCIDENTS

Assessment: Same as Role Play

 

Goals: Recognition of'hOw values are operationalized in
actual teaching situations.

Materials: See process.

 

Physical Setting: Classroom with movable chairs and desks.

 

Process: (See written incidents which follow critique.)

I. Each of the three incidents is based on a
real teaching experience. Each one is meant to be
structured in the same manner. The paragraphs
describing each role should be cut apart so that
each paragraph can be handed to and seen by only
the role player. (A more realistic role play where
incidents and reactions are spontaneous.) The
"teacher" should be decided first (either volunteer
or chosen). The role player is asked to leave the
room and then given the paragraph description.

I II. Once the "teacher" has left the room, other
role players can be picked or volunteer. They too,
should leave the room so that the instructor may
go to each one, including the "teacher," to see if
there are any questions.

III. No further information should be given, nor
should any role player know what the structure of

another's role is. The members of the group who

66

are not role playing should have no information
other than having seen who is playing what role.

IV. The teacher is instructed to arrange the
classroom as he would in a real teaching
situation, desks, etc. When the scene is set,
the role play begins.

V. The instructor should not take any part in
the role play, but sit inconspicuously and observe,
noting value-oriented verbal and nonverbal behavior
for later discussion. (Important that no clues or
modeling affect role players' spontaneous reactions.)
The role play is continued to where the teacher
makes a decision and the consequences are obvious.
If the situation develops to the "I'll see you after

class,‘ cut and go to an after class situation.

Critique: I. Do you agree with how the teacher handled
the situation? If not, how would you have done it
differently?

II. Would you deal with this situation dif-
ferently on a grade school, junior high or high
school level?

III. Consider the "why" of the student's
behavior in the incident.

IV. Consider the "why" of the teacher's

behavior in the incident.

67

V. What teacher values became apparent
through his/her behaviors?

(Use any prior knowledge of the role playing
teacher to show how previously stated values,
e.g., what is important, was or was not determined

in the role play. Why or why not?)

Role Play Teachingilncident A

 

Teacher Background

 

In your seventh-grade class you have a girl who
has refused to participate voluntarily. Other teachers
have told you that she is a troublemaker and that the only
way to deal with her is to let her do what she wants or
else throw her out Of class.

You are having a class discussion and Pam is
talking aloud to other students and laughing with them.
You decide to deal with it and this is what you say to
her: "Is what you're saying something you want to share
with all of us?"

Student Background

 

Talk to others aloud, laugh, giggle. When teacher
asks you a question, tense up, become extremely hostile
and threatening and scream at the teacher: "You can't
make me say or do anything, mother fucker! Try it!" After
the teacher responds, continue threatening and refusing to
surrender to the teacher in any way.

Role Play Teaching Incident B

 

Teacher Background

 

You have a boy in your 7th grade class who delights
in mischievous behavior. He likes to tease verbally and to
do things to "bug" his peers and his teachers. You will
overhear this boy and another student discuss an incident.
In fact, there were no witnesses to this incident and no
one really knows who did it or when it was done. The
assistant principal is feared and hated by all the students.

68

Student 1 Background

 

When you enter the room, another student will begin
teasing and accusing you of having torn the gym mat.
Although you have been in other mischief in school (which
you admit), you really did not do this--and proclaim your
innocence to everyone. The assistant principal (whom all
the students hate and fear) calls you out of class, accosts
you about this incident in the hall. You claim your
innocence and fight back verbally and physically.

Student 2 Background

 

You have heard that the gym mat was torn and have
also heard that Student 1 did it. As you enter the room
with him, you begin teasing and accusing him of having
torn the gym mat. You believe he did it because he's been
in lots of similar trouble before.

Assistant Principal

 

You are the school "heavy" whose assignment is to
discipline the troublemakers. In reality you enjoy slapping
the students around because it is a way you can take out
your own frustrations. You have heard a rumor that Student
1 tore the gym mat and have decided to rough him up for
doing it. You don't like this boy anyway because he
causes trouble all the time. You interrupt a teacher's
class, tell him "I want to see you" and wait for him in
the hall. When he comes out, you loudly accost him
verbally and physically.

 

Role Play Teaching Incident C

 

Student Background

 

You are at your desk with a textbook in front of
you. What you are actually looking at is a "pornographic"
magazine which you have the textbook in front of.

Teacher Background

 

You have given the students study time to read
ten pages in their textbook. After they begin reading,
wander around the room to check at what point each student
is in his reading.

69

OPEN CHAIRS

Assessment: The group is well acquainted with the

 

Goals:

necessary skills of meaningful communication used
in the self-assessment process. The depth of
their trust and honesty is only limited by the
responsibility each member assumes to which he is
willing to help other members evaluate their
behavior. His assistance, although critical at
times, must be offered in a positive, communicative
way.

I. To stimulate group discussion of educators
through a role playing experience.

II. To allow members to observe and give feed-
back to others on how well they interacted with
honest feelings, how open they were to others'
values, and if the group atmosphere remained
positive.

III. To go beyond normal role playing by having
participants project their own beliefs rather than

their perceived beliefs.

Materials: None.

 

Physical Setting: Circle of six or seven chairs in the

 

center of the room with an outer circle of chairs

to accommodate the remainder of the group.

Process:

70

I. The facilitator selects an inner circle
group of no more than five. He asks them to sit
in the chairs provided for the inner group,
leaving one or two chairs vacant depending upon
the size of the group. The inner group is told
that they should engage in a discussion as a
school faculty, projecting "their" true beliefs.
He suggests a topic to start the discussion such
as, "the most important thing a teacher can give
a student is . . ."

II. Individuals from the outer group are told
they may join the inner group when they feel
impelled to contribute some data or have inner
group data clarified. The outer group individuals
may stay only for the time required to process
their input and then must vacate their chairs to
make room for other outer group individuals.
Under no circumstances may they become permanent
members of the inner group. It is not necessary
to have an outer group member in the inner circle
at all times; rather, this is a provision for
outer group participation when individuals desire
it.

III. After twenty minutes, process the experi-
ence. Have the groups change positions and allow

the new inner group twenty minutes for discussion.

71

Critique: I. Did the members participate honestly?
II. What was the group atmosphere?
III. Did anyone threaten others by their
behavior rather than make them comfortable in

projecting his beliefs honestly?

72

DOUBLE RING FISH BOWL

Assessment: Experiences which follow will deal much more

Goals:

directly with specific areas of interpersonal
communication. The degree of risk involved is no
longer considered an input by the facilitator,
but instead, directly related to the willingness
of the group to venture further.
I. To receive direct feedback about how you

react to what is being said.

II. To check and see if people are hearing
what you intend them to.

III. To improve listening skills.

Materials: None.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough to arrange the

 

Process:

group into an inner and outer circle.

I. The facilitator briefly describes the
goals of this experiment. He asks that each
person pick another in the group whom he feels
he can trust.

II. After forming dyads, one of the members
becomes part of an inner circle while the other
positions himself in the outer circle and directly
across from his partner.

III. The inner circle is given twenty minutes

to discuss how honest they have been with the

73

group. The members of the outer group are not to
enter into the discussion at any time. Their task
is to concentrate on the person to whom they are
assigned in the inner circle. They should note all
verbal and nonverbal communication which involves
their partner.
IV. When the time has expired, the partners
get together and the inner group member receives
direct feedback about his behavior. The facilitator
should emphasize the need for complete honesty in
giving feedback, i.e., did the person get defensive
when challenged, did he participate, did he help
others to Offer their opinions, did he express
himself with facial expression that seemed dif-
ferent from what he was saying, etc. After allow-
ing ten to fifteen minutes for the feedback, the
inner and outer groups are formed with the members
reversing their roles. The process is repeated.
(A new topic might be, "What could the group do
differently to better achieve their objectives?")
Critique: I. Did anyone receive any unexpected feedback?
II. Would it be helpful for teachers to have
their behavior checked closely from time to time?
Could students supply the feedback?
III. Was it difficult to give honest feedback?

Was it threatening to receive honest feedback?

74

IDENTIFYING CONCERNS

Assessment: Students are ready to go beyond identifying

 

Goals:

instances of poor interpersonal skills and will
attempt to concentrate on concerns which have
become part of their behavioral pattern.

I. To isolate behavioral traits which are
considered negative or damaging to interpersonal
relationships.

II. To continue interacting Openly and

honestly stressing empathic development.

Materials: Paper and pencil for each member.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough for groups of four

 

Process:

to interact without disrupting each other.

I. The large group is broken down to groups
of three or four. After isolating themselves
around the room, the facilitator briefly describes
the goals of the exercise and gives each person a
small piece of paper. The participants are asked
to write their names on the paper. The facilitator
then collects these papers and passes them out in
the same group so that each member now has the
name of another member within his small group.
(This should be done randomly and it may be wise
to not let the participants know who has their

name.)

75

II. The facilitator passes out a second sheet
Of paper asking that each person write down three
weaknesses or negative feelings they have about
the person whose name they have drawn. (Allow
twenty minutes.)

III. The facilitator collects these sheets and
they are passed to the person about whom the
comments are written. After allowing time to
read the papers, each member takes a turn reading
the three concerns aloud to the small group.

After each has read his sheet, the group will
react to what has been written by either support-
ing the concern or challenging it. When this is
completed, anyone in the group can add to the
concerns.

Critique: Allow the small groups to form one large group
and Openly discuss this experience. The facilitator
should try to keep the group on the subject. If
the group feels some of the concerns were realistic,
the facilitator should suggest that the group move
on to the next exercise, "changing behavior," or
possibly repeat this experience with different

small groups.

76
FORMING STRATEGIES

AsSessment: The students have identified and accepted
some concerns others have about their behavior.
(Group members should have participated in the
previous exercise, "Identifying Concerns.")

E2215: I. To have the group assist individuals in
setting up strategies for changing behavior.

II. To have the group offer continuous

evaluation on the individual's progress.

Materials: None.

 

Physical Setting: A room large enough for small groups
to interact without distraction from other groups.

Process: I. The facilitator should stress the oppor-
tunity for members to be helpful by reviewing the
goals of this exercise.

II. Small groups of four or five should be
formed. Each participant should share with the
others the concern which he has chosen to work on.
He may suggest a strategy himself or merely ask
that the group help him in forming one. The
strategy should be stated in performance terms.
Example:

Concern--the person avoids feedback from
group members.

Strategy-the person will ask for feedback
from the group at least two times
1 during the next three group meetings.

77

III. The members meet in the large group and
share the strategies they have formed. It may be
advantageous to prepare a list with the proper
names, their concerns, and the strategies they are
using. This could be duplicated and passed out
to the class.

Critique: Re-state the goal and allow open group

discussion with little direction.

78
STAR POWER

Assessment: .The group has not dealt directly with
authority and confrontation situations. Star

Power is provided to allow a change of pace for

the group and also to raise some very critical

questions on power, authority, racism, etc.

(Note: Since this exercise is much longer and

more involved than the others being suggested,

the format used thus far will not be followed.

The method of presentation used is hoped to be

clearer.)

This is a game in which a low mobility three-
tiered society is built through the distribution of wealth
in the form of chips. Participants have a chance to
progress from one level of society to another by acquiring
wealth through trading with other participants. Once the
society is established, the group with the most wealth is
given the right to make the rules for the game. They
generally make rules which the other groups consider to
be unfair, fascistic and racist. A revolt against the
rules and the rule-makers generally ensues. When this

occurs, the game is ended. The game is useful for raising
questions about the uses of power in a competitive society.

Preparing for the Game

 

Dividing the Participants
andIASsigning Chips

 

The participants are divided into three approxi-
mately equal groups, names of which are: squares, circles,
and triangles. Each person wears a symbol representing
his group, i.e., the squares wear a square symbol, the
circles a circular symbol and triangles a triangular

symbol.

79

Each participant is given five chips. Each square

receives one gold chip, one green chip, and the remaining
three randomly selected from the colors red, white, and
blue. Each circle is given one green chip and the remaining
four selected from the colors red, white and blue chips.
The triangles are given a random assortment of red, white
and blue chips. The only exception to this distribution
is that one circle and one triangle receive the same dis-
tribution as the squares, i.e., one gold, one green and a
random assortment of red, white, and blue.

Summany of Rules for Running
Star Power

 

 

1. Prepare distribution of chips.

. Divide participants into three groups.

. Distribute symbols to appropriate groups.

. Distribute chips.

. Explain rules for trading session.

. Have the group trade for 10 minutes or so.

. After ten or so minutes stop trading session
and have the participants return to their
original group.

8. Have them record scores on slips.

9. Give three bonus chips to each group.

0. Explain the rules for bonus chips to each

group.

11. Give the participants five or ten minutes for
bonus chip session.

12. While they are in bonus group session, collect
all the chips originally distributed and
prepare them for the second round of
distribution.

13. End bonus chip session.

14. Revise the score on the board to reflect
points received from the bonus chips.

15.- Promote high scoring persons to squares and
demote low scoring squares to circles or
triangles.

END OF FIRST ROUND

16. Repeat process.

17. After second or third round give rights to
make rules for the game to the squares.

18. Play it by ear from then on.

One note of caution. Generally groups need to
talk about the game in personal terms or, "who did what to
whom" before going on to the issues involved. This can be
an important experience in interpersonal relationships,

80

helping members of the group understand their reaction to
authority, competitive situations, status or self-concept
of any of the participants. If you see the discussion
going beyond the point of friendly rivalry, then you might
direct it more forcibly toward the issues involved rather
than the personalities. If in the unlikely event that the
squares are being badly scapegoated, then you might point
out that every group that had participated in the game
thus far had reacted in essentially the same manner and in
general try to direct the discussion toward the question
of whether any group put in such a situation would act

any differently.

Determining the Chips Required

for EacE Round

 

Plan on at least four rounds.

The TOTAL number of chips required equals: 5 X
number of participants.

The number of GOLD chips required equals: the
number Of squares plus 2.

The number of GREEN chips required equals: the
number of squares plus the number of circles plus 1.

The number of RED, WHITE, and BLUE chips required
equals: 5 X number of participants minus the total number
of green and gold chips required. There should be about
an equal number of red, white, and blue chips.

Exam 1e: Suppose you have 34 people and divide
them 1nto 12 squares, 12 circles and 10 triangles.
The total number of chips required equals:

5 X 34 or 170. The total number of GOLD chips
required equals 12 (the number of squares) plus

2 or 14. The total number of GREEN chips
required equals 12 (the number of squares) plus
12 (the number of circles) plus 1 or 25. The
total number of RED, WHITE, and BLUE chips
required equals: 170 - (14 plus 25) or 131 which
means about 44 of each color.

Explaining the Rules

1. Tell the participants that this is a game that involves
trading and bargaining and that the three persons with
the highest scores will be declared the winners. They
will probably ask later in the game if there is going
to be a group winner. The answer is: "The three

81

individuals with the highest scores will be
declared the winners." Do not tell them that a
group is going to be given the right to make the
rules for the game.

Explain the following scoring system to the partici-
pants: (This should be placed on the chalk board
along with the additional points shown below.)

Every GOLD chip is worth 50 points.
Every GREEN chip is worth 25 points.
Every RED chip is worth 15 points.
Every WHITE chip is worth 10 points.
Every BLUE chip is worth 5 points.

Additional points are given if a person is able to get
several points of the same color.

Five chips of the same color are worth 20 points.

Four chips of the same color are worth 10 points.

Three chips of the same color are worth 5 points.

No extra points are given for two chips of the
same color.

Example: ,A person's total score if he had 5
GOLD chips would be 250 plus 20 for 5 chips of
the same color for a total of 270 points. If
he had four BLUE chips and one RED chip, his
score would equal 4 X 5 (for the BLUE chips)
plus 15 (for the RED chip) plus 10 points for
distribution of the same color for a total of
45 points. Three REDS and two BLUES would equal
a total of 45 points. Three REDS and two BLUES
would equal 45 + 5 + 10 or 60 points. Five
REDS: 75 + 20 or 95 points.

Distribute the chips as outlined previously to the
squares, circles and triangles.

Explain the following rules of bargaining.

a. They have ten minutes to improve their scores.

b. They improve their scores by trading advantageously
with other squares, circles and triangles.

c. Persons must be holding hands to effect a trade.

d. Only one for one trades are legal. Two for one
or any other combinations are illegal.

e. Once participants touch the hand of another
participant a chip of unequal value or color
must be traded. If a couple cannot consumamte
a trade they may have to hold hands for the
entire ten minute session.

82

f. There is no talking unless hands are touching.
This Rule Should be Strictly Enforced.

9. Persons with folded arms do not have to trade
with other persons.

h. All chips should be hidden. This Rule Should be
Strictly Enforced.

1. Do not reveal that the squares are given chips
of a higher value than the circles or triangles.

j. Any other rules that you deem apprOpriate.

 

 

Start the Trading Session

After the rules have been explained, start the trading
session. Tell them it will last 10 minutes.

During the trading session, your assistant should put
each participant's initial on the blackboard.

After 10 minutes of trading session, have each group
return to their circle of chairs.

Have the participants compute their scores for the
trading session and record the scores on the black—
board Opposite the person's initials.

Explain the rules for the bonus session. The rules are:

a. Hold up a bonus chip (a double chip) and tell them
that this is a bonus chip.

b. Give each group three chips.

c. Tell them that each chip is worth 20 points.

d. Their task during the bonus session is to
distribute the bonus chips to members of their
group.

e. The chips must be distributed in units of 20 or
more, that is, one person might receive all 3
bonus chips and 60 points or three people might
receive 1 chip each worth 20 points, but 6
people could not receive 10 points each.

f. They have five minutes to distribute the bonus
chips. If the groups have not distributed the
chips at the end of the five minutes, the points
will be taken back by the director and no one
will receive them.

9. The decision regarding the distribution of chips
must be unanimous vote.

h. Participants can eliminate peOple from their group
by a majority group vote. (Eliminated peOple can
form another group.) They should be a triangle
group.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

83

Answer any questions.
Start the bonus chip bargaining session.

After about five or ten minutes, end the bonus chip
bargaining session.

Have those people who receive bonus points record them
on the blackboard opposite their initials.

Put these people with the highest total scores in the
square groups. If there is a circle or a triangle who
has a higher score than a square, have them trade
groups. Any changes should be announced to the group
and it generally is made known that so and so who was
a square has become a circle, because they did not
receive enough points, and so and so who was a circle,
is now a square because they received a higher number
of points than a square. In any event, it is important
that the group know that the squares are made up of
those people with the highest scores.

Start the second round.

(Note: Repeat this cycle--bargaining session, bonus
session, reclassification for one or two times or
until the participants understand the process and the
fact that the squares are high scorers.)

After about the second bonus session, announce that
the squares now have the authority to make the rules
for the game and that while any group can suggest
rules for the game the squares will decide which

rules will be implemented. You might tell the squares
that they might want to make rules like: re-distribute
the chips on a more equal basis, require triangles

and circles to bargain with the squares even though
they have their arms folded, require triangles and
circles to give squares the chips they ask for
regardless of whether they want to trade or not, etc.
Announce any rules that the squares establish to all
of the participants unless they want them kept a
secret.

From then on, play it by ear.

84

What is likely to happen is that the squares will

make very tough rules that protect their own power. This
has happened in every organized group that we have played
it with so far. The circles and triangles will either
give up, organize, become hostile, or commit an act of
frustration and defiance. Stop the game when it is
evident that the squares have made rules which the others
consider unfair and fascistic. This is generally after
two to four rounds of the game. After the game, gather
the group together and discuss the implications of the
game for the real world.

Some questions you might want to discuss at the

end of the game are:

Are there any parallels between the system set
up by the game and the system or sub-system in
which we live?

Does the game say anything about the nature of
man?

Is it the nature Of man to seek inequality? To
attempt to be better than his fellow man, to
seek for more privileges and wealth? If yes, is
there anything wrong with such strivings? Can
they be legitimized? Is there a moral
alternative to man's search for inequality?
Would it have made much difference if the people
who were the circles had been the squares?

Were the squares acting with legitimate authority?
Are there any parallels between the game and the
race problem, the campus problems, the problems
faced by our founding fathers?

If an entire group acts in unison, such as the
circles and triangles frequently do in going
against the squares, do their actions have more
legitimacy than when a person acts alone?

Is the square a masculine or feminine symbol?
WOuld it be possible to develop a game which
emphasizes cooperative behavior and is fun to
play?

85

PRISONERS' DILEMMA

Assessment: The students will deal directly with levels
of trust. They have already displayed degrees of
trusting in previous exercises. This exercise will
permit continuous sharing of feelings connected
with trusting.

qulg: I. To explore the trust between group members
and the effects of trust betrayal.

II. To demonstrate the effects of a collabora-

tive posture in intra-group relations and a
competitive posture in inter-group relations.

Materials: Chalk board.

 

Physical Setting: Two groups will be followed which must

 

be completely isolated. (They may not communicate
either verbally or nonverbally.) In the center

of one room, two chairs should be placed for team
representatives.

Process: I. The facilitator explains that the group is
going to experience a simulation of an old technique
used in interrogating prisoners. (He avoids dis-
cussing the objectives of the exercise.) The
questioner separates prisoners suspected of working
together and tells one that the other has confessed
and that if they both confess they will get off

easier. The prisoners' dilemma is that they may

86

confess when they should not and that they may
fail to confess when they really should.

II. The two teams are formed, named, and seated
separately. They are instructed not to communicate
with the other team in any way--verbally or non-
verbally--except when told to do so by the
facilitator.

III. The facilitator explains that there will be
ten rounds of choice, with the red team choosing
A or B and the blue team choosing either X or Y.

Choices will determine the following points:

AX - both teams win 3 points

AY - red loses 6 points, blue wins 6 points
BX - red wins 6 points, blue loses 6 points
BY - both teams lose 3 points

IV. Round one is begun, with teams having three
minutes in each round to make a decision. The
facilitator instructs them not to write down their
decision until he instructs them to do so, to
avoid making hasty decisions. On signal, both
teams write their decisions and the facilitator
collects the papers.

V.' The choices of the two teams are announced
for round 1 and the scoring for that round is
agreed upon. Rounds 2 and 3 proceed the same way.
(A variation may be to not announce the results

of round 3 until the completion of round 4.)

87

VI. Round 4 is announced as a special round,
with the points pay Off doubled. Teams are
instructed to send one representative to the center
to talk before round 4. (If the results of round 3
were not announced, the representatives are not
allowed to exchange that information.) After three
minutes of consultation with each other, they
return to their teams and round 4 begins. The
number of points for the outcome of this round is
doubled.

VII. Rounds 5-8 proceed as in the first three
rounds. (Information can be kept confidential by
the facilitator to emphasize the trust between the
two groups.)

VIII. Round 9 is announced as a special round,
with the points payoff squared. Representatives
meet for three minutes, and then the teams mark
their choices, and then the two choices are
collected and announced. The number of points
awarded to the two teams for this round is squared.

IX. Round 10 is handled exactly as round 9.
Payoff points are squared.

X. Announce the final point total.
Critique: I. What were some of the considerations
within group discussions for trusting or not trust-

ing the other group?

88

II. What were the effects of having representa-
tives from each group meet? What are the implica-
tions for student and teacher relations?

III. Review the goals of the exercise and allow
the students to make comments on how the goals
were reached.

IV. Open expression of feelings.

89
ONE-TO-ONE

Assessment: This experience would probably be considered
most threatening by the group. It is structured
to promote interaction at a feeling level. Inter-
course which deviates from the feeling level will
be picked up by other members and challenged.

The group members have experienced the skills
necessary for this exercise through previous
exercises.

Gnglg: I. To allow each member to exchange honest
feelings with every member in the group in a one-
to-one situation.

II. To have your attempts at openness evaluated
by the receiver.
III. To study the experience of self-disclosure.

Materials: Suggestion sheet, class list.

Physical Setting: A large room should be arranged so that
dyads may position themselves with privacy from
others. (Tables or chairs could be used to section
the room into smaller meeting areas.)

Process: I. The facilitator asks the members to form
pairs and arrange themselves as described in the
physical setting.

II. He hands each member a suggestion sheet and

a class list sheet. Each person will move around

90

the room so that he interacts with every other
member.

III. The facilitator announces that each pair
will remain together for at least five minutes.
(The time is dependent on how many members there
are and how long the exercise period will be.)
During that time, one person will initiate a
question from the suggestion sheet and the other
will answer as honestly as he can. (If participants
have specific concerns, they may deviate from the
sheet.) They will continue taking turns initiating
questions and giving answers until time is called.
The facilitator should point out that the limited
time also serves to bring people directly to the
point and does not allow for superficial concerns.

IV. The participants move to form new dyads.
One minute is allowed, before starting the new
exchange, for each to score the degree of openness
the previous person attained. (One (1) is used
for very Open, and five (5) is given for very
closed. The entire continuum from 1 to 5 may be
used.) The facilitator should be sure that the
members are aware that they are scoring not the
actual degree of Openness, which remains known
only to the initiator, but the feeling of openness

the initiator gives the receiver.

91

V. After all members have interacted with
each other, the sheets are collected. The class
list sheets will be tabulated for use in another
exercise.

Critique: I. Did this experience bring the members

closer?

II. What was the effect of knowing that you
were being evaluated for openness?

III. Can we evaluate affective teaching? Why?

IV. Should students feel that their teachers
are Open in their relationship? Can the teacher
be completely Open?

V. What could this kind of experience do for
a faculty? What other educational uses might
there be?

(Note: The author has had very good results in
taking the data from this exercise and applying

it to the "Double Ring Fish Bowl" exercise described
earlier. A cut Off was made and in the inner

ring were members perceived as open, while those

in the outer ring were those perceived as less

Open.

92

ONE-ON-ONE

Participants may initiate questions suggested on

this sheet or deal with personal concerns. Check the time

allotted by the facilitator.

What do you feel for me?
What could I do to make us closer?

Have I ever done anything to make you feel
bad/good?

Have I ever hurt you?

Is there a limit to what we can share?

How would you like me to feel about you?

DO you think I have tried to understand you?
Have you tried to understand me?

DO you think I would make a good teacher?
Why?

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The problem addressed in this work is primarily a
concern for the teacher role perception internalized by
students in teacher education. This role determination is
made over a long period of time as our future teachers
are subjected to a control model throughout their school
experience. The teacher's role proposed in this study is
"humanistic" to the extent of allowing students to
establish a teacher role derived from careful self-
assessment Of values and beliefs; to assist the student
in developing a conscious belief system; and, to promote
consistency in what the potential teacher professes and
how he will behave.

In Chapter I, the author presented the problem and
developed the intent and structure of the study. The
study prOceeded on two interrelated levels: (1) a limited
empirical level--that is, identifying the existing situa-
tion and establishing feasible means for effecting change
through examining the empirical literature available.
Using this base to up-date the author's assumptions

93

94

(2) suggestions were made and an experience was designed
to broaden teacher education. The focus of the experience
is to allow students to select a learning theory most
consistent with their personal belief system and to pro-
mote a more accepting attitude toward personal differences.

In Chapter II, the review of the literature, the
author first concentrated on the existing situation.
Studies reviewed led the author to the following assump-
tions:

1. There is an attempt to closely define the
specifics of the teacher's role. This causes very little
flexibility in acceptable behavior for teachers.

2. The teacher's behavior can partly be attributed
to the role conceptions held by the teacher. Teacher role
conception is regarded as part of the formal training for
prospective teachers. There seems to be a greater emphasis
on conformity rather than on creativity.

3. There is a definite expectation for teacher
training programs to bring the education students' role
perceptions more in line with the perceptions held by
teachers.

4. As student teachers progress through their
course of professional training, there is a high point for
disparity between role perceptions held by students and
those held by teachers occurring in the second or third

year. Perceptions Of the student then begin to slant in

95

the direction of the teacher, In most situations, it
is the second and third year when education students
begin their formal education classes (methods, etc.).
Students seem to be encouraged to have more "realistic"
expectations by their evaluators.

5. There are strong pressures brought to bear on
the student in education who does not profess and behave
in a way which is consistent with established policies.
Students have been denied the opportunity to student teach
for reasons which are obviously value laden. There appears
to be an overt attempt at promoting singularity in our
educators.

After reviewing studies which dealt with alterna-
tive experiences, the author derived the following
assumptions:

1. There is a need for an experience which deals
directly with attitudes and values; which develops warm
and understanding behavior; which allows a student to
assess his perceptions of self and others, and to assess
his behavior in terms of his perceptions; which will
foster greater acceptance of self and others.

2. Attitudes and values can be changed with a
small group, encounter group, T-group, or sensitivity
training experience.

3. A group experience allows the group members

an Opportunity to examine their motives, feelings, and

96

strategies in dealing with others. He learns also of the
reactions he produces in others as he interacts with them.

4. A group experience allows the group members to
relate to their working role in relation to their self
assessment experience.

5. A group experience is effective in reducing
prejudice and increasing an individual's level of
acceptance both for self and others.

6. 'The principles of a sensitivity experience
could be applied to teacher training programs allowing the
students an Opportunity to look at their own values and
beliefs and to establish a personal teacher role expecta-
tion that will make their behavior complementary to a
conscious belief system. Furthermore, the student will
be more accepting of differences and will be able to deal
more effectively with others due to improved interpersonal
skills.

In Chapter III, the author presented some guide-
lines for setting up a working experience which could be
incorporated in existing teacher education programs and
also outlined some strategies which could be used in that
experience. The strategies are arranged in an order which
required greater degrees of risk taking as the experience
progresses. Also, the design of the experience sets the
expectation for the group to become self directive as the
group members relate honestly and openly with empathic

behavior.

97

Conclusions

 

1. As pointed out by the literature and consistent
with the author's expectations, teacher education programs
do not stress diversity and flexibility in establishing the
"teacher role." With the teacher's behavior at least
partly attributed to the teacher's role perception, there
can be little hOpe for a change in behavior without a
specific attempt to change the role perception.

2. It is possible for individuals to change
attitudes and values in a small group, encounter group,
T-group, or sensitivity training experience. Members can
also reduce prejudice and increase levels of acceptance
both for self and others.

3. Given the existing situation, it is possible
to design a small group experience which would deal
directly with educational concerns and specifically with

the role of the teacher.

Recommendations

 

The theoretical model set forth in this study
needs to be validated in a number of ways. First, pre-
and post-testing should be conducted to establish the
degree Of perceptual difference which could be attributed
to the recommended experience.

Second, the placement and frequency of such an

experience should be considered. The effect of this

98

experience as an introductory course on one hand, or a
post-student-teaching course on the other could greatly
change the focus and outcome.

Third, using the basic encounter group theory,
variables not discussed in this study should be examined.
Some consideratiOns would be: size of the group; racial
composition of the group; frequency and length of the
group meetings; amount of structure offered by the
facilitator; setting for the group meetings; and volun-
tary or required participation.

Fourth, in develOping the problem in Chapter I,
assumptions were made which could serve as tOpics for
further study. Among these are the need for disposition
to change; the need to view the teacher's role as open
to many styles; and the advantage of having many teaching
approaches available to our learners.

Beyond the empirical research, there is a question
raised which is beyond the scope and limitations of this
study. This study prOposes a more accepting attitude for
our students yet it does not consider the attitudes,
perceptions, and beliefs of the educators who evaluate
these students. Certainly one of the deterrents of
individuality built into our programs as they exist is
the evaluation of student teachers by supervisors who
require certain behavior. The author would like to

recommend the prOposed experience in this study as having

99

far reaching possibilities for adoption in graduate study
and faculty training. The main emphasis being made in the
training of our teachers, both present and future, is to
satisfy the task demands of teaching. Very little is
being done to prepare teachers for the personal demands

encountered.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

100

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