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Michigan 351:;- UniVCi‘sify This is to certify that the thesis entitled A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR THE SCHOOL RRCCRm presented bg Patri cia Louise Austin has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ldegree in Physical Education i ’7 . I x ! 4/ {/wJ/r ’ v J< Major prolessor ,.- - Date MLLWV— ’ l 0 0-169 ABSTRACT A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR THE SCHOOL PROGRAM by Patricia Louise Austin There is a critical need to identify and organize the content of physical education into a ccmprehensible structure to provide students with the knowledge and understanding of physical activity needed to live effectively in today's saciety. An examination of the nature of the learner, the characteristics of contemporary society, the nature of knowledge and the learning process led to the conclusion that the organization of the content of physical education around the basic and unifying concepts of physical activity into a conceptual structure was an effective basis from which to design the school program in physical education. _ It was hypothesized that a conceptual structure of the content of physical education arises from a theoretical conception of physical activity. Physical activity was conceived as a unifying life force which makes operational the whole man by integrating and extending his total resources as he moves in relation to animate and Patricia Louise Austin inanimate objects in various environmental settings. Within this theoretical conception, three basic postulates were made: 1. The act of moving is a product of man's internal systems. 2. The expressive Quality of the movement act is a personal matter related to man's unique capacity for movement. 3. Movement is a major force in extending and maintaining the resources of man. These postulates were reduced to three major concepts: (1) man‘s organization for movement, (2) man's capacity for movement, and (3) movement potentiation. These major con~ cepts provided the framework for the conceptual structure around which the unifying concepts of physical education were organized. The following conceptual structure was thus derived: I IRAN'S ORGANIZATION FOR MOVEMENT I t I l I ‘ l . Function Psychic Function .1 I ,\ Somatic Structure Somati ' I r F? ( II [ MAN -' s CAPACITY FOR MOVEMENT ‘ l T t Forces Within Man Forces Within Environment I I Physical Cultural L t I III MOVEMENT POTENTTATTON T l Man Environment r_. - '. I t Somatic Psychic Physical Cultural Patricia Louise Austin It was then possible to identify and organize the content of physical education for the school program within the conceptual structure. From the structure and content, thus derived, a program design was projected for physically handicapped students, grades 1 through 12 in a specific school setting in which a pilot program had been conducted. The program design included the movement characteristics, the program emphasis, the program criteria, the concepts and the types of physical activities to be taught at three developmental levels. Within the context of the thesis developed, it was concluded that: 1. Physical education has an identifiable body of knowledge which can be conceptually structured for effec— tive learning in a school program. 2. There may be many ways to structure the content of physical education. 3. A program design for a particular school setting can be derived from the conceptual structure. It is probable that other schools or school systems, using the conceptual structure could adapt the design to their community, school and student needs. Before any objective evaluation can be made relative to the teachability and inherent values of the conceptual structure, it is recommended that: Patricia Louise Austin 1. A group of scholars, school supervisors of physical education and capable physical education teachers should review and modify or revise the conceptual structure. Definitive criteria need to be established upon which to accept or reject the conceptual structure as a basis for the physical education school program. 2. Units of instruction based on the conceptual structure need to be developed for grades K through 12 which clearly state; (1) specific objectives, (2) the rationale, (3) program content, including the concepts, values and skills to be taught, (A) instructional procedures, including resource materials, eQuipment and teaching methods, and (5) methods of evaluation and measurement. 3. The instructional units need to be tested on an experimental basis in selected classrooms which represent students of different cultural backgrounds and learning abilities. Copyright by PATRICIA LOUISE AUSTIN 1966 A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR THE SCHOOL PROGRAM BY Patricia Louise Austin A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY The Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author sincerely appreciates the assistance and encouragement provided throughout the preparation of this thesis by all members of the doctoral committee. Gratitude is due Dr. Janet A. Wessel, chairman of the doctoral committee, who generously contributed the inspi— ration, encouragement and devoted guidance which made this thesis a reality. Dr. William Heusner is to be thanked for his counsel and constructive suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. To Dr. James Feurig and Dr. Douglas Gilmore, other members of the committee, for their interest and assistance, the author is indebted. Appreciation is extended to the administrators of the Flint School Board who made possible the pilot program at Durant—Tuuri—Mott School in which many of the ideas developed in this thesis were generated. Special thanks is extended to Mrs. Mary Peterson, Supervisor of Physical Education, Miss Connie Muller, Supervisor of Health Services and Mrs. Eileen Alward, Principal, Durant— Tuuri—Mott School for their assistance and advice throughout the pilot program. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Background of the Study . . . . . . Trends in Education. Significant Developments in Curriculum Defining a Discipline A Discipline in the School Program The Process of Curriculum Development. Who Makes Curriculum Decisions? How Curriculum Decisions Are Made Developments in Physical Education Curriculum . Historical Orientation The Present Status of Physical Education. Need For a New Curriculum Design in Physical Education. Statement of the Problem. Scope of the Study. II. A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF A DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM. Philosophical and Scientific Foundations of a Discipline PAGE }_J \OKOUl-lf-D’H 13 13 18 19 21 22 CHAPTER Nature of Man . . . . . . . . . . Factors of Contemporary American Society . Technological Change . . . . . . . Work—Leisure Patterns. . . . . . . Urbanization . . . . . . . . . Cultural Uniformity and Diversity. . . Nature of Knowledge . . . . . . . . What is Knowledge?. . . . . . . How Knowledge is ACQuired . . . . . Authenticity of Knowledge . . . . . Knowledge—~For What Purpose. . . . . The Structure of Knowledge . . . . Nature of Learning . . . . . . . . Modern Theories of Learning. . . . . Basic Generalizations of Learning. Determining the Content and Structure Of A Discipline . . . . . . Criteria for Selecting the Content . . Criteria for Determining the Structure. . III. THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION . A Theoretical Conception of Physical Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . The Act of Moving is a Product of Man’s Internal Systems. PAGE 22 214 25 28 32 3A1 36 36 37 38 39 39 40 Al 46 59 59 CHAPTER The Expressive Quality of the Movement Act is a Personal Matter Related to Man's UniQue Capacity for Movement. Movement is a Major Force in Extending and Maintaining the Resources of Man . . . . . . . . . . . The Conceptual Structure of Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . The Content of Physical Education. . . . Man's Organization for Movement. , . . The Somatic Structure . . . . . . The Somatic Function. . , . . . . Psychic Function . . . . . . . . Man’s Capacity for Movement . . . . . Forces Within Man. . . . . . . Forces Within the Environment. Movement Potentiation . . . . . . . Man . . . . . . . . . . . . Environment. . . . . . . .. . . IV. A FRAMEWORK FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED STUDENTS . . . Program Foundations . . . . . . . . The Community of Flint. . . . . . . The Community School Program. . . Durant~Tuuri-Mott School . . . PAGE 60 61 \ ON ON OO O\. \1 \ DU 00 73 7A 7A 76 77 77 V CHAPTER The Physical Education Pilot Prod? ( )0 PK Q) S The Procedure The Organization The Program Design Evaluation . Evaluation of Class Organization Evaluation of Program Content Evaluation of the Instructional Method . The Projected Program Design. V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary. Conclusions . Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY. SPECIAL REFERENCES FOR CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE APPENDIX . . . vi PAGE 00 m TABLE II. III. IV. VI. LIST OF TABLES The Conceptual Framework of Physical Education for the School Program . . . . The Conceptual Structure of Physical Education for the School Program . . . . Incidence of Exceptional Children in Flint Community Schools 0 c. I . o 9 3 0 Pilot Program for Physically Handicapped Students Durant—Tuuri—Mott School, Flint, Michigan. Summary of Yearly Program to Class Organization Framework for Durant~ruuri Education Program /. Activities Accordin- >—« K. mmott Physical it KC) m . J J \K‘ \L CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Trends in Education Attempts to appraise the educational scene of mid- twentieth century America are gigantic when one considers the broad scope and increasing dimensions of public educa— tion today. Democracy in the United States has decreed that schools provide universal education which enhances the worth and dignity of all students and which provides opportunity for each to pursue excellence according to his potentialities. At the same time, schools are expected to prepare youth for induction into the culture by acquainting them with contemporary issues and the forces which brought them about so that they can cope with problems of the future. The rapidly changing and complex nature of con— temporary society creates conflicting issues which must be resolved. Some of these are: l. Technological developments and explosion of know— ledge provide man with the means to destroy himself or build a better world. 2. Social welfare promises a better life for all but threatens personal freedom. 3. Social organization tends to breed conformity while individuality in man is cherished. A. Americans are dedicated to helping undeveloped nations while plagued with poverty and illiteracy at home. 5. Americans aspire to the concept of eguality of opportunity but continue to discriminate against minority groups. 6. Education strives for the pursuit of excellence, yet provides for mediocrity. The search for clarity in such issues and the kinds of decisions youth will make depend, to a large extent, on the type of education schools provide. The fundamental Question is: what kind of education shall be advocated and sup— ported to equip students with the insight they need to cope with the problems of modern living? The kind of education provided is determined, largely, by those who make decisions on what is to be taught in schools and how it is to be taught. History of American education reveals that the school curriculum for any era is shaped, largely, by changing philosophies concerning three factors: (1) the changing conditions of society, (2) the knowledge and skills considered necessary for effective living, and (3) the facts about the learner. Prior to the twentieth century, the body of knowledge to be learned, and to a lesser extent, the social goals of education dominated the curriculum. Emphasis was clearly directed to the accumulated knowledge and its pre— established order. This was so because man was viewed as an entity existing apart from his universe, but with the rational power to understand the complexities of that uni— verse. Therefore, training of the intellect and the trans— mission of an absolute body of knowledge was central to the study of a rigorous subject matter_ The intent was ITS H. to perpetuate the established moral and political hab of thought which had, presumably, demthtrated their efficiency. A new philosophy of progressive education evolved in the early twentieth century as the study of human development and the psychology of learning came of age. TechniQues of psychological testing and scientific methods brought with them new insights into the nature of man. Man was regarded as a unity. an organismic whole, as he interacted with his environment. Greater emphasis was placed on the individual and his diversity of interests and needs and his capacity as a learner. Sinée the most important task of the s hog) was T? react *re individual to think about, and solve problems 01 prescm importance and meaning to him, the srhool program was org4114ed aroind life experiences rentered in the learwer, Less a tentior .. A. A - 4' 4. 7. ... ; A. 7.x. . -7 - at l" 2.7:: Wit lll.’€.w: ‘ {fillpg:rfii‘:j,<4tf (D was given to subject matt the psychological progess cf learning bv mtirh ‘he learner became a complete personality. Today there is a swing bask "o THO snt’ewt—syieried curriculum with a new emqhasis With expanding fields a. knowledge, there is a current demand twat programs take ~students further into a field of study than ever before. it is argued that if cititens are to gain enough insight to make decisions about complex issues of the world today, they need a broader and deeper basis of working knowledge. At the same time, the concept of readiness for learning, which earlier was believed dependent on biological maturation, has undergone revision. Recent studies have led some psychologists to place less emphasis on the biological and more on the environmental factors. lhey believe that with a rich background of experiences, readiness for learning can be developed at a much earlier age than was previously believed possible. (l3) Search for the answers to the classical question; what knowledge is of most worth and how can it be Taught best to the learner has given impetus to enjoining scholars and Specialists in various disciplines. A number and variety of curifinilhnn proie ts irjtfm?lh lied States are currently providing highly signifi ant ideas auout the selection and organization oi ,ontenr and ieaning tar understanding. Signi fl a,{‘i4,‘i‘1 l—le‘ E:- 1 Cu men't E". l. 5‘14; 5' i .;. .,4.,:', ' Mn Defining a Discivline I ‘1 H l‘. ’ ’ l ' .- L \r" f" , t ‘ufi‘ T? c‘ {u 'Nr‘“ '-‘”'4’\ “ Z —| ./ '4 r 5‘ If). tile i2]. b‘tf 1p .1 lflt: b $631,111}:ch ri c: :34: ml.» .l Li «J J. '_ .2 fl , d 3 part of the National Educatiov fissogiation, Prole’t on Instruction, specialists and s holars in the humanities \J‘i - ,,~~:il’ J.“ “J 1 ‘3 ‘A’ uh“ _' .f‘ ‘9 _ o _o and seienves reviewed uhe nature oi their respeefiwe dis 1— p_ines and the implications for our: oulum They stated a . 0 basic to eacn.discipline are metnods of inquiry and structures of systems by means of which tne field is orga agnized for discovery, accumul a”ion, and communi- catior of knowledge” Le earring Tnese structurzs is neces ssary TO unwdei r arzy general or specialized way. {39:l7) I This statement s resses fine ordering of knowledge to make and ::o provi de a basis for advanced H o .+ i—_| (D Q) *3 :W Kl) C71 i_. (D Q; C. CD .1) .7 I- ‘ t (’0 study and Lesaarehi lfi suggesfis a number of gharaeteristigs of a diS”iplmi A discipline denoies more fban a collec— body of knowledge, a content, _1‘ 1—). O O 1“: :5 O *3 3 Q) -‘I‘ H O _.! ,4 H U) Q) organized around basin concepis. These congepis form the specifiv j }_J x_ + T) T ‘3 ’T {EL— '7? ’._J- O r?» T f...“ 7D ’0 0 structure within (3” facts can e established and the meaning of facis under— stoodo The sfirueiure is of suck eaiuafiure inst would allow freedom for ihe generation of Tes*zble Myooineses, fosier syrflflmssisszai eyxum take tfim> lead irn interpuwafine arml;adaptir@; special, curriculum projects to tre needs and interests of the state. There is need for evaluation ~entvrs tr examine and evaluate curriculum proje ts going on witiim aid out of the state to assist lo al s cool systems ix making wise decisions on curriculum matters” Federal Authorityo tarti ire ivm :ji'mua Wad: Hi govervwmant iiilnatteIWS(ni ethl'atio2;1:as I=~ii w%»‘_:‘ flmthD- VGI'Sld l l SSUG . The l a? (3‘7; i 71 a: Limit-.2 _: H -L g A ml ' it.) o Ln a partner in tie field of rublig PW “Hflfip; *«Ai g it; l2 appropriate part along with localities and states.” (37:211) The emergence of the "national community” and the need for new sources of financial support have resulted in a trend for increasing activity in and support of public education, The national government, through the U, 80 Office of Education, stimulates curriculum activity by distributing information, promoting and coordinating research, and providing finances for national conferences and curriculum projects. The federal government correctly takes no direct part in the decision of what to teach in schools or when to teach it, This is best achieved at state and local levels, How Curriculum Decisions are Made Curriculum planning is an on-going process, The ever—increasing body of Knowledge, technological devel- opments and the changing cultural patterns make it imper— ative that school programs be continuously reviewed and revised to keep pace with changing reeds, The dynamics of the school organization and personnel, the resources available and the uniQue and national needs of the community determine the ways in which problems are attacked. Curriculum planning is not a series of discrete and definitive steps, No single pattern will suffice all situations nor all problems, Each school system establishes its own systematic procedures for making curriculum decisions, 13 Effective curriculum development is a process 9 involving groups of individuals in thinking, dl U) cussing, planning, deciding, acting and evaluating together. The trend is to involve all teachers who are to implement the program along with the curriculum coordinator, specialists, scholars, scientists and other personnel as they can1 contribute to the development of the program. The group selects a program of study after examining all possible resources: programs in other schools and school systems, programs developed by national, professional and independent study groups and textbooks. The group may then choose between alternative programs, adapt a selected program, or may develop its own program of study to meet the needs of the local situation. .. Developments in Physical Education Curriculum Historical Orientation Historically, physical eduration prog‘ams in the United States have been dominated by the view that exercise and sports are therapeutic and prophylactic in nature. I“’<3H€:l8 (iii the late LJ' T ) Physical education programs owe the nineteenth century) to this view. Originally patterned after the German and Swedish systems of gymnastics, programs were thought of as corrective and develOpmental. Thus, under the leadership of medical personnel, European lit gymnastic exercise programs were introduced into the schools as a means of overcoming physical weakness in students and of correcting or alleviating certain structural and functional deficiencies. Attention wasa focused on the importance of calisthenics and gymnastfc exercise for the preservation and restoration of physical health. (15:4) Physical education was, in this sense, a form of physical medicine. A new physical education system emerged in the early twentieth century as a result of a growing dissatis- faction with the limited scope of programs. At that time, the program in no way reflected or supported the new culture in the United States. Dominated by a tremendous growth and extension of its frontiers, and the adventure and vigor of its people, a culturally~oriented type of physical education was eventually introduced into the school program. Games, sports and dance replaced thera~ peutic gymnastics as the core of ghe program. Emphasis O 'V H shifted to the recreational outcomes of physical educati programs.‘ Play and sport participation were seen to have 5M1 impcmfiznit rolra in pnmovidirug permnmsal snitisiacijxxls and enjoyment and in offsetting the tensions and stressos .' I oclety. of ljfiring iii an iiktlstrial.~ (I J Following World War ll, the development of physical fitness became the major purpose Oi physical education and has-continued with varying degrees of emphasis to the present day. Fitness tends to receive increased emphasis during periods of national emergency. More recently, the results of the Kraus-Weber test (1955) and the formation In _ ' of the Presidentls Council on Youth Fitness {l9 hi have I added further stimulus to this objective. The Present Status of Physical Education The exploration of the educative potential of cal education has been generally neglected. A few l—Jc phys leading scholars have recognized that physical education is potentially more than a program of unrelated activities; that it has a body of knowledge which needs to be organized and sequentially arranged for the school pnogram. As Henry suggests, ‘. . . our professional concern has cen~ tered on what physical education can do for people rather than the development of a field of knowledge,“ {BMzBE} In fact, physical edugation has given priority to the application of knowledge rather than to the knowledge itself. The content and methods of physical education have been of a tecnniral and professional nature as scientific informetlcxl’cas been applied to the techniQues and tools for improving human performance. High schools and universities have been reasonably sic essful in applyirm; the fa lxazuf anatonyg inrysfiology, Eng/sins, sociology and psychology to the teething of physical activity; 'Pndeed, eilkmfixs have heen.nemk%‘Vd develop in 16 conditioning programs based on sound physiological principles; skills have been analyzed for teaching in terms of the principles of mechanics and Kinesiology; and activities have been selected for programming with some consideration for their cultural significance and contri- bution to the growth and development of students in con- temporary societyo leaching techniQues have been refined as attention has focused on adapting methods of instruction to the levels of maturity and ability of individual students. in fact, improved teaching and training methods have been demonstrated most vividly in respect to athletes who continue to reach increasing capacities for performanceo However, seldom have programs carried athletes or average students beyond the activity iixnilffl Students have too often been left with the impression that physical activity is something you do in the gymnasium, or the tenris courts or iri the Envimmflrgg penil armi thai 'to dewmaiog‘;swill,,in sports is an erd in itself( ‘ V. , -, - ml "/«n ‘.\yr - f, - ,. 1 0- H." ‘..‘_‘,..L .» ‘ Current Jorllvulum Udveidymfimjfi lh fifol ml Educdthno Since 1950, a few physigai educatior s holars, interested in models and theoretical systems have develnped frameworws for the conceptual Knowledge or lhvsical activity“ These proposed frameworks ir;iude the worn oi Ellfeldt and Metheny (21}, Brown and Cassidy (ll4v ’ ’ ‘ I ' I ‘2 ,. r5. ,’ H’ ‘\ .. . ‘fl -. , H ' H", “ Abernathy and Wdiia (1/, hurt t;(59 and Weasel (erjq While the models are tentative and represent speculation, they do provide an important creating new curriculum designs in physical Three curriculum projects of national interest are underway which reflect current These described by physical education, are ) One project under the auSpice. of for Health, Physical Education ascertaining the motor potential in children, as a basis for arranging the seduential order, The by a composite group of national officers American Association for Health, Physical J - \ Recreation, representatives of the Fresident~ Youth Fitness, physical education and medicineo to strengthen fitness programs throughout United Statesc It will emphasize scientific training for developing physical efficienvy, of the third project, sponsored also healflfli, Physipéti Edicaiicwu Association for r is to define the content standardized tests for the physical education, k—lE, The project seeks the understanding and of healtli,‘the fuhrtjcwa stimulus Oberteuffer, the American and Recreation teaching of motor and The project schools tithes by the X" (if phyifi»cal e=ilcaiirni knowledge arii'wzde 17 only careful for education. scope and thinking in (6) Association is aimed at to be used skills in a second project is being undertaken staff of the Education ahd Council on and professional workers in education, is designed iri'the I if) llm>gmlrpose and Recreation, and prepare rstanding of to identify development . Vivi" K :1} '_d I) l d V 18 and the development of democratic living, This third project may provide the basis for a new approach to physical education and in so doing will be of great value to those interested in physi:al education as an academic discipline, Need For a New Curriculum Design in Physical Education The critical need in physigal education is to deter- mine the type of curriculum that will best suit the needs and interests of youth todayi Can the curriculum problem be solved by projects which look at fragmented knowledge, 0') a bavi U) skills and fitness a (f) for programming? Or, must physical education re‘examine the Content of the curriculum in terms of the organized krowledge and understandings of l\%? his (/1 0 physical activity needed by the studert to re \ U) problems and realize his purposesC l: studeh served best through the Latter type ox {JfleUlum, then the I\ 3; I v- - m 1" 't" ."x " ' .' pd x1) «IL— eaLKE following specific steps n I” lwf- v. ill l, Identify the content of physical edu: 29 Organize the body of k owledge into some comprehensible stru iure, 3, Sequence and order the con eh} ir a p ogra design which details the methods a; each g ' ' v level by which learning can cast be a hie" 40 ’Trarnilate "the Encogiynn deuaigi.i4ltclgiracginxal situations and evaluate 'ts teacflxfiliiiy and effectiveness in terms of behaviors] 1 r-* ) I K; . 1, ~ I 3‘ m ICLf J 19 II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is the intent of this study to develop a concep— tual structure of physical education in a school program by: Developing the foundations for a conceptual structure of physical education. The foundations are derived from four sources: (a) the nature of man, (b) selected factors of contemporary American society, (0) the nature of knowledge and (d) the learning process. Developing a theoretical conception of physical activity. Identifying the underlying concepts and general— izations of physical education. Defining the content within the underlying concepts and generalizations. Projecting a program design encompassing program criteria and the learning experiences by which the criteria can be achieved. It is also the intent of this study to translate the conceptual structure into a program design for physically handicapped students in a school setting. Ill. SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study is an initial step by one investigator to develop a theoretical conceptual structure for physical education in a school program in light of what is known today and for future synthesis of expanding knowledge, and to project a program design in a specific school situation. 20 Problems relevant to planning, administering and evaluating the program, and to the personnel and related athletic and intramural programs are not considered. In Spite of current research on learning which emphasizes the importance of conceptualizing, synthesizing and integrating knowledge from various families of related fields into organic wholeness, this study is not directed toward the interrelationship of physical education with related fields of study in the school curriculum. It is recognized that this integration may be an eventual step. The hallmark of a theory can only be determined by merging the theory with practice. Testable hypotheses generated from the theoretical conceptual structure need to be formulated, applied, modified and/or accepted in order to evaluate their worth. This study does not undertake to evaluate the theoretical conceptual structure. CHAPTER II A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF A DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM Certain kinds of information are required to determine what content is most significant and how the content is to be structured for teaching in the school program. The Question concerning which sources are most helpful in providing this information is a controversial one and has resulted in divergent viewpoints today: I. Some would emphasize the importance of studying the child to determine what his educational needs, interests and purposes are and what problems he encounters in daily living. How the child learns and the conditions most favorable for learning are thought to be central to the organization of learning experiences. The school program, according to this philosophy is child—centered. 2. Others would argue that the body of knowledge accumulated over the years is the primary source for determining the curriculum. This traditional viewpoint suggests that the cultural heritage is the most essential factor and the curriculum therefore should be subject— centered. 22 3. Those concerned more with the problems of contemporary and future society see the nature of society as providing the information for the curriculum. The school, it is viewed, is the social institution for helping people deal effectively with the critical problems of contemporary life. Here, the curriculum is organized around issues of social and cultural significance. The point of view is taken here that no single source of information is adequate. Knowledge of the individual, the characteristics of contemporary society, the nature of knowledge and the process of learning are equally important in providing the what, when and how of educational programs. The kinds of information that can be obtained from these sources and how they are used to determine the content and structure of a discipline are discussed herein. I. PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF A DISCIPLINE Nature of Man Certain data are found to be common to most people regardless of race, creed, color or social status. The individual is a unified, purposive organism acting and Hinteracting with his environment as a superordinate whole.H (llzfll) He does not exist merely as a physical, social or intellectual being. Each factor of his being affects all others and the total being together with the 23 society and culture in which he is at any moment in time are a unity. One of the greatest challenges for education today is the evidence that "probably the majority of indivi— duals are functioning far below their capacities, physical, mental, and creative.” (5:28) Each individual has innate potentialities and the basic need to actualize them. Behavior is dependent upon the basic drive——the need to maintain or to enhance self-organization. People are capable of self—actualization, and given sufficient freedom move in the direction of self- realization. (8:29) Man strives to create and extend himself to higher levels of complexity under favorable environmental conditions. He is goal—directed and this motivation urges him to learn about himself and the world in which he lives. He seeks interaction with others and his environment and thereby derives his own unique meanings from these interactions. At the same time, each individual is unique and his uniqueness depends on his biological inheritance and the circumstance of his total experience. Each differs in physical characteristics, readiness for learning, per— ception of reality, his catalogue of experiences and parameters of personality. An individual's uniqueness is thought to be partly due to things in the environment which he selects as highly relevant and individually significant to him and which consequently modify his 2A behavior. (22) As a human being, he is endowed with the powers of critical thinking and reason which make this selection possible. Each child possesses intrinsic worth and value and his own awareness of this fact helps him to utilize his capacity to learn and function effectively in his world. He receives many of his basic attitudes and values from his family and the community in which he lives. The school shares with these social institutions, the responsibility of developing and nurturing those values fundamental to self—actualization and democratic living. While all individuals normally progress through similar developmental continuums in a more or less orderly and sequential fashion, there are discrepancies in the rate and extent of growth within and between individuals. Discrepancies in growth occur according to the individual's potentialities, his limitations and experiences rather than pre—conceived expectations, patterns or pressures of parents, school or society. If development of the individual is interrupted in any dimension, the development of the total organism is affected since the individual is conceived to develop as a total organism. Factors of Contemporary American Society Because contemporary society is so complex and changing at such an accelerated rate, it is both necessary 25 and imperative to focus attention on the crucial aspects of society that are of most significance to the learner. It is necessary also to classify and order learning experiences that will promote understanding of these crucial issues. Tyler (45:14) states that no single classification of aspects of life is wholly satisfactory, but since the purpose is to break down a total concept of life into manageable aspects to see that no important phase is omitted, it is possible to use any one of a number of classifi— cations and accomplish this end. He suggests classifying aspects of life around the activi— ties of people in contemporary society, community resources, health statistics, vocations, national and international political and economic problems and others. Each of these may be useful as they apply to Specific disci— plines and indeed, each discipline eventually determines the best way to look at society in terms of its own subject matter. The purpose here, then, is to examine those forces and trends of contemporary American society which influence the subject matter of physical education in particular. Technological Change Today's world is one where rapid and incredible change is perhaps the most significant characteristic. Every aspect of society has been affected by scientific and technological revolution and breakthroughs. In any era, children are a product of the times in which they live, Children today have lived most of their lives in an 26 uncertain world that comprises atomic energy, hydrogen bombs, space travel, automation, satellites, social mobility, international tensions and the wonders of mass communi— cation. They must develop wisdom and courage to meet change, conflicting ideas and complex problems of a social and personal nature. In many respects, man has been more successful in changing the environment about him than in changing himself. He has bent the physical and biological sciences to his will so that he may live longer and more comfortably. He has produced mechanical, labor—saving devices which have reduced the amount of physical work required to accomplish the tasks of daily living. The machine, he invented, has practically eliminated physical activity in management and labor. Automatic appliances in the home have all but replaced muscular effort of the housewife. The discovery of the wheel and the application of its principle to the mechanization of transportation alone represents one of man's most successful attempts to eliminate muscular effort. Modern conveyances transport us from home to school, church, store, work, and play. Escalators and elevators increase the ease of transportation. The movement patterns of man required in his work have undergone remarkable change in the past century. More work is done while in a sitting or standing position in contrast to the walking, lifting, pushing and carrying patterns needed in the pre-machine 27 age. (48:47) In fact, almost every phase of life has been affected in some way as man has succeeded in finding more and better ways to increase the comfort of living. Man is organized to move and his various structures are designed to be used. As Nixon and Cozens (43:13) state, "man is much better fitted to thrive in an environment which calls for constant physical activity than in one that requires mental concentration and stress accompanied by physical inactivity.” The Law of Use states that, that which is used develops and that which is not atrophies. In discussing man's adaptation to a sedentary life, Langton (31:17) states that Hit is a biological law that the ultimate survival of an organism is threatened whenever it is subjected to conditions different from those which effected its evolution.” The tendency to eliminate vigorous activity from the tasks of daily living threatens to impair society. What effects inactivity has had on the total organism is not entirely clear, but evidence of impairment can be seen in the increase of premature degen— erative disease and the lowering of man’s adaptive powers. Physical education, as the single discipline in the school curriculum interested in the movement patterns of man, must assume much of the responsibility of changing the activity practices and habits of man. It is postulated that this can best be achieved by teaching the concept that vigorous physical activity is a requisite for the 28 biological adaptation of man living in a mechanized society. Physical education must also teach the skills by which he can adapt to these new conditions. Although much is known about the interrelationship between the biological needs of man, the environmental factors that contribute to his needs and the activity possibilities for meeting them, questions still remain unanswered: 1. How much physical activity does the average man need to maintain optimum function in today‘s world? 2. What is the range of performance that constitutes optimum fitness? 3. What type(s) of physical activity does man require to compensate for his sedentary existence? 4. What physical demands can the future be expected to make of man and how will he adapt to them? - Work—Leisure Patterns The reality of a cybernated world has created complex and far—reaching changes in the work—leisure patterns of man. The development of technology and the advent of automation have meant a giant shift in the kinds of work that man does. Work has become highly specialized and technical. Specialization has meant that millions of workers now spend monotonous hours in routine assembly line jobs while business and professional men experience only a small part of the total mission of work. Work 29 offers little variety of task, yet requires high powers of concentration. It makes few but precise demands on man. In this sense, specialization has encouraged the fragmentation of man as he has found it impossible to develop his total resources through his work. (29) The puritanical doctrine of work as the great ' the ”magic formulaH which gives meaning to life ”blessing,' is no longer acceptable. For the average man work has ceased to be an active force for finding self-fulfillment, personal worth and lasting satisfaction. If man cannot find fulfillment in his work, he must look elsewhere. Can he find meaning in his life during his leisure hours? Leisure has meant different things to different cultures and today there is no general agreement as to what it implies. Leisure, long regarded by some as the antith- esis of labor-—a period of time free from work, time for idleness and ineptitude found new meaning in industrialized America. People, faced with long hours of vigorous work, turned to their leisure time to find reward for their work, release from tensions or relief from the routine of life. According to this concept, people were content to partici— pate in superficial experiences in which they could find satisfaction and new answers to many problems concerning the use of the increasing non—working hours. It is possi— ble that when leisure is seen, not as a problem but as an opportunity for enriching the lives of people, an 3O opportunity for a personally satisfying and full existence, a new pattern of living will be found. A concept of leisure that focuses on people rather than time is what is needed today. Man's basic purpose is said to be self—actualization. (8:29) Realization of his total potential for living is what he strives for. When oneis life is governed by a purpose of excellence and achievement of one's capacities, there can be no clear distinction between work and play. Both should provide opportunity for the pursuit of a single— ness of purpose. Then, one‘s life becomes a whole, a unity. In reality, however, one individual may have to use his leisure hours to balance a monotonous, uncreative work life, while another finds his leisure becomes less important as he has opportunity for self—expression and creativity in his work. Whatever the purpose of leisure activity, people seek in it a time for continous learning in experiences in which they can become fully absorbed. They seek con— D structive and productive rxperiences which will provide ( deep—rooted and rewarding satisfactions. Eact must find his source of gratification coording to his iudgment L1 _. and choice. The concept of leisure, then, becomes one of education for purposeful leisure. Physical education has a role to play in laying a foundation for the discretionary use of leisure. Discretion in the use of leisure assumes that there is 31 something from which to choose and that we are capable of making intelligent choice. Approached conceptually, physical education would encourage participation in a wide range of physical activities in junior high school years in preparation for pursuing selected activities in depth in senior high school years. Students would see physical activities as opportunities for personal enjoyment, achieve— ment, group association, intellectual challange, self— discovery, release of creative expression and a potential for enrichment and development of personality. A program which permits choices and provides guidance for intelligent selection lays the foundation for discretionary use of leisure hours. Those in physical education should be oriented to the View that it is not the activity which is important in leisure, but what happens to people as a result of their participation in leisure activity. To substantiate I this view, research is needed to determine the relationship between physical activity and the total development of man. Answers need to be found to the following questions: 1. Where is man to put his energies in leisure hours? 2. Can physical education provide the foundation for the constructive use of man‘s energies? 3. What activities presently taught in school programs make the greatest contribution to the total development of youth and adults? 4. Should new activities be created and included in school programs? 32 5. What potential does physical activity have for the cultural development of a society and which activities contribute to this process? Urbanization Urbanization has brought many economic and cultural advantages through extension and centralization of social services and resources. People in urban communities enjoy better schools, extensive health services, improved trans- portation and more and finer parks and recreation resources. On the other hand, the concentration of population in urban areas has created many problems. Congested and mobile urban areas offer little opportunity for intimate social relationships. For many, the depersonalization and tension of city life results in loneliness, boredom, demoralization or mental illness. Man is essentially a social being. Throughout his life, he lives in groups in which social relationships provide the framework for ful- fillment of his individual interests and needs. Man cannot attain fulfillment by himself. He must do so as part of a group. His attitudes, habits and beliefs are determined by the integrity of his social relationships. Social re~ lationships are, in fa t, considered by many to be the dominant factor in the development of the individual. Thus, the individual strives for the fullest development of his resources, the expression of his capacities and the pursuit of his interests in harmony with the activities of other. This is becoming increasingly difficult in depersonalized, populated urban areas. 33 Physical education needs to be concerned with the problems of socialization. Physical activities are poten- tial socializing forces when they are understood as such. They provide, for instance, a medium for illustrating the concepts of human relationships. They serve to develop in children a positive self image as children test their skills and abilities and discover status in the group. The self—image is extended to a social—image through group games as the individual learns to adjust his interests and wants to those of the group. Increasingly complex and demanding group relationships can be demonstrated through participation in traditional and created group activities. The sudden explosion and concentration of the population in urban areas also creates space problems for recreation resources. Precious recreation areas have been discarded in the migration to the cities. Natural playing areas in which children can run, stretch, and explore woodlands and open spaces in Which families can relax and enjoy themselves are virtually lost. Decisions to set aside tracts of land for community recreation in urban areas are difficult when weighed against the need for housing and municipal and commercial projects. The com- plexity and magnitude of these problems demand informed and mature leadership. As future citizens in the community, students need an appreciation and understanding of the role of physical activity in community living in order to 34 make intelligent judgments on these and similar problems. Physical education might very well concern itself with such questions as: 1. In what ways does physical activity contribute to the socialization of man? 2. Which kinds of physical activity contribute most to the socialization of man, and which contri— bute the least? 3. What effects will urbanization have on preserva- tion of recreation resources? 4. What new resources should be developed in the community and where should they be located? 5. Do present resources serve all areas of the community equally or are some areas favored above others? 6. Who should provide recreation resources: govern— ment, commercial organizations, private agencies and/or social institutions? Cultural Uniformity and Diversity Cultural patterns in the United States show a trend toward uniformity in many aspe-ts of life. The national community is a characteristic of American life. People generally marry at a younger age and have two to four children during early years of married life. Differences in education and economic status are being reduced as more people gain an advanced education and the disparity in personal income is reduced. The life Span of Americans is increasing with more people living to an older age and then dying from degenerative diseases. The uniformity trend can be attributed, in part, to mass production which 35 emphasizes quantity rather than variety, and to mass media which emphasize conformity to the ideals, mores and values of a capatalistic society. Individualism, in many respects, is very difficult to achieve or maintain because of the exploitation of physical and psychological science for purposes of propoganda. Problems in delinQuency, school drop—outs, immorality, disregard for others and the rising divorce rate (34:221) may be attributed partly to the inability of youth to adapt Quickly enough to change. Changes that produce anxiety and uncertainity about the future have led increasing numbers of youth to conclude that it is better to live for the present than the future. (38) The increasing accept— ance of existentialist philosophies is a reflection of the live—for—the—self and live—for—the—present moment attitude. At the same time, diversity of culture is character- istic of other aspects of American life. While geographical i mobility of people has served to make American society somewhat more uniform, diversityof groups within communities still is the dominant characteristic and the one reQuiring \ urgent attention by educators. Some children have lived in several communities of the United States or in other coun— tries. Others, because of cultural differences and economic limitations, are significantly lacking in everyday experiences which are conducive to success in present— day schools. As well, students with special learning 36 problems, whether they be the slow learners, the academically gifted, the physically handicapped or the potential drop-out require special curricula and teaching methods. It is clear that the educational needs of all children cannot be met by a single program in the schools. Equal opportunity has never meant identical opportunity, but rather, a differentiated curriculum to provide equal opportunity for each student to reach his maximum potential. A new curriculum in physical education, there- fore needs to resolve the following questions: 1. How can the study of physical activity develop individualism in man which is in accord with the values of the American way of life? 2. What experiences foster understanding and communication among people? 3. How can the physical education program be designed to provide differentiated experiences for each student to attain his maximum potential? J: How can the physical education curriculum meet ' 4' ' O O O O ’ I ' ' the 'national” and indiVidual needs of youth living in today's complex and changing society? Hature of Knowledge What is Knowledge? Knowledge is defined as the sum of what is known. It consists of the tentative truths, facts, laws, and ideas that are known to man at any particular time. It is the ”reservoir of tried and tested experience that people already have had.H (9:104) 37 Knowledge is the basic instrument of education as the school undertakes to transmit to each generation the heritage of the culture and to equip students with as much as possible of what man has come to know and what he yet needs to know about the world in which he lives. Insight into the nature of knowledge is fundamental in determining what knowledge to teach in the school program and how best to teach it. The questions that must be answered concern both the ”production” of knowledge and the HconsumptionH of knowledge. In the first instance, how is knowledge acquired and authenticated? What is its purpose and how is it structured? The answers to these questions provide information as to the nature of knowledge. Secondly, how is this knowledge best organized for learning? This, then, provides information as to the nature of learning. Together, the answers provide the framework for organizing and teaching the knowledge of a discipline in the school program. (L How Knowledge is Acquire‘ .1‘ One of the unique charcsteristics of man is his curiosity about himself and the things around him. He seeks to answer questions about the things in his universe that puzzle him. The search for his answers in some scientific and systematic way, his ability to reason and comprehend and his willingness to test his perceptions in 38 actual experience provide us with the means for knowing and consequently with what is known. This scientific pro— cess is generally accepted today to be the process of knowing. Authenticity of Knowledge The dependability of available knowledge is of utmost importance to education. How much faith can be put into what is known? Is what is known absolute or merely tentative truth? The answers to these questions depend on several considerations. First, the way we perceive the universe determines whether it is possible to know anything. That is: is there a reality that is dependable, consistent and comprehensible? If there is not, then there can be no knowledge. Knowledge, therefore, is contingent upon viewing the cosmos as fundamentally intelligible and con- taining truths whicn only need to be discovered aho ordered. Second. the way we perceive knowledge is a philo— sophical problem basic to the way we teach knowledge. It has been noted that knowledge is fianstantly changing both as TX) corfimP t arriiintertiwstaticw;. ‘ihrcw¢N1 s ie1um?, mar; has come to find new information and new ways to under~ stand phenomena before him. His disceveries are subject to change and/or repeal as further discoveries are made. ”Whatever is found out and therefore known, is to be held temporarily and tentatively until such time as the 39 conclusions must be modified or overturned.H (35:12?) The ultimate test of knowledge is viewed to be based on whether or not it works. To the degree that knowledge serves to explain the situation and the phenomena that are observed, it is said to be tantatively true. The search for knowledge therefore, is an open—ended and on-going scientific process, providing new information and new interpretations. Knowledge——For What Purpose Scientific investigations have taught us that there is some measure of predictability about events. By con- trolling some variables and manipulating others, it is possible to predict the consequences of certain events with some degree of accuracy. As knowledge and the predic— tion of events is extended, man acquires greater capacity to understand himself and control his environment. ”He is capable then of placing nature and natural processes under his control to serve his ends.H {fl1;14) This, then, becomes the purpose of the quest for knowledge. The Structure of Knowledge _\ The searfifli for iqumvledge enuj the gnfiacess CM? knowi cg ' ' J.— .,- .1 t'J.a 11C!“ v 1 are not possible in an unorganized and chaotic ‘ The ontology of a structured and orderly universe is the only acceptable one. That is, there is a natural order and a structure to the universe which is independent of wishing or feeling and knowledge that is of worth must MO describe the regularity and order among events of the universe as man perceives it. We make sense out of what we know and find consistency in it through the framework that man builds to describe this order. Otherwise, knowing would, in fact, lead to chaos and confusion, devoid of any meaning. As data are accumulated, man organizes them into some intelligible form. He abstracts concepts and generalizations from the data. These he translates into principles, theories and eventually laws, to show logical relationships among the concepts and generalizations. It is these that privide the structure for knowledge and it is this structure then, that determines the content and scope of distinct disciplines. Nature of Learning The primary goal of education is to modify or change the behavior of the child in the direction of the goals set by society. it is generally agreed that behavioral change is the result of learning in which the totality of the laarren imymera ts muffin the total ermdlmnnmant either - _ a .7 ,- _ o ' ‘ ,, fT-"fl It- ,7 A n. n '. ,v 7, : y "l ‘ A .. .f . 3. 1,. , , .1. r l :_ overtly or lmOll'lle. file process by wnlsn lea.hi g .akcs .L. place is complex and intricate and deserves consideieo to understand the attention of educators so that thvy come conditions which facilitate behavioral change. Hilgard (25:3) a leading authority in the psychology of learning today, offers a provisional definition of learning, Al Learning is the process by which an activity orginates or is changed through reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristic of the change in activity cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or temporary states of the organism. Hilgard considers learning to be an active process and it is inferred from the performance or the behavior of the organism. As the result of learning, the organism can do something it could not previously do. However, some behavior is the result of natural body function, like crying and laughing; some is the result of maturation including walking; and some is the result of temporary states of the organism of such a kind as fatigue and drugs produce and is not considered by Hilgard as learning. All other performances of the learner, whether they be of the cognitive, motor or affective type are included in behavior and are subject to change by learning. Modern Theories of Learning Many theories have been advanced by psychologists over the years to explain how learning takes place. Since learning theory explains behavior of children, education finds its methods of teaching in learning theory. Which— ever theory is accepted depends on the philosophy the teacher holds; thus education makes use of many interpre~ tations of learning theories. If the teacher believes that the acQuisition of facts and information is the most impor- tant outcome, then his concept of teaching will be primarily M2 drill and didactic teaching. He is likely to subscribe to a learning theory that is congenial to these practices. If development of critical thinking is a major outcome, the teacher will organize learning experiences in terms of problem solving. Consequently, he is likely to subscribe to a theory of learning that emphasizes cognition. Indeed, there are times when a teacher will apply alternative theories dependent on the situation and purpose at any particular time. Schools of psychological thought are so numerous and varied in their viewpoints about learning that an important service has been rendered by Alberty (2) and Hill (26) who have identified and discussed the salient points of two broad groups of learning theories: Behaviorism and Cognition. Behaviorism. To this classification belong such educational psychologists as Thorndike, Watson, Skinner and Hull. The central premise of these theorists is that learning is a matter of connections between stimuli and responses. A stimulus is any sensation the organism experiences while a response can be any item of behavior. (26:27) These connections are known by various names among learning theorists: habits, stimulus—response bonds and (it conditioned responses. Human behavior is seen to be otally the product of experience. If the ”totality of the expew riential environment of the child were artificially M3 specified and controlled, then the behavioral and character- ological outcomes of the child could be predicted." (35:188-9) Every response, therefore, is thought to be elicited by a stimulus and education's job is to present appropriate stimuli to the organism and the appropriate response will occur. The individual is considered as some kind of mechanistic responder and reactor which is condi— tioned by an equally mechanistic world. HThose who would hold to this theory are interested in precise and definitive types of subject matter and in the precise and definitive methods by which subjects may be conveyed to the learner.H (35:188) In matters where facts and prescribed skills are important, the theory is undoubtedly defensible. Expected responses to stimuli are easily indenifiable and can be measured for mastery. Finding the most suitable stimuli to elicit the response and finding ways of manipulating them present more of a problem, but these are thought to come from experience as a teacher or experience of others. The method is didactic and becomes one of indoctrination, drill, memorization and rote learning. In this reSpect, teaching is authoritarian rather than democratic. The curriculum remains relatively static and depends on a logical presentation of material in parts to develop concepts of the whole. M4 Cognition. In contrast to the mechanistic interpre— tations of the stimulus—response theory of learning, a group of psychologists interested in how cognition of concepts, attitudes and skills is acQuired and how it determines behavior, see learning as a function of the total organism interacting with the total environmental situation. Cognitive psychologists such as Lewin, Tolman, Kilpatrick, Bode, Raup, and Childs hold that the organism does not function like a machine but as a whole, no part of which can be changed without changing the whole. The total situation in which learning takes place is important as learning is a continuous interaction between the organism and the environment. The relationships between the organism and the environment are in a constant state of change. The stimulus is not static, nor is the response. Cognitive theorists postulate that there can be no such thing as pure repetition in learning and so the stimulus—response con— nection cannot remain stable nor for that matter exist in the form described by the behaviorists. Cognitive theorists are interested in the ways in which man deals with complex problems. They emphasize insight in solving problems and thus Hmake more allowance for the power and flexibility of man's intellectual processes.H (26:29) The point in the learning process at which the learner perceives the ”how” and the ”whyH of a situation is the point at which he gains insight into the 45 relationship between events and his behavior. Thus, learning is more than habit forming. When an individual ”reacts to an encountered situation," he assembles those concepts, attitudes and skills from his previous experiences which are most appropriate to the new problem and "responds according to the elements that the new problem has in common with familiar ones, or according to aspects of the new situation which are similar to situations met before." (25:10) ”The richer the concepts or meanings, the greater is the likelihood that the old and new situations will have common elements and hence that transfer will take place.” (2:100) If this transfer of learned understanding to new situations does not bring a solution, the learner usually resorts to trial and error, bringing from his repetory one response after another until the problem is solved. It is to be noted that the behaviorists postulate that problem—solving is entirely a process of transferring only those habits from previous experience which are identical to the new situation. This is so because learning takes place in an isolated and fragmented way with little emphasis on understanding interrelationships. Maslow, Bills, Combs, Rogers, among others, have contributed to the cognition theory by stressing the view that learning is dependent on the individual’s perception of the forces acting upon him. Perceptual theory emphasizes that people behave in terms of the way stimuli seem to them. 46 Behavior is the product of perception existing for the individual at the moment he is behaving, and the direction of his behavior lies within the behaver rather than the external forces exerted upon him. The way the individual perceives the situation is consistent with his purposes and past experiences, The learner acts in terms of ”goals which serve as a means of giving direction to the process of a continuous reorganization of the field” (2:94) which includes the environmental forces and the previous experi- ence of the learner. Those educators who adopt cognitive theories of learning as a framework for teaching believe that the development of independent and critical thinking is a major goal for education. They are likely to organize much on the learning experience of the classroom around problems to be solved, issues to be considered and decisions to be made. The methods are democratic in nature and originate in the needs, interests and purposes of the learner in society. The curriculum is dynamic and flexible in that it constantly adapts new knowledge and methods to the changing purposes of the learner and society. Basic Generalizations of Learning The following generalizations are selected from an evaluation of theories of cognition and are stated here to provide a framework for the structure and design of a M7 discipline. It is postulated that this approach to learning provides greater opportunity for understanding and organization of the basic concepts and generalizations of a discipline by the learner. a. Cognitive learning theorists state that man experiences life through his senses. Sensations are received by the cerebral cortex from multisensory stimu— lation of the sense receptors. These are transformed and organized by the organism into percepts. A ”Percept may be considered to be the organized pattern of sensation at any given moment.” (3:884) Percepts are stored for future use by the individual in the form of memory. The learner, for example, learns to recognize and identify specific word symbols as he repeatedly experiences them through seeing and writing them. Consistent and accurate sensory per— ception is most likely to occur when: l, The sense data are perceived in an organized form rather than as random, unrelated and vague sensations, a. The data received are related in some organized way to past experience. 3. The organism can sort the data in some consistent way. 4. The data have some significance to the individual; , . , v .,;_ _- __H that is, the purpose of the 'encountered Situation is related to the purpose of the learner. b. Concept formation emerges from the established percepts. In psychological terms a ”concept is an abstrac— tion that applies to a class or group of objects which M8 have certain Qualities in common." (232171) The individual always responds, for example, to the characteristic com— bination of the shape, color and odor of a rose with the concept "rose.” Many investigations have been carried out to determine the conditions under which concepts are developed in children. (3:886) The following general factors emerge: l. The learner must construct concepts out of his own experience. No one can give them to him. 2, Direct experience with objects facilitates concept development in the early stages. Concrete concepts, concerned with objects and their function are probably the first to be acguired and are basic to the formation of other concepts. 3. Vicarious experience is both important and necessary after the initial foundation is laid. Picture interpretation, dramatization, demon- stration and experimentation all have their place in the development of concepts. A. Meaning is extended when the learner combines previously acQuired concepts and applies them to new situations. 5. HChildren do not learn in an atmOSphere of subje:t matter hermetriwally sealed off from the r-St of life.H (5:ldt) Concept formation, therefore, takes place within the context of the culture of the learner and is a determining factor if learning. <3. ’The formulatirn1<3f generalizatjxnms is on a slightly higher order in that it involves understanding the meaning of relationships between two or more concepts. It 1,, ._ in; '_ 4'.“ L, is this ability to discover meaning in relationships is the essence of learning, The learner is able to 49 discover a generalization when he is required to search for a structure or a pattern in a series of problems which employ the same generalization. d. Problem solving in a variety of tasks enables the learner to discover generalizations for himself and is postulated to be the best method by which insight into meaning is acquired. (5, 23, 25, MO, 42) This hypothesis is based on the theoretical assumption that insight occurs as the learner discovers solutions to significant problems and that the solution, when translated into generalizations, are applicable to a variety of problem situations. (40zfl25) Education ultimately and fundamentally is a process of deliberately attempting to prepare youth to solve problems of genuine concern both to the learner and society. The learner is taken toward the frontiers of knowledge whereby he shares in seeking answers to the yet unsettled and unanswered questions. There are no prescribed steps to be taken in the process of problem solving but general procedures and basic principles can be indentified: l. The learner is first confronted with a problem L) which creates t nsion and/or frustration within him and whi:n imped s his progress to achieving his goals. The learner must first identify the problem with which he is confronted and state it in manageable and understandable terms before he can act to relieve inner tensions. He learns to ask the kinds of questions which will lead to discovery of facts relevant to the solution of the problem. 2, A plan of action is devised in which tentative solutions are offered, It that all the past experiences of the SO hunches or is here child are brought to play in posing hypotheses that will quickly lead to the solution of the problem. It is this process which Bruner refers to as ”intuitive thinking,” It is the intuitive mood, however, that yields hypotheses quickly, that hits upon combinations of ideas before their worth is known, In the end, intuition by itself yields a tentative ordering of a body of knowledge that, while it may generate a feeling that the ordering of facts is self—evident, aids principally by giving us a basis for moving ahead in our testing of reality,” (l3:60) 3, Testing the hypotheses through collecting evi— dence or data from all relevant sources is the stage of exploration, Previous experience and teacher guidance allow children to select avenues which are most likely to yield pertinent data. 4, Data are reviewed, classified and analyzed and if sufficient, conclusions can be drawn in terms of the hypotheses stated, These become the solution to the specific problem but when found to apply to problems of a similar nature, the conclusions can be abstracted into some sort of a generalization or principle to serve as guidelines in future problem situations, At the same time, it is recognized that solutions to mvst problens are tentative and that new evi— dence needs T"o be sOugnT which will verify or modify previous *onclusions, x , tiornraquewitlv, 'the 2nvarerm§ss cu“ impcn’tarr' prrflilesr in; be :m31vea, 'Fne egasfle'ari, ssaiwih for t fl: i“i tic) ,d tile or ii izfia7l i 1*uei‘p:‘~"a ”i “ r31 in e 1* iii »ivi; ‘ Sidered to 16 main features oi 'rollem s? i : l ‘ through this process that tr— lemr«ei comes tn : ~ rt he is capable of raising problems, assembling and ‘FOCGSSng data for their solution and abstracting generalizations which make it possible for him to order, control and Vi greater extent. u. his environnern:‘h3 a e. Learning, understanding and retention of subject matter are facilitated when the subject matter is organized around those concepts and generalizations with most potency, depth, and breadth. Learning of isolated facts or concepts is of no significance unless they are related or connected with other facts. A concept is significant only if something is known about its referent; that is, what effect it has on other concepts, when it occurs or changes under different conditions. In this sense, concepts enter into generalizations which, in turn, can be formulated into principles and eventually laws. The more laws into which a concept enters, the more it can be connected with other ideas, and thus the more signifi— cant and potent it becomes. If, for example, it is known how physical activity is related not only to fitness, but also to structure, function, work and leisure, weight control, health, cultural factors and attitudes, then the concept is more significant than if only one of these relationships is known. f, Learning a discipline is best achieved when the learner ”behaves” as the scientist or scholar rather than as a spectator learning about the discipline. Bruner (13:14) states that “intellectual activity anywhere is the same, whether at the frontier of knowledge or in the third— I grade classroom.’ The difference in activity is in degree, not in kind. 52 g. "Perception cannot be changed directly; it can only be facilitated, encouraged and assisted." (#:7) Perception is facilitated when the situation starts where the learner is and procedes with problems within his needs, purposes and interests. The extension and reali— zation of the learner's goals, rather than those which education sets for the learner is the real objective of education. h. ”When problems are of common concern, group thinking is the most effective approach to learning." (2:106) The group process is highly prized in a democratic society and through it, individuals may acQuire the concepts, values and skills of democratic institutions. i. The learneris concept of himself plays an important role in his learning. Self—concept is affected by the interaction and relationships of the learner with the aninmnxa and irunqimate enqvironnkwn . Wher1kw3 has a positive self—concept, he feels liked, wanted, worthy and capable of achieving; he accepts his limitations as well as his strengths; he is challenged rather than thxeatered by new situations; and, his self—respect leads him to respect and contribute to others. On the other hand, his ability to learn is impeded by anxiety, threat, frus— tration and repeated failure which destroy his self— esteem and consequently his motivation to learn. 53 II. DETERMINING THE CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF A DISCIPLINE Criteria for Selecting the Content Selecting appropriate content from the vast body of knowledge available in a field of study today is a formidable task of curriculum workers. Since it is im— possible to teach all the knowledge of a discipline in the time available, the decision as to what content to include in a particular discipline must reflect those knowledges, skills and values deemed most worthy and of most potential for contemporary living. Selection of content is an on- going process based on the changing nature of society, the changing needs of students and the continuous revision of the knowledge itself. The problem, then, is to identify criteria for selecting subject matter for a discipline: 1. The content of a discipline should be in accord with the range of objectives of the school with a clear statement of the priorities and purposes of education. The school must recognize that it has certain uniQue contri- butions to make to the total education of the child which differentiates it from other social institutions. Tyler (46:74—80) recognizes six educational tasks as particularly appropriate. The content that contributes to the widest range of these tasks, therefore, is most worthy of inclusion in the school program: 1. Learning, based on knowledge which furnishes opportunities for finding meaning and effec— tiveness in life. 2. Learning of complex and difficult things that require organization of experience and distri— bution of practice over considerable periods of time. 3. Learning in which the essential factors are not obvious and where meaning must be brought especially to the attention of the learner. A. Learning which cannot be provided directly in the ordinary activities of life. 5. Learning which reguires "purified experience” or a higher quality than is commonly available in life outside the school. 6. Learning in which re—examination and interpre— tation of experience beyond sheer contact are essential for clear understanding and effective utilization. 2. The content should represent a discipline as it is known today. As new discoveries are made, the subject matter must be altered to reflect these discoveries. Content should be added or eliminated, or the emphasis or various aspects of the discipline should be changed to accommodate new knowledge. Criteria for Determining the Structure H Much of what has come to be known as the structured disciplineH springs from the work of Jerome Bruner. (13) His writings have had significant impact on curriculum makers as he clarifies the importance of structuring a discipline for effective learning. HStructuringH means the systematic organization of the content of a field of 55 study or discipline around the logical, unifying and significant concepts and generalization of that discipline. Tyler (45:57) suggests that values and skills are other elements in a disciple which can serve as Hthreads that weave a more integrated curriculum.” As an example, demo— cratic values resulting from the ability to solve group problems may be used as unifying elements in structuring content. Organizing the content into a comprehensible structure is perhaps the most important task of curriculum workers today. Certain criteria emerge from an examination of the learning process and current curriculum projects which have used the concept of structure as their basis: 1. ”The content of the curriculum should be organized in such ways that students may progress, from early to later school years, toward an increasingly mature utilization and organization of their knowledge.” (37:225) The subject matter is so organized that it takes the learner, at his own stage of readiness and rate of learning, from its simple and concrete interpretations to its more complex and abstract interpretations. Alfred Whitehead (A9:26-38) describes the cyclic process of mental growth which takes the learner from a level where concepts are perceived as isolated and ”romantic” factors or things, through the stage of precision when ”width of relationships is subordinated 56 to exactness of formulation” to the later stage of generali— zation in which ideas are synthesized and interrelated. This suggests, then, that concepts should be presented to elementary school shildren in their concrete and simple forms and to adolescents in their deeper and broader forms. Bruner (13:52) refers to this process as the ”spiral curriculum.” 2. The organization of content around unifying concepts and generalizations should help students see interrelationships and achieve unity from the diversity of knowledge. It is the quality and potencey of the concepts and generalizations and their potentiation to unify, _ organize, and interpret knowledge for the student that is the key to structuring a discipline. This can be compared to the headline of the newspaper which succinctly captures the essence of the news story for the reader. The headline, the concept or generalization, encompasses all the related facts of the story with one or two potent ideas. At the same time, individual concepts and generalizations are interrelated in time and space within the structure which creates a simultaneity or holistic superstructure of the field. (A: 1, 52:7) Ul \ 3. The systematic structure of a discipline allows for raising Questions within its scope and for the discovery of new information. New discoveries are built into the system, displacing or modifying obsolescent information. Each discipline has major concepts, values and skills around which knowledge can be organized. These elements are not to be regarded as single factors isolated from one another, Rather, they are regarded as a means to synthesize and integrate the content so that the student comes to understand the total domain of the discipline. Whether knowledge is organized around concepts, values or skills is of little conseQuence. Whichever method is used, their identification should result in a unification of the subject matter and an awareness of the simultaneity of relationships of the knowledge within the subject matter. CHAPTER III THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION It is quite logical to assume that there are numerous ways to approach a conceptual structure of the body of knowledge of physical education. Any structure that is formulated arises from the theoretical conception one holds of the role of physical activity in a school setting. Indeed, if one holds to the tenet that the major purpose of physical activity is to effect change in the biological function of the organism, then the knowledge about the nature of the body structures, their function and capacity, adaptive mechanisms and methods by which physical activity produces biological change would form the basis of a conceptual structure. Or, if physical activity is viewed primarily as a socializing force, then, the knowledge of man as a social being engaging in physical activity, the nature and structure of the social environment, the organization and conduct of sport institutions and the mechanisms by which man acquires the values of society would be formulated into a conceptual structure. 59 I. A THEORETICAL CONCEPTION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Physical activity is conceived here as a unifying life force which makes operational the whole man by integrating and extending his total resources as he moves in relation to animate and inanimate objects in various environmental settings. This theoretical conception arises from three basic postulates: l. The act of moving is a product of man's internal systems. 2. The expressive quality of the movement act is a personal matter related to man's unique capacity for movement. 3. Movement is a major force in extending and maintaining the resources of man. The Act of Moving is a Product of Man's Internal Systems The movements that man is capable of performing are a generalized response of the whole organism in which the internal somatic and psychic systems are integrated to form a movement structure or organization. The skeletal neuro— muscular, cardiorespiratory, and endocrine systems functioning together determine the kinds and levels of performance man is capable of achieving. At the same time, movement is an act of intelligence in that man is capable of directing his movements toward a purposeful end. Intelligent and purposeful movements presume that the perceptual and cognitive functions of the psyche are integrated with the somatic systems. 60 The Expressive Quality of the Movement Act is a Personal Matter Related to Man's Unique Capacity for Movement The fact that each man's movement patterns are uniquely expressive of his whole being presupposes some— thing more that the physical act of moving. It presumes that each man has a unique capacity for movement, which is comprised of his inherited movement organization and his movement perception. In fact, ”it is the psychological systems that govern movement behavior." (32:2) The way the individual perceives himself moving in a life situation, the way he perceives his present status and structure for movement, and what he aspires to become are major factors in directing the movement act. Combs and Snygg have called these perceptions, the phenomenal self. (17) Therefore, it is the inherited movement organization and the phenomenal self that together are brought to the movement act, and together they result in uniquely expressive movement, If the mover feels and, indeed, if he is awkward, poorly coordinated, too fat, too thin, too weak or deficient in other ways, he is not likely to be motivated to pursue movement for his own satisfaction, enjoyment or expression. Under such handicaps, his movement patterns are apt to be awkward, stereotyped and unrewarding to him. On the other hand, if he feels he has and does have sufficient skill, strength, flexibility, adequate endurance and energy, and an attractive body structure, he is likely to engage in a _._1‘___. . 61 variety of physical activities for his personal enjoyment and satisfaction. His movement patterns will express ease, control, joy, a coordinated wholeness symbolic of the man himself. Movement is a Major Force in Extending and Maintaining the Resources of Man Wessel (47) has advanced the theory that movement is a unifying force which integrates and extends the human resources and environmental systems through two processes: assimilation and adaptation. Assimilation is described as the process of incorporating and processing data from the movement experience. It is the phenomenal self that the mover brings to the event that is both the selector and the processor of the data. As the mover perceives himself, and his needs, he selects from the movement experience those data that are meaningful at the moment and assimilates these into his conceptual system. Movement, then, is a learning process by which the mover learns about himself moving and learns about the world in which he moves. The greater and more varied the movement experiences, the greater the potentiation of movement as a learning process. Adaptation is described as a process of change in which Hmovement adaptations take place within man in response to the variageted requirements of the individual or demands which the environment imposes.H (47:11) The structural and functional systems of the human body CW {‘0 determine individual powers and limitations. Both systems can can adapt to higher levels of performance by activities of sufficient frequency, intensity and duration. The process of adaptation is concerned with building the internal resources in order to resist environmental forces of stress and tension, and with developing and maintaining the potential power of the organism to function fully. These two proce“ assimilation and adaptation, make 8868: possible the integration of human resources into an organic whole. Directed phisical activity is concerned with the ‘v potentiation of movement to develop and integrate in man: 1. Biological adaptation 2. Skilled motor performance . Expression 4. Communication Biological Adaptation. The overall ability of the human oraanism to adapt to the physical demands of life is 7" r ‘1’. or. - *1 Il'~. ’\ . r“ r\ "' . r‘ . '4— ',‘l ' "1 J— 1" ,-~ r\ Lid-Cole, Ql Q..:Iii_._/.ation dfld pile IUI1(-,L,IQIldl K4 related to th (D condition of the biological systems. For example, the size 9 and strength of muscles and bones, the capacity of :&3 L cardiorespiratory system, the integration of the neuro- muscular system and the ability to withstand stress deters : J mine the effiriency of the moving individual. A minimal \4 level of functional adaptation is necessary to survive as a biological organism. An optimal level is needed so tyat if, r—a a can maintain his daily activities and have sufficient 63 reserve energy for emergency and for active leisure pursuits he might otherwise avoid. Physical activity of specific kind and quality, routinely practised, provides the stimulus for extending the biological adaptation of man. Skilled Motor Performance. Movement is seen as a major force in developing sufficient skill to perform the diverse motor patterns needed by man to accomplish specific ends in his daily living situations. Unskilled movements demand that much of the cortical activity be directed to the movement itself, while coordinated movements permit the mover to divert his attention from the movement to the purpose of the movement. In learning a tennis serve, for example, a player must consciously direct his movements, but having learned the specific pattern, he can serve semi—automatically. He is then free to concentrate on the strategy appropriate for use against the opponent. And so with the child; his first attempts to learn about the environment depend on his motor development. As he (D refines th patterns of reaching, grasping and releasing, he is able to differentiate between objects in the envirdnm ment. Skilled walking, in the early years, is used for the purpose of getting information, exploring the space that surrounds him and establishing the relationships between himself and the objects in his world. The child continues to develop a repertoire of skilled movement 64 patterns for his own enjoyment, betterment and development. And, man needs skill in the basic movements of lifting, pushing and reaching so he can perform work tasks with ease and efficiency. Expression. Within the numerous forms of sport and dance activities traditionally engaged in by Americans, including those created by individuals and groups, there are certain discrete qualities that have a symbolic meaning for man. Within the same movement experience, each may find his own meaning, different from that of others. This is so because it is the unique self that extracts the meanings from that experience. For example, one man may find in golf an opportunity to master a skill, measured in terms of a score; another a way to express his creativity and resourcefulness; another an opportunity to share a pleasant experience with a friend; and another, a chance to pit his skill against an opponent. Each, in his own way expresses his meaning, his purpose and his self in what he chooses to do and the particular way in which he does it. Communication. Movement is postulated to be a signif~ icant force in developing skills of communication and a social—cultural concept. Faced with the reality of an increasingly impersonal society, there is a need today to find a medium for communication among people. Physical activity does provide a common purpose which brings people together to share and communicate their inner feelings, their interests and concerns. Group activities serve to develop the whole range of social skills and understandings: social acceptance, group membership, recognition and respect for the worth and dignity of others. Games and sports are a major factor in the induction of youth into the culture. C lturally oriented activities serve as a medium to communicate certain cultural values and social phenomena. They are a reliable criterion for rewarding conformity and punishing deviation, for strat- ifying people according to success and failure, and for recognizing the achievements of youth. Culture does not exist by itself. It is not self— determined, nor does the individual need to adjust to its present state- Culture can be remade and redirected. Physical activity is one of the most forceful means in directing cultural patterns as it is common to all members of the culture. Desirabl (L. aspects of American culture are perpetuated through the traditional activities people learn to perform and enjoy. however, the physical activities which groups retain, create and promote as part of the American way of life should be critically examine” as they contribute to the enrichment and enhancement of American culture. Boxing, as a case in point, would be 66 eliminated from American sport on the bases of most cultural criteria. II. THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION The conceptual structure, presented in Table I represents the framework of the body of Knowledge of phys— ical education under the terms of the theoretical conception of physical activity. It is a synthesis and organization of the knowledge from physical education and related disciplinary sources which explains the phenomena of phys— ical activity. The knowledge has been reduced to three underlying and unifying concepts within which the subject matter exists. Reading from the top of Table l, the unifying concepts are arranged in a vertical seQuence: l. Man's Organization for Movement II. Man's Capacity for Movement TIT. Novement Potentig ion This conceptual structure of physical activity was designed as a model for the school physical education program. It is intended that it will: A) 1. Direct decisions about the seguence oi instruction. 2. 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Give direction for further study and research needed in physical education for the continued development of the school curriculum. III. THE CONTENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION The selection of the content within the conceptual structure was based on three criteria: 1. It should include those concepts which implement the theoretical conception of physical activity. 2. It must represent the knowledge and under- standings about physical activity needed today by school children. 3. The concepts identified for inclusion should be based on current research findings and theories advanced from physical education and related disciplines. Table II represents the conceptual content of physical activity organized within the conceptual structure. For the most part, the concepts which have been identified are well documented in the literature. References appear in the Bibliography under ”Special References.H There is a paucity of research and literature on the sociological and psychological aspects of physical activity. Therefore, some of the concepts listed under HPsychic Function,H HCultural Environment,H and HMovement PotentiationH have been postulated from the literature that is available and from conjecture. The content is discussed briefly for clarification. Man's Organization for Movement The content of physical education includes instruc— tion in concepts and understandings of the internal 69 m .mmd t Hsz:erfl-:ou:HHn LinHfl;b . Hcm: :6 Oc_ gmsngp mmCHCde m.: .HHEm HgmHot .Hzme: .HHHH muHHHjnnumme :. coHHdEHoH HQQQCOQ H.7 :oHHHo; mw:oEw u H723 H7 :.HHL:;.;E H: :oHHHcmoo .r deH Hpfion HngsewH.n ooHHodH; xHo.H Ho o oH HH.H® p.> .EzdgiEommE “H;;-:Ego:ounmaxH >szc 2.; nooHBmE nCOHHQmonQ .:oHH mNHm boon o co IHocoe HdHcoEHOHH>Cm .moCmHHmon on: .HHogmdeH H. :H dado .oEdHHH 0. .memzz .HEHII:CHHH::chx Eton I. 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H ‘6.) 4 I I -..«H. .H . .. > . .H u l. 1‘ J H H H. H H . H . FHHsHllri .3. HwnHér “.rw . Hf . ,H “H", F P . . 73 systems of man as they operate together to form an organi— zation for movemento An understanding of the somatic structures and somatic and psychic functions which make possible the varieties of human movement is central to this unifying concepto Each of these needs to be understood separately before being integrated. The Somatic Structur The content of physical education provides learning opportunities for understanding the concept of the somatic structure and movement. The origin of man's structure, the adaptation of the skeletal and muscular framework to the biped stance, the design of the muscles, bones and joints for movement and the variations in body form determined by the composition and distribution of body tissues are concepts needed to understand the movements 1.. he movement problems of man, The Somatic Function The concepts of work, energy and efficiency are basic to understanding the human organism in motion: how it functions, adapts, adjusts, and recovers in movements of Ft (D :3 U) (‘1 different complexity and in Psychic Function The concepts of the psychic function in the movement / )— act are divided into perception and cognition. The 7M importance of perception of self in movement (the self image) is part of the instructional programo Understanding one‘s perception of others in movement also belongs to the content of physical educationo Movement should be approached as a learning process by which the mover learns not only skills, but builds concepts and understandings of physical activity which transfer to life situations. The process of motor learning and the factors which inhibit and facilitate motor learning need to be taught as they help the student understand his learning problemso Man‘s Capacity for Movement The Knowledge contained within this central idea is the forces within "*3 fcrce (D (/2 concerned with the balanc (f) the particular individual interacting with the external forces of the animate and inanimate environment which affect his Jerfcrmance bcth favorably and unfavcrably. Each must understand thcse forces as they affect his capacity for mot ; performance ano development so 3: I ,, V A i - .2. i 'I . - 7 ‘ , if i 2 ~.. _ {* v ' ' rd ‘ ' a i .- ' f , f; IREJKT: ,‘,='i i L ' it"ii[,_l QILL 1_.':’.\‘ Jig 1hr: liltjlfilugj (HUM a l Forces Within Man n -~ 6 a,‘ The activities of the irjsical educaticu prog am can be criented to illustrate the way the internal forces Cf man affect his movement behavior. The bioltgical cghdjticn, the ability to develop, direct and corseiv 75 energy, the range and depth of movement interests, the amount of previous practice and training can be shown to affect the intensity and duration of performance that is passible. Each student should become aware of his movement needs, interests, purposes and overall make-up for physical activity. Only then dces he have some objective basis for selecting activities that are suited to his immediate and long—range requirements, his per~ formance capacity and his personality traits. The physical education program should take the student to the level of maturity at which he is able to match his reQuirements with the demands that specific activities make of him. Forces Within the Environment Since movement is an interaction between the mover and the objects within the environment, knowledge of how (he affects the other is necessary before understanding movement as a simultaneous whole, an integration of the self with the environment. The conceptual knowledge of environmental forces which influence movement behavior is basic to achievement of the potential values contained within the movement experience. The limitations which the environmental conditions impose need to be understood so they can be overcome, avoided or controlled. Understanding and application of the physical laws and principles of 76 movement encourages development of neuromuscular potential. At the same time, the cultural elements that determine the need for intelligent activity pursuits, eg. the facts of an increasingly sedentary life reQuirement; the values American culture places on physical activity, eg. prestige, status, professionalism, amateurism; and the institutions which society has established to encourage participation and spectatorship, eg. financial support, physical resources, athletic unions, are so much a part of the movement experience that they should be an important aspect of the curriculum of adolescents. Movement Potentiation The final underlying concept of movement potentiation is concerned with the kinds of movement and the processes by which movement facilitates integration: assimilation and adaptation. Movement potentiation is concerned with giving the student an image of his present status and needs aimlsfivnving tdm1Exmvznovemerfi:txni serve idhiiumv and jjl'the future. its needs tcitnmnzrstand the pmfimmfiitles by which adaptive change occurs both within tne seif and within the environment. Only then will he be motivated to apply the activities and training regimes taught in the school program to his daily life. 77 Man The potentiation of movement to develop and maintain the resources of man depends, in part, on his understanding the concept of adaptive change through movement. He needs to know what changes are desirable and possible for his requirements, how they occur and what movements are most likely to produce them. For example, the decision to increase muscular strength is dependent upon his knowing: 1. His present status of strength 2. His changing strength needs 3. The meaning strength has for him in his present and aspired activities A. The amount of strength, the range of motion, and the speed of contraction he reguires for his purposes 5. The ways in which he can improve and maintain strength 6. The initial and long—term effects of strength improvement 7. The relationship of his strength to other factors: performance, nutrition, weight, self image etc. Environment Physical education programs can be oriented to develop the concept of movement potentiation in controlling and directing the external environmental forces. Movement experiences which utilize many different objects, facilities, media and are performed under various physical conditions illustrate the way movement can be 78 used to control certain aspects of the environment. Through skilled movement man learns to control the animate and inanimate objects which he encounters. Movement also illustrates the way man copes with the physical media, climate, forces, and events of the environment. Concepts are formed about the cultural environment when the movement experiences are drawn from the repertoire of American sports and games. Movement is potentially able to direct the development of culture when the cultural orientation of the physical activities is thoroughly understood. It is a responsibility of physical education to have students critically evaluate the contribution or detraction these activities make to the American way of CHAPTER IV A FRAMEWORK FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED STUDENTS The conceptual structure of the body of knowledge of physical activity should be viewed as a resource that can be drawn upon for the education of students in a particular school setting. The structure, by itself is insufficient for designing the physical education program. Other factors must first be considered. (1) The initial task is to know the facts of the community, its problems, needs and resources as they concern physical education. (2) The second task is to know the facts of the school system, its philosophy and goals, organization and resources as they affect the program. (3) The next task is to know the facts of the particular students, their common learning problems, needs and purposes for physical activity. As these facts are identified and synthesized, the task then becomes one of selecting the appropriate concepts from the structure and articulating them into a seQuential program design from one grade level to the a "x— H Q) of next throughout the school system. The program design each school or school system develops consists of the 80 conceptual structure and the physical activities which serve as vehicles to achieve the specific purposes of the students. A pilot program conducted for the handicapped children at Durant-Tuuri—Mott School, Flint, Michigan serves to illustrate how a program design can be evolved from the conceptual structure. I. PROGRAM FOUNDATIONS The Community of Flint The City of Flint is one of America‘s large and fastest growing urban centers, ranking sixty-third in size in l960. (1A)* The population of Flint City is l96,9AO; Genesee County has 177,373, making a total of 37A,313. Of the residents in lint, five per cent are foreign—born, fourteen per cent are of foreign parentage and eighteen per cent are non—white. Negro residents comprise over ninty—eight per cent of the non-white population. .._‘ Flint has a hignly mobile population, almost one- half of which moved at least once during the period lQES—bO. Despite this mobility, it is principally a community of home-owners, Three—fourths of the houses are valued in the $10,000 to $15,000 range, one—fifth are valued over \ l I $15,000 and the remainder are valued at less than $lt,000. *All data were compiled from the 1960 Census Tract for Flint. 81 The median formal educational background of persons over twenty-five years of age is 10.9 years compared to the national median of 10.6 years. A center of the automotive industry in which fifty per cent of the work force are employed, families generally enjoy a level of income above the national average. The median income of families in Flint and Genesee County in 1959 was $6,3AO while the national median was $5,660. Flint faces problems common to most large industrial cities in the United States. in 1959, an average of eleven per cent of the labor force were unemployed (due partly to a national steel strike that year). Urban renewal plans will uproot thousands of families in the central areas of the city. New homes and schools will have to be located. Juvenile delinQuency, school drop—outs, overcrowded schools, racial incidents and city slums create serious problems for municipal and school administrators. The Community School Program The Flint Board of Education, recognizing in 1935, that education is a continuing life process, laid the foundation for one of the most extensive community school programs in the United States. Today, the program serves the educational and recreational interests of children, youth and adults through extensive programs conducted in the fifty public schools of the city. The following 82 statement adopted by the Board of Education in 1961 expresses the community school philosophy. (44) We hold that 1. Every individual has worth and dignity; he is uniQue and learns in relation to his uniqueness; he has the right to the opportunity to reach his potential. 2. Knowledge, skills, health, sound moral values. vocational fitness, good human relations all are basic to successful living and working in neigh— borhood, nation and world communities. 3. Today's world demands quality and depth of learning as well as flexibility in meeting the rapidly changing developments in science, economics, technology, diplomacy and human aspirations. 4. Schools must promote the democratic ideal since the preservation of a free society depends upon the ability of its citizens to protect individual liberty, encourage social Justice, and develop new ways of solving new problems. Therefore, citizens and the Board of Education have the responsibility to maintain a well designed and flexible plan of instruction, including a variety of enrichment programs for children and adults that will — retain the constant values of a democratic society and provide opportunities for exploration and experimentation to meet the demands of a changing world; — recognize individual differences and challenge each child and adult to become the best he can be, personally, socially and academically; — encourage the community school concept to the end that all citizens may enjoy lifetime educational opportunities and continue to grow in understanding of their responsibility for the maintenance of excellent schools in the interest of individual attainment and the national welfare. In each school the community program is organized under the leadership of a community school director. 83 Usually a member of the regular physical education staff in the school, his teaching duties begin in the afternoon. After regular school hours, he coordinates, supervises and administers the total afternoon and evening program of activities for children and adults. Within each community school is an advisory committee, comprised of the community school director, the school principal, citizens from all walks of life, various organizations and the church. The purpose of the advisory committee is to advise the director on neighborhood needs, and provide communication channels between the school and the residents of the community. Program possibilities range from adult education, community improvement, home—making, enrichment courses, senior citizens’ programs, retraining for job—upgrading, interracial problems to recreation and service programs. In a true sense, the program strives to fulfill 'he community needs by taking the people from where they arc. to discovering where they want to go and then helping them arrive at their destination. The possibility for the realization of physical education as a continuing learning process is inherent l; the community school organization. The fact that the community school director is often the physical education teacher facilitates the continuing developmert of knowledge, skills and values acguired in the school program and facilitates the transfer of these to life situations. T1: 8A Canusa Games are a highlight of the community school program which deserves special attention. Organized and conducted on the Olympic theme, approximately 2,000 children and adults from Hamilton, Ontario, and Flint compete each August in events representing over thirty different games and sports. The games are one example of community effort, support and interest in international relationships made possible by the community school program. Durant-Tuuri—Mott School Durant—Tuuri—Mott is an elementary community school which houses a division of special education for physically handicapped students, K-9, in addition to a regular elementary school division. The special education division is maintained by the Board of Education in cooperation with the State Department of Public Instruction for the benefit of exceptional children: educable children with orthopedic or medical disorders, impaired hearing or defective eyesight who reQuire special educational planning or special services. The school incorporates two physical therapy rooms, an occupational therapy room, a swimming pool, group hearing aids for the hard-of-hearing and special equipment for the partially sighted and blind. Classroom teachers are specially trained and certified in special education. In addition to regular teachers there are four teacher aides, two physical therapists, an occupational therapist, a speech therapist and a music therapist. A pre-school nursery program is conducted for cerebral palsied children and hard—of-hearing children who may be enrolled at three years of age for special services including physical therapy, speech reading and reading readiness. Some children spend their entire school life at Durant—Tuuri—Mott, while others stay for shorter periods of time before being integrated into regular schools. The Michigan Plan for Special Education of the Department of Instruction provides special state aid for exceptional students who qualify for special education under the terms of the plane A screening board rules on the eligibility and placement of students. The board consists of the school diagnostician, his assistant, the principal of the school involved and a medical doctor who is a member of either the American Board of Ophthalmology, Otolarnyngology, Orthopedic Surgery, Internal Medicine or Pediatrics (dependent on the type of disability under\ consideration). In l963-6A there were one hundred and seventy~two physically handicapped students in regular attendance at Durant—Tuuri—Mott School. This number re;~ approximately 17 per cent of the 1,037 students receiving special education services in the school system and 38 per cent of 44,899 students in the entire school population.* The 172 physically handicapped students 86 include 59 non—resident students from Genessee County and 113 resident students from school districts throughout the City of Flint. The breakdown of students according to grade level and handicap is shown in Table III. II. THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION PILOT PROGRAM During 1963-64 a physical education pilot program was conducted for the physically handicapped students at Durant—Tuuri—Mott School by the writer. The program was supported by the Mott Foundation under the direction of the Flint School Board. It was undertaken with the intent to discover: 1. If severely physically handicapped students could benefit from a regular physical education program and, therefore, if a regular program for the physically handicapped students should be established. 2. What physical education content and methods are most appropriate for the education and development of severely handicapped children. 3. What class organization and time allotment are most suitable for physical education classes within the administrative framework of the school. A. Whether the instruction if beneficial, should be handled by a physical education specialist or the classroom teacher. *The U.S. Office of Education estimated in 195A that A.7% of the school population in United States had physical handicaps requiring special educational services. (30:23) \ 87 1 L A 1\ . h. .. .. 1 .1 ., 1; \.....V .1 Hm: ATM/111:1 L5...” __J.,.....”. ...L ...: ....1. “......n .-.: L. L. ,1 .. i 1. .1... 1...... 1.1.17 . ..-... L; ,. . L . .r. r “on; m: i1. 1.1:..12. ... _ :3qu H.11I1m . .... .1. Twit. . .1 117.11.. 1.|I . . . 1 . \11 n|4 5‘ . 1. .. ,. 11! l 1 I 1. 1 . 1 1 1.4 . _ _ . 1 1 1.111- _. _ _ _ _ . I _ _ . .\ «A .1 . c 1 w 7 r1_11 . 1HF\.7~ firémf _ n n . _ 1T _. ... 1 1'1- 1 f 111T .. . 1. 4,1 .. . 1 .. . . n1. . r .... _ r 1l1l|111 1.1 1 a 1. . . 1. J ._ . . L . 1 . v _ .1 _ m . . l. 1 1 . r w _ 1111 1 1. .. _ _ . 1 . . _ 1,11. . . ... .7 1— 1 1 1 1 1. . . H L . .1. __ _ . 1 . . .. L 1r L\. I J is a F a 1., 1 fl . «1 1. .1. ..1 _ . u . .1 1 l . . 1. h u _ _ L _ h _, fl _ u .I: . I 7 a.“ ”L, . I _ v 1 1 g _ L 1. I T .1 1 . w Inn. 1 1 1 1 1.x..‘4 . u ‘ ..r..L. I. I 1 _ 1. _ 1 , , . T ... ... 1 _ .. .J n u ,1 _ . . _ . .1 .1r._ . _ . _ . _ _ _ _ W 1 1 , i _ r _ F r 1 1 .1; } x4. . .. ..11 111 .11 1 1. 11 s l . .) \J x} J, ‘ ~) 1 ‘1 .../1 1 4 1 o ‘ nqocc1m spa:z;c;o Bzire c :ceai.c .m:1fl1 1u.a 1.1a.. 11.1. 88 The Procedure An advisory committee was formed to guide, advise and evaluate the conduct of the program at regular intervals. The committee was comprised of the school principal (chairman), the community school director, the assistant director of curriculum, a physical education professor from Michigan State University, the supervisor and assistant supervisor of physical education, the supervisor of health, education, and the inves- tigator. The investigator spent one month in the Flint school system prior to initiating the program for the purpose of becoming oriented to the Flint school system in general and to the problems of physically handicapped children in particular. The orientation program included observation, discussion and/or participation in: (a) Health and physical education programs in numerous schools throughout the city. (b) Community school programs. (c) Community resources and special services for handicapped children and adults sheltered workshops, Goodwill Industries, the City Health Department, Orthopedic clinics, the Mott Foundation Children‘s Health Center and special education classrooms. ' (d) Special education classrooms at Durant— Tuuri—Mott (e) Interviews, meetings, conferences and workshops. (f) Weekly seminars on community school education. The investigator prepared a program design which was endorsed by the Advisory Committee. The investigator met with the classroom teachers, therapists and administrators at Durant— Tuuri-Mott to present and discuss the program design. The teachers were asked if they wished 89 their classes to participate in the proposed program. With one exception, all classrooms participated in the program.* 5. To avoid disrupting the students' regular schedule, the teachers arranged the physical education schedule and the combination of home rooms for classes. 6. Medical clearance was obtained for all students from the supervising school physician. 7. The program was initiated at the beginning of December and continued through to the end of the school year. Organization With two exceptions, classes met for physical education twice a week for thirty minutes each. Two classes met once a week each for the same period of time. In most cases, it was found both necessary and expedient to combine homerooms for the physical education instruction program. The following class organization was used: *In this case, the teacher felt that the children could not afford the time from the academic schedule. However, the class Joined the program at the end of January. 9O Students Grades Number of Students (1) Orthopedic 1 and 2 l7 (2) Orthopedic 3 to 5 17 (3) Orthopedic 6 to 8 12 (A) Braille 1 to 3 and 22 Hearing 1 and 2 (5) Braille 3 to 5 10 (6) Braille 6 and 7 and 16 Hearing A to 6 (7) Sight Conservation 6 to 9 and 21 Hearing A to 6 (8) Multiple Handicapped graded l3 (9) Sight Conservation 1 to 3 1A T he The Program Design program design developed at Durant—Tuuri—Mott by the investigator was based on five major assumptions: [0 21. Handicapped students have the same needs, interests and purposes as non—handicapped students, although these are likely to be more intensified. The outcomes to be derived from a physical education program for handicapped students differ in degree, not in kind, from those for non—handicapped students. There is an orderly sequence of growth and developmenthflfltfiiunfolds for each child at his own rate and within his own potential. It is both possible and essential to determin~ the developmental level of each child and ;*o*’ learning experiences which will extend this ley 1. .\4'7 91 U7 The range and depth of program experiences should differ from those provided non-handicapped children only in terms of limitations imposed by the handicap. The general nature of the program content and method can be summed up in the following statements: 1. Every effort was made to provide learning experiences which were both broad and specific to challenge the needs, interests and purposes of all students in the class. 2. The program content and method were developmental in nature, rather than therapeutic, based on the students abilities, not their limitations. 3. The program activities were selected from those activities that non—handicapped children at similar developmental levels normally do. The children were encouraged to modify the activity only as they found it necessary for their achievement. A. The teaching method was flexible, permitting students to solve movement problems at their own developmental level and within their own abilities. The pilot program that was conducted for all classes has been condensed in Table IV. The Table outlines the program criteria, the common movement characteristics, the learning experiences, the methods of instruction and the expected outcomes for each group of handicapped students. It is not intended to suggest that the movement characteristics listed for each group, are typical for the handicapping condition. 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Evaluation Subjective evaluations were conducted during and l at the end of the pilot program. Students, their parents, classroom teachers, members of the Advisory Committee who had observed the program regularly and the investigator evaluated the program on the basis of the organization, content and method. Copies of the evaluation Questionnaires completed by the classroom teachers and parents are included in the Appendix. Evaluation by the students was conducted by discussion due to the inability of many students to write. A survey of eighty—two physically handiCapped adults living in Flint was conducted to assess their physical recreation practices and interests. A copy of the Questionnaire used is included in the Appendix. SH fioaflmumfifififi afifimflmm> cam .EmeOLQ mcfluaxw oom Cm INLMOLQ.wCHEEH3m m CH oowmawowpgoa :oLUHHLo zmama Hanopoo ode ocaamoaccoz zaamsmfl>x + + be + + + + + -_- onmu man? 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J,HndeHfl3~.H gqm, -.u._m- m wszmp.i m. m.flalm£ m ., Q:-. "-nmnl- m m. . .....p .mkmu u nun 108 The concepts to be emphasized are arranged according to a priority of program criteria differing for each developmental period. The developmental characteristics of children determine the types of physical activities suitable for each period. The prepubescent period is the time to emphasize a wide variety of fundamental and perceptual— motor patterns. Established and created activities with simple designs, lay the foundation for more complex and structured activities in the pubescent period. The pubescent period is the time to survey a wide variety of games, sports, and dance activities. The postpubescent period is the time to specialize in a few selected physical activities based on the individual's capacity for movement. Specialization gives the student the opportunity to pursue, in depth, those activities suited to his capacity and potential. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. SUMMARY It was the purpose of this study to develop a conceptual structure of the body of knowledge of physical education and to articulate the conceptual structure into a program design for physically handicapped students. An examination of the nature of the learner, the character— istics of contemporary society, the nature of knowledge and the learning process led to the conclusion that the organization of the content of physical education around the basic and unifying concepts of physical activity into a conceptual structure was an effective basis from which to design the school program in physical education. A theoretical conception of physical activity led to the conceptual structure of the body of knowledge of physical education for a school program. A program design for physically handicapped students was projected for the school program for grades 1 through 12. The design was derived from the conceptual structure and a pilot program conducted at Durant~Tuuri—Mott School, Flint, Michigan. 110 II. CONCLUSIONS Within the context of the thesis developed in this study, the following conclusions are made: la U7 Physical education has an identifiable body of knowledge drawn from the related sciences and humanities, from the research of its Qualified scientists, from the accumulated experience of its professional personnel, and from the reflective thinking of its scholars and philos— ophers. The content of physical education concerns the nature of physical activity and its effects on the individual in his environmental setting, and on society. Organizing the content of physical education into a comprehensible structure is postulated to be an effective way to impart the knowledge needed by students to understand the meaning and purpose of physical activity. A conceptual structure is of such a nature that it allows freedom for the generation of testable hypotheses, it fosters synthesis of new know- ledge and it establishes a perspective for a coherent View of the complex phenomena of physical activity. A conceptual structure is derived from the theoretical conception one holds of the role of physical activity for the development of man living in today’s society. There may be many ways to structure the knowledge of physical activity. The conceptual scheme developed here is intended as an initial step in describing the foundations for a physical education school program. A program design for a particular school setting can be derived from the conceptual structure. However, each school or school system must establish its own design based on the local needs of the community, school and students. .. .... olefin“ Jr. 1. . ., . n .. uu........&?f. . - The pilot program revealed that physically handicapped students can benefit from a physical education program designed to meet their movement needs, interests and purposes. Physically handicapped students are capable of learning concepts, skills and values of physical activity which are within their capacities. III. RECOMMENDATIONS The conceptual structure which has been developed is not intended as the final statement of authority, nor is it intended as the only one that might be useful. Before any evaluation can be made relative to the teach— ability and inherent values of this structure, it is recommended that the following steps be taken: 1. A group of scholars representative of curriculum coordinators, university scholars, experienced and capable physical education teachers and school supervisors of physical education should review and modify or revise the conceptual structure. Units of instruction, based on the conceptual structure need to be developed for each grade level, K—l2. Each unit should clearly state: (1) the specific objectives, (2) the rationale for the unit, (3) program content, including the concepts, values and skills to be taught, (A) the instructional procedure, including resource materials, equipment and teaching methods, and (5) methods of evaluation and measurement. The instructional units need to be tried on an experimental basis in selected classrooms, which represent students of different cultural backgrounds and learning abilities. Definitive criteria need to be established upon which to accept or reject the conceptual structure as a basis for the physical education school program- BIBLIOGRAPHY Ul 10. 11. 13. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abernathy, Ruth, and Waltz, Maryann. HToward A Discipline: First Steps First,” Quest, II (April, 196A), pp. l-7. Alberty, H. B. Reorganizing the High School Curriculum. Third edition. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1962. American Educational Research Association. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. C. Gage. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1963. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Learning More About Learning. Edited by Frazier Alexander, Washington, D. 0.: National Education Association, 1959. New Insights and the Curriculum. 1963 Year- book, Washington, D. C., 1963. Using Current Curriculum Developments. Washington, D. C., 1963. Audio-Visual Center. And So They Move. A fifteen minute, black and white sound film. Michigan State University, 1965. Bills, Robert E. (About People and Teaching. Lexington: Bureau of School Service, College of Education, University of Kentucky, 1955. Brameld, Theodore. Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1962. Brightbill, Charles K. The Challenge of Leisure. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall Inc., 1960. Brown, Camille, and Cassidy, Rosalind. Theory in Physical Education~~A guide to Program Change. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, I963. Bruner, Jerome. On Knowing-~Essays for the Left Hand. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962. . The Process of Education. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1960. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 26. 114 Census Tract Project——Flint and Genesee County. Flint, Michigan: Council of Social Agencies of Flint and Genesee County, January, 1963. Clarke, H. H., and Clarke, D. H. Developmental and Adapted Physical Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall Inc., 1963. Clarke, H. H. ”Development of Volitional Muscle Strength as Related to Fitness,” Exercise and Fitness. Colloquium on Exercise and Fitness, Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1960. Combs, A. W., and Snygg, Donald. Individual Behavior—— A Perceptual Approach to Behavior. New York: Harper and Bros., 1949. Cratty, Bryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1964. Doll, Ronald C. Curriculum Improvement: Decision— Making and Process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964 Educational Services Incorporated. Quarterly Report. Winter—Spring, 196A. Ellfeldt, Lois, and Metheny, Eleanor. ”Movement and Meaning: Development of a General Theory,” Research Quarterly. 29:26A—273, October, 1958. Frank, Lawrence K. HOur Children's In—School and Out— of—School Teachers,” Educational Leadership. February, 1955, pp. 295—296. Hanna, L. A., Potter, G. L., and Hagmen, N. Unit Teaching in the Elementary School. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Inc., 1963. Henry, Franklin M. HPhysical Education: An Academic Discipline,” Journal of Health Physical Education and Recreation., Vol. 35 (September, 196A), pp. 32—3 and 9. Hilgard, Ernest R. Theories in Learning. New York: Appleton—Century-Crofts Inc., 1956. Hill, Winnifred. Learning——A Survey of Psychological Interpretations. San Francisco: ’Chandler Publishing Co., 1963. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 115 Hunt, Valerie. ”Movement Behavior: A Model for Action," Quest, Monograph II (April, 1964), pp. 69—91. Johnson, Warren H. (ed.). Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports. New York: Harper and Bros., 1960. Jokl, Ernst. ”Sport As Leisure,” Quest. Monograph IV (April, 1965), pp. 37—47. Kirk, Samuel A. Educating Exceptional Children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962 Langton, C. V. ”Man and His Environment,” Quest, Monograph III (December, 1964), pp. 15—18 Locke, Lawrence, F. HThe Movement Movement: Where Are We Now?” Paper presented at the A.A.H.P.E.R. Convention, Dallas, Texas, March 20, 1965. (Mimeographed.) Maryland State Department of Education. Design for Planning the Program of the Elementary School. Baltimore, 1964. Miller, Norman P., and Robinson, Duane M. The Leisure Age. Belmont California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Inc., 1963. Morris, Van Cleave. Philosophy and the American School. Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1961. Murphy, Gardner. HEducation of the Will," Quest, Monograph IV (April, 1965), pp. 1—9. National Education Association. ”Deciding What to Teach,” Project on Instruction. Washington, D. C.: N. E. A., 19 3 . ”Education in a Changing Society,” Project On Instruction. Washington, D. C. N. E. A., 19 3 ”Planning and Organizing for Teaching,” Project on Instruction. Washington, D. C.: N. E. A., 1963. National Society for the Study of Education. ”The Psychology of Learning,” 41st Yearbook. Part II, 1942, pp. 415—440. .1... .Vv.lru.ariid n. Jainfi . 41. 42. 43. 44. 46. 47. 48. 49. 116 . Social Forces Influencing American Education. Chicago, 1961. Neal, Louise A. "Techniques for Developing Methods of Scientific Inquiry in Children in Grades 1 through 6,” Science Education. Vol. 45:4 (October, 1961). pp. 313—320. Nixon, E. W., and Cozens, F. W. An Introduction to Physical Education. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1941. Regular Meeting, Flint Board of Education, Vol. 28, Report 85, March 28, 1961. Tyler, Ralph, W. Basic Principles of Curriculum Inst. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950. "Educational Objectives of American Democracy," Development and Education. Eli Ginzberg (ed.), Golden Anniversary, White House Conference on Children and Youth, New York: Columbia University Press, 1960. Wessel, Janet A. ”Movement Education——Method or Content?” Paper presented at the S.A.P.E.C.W. Convention, Dallas, Texas, March, 1965. (Mimeographed.) Movement Fundamentals. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall, 1961. Whitehead, Alfred North. The Aims of Education. New York: Mentor Books, 1963. SPECIAL REFERENCES FOR CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE Somatic Structure of Man 1. Bunn, John W. Scientific Principles of Coaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc., 1962. 2. Health and Fitness in the Modern World. A collec- tion of papers presented at the Institute of Normal Human Anatomy. Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1961, Chapters 1 and 4. 3. Johnson, Warren R. (ed.). Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports. New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1960, Chapters 2, 3, 4, 22, 23, and 27. 4. Steindler, Arthur. Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, Ill. CharlesTTnomasIPUblisner, 1955. Somatic Function of Man 1. Bard, Philip (ed.). Medical Physiology (11th ed.) St. Louis, C. V. Mosby Co., 1961. 2. Comroe, Julius H., and others. The Lung: Clinical Physiology and Pulmonary Function Tests (2nd ed.) Chicago: Medical Publishers Inc., 1962. 3. Decker, Ruby (ed.). Motor Integration. Springfield, 111: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1961. 4. Exercise and Fitness. Colloquium on Exercise and Fitness, Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1960. Health and Fitness in the Modern World. A collec— tion of papers presented at the Institute of Normal Human Anatomy. Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1961. Ul 6. Johnson, Warren H. Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports. New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1960. 118 Psychic Function of Man 1. Cratty, Bryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1954. 2. Health and Fitness in the Modern World. A collection of papers presented at the Institute of Normal Human Anatomy, Chicago: Athletic Institute, 1961, Chapters 25, 27. 3. Johnson, Warren R. (ed.). Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960, Chapters 28—31. 4. Kuhlen, Raymond, and Thompson, George. Psycho— logical Studies of Human Development. Second edétion. New York: Appleton—Century—Crofts, l9 3. Smith, Karl U., and Smith William, M. Perception and Motion. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1962. U1 Socio—cultural Aspects of Physical Activity 1. Barber, Bernard. Social Stratification: A Comparative Analysis of Structure and Purpose. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1957. 2. Johnson, Warren R. (ed.). Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960, Chapters 32 and 33. 3. Jokl, Ernst. ”Sport As Leisure” Quest, IV (May. 1965). pp. 37—47. ____ 1 4. . Medical Sociology and Cultural Anthropology of Sport and Physical Education. Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1964. 5. Kahl, The American Class Structure. New York: Rinehart, 1957. 6. Levy, Marion J. Structure of Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952. 7. Mead, G. H. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. 119 8. Parsons, T., and Bales, Family Socialization and Interaction Process. Glencoe, I11: Free Press, 1955- 9. Piaget, Jean. The Language and Thought of the Child (3rd. edition), New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1959. APPENDI X Parent Evaluation of the Experimental Physical Education Program at Durant-Tuuri—Mott School May 1964 Dear Parent: An experimental physical education program was introduced at Durant-Tuuri—Mott School this year for all children in the special education classes. Classes met twice a week for half hour periods. The classroom teacher accompanied the children to the gymnasium, but the teaching was done by a physical education specialist. In order to evaluate the program we are asking parents who had children in the program to complete this questionnaire based on your observations and your child's response to the program. Would you please return the completed questionnaire to the school by June 1st. Name of Child Parent's Signature Classroom Teacher's Name Part I As a result of the physical education program would you say that your child has learned the following: Yes No Comments l. Have his (her) physical skills improved? ‘ 2. Does he (she) seem to enjoy physical education classes? 3. Outside of school does he (she): a. Do activities learned in classes? b. Enjoy playing more than previously 122 Yes No Comments 0. Play more often with friends in the neighborhood? d. Show more consideration for the rights and feelings of others? 4. Do other children seem to enjoy playing with him (her) more? Part 11 As a result of the program: 10 What have been the three greatest benefits for your child? What have been the three major weaknesses? What active games and activities does your child enjoy most? What play equipment does your child have at home? (balls, bat, bicycle, climbing apparatus, ropes, etc.) What recreation programs does your child participate in: ("Y”, community school program, scouts, etc. Should the program be continued next year? If the answer is yes: a. What activities should be added to the program? b. What benefits do you feel your child should get from physical education? 123 Who should teach the classes? (classroom teachers, physical education teacher, other, man, lady) Should the children be required to change their clothes for physical education classes? 124 Teacher Evaluation of the Experimental Physical Education Program at Durant—Tuuri—Mott School In order to evaluate the physical education program in special education for the year, the participating classroom teachers are being asked to complete the following questionnaire. Please be absolutely frank in your responses to the questions. Teacher's Name Grade(s) Part I The Program 1. What three specific benefits have your children derived from the program? 2. What three specific detrimental effects did the program have on all or any particular children? 3. What activities do you feel were most valuable? 4. What activities were not suitable? What other activities should have been included? L571 6. Did your children enjoy the classes? 7. What changes in the general behavior of your children have been effected by the physical education program? Part II The Method Yes No Comments 1. Was the method(s) used suitable to the age and abilities of the children? 2. Was the material presented in a logical sequence? 3. Were individual differences observed and met? 4. Was adequate emphasis placed on knowledge, values and skills? U"! Were discipline problems handled adequately? Part III The Organization 1. Should the program be continued next year? 2. If your answer is yes please complete the following: a. How many minutes should each class period be? b. How many class periods a week should your class have? c. What changes if any, would you recommend in the combination of classes? (Types of handicap, age, sex, etc.) d. Would your class benefit from having physical education with the regular school? (all of the time, some of the time, not at all) e. Who should teach the classes? (classroom teacher, specialist, other, man, lady f. Should children be required to change their clothes for physical education? g}: 1 1Q: . 126 Part III General Comments Advantages of the Program Disadvantages of the Program Recreation Interests and Pursuits of Handicapped Adults In what years, classroom for handicapped students? Physical Name: Age:_____ Date: Check: Married____ Sing1e____ Male____ Female____ Handicap: Present Job: Previous Jobs Held: Education 1. Last grade attended in school 2. Name of elementary school attended City 3. Name of junior high school attended City 4. Name of senior high school attended City 5. Name of college attended City if any, were you enrolled in a special education Education 1. In what grades did you have regular physical education? 2. If you had physical education, what benefits did you derive from it? 128 If you did not have physical education, how do you U) think handicapped people might benefit from it? 4. While at school what intramural teams, or clubs did you participate in? Recreation 1. What recreation club or organization do you attend _ , H H m - -. - . ' ..i - now: Y, Community Schools, Others m . Check the activities in which you participated and under the prOper column, the time you spend in each activity. (See activities chart on following page.) . List the 5 activities that you like to do most. I I I 'N ‘/ filth vnom would you like to do these &3C1Y131€S. List the 3 activities that you would most like to 6. What facilities should be provided for recreation fsnv tile llaiidiAiagnaetf? 7. Have you any relatives working for General Motors? Yes N» b. 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