THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
IN THE MODERNIZATION
OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
ELY D. GOMEZ
1 9 69

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
IN THE MODERNIZATION
OF THE INDIVIDUAL

presented by
Ely D. Gomez'

. “JV"; V‘
has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. , Educatien
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ABSTRACT

THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
IN THE MODERNIZATION
OF THE INDIVIDUAL
By

Ely D. Gomez

There is general consensus that mass media are
important in developing countries. However, there is no unanim-
ity as to the actual role they £311.11 play. The purpose of this
exploratory study was to ascertain the role that mass media play in
the process of modernization. Pertinent research literature-was
reviewed and generalizations formed regarding this role, particu-
larly as it pertains to the individual.

The theoretical scheme for this study centered around
two major concepts--mass media and modernization. Assumptions
established about mass media were: (1) that the philosophy, role,
functions and potentialities of mass media are determined by the
nature of the social system; and (2) that they serve as agents of

reinforcement rather than agents of change. Assumptions

Ely D. Gomez

established about modernization were: (1) it is a process involving
both societal and individual changes; (2) as a process involving
changes within the individual, it can be viewed both in terms of
changes in attitude and behavior; and (3) it is a multilinear process
and/or a multivariate phenomenon.

Studies were selected for review according to a specific
set of criteria: (1) they must be of an empirical nature, and (2) they
must deal with the relationship between some aspects of mass media
and either the modernization of the individual or the modernization
of the social system. The studies were categorized as to correla-
tional studies and field experiments. The individual, village, and
nation were used as unit(s) of analysis.

The studies were analyzed according to the following
generalizations:

(1) In general, mass media exposure creates in the
individual a favorable climate or attitude toward modernization
rather than providing specific behavioral skills.

(2) In general, mass media exposure is not likely to be
inherently one kind of variable, i. e. , it can act as an antecedent,
an intervening and a consequential. variable in the process of

modernization.

Ely D. Gomez

(3) In general, mass media exposure is not the only good
predictor of modernization.

For the most part, the empirical studies reviewed tend
to support the generalizations. Mass media can be effective in
creating awareness, interest and favorable attitudes, but are less
effective in teaching specific behavioral skills. Secondly, mass
media exposure acts as an antecedent and an intervening variable
but ELI. as a consequential variable in the process of modernization.
Lastly, although mass media exposure is a good predictor of mod-
ernization, other variables such as education, literacy, and social
status may serve as equally good predictors.

The results of the study have provided a framework in
which the roles of mass media in modernization can be viewed. But
this is only one step forward. It is hoped that the implications for
mass media discerned in this study will open avenues for further

research which will eventually lead to more viable generalizations.

THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
IN THE MODERNIZATION

OF THE INDIVIDUAL
By

093 aha
Ely D. Gomez

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of .

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education

1969

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her indebtedness to
Dr. Robert D. Kline, her doctoral committee chairman, for his
personal interest, guidance and invaluable assistance in the con-
duct of this study. Sincere appreciation is also extended to the
other members of her guidance committee: Dr. Hideya Kumata,
Dr. Walter F. Johnson and Dr. Frederick E. Waisanen, for their
continuing guidance throughout her doctoral program.

The writer also wishes to express her profound grati—
tude to the Rockefeller Foundation for granting financial support;
and to the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture for
granting study leave, which made it possible for her to pursue
graduate work at .Michigan State University.

Finally, the writer is very grateful to her friends for

moral support and to her family for an understanding that knows no

bounds.

ii

TABLE OF CONTEN TS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Plan of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
AND FORMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . 7
Mass Communication vs. Mass Media
vs. Interpersonal Communication . . . . . . 7
Modernization vs. Modernity . . . . . . . . 10
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7
III. SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS
OF RESEARCH STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Correlational Studies . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Individual and Village as
Units of Analyses . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Nation as Unit of Analysis . . . . . . . 49

iii

Chapter

Field Experiments .
Field Experiments on Mass Media
Field Experiments on Mass Media
and Interpersonal Communication .

Discussion .
Mass Media Exposure--A Creator
of Favorable Attitude or Provider
of Behavioral Skills .

Mass Media Exposure--An Antecedent,

an Intervening and a Consequential
Variable .

Mass Media Exposure Is Not the Only

Good Predictor of Modernization
. IV. CONCLUSIONS .
Summary . .
Implications for Research

Pra ct1 cal Implications

REFERENCES

iv

Page

63
64

72
85

86

89
92
96
96
98
105

109

Table

LIST OF TABLE S

Correlational Studies on the Role of Mass
Media in the Modernization Process with
the Individual as Unit of Analysis .

Correlational Studies on the Role of Mass
Media in the Modernization Process with

the Village as Unit of Analysis .

Factor Analytic Investigation of Macro-
Level Studies on National Development

Factor Analytic Investigation of Micro-

Level Studies on Individual Modernization .

Field Experiments on Mass Media

Field Experiments on Mass Media and
Interpersonal Communication

Page

33

38

52

57

65

74

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Paradigm of the Role of Mass Media in
the Process of Modernization. . . . . . . . . . . 40

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The process of change in the modern era . . . is the
most dynamic of the great revolutionary transformations in
the conduct of human affairs. . . . Man perceives oppor-
tunities and dangers that for the first time in human existence
are global in character, and the need to comprehend the
opportunities and master the dangers is the greatest challenge
that he has faced. (Black, 1966, p. 4)

Scope of the Study

 

There has been an increasingly awakened desire for
improvement in the developing countries of the world today. As
Gill (1963, p. 84) remarked: "What is new in the modern under-
deveIOped countries is not the fact that they are poor but the fact
that they have become aware of being poor and have grown increas-
ingly determined to do something about it. ” The realization that
there is a better way of life has made people in these countries
intensify their demand for rapid progress.

It appears that change in these developing nations is
inevitable. The question now is not whether people will change but

how they Will change. Schramm (1964, p. 35) stated this explicitly

when he said: "Change will be coming to those developing countries,
and the questions are not whether, but how fast, by what methods,
and in precisely what directions. "

This does not preclude the fact that, in changing,
choices are possible, provided they are made within certain limits.
However, people "need to know what choices are possible, what
limits are upon choice and what opportunities lie beyond a given
choice, if they are to make use of local choice whatsoever" (Schramm,
1964, p. 36). It is along this line that social scientists can play an
important role. They may be able to help people make rational
choices by studying the processes involved in social change.

Research studies conducted on developing countries have
looked into the variables leading to social change, or to use the new

' Social scientists prefer to use the concept

term, "modernization.'
"modernization" instead of social change because it is "theoretically
useful. "*

Over and over again, exposure to mass media has been

suggested as a "crucial variable in causing large-scale directed

 

*Lalit K. Sen, in "The Concepts of Tradition and
Modernity: A Re-evaluation" presented at the Second World Con-
gress of Rural Sociology in the Netherlands in August, 1968, said:
"This new term 'modernization, ' bears the stamp of our con-
temporary age and reflects the frustrations of social scientists
with the sterility of the concept of ' social change. ' "

social change and economic development in developing societies"
(Rogers, 1965-66, p. 614). As such, the mass media earned such
labels as the "great multiplier" (Lerner, 1958), the "smoother of
transition" (Rao, 1966), and provider of a "climate for development"
(Schramm, 1964).

There is a growing interest among social scientists
today concerning the role that the mass media play in the modern-
ization of less-developed countries. Whereas a few decades ago this
topic was hardly an object of investigation, today it has become one
of the important research areas in the behavioral sciences. Con-
sequently, in recent years empirical investigations in this area have
proliferated.

Studies have been done both at the micro- and macro-
levels of analysis* on the role of mass media in modernization, but
to the knowledge of the present writer, there has been no attempt to
make a systematic documentation and review of them. Moreover,
these empirical investigations have not provided any theoretical base
for the role of mass media in the modernization process. The

present study will attempt to fill this need. More specifically, the

 

*Micro-level studies generally use the individual as unit
of analysis whereas macro-level or aggregate studies use a large
socio-geographical entity such as the village or nation.

role of mass media in modernizing the individual will be the major
focus of the study.

This study has two goals: (1) to provide social science w! ‘
researchers some guidelines for future research, and more
important; (2) to put the role that the mass media play in the
modernization of the individual into focus. The objective of the
study, however, is not necessarily to advance a single theory of
mass communication in modernizing societies but rather to open new

avenues that will lead to further investigations.

Plan of the Study

 

In essence the present study isformulative or ex lora-. I,

 

fly (Selltiz, e_t_a_1. , 1951). The main purpose of an exploratory \,..---~
study is the formulation of relevant hypotheses for more definitive LL
investigation. Three different methods are considered useful when
making an exploratory study: ( 1) a review of related social science I .
and other pertinent literature; (2) a survey of people who had prac-._
tical experience with the problem to be studied; and (3) an analysis
of "insight-stimulating" examples (Selltiz, i2} , 1951, p. 53).

The first method was used in this study. Thus, I,
research literature pertinent to the role of mass media in the mod-w

ernization process was reviewed with the primary purpose of I

forming hypotheses or generalizations that may lead to further I/
investigations.

Empirical studies reviewed were taken from social W”
science research journals and monographs, doctoral dissertations, L
and other relevant research publications. In addition to these gen-.-
eral sources, research studies conducted by different universities
involved in international communications and/or national develop-
ment programs were also looked into.

Due to the vast amount of materials published in this I,
field, it was necessary to limit the selection of the research studies
reviewed. The two criteria used in the selection were: (1) the study L,»
must be of an empirical nature, and (2) the study must deal with the w
relationship between some aspects of mass media and the modern-
ization of the individual or the social system.

For purposes of simplification, the research studies w
reviewed were categorized in two major categories with subcate-

gories as listed below:

1. Correlational Studies I ./
a. The individual as unit of analysis
b. The village or nation asunit of analysis
c. The individual and the village or nation as

units of analyses

2. Field Experiments v/
a. On mass media only
(1) The individual as unit of analysis
(2) The village or nation as unit of analysis
(3) The individual and the village or nation
as units of analyses
b. On mass media and interpersonal communi-
cation
(1) The individual as unit of analysis
(2) The village or nation as unit of analysis
(3) The individual and the village or nation
as units of analyses
Thus, Chapter I has discussed the BFWISIBPI‘ the study,
i. e. , the need to systematically review and document empirical .x
studies concerned with the role of mass media in modernization with
emphasis on the individual. The exploratory research conducted /'
served as a basis for the plan of this study. Chapter II is devoted to w‘
a discussion of the theoretical background for the study. With this w"
background, a synthesis and analysis of the research studies re-
viewed are developed inhpChapter .111. Chapter IV summarizes and
points out the specific trends of these studies. A set of generaliza- ~

tions is formulated which may generate further research.

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

AND FORMULATION

Communication is the web of human society. The I! I
structure of a communication system with its more or less ' '
well-defined channels is in a sense the skeleton of the social
body which envelops it. The content of communications is of .
course the very substance of human intercourse. The flow of ’
communications determines the direction and pace of dynamic
social development. Hence, it is possible to analyze all
social processes in terms of the structure, content, and flow
of communications. (Pye, 1963, p. 4)

There are two major concepts in the study that need ~—
explicati on: mass media and modernization. A primary task of this
chapter is therefore to examine these concepts by reviewing several
theoretical viewpoints. Basedon this review, a set of basic assump-
tions will be derived and a set of generalizations, inferring the role of

mass media in the modernization of the individual, will be developed.

Definition of Terms

 

Mass Communication
vs. Mass Media vs.
Interpersonal Communication

 

 

 

Some authors use the terms "mass media" and "mass

communication" interchangeably but for purposes of this study,

mass communication will refer to a process (leaning to the abstract)
and mass media to the means (leaning to the concrete).

Thus, Wright (1959) defines mass communication as:

. a form of human communication which is directed toward
relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous audiences;
messages are transmitted publicly, often timed to reach most
audience members simultaneously, and are transient in
character; the communicator tends to be, or to operate within,
a complex organization that may involve great expense (p. 15).

Similarly, Larsen (1964) refers to it as:

. the relatively simultaneous exposure of large, hetero-
geneous audiences to symbols transmitted by impersonal
means from an organized source for whom audience members
are anonymous (p. 348).

On the other hand, mass media refer to the means of -:“
transmitting, or the carriers of, a message to the mass audience.
Thus, the mass media will include the print media such as news-.»
papers, books and magazines; the electronic or broadcast media of
radio and television; and motion pictures.

.\ The word "mass" connotes large numbers of peeple who
are heterogeneous, anonymous, unorganized, and with little inter-
action with each other~(Blumer, 1946; Wirth, 1960).

The main variable of interest in the present study is w

mass media exposure which refers to such activities as reading a

 

newspaper or magazine, listening to the radio, watching television

and attending the cinema.

Questions approximating the following were used as
criteria to determine whether mass media exposure was used as a
variable in the empirical studies reviewed:

Radio: Approximately how many hours a day do
you listen to radio?

Television: Approximately how many hours a day
do you watch television?

Print: Which newspapers/magazines do you read
daily or regularly?

Film: How many times in a year do you see a
motion picture?

Interpersonal communication, as contrasted with mass
communication, refers to a direct face -to-face exchange between
the communicator and the recipient of the communication message.

Some of the distinguishing characteristics are as
follows: (1) it permits greater flexibility of content, (2) it is more
casual, apparently less purposive, and more difficult to avoid,

(3) it provides immediate provision of reward and punishment,

(4) the communicator can sometimes achieve his purpose without

actually persuading the audience to accept his point of view, and

(5) peOple are likely to put their trust in the judgment and viewpoint

of persons whom they know and respect (Lazarsfeld, _e_t_31. , 1948).
In addition, more sensory channels are usually involved

in face-to-face communication, thereby resulting in a rapid exchange

10

of information between persons each of whom may serve as receiver
and sender of messages. On the other hand, in mass communication, ./
the input of information from the receiver or audience is less, _/—~
because the flow of information is largely in one direction, i. e. ,

from the mass media to the audience (Westley and MacLean, 1955). --

Speaking in terms of persuasive messages, interpersonal
communication is more likely to reach people who are undecided or
have opposing views than the mass media. People approach mass
media messages with an awareness of their purpose. This is unlike
in face-to-face communication where people are less defensive.
However, whilewinterpersonal communication makes attitude change
possible, it is of relatively less importance in changing cognitions
or increasing knowledge (Lazarsfeld and Menzel, 1963).

Regardless of some differences between these two forms
of communication--interpers.onal and mass communication--their
basic elements are essentially the same. In both cases, the com—
municants encode and transmit messages, select and decode mes-

sages, and elicit responses.

. Modernization vs. Modernity

 

Modernization implies a process of change; an evolution-w”

ary transformation of human affairs. Black (1966, p. 7) defines it

11

as the "process by which historically evolved institutions are
adapted to the rapidly changing functions that reflect the unprece-
dented increase in man' 3 knowledge, permitting control over his
environment, that accompanied the scientific revolution. ”
Similarly, Feldman and Hum (1966, p. 378) define
modernization as those "social changes that generate institutions

' More

and organizations like those found in advanced societies. '
specifically, Rogers (1968, p. 20) refers to it as the "process by
which individuals change from a traditional way of life to a more
complex, technologically-advanced, rapidly changing style of life. "

Modernity connotes a state of being. Smith and Inkeles
(1966) suggest two referents of modernity: society and individual.
When used to describe a society, it means a "national state char-
acterized by a complex of traits including urbanization, extensive
mechanization, high rates of social mobility and the like." When
applied to individuals, modernity refers to a "set of attitudes,
values and ways of feeling and acting, presumably of the sort either
generated by or required for effective participation in a modern
society" (p. 353).

Thus, modernization refers to societal change; the I/

process by which countries acquire the characteristics common to v/

a modern society. Modernity, however, when used in reference to u

12

individuals is primarily a state of mind. It is an "expectation of

' a "propensity to growth, " or "readiness to adapt oneself .,/-

progress,‘
to change" (Lerner, 1958)./"

In this study, the term modernization is used in refer- /'
ence to the individual instead of to society. Thus, "modernization
of the individual" refers to the acquisition of certain characteristics w.
by a person presumably as a result of exposure to mass media.

A "modern man, "

as used in this study, possesses among
others the following qualities:

1. Readiness for new experience and receptiveness to v
new ideas, e. g. , agricultural and health innovativeness.

2. Orientation toward the present and future rather ..-..
than the past. Traits like attitude toward risk -taking and commit-
ment to planning were classified under this.

3. Belief that he can shape his own future. Examples “
are such qualities as educational aspiration, occupational aspirations
and achievement motivation.

4. Awareness of the dignity of others and disposition ~—:~
to show respect for them. A person with empathic ability possesses
this trait.

5. Awareness of events happening in his environment ~/

and also outside of it. An example is an individual with political

awareness or knowledge.

13

Basic Assumptions

 

Mass Media

 

The theory underlying this study is that the mass media .

act as agents of reinforcement rather than of change. Klapper

 

(1960) has presented research evidence to substantiate this.

In a summary of research done on persuasive com-
munications, Klapper concluded that the mass media serve as rein-
forcers rather than agents of change because of the part played by
such mediating factors as the individual' 3 predispositions and the pro-
cesses of selective exposure, perception and retention; group
membership and group norms; interpersonal dissemination of com-
munication content; and Opinion leadership. Although there are
instances when changes can take place, this happens only when the
mediating factors become "inoperative" or when they are "found to
be themselves impelling toward change" (Klapper, 1960, p. 8). The
fact that there are some factors contributing to the probability that
the mass media serve as agents of reinforcement is an indication that
they must be examined.

As reinforcers rather than agents of social change, and
as reflections rather than the forefronts of change, the mass media
maintain the status quo or consensus in a society (Lazarsfeld and

Merton, 1960; Breed, 1960; Wirth, 1960). They work toward the

14

preservation of the prevailing norms of society so as not to disrupt /
the consensus which is based on common culture, values, traditions,
kinship ties and others.

Consensus here does not mean complete agreement on
all the issues among the members of society. Thus, the mass media ..
can help inculcate the feeling of belongingness to a community where
it is not likely or necessary for everyone to reach unanimity on all
matters that concern them.

The role that the mass media play in a society is ~
dependent upon the nature of the social structure. Hence, in an
authoritarian society the mass media system though not necessarily
government-owned, is used as an instrument to carry out government
policies. Criticism of the government by the media is prohibited
through such restraint measures as restrictive licensing and censor-
ship. In a Soviet-Communist type of society, the mass media are
committed to implement the objectives of Communism. Conse-
quently, the government exercises a high degree of control over the
mass media system not only in its formal organization but also in
its communication content. On the other hand, mass media in v”
Western countries generally seem to operate under a combination
of two philosophies: Libertarian and Social Responsibility. The /

Libertarian philosoPhy emphasizes the freedom of the media

15

especially from government control, whereas the Social Responsi-
bility concept dwells on the moral and social responsibilities of
persons or institutions operating the mass media. Thus, in the v
former, the mass media keep an eye on the activities of the govern-
ment; in the latter, they see to it that all sides of the information
are presented impartially and that the public has enough information
on which to base its decision (Siebert, et al. , 1956).

In this connection, there have been disagreements
regarding the type of mass media system that would speed up the
modernization of a developing country. Pye (1966) said:

Some people argue that there are certain advantages in
authoritarian methods as compared with the democratic
approach in speeding national development. . . . Others
justify poor performance in national development on the
grounds of their commitment to democracy (pp. 345-346).

Pye commented further that:

What needs to be noted is that there have been a host of
authoritarian societies that have not had great successes in
national development. Indeed, there is quite as much evidence
to suggest that authoritarian ways can impede rather than
speed up modernization. There are, in short, both efficient
and inefficient authoritarian systems just as there are effi-
cient and inefficient democracies (p. 346).

One reason for the argument seems to stem from the /”

fact that totalitarian societies invest heavily in mass media facilities.

This is unlike developing democratic societies which tend to invest /"

more on education and less on mass media. As a result, there is a /

16

great dearth of mass communication facilities in developing
democratic societies. UNESCO reported that about 120 nations
covering approximately 70 per cent of the world' 3 population do not
meet the UNESCO ”minimum" of ten copies of daily newspapers,
five radio receivers, two cinema seats, and two television sets per
100 inhabitants (Unesco, 1961, p. 16).

It appears then that one important drawback of the
developing societies that demands immediate attention concerns the
shortage of mass media facilities. This prompted Pool (1963a,
1963b) to suggest that one issue the less-developed countries must
resolve is to determine how much of their scarce resources should
be invested in the mass media.

The question of which mass media system, totalitarian ./-*
or democratic, is more effective in speeding up national develop-
ment tends to indicate that the mass media possess enormous
potential. Extensiveness, speed, relative controllability and -/"
potential effectiveness are the frequently cited attributes of mass
media for modernizing societies (Frey, 1966).

This suggests that the mass media are a quick means ‘/
of reaching large numbers of people; they can be used as instruments
for achieving developmental objectives with greater ease; and they

have the capability of being one of the most effective agents of social

17

change. Speaking about political socialization, Hyman (1963) said
that the standardization of the mass media is the ”very thing suited
to producing widespread national uniformities of patterns of
behavior. . ."(p. 142).

It must be realized, however, that the mass media also
have corresponding drawbacks. They can bring about undesirable
effects or unintended socio-psychological changes. Consequences /'
that are unwholesome or undesirable from the point of View of the
welfare of society or its members are labelled dysfunctions (Merton,
1957). Thus, the mass media may have both functional and dys-
functional effects. ,

Turning now to the functions that the mass media per» '
form, they are classified generally into four types: (1) surveillance,
(2) interpretation and prescription, (3) education, and (4) entertain-
ment (Lasswell, 1960; Wright, 1959). Surveillance principally
means forewarning the pe0ple about impending dangers and threats;
interpretation and prescription involves preventing undesirable con-
sequences of the mass communication of news through careful selec-
tion, evaluation and explanation of news; education means the trans-
mission of knowledge and social heritage to succeeding generations;
and entertainment refers to the use of mass media for amusement

purposes.

18

Two other functions of mass communication are status
conferral and enforcement of social norms. The mass media ~~
enhance the prestige of a person through news reports about him.
Likewise, the mass media tend to enforce social norms by bringing --~
into public view violation of norms (Lazarsfeld and Merton, 1960).
According to Schramm (1964), the mass media generally a/«e
perform three communication functions in developing societies:
watchman, decision-making and teaching. As watchman (a function
akin to surveillance) the media "scan the horizon" and report to the
people the information which is of significance to them. In so doing,

”creat-

they can focus attention and raise levels of aspirations, thus
ing a climate for development. " As a contributor to the decision-
making process, the mass media make available the information
necessary for the discussion of issues. As a result, they may be
able to modify slightly held attitudes or influence decisions on mat-
ters of social concern. Finally, as teacher, the mass media can
help in different forms of teaching and training. They can help
speed and facilitate the growth of literacy and education; they can
even replace or assist a poorly trained teacher.

In the light of the foregoing discussion, the following
assumptions can be made about the mass media:

1. The philosophy, role, functions and potentialities

of mass media are determined by the nature of the social system.

19

2. The mass media serve as agents of reinforcement ..

rather than agents of change.

Modernization

 

The concept "modernization" may be viewed from two
theoretical viewpoints: (1) in terms of internal factors, i. e. , socio-
psychological; or external factors, e. g. , urbanization, industriali-
zation, education, etc. , and (2) as a unilinear or multilinear process
and/ or a univariate or multivariate phenomenon. *

It appears that one way to explain modernization is in
terms of socio-psychological or personality characteristics. Sup-
port for this standpoint has been provided principally by McClelland,
Hagen and Lerner.

McClelland' s (1961) key hypothesis centers on psycho-
logical factors; in particular, on achievement motivation or the need

for achievement (n Achievement or n Ach). He theorizes that cer-

 

tain socio-psychological forces, roughly measured by high n

Achievement scores, are responsible for rapid economic growth.

 

*"Unilinear" and "multilinear" refer to a series of
stages in a process, e. g. , traditional to modern. "Univariate" and
"multivariate” refer to the number of variables involved in a pro-
cess. For example, modernization as a multivariage phenomenon
may have such dimensions as mass media exposure, education,
innovativeness, high need for achievement, high empathy, etc.

20

N Ach, which McClelland (1966, p. 38) calls a "mental virus, "

' an essential

leads to a "desire to prove oneself better than others,‘
factor to social change.

Trying to test his theory by constructing a scale of
measurement for n Achievement, McClelland concludes that a ”con-
cern for achievement as expressed in imaginative literature-~folk
tales and stories for children- -is associated in modern times with
a more rapid rate of development. . . . What people want, they
somehow get, in the main and on the average . . ." (1961, p. 105).

Like McClelland, Hagen (1962) places principal empha-
sis on the psychological factors in development. His basic theory

stresses the difference between traditional and economically pro-

gressive societies in terms of their divergent personality structures.

 

In traditional developing societies, the predominant personality type
is the authoritarian; in developed societies, the prevalent type is the /“
creative. By means of case studies, Hagen confirmed his main
hypothesis that a change in a person' s personality is the prime mover
in social change.

Lerner (1958) propounded the thesis that there is a p_r'_e_-V»

disposition among certain people to enlarge their view of the world

 

and break with their traditional attitudes and life patterns. They are

then led to seek exposure to the mass media which increases their

21

"empathy"-- the capacity "to see oneself in the other fellow' s
situation” (p. 50).

Based on data gathered from seven Middle East -
countries, Lerner (1958, pp. 54-65) advanced the following model
of modernization: increased urbanization tends to increase literacy,
rising literacy tends to increase media exposure, increased media
exposure goes with wider economic and political participation. A
modern society, in addition to being industrial, urban, literate and
"participant, " also has a high empathic capacity.

While empathy or, as it is sometimes called, ”psychic w
mobility" is a very crucial factor in modernization, Lerner (1963)
says that it is not sufficient. There must be a corresponding
achievement for every aspiration desired. It is the imbalance in
the ”want-get" ratio that leads to rising frustrations in developing
countries.

In other words, satisfaction results only when there is ./'
an equitable ratio between what an individual wants and what he gets;
or between his aspirations and his achievements. In this connection,
a study conducted by Cantril (1965) on human concerns revealed that
the expectations or demands of people are patterned largely accord-
ing to the phases of development they are in within their society.

Thetheoretical points of view mentioned here indicate

that one way to look at modernization is in terms of socio-psychological

22

factors. This implies that the process of modernization starts with
the individual. Inkeles (1966) agrees with this viewpoint. Although
he identified two schools of thought by which the modernity of man
can be examined (external, internal), he is more inclined to define
a modern man in terms of internal factors, i. e. , attitudinal and
value changes. He questions the appropriateness of calling a man
modern on the basis of external characteristics. External char-
acteristics, in this case, refer to such terms as education, urbani-
zation, industrialization, mass communication, etc. As Inkeles
commented:

Although his exposure to the modern setting may cer-
tainly contribute to the transformation of traditional man, and
although that setting may in turn require new ways of him,
it is only when man has undergone a change in spirit--has
acquired new ways of thinking, feeling and acting--that we
come to consider him truly modern (p. 140).

Within this frame of reference, Inkeles (1966, pp. 141-

146) suggested the following description of a modern man: 1 ,1

1. Modern man has readiness for new experience and

openness to innovation and change.

2. He has a disposition to form or hold opinions over

a large number of the problems and issues that arise not only in his
immediate environment but also outside of it.

3. He is oriented to the present or the future rather

than the past.

23

4. He is oriented toward and involved in planning and
organizing and believes in it as a way of handling life.

5. He believes that man can learn, in substantial
degree, to dominate his environment in order to advance his own
purposes and goals, rather than being dominated entirely by that
-. environment.

6. He has more confidence that his world is calculable;
that other people and institutions around him can be relied on to ful-
fill or'meet their obligations and responsibilities.

7. He has more awareness of the dignity of others
and more disposition to show respect for them.

8. He has more faith in science and technology.

9. He is a great believer in distributive justice, that
rewards should be according to contribution and not according to the
whim or special prOperties of a person.

The primary focus of this study is on attitude change as
the major factor in the modernization of man. In support for this,
Pool (1963b) argued that changesin values and attitudes are far
more important than changesin behavior. As an example, he cited
that the adoption of an innovation by a farmer does not necessarily
mean that he has been modernized. According to Pool:

. a far more significant change would be the development
of a scientific ‘attitude toward the adoption of new practices.

24

It is only that kind of internal changein the latent structure
of his attitudes that would. produce self-sustaining movement
toward modernization (p. 249).

Realizing the importance of attitude change in the process
of modernization, Weiner (1966, p. 9) said that "although there are
differences among social scientists as to how values and attitudes
can be changed, it is still possible to speak of one Ischool of thought
that believes that attitudinal and value changes are prerequisites to
creating a modern. society, economy and political system. "

Emphasizing further the importance of changes in values
and attitudes, Frey (1966) commented:

All the more specific indicators of modernization--
increasing per capita income, energy output, industrializa-
tion, urbanization etc. --signify little if they can not be taken
to mean certain alterations of attitude, behavior and social
structure have occurred. . . . There must be change from
within. The essential aspect of the development processis
that the capacity for durable self-generated change of an
appropriate kind be created. And, such a capacity for con-
.tinuing change seems manifestly to depend upon alterations
in the outlook and interrelations of the people of the develop-
ing society (p. 1).

Let us now turn our attention to the second theoretical
13013393.??? regarding modernization: as a unilinear or multilinear s~~
process and/ or as a univariate or multivariate phenomenon.

There have emerged two schools of thought regarding ':

the way, of looking at the modernization process in societies. One

classifies societies as two ends of a continuum: traditional or

25

modern. This method of classification assumes that the character-
istics of modern and traditional societies are known. Social
scientists criticize this position because it appears that Western
societies are classified as modern and non-Western societies as
traditional. Sen (1968) speaks to this point:

This should not cause any surprise because the authors
of the ideal types all happen to come from western societies
and one gets the impression that the ideal modern type was
constructed to fit these countries as they became after the
industrial revolution (p. 8).

Lerner (1966), who formulated a Western model of
modernization, tried to justify the position that modernization is a
process of Westernization. He said:

The model evolved in the West is a historical fact. That
the basic model reappears in virtually all modernizing soci-
eties on all continents of the world, regardless of variation
in race, color, or creed, has been demonstrated to my satis-
faction. The point is that the secular process of social change,
which brought modernization to the'Western world, has more
than antiquarian relevance to today' 3 problem of social change.
Indeed, the lesson is that contemporary modernization every-
where will do well to study the historical sequence of Western
growth (p. 218).

There are however a number of social science research-
ers who disagree with Lerner' 3 model of modernization. Inayatullah
(1967) questioned this model of development saying it has a "unilinear
interpretation of history, it measures creativity only with limited

standards and it reflects ethnocentrism" (pp. 100-101). Also criti—

cizing the unilinear theory, Gusfield (1967) pointed out that the "all

26

too common practice of pitting tradition and modernity against each
other as paired Opposites tends to overlook the mixtures and blends
which reality displays . . . it becomes an ideology of antitradition~
alism, denying the necessary and usable ways in which the past
serves as support . . . to the present and the future" (p. 362). Very
fittingly, he referred to tradition and modernity as ”misplaced
polaritiesin the study of social change" (p. 351).

There seems to be enough evidence to conclude that /'
modernization cannot be viewed by using a single criterion. This 1,.
indicates that we have to look at the infinite variations and possi-
bilities instead of a modern—traditional typology in trying to explain
the process of social change. Modernization then will be viewed as , .
a multilinear process. As such, it is a process of "synthesis" of ,
traditional and borrowed, i. e. , modern traits, whereby the "neer.:
traits are absorbed by a social system without disruptingthe con-w—
tinuity, and the cohesiveness of the system" (Sen, 1968, p. 17).

As a multilinear process, modernization involves numer-
ous dimensions. This was confirmed by Ascroft (1968) in a review
of studies on modernization conducted at both micro— and macro-
1evels of analyses. Some of the most commonly cited dimensions or .1-
components of modernization are economic development, creativity,

need for achievement, urbanization, education, mass media

27

exposure, political participation, social participation, empathy, .,
cosmopoliteness, innovativeness, and many others (Rostow, 1961;
Hagen, 1962; McClelland, 1961; Rogers, 1965; Lerner, 1958).

Within the framework of the preceding discussion, the
following assumptions are formulated about modernization:

1. Modernization can be looked at as a process
involving both societal changes and individual changes.

2. Modernization, as a process involving changes in
the individual, can be viewed both in terms of changes in attitude
and in behavior.

3. Modernization is a multilinear process and/or a

multivariate phenomenon.

Generalizations

 

A primary objective of this study is to look into the role
that the mass media play in the process of modernization. There
are conflicting views regarding this. McNelly (1968, pp. 1-12) -.
categorized these views as follows: null, enthusiastic or oversold,
cautious and pragmatic. c-

Very simply stated, the HE position holds that the mass -
media have very little, if any, significance in the development of ._

societies. Chief proponents of this position are those who contend -.

28

that education, literacy, and the economic variables are the really --
important factors in development.
Conversely, mass communications are assigned a very x

formidable role by the adherents of the enthusiastic or oversold

 

position represented by media professionals, government elites,
and the academic people.

The cautious position points to the possible limitations
of the power of the mass media by invoking the importance of inter—
personal communication. Mendelsohn (1964) cautioned that since ~
"mass communication is structured by and functions in relation to a
social nexus, it must be viewed as only one of the many factors
bearing on individual and social behavior" (p. 33). He stressed
further that the "existence of society is based upon interpersonal
communication--not upon mass communication" (p. 34).

Recognizing the interrelationship between the mass
media and .face-to-face communication, Pye (1963) emphasized that
modernization hinges upon the "integration of the formal institutions
of communications and the social processes of communications to
the point that each must respondwith sensitivity to the other" (p. 26).

The cautious position however was questioned by Pool
(1963b). He said:

The conclusion that the effectiveness of the mass media
in the process of modernization depends upon their being

29

linked to a well-developed organization of face-to-face influ-
enceis too simple. It is not wrong but it is partial. It is
true for certain of the potential effects of the mass media but
not for others (p. 250).

Lastly, the pragmatic position suggests that there is no ‘

 

definite theoretical model that can explain the role of mass media in
developing countries. Thus, social scientists are given considerable
leeway and flexibility in their search for empirical evidence. Clari—
fying this position, McNelly (1968) succinctly remarked:
The pragmatic position . .- . differs from the null, w
enthusiastic and cautious positions in that it does not attempt
to specify rigidly the role of the mass media across all situ-
ations in all cultures. It accommodates diverse kinds of data
and hypotheses. It leaves the possibility of no media impact,
ora heavy impact, depending upon conditions. It does not
reject the possibility of direct effects on the public or indirect
effects on the public or indirect effects through influential
persons, of immediate and measurable effects or long-range
effects through almost imperceptible increments (pp. 11-12).
Thus, there is no conclusive evidence as yet to explain w"
the role of mass media in modernization. McNelly (1968) considers ..
the pragmatic point of view to be the most likely approach of social
scientists engaged in national deveIOpment research. The implica- >— '
tion here is that there is no one theory to explain the role of mass I...
media in modernization. However, this is what the present study -
attempts to do-Qdétermine a reasonable way of lookinglat the role
.of mass media inthe modernization process.

It is difficult to look at the modernization of the individual

outside the context of the modernization of societies. This writer

30

feels that a more precise knowledge on how an individual is mod- .. ,.
ernized or what personality traits are crucial toward the acquisi-
tion of a modern style of life is a fruitful approach in the study of I,»
the modernization process. I.»

Interest in the individual in the modernization process '
stems from the notion that the direction that a developing country .

. chooses to go depends ultimately upon its people. I As Schramm
( 1964) said: "National development is people changing themselves"
(p. 37) and "change will not take place smoothly or very efficiently
unless people want to change" (p. 44). Millikan and Blackmer (1961)
concurred saying: "The paramount requirement for the moderniza-
tion of any society is that the pe0ple themselves must change"

(p. 23). Likewise, Frey (1966) said: "Modernization or develop-
ment, in its deepest meaning implies a change in the people of a
society and in the way they interact" (p. 1).

As a result, social scientists suggest that the "starting
point of any definition of modernization is not in the character of the
society but in the character of the individuals (Weiner, 1966, p. 4).
Unfortunately, even in developing countries such as the Philippines ‘~
where the individual (farmer, peasant or villager) should be the focus
of attention, he is very little understood. Thus, there seems to be W“
an urgent need to look into the individual as a variable in the process

of modernization.

31

It appears that the status of research conducted on the ~
role of mass media in the modernization process has already.---
reached the point where certain generalizations may be tentatively 1--
formulated. In proposing the generalizations in advance, one -_
objective is to have a theoretical framework that will serve as a I-»
point of departure in discussing the empirical studies reviewed. It 4-
must be made clear however that in doing this, the purpose is
simply to be suggestive rather than assertive. Consequently, the ,_ ,.
generalizations must not be considered as conclusive. »

With this in mind, the following generalizations regard- -_ . .
ing the role of mass media in the modernization of the individual
are tentatively proposed: P 5 .23 , -1;

1. In general, mass media exposure creates in the
individual a favorable climate or attitude toward modernization
rather than providing specific behavioral skills.

2. In general, mass media exposure is not likely to
be inherently one kind of variable, i. e. , it can act as an antecedent,
an intervening and a consequential variable in the process of mod-
ernization.

3. In general, mass media exposure is not the only

good predictor of modernization.

CHAPTER III

SYN THESIS AND ANALYSIS

OF RE SEARCH STUDIES

There are two main sections in this chapter. The first -...
section is a synthesis of the research studies on the role of mass -
media in modernization. Studies reviewed were categorized as to
correlational studies and field experiments with the individual, vil-
lage and nation as units of analyses. The second section is an
analysis of the studies according to the theoretical framework dis-

cussed in Chapter II.

Correlational Studies

 

The Individual and Villagg
as Units of Analyses

 

 

Of the 17 correlational studies selected to be reviewed
in this section, 14 used the individual as unit of analysis (Table 1)
and three used the village (Table 2). All 17 studies were conducted
in developing countries: 11 in Latin America; three in Asia; two in
the Middle East; and the other study included Africa, Asia and Latin
America.

32

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39

Subject matter areas of the research studies dealt with
common problems that confront deve10ping countries, 1. e. , agri-
cultural, home and health innovativeness, political socialization,
and the attitudinal factors involved in modernization such as achieve—
ment motivation, empathy and others. Practically all of the respon-
dents were peasants, farmers or villagers characterized in general
by low literacy, little education, low socio-economic status, lack
of innovativeness, low aspirational levels, having a fatalistic view
of the world, low empathic ability, etc.

There are three major ways by which the dependent /'/
variables used in the studies have been approached: (1) according .3”
to an antecedent-process-consequent paradigm, (2) according to
attitudinal-behavioral indices, and (3) according to subject matter!“
involving agricultural and health innovativeneSs, and /or political r” ‘
knowledge.

Three studies treated the role of mass media in mod- 3» "
ernization according to an antecedent ipr00ess-consequent paradigm.
According to this paradigm, individuals andvillages have certain 3x“
prior characteristics that prepare them_.t0,_‘receive messages from .3-
the mass media and that changes in knowledge, beliefs, attitudes

and behavior occur as a result of this message reception. This

paradigm as used in the studies is shown in Figure 1.

40

Figure 1. -- Paradigm of the Role of Mass Media
in the Process of Modernization

 

I' f
‘V. (‘rxj 9

am; .41... : .-

 

Variables ‘ . Variables
Predisposing \ Media 3 which are
toward / Exposure Possible Effects

Media Exposure

of Exposure
I
l
I

 

 

l I
2Antecedents > Process ——9 Consequences
: : :
| I u
3 ' ' l
Personal : Modernization
Variables Print Variables ‘
e.g. , age, 3 and e.g. , empathy,
social status, / Electronic 5 n Ach,
education, Media innovativeness,
literacy, etc. etc.

 

mf

1Original paradigm by Deutschmann (1963).
2Developed by Rogers (1965-66).

3Modified by present writer.

The initial study that utilized this paradigm was con- ..
ducted by Deutschmann (1963) in his study of a Colombian village. -
The antecedent variables‘studied were ”education, farm} size, family .
size and age; and the consequent variables were agricultural inno- t.
vativeness, political knowledge and occupational aspirations.

Findings revealed a positiverelationship between mass c
media exposure and the consequent variables. Among the antecedent w

variables, no relationship was found between mass media exposure

41

and education and age; and a negative relationship was found between
family size and farm size.

Rogers (1965-66) added cosmopoliteness and literacy to «"""
the antecedent variables studied by Deutschmann. Likewise, empathy c-
and achievement motivation were added to the consequents. In
addition to finding relationships between mass media exposure and ,
the antecedent and consequent variables, Rogers hypothesized further
that mass media exposure plays an intervening role in the moderni-
zation process.

As in the Deutschmann study, positive relationships
were found between mass media exposure and the consequent vari-
ables. Similarly, mass media exposure correlated highly with all
antecedent variables used except age. Moreover, mass media . -
exposure acted as anintervening variable between functional literacy
and the four consequent variables (political knowledge, empathy,‘ ’
agricultural innovativeness, and educational aspirations for chil-¥
dren).

The mostextensive study in terms of variables and

_. .....

nations studied, that utilized the paradigm on the role of mass media
in modernization, was conducted by Keith and others (1968). Nations
involved were Colombia, India and Kenya. In this study, the con-

sequent variables were categorized into behavioral and attitudinal

42

dimensions. The behavioral variables included agricultural and
health innovativeness whereas the attitudinal variables included
achievement motivation and educational aspirations.

As in both the Deutschmann and Rogers studies, positive
correlations were found between mass media exposure and the '
antecedent and consequent variables. However, the antecedent
variables correlated more often with the behavioral consequents -
than with the attitudinal consequents., As an\intervening variable,
Kmass media exposurewas found to have more consistent effects on
relationships involving the behavioral consequents than on those
involving the attitudinal consequents.

In addition to the Keith H. study , there were other» »
studies that utilized attitudinal-behavioral indices as dependent : '73“
variables. Using a national sample of Turkish peasants, Frey .
(1966) studied the relationship between mass media exposure and
‘29 attitudinal-behavioral indices and four dynamic indices.
Examples of attitudinal-behavioral indices employed were political
empathy, educational and occupational aspirations, use of agri-
cultural and social services, religious knowledge, and voting par-
ticipation. N The four dynamic indices were geographical mobility,
interpersonal communication, subjective poverty, and village

development .

43

The correlation analysis run on the data revealed a
strong relationship between mass media exposure and 20 of the 29
attitudinal-behavioral indices used. The correlation, however,
between mass media exposure and the dynamic indices was not as .2
strong as that of the attitudinal-behavioral indices. There was also -
a significant tendency for all three media (radio, newspapers and
movies) to affect an attitude or behavior or else for none of the
media to affect that attitude or behavior.

Waisanen and Durlak (1967a) used five attitudinal vari— “f
ables (self-perceived innovativeness, attitude toward risk-taking,
commitment to planning, perception of national conditions, and
attitude toward family planning) to determine mass media use and
evaluation. They theorized that individuals will assume a "modern"
view of the world. if they make greater use of mass media channels

and have a favorable evaluation of these channels as sources of

information.

I

They found that a positive relationship existed between
mass media use and the dependent variables, i. e. , thevariables
that presumably lead to a "modern" View of the world. There was
also a significant correlation between information source evaluation
and the dependent variables with the exception of attitude toward

risk -taking.

44

Mass media exposure has also been correlated with such

attitudinal variables as empathy and fatalism. Portocarrero (1966),

in his study of empathy and modernization in three rural communi-
ties in Colombia, found mass media exposure to be directly related
to empathy. However, although mass media exposure was found to
be the best predictor of empathy, its predictive power seemed to be
a function of social status. Thus, the question arises as to whether
the ability to empathize results from a person' s exposure to mass
media or his social status.
Similar findings were found by Ramos (1966) in a study
that used mass media exposure as a variable to determine the role
of fatalism in modernization. She postulated that the degree of
fatalism varies inversely with mass media exposure as measured
by an index of contact with radio, newspapers, movies, magazines
and television. Although the study supported the hypothesis, partial
correlation analysis revealed that the relationship between mass
media exposure and fatalism was also a function of social status. " '
Using rural Brazil as the setting, Whiting (1967a) attempt-
ed to determine the relationship of empathy with mass media and
urban exposure. Data showed that the more empathic individuals
either increased the modernity of their attitudes and knowledge

more rapidly per unit exposure to the mass media or started higher

45

on these variables when exposed to the mass communications. The
hypothesis that empathy-will facilitate attraction to the city due to
urban exposure was not confirmed.

In terms of a specific mass medium, print exposure was I
found to correlate significantly more with belief in work, political -~--'
knowledge and attitude toward change than was radio exposure.

In studies concerned with the role of mass media in the
political socialization of people in developing countries, a common
finding revealed a significant relationship between mass media expo-
sure and political knowledge (Rogers, 1965-66; Deutschmann, 1963;
McNelly and Deutschmann, 1963; and McNelly and Fonseca, 1964).

In the Deutschmann (1963) study, an important finding
was that the correlation between mass media exposure and political
knowledge was even higher for illiterates than for literates. This
was explained by the researcher to be due to the fact that literate
members in a family pass the information they received through the
media by "reading" to the illiterate members thus raising the knowl—
edge level of all.

The relationship between print media exposure and
political knowledge was also investigated with students and urban
residents as respondents. Among Costa Rican students (McNelly

and Fonseca, 1964), a high correlation was found between exposure

46

to the print media and political awareness and participation. More-
over, the relationship for both dependent variables was positive when
socio-economic status was controlled. Thus, students with high
.socio-economic status were found to be heavily exposed to the print
media and consequently, were more knowledgeable in political affairs.

Anearlier study (Deutschmann eta}. , 1961) on mass
media use by professional and technical pe0ple in 11 Latin American
countries showed that compared with those of low socio-economic
and educational levels, professional and technical people make heavy
use of the print media in their daily activities.

Although print media exposure'was likewise found to be
related to political knowledge among Costa Rican residents (McNelly
and Deutschmann, 1963), only some of this relationship could be
attributed to. socio-economic status. On the other hand, mass media
use-was related to socio-economic status but not with opinionatedness
or willingness to express an opinion in a study involving residents of
Santiago de Chile (Carter and Sepulveda, 1964).

In, L, Us 6: v I: ~20
Using the village as unit of analysis, Hirabayashi and
El Khatib (1958) found a strong association between mass media
exposure and political awareness among Egyptian villages. Mass

media use was supplemented, however, by interpersonal communi-

cation. It was also found that a relationship existed between

47

literacy and political sophistication. Thus, the researchers con-
cluded that political awareness will increase with increased literacy
and increased availability and effectiveness of the mass media.

The relationship between mass media exposure and ~I’
innovativeness-—agricultural and health-~has been one of the most w
widely researched areas in developing countries. In general, the
studies in this area revealed a close relationship between mass -..
media exposure and agricultural and health innovativeness. V”

In India, Roy flail. (1968a) studied the-factorsilwhich
affect agricultural innovativeness among 680 Indian farmers. pne‘
9:15.99 factor'suwas accessibility and exposure to communication.

Correlation analysisfshowed that the communication indices--
extension contact, urban contact and mass media contact--were .
highly related to agricultural innovativeness. Although the mass
media index was strongly related to adoption of agricultural prac-
tices, it was found that the Indian farmers relied most on agricultural
demonstrations and least on radio informational broadcasts.

In addition to accessibility and exposure to mass media,
other communication factors hypothesized to be contributing to
agricultural innovativeness in a study involving 108 Indian villages

were: (1) geographic and mental isolation, (2) urban contact, and

(3) agricultural agency access and contact (Fliegel et al. , 1968).

48

Data revealed that for both individual items and summary
indexes, the relationship between the communication variables, with
the exception of geographic isolation, and agricultural adoption was
generally positive.

In their study on adoption of new foods and drugs in five
Guatemalan communities, Deutschmann and others (1965) hypothe-
sized that individuals who have a tendency to use mass communica-
tion channels which are far removed from self, 1. e. , the mass
media, will have a greater tendency to innovate. Thus, mass media
users will have a higher knowledge and adoption score of the new
foods and drugs that were introduced. There was only some slight
support for the hypothesis although the differences were small and
the patterns by channel of the adoption scores were irregular.

A study (Rogers and Meynen, 1965) on the role that the
mass media play in the adoption of a weed spray among Colombian
peasants showed mass media exposure to be related to farm inno-
vativeness even though no mass media sources were specifically
mentioned at any stage in the adoption process. There remained the
question however as to whether this relationship would hold if some
intervening variables are controlled.

Roy and Kivlin (1968) studied health innovativeness and

found the communication variables--more specifically the composite

1‘,”

49

mass media index composed of radio listening, film-going and news-
paper reading--to be the best predictors of health innovativeness.
One aspect of health innovativeness that was studied
involved family planning. It was found that although mass media
exposure-was positively related to knowledge and adoption of two
family planning methods, the mass media served only as source of
information or as creator of favorable attitudes toward family plan-
ning. Interpersonal sources of information such as friends,
neighbors and change agents were more likely to have convinced

people to adopt family planning methods.

 

The Nation as , . ‘ 7 f,
Unit of Analysis , .1 ., - . « ,

 

I , .
p,» L. J“ ‘ .
,- l'

I

“9-4“.

Research investigations discussed in this section are
often termed "aggregate" or "macro-level" studies because they
yielded data that reflect characteristics representative of large
Esocio-geographical entities like the nation. The unit of analysis,
therefore, of these studies is the nation.

- Of the six studies reviewed, two used correlational
analysis while the rest utilized factor analysis—{which is a statistical
(methodhe‘mployed tofind the common element or elements that under-

lie a set of measures in a study. lThe factor analytic studies were

based on secondary data. Sources of these data generally include

50

the country census, registration materials and other public docu-
ments that normally provide information about a nation. Use of
secondary data is one criticism against aggregate studies since
researchers do not have control over the way in which the data were
initially compiled, thus making the data subject to possible errors.

One of the first aggregate studies concerned with the
relationship of mass communication to national development was
conducted by Lerner (1958). He posited a four-step process of
modernization involving the variables of urbanization, literacy, mass
media exposure and political participation. According to him, when
urbanization reaches a sufficient level, teaching literacy on a wider
scale becomes feasible. A literate population has greater mass
media participation which eventually leads to greater interest and
participation in political affairs.

Data showed positive correlations between the variables.
By examining the correlates of mass media facilities in the nations
studied, seventy per cent of the variation in mass media development
was explained on the basis of urbanization, literacy and political
participation. It must be realized however that although the data
are suggestive, the correlations do not necessarily lead to any
causal interpretation of the effects of mass media.

In a study on the correlates of political development in

77 countries, Cutright (1963) hypothesized that political institutions

51

are interdependent with education, economic development, com-
munication systems, urbanization and labor force distribution.

Findings similar to those of Lerner were revealed
in this study. That is, the more politically complex a country is,
the more urban it is, the greater the educational level of its
people, and the fewer of its actively employed labor force engage
in agriculture, the greater the mass media development the
country is likely to have.

Like correlational analysis, factor analysis as a sta-
tistical technique has been commonly employed in aggregate
studies linking mass media development with modernization
(Table 3).

Deutschmann and McNelly (1964) used factor analytic
procedures to analyze data gathered on 16 indices from 20 Latin
American countries, reflecting population, land area,
literacy, ruralness, newspaper circulation, exports and press
freedom.

Three clusters were found in the correlation matrix:
(1) Size, whichincludes the land area and population; (2) National
Development, including education, literacy, urbanization and
communication indices; and (3) Export cluster, which includes the

export indices.

52

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55

Farace (1966a) studied 54 variables including 12 mass
media indices representing different aspects of 109 nations. The
variables were classified into eight general sectors: (1) political .
system, (2) health and nourishment, (3) agricultural productivity,
(4) population characteristics, (5) climate, (6) cultural factors, .

(7) economic factors, and (8) mass media.

According to this research study, most of the 54 vari-
ables can be explained very well by one underlying dimension-—
national development. The economic indices had high positive load-
ings on this factor and the mass media indices were nearly as highly
loaded. This study indicated that mass media development is very
closely associated to the different aspects of the development of a
country in other sectors.

Similar findings were found by Schnore (1961) in a study
involving 12 measures of urbanization and modernization. A uni-
dimensional variable labelled "modernization, " which included such
factors as energy consumption, newspaper circulation, per capita
income, literacy, population size, and urbanization, was extracted.

A re-analysis of the 54 variables involving 109 nations
in the Farace study (Farace, 1966b) was conducted to find out the
clusters of countries which shared a common development pattern

across the variables. Six clusters or "national systems" emerged:

56

(1) North America/Western Europe, (2) Communist East Europe,
(3) Latin America, (4) Asia, (5) North Africa/Middle East, and
(6) Central/ South Africa.

When the 54 variables used were ordered to create more
specific development profiles, it was found that in the three most
developed national systems--North Ameri ca/Western Europe, Com-
munist East Europe, and Latin America--the mass media indices
ranked relatively high among the 54 measures. On the other hand,
in the threeleast developed national systems-~Asia, North Africa/
Middle East, and Central/South Africa--the mass media indices
ranked relatively low.

In addition to aggregate or macro—level studies, factor /'
analysis had been applied also in studies interested in determining “

the factors underlying the modernization of the individual. Although

 

the unit of analysis of these studies is the individual instead of the .0
nation, they are included in this section for ease of comparison since ~"
both kinds of studies utilized;3 factor analysis) as s‘tatistical‘method. v“
All studies (Table 4) were conducted in less-developed
nations with one exception. This exception was the study of two
Appalachian poverty communities in the United States which
resembled the villagesin developing countries (Donohew, 1967).
Also, the variables that were subjectedto factor analysis were

crucial determinants in the modernization process.

57

 

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63

An examination of Table 4 will reveal one common _
finding: all the studies yielded multiple factors. This is in contrast .,
with aggregate or macro-level studies which generally yielded a
single national development factor. -' '

Thus, Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) extracted

nine factors out of 23 variables involving 71 villages in Saucio,

, .I‘. L,
, ,
7 _ . w(
"rm 3%»
if

'11)}! _ . j
‘ .

Colombia; Rahim (1966) extracted three factors out of 20 variables

 

in a‘Pakistani study; Donohew (1967 ) extracted four factors out of

27 variables in two U. S. poverty communities; Ascroft (1966)

 

extracted five factors out of 43 variables in a Kenya study; Whiting
(1967b) extracted four factors out of 42 variables in a Brazilian
study; Farace and others (1967) extracted seven factors out of 90
variables in a Puerto Ricanstudy; and finally, Rogers (1968)

extracted three factors out of 132 variables in a Colombian study;

Field Experiments

 

Field experiments, as contrasted with laboratory experi-
ments, are conducted‘in a "natural setting" in which certain variables
can be manipulated so that it can be ascertained whether or not
changes in those variables generate differences in a social phenom-
enon.

Two kinds of field experiments are discussed in this

section: (1) those that employed mass media as the only treatment,

64

and (2) those that combined mass media with interpersonal commu-

ni cation.

Field Experiments
on Mass Media

 

 

Of the six studies reviewed (Table 5), three used the

individual and three used the village as the unit of analysis. The '

experimental treatments involved the use of electronic media such/r“
as radio or television, and print media such as pamphlets or news-f

letters. The dependent variables were agricultural and health inno-

vativeness including adoption of family planning methods, and ~

political knowledge. “ "

The use of mass media is the popular method utilized in
experiments conducted in developing countries to present informa-
tion on family planning. Back gLal. (1957) made use of pamphlets
and group meetings to determine readiness for family planning and
adoption of family planning methods among Puerto Ri can residents.
The meetings were announced through posters and personal invita-
tion and pamphlets were distributed by individual messengers.

Post interviews were conducted for two months after the presenta-

tion of experimental programs.

 

65

 

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68

Although the same content was presented in the two
methods--pamphlets and group meetings--their success differed in ,
emphasis. The pamphlets appeared to be more effective in trans— ,~
mitting information or in creating readiness for family limitation.
But on the other hand, the group meetings were successful in pro-
moting adoption and continued use of family planning methods. In «
addition, pamphlets proved to be better in presenting a few values v”-
whereas group meetings were important in disseminating various
ideas or complex facts.»

In their family planning study in Taiwan, Berelson and
Freedman (1964) employed three experimental treatments: (1) direct
mail, (2) mail plus home visits to wives, and (3) mail plus home
visits to wives and husbands. There was also a control groupvwhich
learned about family planning information through posters and meet-
ings with community leaders.

Interviews conducted at the conclusion of the experiment
revealed an over-all decline of pregnancy among the women respon-
dents. Approximately 60 per cent of the acceptances of the contra-
ceptive methods were made by respondents exposed to the following
treatments: (1) mail plus home visits to wives, and (2) mail plus
home visits to wives and husbands. The control group and the group
subjected to the direct mail treatment each evidenced approximately

20 per cent acceptances.

 

69

A similar experiment was conducted in Seoul, Korea,
(Takeshita, 1966) using four different treatments, namely, mass
media only, mailings, group meetings, and home visits. Unlike in
the Taiwan study, the mass media were used extensively to adver-
tise the family planning program.

Findings revealed that rates of acceptance vary by treat-
ment, indicating that the group meetings and home visits had added
influence above and beyond the mass media. Mailings, however,
had very little influence.

Three field experiments using the village as unit of
analysis were considered. Spector and others (1963, 1964) con-
ducted a study in Ecuador to find out the relative efficacy of three
experimental treatments, radio, audio-visuals, and radio plus
audio-visuals, in introducing community deVelopment projects.

Three experimental villages with one village assigned
to each of the three treatments, and three control villages were
studied. An information and motivation campaign was conducted
for two months and follow -up studies were done three and nine
months after the termination of the campaign. The four innovations
introduced were: (1) the building of latrines, (2) building of stoves,
. (3) small pox vaccination and, (4) preservation of marmalades.
Data revealed that all three experimental treatments

were effective in motivating people to participate in community

 

70

development activities. However, they differed in the types of action
and the amount of effort they elicited. The audio-visual treatment
was more effective than radio or audio-visual plus radio in motivat-
ing peOple to engage in the largest and most expensive project, i. e. ,

building of latrines. On the other hand, the radio treatment was more

:- V'.p7'
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effective than the audio-visual treatment in the adoption of smaller

and least costly practices, 1. e. , building of stoves and preservation

 

of marmalades. The effect of radio plus audio-visual treatment fell

,1 .
‘Q “H .E 1.

between the other two: its efforts on certain practices tended to be

r. '
2‘

more like the radio treatment and on other practices more like the
audio-visual treatment.

In general, radio was found to be effective as a source
for information and as a motivator for decision-making but less
effective in teaching skills or techniques.

Findings in regard to social and demographic character-
istics showed that literacy, education, membership in voluntary
organizations, and greater interest in mass media were positively
related to participation in self-help projects.

A less complicated experimental treatment was used in
a Taiwan study (Chu, 1966) whereby television was employed as a
mass medium. A television set was placed in the home of the village

chief in each of the two experimental villages. Respondents who

71

viewed television in groups were interviewed before and after
television was introduced in the villages.

Results of the study revealed that television was capable
of producing cultural changes in a traditional society. The impact
however was more pronounced in the peripheral areas of the culture,
e. g. , knowledge about foreign events, mobility, social participation, E
agricultural innovations, family planning techniques as well as atti-

tudes and beliefs about the female, foreigners, education and mar-

 

riage. Television did not seem to have much effect on the core values ;'
of a culture, such as obedience, dependence on tradition, general

conservatism and ancestor worship which were all related in some

way to religious beliefs.

Menefee and Menefee (1967) used a newsletter to measure
political knowledge in four Indian villages. The newsletter was dis-
tributed among the villages for a period of thirteen weeks. Inter-
views were conducted before and after the experiment to measure
information gain.

Results showed high information gain in the three experi-
mental villages, with the largest amount of improvement occurring
among men, persons over 40 years of age, literates and members of

higher castes.

72

Field Experiments on
Mass Media and
Interpersonal Communication

 

 

 

A communication strategy that has received considerable
attention from social scientists interested in modernization is the
combined use of mass media and interpersonal communication.
Although this strategy cannot be considered novel, it is comparatively
recent that empirical investigations have been conducted to measure
its effectiveness.

The notion of discussion groups after radio listening
probably dates as far back as 1928 when radio was first introduced
in Great Britain (Cassirer, 195 9). It was experimented in Canada
in 1941 (Nicol _e_t_a_1. , 1954) where the forums were reported to have
contributed to better community living and to education.

The purpose of this section of the paper is to review
empirical investigations which tested the efficacy of radio farm
forums* as a tool for community development and change-in develop-

ing countries. Seven experimental studies are considered for review

 

*A radio farm forum is defined as a "club of about 15 to
20 villagers who wish to listen in an organized way to selected radio
programs, to use such programs as a starting point for discussion
among themselves, to increase their knowledge and information
through such programs, and if possible, to put into practice some of
the things that they have learned through this process" (Bhatt and
Krisnamoorthy, 1965, p. 14).

73

and analysis; three of these studies were conducted in India, two in
Latin America and two in Africa. All of the field experiments had a
before-after design with the village as the unit of analysis. In addi-
tion to radio farm forums, the experimental treatments included
literacy reading, animation training, progress committees and com-
munity newspapers. In general, the dependent variables pertained to
knowledge, attitude, evaluation and adoption of innovations (Table 6).

The earliest reported research to test the effectiveness
of radio farm forums was conducted in India (Neurath, 1962). It
was an evaluation of the experimental project on the use of radio
farm forums in 150 villages in five Marathi speaking districts of the
state of Bombay (now Maharashtra).

Evaluationwas in the form of a survey which consisted
of an experimental group of 20 villages and a control group of 20
villages. Of the 20 villages in the control group, 10 had a commu-
nity radio set but no organized farm forum, while 10 had neither
radio nor forum. Four experimental and four control villages were
located in each of the five districts included in the study. Twenty
respondents were selected in each of the 40 villages.

Each of the 20 forum members was interviewed six
times in the 20 experimental villages: once before, four times

during, and once after the experiment.

 

74

 

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The purpose of the before-after interview was to establish a change
in knowledge levels regarding the t0pics discussed during the broad-
casts. The "four times during" interview was aimed at evaluating
the functioning of the forums and the people' 3 reactions to the indi-
vidual programs.

Findings in the study were summarized in terms of:
(1) the amount of knowledge gained by the listeners; (2) the function
of the farm forums; and (3) the impact of the forum on the villages.
In general, it was noted that the radio farm forum groups exhibited
an impressive gain in knowledge; that the farm forums functioned
very efficiently; and that they made an impact as evidenced by the
list of actions taken by the villages exposed to the farm forum treat-
ment.

A similar experiment was conducted in Ghana (Abell,
1965) through the joint cooperation of UNESCO and Canada. Like-
wise, the main objective of this study was to determine the effective—
ness of radio farm forums as a method of adult education and com-
munity development.

A total of 80 villages stratified on the basis of small,
medium and large population were involved in the experiment. They
were divided as follows: 40 experimental villages, 20 of which had

one forum per village and 20 of which had two; 40 control villages,

79

20 of which had radios but no listening groups organized, and 20 had
neither radios nor listening groups. Twenty programs were broad-
cast to the villages.

Data revealed that comprehension was greater for vil-
lages‘which had two farm forums per village as compared with those
with only one farm forum. In general, comprehension was better in
the experimental villages than in the control villages.

Two other field experiments on radio farm forums were
conducted in Costa Rica and India. These experiments were spon-
sored by UNESCO with the cooperation principally of Michigan State
University, the National Institute of Community Development (NICD)
of India and the Programa Inter-americano de Informacion Popular
(PIIP) of Costa Rica.

In these studies, other experimental treatments in addi-
tion to radio farm forums were employed. Literacy treatment was
usedin the Costa Rican project; and animation training and literacy
treatment* were used inthe Indian study. Both experiments

were-interested in determining the effectiveness of the different

 

*Literagy. treatment involves the reading aloud by a vil-
lage leader of pamphlets pertaining to recommended practices in
agriculture, health and general education with the group of partici-
pants followingthe reading in their own pamphlets. Discussion of
the topic subsequently follows. Animation training refers to a method
of developing local leadership through an intensified oral communi-
cation on rural development.

 

 

80

communication strategies in their ability to effect change in levels
of knowledge, evaluation and adoption of agricultural and health inno-
vations.

The Costa Rican study (Waisanen and Durlak, 1967b) was
conducted in 14 villages. The radio farm forum treatment involved
52 one-half hour broadcasts which were heard and discussed by vol-
unteer groups in four villages. The literacy treatment was conducted
in four villages also where 52 pamphlets were distributed to house-
holds in these villages and group discussions held after each reading
forum. Six villages served as control group. Subject matter for the
forums and the pamphlets included 23 recommended practices in
agriculture, health and education.

The experimental villages were also classified according
to a modern-traditional* typology. Thus, there were two villages
involved for each treatment in the modern village category and two
for each treatment in the traditional village category. There were
three control villages for each classification.

Tests were run to determine the impact of treatments

by participation, villages, and village level of modernity. When

 

*Villages were classified as traditional or modern based
on computed mean scores on knowledge, evaluation and adoption of
innovations; and educational attainment and functional literacy levels
of household heads.

81

forum participation was compared with non-participation, participants
in both radio forum and literacy villages showed an increase in edu-
cational knowledge, agricultural, health and educational adoption, and
in total adoption.

Analysis by village indicated that very little change in
attitude and behavior in the ”total village" could be-attributed to the
treatments. Likewise, findings did not support the hypothesis that
the impact of treatments will be greater in the more modern villages
than in the more traditional villages.

Although the findings were not very striking, it appeared
that the radio forum technique was more effective than the literacy
treatment.

The Indian experiment (Roy gig} , 1968b) sought to find
out the relative effectiveness of three treatments--radio forums,
literacy class with reading forums, and animation treatment--on
knowledge and adoption of agriculture, health and social education
innovations. The radio forums involved a daily, one-hour rural
program with a forum held twice weekly. In the. literacy reading
treatment, a class was conducted in a village and pamphlets were
read in the forum. The animation treatment involved a leadership
training program for village leaders regarding health and agricul-

tural practices.

82

The study was conducted in eight villages: two villages
for each of three treatments and two villages served as the control
group. The innovations studied included 10 modern agricultural
practices and 10 health innovations.

Data showed an over-all superiority of the radio forums
over the other treatments regarding knowledge and adoption of agri-
cultural and health innovations for both forum participants and non-
forum‘pa‘rticipants. In general, the animation treatment failed to pro-
duce changes in knowledge and adoption of agricultural or health in-
novative practices. In the literacy reading villages, participants'
knowledge and adoption of agricultural and health innovations did not
change as much as the non-participants. This was attributed partly
to the low social status and relatively less modern attitudes of the
members of the literacy classes.

The final three field experiments on radio farm forums
were all part of a series of studies on Diffusion of Innovations in
Rural Societies, a research project funded by the United States
Agency for International Development. The studies were conducted
in India, Nigeria and Brazil.

The India study (Kivlin fl. , 1968) was a follow-up of
the Roy and others (1968b) experiment, a part of a two-nation com-

parative study in India and Costa Rica initiated by UNESCO. Only

83

the communication treatments of literacy classes and radio farm
forums were employed. The animation treatment was dropped be-
cause of its failure to produce desired changes as shown in the
previous study. Consequently, only six villages were used for
analysis.

In general, radio farm forums were shown to be more
effective than the literacy classes in producing changes in knowledge
and in adoption of agricultural and health innovations. Villages
exposed to both sets of treatments tended to show more change than
the control villages where only the usual community development
activities were undertaken. However, no evidence was found to show
that radio farm forums were effective in creating favorable attitudes
toward change programs.

The second of the series of field experiments in the Dif-
fusion Project was conducted in 10 villages in Eastern Nigeria (Hursh
gt_al_. , 1968). The experiment was designed to assess the effects of
two communication treatments (agricultural progress committees,
which are village discussion groups using specially printed informa-
tion, and radio farm forums) on farmers' knowledge, attitude and
adoption of specific agricultural and health innovations. Both treat-
ments involved a combination of a mass medium and interpersonal

communi cation .

84

Unfortunately, the experiments had to be discontinued
due to the outbreak of the Biafran-Nigerian War. As a result, no
conclusive evidence could be ascertained about the effects of the two
communication treatments.

However, on the basis of records and other materials
kept by the researchers, there seemed to be some indications that
both treatments were in the process of becoming effective. Partici-
pants in the agricultural progress committees and/or radio develop-
ment forums had made decisions to adopt one or more innovations
and had taken the necessary steps to implement their decisions.

Of the three field experiments, the one conducted in
Brazil (Stanfield 51:31. , 1968) had the most complex design. Four
communication strategies were employed: (1) animation training,
(2) literacy training, (3) radio farm forums, and (4) community
newspapers. Animation and literacy training were administered to
each of six villages before the radio farm forum and newspaper
treatments; hence, they were referred to as pre-treatments. Eight
agricultural and health practices were used in the experiment.
Eighteen villages'were involved. As in the two previous studies,
the main objective was to determine the effectiveness of the four
communication treatments in increasing knowledge, changing atti-
tudes, and adopting specific agricultural, health and community

development innovations.

 

 

 

85

Analysis of results seemed to indicate that the radio farm
forums were more effective in producing changes in knowledge, in
creating favorable attitudes toward change programs, and in increas-

ing extension agent contact than the other communication treatments.

Discussion

 

The first portion of this chapter dealt with a synthesis of
the empirical studies conducted on the role of mass media in the
modernization process. In this section, an interpretation of the x"
findings will be discussed based on the theoretical framework pre- --

it w '
sented in Chapter II. By way of recapitulation, the three generali-
zations proposed regarding the role that mass media play in the .
modernization of the individual are as follows:

1. In general, mass media exposure creates in the -
individual a favorable climate or attitude toward modernization . . . '
rather than providing specific behavioral skills. L

2. In general, mass media exposure is not likely to .
be inherently one kind of variable, i. e. , it can act as an antecedent,
an intervening and a consequential variable in the process of mod— .
ernization. x,

3. In general, mass media exposure is not the only v2

good predictor of modernization. .

86

Mass Media Exposure-—A Creator
of Favorable Attitude or
Provider of Behavioral Skills

 

 

 

The literature on national development suggests two ways

of looking at the modernization of the individual: (1) in terms of .
behavior such as adoption of agricultural and health innovations; and
(2) in terms of attitudes or psychological states such as readiness to
change, empathy, need for achievement. The mass media, as one

of theimportant vehicles of modernization, have been cited to per-
form these functions--creator of favorable attitudes and provider of
behavioral skills-~but the evidence researched thus far has not proven
conclusive.

Available research evidenced in this study does suggest -

a positive relationship between mass media exposure and innovative- ~

ness--a behavioral variable. However, there is also evidence of the L,

relative lack of importance of the mass media of communication in.
agricultural innovativeness such that adoption of innovations may also
result even with'low use of mass media sources.

It appears that although mass media exposure has a strong
correlation with innovativeness, people in developing countries look -
at mass media mainly as alsource of information or a provider of ’
knowledge. In other words, the mass media merely predispose the I

villagers to the information so that they will have a favorable attitude

L.

87

toward a particular innovation. Hence, it may very well be that the ~
role of mass media in modernization maybe that of setting a favorable ,.
climate or attitude toward modernization rather than providing the
necessary behavioral skills for adoption.

One implication here relates to the importance of inter-
personal communication. It seems that face-to-face communication,
especiallywith respected associates, is more effective in producing
specific changes in action than mass media exposure. The evidence
is sufficiently strong concerning two crucial subject-matter areas:
adoption of family planning techniques and the adoption of expensive
and time-consuming projects.

Both correlational studies andfield experiments on family
planning seem to be able to draw some line regarding the function of
mass media and interpersonal communication. Mass media channels,
more specifically print media and radio, are more effective in cre-
ating readiness and-interest toward family planning, whereas inter-
personal communication is more effective for the adoption of family
planning. This being the case, the assumption that the mass media
serve as agents of reinforcement rather than agents of change is
supported in studies on family planning.

The role that interpersonal communication plays in the

adoption of family planning methods and expensive and time-consuming

88

projects also suggests the importance of source credibility as a
communication variable. For people of developing countries espe-
cially, family planning is a very complex and delicate matter because
it involves their cultural mores, moral values and even their religious
beliefs. Hence, any discussion that is to be made regarding family
planning is so important that additional information is needed which
usually comes from credible or trusted sources of communication,

i. e. , neighbors, friends, extension agents, etc. The mass media

do not seem to be very effective where it concerns people' s values.

It would appear that although they can produce some effects on the
peripheral values of a culture, they do not have much effect on the
core values, especially when they are closely tied with religion (Chu,
1966).

Moreover, since whether or not to adopt family planning
methods is an important decision to make, people seek reinforce-
ment or reassurance from trusted associates in order to avoid a
feeling of dissonance which is especially great when the alternatives
are very important.

Similarly, for activities that involve a certain amount of
expense and time, people tend to rely most on interpersonal channels
of communication from whom they can get reassurance as to the

worthiness of the activity they are engaged in. To cite just one

89

example, Indian farmers (Roy _e_til. , 1968a) relied most on agri-
cultural demonstrations conducted by extension agents and least on
radio. This seemed to be due to the fact that radio as a secondary
source of information is not easily verifiable. Radio is of a transient
character that farmers cannot refer back to for reassurance or addi-
tional information.

In summary, there appears, to be sufficient support for
the generalization that the mass media are effective as a source for
information and as a creator of awareness or interest but they are
less effective in teaching skills and techniques, especially on matters
involving the traditional values, cultural mores or religious beliefs
of the people. It could be said that the role that the mass media play

is to act as an agent of reinforcement rather than of change.

 

Mass Media Exposure--An
Antecedent, an Intervening and
a Consequential Variable

 

 

 

According to the second generalization, mass media expo- ._
sure may belooked at as an antecedent, an intervening and a conse- . .
quential variable. As an antecedent variable, exposure to mass >

media leads to modernization regardless of any prior characteristics ..

of the recipients of the mass media message. As an intervening vari-

able, certain factors such as literacy, education, social status and \/

cosmopoliteness determine an individual' 3 exposure to the mass v»

90

media. In turn, mass media exposure leads to modernization, i. e. ,

agricultural and home innovativeness, political knowledge, empathy,
educational and occupational aspirations and others. As a conse- --
quential variable, mass media exposure results from modernization.
In other words, an individual who is innovative, politically knowl- \‘
edgeable, has high empathic ability and/ or has high educational and
occupational aspirations will more likely expose himself to mass
media.

Studies reviewed tend to support the notion that mass t ..
media exposure is an antecedent and intervening variable but not a ..--~
consequential variable. A majority of the studies supported the
premise that exposure to mass media led to modernizationuagri-L .-
cultural and home innovativeness, political knowledge, empathy, -
etc. It was also found that mass media exposure intervened in the ,,
relationship between certain antecedent and consequent variables- .-
For example, it was shown that mass media exposure intervened -.
between functional literacy and consequent variables like political ..
knowledge, empathy, agricultural innovativeness and educational ..
aspirations (Rogers, 1965).

A more extensive investigation (Keith gal. , 1968) on
the intervening effect of mass media exposure yielded similar

results. However, it appeared that mass media exposure had more

91

consistent effects upon relationships involving the behavioral conse-
quents than those involving the attitudinal consequents. It had been
suggested that these differences may. be due, in part, to the difficulty
of obtaining reliable measures of the attitudinal variables. The strong
relationships for the behavioral consequents (agricultural and home
innovativeness) might also be due to the fact that the mass media are
disseminators of information. Thus, if the information is specific,
detailed, and not otherwise readily available, the intervening effects
of mass media exposure will be greaterI

On the other hand, there appears to be a more direct
relationship between the antecedent variables and the attitudinal con-
sequents (educational aspirations for children and achievement moti—
vation). This could be explained by the fact that education is valued
so very highly in developing societies that there is a lesser need for
the mass media to disseminate this information to emphasize its
importance. Similarly, first hand observation rather than exposure
to mass media on the achievement of others is of greater importance
in encouraging one to be motivated to achieve.

The preceding discussion was based solely on correla-
tional data. Since correlational analysis does not establish causality,
"intervening" as used in this study does not mean an intermediate

stage in a causal process. For instance, it cannot be said that

92

literacy causes mass media exposure and mass media exposure
causes modernization.

Within the framework of this discussion then, it appears
that mass media exposure acts as an antecedent and an intervening
variable in the process of modernization.

Mass Media Exposure Is

Not the Only Good
Predictor of Modernization

 

 

 

Available evidence pointed out that modernization may be
examined either as a unidimensional or a multidimensional variable.
It is unidimensional at the aggregate level and multidimensional at
the individual level of analysis.

Aggregate or macro-level studies using the nation as unit
of analysis generally yielded one general development factor. Usu-
ally, the economic and the communication indices were loaded most
highly, suggesting that national development is dependent upon two
variables--the economic level and the mass media development of a
nation. On the other hand, micro-level studies showed that moderni-
zation is multidimensional with its main dimensions grouped as:
external communication, orientation to change, and innovative
leadership orientation (Ascroft, 1968).

In both macro-level and micro-level studies, the mass

media seem to play a very prominent role. It must be realized,

 

93

however, that to be able to communicate, the people receiving the
mass media messages must possess the necessary skills to absorb
information. This suggests that other factors such as literacy and
education are also crucial determinants in national development.

Harbison (1963) expressed this idea succinctly when he
said:

The progress of a nation depends first and foremost on
the progress of its people. Unless it develops their spirit and
human potentialities--it cannot develop much else--materially,
economically, politically or culturally. The basic problem of
most of the underdeveloped countries is not a poverty of
natural resources but the underdevelopment of their human
resources. Hence, their first task must be to build up their
human capital. To put it in more human terms, that means
improving the-education [underscoring mine ] , skills, and
hopefulness, and thus the mental and physical health of their
men, women and children (p. 140).

Waisanen and Durlak (1967a), in their study on mass
media use and evaluation, indicated that education rather than mass
media exposure might be a more meaningful determinant of modern-
ism. According to them, education serves as a "take-off point"
leading to a break with tradition and a move toward modernity.

Likewise, the importance of literacy in individual mod-
ernization in developing societies cannot be underestimated. A
relationship of interdependence between literacy and modernization
had been established. Thus, literacy is a critical variable in mod-

ernization, and modernization is likewise important to the develop-

ment of literacy (Rogers and Herzog, 1966).

94

Lerner (Pye, 1963), in describing his theory of modern-
ization, said:

Literacy is indeed the basic personal skill that underlies
the whole modernizing sequence. . . . The very act of achiev-
ing distance and control over a formal language gives people
access to a world of vicarious experience (p. 341).

In addition to education and literacy, social status may
be another variable to examine in relation to the modernization pro-
cess. Portocarrero (1966) indicated that the ability to empathize
might be a function of social status rather than mass media exposure.
Also, Ramos' (1966) prediction about the relationship between mass
media exposure and fatalism seemed to be a function of social status.

Present findings appear to suggest that the ability to
empathize is more a function of social status than mass media expo-
sure. This may be because people of high socio-economic status
have more opportunities to obtain information from first-hand sources
through travels to the city rather than through secondary sources
like the mass media. As a result, these peOple are likely to be able
to put themselves in the other person' 8 position. Through frequent
contacts with people of the outside world, they become more per-
ceptive and understanding of other people.

A somewhat similar explanation can be given to the in-

verse relationship between fatalism and modernization whereby

fatalism seemed to be a function of social status. In general,

95

fatalism appears to be associated more with people of relatively less
education, since for the most part, only people of high socio-economic
status can afford education in developing countries.

Available evidence points out that although mass media
exposure has been a relatively good predictor of modernization, it
does not follow that it is the only good predictor. Present findings
suggest that education, literacy and social status may also serve as
good predictors in the modernization process. Mass media tend to
facilitate and accelerate the process of modernization. However,
modernization can occur without the mass media but it will be a
slower process.

The preceding analysis was made within the limits of the
different empirical studies reviewed. Consequently, the interpreta-
tion cannot be taken as conclusive. Consideration must be given to
the adequacy of the research designs and methods utilized in the

studies .

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

Summary

This investigation grew out of the desire to shed some
light on the role of mass media in the modernization process. Al-
though there is general consensus that the mass media are important
in deve10ping countries, there is no unanimity as to the actual role they
really play. The present .formulative or exploratory study was con-
ducted to provide some insights on this matter. Pertinent research /
literature was reviewed with the purpose of formulating generaliza-ww“
tions concerning the role of mass media in modernization-~particu- /
larly of the individual-~that may lead to further investigations. ,-

The theoretical scheme for the study centered around
two major concepts: mass media and modernization. Assumptions
made‘about the mass media were: (1) that the philosophy, role,
functions and potentialities of mass media are determined by the «'
nature of the social system; and (2) that they serve as agents of

reinforcement rather than agents of change. On the other hand,

96

97

assumptions made about modernization were as follows: (1) it can

be looked at as a process involving both societal and individual
changes ; (2) as a process involving changes in the individual, it can -4
be viewed both in terms of changes in attitude and in behavior; and v
(3) it is a multilinear process and/or a multivariate phenomenon. -

Studies were selected for review according to a specific
set of criteria: (1) they must be of an empirical nature, and (2) they
must deal with the relationship between some aspects of mass media a.
and the modernization of the individual or the social system. They
were categorized as to correlational studies andfield experiments , ..
with the individual, village and nation as unit(s) of analysis. The
studies were analyzed according to the following generalizations:

1. In general, mass media exposure creates in the
individual a favorable climate or attitude toward modernization
rather than providing specific behavioral skills.

2. . In general, mass media exposure is not likely to
be inherently one kind of variable, i. e. , it can act as an antecedent,
an intervening and a consequential variable in the process of mod-
ernization.

3. In general, mass media exposure is not the only
good predictor of modernization.

The empirical studies reviewed tend to support the

generalizations. . Mass media appear to be effective in creating

98

awareness, interest and favorable attitudes but are less effective in
teaching specific behavioral skills. For the most part, mass media
exposure acts as an antecedent and intervening variable but not as
a consequential variable in the process of modernization. Lastly,
although mass media exposure is a good predictor of modernization,
other variables such as education, literacy and social status may
serve as equally good predictors.

The results of the study have provided a framework in
which the roles of mass media in modernization can be viewed.
But this is only one step forward. It is hoped that the implications
for mass media discerned in the studies reviewed will open avenues
for further research which will eventually lead to more viable gen-
eralizations. These implications are discussed in the following

section.

Implications for Research

 

The available evidence presented in this study support
the notion that the mass media do play important roles in the process
of modernization. :However, there is evidenced a need to conduct
more extensive investigations before more conclusive statements

can be made about the actual role that they play.

 

99

The difficulty of pinpointing the exact effects of mass
media seems to be attributable to its complexity as a variable. On
this McNelly (1966) commented:

Any attempt to pinpoint media effects on specified cog-
nitions, attitudes or behaviors can at best tell only part of the
story. Media messages do not necessarily perform their
functions in strict accordance with neat theoretical models. A
particular message may. indeed change a particular attitude as
predicted, but it may also affect other attitudes which impinge
on that attitude (p. 352).

Results of the different studies synthesized give some
insights regarding possible areas pertinent to the role of mass media
in the modernization process that might be explored--parti cularly as
it concerns the individual.

One of these areas relates to the use of other aspects of
the mass media in addition to exposure as independent variables.
For example, studies on comprehension of mass media content
rather than mere exposure to mass media might yield more fruitful
results. It was suggested earlier that variables like empathy and
fatalism should be compared. with comprehension of media informa-
tion instead of mass media exposure, since the latter-~exposure--
does not require empathic ability nor does'it necessarily lead to an
assumption of a fatalistic attitude.

Moreover, studies of content rather than length of expo-

sure will yield some information regarding which medium (broadcast

100

or print) can really contribute to receptiveness to change, an aspect
of modernization.

Also, most of the research conducted on mass media
dealt only with relatively short-term effects. The long-range effect
and the indirect impact have hardly been studied. Thus, more longi-
tudinal studies like the studies by Roy, Waisanen, Rogers and others
should be conducted which will permit making generalizations that
will attribute to the mass media changes in individual attitudes or
behavior.

Still in connection with effects, it appears that the major
concern of the studies reviewed was on the desirable effects of the
mass media. It may be that mass media exposure can also lead to
some unwholesome or undesirable consequences. Frey (1966), for
instance, had indicated that the mass media may be used by people
in developing countries not as a source of information but as a means
of "escape, " a retreat from reality. Thus, it may be worthwhile
looking into the possible undesirable effects of mass media in. the
research involving developing countries. This may help guide future
efforts of national development planners.

The present study also suggests that further investiga—
tions be made to determinethe most effective medium of communi-

cation--electronic or print media-~to use in developing countries.

101

A common research finding has been that the more educated person
uses the print media more and the broadcast media, less than the less
educated person. This implies that in developing countries where
the people are relatively less literate, the broadcast media might be
more effective.

Inthis connection, a study (Anast, 1966) on personality
determinants of mass media preferences showed that sensation-
oriented persons prefer the well-structured media of television and
movies whereas intuitive persons prefer the more ambiguous stimuli
of the printed media. It might be inferred that less-educated persons
tend to be sensation-oriented such that they prefer the mass media,

1. e. , television and movies, that are purposely designed to appeal

to their emotions. On the other hand, more educated people who tend
to beintuitive prefer the mass media, i. e. , newspapers and maga-
zines, that appeal relatively more to the intellect.

Another, common finding revealed that print media expo-
sure correlated significantly more with such-variables as belief in
work, political knowledge and attitude toward change. On the other
hand, radio coupled with group discussion seems to be more effective
with behavioral variables like agricultural and home innovativeness.
Perhaps, education might also explain the high correlation between

print media exposure and the attitudinal variables. These variables

102

generally require a certain amount of sophistication which can be
acquired through education. Research showed strong relationships
between print media exposure and political awareness and participa-
tion among students and urban residents in Costa Rica (McNelly and
Fonseca, 1964; McNelly and Deutschmann, 1963).

Conversely, it might be that the acquisition of skills and
techniques does not require as much education as that of the attitu-
dinal variables. Again, research indicated that radio farm forums
seemed to be more effective in the adoption of family planning methods
and agricultural and health innovations by farmers and housewives.
It is implied here that the print media might be effective for attitu-
dinal variables and the electronic media for the behavioral variables.

Results of this study also suggest the need for more field
experimentation. Correlational studies merely establish relation-
ships and not causality. For example, althoughliteracy is an ante-
cedent variable to mass media exposure, mass media exposure is
not necessarily an antecedent to political knowledge. Field experi-
ments, on the other hand, establish a time-order nature of the
relationships between variables.

Furthermore, correlational studies reviewed in this
particular study showed that mass media exposure seemed to be

effective in creating an awareness or as a source of information,

103

whereas field experiments showed that interpersonal communication
through radio farm forums seemed to be effective in the adoption of
innovations. This implies the need for more experimentation in order
to establish the actual role of mass media in modernization. It may
be that mass media alone or combined with interpersonal communica-
tion should be used in developing countries.

One important research area that seems to be neglected
by social scientists concerns the receiver of the communication mes-
sage. The influence that the mass media might exact may also be a
function of the receptiveness of message recipients to communication
in general. Receptiveness to the communication depends upon
whether or not the recipients have a favorable disposition to the mes-
sage presented to them. Thus, it is important that they be properly
motivated. Receptiveness depends also on whether the gratifications
they are seekinglfrom exposure to the mass media are fulfilled. All
these concerns imply that the mass media must likewise be viewed in
terms of what the people use media for in addition to what media do
to the peOple.

Further, a knowledge of the factors that motivate the
people to. seek information from the mass media deserves some con-
sideration from future researchers. Information seeking behavior is

a process whereby an individual willingly exposes himself to sources

104

of information and then selecting from these sources the content to
which he wishes to attend. One research study (Buss, 1967) found
that motivation for information seeking seemed to vary with the
source of information. Curiosity impels exposure to some media
whereas need for cognition induces use of others. Thus, people will
seek information from the mass media or from personal sources of
information depending on what motivates them to seek the informa-
tion.

Furthermore, other factors that must be considered in
determining whether a person will change from a traditional to a
modern outlook include such variables as time put into a system,
rank, and involvement in the system. * The greater the amount of
time an individual puts into a system, the less likely he is to change.
The probability of changeuis farless for an older person and/ or one
who has resided long in a particular place than it is for a younger
person and/or one‘who is a relatively new resident of a place. ~ Also,
the higher a person' 8 rank in a social system, the less likely he will
lose his identity. and become interested in another social system. Fi-
nally, the more involved--physically and psychically--a person is in

the social system, the less the probability that he‘will look outside of

4*

*Lecture, Dr. F. B. Waisanen, Department of Sociology,
Michigan State University, 1967.

105

his own social system. Consequently, the more satisfied a person
is in his social system, the less likely he will be to expose himself
to the mass media.

The aforementioned points pertaining to the receiver of
the communication imply that researchers concerned with national
development must have a sufficient knowledge of their audience.

This becomes doubly imperative for Western social scientists whose
beliefs, traditions, mores and cultural values differ greatly from
those of the pe0ple in developing countries.

In summary, it is suggested that more empirical research
be conducted taking into consideration the aforementioned points.

Only then can there be more enlightenment as to the actual role that
the mass media play. in modernization, particularly of the individual.

A word of caution is in order here. It must be recognized
that there are many facets of modernization that are likely to be over-
looked by focusing exclusive attention on mass media. There are
other modernization variables--social, psychological, economic,
etc. --that must belooked into in order to arrive at a full scale

analysis of the subject.

Practical Implications

 

The results of this study may be of help to planners and

practitioners of social change in developing countries. The study

106

tends to show that, in general, the mass media are effective in
creating favorable attitudes whereas interpersonal communication
through theradio farm forums are influential in teaching behavioral
skills such as the adoption of innovations. Perhaps, there is a need
tostrike a balance between the two methods of communication.
There-is sufficient indication that employing one method only cannot
meet the enormous demands for modernization in developing countries.

People. in emerging countries today have begunlooking
towards scientific and technological improvements as a means of
improving their standard of living. More and more, they turn to the
government for technical assistance. As a result, the government
needs to devise some means to meet the needs of a demanding clientele.

Interpersonal communication is no longer sufficient to
reach large masses of people who are seeking technical help. More-
over, even if there are available government technicians to help the
people, the costs of employing them would be prohibitive. The need,
then, to find practical substitutes for face-to-face communication is
imperative.

One substitute that has attracted considerable attention
from national development planners is the mass media of communi-
cation. That the mass media can make some contributions to devel-

oping countries seems to be no longer challengeable. However, the

107

impact of the mass media in modernization is limited by numerous
factors. It was already indicated in an earlier chapter that, gen-
erally, developing countries allocate very little of their financial
resources in mass media development. Thus, unless communica-
tion facilities become universally accessible in these countries,
their impact cannot be effectively evaluated.

Lack of time and facility for media use are also major
barriers to an effective utilization of the mass media. People' 3
non-exposure to the mediated means of communication may not be
a result of their unwillingness to expose themselves to sources of
information but lack of understanding (literacy) and/ or time to engage
in this kind of activity. Furthermore, the peeple may not have the
facility, i. e. , equipment, power, etc. , necessary to some forms of
communication.

An alternative that governments of developing countries
should pursue is to foster modernization byintensifying their efforts
on literacy improvement and education. Formal education is one of
the most efficacious strategies in changing value orientations, i. e. ,
in effecting an attitudinal configuration of modernity, among people
of developing countries. However, even though literacy and educa-

tion are important factors in modernization, they are costly in terms

108

of time and money and are usually considered slow in product and
return.

It seems then that a good communication strategy for
modernization is the use of mass media combined with interper-
sonal communication. The present study alludes to its effective-
ness, but further investigations are necessary before conclusive
statements can be made.

In sum, the search for the one effective communication
method in the process of modernization may be a futile and endless
venture. The problem is complicated and the variables involved
are so interrelated that it is difficult to determine a single method
that can be considered as generally better than other methods.

The results of this study are further substantiated by
the conclusions stated by McNelly (1966):

Mass communication phenomena must be investigated

. in all their endless complexity, with multiple effects
from many possible kinds of cognitions, attitudes and behav-
iors in one, two or more stages and even in different direc-
tions through social structures. Mass communication may
best be conceived neither as a simple "injection" operation
on an entire population nor as a neat two-step flow from
media to opinion leader to general public--but rather as a

multi-stage, multi -directional process with possibilities for
both direct and indirect effects (p. 357).

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