ABSTRACT TEACHER EDUCATION: TRENDS IN CONCEPTS OF THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 1940—1968 By Raymond Aloysius Carroll The general purpose of this study was to analyze and interpret the trends in concepts of the professional preparation of teachers during the period 1940-1968. More specifically, the purpose was (a) to Show how present con- cepts of the effective teacher have evolved; (b) to deter— mine what institutions, policies, and procedures have been dominant in determining teacher qualifications at different periods; (c) to discover significant results that have come from these policies and their fulfillment which con— tribute values useful in finding better ways to conduct the enterprise of teacher education; and (d) to determine some significant implications for the future. The study is both historical and descriptive. It is a combination of an account based on primary sources and summaries of reported studies in the area of teacher education-—more specifically, in the area usually referred to as professional education. To make this study as meaningful as possible, something of the concepts of the ”effective" teacher in Raymond Aloysius Carroll America prior to 1940 were considered. Therefore, Chapter II summarizes the development of trends prior to lgOO. In Chapter III, changing patterns of trends from the turn of the century to the period under investigation are reviewed to indicate how teacher education had attained its l940 form. In Chapter IV, an attempt has been made to collect data which are representative of the thinking, practices, and policies for those aspects of teacher education in— cluded in the study. The data for trends have been Ob— tained by a concentrated study of materials for the period under study. Statements were formulated and classified with respect to teacher competencies, to the professional sequence, and the organizational developments in teacher education. Other requirements characteristic of the effec— tive teacher as a member of the profession have also been reviewed and categorized. In Chapter V, the data which have been presented on the evolving concepts of the effective teacher are dis- cussed interpretatively; some underlying principles for an effective program of teacher education are recommended; and the general aspects of a professional sequence are outlined. In addition, the current educational setting, the development of Professional Standards, and some im— Plications for the future are appraised and interpreted. TEACHER EDUCATION: TRENDS IN CONCEPTS OF THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 1940—1968 By Raymond Aloysius Carroll A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1969 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Setting of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . l Statement of the Purpose . . . . . . . 4 Sources of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Method of Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Need for This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRENDS TO 1900 . . . . . . . 12 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 12 Training and Qualifications of Teachers in the Colonial Period . . . . . . . . . . . l2 Agitation for Some Formal Training . . . . . 16 Early Institutions and Agencies Designed for the Professional Education of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The Normal School Movement . . . . . . . . . . 33 Teacher Education in Colleges and Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Toward the Professionalization of Teaching . . 60 A Summary Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 III. CHANGING PATTERNS OF TRENDS l900—194O . . . . . 86 Introduction: The Educational and Social Setting . . . . . . . 86 Organizational Developments in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Developments in the Professional Program of Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Teacher Education Objectives and Teacher Qualifications . . . . . . . . . 116 Continued Advances Toward the ProfeS- sionalization of Teaching . . . . . . . . . 131 A Summary Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 ii Chapter Page IV. CHANGING PATTERNS OF TRENDS SINCE 1940 . . . . 169 Introduction: The Educational and Social Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Organizational Developments in Teacher Education . . . . . . . 176 The Preservice Professional Program of Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Teacher Education Objectives and Teacher Qualifications . . . . . . 197 A Profession Growing to Full Stature . . . . 224 A Summary Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 V. APPRAISAL AND INTERPRETATION . . . . . . . . . 272 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 272 Appraisal of the Educational Setting . . . . 273 General Aspects of the Professional Sequence . . . . . 280 The Evolving ConceptiOn. of the Effective Teacher . . . . . . . . . . 287 Appraising the Development Of Profes— sional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Implications for the Future . . . . . . . . 300 Concluding Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 iii Table LIST OF TABLES Number of Teacher-Education Institutions Classified by Types 1910-1938 . . Courses Most Frequently Given in the Profes- sional Sequence in Normal Schools and Teachers Colleges . . . . . . . . . Number of States with Various Types of Certification Control 1898-1937 . . . . . . . Growth of Recognition of Academic and Professional Attainments Required or Accepted for Certification . . . . . Membership in State Education Associations 1907-1940 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Membership of the National Education Association by Decades 1870-1940 . . . . . iv Page 101 112 134 137 148 149 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Setting of the Problem The increased complexity of today's world neces— sitates the provision of highly qualified teachers who are capable of meeting the challenging needs and problems of education not in existence just a few decades ago. While the American public has esteemed teaching as a most important and devoted service, it has been quite casual about how teachers have been educated. Since the 1940's, however, the situation has markedly changed. Beggsl has noted a number of factors and forces which are involved in the changing attitude: the rising educational level Of the population; a growing disposition to listen to college and university faculties in their efforts to upgrade quality in education; and, perhaps most important of all, a grow- ing concern for excellence. The greatest influence, which no doubt underlies all the others, is the nature of the total dynamic en- vironment in which the American people live. The lWalter K. Beggs, The Education of Teachers (New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1965), p. 84. burgeoning population, the fantastic developments in science and technology, and the competition with the Communist nations have produced severe tensions in American society. These, in turn, have directed some searching in— quiries into the nature and quality of the educational system and its teaching staff, and finally to the system of preparation for the teachers. The whole structure, approach, and direction of teacher education is currently in a state of flux. From beginnings which were largely local and fragmented, teacher education has developed to the point where it is a na— tional issue of considerable significance. As a result, an unusually receptive national audience has been available for almost anyone who wished to take his turn in address- ing himself to the deficiencies Of the schools, the teachers who teach in them, and the institutions that prepare the teachers. Developments in teacher education since 1940 have been the result of these many influences. Many educators have been aggressive in promoting institutional action which they thought would facilitate the engendering Of the qualifications they considered desirable for teachers in our schools, but too often they worked within the con- temporary educational and social setting. In order to understand the development of teacher education practice, it is necessary to inquire into the influences reacting upon the setting. Any current situation is meaningful only when viewed in relation to its historical antece— dents. Elsbree2 has commented that "it is only through a study of long-time trends that we acquire perspective and insight." While historical research in education reveals what has been, it does not always provide an appraisal of the present or prove what Should be. But the present is connected with the past. Educational theories and practices tend to persist. Even SO-called new theories and practices have a history. Past records of the develop- ment of teacher education in the United States reveal continuing problems and issues which are fundamental in the current situation. The discussions, controversies, investigations, and actions relative to these problems and issues help one to understand the developing points of view and practices in teacher education and in apprais- ing the present. Hence, historical research, especially studies of the period since the turn of the century, con— tributes to an understanding of the present which is a prerequisite step in dealing with problems of what should be. Our developing social and cultural setting con— tinually calls for changes and improvements in teacher 2Willard S. Elsbree, The American Teacher (New York: American Book Company, 1939), p. v. education. Such changes and improvements are the respon- sibilities of the institutions which prepare teachers and the profession as a whole. Both are integral parts of the profession and both have a responsibility for the im— provement of the profession. The teacher education in- stitution occupies a central role in this task--a role which demands the consultation, advice, and support of the total profession; however, the task of teacher im- provement is one which demands a partnership of the two significant elements of the profession to develop profes- sional standards and professional education that are commensurate with the role and responsibility of education in American society. Statement of the Purpose The general purpose of this study is to analyze and interpret the trends in concepts of the professional preparation of teachers during the period 1940-1968 in which certain fundamental ideas and programs of consider— able significance were brought to fruition and have yielded results which add materially to the understanding and in- sight needed as an aid in Shaping new ends and purposes and establishing new procedures in teacher education. More specifically, the purpose of this study is (a) to Show how present concepts of the effective teacher have evolved and what influences and forces were respon- sible for the development which took place; (b) to determine what institutions, policies, and procedures in teacher education have been dominant in determining teacher qual- ifications at different periods; (c) to discover what significant results have come from these policies and their fulfillment which contribute values useful in find- ing better ways to conduct the enterprise of teacher education; and (d) to determine some significant implica- tions for the future. Sources of Data The method upon which chief reliance has been placed in this study was documentary study. It is a combination of an account based on primary sources and summaries of reported studies in the area of teacher edu— cation--more specifically, in the area usually referred to as professional education. Texts, professional edu- cational journals, and respected lay journals covering the period under study and relating to the profession— alization of teaching, teacher preparation, qualifica— tions, and effectiveness constitute primary sources. Other sources of information were utilized which were more specific to the formulation and development of the purposes of this study. Some of these included statements and opinions of qualified individuals, published reports of educational meetings and educational organizations' conferences, institutional records, and reports of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Office of Education. Method of Procedure This is not a study of beginnings; instead, it deals with a period of relatively mature thinking and do- ing. The significant issues and practices in teacher edu— cation are so deeply rooted in the American tradition that one cannot but arbitrarily choose a point at which to pick up certain threads from a most involved pattern. To make this study as meaningful aS possible, however, it is vital that something of the trends in teacher preparation in America prior to 1940 be considered. Therefore, in Chapter II, the writer has summarized the development of these trends prior to 1900. In Chapter III, he has reviewed the changing patterns of these trends from the turn of the century to the period under investigation to indicate how teacher education had attained its 1940 forms. In Chapter IV, an attempt has been made to collect data which are representative of the thinking, practices, and policies for those aspects of teacher education included in this study. The data for trends have been obtained by a study of the principal source materials for the period under study. From this investigation statements were formulated and classified with respect to the objectives of teacher education and desired teacher qualifications, to the profes- sional programs of teacher education, and to the organiza- tional developments in teacher education. Other requirements characteristic of the effective teacher as a member of the profession have also been reviewed and categorized. Finally, in Chapter V, the writer has discussed interpretatively the data which have been presented on the evolving trends. In addition, a current appraisal and in- terpretation has been examined and implications for the future were considered. Need for This Study_ The present study has been motivated by a belief in the value of historical study and the recognition of the need for a comprehensive account of the thinking and prac- tice with regard to teacher preparation since 1940. Our- rent thinking and practices are not resolved by historical analysis-—nor are the issues completely defined. History is but one of the several tools which can and should be brought to bear. There is, however, a facet to every situ- ation which is missed unless recourse is had to the his— torical view. In any consideration of data which involve present practices and policies, it is frequently of value to have rather specific information concerning the practices and ideas for a period of years preceding the present. Such information may or may not indicate definite trends with respect to all practices or concepts, but regardless of this there should be considerable value in materials of this sort. The existence of definite trends, if such can be brought to light, represents a type of information which should be given some recognition in making recommendations, even though this information may not represent proof that such practices or concepts are entirely desirable. It is believed that whatever merits this study may have are largely centered in these and associated aspects. It is further believed that this study will be a contribution to a more adequate understanding of present thinking and practices in teacher education and to the problems and issues which teacher educators face today in planning for tomorrow. Limitations of the Study This study was limited to certain factors which seemed to be especially significant relative to the present purpose. There is only incidental mention of the generally accepted patterns and variations among the several states and among institutions; developments in particular insti- tutions and in particular states are noted only for pur- poses of illustration. The author's main concern was with the classroom teacher at elementary and secondary levels, and chiefly with what is referred to as the preservice professional sequence in teacher education. The preparation of other kinds of school personnel other than classroom teachers of the kinds of personnel needed at educational levels other than the elementary school or the secondary school are not discussed. The study is historical and descriptive and not statistical. An attempt was made, however, to find causal relationships and to discover the forces and influences which accounted for what has happened in certain areas of teacher education. The present study does not include a systematic account of the evolution of the purposes and curricula of our public schools, but from time to time reference will be made to changes in our public schools as a means of ex— plaining changes in the thinking about the purposes and objectives of teacher education or as a factor in apprais— ing this thinking. The author refers to the general re- quirements that under modern standards, a teacher is expected to make additional preparation for some years after first entering teaching; however, he does not treat the nature of that kind of program in detail. There is also no systematic consideration of the expanding function of teachers, but changes in this area are reflected in the developing programs Of teacher education and to some ex- tent in the evolution of trends. IO Definition of Terms For the purposes of this study the effective teacher is defined as one whose preservice professional program has provided him with the qualifications of an ex— ceptional person. He must be motivated by high principles and a deep desire to bring out the potentials which exist in every human being. He must have the strength Of charac- ter which permits him to live with constant challenge and uncertainty and which enable him to struggle for those conditions in both the school and community which he con- siders essential to effective teaching. He must be able to work with both individuals and groups of pupils, profes— sional colleagues, and fellow citizens. He must possess an inquiring intellect and must keep abreast of advances relevant to teaching and in the subjects which he teaches. In any definition of the effective teacher, however, it Should be emphasized that the qualifications must be consistent with the purposes of the schools at that time, the contemporary services required of teachers, and the contemporary theory of teaching and learning. It should be further emphasized that effective teachers will not be identical; rather, the balance and integration of the above listed qualities must be recognized as a significant aspect of whether the teacher is effective. The preservice professional sequence is defined as that series of professional courses offered in every program 11 of teacher education which are designed to develop the attitudes and competencies which presumably result in ef— fective teaching. The sequence will usually include a block of courses known as foundations, courses involving methodology and teaching format and the practice teaching experience. CHAPTER II THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRENDS TO 19OO Introduction The history of teacher education in the United States has of necessity paralleled the development of the American school system and of American society. When schools were small and relatively unimportant, society did not expect its teachers to have high attainments or special preparation. In fact, schools had existed for decades in America before one finds the suggestion that some emphasis be placed upon special education for teachers. For an adequate understanding of the current convictions and practices in the preparation of the American teacher, it is necessary to survey the ascending developmental patterns in the preparation and professionalization of the teacher in the United States from early colonial times to the twentieth century. Training and Qualifications of Teachers in the Colonial Period The first teachers in the American colonies were not trained professionally, but were people selected 12 15 because they met minimum requirements of education, standards of character, and willingness to accept the low pay which the positions paid. At all levels of instruction in the colonial period, training in the technique of instruction was conspicuous by its absence. There was no systematic program of teacher education other than a minimum knowledge of the subject to be taught. Beyond their education in subject matter, colonial teachers had no other preparation for careers in teaching; even their study of subject matter was not gener- ally undertaken with a view to teaching it. A few of the early teachers in the colonies were quite competent, but lacking adequate preparation, the performance of all too many was at a low level.:L Evidence from the historians2 of the period sug- gests that teachers varied greatly in educational back- ground. Some had graduated from colleges, some were grammar school graduates, and others had received little, if any, formal schooling and were barely able to read and write. As in the European countries, teachers in the early 1George R. Cressman and Harold W. Benda, Public Education in America (New York: Appleton—Century—Crofts, 1956), p. 40. 2See John S. Brubacher, A History of the Problems of Education (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1966), pp. 476-77; R. Freeman Butts and Lawrence A. Cremin, A History of Education in American Culture (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1953), pp. 132—34. l4 colonial elementary schools were recruited from among in— dentured servants, common laborers who could find time to combine two occupations, and from among literate dames in the community who were willing to teach while maintaining a household. At the grammar school level, teachers possessed the personal qualifications and the scholastic preparation which had held for generations in the mother country; they were direct transplantations of the six- teenth-century teacher-religious of Europe, educated in the classical tradition Of the English university with a knowledge of Latin and Greek as their prime qualifications. There was an established pattern of qualifications for the colonial teacher.3 It was basically important that he be sound in the doctrine of the faith; church al— legiance was far more important than scholarship. Second in importance was that he be a good disciplinarian, in body as well as in mind. There was also the necessity for being "discreet of conversation." In New England the law in 1654 stipulated: For as much as it greatly Concernes the welfare of the Country, that the youth thereof be educated not only in good Literature, but in sound Doctrine. This Court doth therefore Commend it to the serious Consideration, and Special care of our Overseers of the Colledg, and the Selectmen in the 3Edgar w. Knight and Clifton L. Hall, Readings in American Educational History_(New York: Appleton— Century-Crofts, Inc., 195I), p. 45. 15 several townes, not to admit or suffer any such to be continued in the Office or place of teaching, education, or instructing youth or children in the Colledg or Schools, that have manifested themselves unsound in the faith, or scandalous in their lives and have not given satisfaction according to the Rules of Christ. A Somewhat more elaborate for that time were the qualifications required of teachers for the Society of the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts as issued in 1711. The teacher had to have certificates signed by rep- utable persons including the minister of the parish at- testing to his age, marital status, temper, prudence, learning, "sober and pious conversation," zeal for the Christian religion, loyalty to the government, conformity to the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England, and ability to teach reading, writing, and the catechism of the Church of England.5 Such qualifications, however, set a rather high standard for the times for elementary school teachers. Throughout the colonial period the training of teachers was given little thought or attention by colleges or other institutions, which apparently did not recognize teaching in the schools as an occupation or profession \ “The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts (Boston, Pub- lished by Order of the City Council of Boston, 1889), p. 191 (Reprinted from the edition of 1660). 5Raymond E. Callahan, An Introduction to Educa- tion in American Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), pp. 382-83. 16 worthy of special training or instruction beyond that of the regular course of study. During this time an appren- ticeship system, similar to that used for the trades, was sometimes used as a method of preparation for teaching. Here, young adults who had acquired some educational train— ing would learn the elements of the profession under the direct guidance and help of a practicing teacher. This was an accepted method of professional preparation until other provisions were made available in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Agitation for Some Formal Teacher Training When the masses were content to have their chil— dren learn a little reading, writing, and arithmetic, the question of formal preparation for teachers was not given much thought. But after the Revolution, when the notion of education for the common people became popular, pro- motional literature urging a more formal teacher training program began to appear. In 1789, an article attributed to Elisha Ticknor entitled, "Essay upon the Importance of Studying the English 1 Language Grammatically,’ was published in the June edition of the Massachusetts Magazine for that year. It contains the first suggestion by an American educator of the need for more thoroughly trained teachers for the common schools. 17 Since education has been a question of much debate in this, as well as in many other States, and what method is best to be adopted in order to lessen every unnecessary expense, and yet to establish our schools on a more respectable foot—ing, and to diffuse light and knowledge universally among the people, I beg leave to suggest the following plan: . . . That there should be a public grammar school established in each county of the State, in which Should be taught English grammar, Latin, Greek, rhetoric, geography, mathematics, etc., in order to fit young gentlemen for college and school keeping. At the head of this county school I would place an able preceptor, who should superintend the whole instruction of the youth committed to his care, and who, together with a board of over- seers, would annually examine young gentlemen designed for schoolmasters in reading, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar, and if they are found qualified for the office of school keeping and able to teach these branches with ease and6 propriety, to recommend them for this purpose. This recommendation, appearing fifty years before the first state normal school was opened, is noteworthy in that it recognized first, the importance of an institu-' tion which had as its distinct object the preparation of "young gentlemen" for school keeping, and second, the fact that teachers ought to be able to teach their classes with a certain ease and propriety. With rare exceptions, it was not until the nine- teenth century that there appeared a genuine and wide- spread concern as to the professional qualifications and 6Quoted in John P. Gordy, Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States, p. 9. United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information 8. 1891. 18 preparation of teachers for the common schools. Schools of various sorts had existed from earliest colonial days, but no attention was given for a long time to the educa— tion of teachers for these schools. Along with the con- cept that education was a matter for the home, church, and charity, went the idea that good teaching stemmed entirely from knowledge of a subject; that he who really had com- mand of his field could not but be an effective teacher. The idea that a teacher's preparation must involve certain fundamental elements beyond the business of subject matter competence was slow to catch on in the United States, al- though suggestions to that effect were heard as far back as the beginning of the eighteenth century. A historian has pointed out that It was nearly two centuries after Massa— chusetts had ordered the establishment of schools before the state provided for the training of teachers for those schools. After Connecticut had provided for schools it was nearly 175 years before there was even a sug- gestion that the state establish an institution exclusively for the training of teachers. Significantly, this concern for some formal preparation for teaching coincided with the upsurge in general concern during the nineteenth century over the provisions for universal education; the assumption by society of the re- sponsibility for providing mass education necessarily 7Edgar W. Knight, Education in the United States, 3rd ed. (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1951), p. 310. 19 carried with it a concomitant responsibility for ensuring the quality and ability of those to whom the charge was to be entrusted-~the teachers. In the opening decades of that century a number of publications reflected the rest— lessness and anxiety of educators concerning teacher training. In 1812, Denison Olmsted, in a commencement ad— dress at Yale College, made a definite recommendation for a seminary to train schoolmasters in which . . . the pupils were to study and recite what- ever they themselves were afterward to teach, partly for the purpose of acquiring a more per- fect knowledge of these subjects, and partly of learning from the methods adopted gy the principal the best modes of teaching. Instruction was also to include lectures on school govern- ment and school organization. An article titled "School Fund and the Common 1 Schools of Connecticut,' published in the April edition of the North American Review of 1823 by Professor John L. Kingsley of Yale College, made the following suggestion: Let a superior school, intermediate between the common school and the university be main- tained in each county of the State where all of those who aspire to teach in the common schools may themselves be thoroughly instructed. Such a measure would give new vigor to the whole system of education. . . . The teachers, it is understood, have now very seldom any other 8Quoted in Brubacher, op. cit., p. 477. 2O preparation than they receive in the very school where they afterwards instruct, or in the school of some neighboring district, where the advan— tages for improvement are no better.9 In the same year William Russell, who three years later be— came editor of one of the earliest American professional magazines, the Journal of Education, published a pamphlet titled "Suggestions on Education." In it he endorsed Kingsley‘s recommendations, attributing the inadequacies of the common schools to the lack of trained teachers: . . . the common schools for children are, in not a few instances, conducted by individuals who do not possess one of the qualifications of an instructor and in very many cases there is barely knowledge enough to keep the teacher at a decent distance from his scholars. The Reverend Samuel R. Hall had anticipated by only a few months the suggestions of Kingsley and Russell. He opened the first private seminary for the training of teachers at Concord, Vermont, in 1823. His seminary, with a model school attached, was established exclusively for the preparation of teachers. The curriculum of Hall's in- stitution, in a three-year course, was based upon a common school education, with a thorough review of the subjects to be taught in the common schools, some mathematics, book chemistry, natural philosophy, logic, astronomy, evidence of Christianity, and moral and intellectual philosophy. 9Quoted in Gordy, op. cit., p. 11. 10Ibid. 21 In the third term of the third year, Hall presented a new study called "the art of teaching."11 Agitation among these and other educators of the nine— teenth century for some formal teacher training made it in- creasingly evident that the problem of teacher training was of such magnitude that only through state support and sponsorship of a special type of teacher-training institution could the need for properly prepared teachers be met. In 1825, publica— tions, outlining plans for state institutions for the train— ing of teachers, appeared by James G. Carter and Thomas H. Gallaudet. Carter, a Massachusetts educator, was one of the earliest and most active proponents of state agencies for teacher training. His first proposals appeared in a series of articles in the Boston newspapers from 1821-24; later, he published a more extensive treatment of his ideas.12 In a series of "Essays upon Popular Education," which appeared in the Boston Patriot_during the winter of 1824-25, Carter pro— posed a state institution designed primarily to train teachers for the common schools. He insisted that private schools llHenry Barnard, American Journal of Education, Vol. V, p. 379. 12James G. Carter, Letters to the Hon. William Prescott on the Free Schools of New England, with Remarks on the Principles of Instruction (Boston: Cummings, Hilliard, 182147. 22 could not properly serve the purpose of training common school teachers.13 Gallaudet's Plan of a Seminary for the Education of the Instructors of Youth was published in the Connecticut Observer of January 4, 1825; it contained the following pro- posals: (1) Let an institution be established in every state for the express purpose of training the pro- fession of the instructors of youth. (2) Let it be well endowed by the liberality of the public that it may have professors of talent who Should devote their lives to the theory and the practice of the education of youth. (3) Let the institu- tion be furnished with a library-—and also with all the apparatus that modern ingenuity has de- vised to aid in teaching--maps, charts, globes, orreries, etc. (4) Let there be connected with the institution a school in which the theories of the professors might be reduced to practice. Let the students take their turnfi in the instruction of the experimental school.l Efforts to secure the establishment of state insti- tutions for the preparation of teachers became more frequent and more insistent. The movement seemed spontaneous but was slightly influenced by foreign example and practice. The success of state normal schools abroad had attracted the at— tention of several leaders in American education. One of 13James G. Carter, Essays upon Popular Education, Containing a Particular Examination of the Schools of Massachusetts, and an Outline of an Institution for the Education of TeachersP(Boston: Bowles and Dearborn, 1826), p. 46. luQuoted in William E. Drake, The American School in Transition (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955), p. 373. 23 them, the Reverend Charles Brooks, returning from a visit abroad, entered upon a vigorous campaign for state institu— tions for teacher training in 1835. He launched his cam- paign with a sermon at Hingham, Massachusetts, stating there the famous, and now trite expression: "As is the teacher, so is the school."15 Rising demands for facilities to improve the qualif— ications of American teachers by more adequate teacher pre- paration began to yield results with the establishment of state normal schools at Lexington, Barre, and Bridgewater, all in Massachusetts. The teacher training institution had passed through a long period of evolution before it was recognized as a necessary state institution. Such has also been true of other American institutions. In a free society where institutions arise through a felt need of the people, at first incipient, they do not usually become suddenly full-grown. The public Hand yields slowly to new ideas. Thus, it was necessary that there be a lengthy period of agitation. l5Vernon L. Mangun, The American Normal School (Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1928), p. 46} 24 Early Institutions and Agencies Designed for the Professional Education of Teachers The Monitorial Training Schools The distinct feeling of dissatisfaction with the ex— isting teaching system was signalized by various experi— mentations which sought to remedy the situation. One scheme of organization and instruction that arose in the latter part of the eighteenth century was known as the monitorial system. For a time, while the monitorial schools were in vogue, several demonstration schools for teachers were es— tablished in which methods were taught. This system reduced the cost of educating teachers and made possible a more rapid development in this area by permitting instruction in large classes. Some individuals thought these institutions were the answer to the preparation of teachers. The system it— self did not improve the qualifications of teachers, but it did make financially available some kind Of teacher prepara- tion for that time. The large and influential Public School Society of NEW York adopted the monitorial plan in 1806 and prepared many students to become Lancasterian teachers. In fact, so many communities wrote to Dewitt Clinton for advice and in- formation about the demonstration school in New York that he established a teachers' placement agency.16 In 1818, the 16William M. French, America's Educational Tradition (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1967), p. 51. 25 City of Philadelphia also established a model training school for its common teachers. Joseph Lancaster, exponent of the monitorial system of instruction, taught his tech- nique to the teacher candidates. Andrew Bell, Lancaster's contemporary exponent of monitorial instruction, is reported to have stated, "Give me twenty-four pupils today and I will give you back twenty—four teachers tomorrow."17 The essence of the method was for the teacher to in— struct monitors, who in turn instructed pupils under them. 'The main emphasis in training was almost exclusively upon Inemoriter learning and repetition of subject matter. Teachers jprepared in this manner could at best learn only faultily the material they were to teach, and they passed on their ig- norance with their knowledge.18 In addition, teachers pre— pared in the monitorial methods were only valuable if the monitorial schools themselves were accepted and established, and the record shows that they were not. Despite various criticisms, the Lancasterian demon- stration schools did serve a purpose in teacher education: they generated an interest in methods of teaching among edu- cators and made the public more conscious of the fact that some preparation for common school teachers was necessary. 17Quoted in Gordy, op. cit., p. 24. 18Robert E. Potter, The Stream of American Educa— tion (New York: American Book Company, 1967), p. 148. 26 While the monitorial system lasted until the middle of the nineteenth century, the preparation of teachers on the moni- torial plan was short lived and did not arouse widespread enthusiasm. The Academies During the eighteenth century more schools were being established on all levels and the need for teachers with some preparation was increasing. A popular agency for training the needed teachers was the American academy, which was es- tablished primarily to provide a more functional type of secondary school than the Latin grammar school, but also to provide a school to prepare teachers for the common schools. It should be noted that one of the first mentions of the edu- cation of teachers was the incidental reference by Benjamin Franklin in his prospectus for the establishment of the first academy, The Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Among other reasons for such a school, Franklin noted that the country was "suffering at present very much for want of good Schoolmasters." One value seen in his proposed academy was that "a number of the poorer Sort will be hereby quali- fied to act as Schoolmasters."19 The idea that Franklin had 19Minutes of the Common Council of Philadelphia, 1704-1776, under date of July 31, 1750, quoted by Francis N. Thorpe in Benjamin Franklin and the Universipy of Pennsyl— vania, U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1889, No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1889), pp. 245-46. 27 in mind, however, was academic and in no sense professional. It was appropriate that a teacher preparation de- partment be added to the academy in the nineteenth century when the demand for teachers became so urgent. To help those who were planning on teaching as a career, many of the acad- emies instituted what they bravely advertised as special teachers' courses. In most institutions the only difference between a teacher's course and any other was the addition of a series of lectures in pedagogy by the principal. The practice of using the academies for teacher train- ing took the most secure hold in New York State where, in answer to the pressing need for better trained teachers for the common schools, the Regents of New York urged in the Annual Repprt of 1826 that "Teachers for the common schools must generally be derived from the academies." Two years later the legislature increased a previous appropriation to the incorporated academies ”to promote the education of "20 Later, in 1834 the legislature passed an act teachers. providing for the subsidizing of eight private academies to the extent of four hundred dollars each, to train teachers for an eight month period. By 1841, sixteen academies had campaigned for the bounty, and the legislature included them but reduced the grant to three hundred dollars. The required 2OElwood P. Cubberly, Readings in the History of Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin CO., 1920), p. 331. 28 special instruction was also reduced from eight to six months because most of the students remained in the schools for only six months, devoting the remaining six months to the teaching of winter school. The 1834 act of the New York Legislature marked the first permanent policy of state support for teach- er training in the United States.21 An abstract from the (1835) Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York justifies the establishment of training departments in the already ex- isting academies and indicates the type of education thought desirable and sufficient for the teachers of the common schools of that time. The regents are decidedly of the opinion that the academies are the proper instruments for ac- complishing the great object of supplying the com- mon schools with teachers. These institutions have already the advantage of convenient edifices, in some cases, of large, permanent funds, amount- ing in all to an investment of about half a mil- lion dollars. By ingrafting upon this source of studies a department of studies in the principles of teaching the respectability and capacities of institutions will be increased, and those who are qualifying themselves for the business of 21William M. French, "A Century of Teacher Training in New York," Education, 56 (December, 1955), 215-25. This article is an abstract of the dissertation, 'A Century of Teacher Training in New York: An Historical Study of Cer- tain Problems and Policies of the State in the Development Of the State-Supported Teacher Training Institutions, 1834- 1934" presented by the author for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Yale University. 29 instruction may enjoy the benefit of all other branches entering into the ordinary academic course. In every point of view it is conceived that this is the most advisable method of pre- paring instructors. For the first half of the nineteenth century the academy was the institution in which most teachers received their formal education. Some academies eventually became normal schools; but even after some states had established normal schools, the academy continued to produce a large number of rural school teachers. Meyer points out that "be— cause of the advanced nature of some of its subjects, the academy was able to present the lower schools with some of its best-educated masters."23 The Institutes During the decades just prior to the Civil War, when the demand for qualified teachers greatly exceeded the sup- ply, something short of normal school training had to suffice as a standard for most school systems in selecting teachers. TO meet the pressing need of supplying a large number of teachers with at least a respectable minimum of pedagogy the teachers' institute was developed. The teachers' institute was a temporary assemblage of teachers brought together for 22Quoted in Gordy, op. cit., p. 29. 23Adolphe E. Meyer, An Educational History of the American People (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957), p. 130. BO special drill in fundamentals, for instruction in methods or general principles of school government, and for mutual improvement in other matters relating to the profession.24 The first such assemblage was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1839, under the direction of Henry Barnard, who was then secretary of the state board of education. Twenty-Six students were organized into a class and given six weeks of instruction, consisting of a review and extension of the topics usually taught in the common schools together with an abbreviated instruction in pedagogy. The first so- named institute was held in 1843 at Ithaca, New York; it was hailed as a "revelation of the new agent in school improve- ment."25 The Institute movement spread rapidly throughout New York and neighboring states. In 1885, the Bureau of Educa- tion, Department of the Interior, engaged James H. Smart, then president of Purdue University, to prepare a compila- tion on the value of institutes in training teachers for their work.26 The report noted that where there were no normal schools the institutes acquired a great importance as an educational training agency, 2“Brubacher, op. cit., pp. 478-79. 25James H. Smart, Teachers' Institutes, United States Imreau of Education, Circular of Information 2, 1885, p. 9. 26Ibid., p. 296. 31 . . . assuming the proportions and duties of a peripatetic teachers seminary, Often extending its sessions into weeks, enlarging its program of instruction, and increasing the number of its methods and appliances for attracting or retain- ing public favor. 7 Further, the report pointed out that institutes went through a series of developmental stages: the first, when the in— struction was principally in the fundamentals taught in the common schools; the second, when the tendency was to enter- tain rather than to instruct; and the third, when pedagogical principles were emphasized in their application to teaching. With the organization of state school systems, teach— ers' institutes, in some form or another, became a part of the educational machinery. Called into being as temporary expedients they remained popular supplements to the regular 28 normal school program well into the twentieth century. The Summer Schools The Teachers' Institute continued to grow after the Civil War, and in many states it remained the prime, if not the only, means of education of rural teachers. Another edu- cational arrangement which grew in prominence during this same period and gave promise of replacing the institute and supplementing the normal school was the summer school.29 It 27Ibid., p. IO. 28Brubacher, op. cit., p. 479. 29Willard S. Elsbree, The American Teacher (New York: American Book Company, 1939), pp. 367-81. 32 was similar to the teachers' institute in that it offered a relatively brief and intensive period of training but dis— similar in its course of study, which resembled that of the normal school, college, and university. The first, philanthropically subsidized, summer school in the United States was conducted in 1873 at Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. While the session was specifically de- signed for teachers, only a few enrolled and the project was abandoned. The venture, however, was significant in that it stimulated enterprising educators to attempt larger and more practical experiments. The real genesis of the modern summer school was the Lake Chautauqua Institute established in 1874 in western New York. It began as a Sunday School assembly with strong em— phasis on the Bible, but it gradually evolved into an educa— tional and cultural institution, using methods similar to those employed in the normal schools. From the standpoint of teacher preparation, however, the ”Teachers' Retreat," sponsored by the Cook County Normal School, Chicago, and con- ducted by Francis W. Parker in 1879, was the most significant segment of this great innovation. The faculty of the summer session provided a demonstration of the system of training then in operation in the professional training classes of the normal schools, which included talks on psychology, pedagogics, and methods, and lessons on the principles of teaching natural sciences, geography, history, elocution, literature, and numbers. 33 Another notable venture held a year earlier, was the Martha's Vineyard Summer School, designed for the im- provement of teachers in service. From its beginning the attendance was large, and the school enjoyed an excellent reputation. Summer sessions were also established in the 1880's and 1890's by the University of Wisconsin, Indiana University, and Cornell. Many other colleges, universities, and normal schools soon followed in their footsteps. By 1900, educators looked to the summer school as a most promising agency to improve the masses of poorly trained teachers. However, it was not until after the turn of the century that summer schools for teachers received or— ganization coordinating them with the regular teacher train- ing programs.30 The Normal School Movement Growth of the Normal School Idea It is almost impossible to draw a sharp line between the period of agitation for formal teacher-training institu- tions and the period of growth and development of state normal schools, but the period of growth probably began with the first serious effort to establish an institution with the exclusive aim of preparing teachers. It began, then, in 1823, with Hall's teachers' seminary, established entirely 3OFrench, op. cit., p. 249. 34 under private control at Concord, Vermont. The development of teacher training in New York from 1836 to 1844 represents the first step toward state support of private institutions for teacher training. Pennsylvania's system of normal schools was a third step, and one closer, to full state support and control of the normal schools. It was a system of public and private management, working under a.p1an of joint control. The fourth type of teacher—training institution, one Inmer full control and support of the state, opened with three pupils in 1839 at Lexington, Massachusetts, largely through the efforts of James G. Carter, Charles Brooks, and Horace Mann. Albree has stated that "as far as the history Of normal schools in Massachusetts is concerned, there are three men who will stand out above others in history of that time: Carter, who showed the need; Brooks, who offered the remedy and aroused public attention so that the law was es- tablished, and Horace Mann, who put the law into practice."31 The creation of the Massachusetts Board of Education, h11837, paved the way for action on state normal school legislation. Directly paralleling the appointment of Horace Mann as the first Secretary of the newly established Board, Eflmund Dwight, a member of the Board, proposed a gift of ten thousand dollars toward the establishment of normal schools 31Ibid., p. 258. 35 to improve the qualifications of teachers, provided that an equal sum would be appropriated by the state legislature for that purpose. The legislature's response was immediate, authorizing the establishment of three such schools. The "resolve" of the legislature was the happy consummation of years of labor.32 The normal school movement had powerful backing in PMssachusetts, yet there was much indifference and some pos- itive hostility. AS early as 1840 the Committee on Education cfi‘the Massachusetts legislature recommended that the House Of Representatives abolish the normal schools. The committee reported: Academies and high schools cost the Commonwealth nothing; and they are fully adequate to furnish a competent supply of teachers. . . . Considering that our district schools are kept, on an average, for only three or four months in the year, it is obviously impossible and perhaps it is not desir— able, that the business of keeping these schools should become a district and separate profession, which the establishment of Normal Schools seems to anticipate. 3 While the first years of the state normal schools in.Massachusetts were hectic, they continued to survive and expand. Following Massachusett's lead, a number of other 32Walter D. Agnew, The Administration of Profession— gg Schools for Teachers (Baltimore: Warwick and York, Inc., 1924), p. 24. 33Charles A. Harper, A Century of Public Teacher Education (Washington: American Association Of Teachers Colleges, 1939), pp- 35-36- 56 states established normal schools for training common—school teachers. In state after state, the chief school officers reported to legislators that the attempt to train teachers in any institution except a normal school was failing. The almost universal complaint was that in the college, the acad— emy, or the university, the teacher training department was considered an appendage which lacked single—minded support, the overarching professional spirit, and the unity needed fbr successful teacher education.52+ In New York, a bill introduced to the legislature finally led to the establishment of a normal school at Albany in 1844. Connecticut opened its first state normal school in 1850 with Henry Barnard as principal. The New Jersey State Normal and Model School was established by an act of the state legislature in 1855; it was the ninth in the United States. Growth of similar institutions was extremely Slow; '%y 1860 there were only eleven such institutions in ex- istence."55 After 1865, the number of normal schools in- creased rapidly, spreading westward under the impact of the founding of public common schools and their demand for teach— ers, a need which private academies and colleges made little effort to meet. The normal school idea also extended into BuOtto W. Snarr, The Education of Teachers in the Middle States: An Historical Study_of the Professional Edu- cation of Public School Teachers as a State Function (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1945), pp. 99—117. 35Elsbree, op. cit., p. 551. 37 the southern states, sometimes with the financial encourage- ment of northern philanthropies. In 1866, the school that set the pattern for the latter normal schools was founded at Oswego, New York, by Edward A. Sheldon. Oswego's distinction was the incorpora— tion of Pestalozzi's theories of education into its teacher training methods. Coming when it did, just when the Ameri- can normal school stood on the brink of expansion, the Oswego normal school started a movement in national teacher train- ing, one which became a living influence for at least a generation.36 By 1874 there were 134 normal schools in the United States, enrolling 24,405 students--7O of these were receiv- ing state funds.37 Less than a quarter of a century later, the number of normal schools had more than doubled, and the number of students enrolled had almost tripled. There were 345 normal schools by l898—-167 public and 178 private-—with an enrollment of 67,538 students.38 At the turn of the century, although all states had not yet established state normal schools, all of the forty-five then in the Union had public normal schools of one kind or another.39 36Meyer, op. cit., pp. 227—29. 37Addresses and Proceeding§_(Washington, D.C.: National Educational Association, 1876), p. 51. 38Nicholas Murray Butler, Education in the United States (New York: American Book Company, 1910), p. 370. 59Butts and Cremin, op. cit., p. 449. 38 The Normal School Program The first demand of those educators concerned with teacher preparation was the development of normal schools; these they established to meet the pressing needs for a supply of teachers to serve in the newly—created public school sys- tems. Their second demand was for a specialized professional body of materials to constitute the heart of this new train; ing. Since decentralization of educational control was, Emen then, a marked characteristic of all American schools, normal schools also varied from section to section and state to state. The functions and curricula of the normal schools became dependent upon local needs and demands. Early spokes— ‘men for the normal school programs believed that only as a Inofessional curricula remained closely articulated with pub- lic school programs and needs would their pursuit be worth- while for the prospective teacher. Central tendencies may 1m described, but there were very many variations including decided extremes of practice. Several years before the founding of the first normal school, in 1825, James G. Carter conceived of the "teachers' seminary" as both literary and scientific in.character-—one Of its unique tasks resting in the development of a body of materials related to teaching principles and methods. He not only believed that such an institution would contribute better teachers to better schools, but also that it would 39 greatly stimulate the development of professional spirit among teachers.“rO Carter's proposal came early, but less than a decade later Orville Taylor proposed a teacher training curriculum for New York State in The District School; or National Educa- pigp. It allowed for a uniform plan of instruction for the teacher training institutions in that state and embraced (l) the English language, (2) writing and drawing, (3) arith— metic and bookkeeping, (4) geography and history, (5) United States history, (6) geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, and Surveying, (7) natural philosophy and elements of astronomy, (8) chemistry and mineralogy, (9) United States and New York Constitutions, (10) selected laws, (11) moral and intellectual Dtdlosophy, and (12) the principles of teaching.41 From Taylor's suggested curriculum, it is clear that what was ac- ‘hmlly being recommended was an academy-type program especial- ly designed for teachers. This plan served as a guide and curriculum for the New York academies for a full generation. Perhaps the next important plan for a normal school (H‘teachers' seminary curriculum was that outlined in con- siderable detail by Calvin E. Stowe in 1837. He suggested uOJames G. Carter, Outline of an Institution for the gpucation of Teachers. As quoted in Henry Barnard, Normal Schools and Other Agencies, and Means Designed for the Pro— fessional Education of Teachers (Hartford: Case, Tiffany & 00-, 18517. I. pp. 91-99. ”lJ. Orville Taylor, The District School; or, Nation- al Education (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea, and Blanchard, ,p.. 40 that only those thoroughly grounded in the common branches should be admitted for the purpose of concentrating largely on professional training. The course of study he proposed was, so far as the professional elements were concerned, ahead of anything actually achieved in teacher education fbr many years thereafter. It included history of education, the philosophy of mind, the "peculiarities of intellectual and moral development in children as modified by sex, parental character, wealth or poverty, city or country, family govern- ment, [etc.] . . .," along with the science of education and the art of teaching};2 Stowe's proposal resembled Carter's Of a decade earlier, but on some points he was more specific than Carter had been. The purpose of the first normal school at Lexington was set forth by its principal, Cyrus Peirce as (1) "To teach thoroly the principles of the several branches studies, so that the pupils may have a clear and full understanding of them. (2) To teach the pupils, by my own example, as well as by precepts, the best way of teaching the same things ef- fectually to others."LL3 He described his curriculum and methods of preparing teachers in a letter published in the Qpnnecticut Common School Journal in 1841. 42Calvin E. Stowe, Common Schools and Teachers' Seminaries (Boston: Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 1839), p. 85. 43Harper, op. cit., p. 31. 41 The branches that have been actually taken up are the following, viz: all the common branches par— ticularly and fully; together with Composition, Geometry, Algebra, Physiology; Natural, Intellec- tual, and Moral Philosophy; Natural History, Botany, Political Economy, Book—keeping, Vocal Music, and the art of Teaching. . . . Sometimes instead of reciting the lesson directly to me, I ask them to imagine themselves, for the time, act— ing in the capacity of teachers, to a class of young pupils, and to adopt a style suitable for such a purpose. At many of our recitations, more than half the time is spent with reference to teaching "the art of teaching." Besides deliver- ing to the school a Formal Lecture once a week, in which I speak of the qualifications, motives, and duties of teachers, the discipline, manage— ment, and instruction of schools, and the manner in which the various branches should be taught, I am every day, in conversations, or a familiar sort of lectures, taking up and discussing more particularly and minutely, some point or points suggested by the exercises or occurrences, it may be, of the day, relating to the internal opera— tions of the schoolroom, or to physical, moral, or intellectual education: -— I say much about the views and motives of teachers, and the motives by which they should attempt to stimulate their pupils. . . . Annexed school, or model school. -— This school consists of thirty pupils, of both sexes, from the age of six to ten, inclusive. . . . It was committed to the immediate care of the pupils of the Normal School, . . . for all who are thought prepared to take a part in its instruction. In this experimental school, the teachers are expected to apply the principles and methods which they have been taught in the Normal School. . . . After the exercises have closed, I comment upon what I have seen and heard before the teachers, telling them what I deem good, and what faulty, either in their doctrine or their practice, their theory or their manner. . . . From the model school we exclude all appeals to fear, premiums, or emulation; and yet wfiuhave good order, and a fair amount of study. 44Arthur O. Norton, The First State Normal School in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926): pp. xlix, 1i, liii—liv. 42 Thus were laid down the main lines of the course of study of the American Normal Schools. David Perkins Page, recommended by Horace Mann, was selected to head the State Normal School at Albany in 1844. He was a creator in educational concepts and made an out- standing contribution to education by enlarging the content Of courses in pedagogy. Page was probably the first Ameri- can educator to place the training school in teacher educa- tion in its proper perspective. In his training school he allowed for actual practice teaching over a sufficient period of time under real schoolroom conditions. A further contri- bution by Page in the field of American education was his Egmory and Practice of Teaching, published in 1847. Until the end of the century this book formed the basis for courses in pedagogy in most normal schools of the United States. Page's protege, William F. Phelps, carried on his program as the first principal of the New Jersey State Normal School. Phelps expressed his idea of the aims and purposes of the normal school in these words: The great object of the American Normal School is to build up a system pre—eminently American; that is, a system which shall be in harmony with the character and genius of the American people. The normals must train up and send forth a suc- cession of apostles, who Shall go forth and preach this American idea in its purity and carry it out practically in the everyday life of the school. The normals should be institutions in which every exercise and every influence Should be of such a character as to make the best teach- ers that the ingenuity, that the means, that the mind of men can produce. . . . The work of the 43 teacher is to make men; men able to comprehend what their high destiny is, capable of acting theig part on the theater of life as men should act. 5 fl?}163 practice phase of teacher education continued to be em- ;ijiasized by Phelps at New Jersey. In fact, the formulation ()1? the concept of the true place and importance of practice ELIjxi model schools in connection with normal schools was one CDjT' the achievements of teacher preparation in this period. Ordinarily, the program of the normal school spanned El firear--more rarely two years. Even so, most of those at— TSEBIIding did not remain for more than a few months. There— ‘i7<31?e, the school terms and the course of study at New IEVI‘fixtain, Connecticut, were adopted by Henry Barnard, its I?Ii—I‘st principal, according to the direct needs of the Con- rlEiCi‘ticut school situation. Since few students came to the I1h.and the art of teaching; instruction also in natural SEQlience and the use of apparatus and illustration and (4) \I\“\‘ 45Harper, op. cit., pp. 63—64. 44 46 ffireuctice teaching in the model school. As soon as conditions allowed for improvement, the c:<)11rse of studies at New Britain was modified. The school c:c>r1tinued to grow in attendance, and a three—year curriculum ‘VJEiES firmly established by 1859, which included: First year--Reading, orthography, phonetic analysis; geography and map drawing; English grammar and composition; arithmetic, oral and written; history of the United States; drawing with pencil and crayon; vocal music; declamation. Second year--Rhetorical reading, comprising analysis of the language, grammar, and style of the best English authors; orthography with pho— netic and etymological analysis; grammar with analyses of sentences; composition and declama— tion; algebra, arithmetic reviewed, physiology and hygiene; botany, natural philosophy; astron- omy; drawing and music. Third year—-Rhetorical reading, orthography and critical phonetics, etymological analyses; composition and declamation, logic and mental philosophy, and rhetoric; evidences of revealed religion and natural theology; geometry, and meterorology; rhetorical analysis of Paradise Lost; drawing and vocal music. Instruction given in French, German, and Latin if desired. Also lessons fin the piano or melodeon can be had without cost. 7 3E11~ eaddition to the above course of studies, four terms of Ip:r‘éictice teaching were required. The schedule of classes ‘hleiis arranged so that at least one—third of the student's ‘tij1donhad his teachers experiment with the Pestalozzian tEECihnique of object teaching, stressing learning through ‘txklei senses by observation. His system relied mainly on the L1 E363 of objects and the spoken word, subordinating the text- b . . . . . CDCDkand keeping memorizatlon to a minimum. \ quuoted in Learned and Bagley, op. cit., p. 33. 47 Enthusiastic over the successful results of the iszriials, and realizing that his special method of teaching Insatie the professional training of teachers a practical neces— 53:i:ty3 he established a teacher training school with Margaret .JFCDIIes of England conducting demonstrations in classroom pro- czeaclures.50 The work at Sheldon's training school was so fi_rrqpressive and attracted so much attention that, in 1866, 1:1:«3 state legislature of New York passed an act making the 53(211001 at Oswego New York's second state normal school. I?<:xr a time it was the most famous teacher training institu— 13:113n.in the United States. Sheldon had intended that it be open only to high ESClliuDol graduates and ”offer one year of strictly profes- £3jLCuflal training." Apparently, however, academic courses ‘Vqfisirwe added over his objections. Not until 1891 was he suc- CE‘E’Eszsful in getting the classical department dropped, thus égEat-Iizning an additional year for "work in history, science, :E)532913hology and teaching, and in higher English."51 Diffusing out from Oswego, the method was enthusias- ‘t;j~CZally taught in other normal schools in New York, New €331‘sey, and Michigan and served to enrich teaching in a 11111CLtitude of schools throughout the country for many years. \ I3 50Edward A. Sheldon, Autobiography_(New York: Ives- LU:ler, 1911), p. 117. pg 51Addresses and Proceedings Washington, D.C.: E3“tional Educational Association, 18 3), pp. 362—63. 48 By 1870, the better normal schools had a three-year Iazscugram; after 1870 there was a tendency to expand the pro- gglreun to four years. The first two years were designed for tzeaeachers of the district schools and the elementary schools <>:E‘ the cities. The last two years were known as the higher Ijx:xrmal school, designed for teachers in the high schools and :f‘CJr administrators. This curriculum is best illustrated in ‘t;}1e catalog of the Kirksville, Missouri, normal school of 1876. The First Year Work embraces: How to Main- tain Vigorous Health, How to Study, How to Recite, How to Organize and Govern a Country School, and How to Teach the Common Branches. The Second Year's Work includes: Methods of Culture, Practice Teaching, and Graded Schools. Methods of Culture are based on an oral course in mental philosophy. Educational principles are evolved, and these are made the basis of the art of teaching. The Third Year is devoted to the thorough study of Psychology and methods of cultivating every power of the soul. . . . Here is laid the solid foundation for the science of education, and for artistic teaching. The Work of the Fourth Year is directed to fitting teachers for the best positions. . Teachers of this grade are prepared to discuss philosophically the great educational questions. The history of education, the philosophy of education, the graded and high school work, the superintendency and the institute work, engage special attention. By 1875, the normal schools had established them- 3 Eajlsves as the chief agency for the education of teachers \ 52CatalogueLKirksville Normal School, 1876, p. 22. 49 fYDI‘ the common school, and they were a recognized and estab- lgijshed fact in American education. While there were Sig- Ijgijficant variations in the general nature of the courses of £31blldy (curricula) designed for the preparation of teachers, (zealrtain central tendencies were apparent. The regular <:<:narses of study ranged from two to four years and consisted c>:E‘ reviews of elementary—school subjects, subjects similar ‘t;c> the academic offerings of the high schools and academies <>:f' the period, and pedagogical subjects. Some of the larger iflcalmnal schools were preparing high-school teachers; there— .i?<31%e, they offered some academic subjects similar to those 13Eillght in colleges. Courses in pedagogy varied, but most <3'C3111ses of study included psychology, history of education, E3C=Iriool economy and management, special methods, principles (>35. 'teaching, and practice teaching and/or observation. Late in the century variations in the general nature (31?. ‘the courses of study for the education of teachers re- 1?:l—Eicted three contradictory lines of attack relative to I’1‘Q’Itfimal school functions. In most normal schools the cur- Ir‘j~<1ulum still consisted of reviews of the subjects taught j‘rl the elementary schools and some pedagogical training, 1‘jLTrlited largely to courses in methods, classroom management, 8111(1 psychology. Criticisms during this period indicate that 1:hIiS type of program was widely prevalent.53 Many normal \ 53 53Edgar D. Randolph, The Professional Treatment of istllpggct—matter (Baltimore: Warwick & York, Inc., 1924), 50 sczknool leaders maintained that "reviews" of the academic tnyjpe and instruction similar to that of the academies and Idgiégh schools of the time did not result in the kind of knowl- eecigge the teacher needed. They suggested that subject matter lzitlst be professionalized, that is selected and organized warj;th the needs of the teacher in mind and that the instruc- 1::icnl should also be directed to this end. In contrast with lelese two points of view, both Of which emphasized the teach- €321"S understanding of the subjects to be taught, some normal £3<3lmool leaders advocated that the normal school should be a ES‘turictly'professional institution. The Committee on Normal -£3fessional." Toward the close of the century, there was a tendency Ot3C>Evard a four—year program for elementary teachers as well {3‘53 for secondary teachers. The highest general standards ‘bJEPJ?e maintained in Massachusetts, where students were re- C35K13.red to have completed high school or an equivalent educa- ‘t:jL<3n. The four-year program, designed for secondary school ‘\~\‘\, IQ‘ 54Addresses and Proceedings Washington, D.C.: Si”tional Educational Association, 18 9), p. 395. 51 'teeeuzhers, provided an opportunity for the student to pursue £111 IEnglish course or a Latin course. Provision was also rneafiie for a modern language course or a science course. By J_E9CND, many normal school catalogues indicated that courses ()1? study were available which prepared for teaching in any jE>11ase of public school work.55 The role of the normal school at the turn of the c2cietion Committee was "the teaching of subjects that they iinrl turn may be taught. . . the development of character ‘tillert it in turn may be transfigured into character a 1;’3?€3paration for life that it in turn may prepare others to ‘Eirlizer fully, readily, and righteously into their environ— me ht .l156 To fulfill these objectives, the committee recommended «txrléit students pursue one year each of psychology, pedagogy, CD13Servation, and practice teaching. Under pedagogy, philosophy C51? education, the science and art of teaching, history of eaciIlcation, and social economics were included. While the recommendations of the committee were ob— xri-(Dusly not adopted by all or even a majority of the normal \ 55Drake, op. cit., p. 389. 56Ibia., p. 595. 52 schools, the committee's proposal probably influenced practice significantly. Soon after the turn of the century the subject areas listed were fairly standard in the better normal schools. Out of these areas was emerging a new pro- fessional study known as education. Teacher Education in Colleges and Universities There were tentative starts toward professional edu- cation in the colleges and universities even before the founding of the normal schools. In fact, in the early decades of the nineteenth century, a spirit of experimentalism ITlourished briefly. As early as 1826, a report of the faculty of Amherst COllege noted that a large share of its students actually Went into teaching. As a professional aid to these students, 'tldee faculty recommended as an addition to the curriculum 1:}163 "science of education." When it is considered how this lies at the very foundation of all improvement: and when so many Professorships have been established in literature and the arts, it is truly wonderful to us, that so little attention has been bestowed upon the science of mental culture, and that there is not, (as we believe there is not) and never has been, a single Professor of Education on this Side of the Atlantic. Will it not be an honor to that College, which shall be the first to supply this deficiency and open a depagtment for the thorough education of teachers. \ .1? - 57Quoted in Louis Franklin Snow, The College Cur- ???EEgflpymn in the United States (New York: Teachers College, (Cilumbia University, 1907), p. 156. 53 The proposal was rejected by the board. Evidently the considerations of the Amherst faculty were not consistent with the collegiate thinking of the early nineteenth century. Training requirements for the elementary teacher did not fit into the traditional college program. Also, the traditional college professor did not favor the idea of training ele— mentary teachers how to teach the ”common branches." Pedagogy was so closely associated with the common school subjects that, even earlier, the academies had given a grudg- ing acceptance to teacher training departments, often feeling such a subject beneath their dignity. Another argument against the establishment of courses in pedagogy was the dearth of good technical literature in the field. Lectures in the ”art of teaching" and pedagogy first aPpeared at Washington College in western Pennsylvania in 1831, with the establishment of a professorship of education fOr the training of common school teachers rather than for the higher study of education. The attempt was unsuccessful, ‘but it is noteworthy that it was thwarted by lack of funds I‘a‘ther than by opposition to the plan.58 The State of Pennsylvania, during the period 1834- 13357, granted money or land, or both, to several colleges \— 58H. G. Good, "Teacher Education: Development in tflle United States," Encyclppedia of Educational Research (Ifiew York: The Macmillan Company, 1950): pp. 1374-78. 54 with the stipulation that the institutions prepare a specified number of students as teachers. Several colleges were re- cipients, but only one, Lafayette College, attempted to organize a definite program of professional education for teachers. The president of the college, Dr. George Junkin, in 1834, urged the plan ”of establishing in the existing col— leges of our State, Model Schools and a teachers' course." He explained his plan as follows: 1. Let each College fix upon a liberal course of studies for school teachers, and constitute a new degree in graduation. 2. Let a common school, to be kept full of children from the neighborhood, in every respect, such as is desirable to see established in every district of the State, be established contiguous to the College buildings, which school shall be model in its buildings, its fixtures, desks, books, apparatus, rules and regulations and mode of management. 3. Let the candidate for the collegiate honor of a school teacher’s diploma, be, in every respect, on the same footing in College with other students, study in the same class his own particular branches, submit to the same discipline, etc., and let him in addition to these, spend a part of every day in the common school, as a spectator and occasionally as an assistant. 4. When he shall have completed his course which will take two years, let him pass a final examination, and if approved, receive the honorable testimonial of the board of trustees. 5. Let every teacher thus qualified, who shall teach within the State receive, besides the provi- sions made for his support by the people, a yearly allowance from the school fund for every year he shall teach in one place. . 59William S. Taylor, The Development of the Profes- §E£9pal Education of Teachers in Pennpylvania (Philadelphia: - B. Lippincott Company, 1924), pp. 77-78. 55 Four years later a building was erected, a teachers' course and a model school were established, and an instructor was placed in charge of the training of teachers in the institu- tion. The program was evidently too far in advance of its time. It was found impossible to sustain, and it foundered.6O In 1832, New York University (then called the Univer- sity of the City of New York) announced a chair of education for the instruction of "teachers of the common schools," but there is no evidence as to whether the lecture series anticipated was ever given. In addition, several other at— tempts were made at this early date toward the preparation Of teachers in the colleges and universities. At Brown Uni- versity a normal department was established in 1850; S. S. Greene was appointed as the first professor of didactics and placed in charge of the department. Aside from the regular academic courses, the students were merely given a Set of lectures in pedagogy and some drill experiences in the "common branches." The department was dropped at Brown fOuI'years later when Rhode Island established a state normal School.61 The law establishing the State University of Iowa, ir1 1847, provided that the university educate fifty teachers atIllnually for the common schools; but a year later the law WEis modified to require that a normal department be maintained \ 60William S. Taylor, op. cit., p. 78. 61Harper, op. cit., p. 59. 56 in the state university. The normal department of the uni- versity opened in 1855. The department flourished while other departments closed, but the teacher training program was seriously impaired in 1866 when the practice school was abolished.62 Indiana University yielded to the demand for courses in teacher education by adding courses in pedagogy to the list of higher studies in 1852. An elective course in the theory and practice of teaching was introduced by Horace Mann at Antioch College in 1853. Following these attempts, the Department of Normal Instruction was opened at the State University of Wisconsin in 1862, but it met with indifferent success and closed after only seven years. With these modest beginnings, the professional study Of education Slowly made its way into the colleges and uni- Versities. The rising demand for secondary teachers with Sone professional training and the new dignity given to the technical study of education by science and philosophy gave Iflle movement even more intensity in the period after the Civil War. The pattern followed in most institutions was first PC) establish a chair in education or pedagogy, appointing Cnle professor of pedagogy or didactics; then, as additional Staff memebers were needed, the chair was expanded into a 62Ibid., p. 90. 57 department. The founding of these chairs and departments was profoundly important in raising the stature of education as a subject for serious academic consideration. A good illustration of this development was found at the University of Iowa, where the first permanent chair of education was established. Here, dissatisfaction with the work of the normal department in the training of elementary teachers led tO its elimination in 1873 and the setting up of the depart- ment of didactics to train teachers for the secondary schools. Iowa was also the first university in the United States to establish a permanent department of education.63 From 1856 to 1878 there was continued agitation at the University of Michigan for a program in teacher education. President Angell had recommended the offering of instruc- tion in "pedagogies" in 1874, but no action was taken. In 1878, he repeated the recommendation as follows: I venture to repeat a suggestion I have made in a previous report, that it would be of essential service to the cause of education in the State, if a course of lectures on Pedagogics could be given here by some competent man. A large proportion of our students engage in teaching after gradua- tion. Some adequate exposition of the Science and the Art of Teaching, some methodical discussion of the organization and superintendence of schools, would be most helpful. Our new system would easily yield a place for such instruction. Perhaps for a time at least a non—resident lecturer occupying a part of a year might meet the wants 63Drake, o . cit., p. 382. u. “I .4-- v. ..., p 9‘ _> o ‘ - \., 4 u a -‘v o I i a ' ~ 58 of our students and might afford us an opportunity to test the value of such a course as is here sug- gested.64 This time, the recommendation was accepted, and in 1879 a chair of the "Science and Art of Teaching" was established \ which gradually grew into a department of education by the end of the century. The aims of the newly established teacher education program at the University of Michigan were clearly stated by William H. Payne, Michigan's first professor of Theory and Art of Teaching: 1. To promote the study of education as a science. 2. To secure to teaching the rights, pre- rogatives, and advantages Of a profession. 3. To fit university students for the higher positions in the public school service. To give a more perfect unity to our state educational systems by bringing the secondary sgpool into closer relations with the university. TO fulfill these aims, Michigan offered seven courses in education: history of education (2), comparative education, S<3hool supervision, practical art of teaching and govern- leg, theoretical and critical, and seminary. In addition, 'teachers’ courses were offered by other departments in 66 meEthods as well as in subject matter. \ 6“Quoted in A. S. Whitney, History Of the Professional 3i£§ining of Teachers at the University Of Michigan (Ann Arbor, IV’lichigan: George War Publishing Co., 1951), p. 27. 65Calvin 0. Davis, "Teacher Training at the University (Df Michigan," The University of Michigan School of Education TBujletin, No. 3, December, 1939, p- 37- 66Whitney, o . cit., pp. 46-47. .N 59 Perhaps the most outstandingly significant profes- sional development of the nineteenth century in teacher education was the establishment of the New York College for Teachers in 1888. Nicholas Murray Butler organized the col— 1ege for the training of teachers while still holding his position on the faculty of Columbia University. Through his efforts the trustees of the university accepted the Teachers College as an affiliate of Columbia three years later, and in 1898, the college became an integral part of the univer— sity. The goal underlying the establishment of Teachers College was to place the teaching profession on a par with law and medicine. While the ultimate goal was a program of graduate instruction, an ambitious program in undergraduate instruction was undertaken for some time. Leaders of the College maintained that every teacher should possess general Culture, a thorough knowledge of his teaching field, profes— Sional knowledge, and technical skills. There were few 'teachers in 1900 who possessed all of these characteristics; Inany possessed none of them.67 Russell stated the particular functions of Teachers C .Ho> .AmmmH .meeeeo meeeefltm eeeeeee>oe u.o.m .qOewse -hhezv OH .02 .mmma .cepeeesm .cOHBSQSem eo meeeeo .m .2 .mpepepee to coeeeesem ogp mo zm>azm HSQOHpmz umpmspo UCm aoflmwam .3 GHEpnCom anw noaflQEoo* Acoee upQSGmV wcflgommp 0p coapoSUOHp IQH so wcflgomoB eo moamfiocflpm QOHmH>SoQ5m 6cm coflpmapquHEUm Hoosow CH momasoo Ummflapflommw honosohwm Hwamcow Amoaozommm HonHpmoSUM mcflgowme moflpomam mcogpoz Hpaocmo hwoaozohwm quoflpmoSUM wcflcomoe mo mmamflozflam sespm eeeeo pcmeowwcpz Hoozom zwoaogohmm COHpmospm wo kg0pmflm mqflgomme mofipomam Sesem cease m30H>mm paw mpocpoz pmmemwmqmz Hoocom mwowmcom wcflgomoe moflpomam hwoaogohmm coapwospm mo zhopmflm mmma .lliHmH moma *mMUMQQOU mmmmoHU NQBZMDGHmm Emoz mmmmboo m mqm¢B 115 decrease in the number of theoretical courses in the colleges and universities and a rapid increase in the number of prac- tical or technical courses.54 In fact, the course content of the professional programs in the colleges and universities, the normal schools, and the teachers colleges had developed, in a short time, to a point where they were essentially alike. The standard professional course in most institutions of col- legiate rank at the close of the third decade of the twenti- eth century included (1) educational psychology, (2) history of education, (5) principles of education (elementary or sec— ondary), (4) methods (special or general), and (5) observation and practice teaching.55 Considered with reference to the three types of emphasis mentioned earlier—~theoretical, practical, and tech- nical-—there was no material change in the content pattern of most professional programs between 1950 and 1940. However, some attempts were made to develop new course organizations directed toward making the professional sequence more co- ordinated and functionally effective. 5b’G. M. Wilson, "Titles of College Courses in Educa- tion, Educational Monographs, No. VIII (Society of College Teachers of Education, 1919), pp. 12-50. 55Samuel A. Kruse, A Critical Analysis of Principles of Teaching as a Basic Course in Teacher-training Curricula, Contributions to Education, No. 655(Nashville, Tennessee: George Peabody College for Teachers, 1929), p. 62; Harl R. Douglass, ”Integration of Courses in Education," Journal of Educational Research, XXXIV (May, 1941), pp. 665-68. H 114 As the standard courses were rearranged or replaced by new selections and organizations of professional subject matter, considerable variation occurred in such courses among the different institutions; however, the general purpose in most of them was to develop a group of integrated core courses. At the College of William and Mary56 four sequential courses were developed: 1. The Fundamentals of Secondary Education—- mental, physical, and social characteristics of adolescents, principles and measurement of growth, and curriculum materials and methods; II. Special Methods and Materials; III. The Foundations of Education Practice-—historical, philosophical, and sociological backgrounds of education; and IV. Directed Teaching. A similar program was developed at the University of Wisconsin,57 utilizing three core courses: I. The Child-- his nature and his needs; II. The School and Society-—the American school system, organization and administration of American education, the teaching profession, and social con- ditions and problems as they influence and are influenced by education; and III. The Nature and Direction of Learning. 56K. J. Hoke, "Preparation of Secondary Teachers at the College of William and Mary," The Academic and Professional Preparation of Secondary School Teachers, ed. W. S. Gray (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), Chapter X. 57M. H. Willing, "The Program at the University of Wisconsin," Journal of Educational Research, XXXIV (May, 19u1), pp. 641-19. 115 Another variation is best illustrated by noting the reorganization and integration of professional subject matter 58 at the University of Michigan. In an attempt to coordinate the various theoretical courses and the practical phases of the professional program, all education courses, as such, were reorganized into a single, unified, correlated course, given late in the preparation period of the prospective teach- er. This correlated course controlled the student's whole time and was taught cooperatively by about fifteen instructors. The work of the course was planned around classroom situations. It consisted of a large number of related units presenting the significant principles of the philosophy of education, general methods, special methods, the history of education, student activities, educational psychology, psychology of adolescence, professional literature, administration, voca- tional guidance, health, character education, educational measurements, speech correction, the junior high school, adult education, education of young children, professional ethics, and mental hygiene; finally, there was a great em- phasis on directed teaching. 58Raleigh Scherling, "The Scope and Nature of the PTOfessional Preparation of Secondary School Teachers," in The Academic and Professional Preparation of Secondary SChool Teachers, ed. W. S. Gray (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), Chapter XIV. 116 Although the three types of emphasis (theoretical, practical, and technical) which were employed from the turn of the century and for many years afterwards seemed to be disappearing, the core courses which had developed continued to include theoretical, practical, and technical material as was appropriate. Teacher Education Objectives and Teacher Qualifications During the period under study (1900-1940), there were significant changes in the concept of the qualifications necessary for effective teaching, resulting from the develop- ing understanding of the teaching-learning process, the changing objectives of the schools, and the expanding function of teachers. Educators, before the turn of the century, had placed great reliance on pedagogical training, but they often dis- agreed about the details of the objectives of this phase of teaching education. Many of them never went beyond an enumera- tion of the professional subjects considered desirable. S. S. Parr59 represents one of the penetrating thinkers of the time. He took as his thesis: "What the teacher must be is d<3termined by the nature and needs of the training process." Proceeding from this thesis, he outlined his qualifications of the effective teacher: 598. S. Parr, "The Normal-school Problem," Addresses éfléngroceedings (Washington, D.C.: National Educational Association, 1888), pp. 467-76. 117 Personal fitness. A good academic knowledge of subjects. The teaching—knowledge which is derived from viewing the various subjects in the order fixed for them by their nature and by that of the mind which acquires them. 4. Knowledge of the process of development under the stimulation of the teaching—act and the function of the several faculties, acts, and products, and of the successive phases of mental growth. 5. An understanding of method as the scientific application of the means of stimulation to the ends of development. 6. An acquaintance with the historical develop- ment of pedagogical principles. 7. A comprehension of the science of mind as an energy, and of that of mental stimulation. 8. Such an acquaintance with the art of teacg- ing as a reasonable experience will give. 0 \NMH The last five of the above statements are an analy- tical elaboration of Parr's concept of the desired pedagogical qualifications; they indicate a well—balanced recognition of the theoretical, practical, and technical aspects of educa— tion. The thinking, after the turn of the century, continued to be in terms of the thesis ennunciated by Parr. This is evident from the 1905 statement by Van Liew of the "elements which should enter into the make-up of a teacher": 1. That general knowledge and culture which con— stitute the common stock in trade of the average citizen; but such knowledge and culture must be liberally, not meagerly, acquired. 2. Native teaching personality. 5. Professional culture, i.e., the ideas which belong peculiarly to the teachers profession. 6OIbid., pp. 467—68. 118 4. Skill in teaching, as demonstrated by actual practice, including skill in the ability to select, grasp, group, and arrange the ma- terials of instructigp with respect to the goals to be reached. A standard program of education courses reflected a further tendency toward agreement about the purposes of the pedagogical phase of teacher education and the professional qualifications of elementary teachers.62 At the sane time, there was increased acceptance of pedagogical training as a desirable phase of secondary teacher education. Very little attention had been given to the necessary qualifications of teachers for secondary schools until about 1900. Pedagogical qualifications were, as in the past, sub- ordinated to the scholarship qualification. The prevailing point of View at the turn of the century was that, while secondary teachers needed to be more adequately trained, college graduation insured competency; however, a few edu- cators argued for professional training. Among the most articulate of the spokesmen was James E. Russell, who recog- nized four qualifications as essential to the success of the teacher in practice. Assuming a personality endowed with good-will, tact, and common sense, the teacher's needs were defined to include: 61Charles C. Van Liew, "A Statement of the Issues Be- fore the Department," Addresses and Proceedipgs (Washington, D.C.: National Educational Association, 1905), p. 520. 62Kruse, o . cit., p. 62. 119 (1) General culture, (2) special knowledge, (5) professional knowledge, and (4) technical skill. The general culture must be liberal enough to inspire respect for knowledge, broad enough to justify independent judgment, and accurate enough to beget a love for the truth. The special knowl— edge must be sufficient for the work to be done; it should give that absolute command of the sub- jects of instruction which frees the teacher from slavish adherence to manuals and methods. The right professional knowledge should enable the teacher to view the subjects he teaches and the entire course of instruction in its relations to the child and to society of which the child is a part. The true educator must know the nature of mind; he must understand the process of learning, the formation of ideals, the development of will, and the growth of character. . . . The teacher must be skilled in the technique of his art; he must have the ability to impart his knowledge in a way that shall broaden his pupils' horizon, extend their interests, strengthen their characters, and inspire them to right living. And as every art is most efficient when intelligently directed, the art of teaching should be founded on the science of teaching, which takes account of the ends and means of education and the nature of the material to be taught. 3 Several other developments were in evidence concerning the preparation of secondary teachers and the related question of their qualifications during the first decade of the twenti- eth century. Among them was the publication of the first "standards" of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, in 1902, which stated that "the efficiency of the average college or university graduate is materially enhanced by professional study, observation, and training in practice teaching" and recommended that accredited secondary 63Quoted in O'Leary, o . cit., pp. 109-10. 120 schools "give due preference to teachers possessing such preparations."64 A few years later a symposium on "What Constitutes the Ideal Secondary Teacher" appeared in the Fourth Yearbook, Part I, of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education (1905). There was very little agreement among the five contributors to the symposium as to necessary qualifica- tions, but their composite picture of the "ideal secondary teacher" seemed to include as desirable: an outstanding per- sonality, an adequate specialized knowledge, a broad general knowledge, an understanding of and interest in youth, and an acquaintance with the theoretical aspects of education.65 The most important development in the area of secondary teacher education, however, was the 1907 report of the Com— mittee of Seventeen, "The Professional Preparation of High School Teachers,"66 which has been taken as marking the general acceptance of education as a desirable phase in the professional preparation of teachers for the secondary schools. The committee recommended as part of the ”academic" 64John E. Grinnell, "The Rise of the North Central Association," North Central Association Quarterly, X (January, 1936), p. 368." 65Reuben P. Halleck and Others, "What Constitutes the Ideal Secondary Teacher," Fourth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Scientific—Study of Education (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1905), pp. 27-48. 66Addresses and Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Education Association, 1907), pp. 556—58. 121 preparation the usual "broad culture" and adequate subject specialization. They also recommended the study of one or more of the social studies to give the teacher "a proper out- look on the social aspects of education," and a course in psychology and one in philosophy to give a proper outlook upon education "as the development of the individual." These courses were to be chosen from among the academic offerings, presumably drawing directly from the techniques and materials of the regular university disciplines for their specific "professional" bearing. In addition to these professionally functioning ”academic" courses, the committee suggested that the following subjects "be distributed through the last two years of the college course": history of general and secondary education, principles of education, special methods of teach- ing, organization and administration of schools, school hygiene, and some form of induction into actual teaching.67 By 1910, educators were in general agreement with regard to professional qualifications and seemed to have had confidence in the courses they were offering as a means for bringing about these qualifications. However, immediate practicality soon became a major concern in their thinking, and the desired teacher qualifications tended to be those of the technician. The emphasis in the pedagogical-qualification area shifted from the "nature and needs of the training 67Ibid. 122 process" as the basis of planning and evaluating teacher education to the "scientific analysis of teachers as they are,"68 as a means of defining teacher qualifications. This development focused attention on the need for redefining teacher education objectives. As a result, there were many studies directed toward the identification of teacher traits and teacher efficiency, but there were very few re- ports of significance prior to the National Survey of the Education of Teachers (1955). Notable exceptions, however, were the Carnegie Foundation study, The Professional Prepara- tion of Teachers for American Public Schools (1920) and The Commonwealth Teacher—Training Study (1929). The authors of the Carnegie study were guided by a concept of the teacher's qualifications as being broader than that of a mere technician. It was their opinion that teach- ers, while not the sole instruments, were the most important instruments through which a people controls its own future. Therefore, they defended these concepts of education which were not immediately translatable into technique by attach— ing them directly to their concept of the broader qualifica- tions of the teacher; they argued: There has been a very general failure to recognize that the study of theory exercises an important func- tion that is quite independent of its influence upon the art of teaching. While the young teacher 68Addresses and Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Education Association, 1912), pp. 686-91. 125 will depend largely upon imitation and practice to master the technique of his art, and while the normal school in consequence must first of all provide abundant opportunities for the successful mastery of technique in this empirical fashion, it should not be forgotten that the teacher should be something more than a craftsman.69 In the paragraphs that followed, the authors emphasized the need for teachers to take a more active role in making educational policy and indicated that only be seeing educa— tion in its broadest focus could they intelligently meet the demands that society had placed on the school.70 In their recommendations the Carnegie group stressed the conviction that professional objectives should not look exclusively toward the development of "skill" in teaching. The ability to participate in constructing educational plans and policies was cited as an essential objective of all pro- fessional education. The courses in education were to be judged not only by the extent to which they increased tech- nical teaching ability but also by the degree to which they contributed to the broader professional intelligence and in- sight of the teacher.71 The recommendations of the Carnegie study were based on a careful analysis of statistical and historical evidence, and they were definitely in line with the theory of many of 69Learned and Bagley, op. cit., pp. 180-81. 7OIbid., pp. 181-87. 71lbid., pp. 392-93. 124 the leading educators of the period. Yet, in 1929, Evenden72 noted that they had had very little effect on actual practice. The Carnegie study had been received with bitterness because of its severe criticism of current practices relative to the lack of planned professional programs in teacher education.73 The obvious disregard of the findings of the Carnegie study was evident during the 1920's, as the task of determin- ing the qualifications of teachers became a highly technical one, involving the use of carefully made scientific studies. Such studies focused attention on the actual teaching "skills" of the classroom. The outstanding example of a study using this approach was The Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study, which included a comprehensive and systematic investigation of the traits and activities of the successful teacher. It was regarded by the authors as the beginning of a comprehen— sive research needed as a basis for designing an adequate set of objectives for teacher education.74 The authors did not, consciously at least, aim at sheer mechanization or blind imitation of teaching practices which had proved successful. They did consider that "Skill" in teaching was often based —* .— 72Edward S. Evenden, "The Critic Teacher and the Pro— fessional Treatment of Subject-Matter: A Challenge," Super- Xi§prs of Student Teaching, Ninth Annual Session, Association fOr'Student Teaching (Cleveland, Ohio: Association for Stu- derH;Teaching, 1929), pp. 59-48. p 73William C. Bagley, "Twenty Years of Progress . . ., - 75. 74Pangburn, op. cit., p. 85. 125 on philosophy and psychology, although the connection was not always apparent. Teachers' objectives, as such, were not formulated, since the authors felt that these would vary according to the philosophy of life which individuals or institutions fol- lowed. However, teacher success in the field seems to have been the main objective which was assumed. The Commonwealth Study does not seem to have been received with the enthusiasm which might have been expected, considering that it proceeded along rather widely accepted lines and that it fulfilled to the utmost all the then—accepted procedures of activity analysis. The limitations of the study were expressed by various critics in no mild form.75 The very thoroughness of the study served to force upon educators the conviction that something was radically wrong with the whole functional analysis method; that it was based on an as- sumption that human activities were essentially the same as mechanical activities; and that the most perfect machines could turn out products of only limited perfection. Perhaps the most definitive statement of the profes— sional qualifications of teachers appeared in 1955 in the National Survey: x 75R. J. Leonard, "The Need for Analyzing the Marginal ReSponsibilities of Professional Workers," Journal of Educa- EEfiZpal Research, X (September, 1924), pp. 256—41; Frank T. SENilding, 1TPerplexities in Teacher Training," Elementary Eiikygol Journal, XXX (December, 1950), p. 87. 126 1. Professional orientation--the relationship of education to society and the possibili- ties open in educational service. 2. Educational "service" courses--the essential concepts and techniques used frequently in other courses and in educational literature. 5. An understanding of the children to be taught. 4. A knowledge of the essential methods of teaching for the grade or subject to be taught. 5. A knowledge of the organization and manage— ment of class instruction in various types of schools. 6. Acquisition of a "safety minimum' of teaching skill through observation, participation, and practice teaching. 7. A summarized and integrated "working philos- ophy" of education and an understanding of the indivédual’s relationship to education and society.7 I The recommendations of the National Survey outlined above indicate a definite change in terminology--from mere designations of professional courses to specifications of areas of professional learnings. They re-echoed Parr's earlier emphasis by taking the position that the purposes of teacher education were determined largely by the "nature ' In addition, the recom— of the work the teacher is to do.' mendations emphasized the changes in the work of the teacher which had been brought about by universal education, by the use of mass media of communication, and by the dynamic quality of education in a rapidly changing world where principle rather than pattern and creative thinking rather than pre- scriptive responses were required. 76E. s. Evenden, National Survey of the Education of Teachers . . ., pp. 175-74. 127 As was previously stated, there were few significant attempts during the years preceding 1955 to define the purpose of teacher education; therefore, it has been difficult to identify changes in the concepts of the purposes of teacher education. However, certain changes in the professional quali- fications of teachers between 1926 and 1958 are reflected in the writings of E. S. Evenden. In 1926, after analyzing the "required" education courses of 102 teachers colleges, he proposed a standard professional sequence: (1) Introduction to teaching (or edu— cation), (2) Educational tests and measurements, (5) Educa- tional Psychology, (4) Classroom procedures (methods), (5) History and Philosophy of education, and (6) Practice teaching. He supplemented each of these courses with a list of "prin- cipal purposes" or teacher qualifications: (1) ”an intelli- gent interest in children, their development, interests, and methods of work"; (2) knowledge of "principles of measurement-- mental and educational" and "principles of conducting simple educational experiments"; (5) acquaintance with "elements of classroom management"; and (4) "a reasonable degree of pro- ficiency in the art of teaching."77 In contrast, his 1958 outline relative to the purpose of teacher education emphasized the following professional qualifications: 77E. S. Evenden, "What Courses in Education Are De— sirable in a Four-year Curriculum in a State Teachers Col- lege? What Should be Their Scope?” Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: émerican Association of Teachers Colleges, 1926), pp. 5-1 . 128 1. Knowledge of the individuals to be taught. 2. A broad cultural background in the principal fields of organized knowledge. 5. A broad scholarly mastery of the field or fields to be taught and a supporting knowl- edge of the most closely related fields. 4. An understanding of the relationships be- tween education and society and a realiza- tion of the important contributions that the teacher can make toward the social, political, and economic betterment of our American form of government. 5. An understanding and mastery of the profes- sional knowledge and skills needed for success— ful initial teaching experience. 6. A well-rounded and well-integrated personality such as will assure a position of leadership in the school and community. 7. A guidgng philosophy both of education and of life.7 . Several phases of the professional qualifications stated above represent a definite expansion of Evenden's con- cept of the purpose of teacher education between 1926 and 1958. Basically, he identified a broadening of the emphasis in the professional program along two lines: (1) a growing emphasis was placed upon a well—rounded and well-integrated personality; and (2) an emerging concern was stressed for a systematic per- spective of society and the society in which children live. In addition, a knowledge of the American democratic system and other forms of government and of political and economic sta- bility was stressed. Evenden's 1958 statement of the purposes of teacher education represents an expansion of his concept of professional 78E. S. Evenden, "What is the Essential Nature of an Evolving Curriculum of a Teachers College?" Seventeenth Year- book (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Teachers Colleges, 1939), pp. 5—16. 129 education to include the conceived social function of teachers in the public schools. Several of his "new" ideas were clearly in evidence in the statement of the professional qualifications of teachers which were outlined in the National Survey in 1933. Other educators79 had also recognized the critical character of the problems of society and the essentially social characteristics of all education and had enumerated several changes which demanded a restatement of the purposes of teacher education. They included: (1) the increased complexity of life which not only created psychological prob— lems for teachers to meet, but which also made the school responsible for educational tasks formerly performed by other social institutions; (2) the realization that the teacher occupied a strategic position in determining social change; and (5) the development of new concepts of school administra- tion which placed on the classroom teacher an increasingly greater responsibility for making educational policy in such matters as curriculum, textbook selection, discipline, and the organization of classroom activities. 79W. Earl Armstrong, "Possible Approaches to Certain Problems in the Supervision of Student Teaching," Supervisors of Student Teaching, Nineteenth Annual Session, Association for Student Teaching (Cleveland, Ohio: Association for Stu— dent Teaching, 1959), pp. 19-25; John J. DeBoer, ”Organizing the Program of Professional Education," Teachers for Democracy (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1940), pp. 256—89. 150 Two years later these recognized changes had resulted in a shift in the desired qualifications for teachers. A na- tional concept of teacher education was formulated. The for- mulation began with the statement that "teacher education in a democracy must have a definite objective," which should in— clude the following goals: (1) an understanding of the pur- poses and functions of education in our democracy, (2) an understanding of the major problems of social life, (5) an understanding of the vital problems in connection with the growth and development of children, (4) an understanding of the organization and control of learning programs in the school, (5) development of leaders in the major learning areas and learning levels, and (6) knowledge and understanding of the application of methods and uses of materials suited to the different learning levels.80 In contrast to the period preceding the National Sur— vey (1900-1955), the period following it (1955-1940) was one of major significance relative to the definition of objectives for teacher education and, in turn, for the definition of de- sired teacher qualifications. The approach after the Na- tional Survey was from the purposes of teacher education in a democracy and the conceived function of teachers in the schools rather than a dependence upon scientific studies "of 80Addresses and Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Na— tional Education Association, 1940), pp. 910-11. 151 ' The effective teacher had become one teachers as they are.‘ who understood the broader problems of his profession, was a constructive and adaptable member of the school staff, was competent in participating in and determining school policies and programs (and interested in doing so), and was an effi— cient and understanding teacher in the classroom. Continued Advances Toward the Professionalization of Teaching For many years the term "the teaching profession" had been widely used, and among educators, especially, widely ac- cepted as an accomplished fact. Eli T. Tappan, in 1870, spoke with scorn of those ignorant persons "who do not know that education is science and that teaching is a learned profes- "81 It was not until after 1900, however, that teaching sion. was on its way toward becoming a profession. Changes in the social, economic, and family structure of society decreed the necessity for successively higher levels of education for all Americans. The shift from a rural to an urban population, the raising of compulsory school attendance age, the elevation of the general educational level, and the desire of many for higher education contributed to the demands for professionally qualified teachers and to the ad- vancement of teaching as a profession. 81Addresses and Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Educational Association, 1870), Part II, p. 6. 152 At the turn of the century, the scarcity of trained teachers continued to be a constant factor in the develop— ment of public education. The period, by its very nature, called for professionally educated men and women of excep- tional ability and personality. Frequently, however, the choice was between a poorly qualified teacher and no teacher. While professionalization required that appropriate standards be established, lax standards continued to exist on the theory that keeping a school open was preferable to having no school at all. By 1915, less than twenty percent of the American teachers had professional preparation of any kind.82 During World War I many of the best educated and best prepared teachers left teaching for better-paying positions, further depleting the teaching ranks and causing nationwide concern.83 Efforts were made to remedy the situation by raising salaries and by increasing the number of agencies for preparing teachers. By 1926, the supply of teachers having some amount of professional preparation nearly approached the demand. In 1894, there were 80,767 students of all kinds training for the profession of teaching, and there existed about 450,000 teaching positions of all kinds. One teacher was in training for 82Addresses and Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: Na— tional Education Association, 1915), p. 771. 83Bureau of Education, Biennial Survey, 1925—1926, Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 25 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928), p. 972. 133 every 5.6 positions. In 1910, students to the number of 115,685 were training for about 650,000 teaching positions, or one prospective teacher for every 5.5 teaching positions. In 1926, teacher—training students numbering 494,290 were preparing to take over about 960,000 positions og one prospective teacher for every two positions. 4 A significant comment, reported in 1929, revealed that "a casual survey of current literature in education would indicate that there is an oversupply of well-trained teachers." Thus, during the third decade of the twentieth century, when the supply of teachers began to exceed the demand, there was an added stimulation for the professionalization of teaching through better standards for certification, accreditation of professional programs and institutions, professional associa- tions, and through professional growth in service. Better Standards for Certification During the late nineteenth century three governmental units-—the state, the county, the town or local district-- singly and in all possible combinations were engaged in teacher certification. During the first four decades of the twentieth century, however, the authority which had previously been splintered among autonomous local districts or counties be- came increasingly centered in state boards of education (see Table 5). 8uF. M. 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