AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS "RED BEDS" OF MICHIGAN BY John Egan Sander AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Science and Arts of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Geology 1959 Approved ABSTRACT Due to the general absence of outcrops, the studies undertaken in this thesis utilized chiefly subsurface geological methods. This analysis of the "Red Beds" consisted of several lines of approach. An isopach map of the "Red Beds was. constructed from the data obtained from sample studies and drillers logs. This map showed the bulk of the "Red Beds" to form an elliptical shaped body in the center of the Lower Peninsula within the limits of Lake, Kent, Gratiot, and Roscommon counties. Numerous erosional outliers were found to surround this body. The average determined thickness for the "Red Bed" body is approximately 87 feet with the greatest thicknesses tending to be located in its center. A map indicating the approximate distribu— tion of gypsum in. the "Red Beds" was also constructed which showed no significant trends in gypsum distribution. The clay fraction of eight samples was X-rayed. Illite was the most common constituent. A total potassium analysis was therefore run to determine the percentage of illite in each sample. A sphericity study was conducted on the fine sand constituent of the above samples to help determine a possible source for the "Red Beds. " The coloring agent of the "Red Beds" was isolated and analyzed as iron. An extensive search for fossils revealed unusual markings in a sample from Mecosta county whichmay be an indication of life that existed during the deposition of the "Red Beds. " On the basis of the data collected, it is postulated that the "Red Beds" were deposited under marine conditions. The time of deposition appears to have been Pennsylvanian. The results of sphericity studies as well as paleogeographic considerations suggest that a possible major source for the "Red Beds" was located to the southeast. ii AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS "RED BEDS" OF MICHIGAN BY John Egan Sande r A THE SIS Submitted to the College of Science and Arts of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Geology 1959 Him (17%) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express sincere thanks to Professor C. E. Prouty, under whose guidance the work was undertaken, and to Professor B. T. Sandefur for his valuable suggestions and help. The assistance of Professor J. E. Smith. and Professor W. H. 'Kelly was also of great value in the preparation of this thesis. The cooperation of the Michigan Geological Survey in availing a large amount of data and samples for study and for offering valuable suggestions in reference to this thesis was greatly appreciated. Finally, the author wishes to express his gratitude to the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University for availing their equipment and for offering pertinent advice in the analysis of the "Red Bed" clay minerals. - ****#***** iv PURPOSE Lying in the center of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan and stratigraphically subjacent to the glacial drift is a group of reddish siltstones and associated gypsum beds which has been designated as the Permo-Carboniferous "Red-Beds. ” 'Relatively little data is known concerning these beds, and it was felt that any new information obtained from them would be of value. This value would be not only of an academic nature, but further, since these beds lie within the water saturated zone of the area that they encompass, any additional information on the “Red Beds" might well contribute to the knowledge of the water resources of the state. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ......................... 1 Location of the "Red Beds" ................ 1 Previous Work on the "Red Beds" ..... . ...... 1 GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY .............. . . . . . 2 The Michigan Basin ................ . . . . Z Stratigraphic Position of the "Red Beds" ......... 2 SAMPLESTUDIES........................ 4 Scope of the Sample Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Description of a Representative "Red Bed”. Sample. . . . 4 ANALYSIS OF THE SILT AND CLAY FRACTIONS OF THE ."RED BEDS" ...... . . ....... . . . . . . . . 7 Selection of Wells for Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Separation and Purification of the Silt and Clay Fractions 10 Qualitative X-Ray Clay Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Quantitative Determination of Illite by Total Potassium AnalYSis. O O O O ..... O O O O O O O O O O I O O 17 Significance of the Clay Minerals Found . . . ...... 19 Sphericity Analysis of the "Red Bed" Clastics . . . . . . ZO Significance of the Sphericity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 23 THEREDBEDGYPSUM......... ..... 25 MannerofOccurrence................... 25 Quantitative Distribution of Gypsum in the "Red Beds". .. 25 Significance of the Gypsum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . .. Z7 POSSIBLE FOSSIL REMAINS IN THE "RED BEDS" . . . . . . 28 THE"REDBED"IRON..................... 30 THICKNESS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE "RED BEDS" . . . . 31 ProcedureofAnalysis................... 31 Thickness and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 PALEOGEOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 34 CONCLUSIONS.......................... 35 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................... 38 APPENDIX 40 TABLE II. III. IV. LIST OF TABLES Page Initial Silt-Clay Sample Weights ..... . . . . Results of the Qualitative Clay Mineral Analysis . . . 16 Percentage Illite Calculated from the Total Potassium Concentration ............... . . . . . . . l9 Sphericity of “Red Bed" Clastics Very Fine Sand Fraction . . . . . . . . Z3 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE Page 1. Map of Location of Sample Wells ........... 9 2. X-Ray Diffraction Charts of Sample No. 8 . . . . . . 15 3. Map of Sphericity Analysis ........ . . . . . . 24 4. Map of Quantitative Distribution of Gypsum ..... Z6 5. Possible Fossil Remains ............. . . 29 6. Map Showing Distribution of the "Red Beds" of Michigan ...... . . . . . . ........... 32 - Isopach Map of the "Red Beds" of Michigan ..... Insert viii INTRODUCTION Location of the "Red Beds" The "Red Beds, " situated in the center of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, comprise an area of about 3, 500 square miles. They are located or inferred to be located within the counties of Roscommon, Ogemaw, Lake, Osceola, Clare, Newaygo, Mecosta, Isabella, Midland, Montcalm, Gratiot, Saginaw, Clinton, and Kent. Previous Work on the "Red Beds" Before 1932, the "Red Beds" had been mentioned occasionally in the geologic literature. In 1932, Newcombe described them as "a series including red shale, red to greenish sandy shale, sandstone, and gypsum. . . . (which) occur above a thick basal sandstone and are widespread in the central part of the State. " Kelly in 1936 again briefly mentioned the "Red Beds" in his discussion of the Pennsylvanian system of Michigan. In 1951, a study of some "Red Bed" samples from the subsurface laboratory at the University of Michigan was undertaken by D. H. Swartz in conjunction with a Masters thesis at that university. From this study a map was made defining the limits of the "Red Beds" and showing the elevations of the contact between the "Red Beds" and the underlying strata at various points. GE NE RAL ST RATIGRAPHY The Michigan Basin The Michigan Basin, which is considered to be a classic example of a structural basin, is centered in the approximate center of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. The Basin includes within its bounds Lake Huron and Lake Michigan and its margins extend into. the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, into Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ontario. This basin is not a true circular basin but rather somewhat elliptical in shape with its major axis trending approximately north- south. The extensive deposits of Silurian salt beds within the basin indicate that it was present as a structural unit as far back as Silurian time, and it can be indeed postulated that the basin was in existence even earlier. The Michigan Basin has a base of Precambrian rocks. Above this Precambrian base is a sequence of sediments representing every system from Cambrian through Pennsylvanian. Stratigraphic Position of the "Red Beds" The "Red Beds" lie stratigraphically directly beneath the Quaternary glacial drift and are separated from the overlying drift by a definite unconformity. Thus, post "Red Bed"-preg1acial erosion has removed the upper part of the "Red Beds" as well as any possible post "Red Bed" sediments. Definite Pennsylvanian sediments lie just below the "Red Beds. " In some places the "Red Beds" overly a basal sandstone, whereas in other places they overly black shales or limestones. This strongly suggests that at least a local unconformity separates the "Red Beds" from the underlying sediments. SAMPLE STUDIES Scope of the Sample Studies In this study of the "Red Beds, " no outcrops of the beds were found. Thus, the study was limited to subsurface geologic methods. As no drill cores were found, this study was restricted to crushed rock samples taken during the drilling of oil wells in the area of the state covered by the "Red Beds. " The samples were taken from the sample collections of the Geology Department of Michigan State University and the Michigan Geological Survey. Samples from approxi- mately 1150 wells were investigated. Of these, 133 wells definitely showed the "Red Beds, " or gave indirect evidence that the "Red Beds" were likely present, and 493 wells showed the "Red Beds" to be absent. The remaining wells, approximately 524 in number, yielded no information on the "Red Beds" because samples were not available stratigraphically high enough in these wells to include the area of the "Red Beds. " The samples from these wells were contained in vials with the contents of each vial representing a small interval (5 to 10 feet) of drilled stratum. Description of a Representative "Red Bed" San'Ele A description of the "Red Beds" from a well in Mecosta County from the sample collection of the Geology Department at Michigan State University is given below. The sample in each vial represented 5 feet of drilled stratum. A series of adjacent vials with similar lithology is recorded here as a stratigraphic unit. The thickness of the unit is the sum of the footages included by samples. SAMPLE STUDY Michigan State University Sample Collection Mecosta County T. 16N. -R. 8W. -Sec. 1 M. S. U. Catalogue #4046 Permit #11154 Lithology Thickne s 3 Depth (in feet) (in feet) Glacial Drift ................. . . 605 605 Red Beds: Aggregates of reddish brown fine grained silt— stone with occasional streaks of greyish clay within the siltstone. This siltstone appears to have a high clay content. Some aggregates of siltstone have apparent glacial material in them, suggesting that these aggregates were cemented together from pulverized material during the drilling...................... 20 625 "Red siltstone with a few small aggregates of white chalky gypsum ......... . . . . . . 05 630 An approximately equal mixture of reddish silt- stone and chalky gypsum. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 650 Predominantly gypsum mixed with some reddish brown siltstone and glacial drift. The gypsum has a chalky appearance. Some of it is granular and some of it shows a platelike basal cleavage. Occasional patches of clear selenite are seen withinthe platy gypsum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 715 A mixture of dark red shale and grey shale con- taining mica. One aggregate of dark red shale appears to grade into grey-black shale. A small amount of black shale is present. . . . . . . . . 10 725 Definite Pennsylvanian: Predominantly a grey micaceous siltstone with occasional plant remains. 'Some gypsum, red siltstone, and an increasing amount of black shalearepresent................. 5 730 The "Red Beds" are interpreted here as comprising the reddish- brown siltstone and chalky gyps‘uin which directly underly the glacial drift at a depth of 605 feet. This siltstone and gypsum continue down to a depth of about 727 feet where dark purplish- red siltstone, grey siltstone, and some dark grey shales are encountered. These sedi- ‘ments are not considered as part of the "Red Beds" because their color is not the typical "hematite brown" of the "Red Bed" siltstones. The depth of 72.7 feet was chosen as the base of the "Red Beds" because in the sample vial marked 715-720 (feet depth), the underlying sediments are found mixed with definite Red Bed sediments. Thus, the base of the "Red Beds" is assumed to be at a depth of 715 feet to 720 feet, and the value of 717 feet was chosen on the basis of the approximate ratio of "Red Bed" sediments to underlying sediments in this vial. ANALYSIS OF THE SILT AND CLAY FRACTIONS OF THE "RED BEDS" Selection of Wells for Sampling In addition to the gypsum, siltstone and clay were found to be the‘major constituents of the "Red Beds. " It was therefore thought that an investigation of these silts and clays would yield pertinent information. - As many of the samples were considerably contaminated with cavings from the overlying drift, some difficulty was encountered in obtaining pure samples while still giving a uniform coverage of the' "Red Beds. " Eight wells were chosen for study followingran exami- nation of the available wells. These are listed below: Samples obtained from the Geology Department at Michigan State University. Well No. 1, No. 4479 Ogemaw Co. , llN-lE-Sec.8,s Cities Service, Hickey No. 1, Permit No. 12267. Well No. 2, No. 4355 Clare Co., 18N-5W-Sec. 13, Burton, Thompson No. 1, Permit No. 10380. Well No. 4, No. 3825 Mecosta Co., 15N-10W-1, Gulf, Colfax Project No. 2, No permit number given. Well No. 5, No. 3516, Mecosta Co., 15N-7W-bSec.21, Gulf, Warner No. 1, Permit No. 9841.‘ Well No. 6, No. 4223, Montcalm Co., 12N-8W-Sec.6, Gordon, No. 1, Paris, Permit No. 10922. Samples‘obtained from the Michigan Geological Survey. Well No.3, Isabella Co. , l6N-5W-Sec. 23. J. V.- Wickland, Gamble No. 1, Permit No. 12635. Well No. 7,‘ Newaygo Co. , 12N-11W-Sec. 20, Sun Oil Co. , Woodard Brown No. 1, Permit No. 17132. Well No. 8, Montcalm Co., llN-7W-Sec.35, Howard D. Atha, C. Dancer No. 1, Permit No. 17262. These wells will be referred to here by the number assigned to them from 1 through 8. These numbers run consecutively from north to south with well No. 1 being the furthest north and No. 8 being the well furthest south (see Figure 1). Sampling Procedure As much sample as possible was removed from each vial without "robbing" the vial. This amounted to about one-fourth of the contents of each vial. The total sample from the vials in a given well was mixed to give a composite sample for that well. After obtaining a composite sample for a well, the siltstone, and clay aggregates were separated from the gypsum and glacial drift by hand and the siltstone fraction then weighed. The weight of the silt- stone-clay fraction from each well is given in Table I. TABLE I INITIAL SILT-CLAY SAMPLE WEIGHTS Well Weight of Siltstone- Number Clay Fraction (grams) 1......... ........ 5.49 2.... ..... 3.89 3 .............. 7.88 4 1.67 5........... ...... 3.59 6..... ...... 1.80 7 7.12 8 3.67 The yields, as can be seen, are very unequal with wells 4 and 6 giving relatively little sample; however, this was sufficient for the subsequent analysis of the samples. i i i ' . I IROSCONHON E ' l E E 'K“? {o ____i_ wsxrono I IISSAUKEE l -\ k/ E0953“. ‘_’—To—s’c£o—J’—'_ _’_ _’ '—'_'7L}SI.J—'“"“ 7.55;?" I “““““““““ i E ISABELLA! -'—-— I . .. ..__.. x I _ r. E l— ' "i l __E _E_’.‘°.".‘_‘fl'- i I EXPLANATION " com... 0. THE THE RED BEDS" 9 “R“ BEDS" OF MICHIGAN I ‘3 l ESABLISHED WELL LOCATION LOCATION OF E AND NUMBER SAMPLE WELLS E INFERRED :gesmahp Figure 1 10 Separation and Purification of the Silt and Clay Fractions The silt and clay in these samples were not present as discrete aggregates, but rather the clay was largely present interstitially within impure siltstone aggregates, making it necessary to separate and purify the silt and clay fractions. This was done according to the follow- ing method based on recommendations of the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University. Removal of Water Soluble and Acid Soluble Salts The samples appeared to have little or no organic matter; so it was not considered necessary to subject them to the hydrogen peroxide- acetic acid method for the removal of organic matter. Instead, the samples were placed in a beaker and treated with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid and then heated. This treatment was repeated until all bubbling ceased which indicated that all carbonates had been dissolved. Each sample was then placed in fine filter paper, washed with about 200 m1 of 1 N hydrochloric acid, and then washed repeatedly with distilled water until no precipitate was obtained when a 1. 5M_ NazCO3 solution or a crystal of AgNO3 was added to the filtrate. This then indicated that no Ca++, Mg++, C1“, or similar ions were present, and that the sample was likely free of carbonates, gypsum, and any water soluble halogen salts (if present). Removal of Iron In the above acid treatment, sample No. 3 was treated with hydro- chloric acid of sufficient concentration to remove the red iron stain from this sample. It was feared that removing the iron in this manner 11 might further dissolve or damage some. clays such as the sepiolite- attapulgite-palygorskite minerals (Grim 1953) if they were present. The method chosen for iron removal (Jackson 1956) with some modifi- cations is as follows: Each sample was placed in a beaker and 40 m1. of 0. 3M_ sodium citrate solution and 5 ml of 1M sodium bicarbonate solution were added. The temperature was then brought to approxi- mately 800 centigrade with the aid of a water bath, and 1 gram of solid NazSzO4 (sodium hydrosulfite) was slowly added. The mixture was stirred constantly for one minute, and then occasionally for fifteen minutes. Heating above 800 centigrade is avoided as much as possible because FeS is formed at these higher temperatures. The mixture then stood for a fifteen minute digestion period. In order to promote flocculation, 10 ml of saturated sodium chloride solution was afterward added. The samples were then placed in No. 50 filter paper with a portion of the filtrate of each being saved for iron determination; then the samples were washed several times with distilled water. Since the clays at this stage were so well dispersed that the finer particles passed through the filter paper, it was necessary to add calcium chloride to the residue to flocculate the clays and retard this loss. Dispersion of Clays and Separation of the Silts from Clays The iron free samples were next placed in small bottles, titrated with sodium hydroxide past the phenolphthalein endpoint, and placed in a reciprocating shaker for 17 hours to affect complete dispersion. At the end of this period, the samples were still alkaline beyond the phenolphthalein endpoint. Following diSpersion, the samples were placed in 1 liter graduated sedimentation cylinders, shaken thoroughly, and allowed to settle. The clay minerals were separated from the samples at this point in accordance with the principle that clay 12 minerals are generally smaller than 1 microns, whereas nonclay- minerals are commonly larger than 1 to 2 microns (Grim 1953). Stokes' law shows that particles 2 microns in diameter and with a density of 2. 63 (density of clay) will settle in water 21. 76 centimeters in 17 hours. A yield of almost pure clays (particles 2 microns or'less) was thus obtained by siphoning off the top21 centimeters of suspension in the sedimentation cylinders 17 hours after the initial shaking. Qualitative X-Ray Clay Analysis It was apparent that a determination of the types of clay minerals in the "Red Beds" would not only lead to a better understanding of the "Red Bed" clays themselves, but that it would also give possible clues to the mode of origin of these beds. One of the best methods available for a qualitative determination of clay minerals is X-ray diffraction analysis. The X-ray diffraction apparatus of the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University was available, and, using this apparatus, an'X-ray analysis of the clays of the eight samples was made. Theory of X-Ray Diffraction Analysis A crystalline clay mineral, on a molecular scale, is composed of a three dimensional framework or lattice of atoms having a character- istic arrangement and spacing for each mineral. By the use of X-rays, this lattice spacing (called "d" spacing) can be determined and the 'mineral thus identified. This is due to the fact that a lattice acts as a plane surface to an X-ray beam striking it, and reflects the beam back (at the same angle at which it strikes the lattice. That is to say, the X-ray's angle of incidence is equal to its angle of reflection. As the lattice is three dimensional, the X-ray will encounter different planes when striking a given mineral at different angles. 13 At a given series of angles, depending on the average length of the X—ray and the crystal's inter-lattice of "d" spacing, the reflected X-ray beams from thousands of parallel lattice planes will interfere constructively resulting in an intensified reflected beam. Any slight variation from this angle will cause virtually complete destructive interference and consequently no reflection. This relationshipis expressed in; Bragg's equation which states: nx = 2d sing where ). is the wave-length of the X-ray beam, 0 is the; angle that the X-ray beam makes with the lattice plane, n is the number of wave- lengths of path difference of the reflected X-ray beams (1)., 2k, 3k, etc. ), and d is the distance between successive lattiCe planes. As can be seen from the above equation, n increases as «0 increases, and constructive interference will result only when n is equal to 1, 2, 3, etc. Since n, x, and-G can be readily determined, it is possible to calculate the "d" spacing and thus identify the'mineral. Clay minerals commonly display good basal cleavage, and a very advantageous procedure in clay X-ray analysis (Kinter and Diamond 1955) consists of orientating the mineral aggregates parallel tothis basal cleavage‘and measuring the "d" spacing of their "basal" lattices. This method was employed here. Preparation and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of the "Red Bed" Clays The eight samples were prepared and X-rayed as oriented-aggre- gates according to the'procedure given below which was based primarily on recommendations of the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University. 14 About 10 cc. of the clay suspension was poured on a porous plate contained ina porous plate holder that rested onia vacuum flask. The suction from the flask drew the water through the plate, while the clay aggregates were retained on the surface of the plate as a thin film of particles lying parallel to one another on their vasal cleavage-planes. This film was then leached with three increments of 0. 1N CaClz which contained 3 percent glycerol by volume and washed severaltimes‘. The calcium replaced all replaceable iOns in the lattice structures of the clay minerals, while the glycerol spread the "d" 'spacing of mont- morillonite (if present). In this manner, the clay minerals were "standardized" to give consistent results in X-raying. Each porous plate with its film-cf oriented aggregates was placed in a holder on the X-ray diffraction apparatus and the sample bombarded with X-rays from a copper source. A revolving goniometer measured. the angle and the intensity of the reflected beam :which was recorded on'a chart (see Figure 2). A, rotation of the goniometer through an angle of from 20 to 300 20(10-15Q 0)] was sufficientto record the presence of any clay minerals. I E E i g I The sample was then removed from themachine, placed ina porous plateiholder, and suction applied. "Following this, calcium saturated clays were leached with 0. 11:1 KCl, washed thoroughly with distilled water, then heated to approximatelyllO? centigrade for about 12 hours, and X-rayed again. This process collapsed the structure and "d" spacing of any vermiculite or montmorillonite present resulting in consequent destructive interference for them (Brown 1951). - This was easily‘noted on the graph of the second X-ray experiment and served as a further indication of the presence or absence of these minerals. I To collapse the structure of any kaolinite, the sample was removed and heated to about 550° centigrade for approximately one hour (Grim 1953). The third'X-ray experiment recorded this change. x- RAY. DIFFRACTION CHAars SAMPLE No. a e C'RED BEDS' OF MICHIGAN CLAY (MINERAL mums cal-nu IIAIIIA'rIoII so- as- :s- u- “u- .Io‘ I m. Ce In III "I“ WON. Inst“ souls Punch. «Irene «Isle—t- 550' C. 15 L—Dewus 29 IrIs-Is-Io's' r r r II‘ 0. r ’ I -—q-.q-QQP I I I I I I I I 10 . . I I I I I I I I O. | I I I I I I I E I I I I I I I g I I‘! ' ' I, _d ' . I I I I I b “'1 ’1» L" II no 3‘: '4 .0 i t I. O o~ -.- . n. _,. 16 Results of the X-Ray Diffraction Analysis The charts of the three experiments for each sample gave a qualitative recording of the clay minerals present in that sample. These results are listed for each of the eight samples in Table II. TABLE II RESULTS OF THE QUALITATIVE CLAY MINERAL ANALYSIS Sample Number Clay-Minerals Found 4 O O O O O 9 O 5 ....... 6 O O O O O 7 O O O O I kaolinite illite interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/or montniorillonite) . some kaolinite illite randomly interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermi- culite and/or montmorillonite). . kaolinite illite interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/or montmorillonite) . illite randomly interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/ or montmorillonite). possibly some kalonite illite randomly interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/ or montmorillonite). illite randomly interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/or montmorillonite). kaolinite illite randomly inter stratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/or montmorillonite). kaolinite illite randomly interstratified with an expanding type clay mineral(s) (vermiculite and/or montmorillonite). 17 The dominant. mineral found is illite which is interstratified with an expanding type clay that could be either vermiculite or mont- morillonite or both. In samples 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, the general diffusion of the X-ray diffraction pattern of the interstratified clays suggests that this interstratification is random (no particular sequence in the interstratified layers). On the other-hand, samples 1 and 3 show a few small peaks in the diffraction intensities of their interstratified clays suggesting possibly some order in the sequence of their inter- stratified layers . Quantitative Determination of Illite by Total Potassium Analysis As illite was found to be the most significant clay mineral in the X-ray diffraction analysis, it was considered important that a quanti- tative determination of this mineral be made in each of the eight samples. Illite, generally Speaking, may be considered the only clay- mineral that contains potassium to a significant degree (Grim 1953). Assuming a relationship exists between the amount of illite and the amount of potassium in a given clay sample containing illite, a quanti- tative determination of this illite can be made from the total amount of potassium found. It is possible to determine fairly accurately the amount of potassium in a sample by the strength of its potassium emission spectrum. In this manner, the total potassium content was determined in each of the eight samples using the Beckrnan flame spectrophotometer of the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University. Procedure The procedure (Webber and Shivas 1953) described below was recommended by the Soil Science Department of Michigan State Univer- sity. Certain modifications have been added. 18 ' Samples weighing between 0-. 25 and 0. 5 grams were dried at 110° C. , cooled in a desiccator, and weighed to four decimal places in platinum crucibles. One ml of a solution of HZSO‘ (1:5) was added to each sample. The samples were placed on a hot plate, approxi- mately 5 ml of concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF) added to each sample, and the samples evaporated to dryness. This removed the silica in the samples as volatile silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) (Kolthoff and'Sandell 1952). Five ml of the concentrated HF was again added to each of the samples and the process repeated. The residue was .then taken up with distilled water, filtered, and the remaining residue washed with o. 1N HCl and distilled) water. The volume of the filtrate of each sample was next adjusted to 200 ml. The Beckrnan flame Spectrophotometer was then calibrated to the samples, a portion of each solution poured through the Spectrophotometer and its value recorded. From these values, the total potassium and illite concentration was calculated for the eight samples. Results of the Total Potassium Analysis The values obtained from the spectrophotometer were converted intomilligrams of potassium and then calculated as corresponding theoretical milligrams of K30. Knowing the weight of the original samples, the-percentage of K20 was calculated for each sample. The percent illite was then calculated on the assumption that pure illite would contain approximately 5. 5 percent K20 (Grim 1953). These results are listed in Table 111. These results cannot be taken as completely accurate, but they give a general indication that illite is thepredominant clay mineral of the "Red Beds. " 19 TABLE III PERCENTAGE ILLITE CALCULATED FROM THE TOTAL POTASSIUM CONCENTRATION _————.————-— w Sample Mgs. Mgs. Total Percent No. K KzO Sample Wt. Percent K20 Illite Mgs 6. 15 1“ 5.1 6.15 311.6 -3-1-1.—6--1.98 36.0 16.4 2 13.6 16.4 332.8 333—8— - 4.93 89.7 22.8 . _ 3 18.9 22.8 484.0 m - 4.71 85.6 7.59 _ 4 6.3 7.59 275.8 275.8 — 2.76 50.3 13.73 _ 5 11.4 13.73 356.5 -3—5-6-—5—- — 3.85 70.1 7.84 _ 6 6.5 7.84 259.2 23—91-7- 3.03 55.1 1903 ~ 7 16.0 19.3 448.3 m - 4.30 78.2 16.9 _ 8 14.0 16.9 317.7 317.7 - 5.32 96.6 Significance of the Clay Minerals Found Studies have shown that the types of clay minerals found in a sedi- -ment reflect, in a general way, the age and conditions of deposition of that sediment. Investigations of sediments in eastern-France and the adjacent sections of Germany and Switzerland which were known from paleontological and stratigraphic evidence to be marine sediments, contained illite as the dominant clay mineral (Grim 1953). Kaolinite was often present as a secondary mineral with chloritic mica and 20 vermiculite often present as minor constituents. Sediments of lagoonal and lacustrine origin contained different mineral assemblages and proportions. The universal presence of illite in the "Red Bed" samples along with the frequent presence of kaolinite and possible presence of vermiculite suggest a possible marine typeenvironxnent for the deposition of the "Red Beds. " Attapulgite and sepiolite often indicate an evaporite type environment. The fact that they were not found here, however, does not preclude the possibility that the "Red Bed" gypsum was formed under “salt lake" conditions because attapulgite and sepiolite are apparently found only in recent sediments. Montrnorillonite has been found to be almost exclusively absent in sediments older than Mesozoic age. Since the presence of mont- morillonite as a constituent of the expanding clays could not be definitely established or refuted, no determination of a pre- Mesozoic or a Mesozoic-post Mesozoic age for the "Red Beds" could be determined. The presence of kaolinite shows that the "Red Beds" are likely post- Devonian, but this is readily established from their stratigraphic position. Theclay minerals found indicate then that the "Red Beds" were possibly formed under marine conditions; however, insufficient infor- -mation was available to give any new clues as to the-age of the "Red ‘Beds. " . Sphericity Analysis of the "Red‘Bed" Clastics The "Red Bed" siltstones were composed predominantly of quartz particles and contained practically no heavy minerals. Consequently, a sphericity study was made on the quartz with the intension of determin- ing the possible direction of its source. 21 Preparation of the Samples The Clastics in each of the samples were separated from the dispersed clays, washed several times with tap water, and then dried. Following this, the silts and fine sands were sieved and separated, in accordance with Wentworth's classification, into one size covering medium sands and larger (particles greater than 0. 25 mm), four sizes of fine sand between 0. 25 mm and 0. 065 mm, and one size covering the silt size particles--0. 065 mm to 0. 0039 mm--(Krumbein and Pettijohn 1938). The quantitative size of the fractions decreased with increasing grain size, and the silt fraction was in each case the largest. The fractions of medium sand or larger were generally insignificantly small and were probably contaminated to a considerable degree by the overlying glacial drift. It was desirable to obtain for study a fraction from each of the samples that would be as large as possible in sieve size and still not have contamination from the fine sands of the overlying drift. After an examination of the samples, the sand between 0. 112 mm and 0. 125 mm (very fine sand) was chosen from> each of the eight samples for study. Separation of the Light and Heavy Minerals The fractions chosen for study were next placed in funnels filled with bromoform (CHBrs). to separate the "light" minerals from the "heavy"-minerals. Bromoform has a specific gravity of approximately 2. 89, and minerals with a higher specific gravity than this (rutile, magnetite, etc.) will sink in bromoform; whereas minerals with a lesser specific gravity (quartz, feldspar, etc.) will float. After all the heavy minerals had settled, enough of the bromoform was released from the bottom of the funnel to wash these heavy minerals onto filter 22 papers placed below the funnels. The light minerals remained floating in the bromoform left in the funnels, and the separations were thus completed. Mounting and Optical Examination The light and heavy fractions of each sample weremounted of glass slides in a medium of araclor (index of refraction 1. 66). An exarhination of the heavy minerals with a petrographic microscope showed only a few grains on each slide indicating that the "Red Bed" Clastics likely contained little or no heavy minerals. The few heavy minerals found could easily have been contamination from the overlying drift. The examination of the light minerals showed quartz to be the predominant mineral with occasional fragments of feldspar. These quartz grains were very angular. Measurement of Sphericity The sphericity of the light minerals was measured in each of the samples according to the following formula (Riley 1941): hf;— where S is the sphericity of a given grain, i is the diameter of the largest circle that can be inscribed within the projection of the grain on a plane surface, and I is the diameter of the smallest circle that can be circumscribed around that same projection. From this formula, a perfect sphere has a sphericity of one, whereas values decreasing from one to zero indicate a corresponding decrease in sphericity. In selecting individual grains for measurement, an attempt was made to Choose grains such as quartz which display no distinct cleavage. The sphericity of at least fifty grains was measured for each sample, 23 and these measurements averaged to give a composite value for the sphericity of that sample. The results for each of the eight samples is listed in Table IV. TABLE IV SPHERICITY OF RED BED CLASTICS VERY FINE SAND FRACTION Sample No. Sphericity l . . ............ 0. 799 2 . . . . . . . 0.774 3 ................... 0. 803 4 ................... 0. 808 5 ....... . . . . . . . . . 0. 785 6 .......... . ....... . 0. 785 7 0.794 8.0.0.0....OIOOOOOOO0.786 m Significance of the Sphericity Analysis Figure 3 shows that there is a slight tendency toward an increase in sphericity‘in the "Red Bed" samples toward the northwest. Proceed- ing on the assumption that sphericity in detrital sediments increases with distance from source, then a source for the "Red Beds" might be postulated to have existed somewhere toward the southeast--perhaps in the old Appalachian landmass. This proposal must be made with reservations, however, first because of the small number of samples, and secondly because the assumption that sphericity in detrital sediments increases with distance from source has not been definitely proved (O'Hara 1954). 24 I I N . I I I E ' In . I 9'19" .799 I - _ _ “."‘°“°.. Iiisfi’fiei ______ I 1-- - 30.5%“801109533‘! __ LAKE I osCEOLA ‘N I BLAOWIN . ‘Q I (.3 rs Tehfie‘o_ ''''''''''''''''' .785E O .HIDLANO I I: j I ./ . I I— .1 \ """""" I (in: I I I: E ._I E L_II9II_1_CA_L1II_ _ _ — __ _ _I__‘_‘ ‘~/_: LIIAIIOT Jsasmm - ! KENT E IONIA E CLINTON E I I I ; EXPLANATION CONTACT o, m: SPHERICITY ANALYSIS “REO BEDS" .785 OF C2] is; u .. ssmsusues T3: M1334. Eggs 1:,” SPHERICITY VALUE WIFERRED WELL LOCATION ' an...» ANO NUMBER WWW Figure 3 THE "RED BED" GYPSUM Manner of Occur re'nce The sample studies indicate that gypsum comprises approximately one-half of the "Red Beds. " Accordingly gypsum may be considered to be a major, if not the‘major, constituent of the "Red Beds. " This gypsum generally occurs in chalky masses displayinga selenite like cleavage. Patches of clear selenite are often found within the chalky gypsum suggesting that this chalky gypsum is possibly selenite that has lost some of its water of hydration (Kraus, Hunt, and Ramsdell 1951), however, no detailed qualitative study was made of the "RedBed" gypsum. This gypsum is likely of primary rather than of secondary origin due to the fact that it is found in many wells in thicknesses of tens of feet indicating that it was deposited in fairly homogeneous thick beds. In addition, small laminae of gypsum about one millimeter in thickness are often found within siltstone aggregates. It is unlikely that gypsum of secondary origin would occur in this manner. Quantitative Distribution of Gypsum in the "Red Beds" To obtain an idea of the quantitative distribution of the "Red-Bed" gypsum, a study was made of the relative amount of gypsum in all possible wells, and, from this data, a generalized map of the quanti- tative distribution of gypsum in the "Red Beds" was made (see Figure 4). Procedure Due to the large number of wells studied and the questionable accuracy of the quantitative representation of the gypsum in the samples, 25 26 I I II II IIIEE‘ II ‘I ‘ E I “1%.”, r ’ ,IT‘II‘ I I. E III I III‘II‘ E MIDLAND /‘: I I \_,v' QUANTITATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF GYPSUM IN THE "RED BEDS" OF MICHIGAN 27 the amount of gypsum in each sample was visually estimated to the nearest third. These values were then plotted on a map, and all adjacent wells of equal gypsum concentration (to within the nearest third) were grouped together. In this manner, the "Red Beds" were divided into generalized areas of 0-33%, 33-66%, or 66-100% gypsum concentration. It was felt that the lack of precise information from the individual wells and the small number of wells gave insufficient control for a contour map and that a map of this type would be, therefore, more representative. A complete list of the wells used in this determination is listed in the Appendix. fignificance of the Gypsum Analysis The map shows that there is no uniform trend in the gypsum concentration but rather that the gypsum is randomly distributed. This suggests that gypsum was concentrated in certain areas more than in others instead of being uniformly precipitated throughout the extent of the "Red Beds. " POSSIBLE FOSSIL REMAINS IN THE "RED BEDS" What appear to be possible fossil remains were found in samples from Mecosta County, Well No. 3516, Permit No. 9841 of the Michigan State University Collection of Well Samples (see Figure 5). These remains appear in the form of small regularly spaced furrows and ridges on the surface of some siltstone aggregates. This suggests that they may be fragments of steinkerns or external molds of the shells of some type of invertebrate such as Pelecypoda, or from the appearance of the furrows and ridges, perhaps Conularida (Shrock and Twenhofel 1935). It has also been demonstrated that they show rather marked similarity to early garnoid-type fish scales or plates of Astracoderm like vertebrates. No definite statement, however, can be made as to their identification or even that they are of organic origin. It is possible that they were formed in some bizarre manner from pulverized particles recemented during the drilling Operations at this well. From their appearance, however, they are more easily explained as some type of organic remains. These remains suggest that the "Red Beds" are possibly more fossiliferous than was previously assumed and that perhaps future investigations will uncover more definite fossil evidence. 28 29 POSSIBLE FOSSIL REMAINS "REO BEOS"OI= MICHIGAN MECOSTA COUNTY SECTION 2I, T.l5N., 3.7m THE "RED BED", IRON Iron has generally been considered, to be the cause of the characteristic reddish color of the Z'Red Beds, " and this assumption was further confirmed here by testing qualitatively for the-presence of iron in the "RedBed" samples. This test was accomplished by treat- ing the samples with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, removing a portion of this solution, and adding to it a weak solution of potassium thiocyanate. In each case an intense purple solution of Fe(CNS)++ formed indicating the presence of considerable iron in the solution. The fact that this iron could be completely removed from the samples leaving them grey in color strongly suggests that this iron was present as a coating and possibly as a fine matrix between the surfaces of the individual particles of the "RedBed" sediments but not as an inherent part of their chemical composition. The brownish red color of the "Red Bed" sediments is very similar to the color of hematite. This further suggests that this iron occurs in the "Red Beds" as ferric oxide. It is difficult to deduce definite Climatic conditions which Caused this precipitation of iron in the "Red Beds. " The presence of iron in "Red‘Beds" has often been assumed to indicate oxidizing conditions of an arid climate; although conditions favoring the deposition of iron oxide may be found in many areas today having tropical climates. 30 THICKNESS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE "RED BEDS" Procedure of Analysis An isopach map of the "Red Beds" was constructed using the thicknesses and distribution of the wells from the sample study as control points. Often the upper contact between the "Red Beds" and the overlyingdrift was not present in the samples due to sampling being started at a lower point. In this case the data was taken. from information on the drillers logs. The drillers logs were used in other instances where it was felt that they would be helpful in clearing up ambiguities but, due to possible inaccuracies contained in them, they were used very sparingly. Thickness and Distribution The average thickness of the "Red Beds, " calculated from the thicknesses found at the various well sites, was found to be approxi- ‘mately 87. 1 feet. The greatest thickness found is 220 feet and was found in a well located in central Mecosta County. The "Red Beds" appear roughly in the form of an elliptical shaped body whose major axis trends north-northeast (see Figure 6). This is approximately coincident with the axis of the Grand-River Group. The major axis is, however, inclined to the major axis of the Michigan Basin proper as the axis of the basin trends approximately north-south. The thickest part of the "Red Beds" follows the trend of this major axis of the "Red Beds" very closely with the strata becoming generally thinner on the flanks of the body at increasingly greater distances from themajor axis. 31 n.. 4- 32 EXPLANATION THE "RED BEDS" "RED BED" CONTACT OF MICHIGAN [/3 ”RED BED" E ——~ SEDIMENTs . ESTABLISHED I | x I I r f . OLDER I I [NFEIRRED SEDIMENTS ._EuiisE I ‘E_CHEBOYGAN E __PRESQILE'ISLE _____ __ IIIIIII -— E INFERRED . -°-"—5'-'—‘."—"" I ' I "RED BED" SEDIMENTS I I I I E I _____ "‘1"! ._ . .0392 a. 395895957. L. _‘L‘iEl‘. LEELANAU_ xALxASKA | —-- r- ‘ I I I I I I I I I I I I _ :E-N—ZI'E_ -_ [00. TEAVERSE I_ , . I CRAWFORD I. OSCODA EALCONA I I InOscousou I I I I I I I I I I b I MAHISTE'E I wExFORD'mSSAUKEE I Q E osE_IIAwE_ Iosgo__ ,_ . _, _ . . . GLADwm i'ARENAC I—ASON ELAIIE [_OSCEOLA CLAR— I I ..... _I_._ !NEWAYOO I I HURON i , —~—---. - - - I IBAY . I OCEANA E RIOLAIoE"I_. _ ._E ITUICOLA I _______ . 7 E___. “’I E I III I I I II‘ . _______ _ _‘_ I“ n E I I I _., w --- SANILAC _____ “ugxgoon ‘ I M. ORAI'IO‘I’r SAGINA FBSNE;EE_ l T _. __ ....... _ _._._.__.__.__._._. E I I I I - E I l I I I I - E ILAPEER ___, E ........... I 3T1": . _ _. '5‘"? _inoum . .C_L.I'_‘_T.°£. _I _S'I'AVILSE.U_ _ I I - I ' l I I I . I ' ' I I I I ALLEBAN LBARRY IEATON INOHAM ILIVINCSTONIOAKLAND —————— _._._._.__._. _I__ _____ ....... I ______ . I I I I I ' ‘ "I I I I I I I I . I '1‘" 5““5" LE‘LJI‘LZ.“ £4E9‘i".- ._ I_‘“.‘°_".’.°."_._'.!‘.9_'1I‘_"‘.V_'_._'."2‘Y'LE.- l— . I I E l I I I I | I | I I . I . - . BERNIE"... ICASE .. ST. JOSEPH .[ BRANCH I HILLSDALE I LENAWEE ____. 5"." NR . ' Figure 6 Ash, 6‘. lnnIrsI 1......“ 33 Due to a lack of definite information, the presence of the "Red Beds" can only be inferred in certain areas. This is especially true of the arm of the "Red Beds" that is found in Gratiot County. Although actual evidence is lacking here, the extensive presence of Grand-River Sediments suggests that the stratigraphically overlying "Red Beds" may, at least to some degree, be present. In northwest Saginaw County, red gypsiferous sandstones were found. Although these sandstones are probably correlatable with the Grand River Group, they suggest that overlying "Red Beds" may occur here as scattered remnants. In Kent County, reddish shales and gypsum extend approxi- mately as far south as Grand Rapids; while definite "Red Bed" sedi-‘ ~ments occur in the northern extremities of this county. These reddish shales and gypsum are likely part of the Saginaw Formation because of the fact that their color is a much deeper red than is found in the usual "Red Bed" siltstones and also that they frequently overlie Mississippian sediments. I Several definite erosional outliers were found to border the "Red Beds" suggesting that the beds were originally much more extensive than they are at present and that erosion has reduced the "Red Beds" I considerably in size and thickness. PALEOGEOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS Using the concept of paleogeographic probability--that is, the probability of what the physiographic picture of an, area was at certain times in the earth's history--it is possible to obtain some idea of the general manner and'iapproximate time of formation of the "Red Beds. " Some aSpects of the paleogeographic picture of the Michigan Basin and inferences drawn from them are presented below. As no definitely marine deposits are known in the Appalachian trough after Pennsylvanian time, and indeed after the Conemaugh series of the Upper Pennsylvanian, it would appear that the epeiric seas withdrew from the trough after Conemaugh time due either to lowering of the sea level or rise of the land in the eastern part of the country. The sediments of the Monongahela series (late Pennsylvanian) and Permian system of the east were presumably received in fresh water bodies near the center of the West Virginia Basin. The general paleogeographic picture of the Pennsylvanian would indicate any epeiric sea in the Michigan Basin to have occurred in an arm of a larger continental sea located to the south. Thus, the sea withdrawal after Conemaugh (late Pennsylvanian) time must have been to the south, and it is paleogeographically unlikely that marine waters should have occurred further north in the Michigan Basin after Conemaugh time. If the "Red Beds" of the Michigan Basin area are truly marine, as herein concluded, their age then, on this basis, could be reasoned as no younger than Conemaugh of Upper Pennsylvanian. 34 CONCLUSIONS In this work, the "Red Beds" were studied in sufficient detail to give. a more precise concept of their thickness and distribution. In addition, some of the various characteristics of the "Red Beds" were studied. It is perhaps possible, with the data obtained from these investigations, to state a few tentative postulations concerning the time and manner of origin of the "Red Beds. " It seems probable, on the basis of paleogeographic considera- tions and the type of clay minerals found in the "RedBeds, " that these "Red Beds" were deposited in a northward encroaching arm of a shallow continental sea that covered an extensive. area south of the Michigan Basin. This arm was perhaps separated from the'main body of the sea from time to time along the Basins relatively shallow rim forming, in the Michigaanasin, a dead sea. This isolation of the Michigan Basin sea resulted in increased salinity of its water due to evaporation. - After continued evaporation of this sea, supplemented by replenishments of sea water by several temporary marine invasions into the basin, considerable deposits of gypsum were precipitated. Other more soluble evaporites such as halite may have been deposited, but, if so, they have long since been leached away. During the evaporation of this sea and the deposition of the gypsum, the thoroughly oxidizing conditions of the shallow water environment brought about precipitation of the red iron oxides. These highly saline conditions would» have generally been unfavorable for abundant life, and, as a result the "Red Beds" would be expected to contain relatively few fossils. The "Red Bed" sediments were generally fine grained Clastics consisting chiefly of silt and clay size particles. These sediments 35 36 perhaps came chiefly from a source to the southeast--possibly the old Appalachian landmass. Due to the fact that the northeastern part of the United States is generally considered to have been an elevated landmass after Pennsylvanian time, it is unlikely that any subsequent post Pennsylvanian marine invasions of any magnitude occurred here. Thus, due to their apparent marine origin, it does not seem likely that the "Red Beds" were formed after Pennsylvanian time. It is still possible that the "Red Beds" are perhaps Permian or later in age or even that they are transitional between the Pennsylvanian and Permian periods. However, the findings of this work, together with paleogeographic probability, suggest to the author a Pennsylvanian age for the "Red Beds. " More specifically, the age would appear no younger than the Conemaugh series of the Pennsylvanian since non-marine sedimentation began in Monongahela (uppermost Pennsylvanian) and carried through the Permian in the Appalachian Basin. Additional support for a Conemaugh age of the "Red Beds" is found in the fact that the Conemaugh series of the Appalachian Basin is comprised of a high percentage of red beds, much of which occurs in the marine phase of the sedimentary cycle. The underlying Grand River group (Conemaugh age) in Michigan also contains considerable red beds which are largely sandstone. No definite fossils were observed upon which the age relationships of the "Red Beds" could be established. However, a few questionable forms that were found might well make additional future search worth- while . SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY The chief deterrent to a more comprehensive knowledge of the "Red Beds" has been a lack of material available for study, and the total knowledge thus far accumulated has come from a limited number of well samples and drillers logs. The study of any additional samples would, therefore, contribute new information on the "Red Beds. " In addition, it is recommended that a search be made for drill cores and outcrops since these would be of greatest value in future studies. In certain areas, the presence of the "Red Beds" has been pre- sumed from indirect evidence but not definitely established, and further investigation here is advisable. This is especially true in the northern part of Kent County and in a large part of Gratiot County. Further investigations of the clastic components of the "Red Beds" may well prove of value. These might include a more extensive sphericity analysis as well as a study of roundness and a more detailed quantitative and qualitative mineral analysis of the "Red Beds" clastics. A lithologic comparison between the "Red Beds" of Michigan and late Paleozoic and Permian red beds located in other areas of the continent could also be helpful in further defining the age of the "Red Beds. " The fossil-like markings found in this investigation demonstrate that further search for fossils in the "Red Beds" would be of value. A palentological study that might well be the most valuable single study to undertake in the immediate future would be palynological investigation of any plant spores, pollen, or other similar microfossils found in the "Red Beds. " Palynology could very possibly give exact information concerning the age and formation of the "Red Beds" of Michigan. 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, G. "Nomenclature of the Mica Clay Minerals, "‘X-Ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, edited by G. W. Brindley. London: The Mineralogical Society, 1951. 155-165. ‘ Grim, Ralph E. Clay Mineralogy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953. ‘Hogness, T. 3., and Johnson, w. c. Qualitative Analysis and Chemi- _ cal Equilibrium. 4th ed. revised. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954. Hussey, Russel G. Historical Geology. 2d ed. revised. New York and London: McGraw-Hill, 1947. Jackson, M. L. Soil Chemical Analysis--Advanced Course. Published by the author, Department of Soils, University of Wisconsin, Madison 6, Wisconsin, 1956. Kelly, William A. "Pennsylvanian‘System in Michigan, " Michigan Geological Survey Division, Publication 40, Geological Series 34, Part II, 1936. Kinter, Earl B. and Diamond, Sidney. "A New Method for Preparation and Treatment of Oriented-Aggregate Specimens of Soil Clays for X-Ray Diffraction Analysis. " Soil Science, Vol. 81, No. 2, (February 1956), 111-120. Kolthoff, I. M. andSandell, E. B. Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis. 3d ed. revised. New York: The-macmillan Company, 1952s Krauss, E. H., Hunt, W. F. and‘Ramsdell, L. S. Mineralogy. 4th ed. revised. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951. Krumbein, W. C. and Pettijohn, F. J. Manual of Sedimentary Petrography. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1938. 38 39 Moore, Raymond C. Introduction to Historical Geology. 2d ed. revised. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958. Newcombe, R. J. B. "Oil and Gas Fields of Michigan, " Michigan Geological Survey Division, Publication 38, Geological Series 32, 1933. O'Hara, Norbert W. "A Statistical and Mechanical Analysis of the Marshall Sandstone in Western Michigan to Determine the Environmental Pattern of the Deposit. " Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Geology, Michigan State University, 1954. Riley, N. Allen. "Projection Sphericity, " Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, Vol. 11, No. 2, (August 1941), 94-97? Shrock, R. R. and Twenhofel, W. H. Principles of Invertebrate Paleontology. 2d ed. revised. New York: McGraw Hill, 1953. Schuchert, Charles. Atlas of Paleogeographic Maps of North America. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1955. Swartz, Daniel H. "The 'Red Beds' of Michigan." Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Geology, University of Michigan, 1951. Webber, L. R. and Sivas, J. A. "The Identification of Clay Minerals in Some Ontario Soils, " Soil Science Society of America Proceed- ings, Vol. 17, No. 2, (April 1953), 96-99. APPENDIX LIST OF WELLS FOUND TO CONTAIN THE "RED BEDS" 4O 41 .. and sums 2: no sosssunnsusn 33:3 new Sun sssnucusnfis snowman N. mane be: H BED ouoEHHO w .02 038 mNuSmizawH ooHuoo HocH he; «1%: ouoEHHO H .02 oHHHow mNuBmsZcH 2... +2. 23. mmsfi sEEso H 62 3982 193233. MNuBmuZoH «9° +8 3:. 292 sane 72¢ Bass: 93923 susnssm .3 on? $1.: anew a .02 new 93922 anemoum a 2.3.. @mmNH HHHHH m 62.00 H5 nouudO mmu3ouZ¢Hs nsmmounH a" ooww wamH 300 H .02 .>onH,:oHsD thgvuZmH 3:500 .mHHonde sssnsnm a $3 $3 noses? n .02 nnunnsno NéTZs radoO uoHuduO 22qu w oomm mwwm pseHBoZ H .02 coHGD qHquuZoms coimm mam 00mm wwNm ..<.. 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