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Case Study: Iran presented by Susan Horning Ashraf has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. d9m?ein Secondary Education and Curriculum, Comparative and International Education Date l3 January l978 0-7639 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN INTO RURAL DEVELOPMENT. A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS or PROJECT DESIGN. CASE STUDY: IRAN By Susan Horning Ashraf A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1978 ABSTRACT NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN INTO RURAL DEVELOPMENT. A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS or PROJECT DESIGN. CASE STUDY: IRAN By Susan Horning Ashraf Constraints on economic growth and/or development exist. In development-related research and literature, the importance of the human component is becoming increasingly stressed. An outgrowth of this has been concern over and analysis of the contributions specific groups can make to development. This research focused upon problems attendant to bringing one neglected group into the development process: the rural poor woman. The problem of integrating the rural poor woman into development becomes that of linking her to a stream of knowledge which will enable the eco- nomic resource which she represents to be tapped. To date, the linkage has primarily been established by the use of development projects with a non-formal education component or projects with non—formal education as their main objective. Therefore, the problem of tapping the economic resource represented by the Third World rural woman ultimately becomes that of project management. Specifically, this research was directed at investigating the relationship between selected design features of non-formal education projects involving rural poor women in Iran and the success or failure Susan Horning Ashraf of the project. Data were collected by a combination of interviews with project managers and the study of published and unpublished material. Characteristics of rural development projects which were potentially relevant to success or failure were identified using both types of sources. Data categories were derived and a success criterion estab— lished. Data were statistically analyzed by using the Fisher Exact Probability Test. The study produced several significant findings. Projects which were successful more frequently have design features which allow the community to be involved, which provide content that is relevant to the participants, and which fulfill the expectations of the villagers. Suc- cessful skill acquisition projects more frequently have design features which allow the community to be involved and which fulfill the expecta- tions of the villagers. There is a significant association between relevance, the fulfillment of expectations and the success or failure of family care projects. These significant findings indicated that there are design features in non-formal education projects for rural women which are more frequently associated with success. Further, that the design features which have proven successful in projects directed at the rural farmer are not necessarily applicable to projects to be directed to his wife or daughter. In addition, it was established that there are design features which serve as common denominators across successful projects regardless of project type. However, project type does influence the significance of the common denominators. DEDICATION T o my gnandmothe/L, a We woman, who Mali/ted me on the Iwad to an education. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To my husband, for giving advice when asked, encouragement when needed, and a shove when necessary. To my chairman, Dr. Kenneth L. Neff, for his unfailing interest in the study, for challenging his students, but mostly, for having confidence in the abilities of his students and transmitting it to them. 5 To the Iranian government officials interviewed for their interest in this research, cooperation, and invaluable aid in assembling the data needed. To the members of my doctoral committee, Dr. Joseph Woelfel and Dr. Frank Bobbitt, for their advice and understanding of the difficulties a study of this nature would entail and willingness to grant the author much—needed flexibility. To Dr. MaryRose Hart, for her friendship and support through the writing of this study. P- p. p. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . Human Resources in Development . . . . . . . . . Impact of the Education of the Rural Poor Woman . Formation of Human Capital . . . . . . . . . . Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agricultural Productivity . . . . . . Constraints on the Integration of the Rural Woman Family Structure/Cultural Influence . . . . . Invisibility . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Innovations/Technology . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. THE SETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical Environment of Rural Areas . . . . . . . Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Government Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . Government Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . H mqqmmmmw 12 15 2O 25 28 3M 3M 37 39 40 M2 43 us an us as 50 53 Chapter Village Structure in Iran . . . . . . . Status of Women . . . . . . . . . Historical Background . . . . . . . Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of Status . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . Extrapolation of Categories . . . . . . Operational Definitions . . . . . . . . Project Linkages . . . . . . . . . . Project Participation . . . . . . . Project Content . . . . . . . . . . Project Execution . . . . . . Independent and Dependent Variables . . Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis Design . . . . . . . . . . Presentation of Data . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions of the Study . . . . . . . Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . Implications of the Study . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Study . . . Appendix A. AREAS OF INTEREST INTERVIEW SHEET . . . . B. DATA ON INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 56 6O 60 63 65 65 7O 72 72 77 81 81 82 83 83 87 87 88 88 89 91 117 120 120 120 122 122 122 123 126 129 130 180 lo. 11. 12. 13. 1”. _15. 16. 17. 18. LIST OF TABLES Distribution of the Rural Population by Size of Village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facilities in Villages, 1976 . . . . . . . . Rural Employment Patterns by Sector, 1966 . . . . . . . . Rural and Urban Migration in 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . Girls' Schools in Iran, 1910-1933 . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Educational Levels Between Wives and Daughters of Commercial Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Integrated Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . Data on Men's Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Projects Initially Directed to Males . . . . . . Data on Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Projects Initially Directed at Females and Not Modified 0 0 O C O . O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Data on Projects Which Were Modified . . . . . . . . . . Data on Projects in Which Males Were Initially Included . Data on Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Participant Resource Commitment . . . . . . . . . Data on Community Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page Lil-l as us '49 61+ 68 92 92 93 93 9H 9H 95 95 96 96 97 97 Table 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2M. 26. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3Q. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Data on Payment for Participation . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Relevance . Data on Skill Acquisition . Data on Content Area Data on Compartmentalization of Needs . Data on Fulfillment of ExpeCtations . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: to Both Males and Females . Data on Skill Acquisition: Integrated Rural Development . Men's Program . . . . . . . . Projects Initially Directed Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females . . Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males . . . . . . Data on Skill Acquisition: at Females and Not Modified . Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Were Initially Included . Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed Projects Which Were Modified in Which Males Projects Decision Making . . . . . . . . Resource Commitment . . . . . Community Involvement . . . . . Payment for Participation . . . Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . Content Area . . . . . . . . . Compartmentalization of Needs . vii Page 98 98 99 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104 10” 105 105 106 106 107 107 108 Table 40. 41. ”2. 43. 41+. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. Data on Data on Skill Acquisition: Fulfillment of Expectations . Family Care: Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females . . . . . . Data on Females Data on Data on Data on Data on Data on Family Care: Projects Initially Directed to and Later Modified to Include Males . . . . . . Family Care; Projects Which Were Modified Family Care: Community Involvement . Family Care: Relevance . . . . . . . . . . Family Care: Fulfillment of Expectations . . . . Literacy: Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females . . . . . . . . Data on Literacy: Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Data on Data on Data on Summary Summary Summary Summary Summary Literacy: Projects Which Were Modified . . Literacy: Community Involvement Literacy: Payment for Participation Literacy: Fulfillment of Expectation . . . Data on Successful Projects . . . . . . . . . . . Data on Unsuccessful Projects . Data on Family Care Projects . . . . . . . . Data on Literacy Projects . Data on Skill Acquisition Projects . . . . . . . viii Page 108 110 110 111 111 112 112 114 114 115 115 116 116 175 176 177 178 179 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Page Social System Analysis‘of a Development Project . . . . . 14 The Multiple Roles of Rural Women . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Summary of the Rejected/Not Rejected/Not Tested Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The world is well into the Second Development Decade, as the 19703 have been termed, and still the problems which brought about the First Development Decade exist. Further, the feeling persists that they have actually worsened. The gap between the rich and the poor, both within and without national boundaries, appears to have worsened. This , phenomenon has resulted in a growing debate on the fundamental concepts of development. The definition of development, and its measurement, have been two central issues. A consequence of this debate has been to give impetus to divergent approaches to development. The human resources approach,which evolved from the proliferation of knowledge on non—economic factors of development, stresses the importance of the human component. An out— growth of this has been concern over and analysis of the contributions specific groups can make to development. Particularly, as economists have become less preoccupied with the modern sector, neglected groups in rural areas have become the focus of attention. An expanding body of literature has indicated widespread recognition of the importance of and the problems attendant to bringing one neglected group into the development process: the rural poor woman. Current interest in this group has been brought about by the serious loss of potential which has occurred as a result of its neglect. The rural poor woman has much to contribute to development. Whether development is viewed as an economic exercise in the allocation of scarce resources or as a means of improving human welfare, the input of the rural woman is indispensable to progress. Her contributions are particularly important in the areas of nutrition, family planning, health, the development of rural non-farm activities, and the improvement of subsistence agricultural productivity. It has been observed that if all persons are allowed to share the opportunities to apply scientific knowledge and technological advances, development will be achieved at the most rapid rate possible. If some remain outside this stream of knowledge, the pace_of development will slow for the entire society. This is especially true if the ones who are on the outside play a major role in economic production and are, at the same time, the ones with the chief responsibility for the health and well—being of all people.1 The problem of tapping the economic resource the rural poor woman represents becomes that of linking her to this stream of knowl- edge. To date, this linkage has primarily been established by the use of development projects with a non—formal education component or projects with non—formal education as their main objective. Projects have become a method of translating development plans into action. They have become one accepted vehicle for mobilizing social and economic change. During the First and Second Development 1United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa, The Changing and Contemporary Role of Women in African Development, 1974, p. 4. Decades, projects have been the primary instruments for grant, credit, loan and technical aid to developing countries by international assistance agencies.1 However, in spite of years of experience with project design, implementation, and evaluation, international funding agencies and - ministries in less developed countries still have serious problems regarding projects. Project management problems may vary from ineffective planning to defective project design and inadequate execution. Ultimately, the problem of tapping the economic resources represented by the Third World rural woman becomes that of project management. The Need Rodinelli has observed, projects are the basic building blocks of development. Without successful project identification, preparation, and implementation, development plans are no more than wishes and developing nations would remain stagnant or. regress.2 Much research has been directed at establishing guidelines for rural development projects aimed at various target groups: small farm- ers, out-of—school youth, etc. Although the importance of rural women to development is widely commented upon, there has been virtually no 1Dennis A. Rodinelli, "Why Development Projects Fail: Problems of Project Management in Developing Countries," Project Management Quarterly, March 1976, p. 10. 2Ibid. research to establish comparable guidelines for improving project design when women are considered as a target group within the rural sector. An extensive literature review has located much opinion research but only two studies which deal with problems or recommendations for designing projects for rural women. Neither of these studies employed statistical techniques. Mickelwait et a1. studied 17 existing rural projects for women each of which involved non—formal education in Ghana, Lesotho, Nigeria, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru. A main conclusion was that rural development projects for women are more successful if they occur within the context of a development project rather than by means of women-only projects.1 The American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service studied six projects for women in Afghanistan, Honduras, Zambia, Western Samoa, Ghana, and Kenya. The agency suggests that one criteria for evaluating development projects involving women is how the project relates to a larger plan.z Given the limited supply of data available from these studies, it is impossible to put forth definitive answers to the question of project design for rural women. Furthermore, there is a need to subject the conclusions drawn from opinion to statistical analysis. 1Donald R. Mickelwait, Mary Ann Riegelman, and Charles R. Sweet, Women in Rural Development (Boulder: Westview Press, 1976), p. 1. 2American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, Criteria for Evaluation of Development Projects Involving Women (New York: American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, 1975), p. 2. The Problem Various sets of data are necessary to enable an administrator to design a project for the rural poor woman. One of the primary needs is a set of basic planning principles, determined effective in project design, and which are applicable across project content areas. These principles would provide the administrator with a checklist of options to be considered in the design of the project. Selection of the options must necessarily be dependent upon the economic/cultural/social milieu in which the project must function. However, awareness of design features which have been effective in similar projects would enable her to make informed decisions concerning project design. The Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between selected components of non-formal education projects involving rural poor women in Iran and the success or failure of the project. The population chosen for the study was all government sponsored or internationally assisted projects encompassing the rural woman in Iran. If the significance of one or a set of components can be established, educational planners will be provided with valuable guidelines for the utilization of non—formal education as a means of integrating rural women into development. Definition of Terms The definition of terms which follows is presented to aid in the interpretation and clarification of this study. In addition, it should facilitate any future replications of this study which may be initiated. Program: A range of activities prompted by broad sociopolitical or administrative considerations which do not lend themselves to precise specification of objectives or to a precise set of targets by which to judge their performance.1 Project: Is generally understood to mean (a) a well-defined range of activities which lend themselves to rather precise specification of objectives to planning, financing, and implementing within an organized unit and which have a clear beginning; and (b) a set of targets by which to judge their performance. Rural: Those areas in which the predominant type of economic activity of the population is agriculture.3 Rural development: Improving the living standards of the mass of the low-income population residing in rural areas. Limitations of the Study The conclusions of this study can be statistically generalized only to other populations of rural women in Iran. A finding of sig— nificant association between independent and dependent variables may not be construed to infer either causality or direction. The success criterion may be influenced by intervening variables. 1Uma Lele, The Design for Rural Development (New York: World Bank, 1975), p. 7. 2Ibid. 3The definition of the rural area varies in different coun— tries. In Iran, rural areas are defined as those with agglomerations not exceeding 5,000 inhabitants. Other countries use economic activity, housing structure, and the provision of services. See UNESCO, Equality of Access of Women in Literacy, Comparative Study, 31 August 1970, p. 24. A broad definition has been used to incorporate projects in small to large towns which play a service role to the rural environment. I'Lele, p. 20. To conduct this research, it was necessary to rely upon data from reports which were gathered for other purposes. Furthermore, data made available were subject to the cooperation of the sponsoring agency. Consequently, selectivity may inadvertently enter into the data provided. Delimitafions of the Study This study will encompass only rural development projects which are sponsored either solely by official government agencies at the national level or, in part, by external international agencies. Projects must contain a non-formal education component to teach new skills or behavior to women and the target group must include rural women. Projects must be voluntary for participants and directed at females above the age of 12. Research Questions The study was designed to answer the following research questions: 1. Do certain design features occur more frequently in successful or unsuccessful projects? What are these features? 2. When projects are considered by content area, do certain design features occur more frequently in successful or unsuccessful projects? What are these features? Chapter IV contains the detailed hypotheses to be studied. Overview of the Study The study is divided into six chapters. The introduction to the study is contained in Chapter I. It includes the statement of need, purpose, limitations and delimitations of the study, definitions of terms, and research questions to be considered. The review of the literature is presented in Chapter II. The review is concerned with the significance of the education of the rural poor woman to economic and social development. It is divided into six sections. Section one through five summarize the effects of the educa- tional level of the rural woman upon human capital formation, nutrition, population growth, and agricultural productivity. The final section presents constraints upon the participation of rural women. Emphasis is on the period since 1970. The Iranian setting is presented in Chapter III. Included are discussions of rural development, village structure, geographical factors, and the status of women. A description of the research design and procedure is found in Chapter IV. Included in this description is information relating to: the population, collection of data, analysis of data, and statistical methods used. The in-depth analysis of data is found in Chapter V. Each hypothesis is presented followed by the pertinent data. A summary of significant findings, conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future studies is presented in Chapter VI. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of this literature review is to delineate dimensions of the education of the community of rural poor women in developing countries which are essential background information for the planning of non-formal education programs for them. The review is divided into the following areas: human resources in development; the impact of the rural woman's education upon development; and constraints on the participation of rural women in development. Human Resources in Development In the history of economic thought, economic development has represented different concepts at varying times. At one time, it was considered to be the development of the modern sector——manufacturing and industry, for example. In the early 19603, economic development was linked to social development. The 1961 Act for International Development specified the promotion of social as well as economic development.1 Major economists began to turn their attention from con- centration on the economic factors of development; that is, from 1Kenneth L. Neff, National Development Through Social Progress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1963), p. l. 10 preoccupation with such things as savings and investment rates to non-economic aspects of development. Education's role in furthering development was reflected in a growing body of literature. The_ Economic Value of Education by Theodore W. Schultz, published in 1963, is a landmark study of this subject. Education, Manpower, and Economic Growth by Frederick H. Harbison and Charles A. Myers, pub- lished in 1964, became another extremely influential publication. David C. McClelland in The AchievingiSociety in 1961, studied the relationship between the level of achievement motivation present in children's school textbooks and the economic growth rates of several countries. In 1961, it was observed that, There is an increasing awareness of the nature and magnitude of essentially noneconomic facets of underdevelopment. There is a growing body of literature which attaches more and more importance to the removal or modification of "roadblock" institutions which impede social and economic progress, and which often condemn vast numbers of people to continue living in a state of relative poverty and ignorance.1 In the ensuing 16 years since this was written, the growing body of literature has turned into a major debate among social scien- tists on development. The debate has organized itself loosely into two divisions: The reformists and the fundamentalists. The reformists view the development process as an economic exercise in the allocation of scarce resources. The fundamentalists, who support the redefinition of the philosophy and objectives of 1Ibid., p. 2. 11 development, contend that people are the world's greatest asset. Development must begin with identifying human needs and take as its objective raising the levels of living of the masses.1 A human resources approach to development evolved out of the research and proliferation of knowledge on non-economic factors of development. The debate between the reformists and fundamentalists carries over to this approach. The reformists view people as contributors to economic growth, a labor force to be improved via skills acquisition and increased productivity. Per capita income is usually accepted as a measure of the welfare of the population. If per capita income is rising, it is automatically assumed that the masses are receiving better housing, nutrition, and increased income. Fundamentalists View people as ends in themselves. Economic growth is only a means of improving human welfare. AS measures of welfare they advocate using indices of such things as health and nutrition. An extension of the human resources approach has been analyses of the impact specific groups have on development. Small farmers, subsistence farmers, and out—of—school youth have been the objects of numerous scientific studies by sociologists, economists, and educators on incorporating these groups into the development process. Most recently, the rural poor woman has become the focal point of attention. The result has been an outpouring of non—scientific or 1Ponna Wignaraja, "A New Strategy for Development," International Development Review, 28 (1976): 4-5. 12 critical articles and a proliferation of descriptions of programs. To date, few social scientists or educators have directed research toward this target group. Most of the non-scientific articles, as 'well as the scientific studies, have viewed this group from a negative vantage point. That is, they have been primarily concerned with what failure to incorporate this group into the development process has meant rather than with establishing positive steps to elicit their participation. The next section will review the non—scientific and scientific literature concerned with the impact of the education of the rural poor woman. Impact of the Education of the Rural Poor Woman The integration of women into economic development is a serious problem affecting develOping countries today. Ester Boserup, an econ- omist and authority on integrating women into development, notes, 50% of human resources available for development are women. Yet, the majority of these have been excluded from devel- opment in most countries. Although the exclusion can be explained, there is no longer any excuse for the absence of remedial measures. Their effort may be gradual or rapid, but it is imperative that the problem be faced squarely. Otherwise, not only women, but families, communities, nations, and the world will suffer.1 Her View is echoed in Women, Education, Equality: A Decade of Experiment. UNESCO notes that women must be involved in the process if any development program, either industrial or rural, is to progress with some rapidity. Everyone will suffer if half the population 10.8., Agency for International Development, Women in Development Conference, 1975, p. 46. 13 remains ignorant and on the fringes of development.1 The United Nations Development Program is in agreement. This organization has‘ observed that since women everywhere have a prominent voice in and influence on the use of the family's resources and in the education of children of both sexes, women's non—cooperation in development can become an important deterrent to change.2 The potential of the rural family in effecting development is increasingly coming to the foreground in the literature. Social system analyses of projects have pinpointed the family as the ultimate recip- ient of all development projects, whatever the subject matter (see Figure l). Paolucci and Bubolz comment that no institution has been presented more often as either an obstacle or a victim of social and economic development than the family, particularly the extended family.3 Janelid asserts that the functions of the nuclear and extended family are distinct. In a modern society, the nuclear family is mainly responsible for the early socialization process, while other social institutions have taken over formal education. In a traditional society, where the extended family is the dominant form, the family 1United Nations, Women, Education, Equality: A Decade of Experiment, 1975, p. 91. 2United Nations, Development Program, Guidelines on the Integration of Women in Development, 1977, p. 101—2. 3Beatrice Paolucci and Margaret Bubolz, Women, Families and Non—Formal Learning Programs (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1976), p. 2. l4 [Political Leaders Technical Assistance Agencies International Central Planning] Unit Internationa Advisors Social Science Research Government Field Units Regional Offices District ' ‘ Local i l___ Other Ministries Ministry Policy/il Decision Makers .1 Ministry Planning Cell r------ 1]______ Other Project Manager Government Implementation Unit. 1 F l l Program Staff Extension/Pie l I ld C Supervisors Regional Office Ministry Administrative Support l ommunication Producers Mass Media l | District | Village Level 1 Workers Local Opinion Leaders Local Political and Religious Leaders All Organization I -- - - A temporary Figure 1. Source: Intended Beneficiaries FAMILY linkage I [General Public Voluntary Groups I Government Administrative [—8upport Units l Other Ministerial Departments Technical Knowledge. Researcher, etc. Private Sector Regional and District I Local Outlets Social System Analysis of a Development Project. 'The Primary Linkages. John L. Woods, "Integrated Development Programs Are Counter Productive," paper presented at the ESCAP Group Meeting on Organizational Aspects of Integrated Family Planning with Development Programs, Bangkok, December 1976. 15 performs a number of functions with diffused boundaries. That is, the family exercises educational, religious, economic, and political functions.1 Palmer advocates that development planners accept the principle of the family as the basic unit of mutually supporting productive activities. The approach should be to the entire family, not just to its cash-generatingielement.2 Simmons notes that research must be directed at all members of the rural family, not just the farmer, because decisions on production, consumption, marketing, migration, and education are complex family decisions in which the woman is often a key—factor and participant in decision-making.3 Van Haeften and Caton have graphically illustrated the multiple roles of rural women (see Figure 2). The next sections will deal with specific areas in which the education of the rural poor woman has an impact upon development. Formation of Human Capital Harbison based Human Resources as the Wealth of Nations upon the concept that human resources are the ultimate basis of the wealth of nations. From this, it follows that the goals of development are the maximum possible utilization of humans in productive activity and 1Ingrid Janelid, "Study of Rural Communities in Developing Societies," Nutrition Newsletter 8 (July-September 1970): 17. 2Ingrid Palmer, "The Forgotten Factor," People 4 (1977): 6. 3Emmy B. Simmons, "Economic Research on Women in Rural Development in Northern Nigeria," OLC Paper No. 10, American Council on Education, September 1976. (Typewritten.) FAMILY Agricultural Labor When Production Is For Family Consumption or Sold Housework Child Care r Family Decision Making 1 FAMILY Figure 2. 16 Producer of Agricultural Commodities Producer of Wife, Agriculturally Mother Related Goods And Services Decision Maker RURAL ECONOMY Agricgltural Labor Provided To Others For Cash Marketing Cottage Industries, Etc. \ Community Decision Makin \g RURAL ECONOMY The Multiple Roles of Rural Women Source: Roberta K. van Haeften and Douglas D. Caton, "A Strategy Paper for Integrating LDC Rural Women Into Their National Economies," Paper prepared for the AID Percy Amendment Subcommittee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Rural Development, 13 May 1974, p. 5. (Typewritten.) 17 the fullest possible development of the skills, knowledge, and 1 Rural women have a direct impact capacities of the labor force. upon the education obtained by their children and, thus, the quality of the labor force. The following research results are based primarily upon the formal education level of the mother. However, this doesn't negate their application to the potential impact of the non—formal education of the rural woman. The issue is not whether knowledge is acquired in a formal or non—formal learning experience. The issue is that it is acquired. It should be noted that most of the research done on the effect of the educational level of the mother has been done in developed countries. The mother's education has an influence on the subsequent education and occupational performance of her children. The children of educated mothers are more likely to do well in school, continue their education, and enter a higher income occupation. A study in Kenya to measure the influence of factors on age earnings profiles of educational workers found that the mother's literacy was far more important than the father's in determining a worker's earnings.2 A nationwide, longitudinal study of 5,000 American families found the education of parents to be importantly related to the 1Frederick H. Harbison, Human Resources as the Wealth of Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. vii. 2H. Thias and N. Carnoy, Cost Benefit Analysis in Education: A Case Study on Kenya, Occasional Paper No. 14 (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1972). 18 educational attainment of children in addition to characteristics of the children which influence their educational attainment. The mother's education was significantly related to the cognitive skills of the sons.1 Knobloch and Pasmanick have shown that the variation of development quotients in children is related to the level of maternal education and that the older the child the more manifest is this relation. Kagan and Moss have pointed out the importance of socio- cultural factors playing a significant role in the normal development and maturation of the child. In their work, they showed a marked correlation between a mother's education and the IQ of boys and girls at three, six, and ten years of age.2 In addition, there is evidence from many countries that the educational achievement of children is related to such factors as parental attitudes, or the form and type of language in the home.3 These partially reflect the educational achievement of the mother. A study of female education in Senegal, found that the level of education the mother has attained has a marked effect on the regularity lGreg Duncan, "Educational Attainment," in Five Thousand American Families Patterns of Economic Progress, ed. J. Morgan et al. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1974). 2Association for Childhood Education International, Nutrition and Intellectual Growth in Children (Washington, D.C.: Association for Childhood Education International, 1969), P. 38. 3Maureen Woodhall, "Investment in Women: A Reappraisal of the Concept of Human Capital," International Review of Education 19 (1973): 15. 19 of the child's attendance at primary school and on his orientation to secondary school.1 That the educational attainment of both parents and children is important to development has been established by Hayami. His study focused on agricultural productivity differences among developed and less developed countries. Factors were identified which determined the productivity gap, and their influences were gauged on the 1957—62 national aggregate data of 38 countries. Two case studies were pre— sented comparing the United States with India, then, Japan and India. Education and RDE variables (research, development, and extension) together explained almost half of the agricultural productivity gap between the United States and India. Between Japan and India, educa— tion's contribution to the gap in agricultural productivity amounted to 40 percent; together with RDE it accounted for 50 percent of the difference.2 Glasser's study on the effect of additional schooling on the economic productivity of human agents working on farms confirmed this on the level of the individual. He computed a cost-benefit ratio of schooling for the individual farm worker. He concluded that more schooling favorably affects the process of agricultural production.3 lEvelyn Bromhead, "The Education of Women," International Review of Education 19 (1973): 5. 2Yujiro Hayami, "Sources of Agricultural Productivity Gap Among Selected Countries," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, August 1969, pp. 564-575. 3Micha Gisser, "On Benefit-Cost Analysis of Investment in Schooling in Rural Farm Areas," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, August 1968, pp. 621-629. 20 Nutrition The nutritional level of the population is one of the vital factors in development. For example, a study done in the 19403 in Germany showed that coal miners, when consuming 4,500 calories, had an output per miner of 1.9 tons of coal. When calorie consumption was reduced to 3,900, output fell to 1.6 tons. In the United States, 32 volunteers lived for 24 weeks on a diet that gave only 1,800 calories/day together with reduced proteins and other nutrients. The volunteers' endurance at work fell, and there was a loss of muscle strength. Oshima notes that increases in nutritional programs seem certain to yield large returns in economic benefits.1 UNICEF has best summarized the effects of malnutrition, Protein malnutrition is an important cause of infant and young child mortality, stunted physical growth, low work output, premature aging, and reduced life span in the developing world. Recent research has revealed a link between malnutrition in infancy and early childhood and impaired learning and behavior in later life. The wide— spread occurrence of protein malnutrition in many developing countries spells grave danger to the full expression of the genetic potential of the population of large sectors of the world community.2 Further, UNICEF observes that the solution of nutritional problems themselves could yield important direct and indirect economic returns. Protein shortages are viewed as depreciating the stock of human resources . lHarry T. Oshima, "Food Consumption, Nutrition, and Economic Development in Asian Countries," Economic Development and Cultural Change, July 1967, pp. 391, 395. 2"Malnutrition and Disease: A Vicious Circle," UNICEF News, December 1972/January 1973, p. 11. 21 In addition, infant mortality would probably be reduced with improved nutrition. Hansen estimated in India in 1951, the direct cost of infant mortality was 3 percent of national income.1 Vega-Franco estimated the economic loss to Mexico caused by deaths of children due to malnutrition. His estimate was based upon the probability of being alive from year to year, the probability of being employed and the actual wages earned. His study, done in 1967, estimated the loss of income at $385,864,000.2 Numerous studies have established the relationship between malnutrition in infancy or childhood and subsequent intellectual performance. Liang et al., using the Goodenough and Wechsler tests in Indonesia, found that previously malnourished children had sig- nificantly lower scores than the comparison group.3 Champakam, Srikantia, and Gopalam designed their own standardized tests and administered them in India. Previously malnourished children exhibited a lower intellectual performance on these tests than the control group.“ Guthrie, Guthrie, and Tayog administered the 1W. Lee Hansen, "A Note on the Cost of Children's Mortality," Journal of Political Economy, June 1957, p. 260. 2L. Vega-Franco, "Ecologia de la Desnutricién y su Repercusién Socioeconomica en Mexico," in Nutricién y Pedatria, ed. A. Cuellar (Mexico: Soc. Mex. de Pedatria, 1972). 3P. H. Liang et al., "Evaluation of Mental Development in Relation to Nutrition," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 20: 1290. ll'S. Champakam, S. G. Srikantia, and C. Gopalam, "Kwashiorkor and Mental Development," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 21: 844. 22 Phillipine Non Verbal Intelligence test to experimental and control groups of children. At all ages, taller children performed better.1 Guillen-Alvarez administered the Raven, Koch, and Goodenough tests to groups of children in El Salvador. Survivors of malnutrition 2 Hoorweg and clustered on the lowest regions of I.Q. scores. Stanfield administered the Raven, Wechsler, WAIS, Porteus, Memory, Knox, and Oseretky tests to experimental and control groups of Ugandan children. Their results showed that survivors of malnutrition had lower performance levels on all tests except verbal ability, a maze test, and a short memory test.3 The findings of Freeman et al. in Guatemala strongly suggest that calorie intake affects cognitive development as well as physical growth and general health status.“ Learning disabilities have also been linked to malnutrition. Birch and Belmont found that the disturbance in the ability to integrate stimuli from two critical modalities, hearing and vision, may increase the likelihood that survivors of malnutrition will become poor readers. They reported that this lag in neuro-integrative 1H. A. Gutherie, G. M. Gutherie, and A. Tayog, "Nutritional Status and Intellectual Performance in a Rural Philippine Community," Philippine Journal of Nutrition 22: 2. 2G. Guillen-Alvarez, "Influence of Severe Marasmic Malnutrition in Early Infancy on Mental Development at School Age," paper presented at the Thirteenth International Congress of Pediatrics, Wien, Austria, 29 August-4 September 1971. ,3J. Hoorweg and P. Stanfield, "The Influence of Malnutrition on Psychologic and Neurologic Development: Preliminary Communications," in Nutrition, The Nervous System and Behavior, Scientific Publication No. 251, Pan American Health Organization, p. 55. “Howard Freeman et al., "Relations Between Nutrition and Cognition in Rural Guatemala," American Journal of Public Health, March 1977, pp. 233-239. 23 development is one of the factors that differentiated good and poor 1 Cravioto et al. have shown that school children who survived readers. a severe episode of malnutrition have a lag in a neurological—sensory mechanism basic to learning to write. The lag is greater than could be expected as a result of their belonging to the lower socioeconomic strata of the population.2 . Of course, the effects of malnutrition upon the individual are more serious than the combined effects upon economic growth rates and the formation of human capital. Many of the effects of malnutrition upon the individual are thought to be irreversible. In practice, most of the reversible ones won't be reversed because of the costs involved. Among the irreversible are keratomalacia, a disease of the eye arising from lack of vitamin A leading to blindness, and rickets, a disease of the skeletal system resulting in crippling due to lack of calcium salts and vitamin D. The lack of iodine in the diet induces goitre, a debil— itating disease of the thyroid gland, and is also responsible for cretinism, a condition of body malformation combined with retardation.3 The educational attainment of the mother affects malnutrition. Cravioto, De Licardie and Birch contrasted groups of children on their intersensory ability. According to the physical growth achievement at 1H. G. Birch and L. Belmont, "Auditory—Visual Integration in Normal and Retarded Readers," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 34: 852. 2J. Cravioto et al., "Neurointegrative Development and Intelligence in School Children Recovered from Malnutrition in Infancy," paper read at the Seminar on Effects of Malnutrition on Growth and Development, Hyderabad, India, 1969. 3United Nations, Basic Services for Children in Developing Countries, 1976, p. 13. 24 each age level, the lower quartile of height distribution (most stunted children) and the upper quartile of the distribution (most fully grown) were compared. Differences always favored the tall group. The follow- ing non—nutritional factors that might affect height were eliminated: (a) height of parents and children weren't significantly correlated; (b) tall and short children of the same age in the population of children without prior conditions of nutritional risk didn't exhibit differences in their levels of intersensory adequacy; (c) there was a lack of correlation between height and income, occupation, housing, personal cleanliness, presence of sanitary facilities in the home and contact of parents with the mass communication media. Most importantly, for this study, educational level could not be eliminated as an impor— tant intervening variable. The mother's level of education was sig- nificantly associated with the child's height; hence, malnutrition.l In traditional communities, the rural woman has sole respon- sibility for the nutrition of her family. The quality of the family diet depends substantially upon her resources, resourcefulness, and 2 For example, in Tanzania, maize is a staple of the diet. education. The traditional method of preparation eliminates the parts richest in proteins and nutrients such as vitamin A. The result has been wide- spread blindness and other diseases that could easily be avoided. 1J. Cravioto, E. R. De Licardie, and H. G. Birch, "Nutrition, Growth, and Neuro-Integrative Development: An Experimental and Ecological Study," Pediatrics 38: 319. 2United Nations, Basic Services for Children, p. 15. 25 Dumont notes that all over the world taboos and mistaken habits keep people from making the most of existing resources.1 The significance of nutrition to economic development, intellectual performance and to the individual have been established. The role of the rural woman and the importance of her education in providing nutrition for her family were noted. Thus, nutrition becomes associated with the access of women to education. Palmer sees nutrition as a process of social development which is ineluctably bound up with the status of women.2 Population Growth Studies in many countries have shown that the size of the family is negatively related to the level of a woman's education. It has been suggested by some that this negative relation occurs mainly in indus— trialized countries. The correlation of fertility with education varies within a country in regard to rural/urban residence, socioeconomic status, age at first marriage, and the husband's education.3 Thus, there are confounding variables in the relationship between education and the fertility of women. 1Rene Dumont, "Development and Mounting Famine: A Role for Women," International Labor Review, June 1975, p. 45. 2Ingrid Palmer, Food and the New Agricultural Technology (Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 1972). 3Mayra Buvinic, Women and World Development: An Annotated Bibliography (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976), p. 8. 26 However, many studies of fertility patterns in developing countries do show a relationship between the educational level of the woman and her fertility or the size of her family. In Venezuela, Seijas found that the highest fertility rates seem to be associated with lower socioeconomic status, lower educational attainment, rural- urban origin, non-working mothers, and other factors.1 Ahmed noted a high poSitive correlation between literacy and a low birth rate.2 Drakatos observed that among all the independent variables used in his study, per capita income and percentage of rural population, for example, that the percentage of literate people had the strongest influence in facilitating family planning.3 Dumont, citing the example of China, observed that it was not necessary to wait for rising standards of living to decrease the birth rate. The Chinese effected a major reduction in their birth rate by bringing education to women and, of course, political motivation.“ Anderson noted that the changing educational distribution in Taiwan 1Haydee Seijas, "Cultural Consequences of Population Change: Patterns, Levels, and Regulation of Fertility," paper prepared for the United Nations World Population Conference, Bucharest, 1974. 2Wajih Ahmed, "Constraints and Requirements to Increase Women's Participation in Integrated Rural Development," paper presented at the United Nations Seminar on the Role of Women in Integrated Rural Development with Emphasis on Population Problems, Cairo, 1974. 3Constantine G. Drakatos, "The Determinants of Birth Rates in Developing Countries: An Econometric Study of Greece," Economic Development and Cultural Change 17 (July 1969): 596-603. I'Dumont, p. 47. 27 accounted for 24 percent of the 1966-71 change in the crude birth rate, holding other factors constant. He noted a fairly consistent negative influence between education and fertility.1 Farooq and Tuncer explored the impact of modernization on fertility levels in Turkey. The major finding was that in Turkey, modernization and the concomitant spread of female education resulted in,a continuing decline in fertility. The negative influence of female literacy on fertility is stable and substantial.2 Germain reviewed evidence from the last ten years and concluded that in most developing countries there is a reasonably strong, negative association between women's educational levels and various fertility measures, although the relationship is not always inverse.3 This may be due to the confounding variables mentioned earlier. Economists have attempted to calculate direct benefits of reducing the birth rate. Blomqvist concluded that a general 10 percent reduction in age specific birth rates may lead to a savings of 25 to 50 percent of discounted aid requirements. He suggests the possibility of channeling aid away from capital goods to the establishment of 1John E. Anderson, "The Relationship Between Change in Educational Attainment and Fertility Rates in Taiwan," Studies in Family Plannin , March 1975, pp. 72—81. 2S. Farooq and B. Tuncer, "Fertility and Economic and Social Development in Turkey," Population Studies, July 1974, pp. 263-277. 3Adrienne Germain, "Status and Roles of Women as Factors in Fertility Behavior: A Policy Analysis," Studies in Family Planning, July 1975, pp. 192—200. 28 effective programs in population control.1 Gregory, Campbell, and Cheng argue in the same manner. They found that, in developing countries, a 1 percent increase in per capita energy consumption increased per capita income by .09 percent. A 1 percent decrease in illiteracy decreased the birth rate by .19 percent, which has a direct effect on per capita income.2 Thus, there is sufficient research evidence to support the contention that there is a relationship between a woman's education (whether formal or simply measured by literacy), her fertility, and economic development. _Due to many confounding variables and the inherent nature of correlational studies, it is impossible to infer causality. However, a relationship is apparent. Agricultural Productivity Robert McNamara commented in the preface to The Design for Rural Development that the problem of how to raise productivity among the rural poor in developing countries is one of the two or three most urgent questions confronting the international development community today.3 He defines the problem as not only that the benefits of economic growth have been unequally distributed, which they have, 1A. G. Blomqvist, "Foreign Aid, Population Growth and the Gains from Birth Control," Journal of Development Studies, October 1971, pp. 5322. 2Paul Gregory, John Campbell, and Benjamin Cheng, "Differences in Fertility Determinants: Developed and Developing Countries," Journal of Development Studies, January 1973, pp. 233-240. 3Lele, p. vi. 29 but that the rural poor themselves haven't been able to contribute and thus share in the growth. He believes the solution lies in raising the productivity of the poor, so that their incomes rise as do those of others in the society. Uma Lele points out in Th§_ Design for Rural Development that improving the living standards of the subsistance rural sector is important frequently as the only logical way to stimulate overall development.1 The importance of improving rural subsistence farming is noted by others. Harbison writes that the improvement in levels of living and in the utilization of human resources in rural subsistence, which is usually neglected by planners, is equally as important as increasing output and employment in the modern sector.2 From the foregoing, it is apparent that raising the productivity in the rural subsistence sector is crucial for developing countries both in terms of human welfare and facilitating overall economic develOpment. In many areas of the world, this becomes a problem of increasing the productivity of rural women. The United Nations notes, A typical rural woman's role is to bear and nurse children, to manage the household and feed the family, to fetch water and to gather fuel, to help in the fields in season and to winnow, grind, pound or press cereal and seed crops after harvest. Hers is the responsibility for the kitchen garden, if there is one, and for tending small animals.3 lLele, p. 5. 2Harbison, p. vii. 3United Nations, Basic Services for Children, p. 15. 30 Africa perhaps best illustrates this point. Writing in Woman's Role in Economic Development, Ester Boserup labels Africa south of the Sahara the region of female farming par excellance. In many African tribes, almost all tasks connected with food production are left to women.1 In rural areas, women may actually be 60 to 80 percent of the human resources devoted to subsistence agriculture, as a result of either male migration to towns for wage labor, or local culture/ customs.2 V The importance of women in the agricultural sector is under- scored by many. Remy notes that in Kenya, traditionally in agricul- tural communities, the productive activities are assigned on the basis of age and sex: women assume a major responsibility for the family's 3 subsistence. Belloncle studied rural development in the Sahel countries. He stated the necessity of gearing future community education programs toward women, given both their social and economic 4 importance in rural life in West Africa. Mitchnik cites women as 5 doing most of the farming in Zaire. Uma Lele argues that the 1Ester Boserup, Woman's Role in Economic Development (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1970), p. 16. 2Lele, p. 26. 3Dorothy Remy, "An Alternative to Equal Access: An Employment Strategy for Women," Washington, D.C. (Typewritten.) l’G. Belloncle, "Rural Education and Rural Development Projects in West Africa," Paris, 1974. (Typewritten.) 5David A. Mitchnik, "The Role of Women in Rural Development in Zaire," London, 1972. (Typewritten.) 31 traditional role of the African woman has often been very different from the West. Women have constituted an important portion of the productive rural labor forces.1 Even in areas of the world where women are invisible to Westerners, they are recognized as playing a role in agricultural productivity. Swanson noted that in Yemen, the role of women in the villages is changing as men migrate to Saudi Arabia for work.2' Jedlicka studied Plan Puebla in Mexico which focused on how to introduce new technologies to women in rural areas. The important agricultural role of women in rural Mexico is evident from this focus.3 Stoler found that women in Indonesia manage the rice harvesting operations.“ Wiesinger observed women in rural Iran in roles as agricultural workers and livestock breeders.s From the preceding, it is evident that the agricultural productivity of the rural woman is a serious problem in most areas of the world. In 1973, the United Nations summarized the problem, 1Lele, p. 77. 2Rebecca L. Swanson, "Role of Women in the Yemen Arab Republic," Agency for International DevelOpment, 1975. (Typewritten.) 3Allen Jedlicka, "Diffusion of Technical Innovation: A Case for the Non—Sexist Approach Among Rural Villages," paper prepared for the Seminar on Women in Development, Mexico City, 1975. 1'Ann Stoler, "Land, Labor and Female Autonomy in a Javanese Village," Columbia University, 1975. (Typewritten.) 5Rita Wiesinger, "Economic Development and Functional Literacy for Women: A Pilot Project in Iran," International Review of Education 19 (1973): 96-101. 32 If one could single out the main factor that has precipitated interest in the education and training of women, it is the problem of the critical shortage of food supplies. Labor force statistics are beginning to show the significant extent to which women are actively responsible for food production in different parts of the world.1 The fundamental nature of the problem has been the deterioration of female productivity in subsistence agriculture relative to men's productivity in the cash crop sector. It is worth noting for future non-formal education projects how this occurred. Africa provides a case study. Boserup in Woman's Role in Economic Develgpment traces the beginning of the productivity problem to the Europeans. The Europeans, coming from a tradition of male farming, could not comprehend the African system of female farming. Extension agents came to concentrate upon men. Underemployed males were induced to cultivate commercial crops. The effect of this on modern eConomic development has been significant. What occurred was that in agricultural areas with a tradition of female farming, European agents neglected to instruct female cultivators when introducing new agricultural methods. Instead, only men were taught. Consequently, productivity in the export crop sector increased at the expense of productivity in the subsistence farming sector. Thus, the quantity and quality of food available for feeding the people was lessened.2 This has an obvious impact upon 1United Nations, Status of Rural Women, Especially Agricultural Workers, 1973, p. 14. 2Boserup, Woman's Role in Economic Development. 33 rural welfare in terms of health, nutrition, and energy available for work. Mbilinyi notes that African economies became dual economies: the traditional subsistence sector co—existed with the modern sector. The most modern farming methods existed side by side with the traditional methods passed on from centuries earlier.1 Clio Presvelou advanced the belief that colonial policy precipitated the integration of men into the new economic order. The sector in which most women had skills and decision—making power, subsistence farming, was neglected and became stagnant.2 The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs concurred that the failure to teach modern farming methods to women prevented agricultural productivity and rural incomes from rising as fast as would be possible if both men and women were taught improved farming methods.3 The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations confirms the general neglect of rural women in the development process. They note that although women perform a major role in agriculture, they do not benefit by the facilities offered by extension services, credit, and marketing. 0n the other hand, they are also overlooked by rural 1Marjorie J. Mbilinyi, "The Participation of Women in African Economies," University of Dar—es-Salaam, 1971. (Typewritten.) 2Clio Presvelou, "The Invisible Woman," Ceres, March/April 1975, pp. 50-53. , 3United Nations, Economic and Social Affairs, Report of the Interregional Meeting of Experts on the Integpation of Women in Development, 1973, p. 7. 34 development programs and very seldom have access to formal training in agriculture.1 In this section, the necessity of increasing subsistence agricultural productivity was discussed, the importance of women in subsistence agriculture was established, and through a case study, their neglect in non-formal education projects was detailed and explained. The education of rural women in agricultural techniques can increase the productivity of women, and, therefore, of the sub— sistence food sector in developing countries. Increasing this will improve the food supply, as well as per capita income, nutrition, and the health and welfare of all in the rural sector. The impact upon development of rural women's education will be direct in the case of food supply and income. In spite of the importance of integrating rural women into development, there are several constraints associated with this process which are of sufficient magnitude as to severely impede progress in this area. These constraints are the subject of the next section. Constraints on the Integration of the Rural Woman Family Structure/Cultural Influence Giele and Smock, as cited by Buvinic, found that the family structure is the main filter of economic and sociocultural forces. 1United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Planning Family Resources for Rural Development, 1974, p. 45. 35 It was concluded that the family is the key structural variable influencing female roles and status.1 Youseff observed that the seclusion of women in Moslem countries may prevent female participation in development.2 For example, the International Council of Women has noted that women.are frequently indifferent-to literacy. The Council places the blame upon barriers established by traditions forbidding women access to knowledge and limiting her activities outside the home to getting water, accompanying her husband to work in the fields, or by going to religious ceremonies. The opposition comes both from men and older women in the families. This phenomenon was noted by cultures as different as Italy and the Persian Gulf.3 Through the family, the culture acts to limit both formal and non—formal educational opportunities for women. In developing countries, rural women are essentially excluded from the formal edu- cational system. Statistics indicate that while approximately 28 percent of men in the world are illiterate, 40 percent of the women are. Absenteeism and dropout rates are higher for females than males. Throughout the developing world, the rates of women's school enrollment 1Buvinic, Women and World Development, p. 109. 2Nadia H. Youssef, "Women and Agricultural Production in Moslem Societies," paper presented at the Seminar on Prospects for Growth in Rural Societies: With or Without Active Participation of Women," 1974. (Typewritten.) 3International Council of Women, Role of Women's Non— Governmental Organizations in Literacy Programs (Teheran: International Council of Women, 1976), p. 10. 36 in the first, second, and third levels of education are considerably 1 lower than those of men. For example, in rural Tanzania, 38 percent of males aged 15 through 19 had no schooling; 65 percent of the same age group of females had none.2 The exclusion is from non-formal education as well as basic education. In non-formal education, it may be reflected in the failure to include women specifically as a target group in educational planning, in the quantity of projects with a women's component, in the resources devoted to the projects, and in the content selected. Krystall and Pala have commented that women are less likely than men to be recip- 3 Simmons ients of out—of—school education programs and services. interviewed 212 Moslem women in rural northern Nigeria. None of the women or their daughters had ever been to a school other than a Koranic school. None had ever attended adult education programs. The women had very limited perceptions of their opportunities.“ The issue is the constraints imposed on access of women to education by the family and the culture. However, access should not be equated with availability. Even where education, formal or non- formal, is available, constraints continue to exist on women's access. Special problems may affect the woman's access: bad timing of school 1Buvinic, p. 81. 2Mbilinyi, p. 15. 3Abigail Krystall and Achola Pala, ed., "Women in Education," Kenya Education Review, December 1975, p. 15. l'Simmons, "Economic Research on Women," p. 20. 37 hours, distance from homes, early marriage, heavy family responsibility, priority given by the family to the education of sons, the perceived irrelevance of educating women, and the absence of women teachers.1 Through the family, the culture acts to limit both formal and non-formal education opportunities for women. As mentioned previously, the family usually educates the male first as it is regarded as a better investment, among other factors. El—Sanabary observed that it was the interaction between various forces within a Social system that influ- ences both the supply and demand for women's education.2 The United Nations determined that it is factors endogenous to the culture such as religion, attitudes, laws, etc., that are the major elements in preventing women from achieving fuller participation.3 Invisibility Another major constraint on integrating rural women into development is invisibility: women are simply invisible to goverments and donor organizations when educational and economic planning is done. In developing countries women are only a very small percentage of wage earning labor; therefore, their economic contributions often aren't recognized. 1United Nations, Assignment Children: Planningywith Rural Women, April/June 1977, p. 33. 2Nagat M. El-Sanabary, "A Comparative Study of the Disparities of Educational Opportunities for Girls in the Arab States" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, 1973). 3United Nations, Status of Rural Women, EspeciallyAgricultural Workers, p. 9. 38 John Galbraith observed that since the compensation for women's labor often isn't economic, that is the transaction does not occur in the market place, it isn't valued in national income accounting. He comments that what isn't counted often isn't noticed.1 The underlying issue is what are the economic returns to the education of women. That is, if the benefits to educating women were obvious, access and availability of education for them, would not be such a problem. This is usually omitted from studies on the economics of education; it is an area little researched by economists. Theodore Schultz observed: "if one were to judge from the work that is being done, the conclusion would be that human capital is the unique property of the male pepulation."2 Maureen Woodhall explains this by noting that women's education is often viewed as a form of consumption rather than investment. While some studies in industrial countries do support the thesis that the returns to the education of women are lower than that of men, she notes that actual estimates of the rate of return to women's education in a number of countries presents a confusing picture.3 These estimates have been based on returns to formal schooling. There are many problems associated with estimating rates of return for women. First, it is difficult to allow for the effects of 1John Galbraith, Economics and the Public Purpose (New York: Signet Books, 1973). 2Woodhall, p. 9. 3Ibid., p. 10. 39 discrimination in the labor market. Second, perhaps the most fundamental problem is that of measuring a woman's productivity. With current research tools, it is still impossible for an economist to measure the effects of education on a housewife's productivity. This is because most of the housewife's activities occur in the non—market sector of the economy.1 If either the direct or indirect benefits of educating rural women can be measured and established, the attention of educational planners will be directed to this area. The invisibility of women, largely due to inability to measure their contribution to the economy, is a serious constraint on the implementation and conception of non- formal education projects for women by development planners. Effects of Innovations/Technology The effect of the introduction of innovations isn't inevitably good. Their effect on women's work loads can either be positive or negative. For example, in Zaire, poultry raising schemes were intro- duced to raise rural income. However, the schemes weren't always accompanied by a water supply and the burden on women increased. It was estimated that 100 chickens need 25 liters of water per day. The women had to carry it, a difficult, time-consuming task.2 The compulsory primary education of children, without a! concomitant increase in living conditions provides another example. 1Ibid. 2United Nations, The Changing and Contemporary Role of Women in African Development, 197”, p. 8. #0 Women are left with additional work, formerly done by the children. It becomes harder to free women to participate in non—formal education projects. The United Nations observes that women often experience adverse effects from the modernization process.1 The introduction of innovations in rural areas can have unplanned effects. Among other things, these unplanned effects can operate to hamper women's participation in rural development. Summary The literature review was designed to delineate dimensions of the education of the community of rural poor women in developing countries which are essential background information for administrators planning non—formal education programs. The review contained both non- scientific and technical articles. It was divided into three sections: human resources in development; the impact of the education of the rural woman upon development; and, constraints on the participation of rural women in development. Section one contained an historical perspective on the human resources approach to development. Section two established the impor— tance of one human resource, the rural poor woman, to development. The impact of her education upon development was established in the areas of the formation of human capital, nutrition, population growth, and agricultural productivity. Section three detailed the following 1United Nations, Guidelines on the Integration of Women in Development, p. 101-2. ”1 important constraints on the integration of rural women into the development process: family structure/cultural influences, invisibility to planners, and unplanned effects of innovations. In essence, researchers pointed out that the education of the rural woman was crucial to solving the problems developing countries are facing in the rural areas. "Whether ot improve the rural area's educational level, health, nutrition, or to check population growth, the education of the rural woman is essential. CHAPTER III THE SETTING The purpose of this chapter is to present selected aspects of the setting in which the study occurred. The chapter is divided into the following areas: the physical environment of the rural areas of Iran; rural development in Iran; village structure in Iran; and the status of women. The intent is to provide background information on the setting which is relevant to increased understanding of the study and its results. An intensive literature review of the areas covered in this chapter was not an objective. Iran is a rapidly growing middle-eastern country. Its popu- lation numbers 3H million and is expanding at a rate of 2.7 percent per year. The people had an average per capita income of $1,650 in 1975. The Gross National Product is increasing by 35 percent per year. Forty to fifty percent of the GNP originates in the petroleum sector; approximately 10 to 15 percent is derived from agriculture.1 1Government of Iran, Case Study on Desertification in Iran: Turan, 1977, p. 46. 42 ”3 Physical Environment of Rural Areas Geography There are four general types of rural areas in Iran: Plains: (a) densely populated plains with a scattered pattern of dwellings, small village service centers, dense networks of small towns; good road communications, and a high population density; (b) densely populated plains with closely grouped dwellings, few large villages, a loose pattern of small towns, generally dominated by a large city, poor roads; (0) moderately densely inhabited plains, large villages with poor facilities, few small towns, poor roads, and vast empty spaces.1 Mountain areas: (a) high mountain plains: villages are on the piedmonts, poor roads; (b) high mountain areas: small or medium sized villages found along the valleys, small towns are far apart and isolated, few services, nomadism persists.2 Oases Marginal dry farming: Areas consisting of range lands used for livestock. Isolation continues to be the most salient geographic feature of rural Iran. Relief from isolation is often a single road. Fifty-eight percent of Iran's population lives in these areas. The rural population is spread among more than 65,000 villages. Approximately half of these villages have populations of less than 250 (see Table l). 1Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan, III, 1976, p. 51. 2Ibid. 3Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan. Rural Geography, 1976, p. 127. 44 Table 1. Distribution of the Rural Population by Size of Village Population Number of Percentage of Bracket Villages Rural Population o-ug 18,536 2.1 50-99 9,678 3.7 lOO-2u9 .15,6u2 13.4 250-499 11,u97 21.u 500-999 6,u20 2H.“ l,000-2,499 2,863 2u.7 2,500-u,999 #89 10.1 Total 65,125 100.0 Source: Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan, III, 1976, p. 52. Facilities Roughly three quarters of the rural population doesn't have easy access to services. The incidence of facilities is poor; for example, one dispensary for 15,000 inhabitants; drinking water in one village out of fifteen; and electricity in one village out of twenty- seven (see Table 2). 0f the 2,429 electrified villages, almost half were done in 1972 or 1973. Of the u,227 villages with piped drinking water, more than half were done in the same years. Of the total number of dis- pensaries, one-quarter opened in two years. Even if expansion of facilities were to continue at the present rate, it would take 20 years until the network of dispensaries was sufficient; 50 to 60 years #5 Table 2. Facilities in Villages, 1976 Localities, 65,125) (Total Number of Inhabited Facility Number of Villages Having: Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary school . . . . . . . . . . . . Guidance school . . . . . . . . . High school . . . . . . . . . . . . Health corps . . . . . . . . . . . . Development corps . . . . . . . . . Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Butcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slaughter house . . . . . . . Agricultural machinery repair facilities . Dispensary . . . . . . . Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural clubs . . . . . . . . . . . Rural culture house . . . . . . . . . Cooperative society . . . . . . . . . Farm Corporation . . . . . . . . . . Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . Piped water . . . . . . . . . . . Postal services . . . . . . 27,522 25,358 771 333 628 576 1,808 9,317 180 381 1,257 820 115 823 10,787 293 2,829 4,227 5,997 Source: Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan, III, 1976, p. 155. to furnish water and electricity; and 100 years to complete the rural highway network.1 The government is currently intervening in the rural areas on a large scale. To understand this intervention, it is necessary to have both a general insight into the rural sector and a historical perspective on rural development in Iran. 'Ibid., pp. 198, 159, 162, 16k. us Rural Development Initially, the question of rural development is one of definition. What is rural? As mentioned previously, countries may define rural according to differing criteria. Iran defines the rural population as consisting of people in localities of less than 5,000. In this classification scheme, small towns of between 5,000 and 25,000 play a service role to the rural environment. For example, a large part of the non—agricultural employment in the rural areas is located in the boroughs and small towns which are not statistically part of the rural areas.1 For Iran, rural development is the activity under- taken by the government in areas with a population of less than 5,000. This is properly termed the rural sector. However, it remains an arbitrary distinction due to the agricultural population found in the urban areas.2 Rural Sector In 1972, 47 percent of the rural population received an annual imputed income from agriculture of less than $100, with a mean of S70. Eighty percent of the rural population received less than $200 with a mean of $96 per head.3 There is an uneven distribution of income 'Ibid., pp. 125, 127, 135. 2United Nations, Development of the Rural Non—Farm Sector in Iran, 1976, p. 2. 3United Nations, International Labor Organization, Report of a Consultancy Mission on Rural Emplpyment and Income Promotion During the Sixth Development Plan (1978-83), 1977, p. 21. '47 between rural and urban areas. The income differential is approximately 1:” and growing.1 The employment pattern in the rural areas varies among regions. In general, 85 percent of the population have agriculture as their main vocation. Between 30 and 35 percent will have rural crafts as a full or part-time vocation. Employment in agriculture normally doesn't exceed 100 to 105 days per year; this necessitates occupational combinations.2 Data on sectoral rural employment patterns was last published in 1966 (see Table 3). From this table, it is obvious that the bulk of the rural people are engaged in agriculture. The underlying structure of the agricultural sector is family farms. More than 70 percent of production comes from small farms. Medium and large scale agri—business concerns have developed in a few regions. Elsewhere, the system of Small farms is in the majority. This small farming sector markets approximately 3 Technical standards are often low and 45 percent of its products. the technical skill of the farmers inadequate. In general, yields are poor.“ 1United Nations, DeveloPment of the Rural Non-Farm Sector in Iran, p. 3. 2Ibid., p. 8. 3Government of Iran, Rural Geogpaphy, p. 111. “1518., p. 108. Table 3. Rural Employment Patterns by Sector, 1966 48 Sector Male Female Agriculture 2,777,090 193,690 Non-farm activities: Community administration and social services 38,809 3,577 Commercial productive, " transportation and trading services 359,899 59,513 Construction 262,723 1,491 Crafts 57 ,915 331,848 Agricultural manufacturing activities 38,984 4,633 Other manufacturing activities 19,045 325 Source: United Nations, Development of the Rural Non-Farm Sector in Iran, 1976, p. 71. Underemployment in agriculture, low incomes, and inadequate facilities have combined to produce migration from the rural areas. Migrations toward Teheran are correlated to the level of knowledge and modern attitudes of the migrant. Migrations between provinces are in proportion to the distance and proportionate to the standard of well being and services in the host region. factors which best explain migrations1 (see Table 4). Income disparities are the Migration from the land is large, about 1.5 percent of the population per year. It is estimated that the major drift will occur 1Government of Iran, National Spatial Stratggy Plan. Population and Employment, 1976, p. 39. 49 .0” Ca .Assma .mmpmwoomm< sopmmmom amnmmx "cmsmzoev puma xoonsmmw ammH .mmpmfioomm< noammmom amammx "mopsom m mma m: In a u: nu :ma mamep 0: sea a H ha H5 : mom mam: m: 5mm m: a pa as 3 mm: oHMEom pom mam: "amndm mm oom.a mum m m a ma Hmm.a mamEou NHH Ham m :m spa owe mma mao.m mam: mma um:.m mum um mwa «mm mud mmm.m mHMEmm cam mam: "swan: om mmo.a mam m m m 9H oao.m panamm mma omo.a :. mm :mH Ham mod mmm.m mam: mud mow.m 5mm mm mom moo «ma msm.: mHMEom paw mam: "Hmcoaumz pmzvo hawemm mwMHnnmz GOHpMUSQm poMmampe x903 x903 soapmnwwz cocoowmmm mo spa: non pmyumm xmmm HmPOH woman wow wow cowpmhmwz pom cowmmm Ammomnmm ooo.av whoa aw cowpmamwz owns: pom Hmnsm .3 magma 50 within 50 years. This is rapid compared to Europe where it took 100 years.1 Of significance to rural development is the fact that the sex composition of migrants has changed. In 1966, migration was a family concern. During the last 10 years, sex ratios indicated that many males have migrated to the cities leaving their families behind in the rural areas.2 To counter the problems of underemployment, low incomes, inadequate facilities, and poor living conditions, the government has turned to a policy of rural development. This will be discussed in the following section. Government Policies Active government intervention in the rural areas began in 1961 with the declaration of the White Revolution. Initially, there were six principles in the program: abolition of the feudal landlord- peasant system and redistribution of land; nationalization of public forests and pastures; compensation of former landlords by capital shares in government industry; profit sharing in all productive enterprises; ratification of a proposed new electoral law, including votes for women; and creation of a national literacy corps using educated youth in national service to raise the literacy rate.3 1Government of Iran, Rural Geography, p. 127. 2United Nations, Population Changes in Iran Between the Census in 1966 and 1976, 1977, p. 5. 3Harvey H. Smith et al., Area Handbook for Iran (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), p. 73. 51 Changes and improvements in the rural areas were brought about by incorporation in the national development plans. During the period of the Third Development Plan (September 21, 1962 to March 20, 1968), 810 rural projects mostly in the areas of environmental sanitation and public building construction were completed. In addition, more than 5,000 miles of feeder roads were built, and some 4,500 instruction courses were offered to villagers. In spite of this, the government asserted that by 1969, the progress of rural development was slow. Many projects had to be discontinued because of the unavailability of trained personnel, limited public funds, and lack of local resources and initiative at the village level. However, this plan was instru- mental in establishing the basis for future large-scale economic development, particularly in industry.1 The Fourth Development Plan (March 21, 1968 to March 20, 1973) was designed by the government to emphasize industrial development. With reference to the rural areas, this plan had as its objective raising the employment level of rural areas by diversifying occupations, developing cottage industries, and providing new employment opportu- nities. During this period, rural cooperatives, farm corporations, production cooperatives, large agri-business complexes, and the Office of Non-Farm Activities were established in the Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Affairs.2 'Ibid., pp. 148, 372. 2United Nations, Report of a Consultancy Mission on Rural Emplgyment, p. 24. 52 In the Fifth Development Plan (1973 to 1977), the original concept of rural development was modified and a program termed Rural Development Areas was established. These Areas consist of a number of villages within a specific area. One village will be the area center; the others, satellite villages. In the area centers, the plan calls for simultaneously implementing projects for water supply, clinics, schools, craft institutes, bath houses, sports facilities, electricity, cooperative warehouses, housing, and other facilities. In the satel— lite villages (with over 250 population), projects for water supplies, access roads, and primary schools will be implemented. Twelve hundred of these Rural Development Areas are to be established. The government considers it unfeasible to provide adequate facilities to villages with pOpulations under 250. The intention is to gradually force the consol- idation of these extremely small villages, and stem rural to urban migration.1 The mid-term review of the Fifth Plan was not encouraging. Per capita income tripled but income distribution worsened. Food imports rose to a record $1.5 billion. The annual growth rate in farm corporations and agri-business was less than 1 percent. The large scale rural to urban migration continued. The Rural Development Areas have, to date, been ineffective largely because of emphasis on physical facilities that few farmers in the satellite villages wish 1Government of Iran, Summary of the Fifth National Development Plan, 1973-1978, 1975, pp. 16-23. 53 to use. Government efforts have been concentrated in the large and mechanized farm sector.1 The Sixth Plan (1978-1983) is currently in draft stages. It is expected that this plan will bring the small, marginal and viable subsectors of farms directly into the national production effort. Construction and other non-farm activities are to be provided to the rural areas.2 In general, rural development in Iran has been guided by a few broad objectives: achievement of a high level of production; maintenance of the highest possible level of agricultural population; diversification of activities in rural areas; and guarantee of 3 To achieve these acceptable living conditions to the rural areas. objectives, it has been necessary for the government to evolve a framework or structure for developing the rural areas. This structure is discussed in the following section. Government Structure At present, each sectoral ministry is working on its own structure of rural growth foci. Each ministry has a pattern of concentration of rural activities derived from their own program considerations. However, responsibility for rural development falls 1United Nations, Report of a Consultangy Mission on Rural .Emplpyment, pp. 6, 25. 2Ibid., p. 7. 3Government of Iran, Rural Geography, p. 253. 54 mainly upon two ministries: the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Affairs. The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources is responsible for the development of animal husbandry and all crops except tea and tobacco. Its duties include the introduction of new techniques into the rural areas. In the villages, it will work through the facilities of the Ministry of Rural Affairs.1 The Ministry of Rural Affairs is solely concerned with centers of less than 5,000 inhabitants. Essentially, it is responsible for all aspects of rural development and agriculture in the villages. It acts in four fundamental areas: the provision of basic and elementary facil- ities, the establishment of the rural framework, the diversification of 2 In practical activities in the rural areas, and cooperative affairs. terms, this Ministry works in establishing cooperatives, farming cor— porations, crafts and rural industries, the marketing of agricultural 3 These provide structure in the products, and in social work areas. rural areas. Rural cooperatives exist in the more marginal areas. Originally, these were formed to aid farmers who became land owners as a result of the land reform program of 1962. These cooperatives provide fertilizer, credit, central marketing facilities, and 11bid., p. 117. 2Ibid., pp. 117, 159. 3Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan. Institutions, 1976, p. 29. 55 instructional courses for the farmer.1 There are currently 2,850 of the cooperatives. However, it is estimated that they have had only a small effect on agricultural development, marketing, and non—farm activities.2 When it became evident that the agricultural sector wasn't modernizing sufficiently following the establishment of the coopera— 'tives, a new structure was created: the farm corporation. These are primarily located in more intensively cultivated areas. These corpo— rations are designed to facilitate the implementation of a policy of investment and technical assistance. By 1975, 85 farm corporations had been organized.3 A farm corporation can be established if 60 percent of the farmers agree. Based upon the amount of land, type of land, and facilities donated to the corporation, farmers are given shares. The land is then cultivated as a unit with the government providing facilities and credit. The costs, to the government, were very high as it was committed to supplying a wide range of facilities—-schools, hospitals, roads, etc." An evaluation termed the results of the farm corporations unremarkable. The reason given was that the farmer felt 1Interview with the United Nations Chief Technical Advisor for Rural Non-Farm Activities Development, August 1977. 2Government of Iran, Rural Geography, p. 119. 31bid., p. 111. “Interview with the United Nations Chief Technical Advisor for Rural Non—Farm Activities Development, August 1977. 56 reduced to the status of laborer again; the bond between the farmer and the land had been cut.1 Consequently, a new structure was introduced into the rural area: production cooperatives. These are essentially the same as farm corporations except ownership remains with the individual farmer. The land is farmed as'a unit and profits distributed based upon the ownership pattern. The government is not committed to providing a 2 Thirty-four production cooperatives high degree of infrastructure. had been established as of 1974.3 Developing institutions to provide a rural framework has been difficult. These difficulties revolve around the following: the large number of villages, the lack of a tradition of inter—village relations, and rigid social structures whose traditionalism opposes I. the modernization of needed services. The structure of the villages is described in the following section. Village Structure in Iran The village in Iran has been the unit which formed the basis of social life from the earliest times. It is the group into which the population organized itself for economic and political cooperation. 1Government of Iran, Rural Geography, p. 119. 2Interview with the United Nations Chief Technical Advisor for Rural Non-Farm Activities Development, August 1977. 3Government of Iran, Rural Geography, p. 113. “Ibid., p. 159. 57 The importance of the village as the unit in rural life has persisted through the present day.1 In Iran, the village community has the following character— istics: it embraces a considerable part of the political, economic, social, and cultural life of the population; it is a small group of people settled in a specific territory; it has a distinctive social structure and human relationships; it is the smallest administrative unit in Iran and is run by the headman (kadkhoda) who represents the central government; and people belonging to the village community are conscious of their common social identity and identify with the village in which they are settled.2 Iran's 66,000 villages have certain common characteristics which distinguish them from other villages in Asia: most are or were owned by a landlord, the royal family, the state, or a religious institution; ownership involved more than legal rights, villages were the private domain of the owners; most landlords were absentee owners; the landlord received more from the village than he invested in it.3 The basic fact of domination by the landlord helped shape the social structure of the Iranian village. The village became divided 1Ann Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 4. 2Government of Iran, Deh (Village) Community and Rural Settlement Patterns in Homogeneous Regions of Iran, 1974, p. l. 3United Nations, Cooperatives and Development in Apia. A Study of Cooperatives in Fourteen Rural Communities of Iran, Pakistan, and Ceylon, 1972, p. 36. 58 into four main groups: the landlord; the kadkhoda; the peasants; and the koshneshin, landless non—farmers.1 The koshneshin constitute a significant percentage of the total village population. Surveys indicate that 40 to 50 percent of all inhabitants in villages with less than 5,000 are koshneshin. In larger villages, they tend to predominate; in the smaller villages there may be few or none. There are three groups of koshneshin: rural bourgeoisie, 6 percent of all koshneshin are village entrepreneurs. They control a major proportion of rural capital and credit and have an influence on the whole production system; non-agricultural workers, carpenters anni shoemakers, for example; agricultural laborers who neither own nor rent land.2 The social unit of the Village is the dwelling. Ties of relation are strongest among patrilineal and affinal kinship groups. Those belonging to it are treated with intimacy and trust. Outsiders are treated with reserve and fear.3 Among the groups of dwellings which constitute a village, various levels of authority exist. These levels are as follows:“ 11bid., p. 37. 2Eric J. Hoaglund, "The Koshneshin Population of Iran," Iranian Studies, Autumn 1973, pp. 230-234. 3United Nations, The Role and Promotion of Women in Dezful Village Community, 1969, p. 18. I‘United Nations, World Health Organization, Assignment Report. Health Services Development Research Project. West Azerbaijan, Iran, 1975, pp. 6-13. 1. Formal village leadership. These are intermediaries between the village population and government agencies. It does not have the authority to act independently but must make decisions in cooperation with traditional and informal village leaders. Included in the level are: (a) village headman——he is the primary representative of the village to outside agencies. However, in reality many have little authority or trust in the villages. They are often relatively young and usually not chosen by the central government for their position as village leaders; (b) village council-—these are the village executives and constitute the governing body of the village; (c) the House of Justice-—this is a village organization authorized by the government to deal with minor disputes and crimes. 2. Traditional village leadership. These are village elders and religious leaders. The elder's status comes from both age and structural position. They are the oldest members of the patrilineally extended family groups. Traditional leaders deal primarily with matters internal to the village. The elders are important in dealing with dis- putes and negotiations that follow factional lines. Religious leaders organize formal religious affairs and provide moral authority. 3. Village representatives of government agencies. These men are important not only for activities related to the agencies but may be leaders in their own rights. 4. Informal village leaders. These may include members of wealthy families, families with educated children living outside the village and wealthy villagers who have moved to town, sometimes the 60 former landlord. These leaders may be especially important in supporting innovative village projects. 5. Female leaders. Women are also influential in joint efforts to meet common problems. Influential women may include the leading women in each faction and important families, relatives of important men, educated women,‘and such female specialists as the midwives. Female status arises from structural position (older women in important families), relationship to powerful men, and from personal characteristics such as intelligence or education. Within the female community, there are highly connected networks of women who associate with each other and arrive at a general consensus on activities. Many village problems are of prime concern to the women and they play an important role in urging the men to seek organized solutions. However, women still remain less important in formal village affairs and decision-making than men. In the following section, selected aspects of the status of women in Iran will be described. The framework of the section is descriptive rather than interpretive. Status of Women Historical Background In pre-Islamic Iran, the period prior to the mid~seventh century A.D., women's status reached its peak with the rise of the Achaemenian Empire (540-320 B.C.). Building upon earlier practices, women were considered the full partners of men. Women enjoyed equal 61 pay, the right to ownership, guardianship and to hold political office. Writings show that women and men were accorded equivalent rights in marriage and family affairs. This high social status was retained during the Parthian Dynasty (223 B.C. to 223 A.D.).1 However, with the Sassanian Dynasty (223 A.D. to 623 A.D.) the position of women was changed. They lost much social equality, retaining only their authority over the household and the right to own property. Women could no longer unconditionally divorce their husbands.2 The most profound change in the status of women followed the Arab invasion of Iran in 651 A.D. and the forced adoption of the Islamic religion. In Persia, some Islamic laws were a step backward for women. Nevertheless, Islam did improve the rights of Persian women in two areas: the caste system was abolished, providing greater opportunities for low caste women, and the legal identity and economic freedom of women was explicitly recognized.3 The position of women suffered a reversal after the Safavid dynasty of the sixteenth and seventeenth century which introduced a kind of theocracy. Women were even further secluded and restricted in their education.” 1Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman, Past and Present, 1976, pp. 12-16. 2Ibid. 3Latifeh Yarshater, "Iran," in Women in the Modern World, ed. Raphael Patai (New York: Free Press, 1967), pp. 63-66. “Ibid. 62 By the nineteenth century, every aspect of their personal lives was restricted by convention. The women's quarters were separated from the rest of the house. No visitor saw them. Except for her husband, a woman's existence was limited to the company of members of her own sex.1 With the spread of liberal ideas in the early twentieth century, came an increased awareness among women of their position in society. Still, by 1925, when Reza Shah took power, women still suffered many restrictions: they could not vote or hold office; they could not pursue higher education because of discriminatory entrance requirements; hus- bands were the sole heads of the family and could prevent a wife from holding employment without their consent, from traveling, and could initiate legal action in the wife's name; men could unconditionally divorce their wives, and had sole rights to the children.2 Advances began to be made. In 1928, women were allowed to study abroad and receive government grants. In 1935, the veil was abolished. By law, women were required to go unveiled. Women were admitted to the university and the Civil Service. In 1963, women were granted full political rights; in 1964, women were elected to Parlia— ment. In 1965, the first woman minister was appointed. In 1967, the Family Protection Act became law. Divorce became a matter for the courts, not Islamic law. Women were granted the right to retain custody of their children. From 1968 to the present, women have been 'Ibid. 2Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman, Past and Present, pp. 15-210 63 allowed to serve in the Revolutionary Corps; to participate in town and county councils; and a Minister of State for Women's Affairs has been appointed.1 Education In ancient and medieval Persia, literary and religious disciplines were emphasized in the curriculum. The traditional school was the maktab where pupils were taught to read and write and recite the Koran. Special maktabs existed for girls but only middle and upper class girls were sent. Some families had tutors for their daughters. Madrasas, religious seminaries, provided the only higher education and were the training centers for religious authorities. Women did not attend these.2 In the middle nineteenth century, the educational system began to be modernized. This led to a significant change in the Iranian attitude to the education of women.3 By 1936, Parliament voted to 9 The transition in attitudes is reflected promote girl's education. in the gradual increase in girl's schools (see Table 5). Although the traditional attitude toward the education of women ameliorated over time, girls still do not fully participate in the educational system. 1Ibid. 2Yarshater, p. 70. 3Ibid. l’Ruth F. Woodsmall, "The Beginning of Girl's Education in Iran," in Moslem Women Enter a New World (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1935), p. 199. 64 Table 5. Girls' Schools in Iran, 1910-1933 Number of Number of Year Schools Girls 1910 ~41 2,167 1914 60 __ 1929 190 11,489 1933 870 50,000 Source: Ruth T. Woodsmall, "The Beginning of Girls Education in Iran," in Moslem Women Enter a New World (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1936), p. 146. The number of females in elementary education in 1973—74 was six times greater than in 1953—54. The corresponding increase in the number of boys was 3.5. In 1953, female enrollment was 26 percent of the total; by 1976, this increased to 46 percent.1 In 1972, the number of girls in secondary education was 18 times higher than in 1952. For the corresponding period, the number of boys increased only 10 times. In 1952, girls represented 21 percent of the students; by 1977, this had increased to 38 percent.2 In 1974—75, 83 percent of students in vocational and technical training and 71 percent in higher education were male.3 1Government of Iran, Some Aspects of the Relationship Between Education and the Employment of Women in Iran, 1975, p. 5; and Government of Iran, Educational Statistics 1977, 1977, p. 6. 2Government of Iran, Educational Statistics 1977, 1977, p. 22; and Government of Iran, Relationship Between Education and the Employpent of Women, p. 6. 3Government of Iran, Relationship Between Education and the Employment of Women, p. 7. 65 While the preceding sections have indicated changes in women's education and status at the national level, the vast majority of women in Iran still live in the villages where traditional values and prac— tices predominate. The next section will be concerned with the rural woman in Iran. Rural Women Status The situation of rural women is complex. They are distributed in some 66,000 villages. Modernization has not reached many of these. The rural women still have little independence and must work within the family group of which the male is still in charge. Many women in the rural areas carry more than half the burden of agricultural work. Their economic activities include agricultural work, the gathering of products, cleaning grains, picking up and cleaning fruit, milking and making dairy products, planting rice and tea, making baskets, carpets, spinning, knitting, feeding animals, making bread, and housework.1 The family structure is strongly patriarchal. The authority of the husband is absolute, his permission is required by the wife for every detail. Girls and women generally have a low status in the village community. In a survey of villagers in 1969, the preferred age for girls to marry was 9 to 12. The mortality rate is higher 1Hamideh Sedghi and Ahmad Ashraf, Dynamics of Women's Condition in Iran, paper presented at the Aspen—Persepolis Symposium, Shiraz, 15—19 September 1975, p. 6. 66 among female infants which can be partially explained by the low status: boy babies are breast fed longer and more generously.1 The social and previously detailed legal discrepancies between men and women have an effect on village psychology. Lack of self— 1 confidence, dependence, and no desire for self—improvement are gen— erated. Women in the villages may be incapable of making decisions or thinking independently.2 However, there are important variations in the status of rural women. For example, near the Caspian and in the nomadic tribal areas women have more independence.3 Effect of Status Participation rates of the rural woman in education are lower than the national figures. In 1976 in rural areas, 31 percent of elementary students were girls. However, it is estimated that only 10 percent of the rural girls who begin primary school will finish.” In 1966, only .5 percent of the rural secondary school students were females. In 1971, 36 percent of females aged 12 to 18 were in school in the urban areas; only 1.6 percent of the same age group were enrolled in the rural areas.5 1United Nations, Role and Promotion of Women, pp. 17-21. 21bid., p. 23. 3United Nations, Woman's Role and Woman's Employment in Iran, 1972, p. 3. ”Government of Iran, Educational Statistics 1977, p. 8. 5Government of Iran, Relationship Between Education and the Employment of Women, p. 7. 67 Although these data were given for rural Iran, studies indicate that there appears to be fluctuations in rural women's participation in education based upon the size of their husband's/father's holdings. In 1975, a survey was done in five provinces. Six hundred and fifty-one useable questionnaires were completed. Farms were classified into production units based upon the following criteria: Production Unit Gross Income Descriptor 1 $50,700 or more very large 2 $28,500—50,699 large 3 $11,400—28,499 medium 9 $5,7oo-11,399 small 5 $2,080—5,699 large village Data were compiled on the educational levels of the daughter and wife of the farmer (see Table 6). In general, the lower the income of the farmer, the lower the educational level of his wife or daughter. The data also indicate that access is improving, however, as the educa— tional level of the daughters generally was higher than that of their mothers.1 Although the dataare derived from very wealthy farmers, it does present a description of the comparative access of rural women to education based upon wealth. Several factors combine to affect the low participation rates of women: active participation of women in agriculture and animal husbandry; full—time housework; number of children; tradition that 1Agricultural Development Bank of Iran, Commercial Agriculture in Iran. Final Report (Teheran: Agricultural Development Bank, 1975), pp. 70—73. 68 .mh .a “Ambma wxcmm pcmemoam>mm amaswadoflpm< "amhofioev pnoamm Hmcflm .cmnH ca mnzpazowsm< Hmflonoeaoo .cmsH wo xcmm ycwsmoaw>on chdpadownm< ”oopdom 3m.m om.3a ou.m o.m mw.o >3.m o sm.m o o mpflmsm>flco $0.53 mm.am H3.m o.bm ms.3 3o.HH ma.a 33.5 mm.m b3.3 zsmvcooom mm.ow mm.mm mm.ma 0.3m mm.s mw.wm Hm.s m.Hm mm.m o3.3m SQMEHQm H3.mm Hm.oa m©.mb 0.03 mm.mm om.sm mm.am mo.mm m3.mm mH.H> mpmsmpHHHH nmppoz s®p£w5mo swnwoz smpnmsmm nwswoz smpzwsmm negro: pmrswdmo nwnpoz nopnmdmm Ho>wq Hmcofipmoswm H m m 3 m was: cosposvonm AwMMPcmopmmv mnwenmm HmwonmEEoo mo mnmpzwdmo 6cm wo>H3 cwoxpwm mam>oq Hmcowpmosvm Mo comflamano .0 warns 69 literacy is not necessary for women; lack of motivation for literacy, especially in villages where the number of literate men is negligible; shortage of female teachers; limited communication between the rural society and the towns; priority given to the education of boys; and resistance/refusal of men to allow women to take part in classes.1 Research indicates that central among these is the attitude of the men. Research in preparation for the Dusadj Integrated Rural Development project indicated that the rural women were largely restricted to their mud houses. This was borne out when the project began, in the participation rates for married females. It proved extremely difficult to get married women to attend courses because of this restriction and their heavy household duties.2 This was further corroborated in research done on the Esfahan/ Dezful Work Oriented Adult Literacy Project. Women expressed signifi— cantly less interest in the courses than men. Of the men, 42.5 percent were interested as opposed to 36.9 percent of the women. The married status of women affected their interest in participation more forcefully than men. Of the single women, 71.6 percent were interested against 36.9 percent of the married women. Of the single men, 74.0 percent were interested against 49.7 percent of the married men. The corre— lation coefficient for the females between marital status and interest was ¢ = .521. max 1Government of Iran, Tenth Anniversary of the International Literacy Day, 1975, p. 77. 2United Nations, Report to the Government of Iran on the Pilot Villages Project in Rural Development in Iran, Dusadj Project, 1975, p. 35. 70 Previous educational contact also proved to be of importance in determining interest. Husbands with previous educational contacts more often consented to their wife's participation in the courses (22.6%) than those without contacts (11.3%). Researchers noted that any type of contact with education seemed to liberalize in respondents the traditional view of the wife's role in the Iranian rural society. Females with previous exposure to education showed higher rates of interest in participation (66%) than males of the same category (47%). Married women with previous educational contact showed higher interest rates (90%) than single women in the same category (52%). The study concluded that there was a need to include the problem of their wives' and daughters' education in the motivation campaign for men.1 Summary In this chapter, selected aspects of the setting in which the study occurred were presented. The chapter was divided into four areas: the physical environment of the rural areas, rural development in Iran, village structure, and the status of women. The section on the physical environment included the geography, population distribution, and facilities available in the rural areas. The section on rural development contained a description of the rural sector: income, employment pattern, structure, migration, government policies and government structure in the rural areas. In the section 1United Nations, Work Oriented Adult Literacy in Iran: An Experiment, III, Part IV, 2, 1973, pp. 470—479. / 71 on village structure, characteristics of the village community were defined, the structure of the village described, and levels of authority delineated. The section on the status of women contained the historical background of women's status and education. A subsection was directed at the rural woman in which her status and its effects upon her participation in education was presented. CHAPTER IV DESIGN OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between selected design features of non—formal education projects involving rural poor women in Iran and the success or failure of the project. The following questions were asked: "Do certain design features occur more frequently in successful or unsuccessful projects?" And, "When projects are considered by contentarea, do certain design features occur more frequently in successful or unsuccessful projects?" To gather information on these questions, data available on rural development projects were studied and facts related to projects designed for rural poor women in Iran were gathered. This chapter includes: a description of the population, data collection process, extrapolation of categories, operational definitions of categorized data, the designation of independent and dependent variables, a restatement of the hypotheses, and a statement of the statistical analysis employed. Population The population included all rural development projects in Iran since 1965 which (1) were sponsored solely by official government agencies at the national level or, in part, by external international 72 73 agencies; (2) included the rural poor woman above the age of 12 in their target group; (3) contained a non-formal education component to teach new skills or behavior to the woman; and (4) were voluntary. Projects were included in the study regardless of geographical location, content area, and status (completed or on-going). Geograph- ical dispersion of project operational areas was desired in order to control for substantive cultural differences within Iran in regard to the status of women. Cultural differences may influence the ability of women to participate in projects. A diversity of content area was necessary to permit generalization across project type. Projects were included in the population regardless of their status due to the paucity of projects incorporating the rural woman in Iran and to allow the inclusion of highly important, relevant projects. Further, termination was not a predictor of success or failure when the criterion employed in this study was applied. The population contained 21 projects. Four were classified as primarily family care projects. This project type included development programs in family health, nutrition, child care and education, family planning, and home economics training. Seven projects were classified as literacy projects. This included both traditional literacy as well as functional literacy programs. Seven were classified as vocational training. These projects were primarily directed at training para- professional development workers from the village to work in family care projects. Three were directed at establishing non-farm activities in the rural sectors. These projects included efforts to establish cottage industries. 74 The population was limited to projects in Iran because the two previously mentioned studies by Mickelwait et al., and the American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service were cross-national. This introduced problems in making cross-cultural comparisons. The beginning date of 1965 was selected for defining the population because of a lack of data available for earlier periods. In addition, 1965 coincides with substantially increased government development of the rural areas following the beginning of the White Revolution. Projects sponsored either solely by official government agencies or in cooperation with international agencies were included in the population. Time, funding, and data availability precluded gathering data on projects being conducted by the proliferation of semi—governmental organizations. Due to governmental directives delineating the responsibilities for the rural areas and few resources, the involvement of these organizations in the rural areas is virtually non-existent. Projects involving rural women over the age of 12 were included in the population. Women reach adulthood earlier in Iran than is usual in the United States. This is particularly true of the rural areas where child marriage under the age of 12 is still common. The Ministry of Education defines adult literacy recipients as those above the age of 13.1 1Government of Iran, Educational Statistics 1977, p. 8. 75 Exclusive concern with the rural woman was not a prerequisite to inclusion in the population. Those projects directed to a larger group but with a component directed to the rural woman were included. This was done in order to investigate the effects of project linkages upon success and failure. Only projects with a defined non-formal education component were included. This excluded such things as "give away" nutrition projects in which food rather than education is dispensed. It was specified that projects must be voluntary for the participants. This was necessary in order for the success criterion to be relevant. Data Collection The research for this study was divided into two phases. In phase one, the case study approach using the interview method was employed. Kleis has noted that it is logical for a new research field like non—formal education to use descriptive research. It is viewed as necessary before getting to research that yields explanation and prediction. Cases can be grouped into success-failure categories and patterns identified. The purpose of the case study is to identify lessons with practical or theoretical value.1 The case study approach was used to define project design features having a potential effect upon the success or failure of 1Russell Kleis, Case Studies in Non-Formal Education (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974), pp. 1, 39. 76 a project. This was instrumental in developing data categories for the subsequent statistical test of significance. Interviews with project managers were the prime source of material for the case studies. Data for this study were collected during the period April to October 1977. The Iranian fiscal year runs from March 20 to March 19. At this time, project data is reported and aSsembled. Therefore, this collection period was chosen to enable the most recent project statistics to be included in the study. A partially structured interview technique, the focused interview, was used. Partially structured interviews were used because they can be a source of hypotheses which can later be submitted to systematic tests. In this technique, the interviewer knows in advance what topics she wishes to cover. This list is generally derived from analysis of the experience in which the respondent has participated (for example, rural development projects) or from formu— lation of the research problem. This list provides a framework for the interview. The timing and manner in which the questions are asked are at the interviewer's discretion. The interviewer may probe in unanticipated directions. .While the respondent is free to express his thoughts, the direction of the interview is left to the interviewer.1 An areas of interest sheet was developed to be used in conducting the interviews (see Appendix A). 1Claire Sellitz et al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1967), p. 264. 77 Twenty six interviews were conducted, all in English. Translators would have introduced an element of uncertainty into the data obtained from this method. That is, the interviewer would have been unaware of misinterpretations. As most highly placed government officials in Iran speak English, language was not a handicap in using the interview method. In phase two, data from published and unpublished material were collected from which to extrapolate data categories. Published material included books, research reports, and monographs. Unpublished documents included internal United Nations' correspondence, expert reports, and ministerial data sheets. In addition, information from these sources was used to provide an indirect check on the reliability, validity, and distortion of data obtained from the interview. Extrapolation of Categories The data collected were measured on the nominal scale. The data were used to elicit project characteristics potentially relevant to success or failure and, ultimately, to denote categories under which the characteristics could be placed. A relevant characteristic is defined as one consistently appearing in projects falling into the success or failure category. Based upon study of the interviews, characteristics were identified which were possibly pertinent to project success or failure. These characteristics were as follows: 1. Content; 2. Skill acquisition: training of the women in a potentially profitable skill; 78 3. Linkage of the women's project to a men's project; 4. Use of andragogical versus pedagogical teaching methods; 5. Research in the location prior to project implementation; 6. Community involvement in the project; 7. Use of local people as teachers or paraprofessionals; 8. Relevance of the project to daily life; 9. Provision of child care facilities; 10. Fulfillment of the expectations of the participants or larger community; 11. Payment in cash or goods for participation; and 12. Attitude of men toward the project. As mentioned previously, published and unpublished material was reviewed to specify project design features which had been noted as important to the success or failure of rural development projects. Projects in these studies represented a broad range of efforts and were not confined to those with rural women as a target group. In the course of reading, these project characteristics were identified as important: 13. Linkage of a project: whether or not it relates to a larger plan;1 14. Participant involvement in decision-making in the implementation phase of a development project;2 1Mickelwait et al., p. xiv; and American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, p. 22. 2Elliott R. Moss et al., "Strategies for Small Farmer Development: An Empirical Study of Rural Development Projects," ed. Kenneth L. Neff (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1976), p. 3. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 79 Participant commitment (labor or cash) to a development project;1 Cost per participant;2 Immediate and/or easily demonstrable results;3 Use of local resources and people: to include local paraprofessionals and self-help labor;“ Commitment of own resources by villagers;s Real or perceived improvement in the life of the villagers;6 Necessity for availability of supplies or other resources when required;7 Relationship of project content to the role of the woman as wife and/or mother;e Project support: national government only or international assistance; Compartmentalization of villager needs: provision of single versus a broad area of services. 1Ibid. 2 . Ibid., p. 4. 3Richard 0. Niehoff and Kenneth L. Neff, Report of Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1977), p. 11. “Ibid., pp. 13, 15, 15. 5Ibid., p. 18. 6Ibid., p. 14. 7Ibid., p. 19. 8Mickelwait et al., p. xiv. 9Niehoff, p. 17; and Mickelwait et al., p. 4. 1°Mickelwait et al., p. 4. 80 25. Sequence of implementation: a project is initially directed to (a) both males and females, (b) males and later modified to include females, (c) females and later modified to include males, and (d) females only;1 and 26. Self-identified content.2 Items 13 through 16 were the original characteristics to be considered in this study. Data availability led to the inclusion of a larger number of characteristics. Data derived from the interviews were then integrated with that from the published and unpublished material. Categories of data were then established based upon this integration. In the course of the data synthesis, it was necessary to delete certain characteristics from the study. These characteristics were deleted because of non-availability of data on all projects: use of andragogical versus pedagogical techniques (4); research prior to project implementation (5); and provision of child care facilities (9). Men's attitude toward the project (12) was eliminated because it required subjective interpretation. Cost per participant (16) was excluded because of the inability to make valid comparisons. Projects differed in their accounting methods, units of analysis, size, time in existence, and purpose. For example, it was not considered valid to compare the cost of a recent, small pilot project undergoing heavy research and development costs with that of a long-term massive 1American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, p. 22; and Mickelwait et al., p. 96. 2World Education, Research on Innovative Non-Formal Education for Rural Women (New York: World Education, 1976), p. 35. 81 literacy program. The long-term project has reached the level where economies of scale as well as minimum cost points have been achieved. Comparisons within project content areas were attempted but also failed for the reasons previously detailed. The categories resulting from the data synthesis were then operationally defined. Operational defining indicates what to look for in the empirical world to determine the classes into which each observation should be placed.1 Operational Definitions Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: Projects are categorized according to whether or not they simultaneously attempt to provide a number of productive and social services.2 (Characteristic 13.) B. Men's program: Projects are categorized depending upon whether or not services or educational programs are also provided to men. (Characteristic 3.) C. IMpZementation sequence: Projects are categorized according to whether, at the initial implementation, they were directed to (a) both males and females; (b) males and later modified to include females; (c) females and later modified to include males; (d) females, and not modified; (e) modified or remained unmodified; and (f) men were initially included in the target group. (Characteristic 25.) D. Support: Projects are categorized based upon obtaining their support solely from the national government or combined with an external international assistance agency. (Characteristic 23.) 1Dennis J. Palumbo, Statistics in Political and Behavioral Science (New York: Appleton—Century—Crofts, 1969), p. 7. 2Lele, p. 15. 82 Project Participation E. Decision making: Projects are categorized according to whether or not the participants are involved in decision making at any stage. This includes surveys of the women to determine their educational needs; involvement in curriculum determination. (Characteristics 14, 26.) Resource commitment: Projects are categorized depending upon whether or not the participant contributes to the project by paying to attend or providing her own learning material. (Characteristic 15.) community involvement: Projects are categorized based upon whether or not the community as a whole contributes to a project by donating labor, cash, goods, the selection of persons designated for training, participation as para- professionals, or as village committees/councils. (Characteristics 6, 7, 18, 19.) Payment for participation: Projects are categorized dependent upon whether or not participants are paid in cash or goods to attend the project. (Characteristic 11.) Project Content I. Relevance: Projects are categorized according to whether or not they are related to the immediate, daily needs of the participant for income, health, and/or nutrition. Skill acquisition: Projects are categorized according to whether or not the participants are trained in technical skills which may provide them with remunerative employment. (Characteristics 2, 17.) Content area: Projects are categorized based upon whether or not they are related to the role of a woman as wife and/or mother. (Characteristics 1, 22.) Cbmpartmentalization of'needs: Projects are categorized depending upon whether or not the project responds to the needs of the participant by using a single sector (providing a single area of service) or a multi—sector approach (providing services in more than one area). (Characteristic 24.) 83 Project Execution ML Fulfillment of'expectations: Projects are categorized according to whether or not the services, supplies, or resources promised by the project are actually provided. (Characteristics 10, 21.) Independent and Dependent Variables In this study, the independent variables were the 13 opera- tionally defined categories. These are: implementation sequence, integrated rural development, support, men's program, decision making, community involvement, resource commitment, payment for participation, skill acquisition, relevance, content area, compartmentalization of needs, and fulfillment of expectations. The dependent variable was a growth in enrollment or a retention rate of 40 percent or better. Resnick considers enrollment retention as a useful outcome measure for non-formal education projects.1 The figure 40 percent was selected because at the beginning of Iran's functional literacy pilot project for the World Experimental Literacy Program, UNESCO estimated that 40 percent of those beginning the pro— grams would finish.2 As these were non-formal education projects directed at men and women, it should be possible to generalize the figure to other non-formal education projects. This figure was lIdrian Resnick, "Non-Formal Education and Economic Development: Thinking Before Planning," p. 25. (Typewritten.) 2United Nations, The Experimental World LiteragyProgppm (New York: United Nations, 1976), p. 55. 84 further supported by Iranian government estimations of retention rates of non-formal education projects.1 Growth in enrollment was defined as an increase in participation from one point of measurement to a succeeding one. Data availability determined whether retention rate or enrollment increase were used. These have been selected as criteria of success because they were the most powerful measures available from the data sources. Non- formal education of adults is generally voluntary. In this context, continued attendance or rising enrollments are indicative of success. This becomes a particularly powerful measure in Moslem countries where women are traditionally secluded. A non-formal education project which either grows in enrollment or retains high percentages of women is operating against cultural constraints, and thus, these become even more powerful measures of success. Hypothesis 1: successful and unsuccessful projects will not show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 1A: Successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those which are part of’an integrated rural development program and those which are not. Hypothesis 18: successful and unsuccessful projects db not show equal proportions between those which include men in the target group and those which do not. 1Government of Iran, Executive Instructions for the National Literacy Crusade, 1976, p. 54; and Government of Iran, Literacy Pro- jections of Iran's Population in School and Active Age Group, 1975, p. 19. 85 Hypothesis 10: Successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions in types of’implementation sequences. Hypothesis ID: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those which are solely national government projects and those which receive additional assistance from external international agencies. Hypothesis 1E: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which participants are involved in decision making and those in which they are not. Hypothesis 1F: Successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which the participant contributes to the project by payment to attend, or provision of’her own learning material and those in which she does not. Hypothesis ZG: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which the large community is involved and those in which it is not. Hypothesis 1H: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which participants are paid in cash or goods to attend and those in which they are not. Hypothesis II: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those which are related to the immediate, daily needs of the participants for income, health, and nutrition, and those which are not. Hypothesis lJ: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which participants are trained in technical skills and those in which they are not. 86 Hypothesis 1K: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which the content is related to the role of’the woman as wife and/er mother and those in which it does not. Hypothesis 1L: Successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those which respond to participant needs by a single sector approach and those which use a multi-sector approach. Hypgthesis 1M: successful and unsuccessful projects do not show equal proportions between those in which promised services, supplies or resources are actually provided and those in which they are not. Hypothesis 2: When grouped by content area, successful and unsuccessful projects will not show equal proportions of’operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 2A: Successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at skill acquisition will not show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 28: Successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is in the area of’family care will not show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 20: Successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at literacy will not show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. 87 Statistical Analysis Hypotheses were tested using the Fisher Exact Probability Test. This is a non—parametric test for analyzing discrete data (either nominal or ordinal) when the population or sample size is small.1 As a result of the construction of the tables associated with the test of significance, it was possible to simultaneously test the hypothesis at the .05, .025, .01, and .005 levels. Therefore, the alpha level at which significance occurred will vary. Summary This chapter has contained a description of the development of the design of the study. The population was obtained from rural development projects in Iran. Data were collected by a combination of interviews and the study of published and unpublished material. Independent and dependent variables were derived from the data collected. The hypotheses concerning the relationship between the independent and dependent variables were tested using the Fisher Exact Probability Test. In Chapter V, the hypotheses are presented in their null form and tested. 1Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw Hill, 1956), p. 96. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between selected design features of non-formal education projects involv- ing rural poor women in Iran and the success or failure of the project. The secondary purpose was to determine whether in projects with similar content, these selected design features occurred more frequently in successful or unsuccessful projects. The population was composed of all rural development projects in Iran implemented since 1965 and which were (1) sponsored either solely by official government agencies at the national level or, in part, by external international agencies; (2) included the rural woman above the age of 12 in their target group; (3) contained a non-formal education component to teach new skills or behavior to the woman; and (4) were voluntary. The size of the popu- lation was 21. However, entries in the data tables will total 23. Due to a difference in content area, two projects were subdivided into their two components. This brought the sum of the total entries to 23. Data were collected by a combination of interviews with project managers and the study of published and unpublished material. Charac- teristics of rural development projects which were potentailly relevant 88 89 to success or failure were identified using both types of sources. Characteristics derived from the interviews were then integrated with those determined from the published/unpublished material. Data cate— gories were derived from this integration and a success criterion established. Two main hypotheses were formulated to compare (1) the frequency of the occurrence of operationally defined design features in successful and unsuccessful projects, and (2) the frequency of the occurrence of operationally defined design features in successful and unsuccessful projects of similar content. Thirteen subhypotheses were formulated for the first hypothesis in order to test for significant association between the operationally defined design features and the success of the project. Three sub— hypotheses were formulated for the second major hypothesis to test for significant association between the operationally defined design features and the success of projects of similar content. Data Analysis Design Projects were initially grouped into successful and unsuccessful categories according to the success criterion. Individual projects in each group were then scored on the presence or absence of the 13 inde— pendent variables. Scores were then tallied for each variable. These frequencies were entered into two—by-two contingency tables and the test for significance of association performed. Hypothesis 1 and its sub- hypotheses were tested in this manner. 1"- 9o Ti To test hypothesis 2 and its subhypotheses, successful and unsuccessful projects were grouped by content emphasis area. Three classifications of projects were made: (1) those totally or partially directed at skill acquisition (included were functional literacy projects with a skills component, non-farm activities projects, and vocational training projects); 12) family care projects (projects with components to teach family health, nutrition, child care, family plan— ning, and home economics); and (3) literacy projects (including both traditional and functional literacy projects). Functional literacy projects, because of their emphasis on skill acquisition, were con— sidered in both classifications. Within each content area, the previously designated successful/Uh none ful projects were scored on the 13 independent variables. Scores were summed for each variable. These sums were entered into two—by-two contingency tables and the test for significance of association performed. Fisher's Exact Probability Test was used to test both hypotheses for significance of association. Causality or direction of association cannot be inferred from the test. To use this test, data had to be categorized in order to be presented in two—by—two contingency tables with cells designated as follows: 91 Critical values of C and D for various levels of significance were determined from the associated tables. If the observed value of C or D is equal to or less than the value given in the table, then the observed data are significant at that level. All hypotheses were tested at the .05 level for significance of association between the two,tabled variables. Since the construction of the tables permitted simultaneous testing at the .05, .025, .01, and .005 levels, the smallest alpha value at which the association was significant will be reported. This is a one—tailed test. Details concerning individual projects and summary data related to the analysis of the data are presented in Appendix B. Presentation of Data The study produced a number of significant findings. The null hypotheses and the results of the hypotheses tests are presented below. Hypothesis 1: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions in the operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 1A: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are part of an integrated rural development program and those which are not. HlA was not rejected (see Table 7). fl . 92 'S kg...» m Table 7. Data on Integrated Rural Development Projects Yes No Successful 4 ll Unsuccessful 3 5 Tabled D = 2; a = .05;'observed D = 5; therefore, do not reject HlA. Hypothesis 13: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which include men in the target group and those which do not. HlB was not rejected (see Table 8). Table 8. Data on Men's Programs Projects Yes No Successful 10 5 Unsuccessful 6 2 Tabled C = l; a = .05; observed C = 6; therefore, do not reject HlB. Hypothesis 10: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions in types of implementation sequences. No significant associations were found; therefore, HlC was not rejected. Six different types of implementation sequences were compared. 93 l. Prpjects initially directed to both males and females. H1Cl was not rejected (see Table 9). Table 9. Data on Projects Initially Directed to Males and Females Projects Yes No Successful 10 5 Unsuccessful 5 3 Tabled C = 1; a = .05; observed C = 5; therefore, do not reject HlCl. 2. Prgjects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. HlC2 was not rejected (see Table 10). Table 10. Data on Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females Projects Yes No Successful 0 15 Unsuccessful 0 8 Tabled D = 5; a = .05; observed D = 8; therefore, do not reject H1C2. 94 3. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. HlC was not rejected (see Table 11). HlC u 3 Table 11. Data on Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males Projects Yes No Successful 0 15 Unsuccessful l 7 Tabled D = 5; a = .05; observed D = 7; therefore, do not reject HlCB. 4. Projects initially directed at females and not modified. was not rejected (see Table 12). Table 12. Data on Projects Initially Directed at Females and Not Modified Projects Yes No Successful 5 10 Unsuccessful l 7 Tabled D = l; a = .05; Observed D = 7; therefore, do not reject HlCu. 95 5. Projects which were modified and those which were not. HlC5 was not rejected (see Table 13). Table 13. Data on Projects Which Were Modified Projects Yes No Successful O 15 Unsuccessful l 7 Tabled D = 5; a reject H1C5. .05; observed D = 7; therefore, do not 6. Projects in which males were initially included. HlC6 was not rejected (see Table 14). Table 14. Data on Projects in Which Males Were Initially Included Projects Yes No Successful 10 5 Unsuccessful 5 3 Tabled C = 1; a = .05; observed C = 5; therefore, do not reject H106. 96 Hypothesis ID: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are solely national government projects and those which receive additional assistance from external international agencies. HlD was not rejected (see Table 15). Table 15. Data on Support Projects National International Successful 9 6 Unsuccessful 6 2 Tabled C = 1; a = .05; observed C = 6; therefore, do not reject HlD. Hypothesis 1E: successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are involved in decision making and those in which they are not. HlE was not rejected (see Table 16). Table 16. Data on Decision Making Projects Yes No Successful l 14 Unsuccessful 3 5 Tabled D = 4; a = .05; observed D reject HlE. 5; therefore, do not 97 Hypothesis 1F: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the participant contributes to the project by payment to attend or provision of her own learning material and those in which she does not. HlF was not rejected (see Table 17). Table 17. Data on Participant Resource Commitment Project Yes No Successful 4 ll Unsuccessful 3 5 Tabled D =_2; a = .05; observed D = 5; therefore, do not reject HlF. Hypothesis 1G: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the community is involved and those in which it is not. HlG was rejected (see Table 18). Table 18. Data on Community Involvement Projects Yes No Successful 15 O Unsuccessful 3 5 Tabled C = 3; a = .005; observed C = 3; therefore, reject HlG. 98 Hypothesis 1H: successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are paid in cash or goods to attend and those in which they are not. HlH was not rejected (see Table 19). Table 19. Data on Payment for Participation Projects Yes No Successful 8 7 Unsuccessful 3 5 Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 3; therefore, do not reject HlH. Hypothesis II: successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are related to the immediate, daily needs of the participants for income, health, and nutrition and those which are not. HlI was rejected (see Table 20). Table 20. Data on Relevance Projects Yes No Successful 14 l Unsuccessful 2 6 Tabled C = 2; a reject H11. .005; observed C = 2; therefore, 99 Hypothesis 1J: successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are trained in technical skills and those in which they are not. HlJ was not rejected (see Table 21). Table 21. Data on Skill Acquisition Projects Yes No Successful ll 4 Unsuccessful 4 4 Tabled C = 2; a = .05; observed C = 4; therefore, do not reject HlJ. Hypothesis 1K: successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the content is related to the role of the woman as wife and/or mother and those in which it does not. HlK was not rejected (see Table 22). Table 22. Data on Content Area Projects Related Unrelated 2 Successful 5 10 Unsuccessful 2 6 Tabled D = l; a = .05; observed D = 6; therefore, do not reject HlK. 100 Hypothesis 1L: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which respond to participant needs by a single sector approach and those which use a multi—sector approach. HlL was not rejected (see Table 23). Table 23. Data on Compartmentalization of Needs Projects Single Sector Multi-Sector ! Successful 3 9 ; 6 i Unsuccessful , 4 ! 4 Tabled C = l; a = .05; observed C = 4; therefore, do not reject HlL. Hypothesis 1M: Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which promised services, supplies or resources are actually provided and those in which they are not. HlM was rejected (see Table 24). Table 24. Data on Fulfillment of Expectations Projects Yes No Successful 5 14 l i Unsuccessful i 2 6 l Tabled C = 2; a = .005; observed C = 2; therefore, reject HlM. 101 Hypothesis 2: When grouped by content area, successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions of'operationally defined design features. Hypothesis 2A: successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at skill acquisition show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. - 1. Integrated rural development. H2Al was not rejected (see Table 25). Table 25. Data on Skill Acquisition: Integrated Rural Development Projects Yes I No ; Successful l i 8 Unsuccessful 2 l 2 i Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D reject H2Al. 2; therefore, do not 2. Men's program. H2A2 was not rejected (see Table 26). Table 26. Data on Skill Acquisition: Men's Program T Projects 3 Yes 1 No Successful 3 6 3 Unsuccessful i 3 l l Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A 2. shown in any of the subhypotheses; therefore, H2A H2A3a include 102 3. Implementation sequence. Significant association was not 3 was not rejected. a. Projects initially directed to both males and females. was not rejected (see Table 27). Table 27. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed to Both Males and Females Projects Yes No Successful 6 3 Unsuccessful 3 l Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A3a. b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to females. H2A3b was not rejected (see Table 28). Table 28. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females Projects Yes No Successful 0 9 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = l; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2A 3b' 103 c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. H2A3c was not rejected (see Table 29). Table 29. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males Projects Yes No Successful 0 9 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = l; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2A3C. d. Projects initially directed at females and not modified. H2A3d was not rejected (see Table 30). Table 30. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Initially Directed at Females and Not Modified Projects Yes No Successful O 9 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = 1; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2A3d. 104 e. Projects which were modified and those which were not. H2A3e was not rejected (see Table 31). was not Table 31. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects Which Were Modified Projects Yes No Successful 0 9 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = l; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2A3e. f. Projects in which males were initially included. H2A3f rejected (see Table 32). Table 32. Data on Skill Acquisition: Projects in Which Males Were Initially Included Projects Yes No Successful 6 3 Unsuccessful 3 l Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A3f. 105 4. Support. Not tested. Minimum requirements for frequencies in either cell A or B in order to enter the tables were not met. The minimum value in either cell A or B must be 6. See Appendix B for summary data. 5. Decision making. H2A5 was not rejected (see Table 33). Table 33. Data on Skill Acquisition: Decision Making Projects Yes No Successful 0 9 Unsuccessful l 3 Tabled D = l; a = .05; observed D = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A5. 6. Resource commitment. H2A6 was not rejected (see Table 34). Table 34. Data on Skill Acquisition: Resource Commitment Projects Yes No Successful 2 7 Unsuccessful l 3 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A6. 106 7. Community involvement. H2A7 was rejected (see Table 35). Table 35. Data on Skill Acquisition: Community Involvement Projects Yes No Successful 9 0 Unsuccessful l 3 Tabled C = 1; a = .025; observed C = 1; therefore, reject H2A7. 8. Payment for participation. H2A8 was not rejected (see Table 36). Table 36. Data on Skill Acquisition: Payment for Participation Projects Yes No Successful 7 2 Unsuccessful 3 l Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 3; therefore, do not reject H2A8. 107 9. Relevance. H2A9 was not rejected (see Table 37). Table 37. Data on Skill Acquisition: Relevance Projects Yes No Successful ' 9 0 Unsuccessful 2 2 2; therefore, do not Tabled C = l; a = .05; observed C reject H2A9. 10. Content area. H2Alo was not rejected (see Table 38). Table 38. Data on Skill Acquisition: Content Area Projects Related Unrelated Successful 0 9 Unsuccessful 0 . 4 Tabled D = 1; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2A10' 108 11. Compartmentalization of needs. H2All was not rejected (see Table 39). Table 39. Data on Skill Acquisition: Compartmentaliza- tion of Needs Projects Single Sector Multi-Sector Successful 6 3 Unsuccessful 2 ' 2 Tabled C = O; a = .05; observed C = 2; therefore, do not reject H2All° l2. Fulfillment of expectations. H2Al2 was rejected (see Table 40). Table 40. Data on Skill Acquisition: Fulfillment of Expectations Projects Yes No Successful 8 l Unsuccessful O ' 4 Tabled C = O; a = .01; observed C = 0; therefore, reject H2Al2. 109 Hypothesis ZB: successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is in the area of'femily care will show equal propor- tions in operationally defined design features. The following subhypotheses could not be tested: integrated rural development (H2Bl); men's program (H2B2); projects initially directed to both males and females (H2B3a); projects initially directed at females and not modified (H2B ); projects in which males 3d were initially included (H2B3f); support (H2B”); decision making (H2B5); resource commitment (H2B6); payment for participation (H2B8); skill acquisition (H2Blo); content area (H2B ); and compartmentalization ll of needs (H2Bl2). In these subhypotheses, minimum requirements for frequencies in either cell A or B in order to enter the tables were not met. The minimum value in either cell A or B must be 5. See Appendix B for summary data. The following subhypotheses were tested: 3. Implementation sequence. Three of the six sub-areas of this hypothesis were not able to be tested. The null hypothesis was not rejected in the remaining areas. b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. H2B3b was not rejected (see Table 41). 110 Table 41. Data on Family Care: Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females Projects Yes No Successful 0 5 Unsuccessful 0 2 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D = 2; therefore, do not reject H2B3b. c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. H2B3C was not rejected (see Table 42). Table 42. Data on Family Care: Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males Projects Yes No Successful 0 5 Unsuccessful l l Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D = 1; therefore, do not reject H2B3c' 111 e. Projects which were modified and those which were not. H2B was not rejected (see Table 43). 3e Table 43. Data on Family Care: Projects Which Were Modified Projects ' Yes No Successful 0 5 Unsuccessful l l Tabled D = O; a = .05; observed D = 1; therefore, do not reject H2B . 3e 7. Community involvement. H2B7 was not rejected (see Table 44). Table 44. Data on Family Care: Community Involvement Projects Yes No Successful 5 0 Unsuccessful 1 l l Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 1; therefore, do not reject H2B7. 112 9. Relevance. H2B9 was rejected (see Table 45). Table 45. Data on Family Care: Relevance Projects Yes No Successful {. 5 O Unsuccessful 0 2 Tabled C = O; a = .05; observed C reject H2Bg. 0; therefore, 13. Fulfillment of expectations. H2B13 was rejected (see Table 46). Table 46. Data on Family Care: Fulfillment of Expectations Projects Yes No Successful 5 O Unsuccessful O 2 Tabled C = 0; a = .05; observed C = 0; therefore reject H2B13. 113 Hyppthesis 26: successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at literacy will show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. The following subhypotheses could not be tested: integrated rural development (H201); men's program (H2C2); projects initially directed to both males and females (H2C3a); projects initially directed to females and not modified (H2C ); projects in which males were 3d initially included (H2C ); support (H2C”); decision making (H2C5); 3b resource commitment (H2C6); relevance (H2Cg); skill acquisition (H2C 10); content area (H2C ); and, compartmentalization of needs (H2C ). In 11 these subhypotheses, minimum requirements for frequencies in either 12 cell A or B in order to enter the tables were not met. The minimum value in either cell A or B must be 4. See Appendix B for summary data on literacy projects. The following subhypotheses were tested: 3. Implementation sequence. Three of the six sub—areas of this hypothesis were not able to be tested. The null hypothesis was not rejected in the remaining areas. b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. H2O3b was not rejected (see Table 47). 114 Table 47. Data on Literacy: Projects Initially Directed to Males and Later Modified to Include Females Projects Yes No Successful 0 4 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D reject H2C3b. 4; therefore, do not c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. H2C3C was not rejected (see Table 48). Table 48. Data on Literacy: Projects Initially Directed to Females and Later Modified to Include Males Projects Yes No Successful 0 4 Unsuccessful 0 4 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; Observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2C3c. 115 e. Projects which were modified and those which were not. H2C3e was not rejected (see Table 49). Table 49. Data on Literacy: Projects Which Were Modified Projects Yes No Successful 0 4 Unsuccessful O 4 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2C3e° 7. Community involvement. H2C7 was not rejected (see Table 50). Table 50. Data on Literacy: Community Involvement Projects Yes No Successful 4 O Unsuccessful l 3 Tabled C = O; a = .05; observed C = 1; therefore, do not reject H207. 116 8. Payment for participation. H2C8 was not rejected (see Table 51). Table 51. Data on Literacy: Payment for Participation Projects Yes 1 No Successful O 4 Unsuccessful O 4 Tabled D = 0; a = .05; observed D = 4; therefore, do not reject H2C8. 13. Fulfillment of expectations. H2O13 was not rejected (see Table 52). Table 52. Data on Literacy: Fulfillment of Expectations Projects Yes No Successful 4 0 Unsuccessful 2 2 Tabled C = O; a = .05; observed C = 2; therefore, do not reject H2C13. 117 Summary An in-depth analysis of the data is presented in Chapter V. Each hypothesis was denoted followed by a discussion of the pertinent data relating to its acceptance or rejection. After each discussion, a table summarizing the key points of the data was presented. Figure 3 summarizes the not rejected/rejected/not tested hypotheses at the .05 level. In Chapter VI, the summary, conclusions, implications, and recommendations for future studies are presented. In Appendix B, detailed information concerning the individual projects in the analysis is given. In addition, summary data sheets are presented. 118 Rejected/ Not Rejected/ Hypothesis Not Tested 1A successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are part of an integrated rural development program and those which are not . . . . not rejected 18 Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which include men in the target group and those which do not. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 10 Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions in types of - implementation sequences. 1. Projects initially directed to both males and females . . . . . . . . . not rejected 2. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females not rejected 3. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males . . not rejected 4. Projects initially directed to females only and not modified . . . . not rejected 5. Projects which were modified and those which were not . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 6. Projects in which males were initially included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected ID Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are solely national government projects and those which receive additional assistance from external international agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected IE Successful and unSuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are involved in decision making and those in which they are not . . . not rejected 1F Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the participant contributes to the project by payment to attend or by provision of her own learning material and those in which she does not . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 10 Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the community is involved and those in which it is not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected**** 1H Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are paid in cash or goods to attend and those in which they are not. . not rejected 1I Su cessful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which are related to the immediate, daily needs of the participants fer income, health, and nutrition and those whi h are not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected**** 1J Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which participants are trained in technical skills and those in which they are not . . . not rejected 1K Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those in which the content is related to the role of the woman as wife and/or mother and those in which it does not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 1L Successful and unsuccessful projects show equal proportions between those which respond to participant needs by a single sector approach and those which use a multi-sector approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 1M Successful and unsu cessful projects show equal proportions between those in which promised services, supplies, or resources are actually provided and those in which they are not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejectcd**** 2A Successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at skill acquisition show equal proportions in operationally defined design features 1. Integrated rural development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 2. Men's program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 3. Implementation sequence a. Projects initially directed to both males and females . . . . . not rejected b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. not rejected c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. not rejected d. Projects initially directed to females and not modified . . . . . . . . . . not rejected e. Projects which were modified and those which were not . not rejected f. Projects in which males were initially included . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 4. Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 5 Decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 6. Resource commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' not rejected 7 Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected** 8. Payment for participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 9. Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 10. Content area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 11. Compartmentalization of needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 12. Fulfillment of expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected"-* Figure 3. Summary of the Rejected/Not Rejected/Not Tested Hypotheses. 119 Rejected/ Not Rejected/ Hypotheses Not Tested 28 successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is in the area of'family care will show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. 1. Integrated rural development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 2. Men's program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 3. Implementation sequence 3. Projects initially directed to both males and females . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 'b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. . not rejected c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. . not rejected d. Projects initially directed to females and not modified . . . . . . . . . . . not tested e. Projects which were modified and those which were not . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected f. Projects in which males were initially included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested u. Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 5. Decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 6. Resource commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 7. Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 8. Payment for participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 9. Relevance . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected* 10. Skill acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested ll. Content area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 12. Compartmentalization of needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 13. Fulfillment of expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rejected* 20 successful and unsuccessful projects in which content is totally or partially directed at literacy will show equal proportions in operationally defined design features. 1. Integrated rural development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 2. Men's program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 3. Implementation sequence a. Projects initially directed to both males and females . . . . . . not tested b. Projects initially directed to males and later modified to include females. not rejected c. Projects initially directed to females and later modified to include males. not rejected d. Projects initially directed to females and not modified . . . . . . . . . . . not tested e. Projects which were modified and those which were not . . . . . . . . . . . J not rejected f. Projects in which males were initially included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested u. Support . . . . . . .\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 5. Decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 6. Resource commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 7. Community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 8. Payment for participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected 9. Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 10. Skill acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested ll. Content area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 12. Compartmentalization of needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not tested 13. Fulfillment of expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not rejected *Significant at the .05 level. **Significant at the .025 level. ***Significant at the .01 level. ****Significant at the .005 level. Figure 3--Continued CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Chapter VI is divided into four main sections: the summary, conclusions of the study, implications of the study, and recommendations for further research. Summary This study examined the relationship between selected components of non-formal education projects involving rural poor women in Iran and the success or failure of the project. Various data sets are necessary to enable an administrator to design a project for the rural poor woman. One of the primary needs is a set of basic planning principles, deter- mined effective in project design, which are applicable across project content areas. These principles would provide the administrator with a checklist of options to be considered and enable her to make more informed decisions concerning project design. The population included all rural development projects in Iran since 1965 which were sponsored either solely by official national government agencies or, in part, by external international agencies; included rural women above the age of 12 in their target group; con— tained a non-formal education component to teach new skills or behavior to the woman, and were voluntary. The population contained 21 projects. 120 121 Data were collected by a combination of interviews held with project managers in Iran from May through October 1977 and the study of published and unpublished material. Characteristics of rural development projects which may be relevant to success or failure were identified using both types of sources.i Characteristics derived from the interviews were then integrated with those determined from the published/unpublished material. Data categories and a success/failure criterion were then established based upon this integration. Two main hypotheses were formulated to compare: (1) the frequency of the occurrence of operationally defined design features in successful and unsuccessful projects, and (2) the frequency of the occurrence of the operationally defined design features in successful and unsuccessful projects of similar content. These hypotheses were tested using Fisher's Exact Probability Test for significance of association. The literature review was directed at delineating dimensions of the education of the community of rural poor women in developing countries which were essential background information for the planning of non-formal education programs for them. The review contained sections on human resources in development; the impact of the rural woman's education upon development; and constraints on the participation of rural women in development. In essence, researchers pointed out that the education of the rural woman was crucial to solving the problems developing countries are facing in the rural areas. 122 Conclusions of the Study Hypothesis 1 Successful and unsuccessful projects did show a statistical difference of association in certain design features. There is a significant association between community involve- ment, relevance, fulfillment of expectations, and the success or fail- ure of a project. Projects which are successful more frequently have design features which allow the community to be involved, which provide content that is relevant to the participants, and which fulfill the expectations of the villagers. For more specific information on the subhypotheses, see Figure 3, pages 118 and 119. Hypothesis 2 Successful and unsuccessful projects of similar content did show a statistical difference of association in certain design features. There is a significant association between community involve- ment, fulfillment of expectations, and the success or failure of projects primarily concerned with skill acquisition. Projects which are successful more frequently have design features which allow the community to be involved and which fulfill the expectations of the villagers. There is a significant association between relevance, the fulfillment of expectations and the success or failure of family care projects. Projects which are successful more frequently have 123 design features which provide content that is relevant to the participants and which fulfill the expectations of the villagers. For more specific information, see Figure 3, pages 118 and 119. Implications of the Study This study has shown that there are design features in non- formal education projects for rural women which are more frequently associated with success. Further, that the design features which have proven successful in projects directed at the rural farmer are not necessarily applicable to projects to be directed to his wife or daughter. The implication is that rural women need to be considered as a separate target group. Women have in the past been considered as a separate target group in regard to content. However, it would appear that this separation must be extended to include broader facets of project design than simply content. In practical terms this means, for example, when a project is being designed for men and women, the administrator must consider them separately in areas other than content. For men, to elicit their participation it may be important to pay them to attend; for the women's component, it may be more important to relate the project to their immediate needs to gain their participation. The study has also shown that there are design features which serve as common denominators across successful projects regardless of project type. Projects which involve the community are more frequently successful than those that do not. Projects which are relevant to the participants are more frequently successful. In addition, projects 12a which fulfill the expectations of the villagers are more frequently successful. Further, the study implies that although common denominators exist, project type does influence their significance. That is, each of the common denominators was not significant when projects were analyzed by type of content. Skill acquisition projects that involve the community and/or fulfill the expectations of the villagers are more frequently successful. Family care projects which are relevant and/or fulfill the expectations of the villagers are more frequently successful. With this information, an administrator can establish basic guidelines for projects which will be totally or partially concerned with the rural woman. Administrators involved in the design of non- formal education projects for this target group should insure that the project involves the community in some way. Involvement may be by requiring the community to donate labor, cash, or goods to the project. It may also be achieved by permitting the community to select the women to be trained in the project, by bringing community members into the project as paraprofessionals, or by eliciting the assistance of the village council/committee in implementing the project. This list is not exhaustive but contains suggestions for methods to involve the community. Administrators should also be concerned that the content of the project is relevant to the immediate, daily needs of the intended participants. That is, project content should be responsive to the 125 needs of the participants in areas such as income, health, and/or nutrition. For example, a project is directed at improving the agricultural techniques of the rural woman. Addressing itself to the immediate needs of the woman would involve teaching her to use a new hand tool rather than to drive a tractor, when tractors are not common to farms in the area. Administrators should insure that the project fulfills the expectations of the villager. Although a project may continue to be funded and, therefore, exist, failure to fulfill the expectations of the villager will work to limit its success. Finally, administrators should be aware that project content may affect which design features are most significantly associated with success. That is, for example, in certain types of projects adherence to content that responds to the immediate, daily needs of the woman may not be necessary if other design features are incorporated. This study does not imply that only these features should be considered when designing a project for the rural poor woman. That is, merely meeting these basic guidelines will not insure project success. The implication is that these features should be incorporated in the projects; however, the implication should not be extended to consid- ering irrelevant the design features which did not prove to be significantly associated with success. The study suffers from three limitations which affect the ability to generalize its results to other situations. First, the study was conducted on projects implemented within one country. It 126 may not be possible to generalize the results to other cultural settings. That is, design features significantly associated with project success in Iran may not be so in other countries. Second, the population size was small, a larger population may yield different results. Third, the projects studied were from several different areas in Iran. The data were aggregated to smooth cultural differences. However, this does not negate their significance. Iran is a country of diverse cultures. Project features relevant in one area may not be so in another area. For example, successful design features may not transfer from the Turkish/Kurdish regions of Azerbaijan to the tribal areas of Fars or Baluchistan. Therefore, attempts to apply or draw implications from the findings of this study in other countries or within Iran should not ignore the design features which did not prove significantly associated with success. Recommendations for Further Study As previously mentioned, there is a severe lack of research in the field of the design of non-formal education projects for the rural poor woman. Consequently, the following recommendations are for general areas of research rather than specific studies. This study suggests five areas significant to future research:' 1. Indicators: studies should be done in this area to develop more meaningful and sensitive indicators of project success than the indicator used in this study. 127 2. Design features: studies should be done to identify additional design features which may be relevant to the success of women's projects. 3. Replication: this study should be repeated in other countries to determine whether or not the significant design features are applicable across cultures. In addition, further testing should be done of the implication of a difference in significant design features for projects involving men and women. Further studies should be done of the non-significant design features in this study to determine if their non—significance were either a product of this particular culture or the small population size. Within Iran, the study should be repeated within the various definable cultural regions to determine its appli- cability within all areas of the nation. 4. Sociological studies: studies are needed in the areas of the status of women in the rural community, communication networks among rural women, decision making within the family, and the effect of innovations upon rural women. 5. Economic studies: studies are needed in the areas of the economic activities of women, time and motion studies of her daily activities, and the measurement of direct and indirect returns to her education. These studies would build a framework for future decisions regarding project design for the rural poor woman in developing countries. But why should countries concern themselves with the 128 rural poor woman? The best reason for this study and the work and efforts underway in the field of education for the rural woman was given by Daniel Parker at the Agency for International Development when he commented, "Women provide a resource for utilization in the development process, a resource which has the most profound influence of any."1 lDaniel Parker, Address to Women in Development Conference (Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 1975), p. #6. APPENDICES APPENDIX A AREAS OF INTEREST INTERVIEW SHEET II. III. IV. VI. APPENDIX A AREAS OF INTEREST INTERVIEW SHEET Project history Project objectives Project linkages Operational aspects of the project 0 Participant/village decision making Community involvement Village/participant resource commitment Content Teaching techniques Cost per unit of analysis Rewards for attendance Services provided 0 :EO'TIWUOW} Evaluation A. Results of the project B. Major problem areas C. Obstacles to women's participation D. Project manager's appraisal Statistics A. Retention rate B. Enrollment over two years C. Indirect indicators 129 APPENDIX B DATA ON INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS . ...nsbu APPENDIX B DATA ON INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS Project Name: Adult Mass Literacy Project Type: Literacy Project Status: Current Description: In 1971, the task of educating illiterate adults between ages 13 and 45 was transferred to the Ministry of Education. Classes cover two six-month terms. In 1976, a National Crusade for Literacy was announced in which rural women, adolescents, and employed people will have priority in literacy programs.1 Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. In Iran, the mass literacy method has shown only 16 to 20 percent efficiency in terms of course completers.2 In the past, only 2” percent of the originally registered participants have completed the course. Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is not linked to other development projects in an effort to simultaneously improve rural productive/social services. B. Men's program: Classes are offered to both sexes. The ratio between rural men and women is 1:7.“ C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both sexes and has not been modified. D. Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance.s 1Government of Iran, Literacy: An Historic Necessity, pp. 32, 51. 21bid., p. 53. 3Government of Iran, Literacy Projections of Iran's Population in School and Active Age Group, p. 19. I'Government of Iran, Initial Plan for the National Literacy_ Crusade, p. 54. 5Ibid. 130 131 Project Participation E. Decision making: The curriculum is centrally planned by the Ministry of Education; preliminary needs assessments are not done prior to offering classes.1 F. Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are provided free.‘ G. Community involvement: The literacy classes are organized and established without a real involvement of workers or the local community. In rural areas, the community doesn't feel any direct responsibility or control over the classes.3 In the new literacy crusade, the government is beginning to introduce measures designed to involve the local community. H. Payment forgparticipation: Participants are not paid to attend the classes. Project Content I. Relevance: This project is solely concerned with literacy instruction. In rural communities in Iran, literacy is not a prerequisite for satisfying the daily needs of the woman for income, health, and nutrition.. J. Skill acquisition: Instruction in technical skills is not an objective of the project. 'Ibid., p. 15. 2Government of Iran, Executive Instructions for the National Literacy Crusade, 1976, p. 33. 3Government of Iran, Initial Plan for the National Literacy Crusade, p. 15. l‘United Nations, Adult Literacy Programmes. Mobile Field Operational Seminar. 1n November-l December 1976. Final Report, 1977, p. 31. 5This has been confirmed by research. A study done in eight Iranian villages surveyed literate women on their use of reading. The majority of the women only occasionally used their literacy skills. See International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, A Survey of Reader Interest and Preference in Eight Iranian Villages (Teheran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, 1977), p. 26. 132 K. Content area: Literacy instruction is not directed at preparing the woman for her domestic role. L. Compartmentalization of Needs: A single sector approach is taken, concentrating on the perceived needs of the participants for literacy. M. Fulfillment of expectations: Assuming minimum class numbers have been met, the classes promised by this project are being held. Project Name: Cultural Houses1 Project Type: Family Care Project Status: Current Description: The project began in 1968. The aim of the houses is to provide a social focus in the village to promote adult education and disseminate new methods in agriculture, child care, and home making. In principle, each Culture House has a day care center, a small library, a sports ground, and rooms for classes/meetings.2 Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. By 1972, a total of 40,000 rural women had participated in classes, an average of 10,000 per year.3 From Ministry of Rural Affairs figures, between 1972 and 1977, an additional 23,292 women attended classes, an average of ”,658 per year. Although the number of Culture Houses continues to increase from no in 1968 to 1,030 in 1977, the participation of rural women is declining. In addition to class participation, female member- ship in Cultural Houses is also declining. For example, according to 1Unless noted otherwise, material on this project was gathered from interviews with the Head of the Rural Cultural House Organization, the Director-General for Plans and Programs of the Cultural House Orga- nization, and the Head of the Cultural House Research Branch of the Office of Rural Research for the Ministry of Rural Affairs. The interviews were held in July and August of 1977. 2United Nations, Woman's Role and Woman's Emplgyment in Iran, 1972, p. 10. 3Government of Iran, "Rural Cultural Houses," in Papers Read at the Regional Cooperation for Development Seminar on Rural Development, Teheran, 25 September to 28 September 1972, p. 161. 133 Ministry of Rural Affairs statistics, in the villages of Arabah and Adeh, female membership was 120 and 90, respectively, in 1975; by 1976, the numbers had dropped to 53 and 36. Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is not linked to other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/social services. Men's program: Both males and females may become members and/or participate in classes. Implementation sequence: Cultural Houses were initially established upon the foundations of the programs of the Rural Women's Extension Service. Consequently, this project was initially established for women and children. Now, the Culture Houses are trying to serve the entire community.1 Support: The project was founded and is supported entirely Decision making: Village women are permitted an input into the curriculum. The women are able to make suggestions and to help organize any educational programs they wish. Resource commitment: Previously, women were required to pay a fee. This practice was abolished in 1976. However, in some of the classes, women are required to supply their own learning Community involvement: In order to have a Culture House, the village must contribute one—third of the resources. These resources may include labor and land. The Ministry of Rural Affairs contributes the remaining two-thirds and staffs the B. C. D. by the government. Project Participation E. F. materials. G. House. H. Payment for participation: Women are not paid to participate. 1United Nations, Situation of Home Economics Programs in Iran, 1973, p. 2. 13a Project Content I. Project Relevance. Surveys done of Rural Cultural House workers indicate that the programs offered aren't generally directed to the immediate daily needs of the women. Day care centers and family planning appear to be the most popular programs. The actual classes are not very popular and do not appear to be adequate to the needs of the women.1 Skill acquisition: The classes taught in sewing are directed at improving the womaan functioning in her domestic role. They are not directed at teaching her a remunerative skill. Content area: Content is related to the domestic role of the woman. Compartmentalization of needs: The project takes a multi- sector approach to the needs of the woman. The programs encompass classes in several areas: literacy, health, nutrition, homemaking, and family planning. Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: The project is not providing the resources, supplies, or services promised the villagers. The project has not been able to achieve the level of objectives at which it aimed.2 There is a shortage of staff, physical and material facilities. The budget available to equip the Rural Cultural Houses isn't sufficient. In addition, there are, problems distributing the equipment available.3 Services and equipment promised are often not able to be supplied. For example, libraries and sports equipment aren't replaced. While there may be 1,030 Culture Houses, it may only be possible to adequately supply a fraction of these. 1Ibid., p. 8. 2Ibid., p. 11. 3Government of Iran, "Rural Cultural Houses," p. 161. 135 Project Name: Dusadj Rural Development Project——Cottage Industries Component Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Non-Farm Activity) Project Status: Completed Description: This project was designed to follow the reconstruction of Dusadj, one of the villages struck by the 1962 Qazvin earthquake that killed 12,000. Work began in the project area in 1965 and was to last until 1968. However, the project was repeatedly extended and finally ended in 1971. The original objective of the project was to start an agricultural development program which included a home extension component for women. Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. The cottage industry component began in 1966 in one village, with a few trainees. By 1970, it had expanded to three villages and a total of 65 trainees.2 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: Although the original objectives were limited, as the project grew, it became necessary to deal with other aspects of rural life and the project eventually developed into an integrated rural approach. For example, irrigation dams were built, crop and animal production pro- moted, small rural indistries and trades were encouraged, and roads were improved. B. Men's program: The overall project included classes for farmers, cooperative managers, and village leaders. Because of a limited budget and staff, priority was given to training men rather than women. C. Implementation sequence: The overall project was directed to both men and women and not later modified. 1United Nations, Report to the Government of Iran on the Pilot Villages Project on Rural Development in Iran. Dusadj Project, 1975, p. iv. 2 . Ibid., p. 51. 3 . Ibld., p. v. "Ibid., p. v. 136 D. Support: The project was partially funded by the United Nations.1 Project Participation E. Decision making: Needs and the curriculum were determined by project administrators.2 F. Resource commitment: Courses and learning materials were free.3 G. Community involvement:.,The community was involved in all phases of the broad project in providing self help labor and cash contributions. H. Payment forgparticipation: Trainees were paid small fees.s Project Content I. Relevance: The educational content was relevant to the needs of the woman for additional income. Women were trained in carpet knotting. After completing the course, trainees used the skill at home or worked in the new carpet workshops.6 J. Skill acquisition: The primary objective of this project component was instruction in remunerative technical skills. K. Content area: The training program was not related to the woman's domestic role. L. Compartmentalization of needs: The overall project took a multi-sector approach to the needs of the participants. The needs of the woman were responded to in several ways. See the following project. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: All classes and services promised to the villagers were provided.7 1Ibid., p. iv. 2Ibid., p. 7. 31bid., p. 51. “Ibid., pp. 37, us. 51bid., p. 51. 51bid., p. 52. 71bid., pp. vi, 7, 3a, 36, 37, 51. 137 Project Name: Dusadj Rural Development Project--Home Economics Component Project Type: Family Care Prgject Status: Completed Description: See preceding project. Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. When the project began in 1965, it covered a population of 1,105; at completion time the population covered had risen to 20,000. Home economics classes expanded from 30 students in 1966 to 136 in 1969.1 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: See preceding project. B. Men's progpgm: See preceding project. C. Implementation sequence: See preceding project. D. Support: See preceding project. Project Participation E. Decision making: See preceding project. F. Resource commitment: See preceding project. G. Community involvement: See preceding project. H. Payment for participation: Participants were not rewarded for attendance. Project Content I. Relevance: The educational content was relevant to the needs of the woman for income, health, and nutrition. Subjects taught included cooking, nutrition, mother/child care, home gardening, personal hygiene, laundry, knitting, handicrafts, needlework, and dressmaking. J. Skill acquisition: Potentially remunerative skills were not taught. 'Ibid., p. 35. 2Ibid., p. 35. 138 K. Content area: The majority of the classes were designed to improve the woman's performance in her domestic role. L. Compartmentalization of needs: See preceding project. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: See preceding project. Project Name: Esfahan Work Oriented Adult Literacy Project-- Handicrafts Component Project Type: Functional Literacy/Skill Acquisition Project Status: Completed Description: The project lasted from 1967-72. The ultimate objective of the project was to enhance the social and economic development of the areas of operation by upgrading the literacy and numeracy skills of the productive inhabitants. By 1969, 28 separate programs had been started. Each program consisted of two and sometimes three stages. Approximately 300 hours of classroom activity were needed to complete a two-stage program. Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. The retention rate for this component was 37 percent.2 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project was part of an effort to simultaneously improve productive/social services in the Esfahan and Dezful regions. Program areas included mining, agriculture, industry, handicrafts, home economics, and civics.3 Programs were not solely limited to illiterates. Programs for women were directly linked to those for men.” The project was further linked to a large irrigation dam project in Dezful and the construction of a steel mill complex in Esfahan. 1United Nations, Experimental World Literacy Prpgram, pp. 55-56. 2United Nations, Work Oriented Adult Literacy in Iran: An Egperiment. Registration, Drop—Out, and Attendance, Vol. V, 1973, pp. 26-27. 3United Nations, Experimental World Literacy Program, p. 56. I'United Nations, Work Oriented Adult Literacy, Vol. III, Part IV, 2, p. #59. 139 Men's program: Classes were offered to both males and females. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both males and females and not subsequently modified. Support: The project was funded by both UNESCO and the Decision making: Surveys were done to determine women's status, problems, and areas of interest.2 Resource commitment: Although classes were free, participants were required to provide a few of their own learning materials. 3 Community involvement: There was no general attempt to involve Payment for participation: Women-were not paid to attend the B. C. D. Iranian government. Project Participation E. F. G. the larger community.“ H. classes;y Project Content I. Relevance: The project was oriented to instruct women who were married and/or had children. The women attending the programs were mainly unmarried with no children. Consequently, the programs were not relevant to their immediate, daily needs.6 1Interview with the UNESCO-Iran Chief, Technical Advisor, Evaluation in June 1977. 2United Nations, Work Oriented Adult Literacy, p. 483. 3Interview with the UNESCO-Iran Chief, Technical Advisor, Evaluation in June 1977. "Ibid. 51bid. 6Interview with the Head of the Department for Educational Methods and Program, the National Center for Adult Education and Training in July 1977; and interview with the UNESCO-Iran Chief, Technical Advisor, Evaluation in June 1977. 1H0 J. Skill acquisition: Participants in the handicrafts program were trained in a potentially remunerative technical skill. Subsequently, a handicrafts cooperative was formed which is still functioning.1 K. Content area: Content was not predominantly related to the domestic role of the women. L. Compartmentalization of needs: The project took a multi-sector approach to the needs of the participants. The programs were broadly defined to respond to needs of the participants in several areas. See the following project. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Participant expectations were not fulfilled. Instructors did not have a sufficient knowledge base of the areas in which they were to teach, primary teaching methods were used rather than the project-approved group dis- cussions, program content was not relevant to the needs of the actual versus the intended participant.2 Project Name: Esfahan Work Oriented Adult Literacy Program--Health, Nutrition, and Family Planning Component Project Type: Functional Literacy/Family Care Project Status: Completed Description: See preceding project. Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. The retention rate for this component was 38 percent.3 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: See preceding project. B. Men's program: See preceding project. lIbid. 2Interview with UNESCO-Iran Chief, Technical Advisor, Evaluation in June 1977. 3United Nations, Work Oriented Adult Literacy in Iran: An Experiment. Rggistration, Drop-Out, and Attendance, pp. 26—27. C. D. Project 1H1 Implementation sequence: See preceding project. Support: See preceding project. Participation E. Decision making: See preceding project. Resource commitment: Classes were free and participants did not provide their own learning materials.1 Community involvement: See preceding project. Payment for participation: See preceding project. Content L. Project Relevance: See preceding project. Skill acquisition: Remunerative technical-skills were not taught. Content area: Content was predominantly related to the domestic role of the woman as wife/mother. Women were instructed in health, nutrition, and family planning. Compartmentalization of needs: See preceding project. Execution M. Prqject Fulfillment of expectations: See preceding project. .-.-.—.-.-.-C Name: Fars Village Level Health Worker Project Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: This project was initiated in 197u for training and using village project level health workers in the tribal areas of Fars province. The has three objectives: (1) to develop an integrated and ecolog- ical approach to the problem of health and medical care in the tribal 1Interview with UNESCO-Iran Chief, Technical Advisor, Evaluation in June 1977. 142 milieu; (2) to set up a mobile unit for health and medical training; and (3) to train men and women to be active agents for health.1 Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. By May 1976, seventy-six village health workers had been trained.2 In 1975, four women were trained; in 1976, five were trained.3 The project is stagnant in its efforts to involve the rural woman. Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is solely concerned with health services and is not linked to other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/ social services. B. Men's program: Both males and females were trained.1+ C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both males and females and not later modified. D. Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance.5 Project Participation E. Decision making; Needs assessments are not done; the curriculum is centrally determined.6 F. Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are provided free of charge.7 1United Nations, Assignment Report: Evaluating of Primary, Health Care Projects in Iran, June 1976, p. 2. 2Ibid., p. 7. 3Interview with the Director of the Fars Village Level Health Worker Project in October 1977. I’United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, 51bid. 6Ibid., p. 28. 7Interview with the Director of the Fars Village Level Health Worker Project in October 1977. 1H3 Community involvement: There is little evidence in the project Payment for participation: During training, participants are Relevance: Curriculum content is not relevant to the health needs of the population; and, therefore, not to the needs of the participant. The effectiveness of the training of the village health workers is not viewed as acceptable.3 Skill acquisition: Participants are trained in remunerative technical skills. Upon graduation, they become employees of Content area: This is a vocational training project which is not directed at preparing female participants for domestic Compartmentalization of needs: A single sector approach to participant needs is taken. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only job-related content.” Fulfillment of expectations: In general, coverage of the population for health care is not good. Utilization of the Health House falls outside the village where it is located. No child health care is being carried out; there are no activities to promote better nutrition, and the family planning program is very limited. Services promised by the project are not being provided.5 1United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, 2Interview with the Director in October 1977. 3United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, G. of community involvement.1 H. paid a salary:2 Project Content I. J. the government. K. roles. L. Project Execution M. p. 28. p. 28. “Ibid. SIbid. 1m: Project Name: Iranian Handicrafts Organization1 Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Non Farm Activity) Project Status: Current Description: The Handicrafts Organization was established in 1965 to insure the protection and development of Iranian arts and handicrafts (excluding carpets). The handicrafts include glass work, ceramics, wood and metalwork, leather crafts, and textile manufacturing. It has played an important role in establishing craft cooperatives; vocational training, and technical assistance; providing raw materials, tools and various equipment to production centers; awarding loans to craft workers; and marketing the articles produced.2 Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. Time series data on people trained is not maintained at the national level. Indirect indicators of increasing enrollment were located in the literature on this project. In 1971, the number of existing handicrafts cooperatives was 21.3 By 197H, 25 cooperatives existed and 35 more workshOps had been established.“ In 1976, 30 cooperatives were operating, 18 rural handicrafts shops and 16 more workshops had been established.5 Furthermore, it has been noted that production quadrupled from 1966-7u. Specifically, in the last three years, there has been a considerable rise in the number of working artisans.6 Project Linkage A. Integrated rural development: The project is not linked to other development efforts in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/social services. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in an interview with the Technical Director of the Iranian Handicrafts Organization in July 1977. 2Government of Iran, National Spatial Strategy Plan. The Secondary Sector, May 1976, p. 121. 3Government of Iran, "A Summary of the Activities and Accom- plishments of the Handicrafts Center During the Year 1971," 1972, p. 1. 1'Government of Iran, Iranian Handicrafts Duringithe Revolution- apy Era, 197%, p. H. 5Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac, 1976, 1976, p. 209. 6Government of Iran, Iranian Handicrafts Duringjthe Revolutionary Era, p. 3. B. 1H5 Men's program: Male as well as female artisans are trained. Men are trained for such things as glass work, silk weaving, and batik. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at males and females. Support: The project receives assistance from United Nations Participation ' Decision making: Needs and the curriculum are centrally determined by the Handicrafts Organization. Resource commitment: Training and learning materials are | Community involvement: Traditional weavers from the local community are usually used as instructors. Payment for participation: During the period the participants are in training courses, they are paid for the acceptable work Relevance: Women are taught skills which will provide them with alternative sources of income. Skill acquisition: The primary objective of the project is instruction in a technical skill. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. D. volunteers. Project E. F. provided free.2 G. H. they produce. Project Content I. J. K. L. Compartmentalization of needs: The project takes a single sector approach. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only skill related content. 1United Nations, Development of Rural Crafts With Special Reference to Textile Crafts, 1977, p. 8. 2Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 197%, 197”, p. 2H3. 3United Nations, Development of Rural Crafts, p. 7. ins Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: New workshops are continuously being established. The government is providing marketing facilities for handicrafts produced by both workshops and individuals. Participant expectations of increased income are being met. Project Name: Kavar Village Health Worker Project Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: The project began as a pilot project in 1972. The purpose was to study the feasibility of training villagers who possess basic literacy to provide primary medical and preventive health care in rural areas. The project designed and implemented the training and utilization of village health workers.1 Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. In 1974, five women and eleven men completed training and were assigned to villages.2 By June of 1976, #6 health workers had been trained (50 percent were females).3 Currently, 120 villagers have been selected for training next year, 50 percent of these are women.“ Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is solely concerned with health services and is not linked to other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/ social services. B. Men's program: Both males and females are trained. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both males and females and not subsequently modified. 1Government of Iran, Department of Community Medicine, Pahlavi University, Kavar Village Health Worker Project, August 1976, p. 2. 2Ibid., p. 10. 3United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, I’Interview with the Kavar Project Administrator, Department of Community Medicine, Pahlavi University, October 1977. 1H7. Support: The project was initially funded by the Government of Iran and the International Development Research Center of Decision making: Learning needs and the curriculum are Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are Community involvement: Villagers were involved in the initial selection of persons to be trained. In addition, villagers donated clinic space and miscellaneous equipment. Payment for participation: Participants are paid a salary Relevance: The project was planned in such a way as to directly relate the health needs of the population to the Skill acquisition: Participants are trained in remunerative technical skills and are employed by the government upon Content area: This is a vocational training project which is not directed at preparing female participants for domestic Compartmentalization of needs: A single sector approach to participant needs is taken. The curriculum is narrowly defined to respond to participants needs only in job-related 1Government of Iran, Kavar Village Health Worker Project, p. 29. 5United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, D. Canada.1 Project Participation E. centrally determined. F. free to participants. G. H. during training.fi Project Content I. curriculum of the worker.5 J. graduation.6 K. roles. L. areas. 21bid., p. 9n. 3Ibid., pp. 8, 21. “Ibid., p. 11. p. 29. 6Government of Iran, Kavar Village Health Worker Ppoject, p. 23. 1H8 Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: An attitude survey was done of villager attitudes toward the village level health worker. Of the 226 people surveyed, 220 were happy with the worker's performance; 96 percent believed the village had become a better place in which to live. A comparison of project villages and control villages showed a lower infant mortality rate, crude death rate, and fetal death rate in project villages after the introduction of the worker.1 Participant expectations of employment and villager expectation of improved health services are being met. Project Name: Lorestan Integrated Development Project Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: The project began in 197” with the aim of developing people's inner resources and promoting community advancement within the context of an integrated endogenous development program. This project is seeking to train indigenous people in health, agriculture, and education to function as multi-purpose development agents. Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. In July 1976, there were 83 (16 female) village level workers in health, education, and agriculture.3 By October 1977, this number had declined to 72. No workers had been trained in the last year. The training function has been temporarily suspended.” Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: The broad objective of the project is to promote balanced integrated development on a regional basis through the generation of resources from the people themselves. The project is concerned with the gener— ation of income through cottage industries and agriculture, 1Ibid., pp. 71, 83. 2United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, 3Ibid. “Interview with the Project Administrator for Project Lorestan, Imperial Organization of Social Services in October 1977. 149 the provision of roads, housing, education, environmental sanitation, clean water, and health care. B. Men's progpam: Both men and women are trained as workers. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both males and females and not later modified. D. Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance.2 Project Participation E. Decision making: Learning needs and the curriculum are determined by project administrators. F. Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are free." G. Community involvement: Selection of persons to be trained is by the villagers. Half of the entire project is being financed by the people. H. Payment for participation: Participants are paid a government salary while in training.6 Project Content I. Relevance: Participants are trained directly in the areas in which they will have to perform upon completion of training. Initial training is nine months long; participants are trained in one of three categories (agriculture, education, or health). Following graduation, they attend the other two courses, each of a year‘s duration. The aim is to produce a multi-purpose worker trained in all three categories. 1United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, p. 7. 2Government of Pakistan, Basic Health System of Iran. Visit of Pakistani Health Authorities, July 1976, p. 29. 3Ibid. I‘Interview, Project Lorestan Administrator, October 1977. 5Government of Pakistan, p. 30. 6Interview, Project Lorestan Administrator, October 1977. 7Government of Pakistan, p. 29. 150 J. Skill acquisition: Participants are trained in remunerative technical skills and are employed by the government. K. Content area: This is a vocational training project which is not directed at preparing female participants for domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: A multi—sector approach to participant needs is taken. The curriculum is broadly defined to respond to participant needs in several areas. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Since there has been no expansion of the project or continued training of village workers in over a year, the expectations of the villagers for improved productive/social services and employment are not being met. Project Name: Ministry of Education: Functional Literacy Project1 Project Type: Functional Literacy/Family Care Project Status: Current Description: Upon the completion of the joint UNESCO-Iran project in Esfahan and Dezful, it was decided to use the experience gained to estab- lish functional literacy projects in several provinces. The project encompasses both urban and rural areas. It is directed at both men and women, with approximately 5M.5 percent of the participants female.2 Success Criterion: This was designated a successful project. From its beginning in 1974 with 922 classes in one province, it has expanded to a total of 1,723 classes (1,0u9 for women) in eight provinces as of December 1976. Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project was not part of an overall development program for the provinces. In addition, no social services were offered. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered from interviews with officials of the National Center for Adult Education and Training: the Head of the Department for Educational Methods and Programs, and the Director of the Statistical Center. The interviews were held in August 1977. ZGovernment of Iran, Tenth Anniversary of the International Literacy Day, September 1975, p. 68. D. Project 151 Men's program: There are separate classes for men. Implementation sequence: From the beginning, the project has been directed at men and women and has not been modified. Support: Expansion of the initial pilot project has been the responsibility of the Iranian government. Participation E. Decision making: Needs assessments are not performed. The curriculum is centrally directed by the Ministry of Education. Resource commitment: Classes are free. However, women in the later stages of the knitting and tailoring classes may be required to provide some of their own learning materials. Community involvement: The instructors are generally para- 8 professionals from the local community. Payment for participation: Female participants are not paid to attend class. Project Content I. Project M. Relevance: Literacy training is combined with training in health, nutrition, family planning, embroidery, and tailoring which are relevant to the operationally defined immediate needs of the participants. Skill acquisition: Instruction in technical skills is one objective of the project. Content area: One objective of the project is the preparation of women for their domestic roles. Most of the sequences dealt with this. Compartmentalization of needs: This project takes a multi— sector approach. Women's needs are responded to in three areas: literacy, family care, and skill acquisition. Execution Fulfillment of expectations: The classes promised by this project are being taught. Participants are being provided with the promised services. 152 Project Name: Ministry of Rural Affairs: Carpet Weaving Project1 Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Non-Farm Activity) Project Status: Current Description: This project has been in existence approximately five years. It has two components: (1) the establishment of training workshops; the government constructs the workshops, provides the fixed capital, and trains the women. Once the workshop is firmly established, it is transferred to the village cooperative. Completed carpets are sold to the government. (2) The granting of credit in-kind; individual women are supplied with equipment, raw material, training and some working capital. Carpets produced may be sold privately or to the government. If sold privately, the government must be reimbursed for the credit granted. Women who complete workshop training are eligible for assistance under this component. Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. Time series data is not kept on the number of people trained. Project time series sta— tistics are in the form of looms distributed. In 1978, 850 looms were distributed; in 1975, 1,602; and in 1976, 2,007. Usually two people work each loom; therefore, this statistic does provide an indication of rising enrollments. It was noted that approximately 1,100 women have been trained in total, to date. Project Linkage_ A. Integrated rural development: The project is not linked to any other deVelopment efforts in a simultaneous attempt to improve rural productive/social services. B. Men's program: Men are not trained in carpet weaving. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at females only and not subsequently modified. D. Support: This project does not receive foreign assistance. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in interviews with officials of the Ministry of Rural Affairs: the Deputy Minister for the Organization of Non-Farm Activities and the Program Director of the Carpet Weaving Project. The interviews were held in August 1977. 153 Project Participation E. Decision making: Needs and the curriculum are centrally determined by the Ministry of Rural Affairs. F. Resource commitment: Training and learning materials are provided free. G. Community involvement: Usually local women serve as instructors and supervisors in the workshops. The community becomes further involved when the workshop is turned over to the village cooperative. H. Payment for participation: During training, women receive a small salary. Project Content I. Relevance: Women are taught skills which will provide them with alternative sources of income. J. Skill acquisition: The primary objective of the project is instruction in a technical skill. K. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: This project takes a single sector approach. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only skill—related content. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Five units capable of training 250 women have been established in five provinces. Looms and credit are being distributed. The government is providing marketing facilities for carpets produced by both workshops and individuals. Participant expectations for increased income are being met. 15H Project Name: Ministry of Rural Affairs: Handicrafts Project1 Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Non-Farm Activity) Project Status: Current Description: The project has been in existence five years. Its objective is to provide the rural woman with alternative sources of income by training her in traditional Iranian handicrafts. What they produce can be sold privately or to the government. Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. Originally, eight centers were established across the country to train rural women. This number has now declined to two, both located in Fars province, with a resulting decline in women trained. For example, 330 women were engaged in one handicrafts project in Fars in 1976; this number has now dropped to 210, as a result of budget cutbacks. Time series statistical data on participants was not available at the national level. Project Linkage A. Integrated rural development: The project is not linked to other development efforts in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/social services. B. Men's progpam: Men are not trained in this project. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at females only and not later modified. D. Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance. Project Participation E. Decision making: Needs and the curriculum are centrally determined by the Ministry of Rural Affairs. F. Resource commitment: Training and materials are provided free of charge. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in interviews with officials of the Ministry of Rural Affairs: the Deputy Minister for the Organization of Non-Farm Activities, the Program Director of the Handicrafts Project; and the Director of the Handicrafts Project for Fars. The first two interviews were held in August 1977; the last was held in October 1977. 155 G. Community involvement: Instructors are Ministry of Rural Affairs employees sent into the Centers or village homes to teach. The larger community is not involved. H. Payment for participation: During training, women receive payment for what they produce. Project Content I. Relevance: Women are taught skills which will provide them with an alternative source of income. J. Skill acquisition: The primary objective of the project is instruction in a technical skill. K. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: This project takes a single ‘ sector approach. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only skill-related content. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of eypectations: Only in the two areas where the remaining centers are located are villager expectations being met. The closure of three-quarters of the training centers has resulted in expectations not being met. Project Name: Rural Center for the Training of Rural Girls (Rustayar Project)1 Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: The project is directed at the training of female community development agents to work in the villages through the framework of the Cultural Houses. It is directed at unmarried women 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered from interviews with officials of the Ministry of Rural Affairs: the Head of the Cultural House Organization, the Project Administrator for the Rural Centers for the Training of Rural Girls, and the Head of the Cultural House Research Branch of the Office of Rural Research. Addi— tional material was gathered in an interview with the Head of the Department of Educational Methods and Programs of the National Center for Adult Education and Training. The interviews occurred during May to July 1977. 156 from the villages in the age group 17-25 with a fifth grade education. Upon completion of a nine month training program, the women are returned to their home villages as Cultural House agents. Their primary responsibilities are the teaching of women and infants.1 Success Criterion: This was designated a successful project. The project was begun in 1975. The first class graduated 581 women in 1976. Currently, there are six centers operating throughout the country with a total of 1,555 female students. Project Linkages A. Integpeted rural development: This project is not linked to a broader program of rural development. B. Men's program: There is a collateral project for rural males. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at both males and females. D. Support: This project does not receive foreign assistance.2 Project Participation E. Decision making; The curriculum is centrally determined and administered by the Ministry of Rural Affairs. F. Resource commitment: The training provided is free. Students do not provide their own learning materials. G. Community involvement: The local community is involved in the selection of women designated to receive training.3 Beginning this year, the village board, which oversees the Cultural House will be responsible for hiring and firing the women.“ H. Payment for perticipation: Women attending the course are provided with free room and board and a small salary while in training. 1Government of Iran, "Rural Corps and Their Difficulties," 1977. (Mimeographed.) zIbid. 3Interview with the Head of the Department of Educational Methods and Programs of the National Center for Adult Education and Training in May 1977. 1“Interview with the Head of the Cultural House Organization in July 1977. 157 Project Content I. Relevance: The women are trained directly in the areas in which they will have to perform upon graduation. Women receive blocks of instruction in Iranian sociology, agricultural tech— niques, literacy, family planning, statistics generation, first aid, child care, bookkeeping, handicrafts, and home economics. J. Skill acquisition: Women are provided with a remunerative skill. Upon graduation, they become salaried employees of the Ministry of Rural Affairs. K. Content area: This is essentially a job training project which is not directly related to preparing the women for their domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: A multi-sector approach to the needs of the participants is taken. The curriculum is very broad ranging over many areas. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: The curriculum for the training of the female worker is education through memorization. Dif— ficulty is being experienced in the ability and motivation of the women to perform in the practical sphere upon graduation. Consequently, many of the services and classes promised by this project are not being provided to the village women. Quality is a serious problem in areas where services are provided. Project Name: Saveh Experimental Functional Literacy Project- Project Type: Functional Literacy/Family Care Project Status: Completed Description: The project began in 1972 in an attempt to solve problems indicated by the Esfahan/Dezful Work Oriented Adult Literacy Project. The first classes were held in 197%, the project was completed in 1975.1 The broad objectives of the project were: (1) Determining the charac- teristics and needs of rural women; (2) Developing effective methods and materials for the education and training of rural women throughout the lParviz Homayounpour, The Experimental Functional Literacy Program of the Women's Organization of Iran (Teheran: Women's Orga— nization of Iran, 1975), pp. 8, 24. 158 country; and (3) Testing the effectiveness of functional literacy methods in meeting the needs of rural women.1 Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. In the first stage, the retention rate was 50 percent; in the second stage, it increased to 88 percent.2 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project was not linked to other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/social services. Men's program: Classes were not open to males. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at females and not subsequently modified. D. Support: The project was assisted by UNESCO.3 Project Participation E. Decision making: A survey of the characteristics and needs of the rural women was conducted in 60 villages in the Saveh area. Educational programs were prepared based upon this survey.“ F. Resource commitment:w Classes and learning materials were free to participants.5 G. Community involvement: Instructors were selected from women in the community served. The Village Council was also closely involved in the project.6 1Government of Iran, The Experimental Functional Literacy Project for the Social and Economic Promotion of Rural Women, 1977, p. 11. 2Ibid., pp. 72, 78. 3Ibid., p. i. l'Ibid., pp. 21, 23. 5Interview with the Head of the Department of Educational Methods and Programs, National Center for Adult Education and Training, July 1977. 6Homayounpour, p. 1n. 159 H. Peyment for participation: Women were not paid to participate.1 Project Content I. Relevance: The curriculum was relevant to the immediate, daily needs of the participants. Sequences in the curriculum included: family planning, sewing, food, hygiene, agriculture, environmental sanitation, cooking, personal hygiene, home sanitation, common diseases, and knitting. J. Skill acquisition: Some—sequences in the curriculum were directed at teaching the woman remunerative technical skills. A handicpafts cooperative, which is still functioning was begun in 1975. K. Content area: The majority of sequences were related to the woman's domestic role as wife and mother. L. Compartmentalization of needs: The project took a multi—sector approach to the needs of the woman. Curriculum sequences responded to the woman's needs in several areas. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Initially, the project experienced an unwillingness of villagers to cooperate. The villagers said that peOple from other organizations had started different pro- grams then left in the initial stages and caused disappointment.“ Initially, 60 villages were identified as potential class sites. Following the previously mentioned survey, the choice was narrowed to 25 villages. Finally, due to a recognition of incipient problems, 17 villages were chosen in which to begin project classes.S Classes were conducted as promised in these villages. 1Interview with the Head of the Department of Educational Methods and Programs, July 1977. 2Homayounpour, p. 36. 3Government of Iran, The Experimental Functional Literacy! Project, p. #8. I‘United Nations, Final Report on Agricultural and Vocational Training, 197A, p. 9. 5Government of Iran, The Experimental Functional Literaey, Project, p. 22. Project 160 Name: Shemiran Integrated Health Project Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: The objective of the project is the training of village level health workers who will provide villagers with basic health care. The project area covers 1,500 kilometers north of Teheran with a popu- lation of 50,000 distributed in 200 villages. Each team of two health workers Success is assigned to a Health House, constructed by the village.1 Criterion: The number of health workers was 50 (25 men and 25 women) in January 1977, assigned to 25 Health Houses.2 This number of Health Houses had increased to 28 by September 1977 with a corre- sponding rise in the number of health workers.3 Project Linkages A. D. Project Integrated rural development: The project is not linked to other development projects in an effort to simultaneously improve rural productive/social services. Men's program: Males, as well as females, are trained as village level health workers. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both sexes and has not been modified. - Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance. Participation E. Decision making: Both needs and the curriculum are centrally determined by the Imperial Organization of Social Services.” Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are provided free of charge. 1United Nations, Assignment Report, Support to the Population Programme, Iran, January 1977, p. 11. 21bid. 3"Health Scheme, A Model for a National Network," Kayhan International, September H, 1977. ”Ibid.l H. Project 161 Community involvement: The village community is involved in the selection of individuals to be trained as health workers. The villagers recommend several people of either sex. Final selection is by the project administrator.1 Payment for participation: During training, each participant is paid enough for room and board.2 Content I. Project Relevance: Participants are trained directly in the areas in which they will have to perform upon graduation. Training is one year and includes courses in the diagnosis and treatment of common village diseases, hygiene, first aid, and the use of simple drugs.3 Skill acquisition: Participants are trained in remunerative technical skills. Upon graduation, they become salaried employees of the government. Content area: This is a vocational training project which is not directed at preparing female participants for their domestic roles. Compartmentalization of needs: A single sector approach to participant needs is taken. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only job-related content. Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Prior to the implementation of this project, the area had only 11 health clinics to serve the 50,000 population. Now, there are 28 Health Houses (lower level health clinics), and one health worker per 1,000 people. Health care has been extended to villages previously denied it by their isolation. The expectations of the villagers for improved health care and the participants for employment are being met by this project.“ 1Government of Pakistan, p. 25. 2Ibid. 3Kayhan International, September n, 1977. I'United Nations, Support to Population Programme, Iran, p. 11. 162 Project Name: West Azerbaijan Health Services Research Project Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) Project Status: Current Description: This project was begun in West Azerbaijan, a province in northwestern Iran. Its objectives were: (1) the provision of contin- uous functions of primary health care accessible to and acceptable by the population; (2) to insure the adaptability of the service to cope with the changing circumstances of the population; and (3) the estab- lishment of links higher in the hierarchy to provide a channel through which the primary care level could express the health needs of the population. To achieve these objectives, it was decided to construct Health Houses. Male and female village level health workers were introduced into the rural environment to provide primary level health care. Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. By 1976, some 150 workers had been trained and 55 Health Houses opened.2 Currently village health workers total 300; of these, 200 are women. Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is solely concerned with health services and is not linked to other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/ social services. B. Men's program: Both males and females are trained. C. Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed to both males and females and not later modified. D. Support: The project receives international assistance from the World Health Organization and the United Nations Development Program." 1United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, p. 7. 2United Nations, Health Services Development Research Project, Findings and Recommendations, 1976, p. 8. 3Interview with the Director of the West Azerbaijan Health Services Development Research Project in October 1977. l‘United Nations, Evaluation of Primary Health Care Projects, p. 2. 163 Project Participation E. Decision making: Needs assessments of participants are not done. The curriculum is determined by project administrators. 1 F. Resource commitment: Classes and learning materials are provided free of charge. G. Community involvement: Trainees are selected by the village council or headman. Final selection is made by the project officials.2 H. Payment for participation: During training, participants are paid a salary.3 Project Content I. Relevance: Participants are trained directly in the areas in which they will have to perform upon completion of training. Training is two years long, with five to six months spent in the classroom. The remainder of the time is spent in in- service training.“ J. Skill acquisition: Participants are trained in remunerative technical skills, upon graduation they are employed by the government. K. Content area: This is a vocational training project which is not directed at preparing female participants for domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: A single sector approach to participant needs is taken. The curriculum is narrowly defined to provide only job-related content. 1Government of Iran, Implementation Training Program for Front Line Health Workers. Provisional Program of Instruction for Behvarz, August 1975, p. 6. 2Government of Pakistan, p. 6. 3Ibid., p. 8. “Ibid., p. 6. 51bid., p. 8. 164 Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Since the beginning of the project, three rural health clinics and at least 55 Health Houses have been constructed.1 In addition, family planning has been accepted by 50 to 75 percent of the eligible couples; infant mortality has been reduced from 138 to less than 80 per 1,000 live births; and more than 70 percent of the homes have latrines.2 The villager's expectations of improved health services and the participants' for employment are being met by this project. Project Name: Women's Health Corps3 Project Type: Family Care Project Status: Current Description: The Health Corps was established in 1963, a separate Women's Health Corps was begun in 1968. The objective of the Health Corps is to promote rural public health, raise the level of health knowledge in the villages by moving qualified professionals and para- professionals from the city to the village.“ The Women's Health Corps concentrates almost exclusively on family planning.5 Success Criterion: This was designated a successful project. In 1973, a total of 144,683 family planning visits were made by women.6 This increased to 187,157 in 1976. 1Ibid., p. 9. 2United Nations, Support to Population Programme, Iran, p. 11. 3Unlessotherwise noted, material on this project was gathered from the Director-General of the Women's Health Corps. This interview was held in July 1977. I'Government of Iran, The Health Corps. Seven Years Progress, 1970, pp. 6, 8. 5United Nations, Support to the Population Progremme, Iran, p. 5. . 6Government of Iran, Statistical Yearbook of Iran (March 1973— March 1974), June 1976, p. 294. 165 Project Linkages Integrated rural development: This project is part of an overall rural development program. A program of Home Corps was begun in the early 19608 to develop the rural areas. The Literacy Corps works in the area of education; the Development Corps in improving production; and the Health Corps is directed to the health needs of village communities. Men's program: There is a collateral project for men in family planning which is under the Male Health Corps. Rural Health- Corps clinics serve both sexes.1 Implementation sequence: Since its inception, the broad Health Corps program has been directed at both men and women. The later creation of the Women's Health Corps was directed at increasing the services available to the rural woman. Support: The Health Corps receives no international assistance. Participation Decision making; Needs assessments of women are not done prior to introducing the Women's Health Corps into a village. The curriculum for the periodic education sessions on family planning, and other health problems is centrally directed. Resource commitment: Services are provided free of charge. Community involvement: Self help labor must be provided for the construction of the Health Corps clinics; villagers may be asked to provide rooms for Corps women; village women may participate in the educational programs as paraprofessionals. Payment for participation: In return for attendance, participants receive contraceptive devices. Content Relevance: Educational content is relevant to the daily health needs of the women. Skill acquisition: Technical skills are not taught. Content area: Content is related to the domestic role of the woman. 1United Nations, Support to the Population Programme, Iran, 166 L. Compartmentalization of needs: The Health Corps takes a single sector approach, concentrating on the health needs of participants. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Once the Health Corps enters a village, services promised are provided. Project Name: Women's Literacy Corps Project Type: Literacy Project Status: Current Description: The Literacy Corps was established in 1963, a separate Women's Literacy Corps was begun in 1968. The objective of the Literacy Corps is to bring education to the villages. Two primary activities are carried out: establishing/staffing elementary schools for children and conducting adult literacy classes. Success Criterion: Designated a successful program. During the period 1963-68, 11,000 rural women received literacy instruction from the Literacy Corps.2 In 1973-74, 31,000 rural women were instructed.3 This figure increased in 1975-76 to 40,703.“ Project Linkages A. Integreted rural development: This project is part of an overall integrated rural development program. A program of Home Corps was begun in the early 19603 to develop the rural areas. The Literacy Corps works in the area of education. B. Men's program: There is a collateral project for men which is under the supervision of the Men's Literacy Corps. In addition, men are occasionally instructed by the Women's Corps. From 1968-76, 16,000 men were in classes held by the Women's Corps.s 1Government of Iran, Literacy: An Historic Necessity, pp. 6, 21. 2Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman Past and Present, p. 25. 3Government of Iran, Literacy: An Historic Necessity, p. 24. “Government of Iran, Educational Statistics, 1977, p. 44. 5Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman Past and Present, p. 25. D. Project 167 Implementation sequence: Since its inception, the broad Literacy Corps program has been directed at both men and women. The later creation of the Women's Literacy Corps was directed at increasing the services available to the rural woman. Support: The Literacy Corps receives no international assistance. Participation E. Project Decision making: Needs assessments of women are not done prior to introducing the Women's Literacy Corps into a village. The literacy curriculum is centrally directed by the Ministry of Education and the Army.1 Resource commitment: Classes are provided free of charge to the participant. Community involvement: Self help labor must be provided by the village for the construction of classrooms. Payment for participation: Participants are not rewarded with either cash or goods for attendance. Content Relevance: This project is solely concerned with literacy instruction. In the rural areas of Iran, literacy is not a prerequisite for satisfying daily needs.2 Skill acquisition: Instruction in technical skills is not an objective of the project. Content area: Literacy instruction is not directed at preparing the woman for her domestic role. Compartmentalization of needs: The Literacy Corps takes a single sector approach, concentrating on the perceived needs of the participants for literacy. 1Janet Bauer, A Multidimensional Approach to Literacy Within the Framework of Audio Visual Technology (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 41. 2See International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, A Survey of Reader Interest and Preference in Eight Iranian Villages (Teheran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, 1977), p. 26. Project M. Project 168 Execution Fulfillment of expectations: Once the Literacy Corps becomes established in a village, educational services promised are provided. Name: Women's Organization of Iran: Family Planning1 Project Type: Family Care Project Status: Current Description: Family planning education and contraceptives are available to urban and rural women through the Family Welfare Centers of the Women's Success Organization which are throughout the country.2 Criterion: Designated a successful project. In 1973, 83,469 visits were made to family planning clinics; in 1974, 119,621; and in the first six months of 1975, 70,942.3 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: This project is not part of an overall rural development plan. The Family Welfare Centers are not linked with other development projects in a simultaneous effort to improve rural productive/social services. Men's program: No classes are offered for men.|+ Implementation sequence: The project was initially directed at females only and not modified. Support: The project does not receive foreign assistance. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in an interview with the Head of the Public Relations Department, Women's Organization of Iran in September 1977. 2Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman Past and Present, p. 62. 3Ibid. “Ibid., p. 58. 169 Project Participation E. Decision making: Curriculum and needs are centrally determined. F. Resource commitment: Participants are required to pay a small fee for the services. ' G. Community involvement: Instructors are paraprofessionals from the local community. Usually, local members of the Women's Organization volunteer to instruct. H. Payment for participation: Participants must pay for the contraceptives and are not rewarded for attendance. Project Content I. Relevance: The educational content is relevant to the health needs of the participants. J. Skill acquisition: Technical skills are not taught. K. Content area: Content is related to the domestic role of the woman. L. Compartmentalization of needs: The project takes a single sector approach, concentrating on the family planning needs of the participants. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Once a Family Welfare Center is established, family planning instruction is begun. Participants are provided with the promised services. Project Name: Women's Organization of Iran: Functional Literacy2 Project Type: Functional Literacy/Skill Acquisition Project Status: Current Description: Functional literacy classes are conducted through the _Family Welfare Centers of the Women's Organization which are located 11bid., p. 62. 2Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in an interview with the Head of the Public Relations Department, Women's Organization of Iran in September 1977. 170 throughout the country. The courses are for low-income women living within the area of responsibility of each center. In the current literacy crusade, the Women's Organization is targeted to instruct three rural for every one urban woman in functional literacy.1 Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. In 1974, 16,000 women were instructed. During the first six months of 1975, 35,000 women were enrolled in functional literacy classes.2 Project Linkages O A. Integrated rural development: See preceding project. B. Men's program: See preceding project. C. Implementation sequence: See preceding project. D. Support: See preceding project. Project Participation E. Decision making: Curriculum and needs are centrally determined. F. Resource commitment: Participants are required to pay a small fee for the courses. G. Community involvment: Instructors are paraprofessionals from the local community. Usually local members of the Women's Organization volunteer to instruct. H. Payment for participation: Participants are not rewarded for attendance. Project Content I. Relevance: In addition to teaching literacy, the project is directed at providing the rural woman with skills which will provide alternative sources of income. Skills studied are primarily in the areas of rug weaving, sewing, and handicrafts.3 _ 1Government of Iran, Initial Plan for the National Literacy Crusade, p. 54. 2Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman Past and Present, p. 48. 31bid. 171 J. Skill acquisition: Instruction in technical skills is one objective of the project. K. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: This project takes a multi- sector approach. Women's needs are responded to in two areas: Literacy and skill acquisition. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Once a Family Welfare Center is established, the classes promised by this project are being taught. Participants are being provided with the promised services. Project Name: Women's Organization of Iran: Literacy Project1 Project Type: Literacy Project Status: Current Description: This project was begun on an experimental basis in 1972 in five provinces. In 1973, it was expanded to all provinces.2 Classes are conducted by the network of Family Welfare Centers. Success Criterion: Designated an unsuccessful project. In 1975, 41,611 adult women enrolled in literacy classes. In the first six months of 1976, the enrollment dropped to 12,576. In the provinces alone, there was a decline in new students from 14,199 in the second half of 1975 to 2,302 in the first half of 1978.3 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: See preceding project. B. Men's program: See preceding project. 1Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in an interview with the Head of the Public Relations Department, Women's Organization of Iran in September 1977. 2Government of Iran, Tenth Anniversary of the International Literacy Dey, p. 76. 3Government of Iran, Report of Iranian Women's Orgenization Activities for the Second Half of 2534 and the First Half of 2535, January 1977, p. 95. 172 C. Implementation sequence: See preceding project. D. Support: See preceding project. Project Participation E. Decision making: See preceding project. F. Resource commitment: See preceding project. G. Community involvement: See preceding project. H. Payment for participation: See preceding project. Project Content I. Relevance: This project is solely concerned with literacy instruction. In rural communities in Iran, literacy is not a prerequisite for satisfying the daily needs of the woman. J. Skill acquisition: Instruction in technical skills is not an objective of the project. K. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. L. Compartmentalization of needs: A single sector approach is taken, concentrating on the perceived needs of the participants for literacy. Project Execution M. Fulfillment of expectations: Once a Family Welfare Center is established, the classes promised by the project are taught. Participants are being provided with the promised services. Project Name: Women's Organization of Iran: Vocational Education2 Project Type: Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training) 1See International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, A Survey of Reader Interest and Preference in Eight Iranian Villages (Teheran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, 1977), p. 26. 2Unless otherwise noted, material on this project was gathered in an interview with the Head of Public Relations Department, Women's Organization of Iran in September 1977. 173 Project Status: Current Description: Vocational training courses are designed by the Ministry of Labor in combination with the Women's Organization. They are offered to both urban and rural women through the Family Welfare Centers. Success Criterion: Designated a successful project. In 1974, 46,013 women were instructed. During the first six months of 1975, 46,013 women were enrolled in the vocational training courses.2 Project Linkages A. Integrated rural development: See preceding project. B. Men's program: See preceding project. C. Implementation sequence: See preceding project. D. Support: See preceding project. Project Participation E. Decision making: The vocational training courses are adapted to the needs and abilities of the communities involved. However, the needs are centrally determined and not defined by the local participants.3 The curriculum is centrally determined. F. Resource commitment} See preceding project. G. Community involvement: See preceding project. H. Payment for participation: See preceding project. Project Content I. Relevance: The project is directed at providing the rural woman with skills which will provide alternative sources of income. Skills studied vary from cottage industry training to skilled industry training in electronics, petro-chemicals, and plastic.“ 1Government of Iran, The Iranian Woman Past and Present, p. 48. 2Ibid., p. 62. 31bid., p. us. “Ibid. Project 174 Skill acquisition: The objective of the project is instruction in technical skills. Content area: The project is not concerned with the preparation of women for their domestic roles. Compartmentalization of needs: The project takes a single sector approach. Women's needs are responded to in one area: vocational training. Execution Fulfillment of expectations: Once a Family Welfare Center is established, the classes promised by this project are being taught. 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Wm OT. m 3 .... T. T. 7.. “S m “738 ..3 JIO 1:90 7:90 0 J8 In. 93 1I u s m on A MN 8... 0.9 t. t.31 1 II1 S1 0 d as e 1 .... 1.1 at. o 1 an a asa we 333 as m d e ....s W m... n. n w}. an.» as u PA P D...D. “up. D.sD. xP m 1 m mu u m 10 u 1 N1 s .. “1 m m. 1 N1 Ta 1 oo .. o 1 s as m 1 m. .n w. muoowona consumasaoc Hagen co muse appease .sm canoe BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Association for Childhood Education International. Nutrition and Intellectual Growth in Children. Washington, D.C.: Association for Childhood Education International, 1969. Boserup, Ester. Woman's Role in Economic Development. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1970. Buvinic, Mayra. Women and World Development: An Annotated Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976. Duncan, Greg. "Educational Attainment." In Five Thousand American Families' Patterns of Economic Progress. Edited by J. Morgan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1971. Galbraith, John. Economics and the Public Purpose. 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