1 ,:NmW/IIIIWIEIMIIAIIMIWIIS’IIIII3111'-WIf?:fi'.B 1w , ' THE EFFECT OF PARENT EDUCATION ON KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD CHILDREN’S PLAY Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ALICE PHIPPS WHIREN 1976 ._._.___.___.__..4-:Z' «hm IIIIIIIII ‘ ‘ _ LIARAAY This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF PARENT EDUCATION ON KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD CHILDREN'S PLAY presented by Alice Phipps Whiren has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Family Ecology fig . /‘I «(2: 1 ED 4X4; 2/ "w" 27”? . Lil/5L» L/z/Alp/’ Major professor Date 1976 0-7 639 RETURNING MATERIALS: PTace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will MSU LIBRARIES “ be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. JANZlZUUZ 100801 ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF PARENT EDUCATION ON KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD CHILDREN'S PLAY By Alice Phipps Whiren A learning-focused approach to parent education was used in a six-week program designed to increase material knowledge about child play. The preplanned program was based upon slide-tape presentations which were followed by group discussion. Topics discussed were: home environments for stimulating play; principles of interaction to fos- ter self-controT, the deveTOpment of dramatic play, and promoting learning through manipulative toys.V' ‘Two groups of mothers with preschool children who were asso- ciated with local libraries were compared in this study. The control group (n.= 21) from Pigeon, Michigan, was younger and had been married for a shorter time than the experimental group. The control group also was found to score significantly higher on the knowledge about children's play at the pretest than the experimental group. The experimental group (n_= 23) from Millington, Michigan, participated in a six-week workshOp on play while their children attended a one-hour program in the library. The primary design was a quasi-experimental two-group pretest- posttest model. The MANCOVA was used to test the effect of the parent Alice Phipps Nhiren education program on attitudes toward and knowledge about play. The experimental group improved significantly over the control group on knowledge about play. No significant differences between the two groups on attitudes toward children's play were observed after treatment. Multiple regression analysis, stepwise procedure, was used to determine the amount of variance in gain scores on the knowledge and attitude dimensions that could be attributed to known independent variables. Sixty-seven percent of the variance for gain on the knowl- edge of children's play was accounted for by the combination of the following variables: pretest knowledge, develOpmental conception of the family, pretest attitude, SES, number of children in the family, and number of toys owned. Only the first two were significant, accounting for 59% of the variance. With further analysis, the sub- scale conception of the child was the primary contributor to the conception of the family. In comparing treatment and control, the direction of change in attitude toward children's play was in the desired direction but was not significant. Using multiple regression analysis, only the pretest on the attitude variable was a significant predictor of attitude gain, with mothers who had the lowest scores on the pretest improving the most. The pretest on the attitude toward children's play accounted for 22.5% of the variance, with the remainder of 38.9% of the variance being accounted for by number of children in the family, Alice Phipps Whiren pretest on the knowledge scale, developmental conception of the family, SES, and toys owned,.in that order. The direction and significance of predicting gain for knowl> edge about and attitude toward play are indicated in Tables 4-3 and 4-5. Lower pretest scores, SES values, and fewer toys at home pre- dicted gain on posttest scores. Not all of these factors were sig- nificant, however, for the attitude and knowledge dimensions. THE EFFECT OF PARENT EDUCATION 0N KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD CHILDREN'S PLAY By Alice Phipps Whiren A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family Ecology 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was carried out as a part of the toy lending library project for rural families sponsored by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station under the direction of Dr. Eileen Earhart. The helpfulness and support of Dr. Joan Smith and Linda Dutton, who worked on the project, made much of the work easier and happier. I appreciate especially the encouragement and assistance from my major professor, Dr. Eileen Earhart, and from my committee mem- bers, Dr. Linda Nelson, Dr. Norma Bobbitt, and Dr. Margaret Bubolz. Mrs. Shirley Mense and Mrs. Susan Cooley most ably typed the many drafts of this dissertation. Lysa Whiren, aged four, and Anne Janette Whiren, aged eight, were patient most of the time while I was completing the research. All of us missed our play time, when it, too, had to be eliminated. My thanks are due my husband, Ken, my mother, Lila Phipps, and my mother-in-law, Anne Whiren, without whose emotional and econ- omic support this dissertation would not have been completed. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ........................ OVERVIEW ........................ Objectives ...................... Assumptions ..................... Conceptual Definitions ................ Conceptual Framework ................. Overview ....................... LITERATURE REVIEW ................... Maternal Influence on Cognitive Development ..... Evaluation of Parent Education Programs ....... Affective, Self-Examination Approach ........ Comparison of Methods ............ '. . . Learning-Focused Approaches ............ The Relevance of Play as Content in Parent Groups . . Origins and Cultural Conditions of Play ...... Toward a Theory of Play .............. Play and Development ................ The Role of Parents in Stimulating Play ...... Parent Education and Play Behavior ......... Summary ....................... THE RESEARCH PLAN ................... Sample Description .................. Instruments to Measure Variables ........... Design ........................ Hypotheses ...................... Analysis ....................... Summary ....................... Page vii Chapter Page IV. THE RESULTS ............... . ....... 52 Hypotheses l and 2 .................. 52 Hypotheses 3, 5a and 6a ............... 55 Hypotheses 4, 5b and 6b ............... 56 Hypotheses 7 and 8 .................. 59 V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS .......... 54 Summary ....................... 64 Discussion: The Interface Between the Family System, the Parent Education System and the Library System . . 67 The Family System ................. 67 The Library System ................. 69 The Parent Education System . . . . ........ 7O Implications for Theory ............... 7] Play as a Factor Influencing the Quality Of Life . . . 73 Play as a Relevant Concept to Professionals ..... 74 Implications for Future Research ........... 75 Implications for Practice .............. 76 APPENDICES ........................... 78 A. PLAY: THE HUMAN WAY. A SERIES OF PROGRAMS FOR PARENTS . 79 B. “INSTRUMENTS ...................... ll6 C. SOURCES OF ITEMS FOR THE KNOWLEDGE OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY ................... 131 D. SAMPLES OF TOY DIRECTION SHEETS ............ 138 E. CODEBOOK AND RAW DATA FROM SUMMARY CARD #6 AND SELECTED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ........... ISO REFERENCES AND NOTES ...................... 188 iv Table 3-2. 3-3. 3-4. 4-1. 4-2. 4-3. 4-4. 4-5. 4-7. 4-8. LIST OF TABLES Frequency Distribution Of SES Values .......... Location of Family Residence .............. Kolmogoror-Smironor Goodness Of Fit ........... Results on Levene's Equality of Dispersion Tests . . . . Results of the Multivariate Analysis Of Covariance of Differences Between Treatment and Control on the Posttest Scores on Knowledge About and Attitude Toward Children's Play Using Pretest Scores as Covariates ...................... Unadjusted Means of Scores on Knowledge About and Attitude Toward Play by Treatment ........... Results Of the Multiple Regression Analysis Stepwise Procedure Of Variables Predicting Gain in Knowledge About Child's Play .................. Results From the Multiple Regression Analysis Stepwise Procedure Of the Conception Of the Family and Conception of the Child on Knowledge Gain ....... Results Of the Multiple Regression Analysis, Stepwise Procedure Of Variables Predicting Gain in Attitude Toward Children's Play ................ Results Of One-Way Analysis of Variance on the Knowledge of Children's Play by Treatment at Pretest Results of One-Way Analysis of Variance on the Attitude Toward Children's Play by Treatment .......... Means by Treatment of Knowledge of Children's Play and Attitude Toward Children's Play ............ 53 54 57 58 60 61 62 62 Table Page E-l. Mean Number of Children and Mean Number of Preschoolers by Treatment .............. l86 E-Z. Mean and Range Of SES Values by Treatment .1 ...... l86 E-3. Mean Pre- and Posttest Knowledge Scores by Treatment ...................... 186 E-4. Mean Pre- and Posttest Attitude Scores by Treatment . . l87 E-S. Mean Scores Of Conception of the Family by Treatment . . l87 E-6. Mean Toys Owned by Treatment .............. 187 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l-l. The Intersection of the Family System, Parent Education System, and Library System ......... 9 3-l. Summary of Instruments Used, Timing, and Method Of Collection by Group ....... . ........... 5l 4-l. Summary of Hypotheses Tested and the Decision Rule . . . 63 vii CHAPTER I OVERVIEW Socialization Of the young is a major function of the family; consequently, parental knowledge about the social, physical, emotional and intellectual needs of children is necessary for successful inte- gration of the young members into society. The ways in which these needs are or are not met influence a child's over-all functioning. The parents in the American culture have been under enough pressure of various kinds from numerous sources to be confused and uncertain as to how to perform this crucial role (Callahan, l974). Today's parents of young children have come from families in which children were few in number and generally planned so that as youth they did not necessarily participate in the rearing of younger sib- lings. With the increase Of frequency in which youthful parents are geographically separated from their families of origination, they are unable to utilize the accumulated experience in parenting from the Older generation on a day-to-day basis. In addition, people have come to believe that parents can and do control the outcome of children's behaviors through their perfor- mance as parents. LeMasters (l970) in his discussion on the folklore about parenthOOd and of the role analysis of mother's role describes some of the other pressures on parents to perform. Thus, in a rapidly l changing society, a young couple is charged with rearing their Off- spring to become the competent adults in a future culture that may indeed be distinct from today's. Today's children, as adults, may live in a society far removed from the family of originatiOn. Young parents attempt to prepare their children rather anxiously and uncer- tainly, not having a clear understanding of how to perform this task. Flexibility, creativity, and versatility are characteristics that are assets now for adults and are likely to be desirable char- acteristics in the future (Buckland, 1971). A varied play experience stimulates the development of these characteristics as well as provides a powerful medium for the child to learn about himself and his environment. Limited scientific inter- est in play over the last 40 years is the result Of unsupportive cul- tural values and consequently weak economic support. The family has been long recognized as the primary institution for the socialization and education of the young. ReCent accumulationtyfevidence stressing the first five years of life as being a critical period for the total development Of the child makes it imperative that attention be focused on the young child and his principal learning environment. Rural families have limited community resources, such as nursery schools and play groups, and those that exist in the villages may not be acces- sible. Head Start programs are Operating in many communities for a few families. Even though many other families desire and need the intellectual and social stimulation for their children, the family income may exceed Head Start minimum guidelines, and they are, there- fore, ineligible for the program. The attitudes and knowledge that these parents have regarding their children's play affect the decisions made on a daily and even hourly basis. The accumulation Of these decisions builds a long-range accumulative effect (White, 1973). Because of their total dependence upon a nurturing adult, young children usually do not decide for them- selves when Or where they will play or with whom. Parents and other family members control the range of toys and materials available to the child through their acquisitions and the application of the family rules or habits. If children are to realize their intellectual poten- tial in the home environment, parents need positive attitudes toward play and some understanding of how play contributes to the overall Ldevelopment of the child. To date, the scientific literature concerning parental knowl- edge about and attitudes toward play has been limited. Intervention programs aimed toward maximizing the developmental potential of play in the family have been restricted in their focus to the urban poor. Very few programs exist for a large population of rural families who are essentially self-reliant but who have had very limited access to intellectual and physical resources necessary to Stimulate Optimal intellectual development in their children. The programs that have been developed have not been adequately studied (Brown, Note 2). Effective parent programs about child development and play would be useful to public school personnel in working with parents before chil- dren enter formal schooling, to home economists in family living exten- sion programs, and to other adult educators. Objectives The effect Of a parent education program focusing on play and development on parental knowledge about and attitudes toward play will be Studied. The degree to which conceptions of parenthood, and the number and use of toys, influence the effect of information on parents will also be investigated. More specifically: I. Will a planned short-term program about the value of play and parental play skills affect the knowledge and attitudes Of parents about play? 2. Will developmental conceptions Of parenthood, and the presence of a variety of play materials, affect the knowledge and attitudes parents have toward play? 3. Will demographic factors such as age, sex, number and age of children, and socioeconomic status affect attitudes and knowledge of parents about play? 4. Will the availability of instruction sheets with toys in a toy library affect the knowledge and attitudes parents have toward play? Assumptions The following assumptions underlie this study: 1. Parental behavior in relation to child's play is within volitional control of the adult considering the limitations Of economic, physical, and social environment Of the family. 2. Information about child's play may influence decisions made by the parent in socializing the child. 3. Through parent-child interactions over a long period of time, the child learns general behavior patterns, attitudes, and skills that enable him to relate to his environment. 4. The family is a system. As such, any influence upon one member of the family affects the other members of the family and their collective use of environmental resources. Conceptual Definitions The following terms have been used throughout the dissertation: The attitude toward children's play is the respondent's opinion about the most appropriate behavior for the typical parent or child in various situations, types of toys, rights of children in play, and the relations among children and parents in play (Bishop 8 Chace. 1971). A closed system is one in which boundaries have been set up to prevent information flow. A developmental familygconception reflects the acceptance of internal dynamics as standards for performing a role. An element is the smallest observable unit in the system. The unit may be human, animate or inanimate. An ecosystem includes the living organisms and the environment in which they live. A family is the functioning group living in one household having at least one adult female (mother) and at least one child under six years of age. A family ecosystem is the set of members of the family, the dwelling and its associated land, and all objects, materials, and organisms within the household or on its associated land. Knowledge about play reflects information about the age at which specific play behaviors are likely to occur; the role of adults in stimulating play behavior; and the relation of play to intellectual, social, and motor development. An open system is one in which the boundaries are permeable, permitting information flow. Parent education as used in this study is a group of parents meeting with a trained leader for the purposes of fulfilling determined educational objectives. Play_is a large category of behaviors which are self-initiated, pleasurable experiences. Play includes exploration and investigation of the environment, with the locus of control within the player (Neuman, 1970). The player is freed as far as possible from reality and constraints imposed by antecedent events. The player is emitting the behavior for the rewards associated with the process (Berlyne, 1960), rather than for externally obtained gratification. More spe- cifically, it includes manipulative activities, motor testing, imagi- native play, games, and voluntary participation in art, music, and literary pursuits. A_rglg_is a set of shared expectations. A system refers to the mutually interdependent patterns of interaction among associated elements such that each element influences all of the others and is in turn influenced by them; the elements form the system as a whole. A traditional family conception reflects the acceptance of externally imposed standards for performing a role.- Transformationgprocesses "refer to the sum total of transac- tions by which inputs are converted into outcomes" (Buckland, 1971, p. 57). The teaching-learning strategies and the learning environ- ment created by all_of the inputs are included. Conceptual Framework An ecological approach to viewing the family allows for the study of the relationships between family members and the near envi- ronment (toys, play materials, furnishings used in play) and the mech- anisms by which these relationships can be influenced by systems out- side the household. It allows for the examination of the processes of change.as the alteration of one element in the ecosystem affects all the other elements. Therefore, if the family system is open to outside inputs, then planned inputs into the family ecosystem should effect some change in the total pattern. The degree to which the family ecosystem is open may be influ- enced by internal and external conditions. Internal conditions such as the health, education, attitudes, skills, and values of the adult members as well as materials and objects within the home influence individual and family decisions and actions. External conditions such as community resources, economic conditions, and information sources circumscribe the degree of openness of the family ecosystem as well as limit the alternatives of individual or group decisions. Both internal and external variables were examined in this study. The internal variables include: conception of the family, toy inventory, and socioeconomic status of the family. Two external variables--size and location of community, and availability of library books and toys--are controlled. A third external condition, informa- tion sources, is varied for two groups of families so that changes in the mother can be observed. Buckland (1971) contends that parent education can be viewed as an independently functioning system. As such, it has both intended and unintended outcomes. The transformation of objectives into out- comes can be evaluated to determine impact upon the individuals and other family members by objective procedures. The intersection between the parent education system and the family system in the community library is the point of focus of this study. The intersections between the three systems, those of the family, the library, and parent education, are illustrated in Figure 1-1. . As can be seen in Figure 1-1, intersection A, all three sys- tems are in simultaneous interaction during the process of the inter- vention program. The transformation processes of the parent educa- tion program are linked with maternal learning and family processing as well as being connected to the family's use and availability of library toys and books. The tertiary interaction occurs within the library struCture and within the general social context of the com- munity. As can be seen from intersection B, in the diagram, the linkage between the parent education system and the family system extends The Family System B. Family- Parent Edu- cator Inter- . Mother in D.Library- Interaction Family With Library and ingfirsec- Parent Educa- The Parent Storytelle EducatTOn System tion Library The Library System Figure 1-1, The intersection of the family system, parent education system, and library system 10 beyond the library system. Mothers share information on family development, housing, and toys at home with the parent educator. In return they receive books and learning guides for effective parent- child interaction through play in the home. The intersection between the family and the library system (intersection D) is characterized by the transfer of information and service from the library in the form of the story hour, book and toy loans. The family pays for this service through taxes and direct fees. This relationship, though not analyzed for this paper, is being evaluated independently. The intersection between the library system and the parent education system (intersection C) is characterized by the exchange of information and the performance of complementary roles. The parent educator selected and purchased toys for use in the library circula- tion system. The library catalogued the toys, supervised the circula- tion, and managed the story hour program for children of mothers participating in the parent education program. The library and the parent education systems are both forms of informal educational inputs available to families that are open to inputs from systems external to the family unit. Therefore, when family members encounter parent education in an informal educational setting, it can be hypothesized that observable change should occur. However, the degree of change may vary with dif- fering internal conditions of the family or by varying inputs and transformational processes of the parent educational system. ll Overview Relevant literature on play and parent education is reviewed in the second chapter. The design of the study, instrument develop- ment, and program development are discussed in the third chapter, 7 with the analysis of the results in the fourth. A discussion of the findings is presented in the fifth chapter with recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Two major areas of scientific literature are considered rele- vant for review. Parent education literature is reviewed for effec- tive methodology and for applicability to rural populations. The theory and research on play are reviewed to examine the appropriateness of the content in planning an intervention program for the families. Maternal Influence on Cognitive Development Information sources which relate to the attempt to understand the whole of the tremendous influence parents have upon their children have varied widely. Backed by a heavy accumulation of evidenCe con- cluding that the first years of life are instrumental in terms of cognitive development, Caldwell (1967) calls for supplementing the family enyironment with priming resources. Th theTFTgnalyticalmreview of the effects of mother-child interaction and cognitive development, Strassguth and Bee (1972) con- cluded that differences in learning environments are related to dif- ferences in cognitive functioning and motivational characteristics. that contingency of social reinforcements is important in modifying behavior, and that the teaching styles and patterns of feedback used by mothers mayifie important in shaping cognitive functioning. Addi- tional detailed reviews of maternal impact on cognitive functioning 12 13 support Caldwell's basic position (Hess & Shipman, 1967; Hess, Bloch, Clostello, Knowles, Largay, 1970; Hess, 1969; Litchfield & Norton, 1 972). When the environment provides very little stimulation, chil- dren make minimal gains in mental and physical development. Saunders and Keister (1973) at the University of North Carolina have found that many very young children in family day care settings actually lost ground in their mental and physical abilities over a two-year period. In a laboratory study of mother- child interaction, Brophy (1970) suggests that there should be a shift of interest from bipolar dTmensiOns such as love-hostility or strictness-permissiveness to a model characterized by restriEtionrand~limitations versus differen- tiation and elaboration in parental behavior.I Brophy argues that the amount of stimulation given the child is not as important as the way in which the stimulation is organized in the home. Not only the organ- ization of stimulation is important but the mother's impression of her- self can influence the child's achievement (Strom & Greathouse, 1974). "‘-’// White (1973), in his longitudinal study of.competéncy iUn ’ I ax?“ I childhood, suggested that successfulwparenting is net dependent upon 1 money, education, a happy marriage, or two parents in the home. I Instead, success~4nvtherparentingmro+e is more closely related to the . adult's understanding of the factors affecting the child's develop- ment, the quality and use of the home as a play environment, and the nature of the interaction between parent and child. Success in par- enting is defined as the rearing of a child who is generally compe- Tfltent intellectually as well as socially. 14 In a follow-up study Watts (1973) investigated the nature of the interaction between parent and child that produced competentocOm- pared to less cofigéLent children. Regardless of socioeconomic status, mothers of the more eoHBZIQHI Children used intellectually stimulating techniques of teaching, justifying, and conversing. Direct partici- pation in child-initiated activities by the mother who had acquired an understanding of what was developmentally appropriate and intellec- tually stimulating was the key attribute of mothers of competent<*.=*' children. Mothers of less compEEefit‘children spent less total time in direct participation with the child, but when they did participate they assumed a playmate role. " Franklin (1973), in her paper on children's capacity for symbolic representation, notes the developmental changes in Specific rules for problem solving with symbols. The capacity to use several rules in coordination appeared in spontaneous play situations before they could be elicited on demand by the researcher. In the studies reviewed, play was evaluated in order to explain nonverbal represen- tation in young children. Possibly parental interaction influences the child's competencies by influencing the child's ability to symbol- ize. Children's motor involvement which is characteristic of play is significant in their learning (Wolf, Leven, & Longobardi, 1974). Bing (1967), in hgmLstudy of differential cognitive abilities and the corresponding characteristics of the child's home in terms of human interactioniaSLNeTl’a; physical exploration, states: """ The essential condition for the develOpment of verbality is probably the close relationship with an adult, and verbal abil- ity is fostered by a high degree of interaction between mother 15 and child. 7In contrast, the development of number ability requires, above all, concentration and the ability to carry through a task by oneself. Similarly spacial ability is prob- ably developed through interaction with the physical rather than the interpersonal environment (p. 120). Although there were no differences in the number of toys owned by children with high verbal ability in contrast to those of high numeri- cal or spacial ability, the latter group was allowed a greater degree of freedom to explore and to use the toys during early childhood. Grant (1971) further indicated that considerable research. proves that the home is of crucial importance in preparing the child: ’I i h- rt '1. I 'H” for success in school and maintaining his achievement through his school years. Evaluation of Parent Education Programs Parent education programs have proliferated in the past without much objective evaluation and with little research on effective methodology (Pickarts & Fargo, 1971). Programs were based upon the assumption that if the participants liked the program, the program was successful. Program goals were only vaguely specified if reported at all. Content of these early programs was totally dependent upon the participant's interests, personality, and knowledge and could not be replicated. Dinkmeyer (1973) described most succinctly the modern version of these early groups. The "C" parent group calls upon the L participants to collaborate, consult, clarify, confront, be concerned, maintain confidentiality, and be committed to change. In contrast, Pickarts and Fargo (1971) suggested that the "learning-focused" approach may more readily lend itself to evaluation 16 because it has more clearly defined goals that can be translated into specific behaviors or tasks that will indicate whether or not the parent understands his role as parent and its significance to the development of the child. The learning-focused apprOach frequently focused upon the parent as teacher of the child as well as care giver. The content and methodology of the more recent versions were speci- fied though they varied considerably from one another. Affective, self-examination approach. The early work in parent group education reported by Brim (1965) and Auerbach (1968) was primarily focused upon improving the mental health of parents and it was assumed, though proof was lacking, that the mental health of children would also be improved. In evaluating the few research studies that had been done before 1960, Brim (1965) states that the results are inconclusive. Hereford (1963) conducted a large-scale parent education program in Austin, Texas, that combined elements of the mental health approach and the learning-focused approach. The experimental group composed of parents who attended at least one meeting of a discussion series was compared to a lecture-control group composed of parents who attended at least one of a lecture series, a nonattendant-control group who registered for an educational program but did not attend, and a random control group composed of parents whose names were selected at random from school files. Trained community volunteers led discussion groups for parents that were sponsored by the local PTA and the local mental health association.’ A film on child development was followed by open discussion by participants. The lecture-control group was led by 17 various professionals in the community and covered Similar topics as those covered in the discussion group. The parents who attended the discussion group series did show significant (.05) changes in their attitudes and behaviors as compared to the control groups. Children of parents in the experimental group improved significantly in peer relations but not in teacher ratings. The number of sessions attended, the amount of verbal participation, and the individual nonprofessional leader proved unrelated to the attitudinal changes that took place. This study did not settle the issue as to whether parent groups shOuld be led by professionals or laymen. I Buckland (1971) conceptualized the parent discussion group as an important means for stimulating adult socialization in the parental role and proposed standards of excellence for parent education to be used as a theoretical guide to the researcher and practitioner. COmparison of methods. Peine (1971), however, found no dif- ferences between group when he compared lecture-discussion parent groups to operant-conditioning parent groups. Both groups were led by professionals and covered similar content. Only a difference in method was evaluated. Boger, Kuipers, and Berry (1969, Note 1) compared the effects on children in a Head Start classroom of three types of programs for parents. The developmental language program was designed to stimulate interaction between mother and child through a natural, playful mode. The structured program provided a script for the parent and child to follow. The placebo group was designed to provide a comfortable 18 climate for the parents to discuss the Head Start program and child development in general. In instances in which positive changes occurred, both experimental treatments improved child performance more than the placebo but there were no clear-cut differences between the developmental and more structured groups. Boger et al. also found interesting interaction effects between the Head Start eligible and noneligible children and the treatment the parents received. This indicated that the effectiveness of a particular program may vary for different populations. All parent groups were led by the Head Start teachers. The sample in the study was 72 families drawn from six classes of Head Start Children. The research and development of compensatory programs during the last decade have led to numerous approaches to involvement of low- income parents. Chilman (1973) offers a comprehensive review of these diverse programs and their effects. In the studies she reviewed, par- ent education groups on the whole have not proven to be effective in drawing and holding an audience, or in making significant changes in parent information and attitudes in the low-income populations. The contrast between the learning-focused approach and the affective, self- examination approach was not drawn in her study. Some notable exceptions to the general trend of ineffective- ness with low-income parent education efforts are those by Nimnicht & Brown (1972), Levenstein (1971), Karnes, Teska, Hodgkins, 8 Badger (1970), and Radin (1972). Learning-focused approaches. Nimnicht&8rown (1972), from the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development, are the 19 creators of the Parent/Child Toy Lending Library. In this project, parents are trained in a series of eight sessions to use a basic set of eight toys with their preschool children to stimulate the child's intellectual skill development and self-concept. The parents are permitted to borrow eight other toys to use with their children afte5_ they have completed the training. The program has been very effec- tive for the participating parents and their children. One drawback in this approach is that many parents are unable or unwilling to attend eight training sessions and therefore are ineligible to borrow toys for their children. The number of toys (16) is also a limiting factor in meeting a wide variety of levels, needs, and interests. Levenstein (1971) directed the Mother-Child Home Program in Long Island, New York, in which "toy demonstrators" were trained to visit mothers and their two-year-old children in their homes twice a week. The demonstrator showed, by playing with the child, how the mother can verbally interact with her child. Toys and books were the focus of the play. The toys and books which the demonstrator brought into the home were left as gifts for the family. Levenstein concluded that children can learn best through their mothers if the mothers have a chance to watch and participate in a demonstration of conversational techniques functional for the child's cognitive growth. The identi- fication and training of toy demonstrators, the staff time for numerous home visits, and the expense of the toys for each family are limita- tions which many communities would face if they attempted to imple- ment this project. 20 The cost and the extent of intervention are significant fac- tors in two other programs of parent education that appear in the lit- erature. Karnes et a1. (1970) h1theirstudy moo. w.m ooo.o u.m oooo. 1 mm opo. u o o_owo_oz mm a z xopo m.upwgu pzon< mmcmpxocg cw crow mcwuuwumea mopnopgm> mo mczumuoga mmpznmpm mwmapoc< coommmgmmm mpawupsz on» Co mupomom mac mpnmk (III! II.“ 58 Table 4-4 Results From the Multiple Regression Analysis Stepwise Procedure of the Conception of the Family and Conception of the Child on Knowledge Gain N = 23 Multiple R = .5602 R? = .3139 §_= 4.5744 p_S .023 Variables Beta Std . Error Beta f_ p_ Child 2.8843 1.6673 8.9191 .007 Family .5589 .8248 .4592 .506 (Constant) -8.7000 5.9882 2.1107 .162 g[:_= 2,20 H4: Null hypothesis. Values of the developmental conception of the family scores will not predict gains in attitudes toward play. Alternative hypothesis. Values of the developmental con- ception of the family scores will predict gains in atti- tudes toward play. H5b: The number of toys owned will not predict the gain in parental attitudes toward play. H6b: The relative SES value and the number of children in the family do not predict the gain in parental attitudes toward play. The independent variables are the pretest scores on the parental knowledge about play, the conception of the family, the family SES value, the number of children in the family and the number of toys owned. The pretest scores from the knowledge and attitude instruments were included because of their conceptual relevance to the other independent variables in the equation. 59 The dependent variable is the gain score that has been created by subtracting the pretest from posttest scores for each subject on the attitude toward children's play instrument. The pretest scores on the attitude toward children's play is the only variable tested that predicts gain on that dimension (p_S .022). ‘ The null form of Hypothesis 4 was not rejected. That hypoth- esis stated that having a developmental conception of the family will not predict gain in attitudes toward children's play. The null forms of Hypotheses 5b and 6b were not rejected. The numbers of toys owned, the SES value, and the number of children in the family do not predict attitude change. Only 38.93% of the variance was accounted for by the combined variables, as can be seen in Table 4-5. Hypotheses 7 and 8 The ANOVA, analysis of variance, was used to test the differ- ences between experimental and control groups at the pretest on knowledge about and attitude towards children's play. The following hypothesis may also measure the effects of toy direction sheets on the variables of interest since the toy direction sheets were avail- able to the control group but not the treatment group at the time of pretesting. 60 Table 4-5 Results of the Multiple Regression Analysis, Stepwise Procedure of Variables Predicting Gain in Attitude Toward Children's Play N = 23 Multiple R = .6290 32 = .3893 _F_ = 1.700 p_ s .185 . Std. 2 VarTable Betg_ Error f_ p_ 3_ Change 93E. Pretest Attitude -.4640 .1980 6.0944 .022 .2249 No. of Children -.7370 .5518 2.3582 .140 .0818 Pretest Knowledge -.lO83 .1309 1.0249 .824 .0355 Family Conception .4007 .4308 .7634 .394 .0268 SES -.0744 .1044 .4541 .509 .0164 No. Toys Owned -.3448 .1069 .0140 .751 .0038 (Constant) 42.5376 16.9280 .023 H7: H8: fl= 6,16 Null hypothesis. The mothers who have had access to the toy direction sheets (control) will not differ from mothers who have not had access to them (experimental) on knowledge about children's play. Alternative hypothesis. The mothers who have had access to toy direction sheets will show greater knowledge about chil- dren's play than those mothers who have not had access to them. Null hypothesis. The mothers who have had access to the direction sheets (control) will not differ on attitudes toward children's play from those mothers (experimental) who have not had access to them. 61 Alternative hypothesis. The mothers who have had access to the direction sheets will show higher scores on the atti- tudes towards children's play than mothers who have not had access to them. The independent variable was treatment group, those having toy direction sheets and those not having them. The dependent vari- able was the pretest of the knowledge about children's play (H7) and attitudes toward play (H8). Table 4—6 Results of One-Way Analysis of Variance on the Knowledge of Children's Play by Treatment at Pretest MS 92: .E 2. Between 177.1694 1 4.6251 .0373 Within 25.3336 42 The null form of Hypothesis 7 was rejected. Mothers who had access to the direction sheets and who were the control group for the primary hypothesis of this study did show greater (p_S .0373) knowl- edge about children's play on the pretest. The null form of hypothesis 8 was not rejected. Mothers who had access to the toy direction sheets did not differ in their attitudes toward play (p_f .9663) from mothers who did not have access to them. 62 Table 4-7 Results of One-Way Analysis of Variance on the Attitude Toward Children's Play by Treatment MS 9A E 2 Between .0343 l .0018 .9663 Within 19.0095 42 Table 4-8 Means by Treatment of Knowledge of Children's Play and Attitude Toward Children's Play Knowledge Attitude X 9. Z 9 With (control) 57.5714 4.49 67.8571' 5.11 Without (experimental) 54.3043 5.48 67.9130 3.54 As has been stated, the control group for the primary hypoth- eses of interest (H1 and H2) scored significantly higher on the pre- test of knowledge about children's play than did the experimental group. There were no differences between the two groups on atti- tudes toward children's play on the pretest. A summary of the null hypotheses tested and the decision rule are to be found in Figure 4-1. 63 Decision Rule Hypotheses The null hypothesis was H1 There are no differences in the adjusted posttest scores on knowledge about play between mothers attending the workshops and mothers not attending them. Rejected H2 There are no differences in the adjusted scores on attitudes toward play between mothers attending the workshops and mothers not attending them. Not rejected 3 Values of the developmental conception of the family scores will not predict Rejected gains in knowledge about play. H4 Values of the developmental conception of the family scores will not predict Not rejected gains in attitudes toward play. H The number of toys owned will not 5a predict the gain in parental knowledge Not rejected about play. H5b or gain in attitudes toward play Not rejected H6a The relative SES value and the number of children in the family do not . predict gain in parental knowledge NOt rejected about play. H6b or attitudes toward play Not rejected H7 The mothers who had access to the toy direction sheets (control) will not differ from mothers who have not had Rejected access to them (experimental) at pretest on knowledge about children's play. or attitudes toward play Not rejected Figure 4-1. Summary of hypotheses tested and the decision rule. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summar An accumulation of evidence indicated that mothers influ- ence the intellectual development of their children. The source of variation in competence among children was found to be in the qual- ity of interaction between the mother and child. Mothers living in rural environments have limited access to resources for the improvement of their understanding of the parental role in the child's learning. Most of the research reported on effective parent education programs has been on the urban population. Two groups of mothers with preschool children who were asso- ciated with local libraries were compared in this study. The control group (g_= 21) from Pigeon, Michigan, was younger and had been mar- ried for a shorter time than the experimental group. The control group also was found to score significantly higher on the knowledge about children's play at the pretest than the experimental group. The experimental group (g_= 23) from Millington, Michigan, participated in a six-week workshop on play while their children attended a one-hour program in the library. The primary design was a quasi-experimental two-group pretest-posttest model. The MANCOVA was used to test the effect of the parent education program on attitudes toward and knowledge about 64 65 play. The experimental group improved significantly over the con- trol group on knowledge about play. No significant differences between the two groups on attitudes toward children's play were observed after treatment. Multiple regression analysis, stepwise procedure, was used to determine the amount of variance in gain scores on the knowledge and attitude dimensions that could be attributed to known independent variables. Sixty-seven percent of the variance for gain on the knowl- edge of children's play was accounted for by the combination of the following variables: pretest knowledge, developmental conception of the family, pretest attitude, SES, number of children in the family. and number of toys owned. Only the first two were significant, accounting for 59% of the variance. With further analysis, the sub- scale conception of the child was the primary contributor to the con- ception of the family. In comparing treatment and control, the direction of change in attitude toward children's play was in the desired direction but was not significant. Using multiple regression analysis, only the pretest on the attitude variable was a Significant predictor of atti- tude gain,with mothers who had the lowest scores on the pretest improving the most. The pretest on the attitude toward children's play accounted for 22.5% of the variance, with the remainder of 38.9% of the variance being accounted for by number of children in the family, pretest on the knowledge scale, developmental conception of the family, SES, and toys owned, in that order. 66 The direction and significance of predicting gain for knowl- edge about and attitude toward play are indicated in Tables 4-3 and 4-5. Lower pretest scores, SES values, and fewer toys at home pre- dicted gain on posttest scores. Not all of these factors were signifi- cant, however, for the attitude and knowledge dimensions. At pretest, the experimental and control groups were signifi- cantly (p_S .037) different in their knowledge about children's play. The control group with a mean of 57.6 knew more about play than the experimental group with a mean of 54.3. The control group mothers were younger and tended to be families living on working farms. The Hollingshead SES scales may have been inapprOpriate for describing accurately the position of these farm families as indepen- dent farm owners with small businesses and minor professionals. The scales indicated that the independent farmer with an earning capacity between $25,000 and $35,000 in 1957 would be grouped with beauty shop owners, insurance agents, and morticians. The alternative, farm manager, implies that the farmer employs other personnel. Other occu- pations associated with the farm manager are postmaster, medium- sized business owners, pharmacists. and teachers. Even though Otto (1975) reports that occupational status is a stable indicator over time, it may be that the position of independent farmer needs reevaluation. The farmers in the Pigeon area of Michigan generally make more money than is indicated on the scales, even if adjusted for inflation. The modification of the Hollingshead scale used by the investigator that averages the education and occupation of the mother with that of the father was intended to provide a more accurate descriptor of family 67 life style. However, if the status position of independent farmer were altered, the differences observed between the Pigeon and Mill- ington subjects at the pretest on knowledge of children's play could be explained by differences in SES. I The control group also lived in an area that had considerable comnunity spirit and many conmunity activities were focused in the Pigeon library. They also had access to toy direction sheets for several months. The initial differences between the two groups on knowledge about children's play cannot be explained completely with present information. Discussion: The Interface Between the Family System, the Parent Education System and the LibraryASystem The family system. The mothers in the experimental group changed as a result Of the intervention on the knowledge dimension. They were functioning as elements of an open system to the flow of information from the parent education system. From data collected in this study, the best indicators of openness to new information were the pretest knowledge scores and a developmental conception of the family. Both of these indicators could be described as readiness factors for the new concepts in the intervention. The content of the intervention was based upon a developmental perspective. Therefore, as has been shown in other settings, the learner who has some infor- mation and a conceptual framework supportive of the program learns more than learners who do not have similar conceptions. The environmental variables measured, number of children in the family, SES value, and number of toys owned did not predict gain 68 in knowledge. There was no variability in perceived adequacy of play space and little variability in the other measures. The homogeneity of the population may have been a determining factor in the low pre- dictability of these variables. However, none of the variables analyzed contributed so little to the total variability accounted for that it was drOpped from the equation. An assumption of this study is that change in one member of the family will result in changes in other members. No observations of parent/child behavior were made as a part of this study. However, the librarian informally reported a marked increase in the circula- tion of toys of the experimental group in comparison to other groups of families using the library. Though this was not formally docu- mented, it is a preliminary indication of secondary changes of beha- vior in the experimental families. No changes in attitude were made during the intervention period. This is not surprising. Attitudinal change is a slow process that requires more time in intervention and perhaps a differ- ent approach than the one used. As Emmerick (1969) states, “the parental role consists of a rich fabric of interrelated cognitive processes. . . ." These processes operate independently from one another to some extent and may govern different sets of parental behaviors as the role is enacted. Possibly attitudinal changes would be observed if the number of subjects werelarger. Though the family system is influenced by the parent education system and the library system, it is a dynamic structure that sends information as well as receives it. Questions raised by the O 69 experimental group of mothers were incorporated into the program when possible. The final form of the materials used in the intervention and some of the procedures used by the library were influenced to some extent by the mothers participating in the parent education program. The library system. The library program in Millington where the parent education program occurred was substantially altered by the project. The toys available for loan were substantially increased so as to duplicate the set available to the control group. Local library resources were used to shelve, store, display. and circulate these materials. Though the focus of the research is on the family system and the parent educational system, there were several unintended outputs of the transformational processes in the parent education system. First, as has been reported, there appeared to be increased circulation of the toys. Secondly, the importance of the adult program was recog- nized when two mothers left sick children with a sitter in order to attend the parent program. Previously, the adult program had been designed to occupy the parents while the children were in storyhour. The third unintended output was in providing guidance to library staff on how to maximize child learning as they interact with a playing child in the library. Though the data about the library system are primarily des- criptive, some of the gains in knowledge of children's play may be attributed to the fact that the intervention occurred in a library 70 with a large selection of play materials for loan. All toys used in demonstration were available for immediate circulation. Occasional incidents occurred as parents and children were gathering for their respective programs that could profitably be used to illustrate con- cepts presented to the parent group. The fact that the parent education program was occurring within an ongoing library structure may partially account for the lack of gains in attitude toward children's play. Each session had to be exactly 60 minutes so that both child and parent programs ended at the same time. Some productive discussion was generally terminated in this manner. The number of six sessions was also a standard sequence for the storyhour in Millington, though parent education programs generally run at least for eight weeks and often much longer. The parent education system. The parent education system is composed of three parts: administrative, transformation process including method and content, and lastly the feedback components. Each component must function in order for the objectives to be met. The interaction between the administrative component and the library has been described in the preceding section. The transformational processes of the program were varied. A learning-focused approach was used in the development of the lessons. Slide-tape presentations, demonstrations, and discussions were all used in conjunction with take-home materials and printed brochures. Ques- tions by parents and suggestions from library staff were incorporated into the program when feasible. The complete set of materials is available in Appendix A. 71 Mothers in the experimental group learned more than those in the control group about play. The finding is strengthened by the fact that the violation of the assumption of equality of variance made the test more conservative. 7 Other feedback about the overall acceptability of the parent education program was in the attendance pattern. More than half of the mothers attended all sessions with the remainder attending at least four. Four subjects were lost for nonattendance. Four other subjects were lost because they missed the pretest session. An unusual pattern of attendance occurred in the morning section of the experimental group with people in attendance increasing weekly for the first three weeks. Mothers participating in the program had invited friends to join them. The extras came and participated in parts of the learning sequence but were not included in the analysis. The response of the librarian to the effectiveness of the program was also very positive. Implications for Theory A systems approach to parent education was developed by Buckland (1971) and is codified in her standards of excellence (pp. 292-320). The transformation processes that she delineates include some atten- tion to the near environment of the parent education group. However, from her delineation of the components that contribute to an excellent program, the environment is viewed as a necessity, an empty enclosure. The parent educator prevents extraneous interference with the group from outside sources. 72 This study utilized the near environment in such a way as to maximize the information available from it. The library environment was deliberately altered by the inclusion of a large number of play materials. By controlling the input of artifacts into the environ- ment the researcher also directed some of the information flow toward the target families. The information provided by the toys could con- tinue after the end of the parent education program. The effect of the toy library on the parental acquisition of knowledge has not yet been tested independently of the effect of the program. However, the general implication is that if the environment is viewed as an active, significant component of the learning process, change in behavior may be Optimized and potentially continued after the end of the intervention. The near environment of the family has a potential effect upon the acquisition of information. Though the number of toys in the household could not predict the acquisition of knowledge about play, this factor was not so negligible as to be dropped from the equation. Factors in the behavioral environment of the family as altered by the parent education may be a predictor of toy purchase patterns. As a potential resource is recognized, parents' economic behaviors may alter to maximize potential effect. Parent educators have not tended to observe families long enough to evaluate changes in general beha- viors. 73 Play as a Factor Influencing the QualityiofTLTfe Play is part of human experience. It has been repressed since the Reformation in the industrialized cultures. Play encompasses a large range of behaviors that can be observed in all age groups. The content of children's play as described in Appendix A rep- resents only a limited range of possible alternatives to the preschool child. The program could be expanded to include activities that lead to increased perceptual motor skills, social games, the participation in music and literature to name a few. It is, however, in the process of playing that pleasure is experienced and shared. Satisfaction comes from the activity itself. Fortunately, many of the activities that are intrinsically satisfying to the young lead to the develop- ment and practice of socially essential skills. Though the program focuses upon the very youngest members of the family, the theory explaining play can be applied to any age group._ Games of school-aged children are related to the economic and other social patterns of their culture (Rarick, 1973). The elimination of physical education, art, and music programs in public schools in times - of economic stress is a cultural habit of officially diminishing the importance of playfulness without understanding potential consequences. In analyzing futuristic literature relevant to parent education, Buckland (1971) found general agreement that creativity and playful- ness would be essential characteristics in the population for the future of our society. Recreational programs for adolescents and youth have recently been developed to direct the playfulness of this population into 74 socially accepted alternatives. Very little scientific attention has been focused on the beneficial effects of programs. Play in the dance hall or community center is accepted by the community as an alterna- tive to other activities often considered to be illegal. Activities of adults that are carried on for the pleasure of the process can make aesthetic or economic contributions to the family. Crafts carried on in the home may contribute to the immediate environ- ment providing pleasurable experience to the whole family or may be sold to others. Play as a Relevant Concept to Professionals Humanistic psychology recognizes that the totality of signifi- cant behavior cannot be explained by conditioned responses. Play which may be a very complex behavior enables participants to experi- ence pleasure in a myriad of ways, thus enhancing personal satisfac- tion. Play occurs when the basic needs are met and the person is seeking stimulation. The play choices that an individual makes may also reveal concerns, interests, and values of the player. Play therapy for children has long been used to assist clients in coping with stress. The general therapeutic effect of play is recognized by industry by providing workers with paid vacations. Par- ticipation in crafts, hobbies, or games may also provide family mem- bers with acceptable mechanisms for COping with mild stress generated in the home. Therefore, the content of play and recreational skills is appropriate material for educators at all levels. People in the 75 industrialized cultures have lost the cultural repertoire of playful activities that could potentially enhance their daily lives. Public educators, extension workers, social workers, and clinicians have a potential contribution in enhancing playfulness, pleasure, and the resulting satisfaction that leads to improvement of the quality of everyday life . Implications for Future Research If research on parental knowledge about play and attitude toward children's play is to continue, the instruments will need to be refined and reduced in length with data on predictive validity and reliability being derived from their use. A controlled study on the impact of toy direction sheets would clarify somewhat one of the findings of this study. If the use of direction sheets were effective, it would reduce costs considerably from those incurred using human resources. Using data collected in this and the Smith (1975) study, an item analysis of patterns of response to the knowledge scale, Part I, could be used to examine parental expectations of children's play. DeLissivoy (1973) used a similar technique in examining teen-age parents' expectations of infants. The assumption that increased parental knowledge about play and its effects on child learning leads to changed parental behavior is a testable hypothesis. This should be carefully done, because as Radin (1972) pointed out, some parent education effects can only be ' observed after considerable time. 76 The impact of the leader also needs to be examined. Though the program has been written so that generalists could use it in the field, a comparison of the effects of a structured program between specialists, generalists, and volunteers would be a Contribution to the parent education literature. Because of the potential long-range societal effects, a com- parison of knowledge about and attitudes toward children's play between populations where both parents are working and populations where one is at home with the child is needed. Possibly the child is teaching his parent about the importance of learning through play in daily interactions. With limited time such interactions would be substan- tially reduced. Implications for Practice The intervention program was written for use by educators for a general audience. Home economics teachers could use the intervention program with minimum alterations for high school students. Exten- sion home economists, preschool teachers who do parent education. and adult educators might also find a tested program useful in meeting their objectives. The program developed could also meet the needs of elementary school personnel who work with parents in preparing the five year old for school entry. The program, if carefully adapted, could be used in other countries to promote school readiness and to preserve cultural play patterns. Eiferman's (1971) work clearly indicates that the timing of 77 developmental patterns in sociodramatic play is about three years later in north African children than north European children. Since the skills used in sociodramatic play are those necessary for partici- pation in an industrialized culture and insignificant in a subsis- tence culture, families who are living in industrializing nations are not as likely to have the knowledge or skills necessary to support the development of sociodramatic play during the early years. Though there is minimal research that examines preschool play behavior in detail in nonindustrialized nations, general play patterns appear in the anthropological literature. Any adaptations should be made carefully after observation of the target pOpulation. In gen- eral, American children appear to be accelerated in cognitive develop- ment, similar in social development, and somewhat behind European children in motor skill development between the ages of three and five. The sequence of develOpment, however, appears to be stable with varia- tions in rate attributed to cultural and genetic factors. Any adapta- tions for other cultures, therefore, must consider these variations. APPENDICES 78 APPENDIX A PLAY: THE HUMAN WAY, A SERIES OF PROGRAMS FOR PARENTS Page Background for the Facilitator ................. 80 Suggested Readings General Instructions for the Facilitator ............ 85 The World of Play ....................... 87 What Is Play: Handout for Parents ............ ‘. . . 92 Principles of Interaction to DevelOp Self-Control ....... 93 Development of Dramatic Play .................. 98 Summary Sheet for the Development of Dramatic Play (Handout) . . 104 Learning to Learn Through Manipulative Toys (2 sessions) . . . . 107 79 APPENDIX A PLAY: THE HUMAN WAY, A SERIES OF PROGRAMS FOR PARENTS Background for the Facilitator Play: The Human Way What is play? Play is the natural behavior of children as they grow in their abilities to interact with the environment. It is a behavior that results in pleasurable experience for the person as well as a way of thinking or an attitude. It may also be entirely imagi- native, so that the playful thinking is not observable. Play is moti- vated--it occurs without rewards from outside sources. No fruitful definition that conceptually distinguishes play from work has been made. Pleasure is not the key. Pleasure is present in work experi- ences, just as some tedium and repetition can be observed in ordinary play experiences. Why do people play? All mammals play. Primate play is the most complex, and, of all the primates, only humans play beyond the juvenile level of development. Humans play longer than any other spe- cies; their play is more varied and complex. It is one of the char- acteristics of the species. The most compelling theory to explain play is the arousal- seeking model. Simply stated, any organism has an optimal level of stimulation that is satisfying. If the stimulation of the environ- ment is too low, the organism will attempt to seek out a source of additional stimulation. As parents know, children who are bored with riding in the car will risk considerable punishment just to have some- thing to do. Studies have been done (Zubeck, 1964) that indicate that the absence of stimulation to the senses causes subjects to behave in ways that would be called psychotic in other circumstances. On the other hand, if the level of stimulation is too high, the individual will limit the stimulation he pays attention to by ignoring, forget- ting3 or temporarily putting it aside for future reference (Miller, 1960 . The information gained by sensory exploring and investigating the environment is influenced by the mechanisms of learning. There- fore, though play occurs in all cultures, the actual games that chil- dren play will vary considerably. It would also hold that the indi- vidual differences seen among children could be accounted for through both variability in the optimum level of stimulation for each child and the quality of the environment, the available models and the recognition of the importance of child's play by his significant adults. Children imitate creative, exploratory and investigative behavior. As learning occurs, an upward spiral of increasingly complex interactions is developed. The more playful children become, the more they have the potential to become creative adults. 80 81 How does play contribute to the total development of the child? Theresa and Frank Caplan in their book The Power of Play (1973) have set forth some propositions about play and development: Playtime aids growth . . . . A child needs sufficient time to find his play in the culture. Through his play a child gains the time he needs to gratify his basic needs. . . . Play gives every child a chance to lay plans, to judge what is best in each play situation, and to create and control the sequence of events. Play Offers a child freedom of action. . . . In his play world, the child can carry on trial-and-error activities without fear of ridicule or failure. Play provides an imaginary world a child can master. . . . In a well planned play world in which the real world has been brought down to manageable size, the child can manipulate and maneuver it to suit his own whims. Play has elements of adventure in it. . . . It has uncertainty and challenge which activate exploratory examination and a child's sense of wonder. Play provides a base for language building. . . . Words come only from a foundation of play experiences, from encounters with people, objects and events which make up our world. Play has unique power for building interpersonal relations. . Play is the most pliant medium for feeling one's way, for understanding one's environment. Much of it (play) is social in direction and permits the child to fit himself into his social world. Play offers opportunities for mastery of the_physical self. . . There is physical play activity for its own sake, as well as opportunity for self-validation of one's skills. Play furthers interest and concentration. . . . [The child's] power of concentration and his sharp interest in the here-and-now world give evidence that play builds and expands will power and attention span. Play is the way children investigate the material world. . . . Their interest in the material elements may not always be scien- tific, but the desire to understand and control leads them to much investigation, invention and creation. Playgis a way of learning_adu1t roles. . . . Play may be con- sidered a rehearsal for adult roles and anticipatory to adult life. Play is always a dynamic way of learning. . . . Facts are best maintained when they are understood and used. . . . Academics can be structured into play. . . . [They] can be integrated into play so that a child can grasp and use concepts. Play contributes to the total development of the child, inte- grating within his natural tendencies to explore the people and arti- facts of his culture, his abilities to observe, do, learn and feel. Most play activities use all aspects of develOpment. The children do not recognize the potentials for motor coordinations, for concept development, for practicing the social skills so necessary for a full and wholesome life. They are "just playing." However, the adults responsible for the socialization of the children need to understand 82 the special dimensions of play so that they can take advantage of the opportunities for optimal development. What do parents need to know about children's play? Primarily parents and other socializing adults must understand that the reason children play is to enjoy living. It is fun. The greatest benefits of play come when the child is in control of the situation, when he is the decision-maker and the doer. The activity should be child- directed, though parents may be participators. There are several varieties of play that require different kinds of physical environments to be promoted. Imitative play occurs when a child performs a sequence of behaviors out of context. For example, the child may get out a pillow and blanket, make a bed and pretend to sleep outside under a tree in the summer. This is in con- trast to simple imitation of adult behavior, such as attempting to make his own bed in the morning. Parents encourage imitative play by imi- tating the simple behaviors of young children in a playful way. As children grow older, they need to observe a variety of adult behaviors that are interesting to them and that they might profitably incorpor- ate into play. Exploratory play is set off by novel stimuli in the environ- ment. The stimulus may be a new toy, a new tool or a new word or song. The child approaches the object or situation, investigates the characteristics of the novelty, manipulates it either physically or with language (questions are a form of manipulation), and eventually incorporates it into some ongoing play which may or may not be obvious to adults. (Many children need "permission" to explore.) Toddlers are such natural and unrestrained explorers that parents must set up restrictions for safety. (For some children, these restrictions become unrealistic as the maturity and judgment of the child develops.) Providing a safe environment and materials appropriate to the age of the child, and accepting the unique ways in which the child investigates materials promotes exploratory play. Curiosity is imi- tated. Adults who explore a variety of experiences and materials with the children or are observed doing so by their children are promoting exploratory play. During much of the early vigorous play the child tests his skills. His accomplishments are at first in new feats, such as the first somersault, rolling, climbing and successful rough and tumble play. As his prowess develops, the testing may become comparative: "I can climb higher than you." The child also tests social skills in a playful format as he interacts with parents and peers. Children frequently try to come to terms with adults about their increasing independence. Often this takes the form of "kidding" that, if it were serious, the parent would label as sassy or imprudent behavior. Test- ing play develops in later childhood through a series of increasingly complex levels of group games. Through these games the child develops the ability to handle the appropriate developmental tasks. Parents of preschool children can encourage testing play by providing adequate space inside and outside for vigorous activity. Climbing apparatus, tricycles and other wheeled toys also encourage the early testing play. As the child matures, his need for playmates 83 increases as he begins to compare his abilities to other children's. Parents and other adults should not compare children, thus establish- ing adult standards for the play. The child's criteria change from minute to minute and are not likely to resemble adult notions of per- formance. Instead, the adult can be the observer, safety supervisor, appreciative spectator or, if invited, participator. All types of play overlap somewhat, but mastery play frequently can be seen as an aspect of exploratory, imitative and testing play. Mastery play is occurring when the child repeats a task over and over with intense concentration and he appears to be working very hard at accomplishing the task that he has set for himself. Frequently the adults observing this play are perplexed as to the purpose of the repetitious, even tedious, behavior. Parents need to respect the child's involvement even though they don't understand it. The activity is satisfying for the child; he is learning from it. Careful observa- tion will reveal that the play is variations on a theme rather than exact repetition. Through his manipulations, the child learns the properties of materials, develops his fine and gross motor skills and practices the skills of concentration and observation. The last type of play that will be discussed here is called socio-dramatic play by Smilansky (1960) and model building by Sutton- Smith (1971). Imaginative play is important in the development of abstract logical thinking. Essential to this play is the ability to use information, to transform it by pretending, and then to carry out the action. The child during this process must construct represen- tations of the physical and social environments to which he is exposed. He is also called upon to do creative thinking as he participates in make-believe. Children playing out self-assigned roles with other players also develop social skills. Social problem solving is one of the many benefits of dramatic play. Parents can promote socio-dramatic play by providing opportu- nities for children to play with other children, by providing approp- riate toys and props and by allowing the child uninterrupted time to play freely. Sometimes more direct involvement of adults is necessary to help children develop play skills. The role of the parent in promoting child play at home is to provide a safe physical environment indoors and outdoors with approp- riate play materials. The parent also provides an accepting climate so the child feels comfortable and free to play. Fatigue, hunger and nervous tension inhibit play. These basic needs of the child must be attended to before creative and productive play can emerge. The parent also serves as a model for play behavior. Parents are the first to play with the child and continue to be the child's favorite playmate for about the first seven years. Parents contribute to the child's play through casual suggestions, demonstration of a skill and appreciative observation. Parents provide the necessary language of play as they talk to the child about his activities and materials and toys. Parents also help the children play by establishing rules and procedures for the use and storage of toys. The ability to pre- dict acceptable behavior is essential for the playing child. 84 The parent mediates between the environment and the child, helping the child to use time, space, materials and all resources effectively. Occasionally, the parent utilizes resources outside the immediate family, such as library story hours, nursery schools and neighborhood play groups. Grandparents, extended family members and othtr people also may contribute to the child's play skills and poten- tia 5. Why should parents learn about the play of children? Play is a naturally occurring behavior that is very complex. It is neces- sary for the normal development of the child in all aspects--intellec- tually, physically, emotionally, and socially. With some understand- ing of the dynamics of play, many parents may utilize the skills they already possess to enhance the developmental potential of the child. References Caplan, Frank and Caplan, Theresa, The Power of Play, Doubleday, 1973. Miller, J. G., "Input Overload and Psycopathology," American Journal of Psychiatry, 1960, 116, 695-704. Smilansky, Sara, The Effects of Socio-dramatic Play in Disadvantaged Children, New York: Wiley, 1968. Sutton-Smith, Brian, "Child at Play," Natural History Supplement, Dec. 1971. pp. 54-59. Zubeck, J. P., "Effects of Prolonged Sensory and Perceptual Depriva- tion," British Medical Bulletin, 1964, 29, 38-42. Suggested Readings Frymier, Jack, ed., Theory Into Practice, Volume XIII, Number 4, October 1974. Sutton-Smith, Brian, "Children at Play," Natural History Supplement, December 1971. pp. 54-59. Sutton-Smith, B. and Sutton-Smith, N., How to Play With Your Child and When Not to Play; The Child Strives for Self-Realization, Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1971. 8: General Instructions for the Facilitator The following series is based upon slide-script presentations, discussion, demonstration and participation by the parents. You may adapt the contents of this series to meet the specific needs of your audience. The contents are especially appropriate to parents of chil- dren under six years of age. Objectives 1. To help parents recognize how play benefits a child. 2. To show parents how to arrange a child's indoor play space so that the child has easy access to toys and the parent can rotate toys in and out of use. 3. To acquaint parents with manipulative toys and how they contribute to a child's development. 4. To familiarize parents with the way sociodramatic play develops and with the way parents can make the most of sociodramatic play as an opportunity for learning. 5. To give parents a chance to play with materials that chil- dren use in creative play. 6. To show parents some behavioral alternatives in guiding their children toward greater self-control. (To meet this objective, include the lesson on discipline.) Limitations of Series This series of lessons is designed primarily for families who already have a base of parenting skills and positive attitudes toward childrearing but who lack information about the importance of play and its contribution to child development. It is not designed for parents who lack a background in parenting or for parents with a negative attitude toward childrearing. Changing such an attitude usually takes much longer than this series of lessons will run. And building basic parenting skills requires the facilitator to spend a lot of time demonstrating them and guiding the parent in their practice. Procedures for the Leader 1. Read through the entire series. If you are not a child development graduate, read the suggested reading at the end of the introductory material. 2. Evaluate the needs of the audience. If the audience is a group of parents who need a great deal of information about child- rearing, begin with a series on basic development first. 3. The series on discipline may precede this series on play or may be presented after the lesson on the play environment. THIS 86 SERIES WILL NOT BE VERY EFFECTIVE UNLESS QUESTIONS ABOUT DISCIPLINE HAVE BEEN DISCUSSED! 4. Plan the programs. I suggest that you use a series of one to one-and-a-half hour sessions, planning some time for discussion among the parents. Note: Presenting the material on sociodramatic play will take longer. . 5. When you arrange a room for the series, please note that you will need flexibility in space. For the creative materials session you will need a water source. Electrical outlets are necessary for all sess10ns. 87 The World of Play Young children have much to learn. They must learn how to live with other people at home and in the community. They must learn about the natural world around them: That rain comes from clouds; that some bugs only walk while others may also fly; that plants need air, earth, sunshine and water to grow. Young children must learn about the things people have made and how these things are properly used. Vacuum cleaners, ovens, mother's new sofa . . . tractors, rakes and automobiles; all are objects for potential exploration. The environment which surrounds the child is large, complex and perhaps a little frightening. How then does he cope? By reducing the large, complicated real world to a smaller world that he can control: The World of Play. Through play, the child can explore relationships between people, between people and nature, and between people and the things they have made. The presentation(s) to follow will describe how the child learns through play and how mothers, fathers and even grandparents and older siblings can promote learning through play. First to be examined is the place where the young child plays most frequently. Playroom, family room, bedroom or garage can be planned to enhance the child's potential for learning. Preppring_the Indoor Environment for Pley Concepts 1. The surfaces of walls and floors, in a child's play area, may determine the amount of freedom or restraint the child has in his play. 2. Safety, order and cleanliness are possible in child play spaces. 3. Toyboxes have limited usefulness for children because: Choosing a toy is difficult with so many jumbled together; many toys must be removed before the child obtains the one he's seeking; and games and toys with many parts become easily separated or broken. 4. Introducing new toys periodically enables the child Unfocus his interest and play more successfully than presenting many toys all at once or just at Christmas and birthdays. 5. Toy rotation is a system of parents putting away some toys and then bringing them out again later while returning other toys to the storage area. 88 Materials Needed 1. Slide projector and screen 2. Slide set 3. Script Script Part I--Walls, floors Young children need Open space to play in. The floor should be of a hard surface like linoleum, tile or hardwood that is smooth textured. Shag carpeting clogs the wheels of trucks or pull toys and becomes the hiding place of many small stones and parts of toys. Throw rugs on one part of the floor provide a warm and more comfortable place to sit and play. Rugs should be rubber-backed to prevent slipping. Walls painted with a low gloss enamel are easier to wash than either flat paints or wallpaper. If a room needs wallpaper, a durable vinyl with a subdued pattern is effective. Walls can be used to increase play Space for the child. Long mirrors can be hung close to the floor to give the young child a full view of himself and his surroundings. A bulletin board or cloth-covered composition board placed at child level permits the child to hang pictures he has drawn or cut from magazines. Parents can encourage the child to be selective in those he hangs. Extras might be stored in a clothing box under his bed. A wall easel or a chalkboard placed where the child can reach it can provide an acceptable surface for writing on the wall. If it is mounted on metal shelf adjuster strips, the chalkboard or easel may be moved up as the child grows. Furnishings which encourage independent play are child-sized table and chairs and perhaps a comfortable chair for looking at story books. Many children enjoy playing quietly on a bed. Bedspreads that are easily washed and a pillow to lean against help keep sheets and blankets clean. A safe play space has smooth surfaces with few protrusions. Softwood floors, nails partially pounded into walls, windows that are not firmly set and furnishings that are too large for the child may be hazardous to an enterprising preschooler. Stairs are dangerous, too. Parents need to plan ahead for the toddler to protect him from falling downstairs. To keep curious explorers safe against accidental poisoning, cleaning supplies, bathroom supplies, paint and turpentine and other potentially dangerous substances should be stored on high shelves. Always assume that, if a child can get into a poisonous container, he probably will. 89 Part II--Toy storage and play If parents want to encourage independent learning through play and maximize the child's creative abilities, they need to plan care- fully the storage of play materials. The child should be able to select a toy, play with it, and return it to its place easily. Broken toys and toys with lost parts only frustrate the child. Parents, grandparents and friends usually give toys to children on Christmas, birthdays or special occasions. The child may receive so many that he cannot focus on any one game or activity. Frequently th: younger child simply plays with the boxes and wrappings of his gi ts. An alternative is to present toys to the child throughout the_ year. If the child receives a large number of toys on a special occa- sion, the parents may simply put some of them away and bring them out gradually throughout the year. Mother can stimulate a child's lagging interest by presenting a new toy to him from time to time and by playing with him briefly. Toyboxes have been used to store toys for a long time. They were more suitable when all the children in the family had fewer than six or seven toys. Today, however, children have many toys so that there is usually a problem of fitting them all into a small toy box. (Picture showing a child attempting to fit new toy into overstuffed box.) Find- ing a particular toy requires removing all the other things the child comes to until he finds the toy he is seeking. This, of course, leads to disorder in the play area. Mother repeatedly tells the child to put away his toys. Both mother and child end up feeling harrassed and fatigued. . , Another drawback of toyboxes is that it is difficult to find pieces of games and toys that have become separated in the box. (Children trying to play game and can't find a piece.) COOperative and creative play occurs only when children have access to materials, but preschool children usually do not have the patience to search diligently for missing parts. Play is then very frustrating. Crowding toys in a toybox also makes them less visible to the child. He has great difficulty in seeing (perceiving) what his alter- natives are. If toys are arranged so that there is space around each item, he can see, select and play with a toy more successfully. Jumbled toys in toyboxes or Crowded shelves may lead to "I don't have anything to play with," whereas the same toys arranged differently produce different results. If toys are stored on shallow shelves, children can easily see the toys that they have to use. They can select one toy at a time, avoiding the searching method of the toybox. The child can easily replace the toy on the shelf independently and take another. Games and toys with many parts (like beads) can be stored in shoeboxes, tins or plastic containers so that all of the pieces remain together. A general box can be placed on the shelf to hold odds and ends, balls and small cars. A dishpan is a sturdy container suitable for this. 90 Clean Up Even with improved toy storage, cleaning the play area may still be a problem. The 2-year-old may need mother's help to return each toy to the shelf as he finishes with it. By 3, the child is likely to have many of his things out at the same time. Trucks, blocks and animals used together can provide hours of fun. When it's time to clean up the area, mother and child, working together as a team, can get the work done quickly. Children under 5 or 6 usually have difficulty doing the clean up alone. They put away one thing and take out two. They are easily distracted. Parents can help them learn to maintain an orderly envi- ronment by working beside the child, calling his attention to the task at hand and encouraging him to put his toys on the shelf in an orderly way. Neither parent nor child needs to become overly tired working together. Parents can help the child by clearly stating what is expected of him--"it's time to put away the toys"--by helping him to carry out the task and by praising him when he has finished. "You have worked hard. The room looks very nice.“ Between 2-1/2 and 5 years of age, children can learn to keep their play Spaces pleasant and orderly. Toy Rotation Parents may promote the use of toys by rotating those on the shelves with those in storage. Children may have more toys than can fit on the shelves. Often they have too many new ones at Christmas and birthdays. One of the most successful ways of planning for toy use is to place some of the toys into storage to which the child does not have access. Parents may occasionally sort the toys. Discard broken toys. Those that the child is clearly too old for should be given away, sold or put away for younger children. If the child receives more than two new toys, or if he has more toys than can fit easily on storage available, put some of them away for awhile. A month or so later, some of the toys that were put away can be returned to the shelf and others put into storage. Why should parents shuffle the toys in this way? Well, first of all, it can save money. If an "old" toyis not seen for several weeks and then is brought out again, the preschooler responds as though it were a new one. Secondly, when the child is getting tired of a toy, removing it and then bringing it back revives his interest in it. Third, rotating toys helps to keep a limited, stimulating selec- tion of toys available for choice, but avoids over-crowding of shelves. 91 In Summary Children need a safe indoor space to play that is planned to meet their special needs. With guidance, children can learn to keep play space orderly. Children play longer with toys presented at intervals than with the same toys presented all at once. The use and care of toys can be improved by toy rotation. - 92 What Is P1ay?--Handout for Parents Play is a natural and important part of a child's development. Through play a child explores his environment and finds his place in it. As he explores, he develops and improves skills he needs to cope with an ever-expanding world. Children play because they enjoy it. Play is its own reward. It gives him a chance to plan, to make his own decisions and to control the sequence of events. Play offers a child freedom of action. In his play world, the child can try and make mistakes without fear he will be ridiculed. Play offers an imaginary world a child can master. A well- designed play world brings the real world down to manageable size. The child can then manipulate and maneuver it, improving his skill in dealing with it and trying out roles. Play is adventure. It has uncertainty and challenge in it, and it offers the child a chance to satisfy his sense of wonder about the world by exploring and investigating it. Play is learning. Through play a child builds language skills, learns how to get along with others, develops control over his large and small muscles, expands his powers of concentration, broadens his inter- ests, and widens his understanding of the world and the way it works. Play contributes to the total development of the child. Parents and other adults responsible for rearing children need to recognize the importance of play so they can help the children develop to the full extent of their learning potential. How can parents help? First of all, they can provide a safe environment in which to play, with clearly spelled out rules and boun- daries. They can also provide materials that are appropriate for the child's level of development: Challenging but not so far advanced that the child becomes frustrated by them. They can encourage the child to make his own decisions about play and play with the child under his/her direction. They can praise him/her for his/her efforts in mastering new skills so that he/she will want to keep trying to improve and keep trying new things. They can accept and respect the child's right to do things his/her own way, to learn by trial and error and to make his/ her own mistakes. They can see that he/she has playmates for social play. Parents can serve as models for play, demonstrating activities and skills, as well as making direct suggestions. By talking with the child about his/her activities, parents help him/her learn the language of play. Lastly, parents can make an effort to learn more about play and how it contributes to their child's development. With this under- standing, parents can help their child develop to his/her full potential. 93 Principles of Interaction to Develpp Self-Control Purpose One overall Objective of childrearing is to guide the young so that they can grow up to be fully functioning adults in the society. In addition, parents would like their children to have full lives that enable them to experience the joys of living. One of the character- istics of healthy adulthood is self-discipline and self-control. How does the parent guide the unrestrained, uncontrolled behavior of the infant towards this goal? Self-control is gradually attained through the interaction of the parent and the child on daily tasks. It is the accumulation of these experiences that makes a long-term difference in the behavior of the child. The content of these interactions is important if parents are to guide children toward increased self-discipline rather than control from external sources. Many parents do not realize that there are several useful tech- niques for guiding children. Some of these work for some families better than others. It takes time and practice to incorporate any new behavior into your fund of alternatives so if you try any of these techniques out with your family, give the trial at least two or three weeks. The usefulness depends upon the age and development of the child as well as the individual personalities of parent and child. The fol- lowing techniques are described for toddlers and preschool children though many of the ideas may work equally well for older children. General Principles for All Techniques Tell the child what to do rather than what not to do. Speak to the child at his eye level. Squat, kneel, talk directly to the child's face. Get the child's attention by calling him by name. Avoid yelling across the room. Be specific and speak slowly. Use a simple vocabulary geared to the child's age. Deal with a child as you would like to be dealt with as a fellow human being. macaw—n 1. Giving Directions, Suggestions, Instructions, Etc. A. Give a choice only when the child has a choice. Example--When it is time for lunch and the child is expected to go, say: "It is time to wash your hands and go to lunch." 00 ppt_say, "Do you want to go to lunch?" II. 94 Redirect unacceptable activity in line with what a child is seeking. Example--A child is throwing sand. Does he need another activity? Say: "Tom, you may dig in the sand. You might ask Jim to dig with you. Tell him he can help. Sand is for digging, not throwing." Or, "Here is a ball. Ask Tim to catch it when you throw it." Reinforce suggestions or directions, if necessary, with assistance. Example--"It's time to go to bed now." Take the child by the hand and lead him to the bedroom. Establish routines. Example--Children behave more appropriately when they can predict what will happen next. "Go to the toilet, and then wash your hands and face," as a regular nightly direction helps to avoid misunderstandings as does the clearly stated expectation of washing hands before and after meals. Prepare children in advance for unexpected changes in routine. Give directions in simple declarative sentences¥(avoid commands). Say, "Tom may come with me to the kitchen." Delay gjving help until a child seems ready for it. Example--Say "Do you want some help?“ or “Have you tried. . .?" Restructure the situation. Example--You had planned to do your shopping in the morning. A neighbor's grandchildren have come to visit who are the same age as your children. You decide to postpone shopping until later in the day. Giving Encouragement A. Give praise or reward for appropriate behavior (approve the deed, as well as or rather than the der). Example--Say with a smile, "John, I like the way you picked up the blocks." Or, "Your toys are all put away!" Avoid individual comparisons between children. Example-~00 not say, "Why can't you sit still like Chris?" Say, "Try to sit as quietly as you can." III. 95 Let a child do all that he/she is able. Example--Young child practicing and perfecting new skills. Give him time and opportunities to practice Old and new skills, i.e., wiping the table, tying shoes, interacting with children and adults. Don't do things for the child that he is able to do for himself. Instead praise his accomplishments and encourage independence. Let child experience success (help over hurdles). Example--Help a child complete a task. Let her button the last button, or zip part of the zipper or finish a puzzle by placing the last few pieces of a puzzle. Motivate (help) interest in an activity. Example--A child is wandering around the house and can't seem to settle down to an activity. Parents help him to get started by inviting him to do something specific and by watching that he does for a while. "Here's a puzzle you can do." Changing Behavior From Non-Acceptable to Acceptable A. Avoid shaming and labeling behavior. Example-~00 pgt_say, "You are a bad boy or girl," or "Don't cry; only babies cry." "You are a stupid child!" Establish limits and maintain them. Example--Say, "You may play in the yard. You are not allowed outside the yard by yourself." Be fast, firm, but fair(sympathetic). Example--Stop forbidden behavior, but acknowledge the child's real feelings; i.e., Richard hits Don over a toy car they both want. Say, "Richard, I know how you feel, but I can't let you hit Don like that. You can tell Don that you want the car and he can't have it. Don, listen; Richard needs to tell you what's the matter." Be consistent. Example--Children feel more secure when they can predict what you will do. If you expect the child to dress himself on Monday and then don't allow it on Tuesday, the child may become confused. Painless removal from a situation. Example--Carrying a child bodily from the scene of a fight and/or to redirect his attention to some other purpose. IV. 96 Remove objects misused (pr that distract). Example--Sally has been "sweeping" with a small broom and begins very vigorously increasing her sweep each time until the broom is endangering furnishings and people alike. Take away the broom. Use of restraint. Example--Jonathon, aged 5, is chasing Carolyn, aged 3, through the kitchen while you are fixing dinner. Put a hand on the galloping Jonathon to stop him and say "No more running for now; I think you can look at a book for awhile until dinner is ready." Planful ignoring. Example--Just before dinner Bryce was playing with his trucks. His voice got louder and louder as he moved the trucks closer to his mother trying to get her attention. (Don't yell at him; just ignore it.) A little later when he had moved further from her work area, she knelt down to ask if the people in the truck were hungry. Nearness of adult control. Example--Mother noticed that several children had congregated in the yard. They looked angry and were using loud voices. She went outside to weed the flower beds instead of putting away the laundry. Redirect behavior. Example--Stop forbidden behavior. Then involve the child in something else and stay with the child until he is calm and engaged in the activity. Intervention A. Try to foresee and forestall trouble. 'Example--E1izabeth, aged 8, had made a large, complicated structure of blocks and was playing contentedly with it. Billy, who just got up from his nap, came into the family room, moved toward the building. Their mother said, "Elizabeth, Billy might want to play. Can he drive some of your people in his bus?" Enter child's play. Example-~Children are playing house. They refuse to let a third child enter the 'house.‘ You might pretend with the children that the third child is a lady bringing cakes for tea (to encourage the children to include the third child). 97 Use of signals or cues. Example--Put your finger to your lips to remind a child to quiet down. Shake your head from side to side to indicate behavior is not acceptable. Wink to show approval. Smile to show you're happy with them. 98 Development of Dramatic Plpy Assumptions 1. Parents are generally unaware that dramatic play is learned. 2. Parents probably do not fully understand their role in stimulating dramatic play skills. Materials Needed 1. 35 mm. projector 2. Slide set 3. Script 4. Summary sheets for parents Generalizations 1. Children learn dramatic play skills from parents, older children and other adults. 2. The essential elements of imitative role play, make- believe in regard to objects, make-believe in regard to actions and situations, persistence, interaction with another player and verbal communication are necessary for the develOpment of sociodramatic play. 3. Once children learn the elements of dramatic play, prac- tice in various contexts helps them develop skill in abstract thinking. .4. Children's ability to pretend changes as they mature. Their play becomes more complex, has more of the elements of imitative role play and is more varied. They need more prOps and more realistic props when they are younger. Dramatic Play: Slide-Script Introduction--The Importance of Dramatic Ploy When parents talk about play, they are frequently thinking of dramatic play. Dramatic play is pretending. Children learn to pretend from parents and older children. It doesn't just come naturally. Chil- dren from modern, industrialized countries learn to play through pre- tending. As they play, they develop ways to think about their world that they will need as they mature. For example, visualizing how people live in other lands, reading dramatic stories, imagining a story to write, and studying geography, literature and history all require make-believe because the child has not had real experiences with them. 99 Slide l--Dramatic play is basically imitative in nature. The child must bring together his understandings of an adult role so that he can imitate the essential characteristics of that role. In order to do this he needs information about the role-~(What do mothers do?)--apg_the ability to use his imagination to overcome the difficulties of accurate imitation: size, time intervals, equipment, etc. The imaginative part of dramatic play enables the child to broaden the limits of his world and generally makes the play seem more realistic. 2--When the play includes more than one player, it is called sociodramatic play. Talking is necessary to imitate the adults, describe the situation--"You are the mommy and I'm the baby"--and to coordinate the actions of all the players so that the play can be continued. The imaginative part is therefore highly dependent upon speech. The Development of Dramatic Play Skills from Age 1 to Age 5-- Between 1 and 2 3--Between l and 2, the busy toddler is exploring his environment with enthusiasm. He touches, tastes, smells and watches all the people and objects he can. Watching the activities of his mother and father takes up a large portion of his time. 4--First, he begins to imitate ordinary daily activities in which he participates. It is important to realize that the child pretends to be himself doing a routine activity such as sleep- ing, washing and eating. He imitates his own or another's actions. To do this he needs a real pillow and blanket for sleeping, real dishes for eating. He enjoys pretending to wash with water but may do it if only a towel and wash cloth are available. This play is generally done alone or in the presence of his mother. Children of this age cannot "play“ on command or in front of strangers. 5--Secondly, the toddler transforms ordinary objects into toy subjects. A leaf becomes a boat, a pillow is grandmother, a doll is the baby. Parents learn about their child when they watch what the child does and listen carefully to what he says. The play episodes may be very short. For example, he may pick up a teddy bear, cuddle it, pat it, say "daddy" and then put it down and go on to something else. 6--The third skill to develop as he approaches two is makingptoys carry out actions. The doll drinks from the cup, sleeps, cries and washes. As he grows he stays a little longer in dramatic play but this is usually still only 3 to 5 minutes. He is not yet ready to play with other children. If several children are present, each child plays as though he were alone. IOO Slide 7--The child always spends more time in play when the parent is playing directly with him. Also, a play pattern occurs when the child plays with his mother before it occurs when he is alone. Between 2 and 3 8--Though the child between 2 and 3 still plays mostly by himself, he is adding new skills. He carries out actions on the toys such as putting the doll to bed or feeding it with a spoon. 9--He makes toys carry out action on toys such as the teddy bear feeding the doll. Now, however, he is more likely to have the complete sequence of events: Calling to dinner, washing hands, eating and clearing the table. He even represents the sequence of events in a time framework. With his increased vocabulary and fluency he is able to give a running commentary on the action taking place and is fully aware that he is just pretending. lO--For the first time the young child becomes an actor himself. Previously he was either himself carrying out a pretended activity or a manipulator behind the scenes who made the doll carry out an action. This is an important step for the young child to take: For the first time he is assuming a role. It is most likely that the child will pretend to be the parent, having dolls or animals be babies or children. 11--Near 3, he might engage in a game-like pretense that he, as the parent, has to spank the naughty child (doll). 12--Dramatic play develops rapidly between 2 and 3. The parent can encourage the child's use of play be pretending along with the child. One of children's favorite things to play is pre- tending that mother is the child and that the child is the mother. A parent can gain insight into what the child thinks is important for parents to do. And the child gets practice in solving some of the problems parents face. l3--At this age, the child still plays mostly alone or with a parent. Occasionally the child will participate in a very simple role with older siblings; for example, that of baby or little sister. When more players are added, the child generally performs at a simpler level than he would alone. Parents accustomed to observe a more mature level of play when the child is at home alone are frequently surprised when the child is expected to play with an age mate. Either they ignore each other or play along beside each other, saying little. Between 3 and 4 years The child between 3 and 4 develops new skills to use when he plays alone or with a parent while continuing to use those he developed earlier with siblings and other children. 101 Slide l4--For the first time the child is able to personify characters with feeling and represent emotions such as anger, crying or laughter. This is an especially important development. The child takes on the behavior of the role apd_the feel- ings of the person in that role. He gains greater insight into the behavior of others as he plays as well as develop- ing his own ways of expressing his feelings. 15--In addition, the child is able to portray more than one char- acter interacting. He plays both the naughty child and the angry parent with appropriate verbalizations and feelings expressed. It is easier for a child to show what he thinks through play rather than explain it with words. Making special areas for a "kitchen," "bedroom," "garage,“ etc. is becoming increasingly important. Between 4 and 5 years l7--The child has learned many of the elements of dramatic play which he can use now as he plays with other children. He needs continued opportunities to practice these skills with guidance from an adult. The play skills acquired earlier may show some regression as he is now cOping with including other children in his play. 18--Deciding what to play and what each player will do takes as much time as the play itself. l9--Arguments about who uses what truck and disagreements over the roles themselves are to be expected. The child may continue in the play for 10-15 minutes or longer with another child. He must practice getting along with another person as well as using the information he possesses about the role. 20--In addition to practicing previously learned skills the child now develops three more skills: 1. He can use different voices for different characters. More skillful players may take on two or more roles when they play alone: Mother, brother, baby and ”me." They verbalize appropriately for each using facial expressions and gestures to portray the action. 2. By remembering earlier experiences, the 4 year old knows what to expect of future events of special importance, such as birthdays and Christmas, and he may play them out well in advance of the occasion. Children may need 21-- special materials to play birthday. A great favorite is to use tissue paper and string to wrap and unwrap Old toys which, to his active imagination, have become presents. 22--3. The child of 4 may become an imaginary character, a mon- ster or clown. He assigns characteristics to the role which are not based on real life. The imaginary character is amazingly consistent in his performance. 102 It may become necessary for the parent to help the child understand that he is only pretending, because the imaginary character may become very real and frightening to the child. Parent's Role in Helping the Child to Learn Dramatic Play Skills How does the child learn the skills of dramatic play? The family' usually' provides a place to play, toys and other play materials. The mother generally provides instruction on their use, usually not deliberately. "You put diapers on your doll and I will change baby brother." Slide 23-l. The mother teaches her child to play by demonstrating to the child. She pretends. Cynthia, age 18 months, could not find anything to do. Her mother came into the room and said, "Let's pretend I'm Aunt Susan. Can you fix the coffee?" Cynthia smiled delightedly and put cups and saucers on the table. Mother sat down. Cynthia put the coffeepot on the table and said "hot." Mother asked, "Where's your little girl?" Cynthia fetched the doll and said "baby." The phone rang and mother went to answer it and Cynthia stayed to feed the baby. 24-2. The mother teaches the child to play by imitating_every- day events. In the living room one evening mother said to Samuel, who was 2-l/2 years old and unoccupied at the moment, "Gee I've got a dirty-faced boy!" smiling and laughing. "Let me wash you.“ Sam came over and mother took a pretend wash cloth, dipped it into a pretend sink, wrung it out and pre- tended to wash Sam's face. "I'm all clean now," exclaimed Sam. Muther hugged him and both of them went outside. 25-3. The mother teaches the child to play by making suggestions to the child so that he continues his play or expands on it. For example, James was playing with blocks and a truck. Usually he does not stay very long in one spot so mother walked toward the area. "Zoom, zoom, zoom," James is saying. Then he is distracted by a noise outside. He appears ready to leave the room. Mother: "You could fill your truck with blocks and drive them to Billy." . James does so. He plays for 6 minutes trucking blocks to Billy before he leaves the room. In this example the mother makes a suggestion to the child that leads him toward 103 developing the specific skill that has been absent in his play. The mother is not a player herself but can guide the child from outside the play situation. Slide 26-4. The mother teaches the child to play by reversing roles with the child. The child becomes the parent and the parent, the child. The mother participates as a player in make-believe. "Come play with me," called Sandy after dinner. Mother replied, "What do you want to play?" Sandyassuredly stated, "You're the baby and I'm the mother. It's time for you to go to bed." Mother walked to the bed and lay down on it. Sandy smiled. "Daddy and I are going to sleep right here. Now you stay in bed." Sandy picked up a teddy bear and lay on the rug. Mother: "Nah, wah, I want some water. " Sandy got up and gave mother some water, saying, "Don' t drink too much, you'll wet the bed. " The play continued for some time. Sandy learned a little about mother's feelings after goodnights had been said 3 or 4 times. 27--Parents help their children to play by providing them with enough space to play, with enough uninterrupted time to carry out the play and with suitable toys and props. Props are those materials that stimulate imaginative play. They might be ordinary discards around the home, real tools or toys. Here are a few examples. Parents can provide as much stimulation for creative dramatic play with odds and ends around the house as with expensive toys. The materials need to be gathered together, perhaps some of them stored in a box. 28--Dramatic play can begin with the parent suggesting the idea to the child, showing him the prop and encouraging him to use it in his play. At first, the parent may need to play with him for a few minutes until the child has the idea. New props can be added to the play from time to time. Children below 3 depend on the props. They seldom will elaborate their play without them. As children grow older and are more experienced players, the dependence upon props gradually decreases. Dolls, doll clothes and trucks are still used regularly by children 8 and older. 104 mgouoococo poocom nowo com muooooo cow: moowo> “cocowmwo mom: mopoc pcocomwwo moooo< mospmwcgu .xucoo mcopo ”muco>o ocouow mouoowowu=< A.ouo .czopo .coumcosv copoo 1cogo Xeocwmos_ moEooom m oco o coozpom ococoo_op on“ o_> mcowuomco> -coo xopo cw monomcm Foocom .35 3:82 5333 mom .ogoum “mm:_upom Lo meow» noopwm poocowwwo cw poocoucw mzogm ooooo oco mcozoo oco mcoumwm woo mgogooco poo .Foowoxp ogo o__;o coo acocoo mcwuoo -Loucw mmcouoocogo opowupoe onchoo .ouo .cowuopm move .cowaoum mom .Eoogoon .cocopwx com coco a:VXopo cw moopo ouncooom moxoz Am:_xgo .gomcov mcowu -oso mucomocooc "m9; Zoo. 53 238 nonzo poo muo< o oco m coozpom Hrs—um $0 mmcwuzo.» #30 muu< :33 2.20 Augmooc xcoom on was Aopwgov “cocoa "mopoc «cocoa mxopo own on xooo mono oco mommococo .mooom "mu:o>o so oocoooom o mzopo AmFFoov mo_ooo mooow oco ucocoo m? upwco "opomew; Louoo Aopo mosooom Zoo momma? Loon boom» »;3 mcwopoxo upwco Homeopoco mo mmococoZo mzosm Zoo mooo» coon x38. “ozop :o cowpoo poo xgcoo mzou moxoz :83 5.2: Zoo momma, own on Fpoo mono "mace co comooo goo mowccou m use N coozuom mmzhoz zhuz mo mz¢4< .mzo: h< mzH><4o Aommp .suwsmucouusmv >mc ”hmmzm >m Directions: Please mark (x) those statements about families and children ages 2-5 with which you agree or disagree. Agree Disagreegfi 55. One way to teach make believe is to act out playing with the doll. ' . . 56. Children cannot learn to control themselves by playing together freely in a group. 57. The number of toys available to the child does not affect his play behavior. 58. New toys should be given to the child on Christmas and birthdays rather than throughout the year. 59. Most children learn to play by watching others. 60. Parents play with their children differently at different ages. 61. The parent directs the play when playing blocks with the child. 62. Children should be allowed to make mistakes in play. 63. Children may resent continuous guidance beyond the initial steps. 64. American children are as physically fit as EurOpean children. 65. Comparing preschool children's drawings to older children's work will increase their effort. 66. Children play more creatively when their efforts are appreciated. 67. Once the child learns that he can depend on a regular playtime with a parent, he will make fewer demands for attention at other times. 68. Parents should leave the decision of what to play up to the child. 69. If parents do quiet relaxing activities, children will learn to enjoy quiet times too. 70. In.imitating his mother's work, a child feels himself included in her life. 71. If a child becomes restless, a parent should simply tell him to "go play." 72. Preschool children should be encouraged to draw pictures of 123 real things, like houses or animals. 4 124 5 Directions:' Please mark (x).those statements about families and children gges 2-5 with which you agree or disagree. Agree Disagree 73. Planning is not a part of children's play. 74. Putting some toys away for awhile and bringing them out again later only confuses the child. 75. It is easier for a child to show what he thinks through play than to explain it with words. 76. Children should play only after their chores are finished. 77. Children develop the necessary skills of using their hands for writing in kindergarten. 78. Skill in striking with a bat and throwing a ball occur at about the same time. 79. Children to whom parents read can tell stories by themselves. 80. Lotto games are inappropriate for young children. 81. Puzzles provide practice in problem solving. 82. The needs for props in dramatic play increases with the child's age. - 83. Toy chests used for storage encourage the best use of toys. 84. Preschool children are too young to use hammers, nails or saws e 125 ‘ Code: Opinion Survey on Children's Play Please give your opinion, as a parent, about each of the following statements about families with preschool children. Do this by circling the letter of the answer that comes closest to your own feeling. Please choose only the 223 opinion that best describes how you feel in each case about families with preschool children. Remember, what is wanted is your opinion about each statement. Whether or not these statements are actually true of your household is not important here. As with other information you give us, your opinions will be held in the strictest confidence and will be used only for statistical summaries about all the parents that we interview. You as an individual parent will not be identified. Therefore, we hope that you will give your opinions as honestly as you can, without worrying about whether someone would think they are good or bad. None of the possible opinions in this questionnaire are necessarily "good" or "bad” nor "right" or "wrong". It is only how you feel that is important. Thank you for your cooperation. Person answering questionnaire a. Father b. Mother 1. When should children be allowed to take their toys apart? a. Only when the toy is inexpensive b. Never c. Only when the toy is meant to be taken apart d. Whenever the child wants to 2. When should a child watch television? a. When he needs something to keep him occupied b. Whenever he wants to c. When the parent approves of the program d. Never 3. Children should obey the old rule, "to be seen and not heard." a. Never b. Always (Children should speak only when spoken to) c. Whenever what is said by the child could be embarrasing or disrespectful to the parents d. When adults are visiting together in the home and wish not to be interrupted. 4. Boys should be discouraged from playing with girls' toys and games. a. Only when the child is playing with other boys h. Only when the child seems to play with girls' toys to excess or more than he plays with boys' toys c. Always d. Never 7. 10. 11. 126 Girls should be discouraged from playing with boys' toys and games. 'Only when the child is playing with other girls Only when the child seems to play with boys' toys and games to an excess or more than she plays with girls' toys and games Never Always A child should share his or her toys with other children. a. b. c. d. When parents can supervise the sharing When the child's friends also share their toys Always, whether he wants to or not Whenever he wants to inside or outside of the home Adults should play with their children. a. b. Ce d. Whenever the parent has time to play with the child or just feels like it Except for some obvious exceptions, such as interfering with work, the parent should play whenever asked by the child Whenever the conditions of play and the time are equally convenient and agreeable to both the parent and the child Whenever the parent and child set aside a time to play when they can be assured of not being interrupted. Parents should buy their child a new toy. a. b. c. d. Whenever the child has earned a toy through good deeds or behavior Mainly on special occasions such as Christmas or birthdays Whenever the parent feels in a mood to buy one Whenever the child expresses a sincere desire for a specific toy Wrestling or "rough housing" should be done: a. b. c. d. Only outdoors Anywhere in the house or outside under parental supervision Only in designated areas in the house Whenever and wherever the child wants as long as it is done in moderation Given a situation in which a child receives a new toy which he does not know how to use but seems to gain enjoyment by using in the wrong way, how should parents react to this? Show the child the correct way to use the toy Let the child play with the new toy any way he wants as long as he is having fun Put the toy away and bring it out at another time Make the child stop playing with it Children should check with their parents before trading or giving away any of a. b. c. d. their play things. Completely agree Agree but with some exceptions or reservations Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations Completely disagree 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 127 Children should be allowed to play anywhere they want in or around the house, as long as it does not endanger their safety or health. a. Completely agree b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d. Completely disagree Parents should welcome their children's chosen friends,whoever they are, in their home. a. Completely agree b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d. Completely disagree The things that children do in their play should mainly be things that teach them useful skills a. Completely agree b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d. Completely disagree The main purpose of a child's play should be to have fun. a. Completely agree b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d. Completely disagree Boys should be discouraged from playing with dolls or other female toys. a. Completely agree b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d. Completely disagree Given a situation in which a preschool child has toys all over his or her room but does not seem interested in putting them away, how should parents react? a. Tell the child to put the toys away before he or she will be able to do , something enjoyable (example: having a snack, watching television, reading a book before bedtime, etc.) b. Parents should pick up the toys and put them away. c. Parents should begin to pick up the toys and encourage the child to join in. d. Leave the toys where they are. When should a child be allowed to play in water? a. Outside when he is dressed properly. b. Whenever he wants to. c. Only in the bathtub. d. When the child wants to, and you are able to be nearby. 19. 20. 21. 128 When should a child be allowed to play with his or her brother's or sister's toys? a. Whenever the child wants to. b. Whenever the brother or sister lets him. c. Never d. Whenever the parents say it is alright. How should parents react when they see their preschool child tearing a book? a. Spank the child b. Say nothing to the child and either repair or throw away the book c. Repair the book with the child's help and explain that books are for reading not tearing d. Scold the child and take the book away. ‘Where should children be allowed to play alone outside? a. only in the yard b. within certain areas in the neighborhood c. anyplace he wants to as long as he is home on time d. they should not play outside alone Adapted from Bishop & Chase (1971) 129 Code TOY & EQUIPMENT INVENTORY The categories below list most of the types of toys which are produced for young children. Please check the appropriate blanks for the toys which your children now have in your home. This information will help us select toys for lending which your children do not already have. . REGULARLY A FAVORITE TOYS OWNED USED TOY? Category I 1. Puzzles 2. Tinker toys 3. Blocks 4. Lego, Lincoln Logs, other construction toys 5. Beads for stringing 6. Peg board 7. Snapping, zipping, buttoning toys 8. Nesting, stacking toys 9. Pounding bench 10. Flashlight 11. Others: Category II ltiégotto 2. Number games 3. Alphabet, letter and word games 4. Other games: Category III 1. Cars, trucks 2. Stuffed animals & toys 1 i 3. Dolls 4. Pull toy 5. Music box 6. Record player 7. Toy musical instruments 8. Toy clock, watch 9. Other toys with moving parts: Category IV l.’ Telephone . Dress-up clothes, hats . Puppets 2 3 4. Doctor/nurse kit 5. Filling station, barn toys with small figures 6. Tea set -w 7. Guns or shooting toys 8. Other toys used as imaginative props: doll house, miniature people 130 REGULARLY A FAVORITE TOYS OWNED USED TOY? Category V 1. Crayons 2. Paints & brushes 3. Clay, play dough 4. Colored paper 5. Coloring books 9. Children's scissors 7. Chalk 8. Blackboard 9. Easel 10. Flannel board & felt cutouts 11. Others: Category VI 1. Pedal or push cart 2. Wagon 3. Skates 4. Bicyle 5. Balls 6. Others: Category VII Play hog§e Slide Sand box Rocking horse Child-size table Child-size chairs ~10~U1$~uanflhn 0 Swing or swing set Category VIII 1. Magnifyingflglass 2. Magnet 3. Scales or balance Books, approximate number Records, approximate number titles of a few favorites titles of a few favorites Adapted from Watts (1973) APPENDIX C SOURCES OF ITEMS FOR THE KNOWLEDGE 0F PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY 131 APPENDIX C SOURCES OF ITEMS FOR THE KNOWLEDGE 0F PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY The child begins: 1. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. Pretending to eat or sleep while playing alone (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 258) Buildigg a house with blocks (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 261 Hopping on one foot (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 259) To be able to keep play going with another child the same age (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. PP. 113-124) Including or excluding others from his play (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 260) Carrying out a whole series of pretend events such as feeding baby, bathing baby and putting baby to bed (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 260) Matchigg and sorting toys (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 260 Asking)many "why" questions (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 250 1 Catching a large ball with arms outstretched (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 261) Taking turns (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 261) Playing house or store with another child the same age (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 26l) Acting out more than one part while playing alone (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 261) Playing hide and seek (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 262) Becoming an imaginary character (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. p. 262) Skipping (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 263) 132 16. 133 Running smoothly and well (Seefeldt, note 5) Statements about families and children ages 2-5: 17. Blocks and puppets are intended for play at specific age levels (Arnold, 1968, p. 39) 18. Children often try to complete puzzles or build buildings which are too difficult for them (Implementation of the Toy Lending Library, 1972, pp. 2-9) 19. The use of the body is essential to children's learning and memory (Wolff, Leven & Longbardi, 1974, p. 221) 20. If a toy is labeled educational, children who have it will learn the educational goals that are stated on the box (Arnold, 1968, p. 34; Quilitch, 1975, p. l) 21. Playful people are more versatile and creative (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, pp. 4-6) 22. The child learns to play just as he learns to dress himself (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 6) 23. New toys should be played with by a parent to stimulate child interest (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1975. Pp. 55-57, 157) 24. Children tend to copy their parents' imaginative behavior (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, pp. 96, 112-13) 25. Babies under a year old do not need a variety of toys (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 76) 26. The child learns to give and take in playing games with his parents at about the same time give and take occurs in play with other children (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 73) 27. Repeating new skills such as jumping is fun for the child (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 54) 28. Children learn order and rules by playing games (Sutton-Smith 8 Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 126; Arnold, 1968, p. l) 29. Children usually react to danger sometime later by revising the situation and becoming the thing that frightens them (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 86) 30. Adults encourage play with toys such as stoves and trucks because the adult world is too dangerous and too complex for the child (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 97) 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 134 Children show what they think and feel about their family when they play house (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 98) Little children should throw small balls and catch big ones to develop skill (Seefeldt, note 5) Stringgng beads and reading have nothing in common (Spodeck, note 6 Many children spend most of their free time watching others (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1973, p. 113) When two or more children play together, deciding what to play and how to play takes longer than the actual play time (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 118) Boys tend to be more aggressive than girls in play (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 119) Imaginative play is a waste of time (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 78, 83) Basic ideas of measurement are developed by playing with sand and water (Anker, Foster, McLane, Sobel, & Weissbourd, 1974, p. 209 Watching television helps children develop play skills (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 140; Arnold, 1968. pp. 27-29) "I am a house cleaner" works better than "can I play?“ when a child wants to join another child playing house (Sutton-Smith 8 Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 141-42) Children learn to do things well by doing them over and over again (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 71, 157) Children try out play ideas by themselves before trying it out with other children (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 143 After the child masters a skill he combines it with other skills (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 78-80) Make-believe play does not help the child to solve ordinary family problems such as spilling food or milk at dinner (Anker, Foster, McLane, Sobel, & Weissbourd, 1974, p. 203) It's not too much to ask that children take care of their toys and play with them appropriately (Anker, Foster, McLane, Sobel, & Weissbourd, 1974, p. 206) 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 135 Busy parents cannot teach the child a large number of ideas because they have other things to do like cleaning or cooking (Arnold, 1968, pp. 6-7) Children who are truly creative will act just like other chil- dren the same age in similar situations (Sutton-Smith & Sutton- Children under five are too immature to help make cookies (Hildebrand, 1971. pp. 276-92) The parent who organizes and uses as play materials whatever is on hand is teaching his child as much as the parent who buys many toys (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 23) Teasing is the same as play (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. p. 32)’ Parents can help children overcome fears by pretending to be afraid in a safe and playful situation (Sutton-Smith & Sutton- Smith, 1974, p. 86) Parents can help their children learn how to play with others by joining in the play (Arnold, 1968, p. 19) Parents should kneel or sit at the child's level while talking and playing with the child (Arnold, 1968, p. 8) Children learn to play house or store by themselves (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, pp. 6-7) One way to teach make believe is to act out playing with the doll (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 112) ~ Children cannot learn to control themselves by playing together freely in a group (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 118) The number of toys available to the child does not affect his play behavior (Sutton—Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 124) New toys should be given to the child on Christmas and birthdays rather than throughout the year (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, Most children learn to play by watching others (Sutton-Smith 8 Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 8) Parents play with their children differently at different ages (Arnold, 1968, p. 22) The parent directs the play when playing blocks with the child (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 71) 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 136 Children should be allowed to make mistakes in play (Sutton- Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 72-74) Children may resent continuous guidance beyond the initial steps (Arnold, 1968, p. 9) American children are as physically fit as European children (Corbin, 1973, p. 79) Comparing preschool children's drawings to older children's work will increase their effort (Arnold, 1968, pp. 65-67) Children play more creatively when their efforts are appre- ciated (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, pp. 221-22) Once the child learns that he can depend on a regular playtime with a parent, he will make fewer demands for attention at other times (Arnold, 1968, p. 11) Parents should leave the decision of what to play up to the child (Arnold, 1968, p. 11) If parents do quiet relaxing activities, children will learn to enjoy quiet times too (Arnold, 1968, p. 12) In imitating his mother's work, a child feels himself included in her life (Arnold, 1968, p. 16) If a child becomes restless, a parent should simply tell him to "go play" (Arnold, 1968, p. 18) Preschool children should be encouraged to draw pictures of real things, like houses or animals (Arnold, 1968, p. 66) Planning is not a part of children's play (Sutton-Smith & Sutton- Smith, 1974, p. 141) Putting some toys away for awhile and bringing them out again later only confuses the child (Arnold, 1968, p. 39) It is easier for a child to show what he thinks through play than to explain it with words (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 131. Children should play only after their chores are finished (omitted) Children develop all the necessary skills of using their hands for writing in kindergarten 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 137 Skill in striking with a bat and throwing a ball occur at about the)same time (Sutton-Smith 8 Sutton-Smith, 1974. pp. 218—21, 259 Children to whom parents read can tell stories by themselves (Arnold, 1968, p. 88; Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 88) Lotto)games are inappropriate for young children (Arnold, 1968, p. 37 Puzzles provide practice in problem solving (Vance, 1973, pp. 136—42) The needs for props in dramatic play increase with the child's age (Sutton-Smith & Sutton-Smith, 1974, p. 111) Toy chests used for storage encourage the best use of toys (Arnold, 1968, p. 56) Preschool children are too young to use hammers, nails or saws (Arnold, 1968, p. 61) APPENDIX D SAMPLES 0F TOY DIRECTION SHEETS By Joan Hoffman Smith and Dr. Eileen M. Earhart 138 APPENDIX D SAMPLES 0F TOY DIRECTION SHEETS The toy direction sheets were available to the control group before the pretest and to the experimental group after treat- ment. The sample represents approximately 10% of the total number available. The sets of toys for the two libraries were similar. AMBULANCE 2-5 years Most children like to play with transportation toys such as cars, trucks, buses and airplanes since they see the real things so often in their everyday lives. Since most children think of speed, sirens and accidents when they see ambulances, this toy provides a chance for a lot of imaginary play. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Get on the floor with your child and push the ambulance around making a siren-type sound. Use toy cars and pretend there has been an accident. As you're driving to the accident, talk about how other drivers pull to the side of the road so the ambulance can get there quickly. Talk about the equipment there is in an ambulance to help the hurt people on the way to the hospital (oxygen, first aid, etc. . 2. Your child will probably enjoy the excitement of pretend- ing to be an ambulance driver and will be able to learn from this kind of play how important such a person is to all of us. 3. Point out the headlights, bumpers and red cross signs. Talk about what each of these is for and help your child begin to understand why each is important. 139 140 BABY SHAPES 6 months-l year These three soft toys are a perfect size for the six month old who will use them for grasping, sucking and squeezing. They are made of plastic and are completely safe and washable. The young child will be delighted by the sound each makes when squeezed. They are good crib toys also because there are no hard parts to hurt the baby if he or she rolls over on them. BALLOON GAME 3-5 years Play with the Balloon Game will help your child learn how to match colored discs to colored balloons on the game boards. As you play this game, talk about the color names. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Two, three or four players follow the directions included in the box lid. Each player takes a board. The youngest player starts the game by rolling the dice. If the dice lands green side up, the player picks up a green balloon and places it on his or her board; if it lands yellow side up, a yellow balloon is put on the board, and so on. The winner is the player to put all his balloons on the board first. 2. Play the game a different way to starting the game with the balloons on the boards and letting them "fly away" as the dice is thrown. The winner is the one whose balloons all fly away first. BLOCKS 2-5 years Blocks are favorite toys of children of all ages because there are so many things they can do with them. These blocks are small enough that they can be used on a table as well as on the floor. There are 58 pieces in 14 different shapes. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Younger children can stack a few blocks, and older chil- dren can build larger buildings of just about anything they can imagine. Besides building things, use the blocks for hauling; line them up and make a train; match them by shape. 2. Borrow the Peg Bus from the library. Build a school with the blocks and pretend to pick the children up in the bus and drive them to school. 141 BLOCKS (cont'd) 3. Build a barn for some animals. (You can borrow some farm animals from the library.) 4. Build a garage for a car, bus, truck. (You can borrow these from the library.) 5. Build a chair, a little desk, bed, table and other doll- size pieces of furniture. CAR 2-5 years (small wooden car) Most children like to play with transportation toys such as cars, trucks, buses and airplanes since they see the real things so often in their everyday lives. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Get on the floor with your child and push the car around making "brmm, brmm, beep, beep" sounds. Use your imagination-- pretend you're driving to the store, work, and post office, the bank, grandmother's. Along the way, stop at stop signs and red lights. Be careful and watch for children and animals running out into the street. 2. Talk about what you're doing and where you're pretending to go since this is how your child will learn new words and what they mean. COLOR BLOCK DESIGNS 4-5 years These color block designs are to be used with the set of 27 colored cubes. Playing with these designs will help your child learn to use his fingers more skillfully, learn to recognize dif- ferent colors and designs and match the color blocks to the card designs. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Give your child the first card and the blocks to match. Tell the child to place the matching block on top of the design. Encourage your child and only go on to the next card when he or she is ready. Later give your child a card and let him or her choose the blocks needed from the whole set of blocks rather than you picking out the blocks yourself. 142 COLOR BLOCK DESIGNS (cont'd) 2. Show your child a card and ask him or her to arrange the blocks in the same design on a desk or table instead of on top of the cards as before. 3. Have your child build designs vertically. 4. Use the stencil and draw your own designs on a blank piece of paper. DOG HAND PUPPET 3-5 years Children love to play with puppets. Playing with puppets helps children use their imaginations and encourages them to talk. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Show your child this dog puppet and let him or her examine and explore it. Say to the child, “What animal do you think this looks like?" Talk about how you can tell it's a dog--the shape of its head, the nose, the teeth. Make a barking sound and ask your child to try it with you. 2. Put the puppet on your hand and while making its mouth open and close, say to the child, "Hi! I'm a dog. What's your name? Do you live here? May I see your room?" Your child will probably want to put the dog on his or her hand so help get it on the right way. It's not easy for children to use puppets skillfully so be encouraging if it's hard to get the dog's moth open and shut. 3. Help your child put his or her ideas and feelings into words through the puppet. Show your child how to use the puppet to act out games and tell stories. Encourage your child to give the puppet a name. Once your child has learned how to make the puppet talk, he or she will spend time talking to it and playing alone with it. By playing and pretending with puppets, your child will talk and develop his or her imagination. Both of these skills are important for all children. 143 DOLL HOUSE KITCHEN 2%-5 years This doll house kitchen set. has a refrigerator, a sink and a stove. Imitating adults is an important part of every child's life, and these pieces of toy furniture help set the stage for your child to use his or her imagination. Playing with the toy furniture will give your child a chance to learn through play what mothers and fathers do as well as help him or her learn the names of things found in the house. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Make a doll house from a cardboard box, a shoebox or just put some tape on the floor to mark off the different rooms. Make people figures from pipe cleaners or popsicle sticks. 2. Ask your child where he or she would like the kitchen to be. Set up the kitchen pieces and talk to your child about each piece. Your child may want to stock the refrigerator with grapes, raisins, and so on. A thimble could be used on the stove as a pan. Use your imagination! Talk about what you're doing since this is how your child will learn new words and what they mean. Soon your child will be talking to himself, or herself, the toys or other children about what goes on in the kitchen. Encourage the child to use the names of the toys and talk about what he or she is doing. 3. Encourage play with this toy furniture for boys as well as girls, since all children need to learn what adults do. DUMP TRUCK 2-5 years The bin on this dump truck tilts back, and the tailboard Opens so that the child can empty out whatever he puts in it. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Put little blocks in the bin and carry them to the shopping center where they're building a store. 2. Put sand in it (for outside play) and pretend to lay a road with the help of the steam roller (the steam roller toy is in your library too). 3. Carry raisins in the truck and deliver them to the stores. 144 DUMP TRUCK (cont'd) 4. Put just about anything in it that you can imagine. Children love to pretend, and this can be a fun toy. Use new words and ideas to help your child learn about the world through games and play with you. FIRE ENGINE 2-5 years This fire engine has a removable trailer and two places for the ladder to fit into. Fire engines are usually fun toys for chil- dren since they think of speed and ringing bells when they see them. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Get on the floor with your child and push the fire engine around making ringing sounds. Talk about the fire alarm being sounded, and the firemen jumping on the truck and driving to the fire. Talk about how other drivers pull to the side of the road so the fire engine can get quickly to the fire. Talk about what equip- ment firemen use: hose, heavy waterproof suits, oxygen masks, ladders, and first aid kits. 2. Pretend someone phones the fire station and reports a fire. Don't forget how important it is to get the correct address! Your child will probably enjoy the excitement of pretending to be a fire- man and will be able to learn from this play how important firemen are to all of us. 3. All firestations welcome visitors to the fire house, and your child would probably be very excited to see and touch a real fire truck and talk to a real fireman! FISH PUZZLE 2k-5 years This colorful wooden puzzle has five pieces. Each piece is the same object, but the size is different so that each cutout fits into only one space on the board. When all five pieces are in their proper places, they are in descending order or from largest to smallest. Playing with these puzzle pieces will help your child develop an understanding of differences in sizes. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Show your child the puzzle and ask him or her what it is. Talk about the differences in sizes. Point out the largest and the smallest. Playing with you and this puzzle will help your child learn the meaning of words like "first," "next," "last," before," and "after." 145 FISH PUZZLE (cont'd) 2. Let your child take time with the puzzle, doing it in his or her own way. If your child has trouble with any pieces, ask questions that may help him or her do it alone. It's important to help your child when he or she needs it, but don't help so much that you rather than your child ends up putting it together. If your child tries to put a piece in the wrong place, encourage him or her to try another place rather than throwing that piece down and get- ting another one. Once the children learn how to put puzzles together, they will do them over and over again because they enjoy doing things that they can do well. FOUR-WAY BLOCKS 3—5 years The six wooden blocks can be turned and arranged to make pictures of four different wild animals. Each animal is a differ- ent color. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Show the child a block. Turn the block and point out that each side has part of a picture on it and that each side is a differ- ent color. Ask the child to turn all of the pieces to find a color such as black. When all of the black pieces are turned up, he can then arrange them so that the zebra picture is made. Pictures of the giraffe, leopard and antelope can be made in the same way. 2. The blocks can be turned to the blue side or the black side and then stacked to make the picture. The block with the feet is placed on the bottom with the colored side facing the child. The other blocks are placed on top of this bottom one to make the com- pleted picture. 3. The blocks can be placed on end and arranged in order to make the leopard (red) and the antelOpe (green). 4. After the child has formed a picture of an animal, talk about that animal. "What is different about the animal?" (horns, stripes, spots, long neck, etc.) "What is the same about all of the animals?" (four feet, tail, head, eyes, ears, etc.) 146 HELICOPTER 2-5 years Most children like to play with transportation toys such as cars, trucks, buses and airplanes, since they see the real things so often in their everyday lives. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Put the helicopter on the floor and spin the rotor. As the rotor turns, make "brmm, brmm" sounds and lift the helicopter off the floor as if it's flying. 2. Pretend you are the emergency rescue helicopter pilot who flies people to hospitals. 3. Be the helicopter pilot that reports about traffic con- ditions on the radio to people going to work. 4. Be a sight-seeing helicopter pilot who takes people on rides and points out scenery from the air. 5. Be a police helicopter and chase robbers from the air. 6. In all of these games, talk about what's going on, since this is how your child will learn new words and what they mean. Once the child sees how you can pretend with these toys, he or she will soon pick up the idea and enjoy playing and pretending his or her own way. JINGLE-RATTLE-CLUNK BLOCKS 6 months-l year Each of these three blocks is a different color and makes a different sound. The young child can easily grasp these blocks because they are made with finger holes. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Put one of the blocks on the floor where your child can see it and roll it. The bright color and the sound will get the baby's attention. Once your child starts to play with it, let him or her explore it alone for awhile-u-rolling, shaking it, or just trying to hold it and poke the holes. 2. Take one of the other blocks and roll it on the floor. Say, “Look at the block roll. I'm going to get it." Then crawl across the floor yourself toward the toy. When you get the block say, "I got it. Now I'll roll it to you." Children really enjoy it when you get on the floor and play with them. It's also easier for them to see your face this way without having to look up all the time! 147 JINGLE-RATTLE-CLUNK BLOCKS (cont'd) 3. Since each of these blocks makes a different sound you can use them to help your child learn to hear differences in sound. Shake one of them and say, "Listen to the sound it makes when I shake it." Then shake another one and say “This one makes a different sound," and so on. LEARNING TOWER 1-35 years The "Learning Tower" works in two ways: (1) the cups stack on top of each other to make a tower, and (2) the cups fit one inside the other until they are all in the largest cup. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: l. Toddlers love to stack the cups. If you begin stacking the cups, your child will try to help you. Don't be concerned if the stacks aren't straight and fall down. Your child will enjoy the falling as much as the building! 2. Turn the cups over and put the largest cup over the smallest one. Say, "Oh, where'd the little cup go? Did you see it?" Encour- age the child to find the little cup. Then say, "There it is under the big cup!" Your child will then enjoy making the little cup disappear as you just did. Children are delighted by your surprise. 3. Use the largest and smallest cups to teach your child what "large" and "small" mean. 4. Show your child the animal pictures engraved on the bottom of each cup. Talk about each animal--the sounds they make, where they're found. . 5. For the older preschool child, match the cups by color. "What color is this cup? Can you find another pink (or yellow, blue) one?" “We now have two pink cups!" 6. For the older preschool child, arrange the cups in a row from smallest to largest theachyour child how to arrange things by size. 148 MATCH-UPS: ANIMAL HOMES 3%-5 years There are 24 puzzles in this set of "Animal Homes," and each puzzle has two pieces. One half of the puzzle shows a picture of the animal, and the other half is a picture of the animal's home. Playing with these puzzles gives your child a chance to learn how different animals live and the words used for their homes. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Choose two puzzles that your child might know such as the cow and the bird. Lay the four pieces out on a table and point to the cow. Say, "What is this a picture of? Yes, a cow! Can you find the rest of the puzzle that shows where the cow lives?" When your child chooses the picture of the barn, say, "What is that? That is a barn. The cow lives in the barn. That was fun, let's do another one! Here is a bird. Where is the puzzle piece that shows where the bird lives? Yes, there's the bird's nest. Can you put it together?“ 2. Add a new puzzle as you feel your child is ready for another one. Talk about each animal and his home. Perhaps on a walk around your neighborhood or on a trip to the 200 or park, you and your child might see some of these animals in real life. Try to find their homes (for example, look for the bird's nest). 3. There will be many new words for your child to learn play- ing with these puzzles so take it slowly and always talk about each picture. It won't be long until your child will be putting them together and talking about them by himself or herself. MOON CAR 1-3 years This small moon car has two removable peg people and is perfect for toddlers who enjoy wheel toys as well as putting things into holes and taking them out again. Playing with the moon car will help your child's fingers become more skillful as he learns to put the people into the holes. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES: 1. Get on the floor with your child and push the car around making "brmm, brmm" sounds. Use your imagination-—pretend you're driving around on the moon exploring its surface. Be sure to drive slowly and be careful not to drive into any craters or holes! Talk about what you're doing and where you are so your child will learn new words and what they mean. You might use words like astronaut, outer space, moon, earth, stars. Make pretend calls back to the 149 MOON CAR (cont'd) control mission on earth to report what you see on the moon and any problems you are having. The two and three year olds will enjoy playing these imagin- ary games with you as well as by themselves, but the one year old is too small for this and will spend his or her time taking the men out, putting them back in and rolling the car. APPENDIX E CODEBOOK AND DATA FROM SUMMARY CARD #6 AND SELECTED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 150 APPENDIX E CODEBOOK AND DATA FROM SUMMARY CARD #6 33112243253411332434344233343233933413433322 4423434Q425Q3Q433453534254224323534433544542 43323454433312“43323323333333233943443334334 to“ 9536 37006307 0C2962208361ZQ3527L508148776875 22 2333 3314323 93231111333233““##2333353333Q233 4. 111101111111011 011100 0 00001000 0 1 100 15 04.50217... 5305 8L0212500000011.0200.u00.t6C.-2L. u. crib 012205123 13021C0000100000001000......1u0ru001xb000fi. 33323333233133333303323133333331333333323333 111111110111111111C1111111111111111111111111 11111111111011111101101011111110111111111111 11101111111011111101111011111110111111101111 101100010110011 0001000000000000000000000000 1100111111110G111111111011111011111111111111 10669931001157108100191710890789300289201198 11000011111100110111101011001000111100111100 9058981Q111592966761784756020110134263476103 57666677777667567647766677777777775767766776 58172701621593222990454691308427740604767818 66 657677577.667677667766667676676677677665675 20939140944212305QQ89.522179063663005135581.9791 56 “555696566565655 “5656556665556666656666555 52098898136879973682180673802797665699014079 565455556565555556556455Q5555545956655655554 6Q728127693197751075988893988630651881682266 94565565445544155495455545“55553545555546655 #4454Q544944442493454 22222121111121111111122112211111121121122121 22242221331135112212235222623142222222132253 11 1111 1111111111111.1122222222222222222222222 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 3“5789135689012“6801201345678902341567693567 000000111111222222333““444444455556666667777 151 Demographic Infonmation Blanks = no information Column Number of Number Columns 1-2 2 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 l 7 1 8 Blank 9-10 2 11-12 2 13 1 14-15 2 l6 1‘ 17 1 18 1 Range of ’Valid Codes 01-99 0-2 1-9 1-6 1-5 18-55 00-25, 1-4 01-25 1-6 Family CODEBOOK - PARENTAL ATTITUDES TOWARD PLAY Item Descriptiog I’D. respondent male female female without spouse Treatment Condition 1: 2:: Library with cards Library without cards Total number children in family Total # of preschoolers SES Value ' 1: UI-FWN Age in Scores 11-14 Scores 15-27 Scores 28-43 Scores 44-60 Scores 61-77 years Years married Education 1 2 3 4 Age of Age of Number Number 1-8 years 9-12 years 13-16 years 17-20 years oldest child youngest child of girls 5 yrs. & younger of boys 5 yrs. & younger Column Number 19' 20 21 153 Number of Range of Columns Valid Codes Item Description 1 0-7 Husband's occupation O = Unemployed l = Higher executives, major professionals 2 = Business managers, lesser professions, proprietors of medium sized businesses 3 = Administrative personnel, Asmall independent businesses, minor professions 4 = Clerical & sales workers, technicians;qowners of little businesses 5 = Skilled manual employees 6 = Machine operators & semi- skilled employees 7 = Unskilled employees 1 0-7 Wife's occupation 0 = Unemployed l = Higher executives, major ~ professionals 2 = Business managers, lesser professions, proprietors of medium sized businesses 3 = Administrative personnel, small independent businesses, minor professions . 4 = Clerical & sales workers, technicians, owners of little businesses 5 = Skilled manual emplOyees 6 = Machine operators & semi- skilled employees 7 = Unskilled employees 1 0-7 Wife's occupation before marriage 0 = Unemployed 1 = Higher executives, major professionals 2 = Business managers, lesser professions, proprietors of medium sized businesses 3 = Administrative personnel, small independent businesses, minor professions 4 = Clerical & sales workers, technicians, owners of little businesses 5 = Skilled manual employees 6 = Machine operators & semi- skilled employees 7 = Unskilled employees Column Number of 154 Range of Valid Codes Number Columns 22 1 23 l 24 1 25-27 3 28 1 29 l 30 1 31 1 32-33 2 34 l 35 1 36 Blank 37 Blank 38 Blank 0-2 1-4 0-1 01-200 0-1 0-1 0-1 00-35 0-1 Item Description Live in house or apartment? 0 = house 1 = apartment 2 = other, trailer Live on: 1 = working farm 2 = rural area, nonfarm 3 = village under 1,000 4 = town of 1000-5000 Child attend organized programs outside home? ‘ O = no 1 = yes Money spent per year on toys Time of toys purchase 0 = holidays, birthdays 1 = other Enough room for everyday activities? 0 = no 1 = yes Does child have enough room to play inside? 0 = no 1 = yes Does child have enough room to play safely outside? 0 = no 1 = yes Number times borrowed toys Play together with borrowed toys? blank = no info 0 = no 1 = yes Use direction sheets? 0 = no 1 = yes Frequency of use Column Number of Number Columns 39 l 40 l 41 1 42-43 2 44 Blank 45' 1 46 1 155 BELIEFS ABOUT CHILDHOOD & PARENTHOOD Range of Valid Codes 0-5 0-5 00-15 Item Description Characteristics of a father. If the following items are circled, give 1 point per item: 1. Seeks to understand his children. Answers his children's questions frankly. Joins his children in their play. ... Encourages his children to grow up in their own ways. Works with his family on household tasks. Characteristics of a Mother. If the following items are circled, give 1 point per item: 1. A. 5. 7. ,9. Helps her children learn how to get along with others. Stimulates her children's mental growth. Understands her children's feelings. Is affectionate toward her children. Promotes her children's emotional well-being. Characteristics of a Child. If the following items are circled, give 1 point per item: 2. 3. 5. 7. 10. Total Confides in his parents. Likes to play with other children. Is curious, eager to learn Enjoys growing up Is happy & contented Developmental Score Actual Beliefs Characteristics of a father (1) Seeks to understand his children not circled circled 0 l (2) Works hard to support his family not circled O 1 circled 156 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item Description 47 . 1 0-1 (3) Answers his children's questions frankly. 0 = not circled 1 = circled 48 1 0-1 (4) Joins his children in their play 0 = not circled l = circled 49 1 0-1 (5) Develops habits of obedience in his children 0 = not tireled 1 = circled 50 1 0-1 (6) Encourages his Children to grow up in their own ways. 0 = not circled 1 = circled 51 1 0-1 (7) Decides what is best for his 1 children 0 = not circled l = circled 52 1 0-1 (8) Disciplines his children ‘ 0 = not circled 1 = circled 53 1 0-1 (9) Works with his family on house- hold tasks 0 = not circled 1 = circled 54 1 0-1 (10) Buys nice things for his children 0 = not circled 1 = circled 55 Blank Characteristics of a.Mother 56 1 0-1 (1) Helps her children learn how to get along with others' 0 = not circled 1 = circled 57 1 0-1 (2) Has her children engage in character-building activities 0 = not circled l = circled Column Number of ' Number Columns' 58' l 59 1 60 l 61 l 62 l 63 1 64 l 65 l 66 Blank 67 l 68. 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 157 Item Description (3) Keeps her children clean & well-dressed. 0 = not circled 1 = circled (4) Stimulates her children's mental growth 0 = not circled 1 = circled (5) Understands her children's feelings. O = not circled 1 = circled (6) Makes her children mind. 0 = not circled 1 = circled (7) Is affectionate toward her children. 0 = not circled 1 = circled (8) Trains her children to regular habits. O 1 not circled circled (9) Promotes her children's emotional well-being. O = not circled l = circled (10) Is a good housekeeper. O = not circled 1 = circled Characteristics of a child. (1) Is courteous & respectful to adults. 0 = not circled 1 = circled (2) Confides in his parents. 0 not circled 1 circled Column Number of Columns Number 69’ ' 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79-80 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 0-99 01-10 153 (3) (4) (5) (5) (7) (3) (9) (10) Item Description Likes to play with other children. 0 = not circled 1 - circled Respects prOperty, takes care of his things. 0 8 not circled 1 = circled Is curious, eager to learn. 0 = not circled 1 = circled-4 Keeps clean & neat O = not circled l = circled Enjoys growing UP 0 = not circled l = circled Does his chores & assignments thoroughly. 0 = not circled l = circled Is honest & truthful. 0 = not circled 1 = circled Is happy & contented O = not circled 1 = circled SES Value Card number 01 = demographic data, columns 1 - 35 Conceptions of Parenthood, columns 39 - 76 Column. Number of Number Columns 1-8 9 10 11 '12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19- 20' Blank 159 TOY & EQUIPMENT INVENTORY Range of Valid Codes (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (3) (9) (10) (11) Item Description ”Family Data Puzzles O = not owned 1 9 owned Tinker toys 0 = not owned 1 = owned Blocks 0 = not owned 1 a owned Lego, construction toys, Lincoln Logs 0 not owned' 1 owned Beads for stringing O = not owned 1 = owned Peg board 0 = not owned 1 = owned - Snapping, zipping, buttoning toys 0 = not owned 1 = owned Nesting, stacking toys 0 = not owned 1 = owned Pounding bench 0 = not owned 1 = owned Flashlight O = not owned 1 = owned Lotto O = not owned 1 = owned Column Number of Number Columns 21' l 22 1 23 Blank 24 1 25 l 26 l 27 1 28 l 29 l i 30 1 31 l 32 Blank 33 ,1 34' 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 0-3 0-3 0-3 160 (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (13) <19). (20) (21) (22) (23) Item.Description Number games 0 = not owned 1 = owned Alphabet, letter, word games 0 = not owned 1 = owned Cars,'trucks O = not owned. 1 = owned ' Stuffed animals & toys 0 = not owned 1 B owned Dolls 0 = not owned 1 = owned Pull toy 0 = not owned 1 = owned Music Box 0 = not Owned 1 = owned Record Player 0 = not owned 1 = owned Toy musical instruments 0 = not owned 1 = owned Toy clock, watch 0 a not owned 1 B owned Telephone 0 = not owned 1 = owned Dress-up clothes, hats 0 = not owned 1 = owned Column Number of Number Columns 35 l 36 l 37 1 38 l 39 1 40 1 41 Blank 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 l 46 l 47. 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-3 161 (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) Item Description Puppets 0 = not owned 1 = owned DoCtor/nurse kit 0 = not owned 1 = owned Filling station, barn; toys with small figures 0 = not owned 1 = owned Tea set 0 = not owned 1 = owned Guns or shooting toys 0 = not owned 1 = owned Doll house, miniature people 0 a not owned 1 = owned Crayons 0 = not owned 1 a owned Paints & brushes 0 = not owned 1 = owned Clay, play dough O = not owned 1 = owned Colored paper 0 = not owned 1 = owned Coloring books 0 = not owned 1 = owned Children's scissors 0 = not owned 1 = owned Column Number of Number Columns 48‘ l 49 l 50 l 51 I 1 52 Blank 53 l 54 1 55 l 56 l 57 l 58 Blank 59 l 60 l 61. 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 162' (36) (37) (33) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) Item Description Chalk O = not owned 1 = owned Blackboard 0 = not owned 1 = owned Easel O = not owned 1 = owned Flannel board & felt cutouts 0 = not owned 1 = owned Pedal or push cart 0 = not owned 1 = owned Wagon 0 = not owned 1 = owned Skates _ O = not owned - 1 = owned Bicycle 0 = not owned 1 = owned Balls 0 = not owned 1 = owned Play houSe 0 = not owned 1 = owned Slide 0 = not owned 1 = owned Sand Box 0 not owned I owned 163 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item.Description 62' 1 o-1 ‘ (4s) Rocking horse 0 = not owned 1 = owned -63 1 0-1 (49) Child-size table 0 = not owned 1 = owned 64 1 0-1 (50) Child-size chairs 0 = not owned 1 = owned ‘ -1 65 1 0-1 (51) Swing or swing set 0 = not owned 1 = owned 66 Blank 67 1 0-1 (52) Magnifying glass 0 = not owned 1 = owned 68 1 0-1 (53) Magnet , O = not owned 1 = owned 69 1 0-1 (54) Scales or balance 0 = not owned 1 = owned 70 Blank ' 71 1 0-1 (55) Books 0 = not owned 1 = owned 72, Blank 73 1 0-1 (56) Records 0 = not owned 1 = owned 74-75 2 00-56 Total number of toys owned . (total # 1'3) 76 Blank 77. Blank 78 Blank 79-80 2 01-10 Card Number 01 = demographic data, conceptions of parenthood 02 = toy & equipment inventory 164 TOY & EQUIPMENT CATEGORIES Column Number of Range of INggbgg Columns Valid Codes Item.Description 1-8 Family Data Category 1: Fine Motor 9-10 2 00-10 Total number owned 11-12 2 00-10 Total number used regularly 13-14 2 00-10 Total number of favorite toys . 15 Blank Category 2: preacademic games 16 1 0-3 Total number owned 17 1 0-3 Total number hsed regularly 18 1 0-3 Total number of favorite toys 19 Blank Category 3: Early dramatic play 20 1 0-8 Total number owned 21 1 0-8 Total number used regularly 22 1 0-8 Total number of favorite toys 23 Blank Category 4: Later dramatic play 24 1 0-8 Total number owned 25 1 0-8 Total number used regularly 26 1 0-8 Total number of favorite toys 27 Blank Category 5: Art 28-29 2 0-10 Total number owned 30-31 2 0-10 Total number used regularly 32-33 2 0-10 Total number of favorite toys 34 Blank 165 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item.Description Category 6: GrOSS‘mOtOt 35 1 0-5 Total number owned 36 1 0-5 Total number used regularly 37 1 0-5 Total number of favorite toys 38 Blank Category 7: Equipment 39 1 0-5 Total number owned 40 1 0-5 Total number used regularly 41 1 0-5 Total number of favorite toys 42 Blank Category 8: Scientific 43 1 0-3 Total number owned 44 1 0-3 Total number used regularly 45 1 0-3 Total number of favorite toys 46 Blank Category 9: Books 47-48 2 00-99 Total number owned 49 Blank Category 10: Records 50-51 2 oo-99 Total number owned 52 Blank 53-54 2 00-56 Total number owned in Categories l-8 55-56 2 00-56 Total number used in Categories 1-8 57-58 2 00-56 Total number of favorite toys in Categories 1-8 59-78 Blank 79-80 01-10 Card number 01 = demographic data, conceptions of parenthood 07 = fnv 8. pnninmpnr invpnrnrv 166 PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY-KNOWLEDGE Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item.Description 1-8 Family Data 9 1 o-1 o . Pretest l - Postest Mark.the age at which children begin to: 10 1 p 1-5 (1) Pretend to eat‘or sleep while playing alone. ' *1 = 1-2 years = 2-3 years = 3-4 years a 4-5 years 3 5-7 years U-FWN 11 1 1-5 (2) Building a house with blocks 1 B 1-2 years *2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 12 1 1-5 (3) Hopping on one foot 1 = 1-2_years *2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 13 1 1-5 (4) To be able to keep play going with another child the same age 1 = 1-2 years *2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 14 1 1-5 (5) Including or excluding others from his play 1 = 1-2 years ‘ 2 = 2-3 years *3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 167 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item.Description 15 , 1 1-5 _ (6) Carrying out a series of pretend events (feeding, bathing, putting baby to bed) 1 = 1-2 years .*2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 16 l - 1-5 (7) Matching and sorting toys 1 = 1-2 years *2 B 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years) 4 B 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 17 1 1-5 (8) Asking many "why" questions 1 3.1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years *3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years .18 1 1-5 , (9) Catching a large ball with arms outstretched 1 = 1-2 years 2 - 2-3 years *3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 B 5-7 years 19 1 1-5 (10) Taking turns 1 = 1-2 years 2 - 2-3 years *3 B 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 20 1 1-5 (11) Playing house or store with another child the same age 1 = 1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years *3 = 3-4 years 4 - 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years 21 1 1-5 (12) Acting out more than one part while playing alone 1 = 1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years *4 = 4-5 years 5. = 5-7 years 168 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes 22 1 1-5 23 1 1-5 24 1 1-5 25 1 1-5 26 Blank 27 Blank 28 1 0-1 29 1 0-1 30 1 0-1 31 1 0-1 Item.Description (13) Playing hide & seek 1 = 1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years >*4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years (14) Becoming an imaginary character 1 = 1-2 years 2 B 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years *4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years (15) Skipping 1 = 1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years 4 = 4-5 years *5 = 5-7 years (16) Running smoothly & well 1 " 1-2 years 2 = 2-3 years 3 = 3-4 years *4 = 4-5 years 5 = 5-7 years Mark age at which children begin to: (1) Pretending to eat or sleep while playing alone 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (1-2) (2) Building a house with blocks 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (2-3) (3) Hopping on one foot - 0 = incorrect l = correct (2-3) (4) Keep play going with another child the same age 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (2-3) Column Number of Number Columns 32' 1 33 l 1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 l 38 l 39 l 40 l 41 l 42 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 .0-1 169 (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) Item.Description Including or excluding others from his play 0 = incorrect l = correct (3-4) Carrying out whole series of pretend events (feeding, bathing, putting baby to bed) 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (2-3) Matching & sorting toys 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (2-3) Asking many "why" questions 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (3-4) Catching a large ball with arms outstretched - 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (3-4) Taking turns 0 = incorrect l = correct (3-4) Playing house or store with another child.the same age 0 = incorrect l = correct (3-4) Acting out more than one part while playing alone 0 = incorrect l = correct (4-5) Playing hide & seek 0 incorrect 1 correct (4-5) Becoming an imaginary character 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (4-5) Skipping 0 = incorrect l = correct (5-7) Column Number of Columns Number 43- 44 45 46 47 49 50 ' 51 52 1 Blank Range of Valid Codes 0-1 176 (16) Item Description Running smoothly & well 0 = incorrect l = correct (4-5) (17) Blocks & puppets are intended (13) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) for play at specific age levels 0 = incorrect l = correct D Children often.try to complete puzzles or build buildings which are too difficult for them 0 = incorrect l = correct D The use of the body is essential to children's learning & memory 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A If a toy is labeled educational, children who have it will learn the educational goals that are stated on the box 0 = incorrect 1 = correct D Playful people are more versatile & creative 0 = incorrect l I correct A The child learns to play just as he learns to dress himself 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A New toys should be played with by a parent to stimulate child interest 0 = incorrect l = correct A Children tend to copy their parents' imaginative behavior 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Column. Number of Number Columns 53- 1 54 1 55 l 56 l 57 1 58‘ 1 59 1 60 1 61 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 171 (25) (25) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) Item.Description Babies under a year old do not need a variety of toys 0 = incorrect 1 = correct D The child learns to give & take in playing games with his parents at about the same thme give & take occurs in play with other children 0 = incorrect l = correct-,D Repeating new skills is fun for the child 0 = incorrect l = correct A Children learn order & rules by playing games 0 = incorrect l = correct A Children usually react to danger sometime later by revising the situation & becoming the thing that frightens them 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Adults encourage play with toys such as stoves & trucks because the adult.world is too dangerous & complex for the child 0 = incorrect ' l = correct A Children show what they think & feel about their family when they play house 0 = incorrect l = correct A Little children should throw small balls & catch big ones to develop skill 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Stringing beads & reading have nothing in common 0 = incorrect l = correct D Comm Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codgg 62' 1 0-1 63 1 0-1 64' 1 0-1' 65 Blank 66 1 0-1 67 1 0-1 68‘ 1 0-1 69 1 0-1 70 1 0-1 71 1 0-1 172 Item Description (34) Many children spend most of (35) (36) (37) (33) their free time watching others 0 = incorrect 1 8 correct A When 2 or more children play together, deciding what to play & how to play takes longer than actual play time. 0 = incorrect l = correct D 4 Boys tend to be more aggressive than girls in play 0 = incorrect 1 I correct A Imaginative play is a waste Of time 0 = incorrect l = correct D Basic ideas of measurement are developed by playing with sand & water 0 = incorrect l = correct A (39) Watching television helps (40) (41) (42) children develop play skills 0 = incorrect l B correct D "I am a house cleaner" works better than "can I play?" when a child wants to join another child playing house 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Children learn to do things well by doing them.over & over again. 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Children try out play ideas by themselves before trying it out ‘with other children 0 = incorrect l = correct A 173 Column. Number of Range of Number~ Columns Valid Codes 72 1 0-1 73 ' 1 0-1 74 1 0-1 75 . 1 0-1 76 Blank 77 Blank .78 Blank 79-80 2 01-10 Item.DeScription (43) After the child masters a skill (44) (45) (46) he combines it with other skills 0 = incorrect l B correct A Make-believe play does not help the child to solve ordinary family problems Such as spilling food or milk at dinner 0 = incorrect l = correct D '1 It's not tOO‘mUCh to ask that children take care of their toys & play with them appropriately O = incorrect l = correct A Busy parents cannot teach the child a large number of ideas because they have other things to do like cleaning or cooking 0 = incorrect 1 = correct D Card number 02 03 04 01 = demographic data, conceptions of parenthood toy & equipment inventory toy & equipment categories knowledge of children's play (items 1-46 of scale) Column Number of Number 1-8 9 1o 11- 12 l3 14 15 16 if 174 PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY-KNOWLEDGE (continued) 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 1 0-1 Range of Columns ' Valid Codes Item.Descrippion Family Data (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) Children who are truly creative will act just like other children the same age in similar situations 0 = incorrect l = correct D Children under-5 are too immature to help make cookies 0 - incorrect l = correct D The parent who organizes & uses as play materials whatever is on hand is teaching his child as much as the parent who buys many toys 0 B incorrect l = correct A Teasing is the same as play 0 = incorrect 1 = correct D Parents can help children over- come fears by pretending to be afraid in a safe & playful situation 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Parents can help their children learn how to play with others by joining in the play 0 = incorrect 1 = correct A Parents should kneel or sit at the child's level while talking & playing with the child 0 = incorrect l = correct A Children learn to play house or store by themselves 0 = incorrect 1 = correct D Column Number of Number Columns 17‘ 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Blank 1 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 0-1 176 (55) (55) (57) (58) Item Description One way to teach make-believe is to act out playing with a doll O = incorrect 1 = correct A Children cannot learn to control themselves by playing together freely in a group 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) The number of toys available to the child does not affect his play behavior 0 = incorrect ‘ 1 = correct (D) New toys should be given to the child on Christmas & birthdays rather than throughout the year 0 = incorrect l = correct (D) (59) Most children learn to play by (50) (61) (62) (63) watching others 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) Parents play with their children differently at different ages 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) The parent directs the play when playing blocks with the child 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) Children should be allowed to make mdstakes in play 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) Children may resent continuous guidance beyond the initial steps 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) Column. Number of Number Columns 27‘ 1 28 l 29 l 30 1 31 l 32 1 33 1 34 1 ‘35 1 Range of Valid Codes o-1 176 Item.Description (64) American children are as physically fit as European children 0 = incorrect l = correct (D) (65) Comparing preschool children's drawings to older children's work will increase their effort 0 = incorrect l = correct (D) (66) Children play more creatively when their efforts are appreciated 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) (67) Once the child learns that he can depend on a regular playtime with a parent, he will make fewer demands for attention at other times 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) (68) Parents should leave the decision of what to play up to the child 0 = incorrect l = correct (A) (69) If parents do quiet, relaxing activities, children will learn to enjoy quiet times too O = incorrect l = correct (A) (70) In imitating his mother's work, a child feels himself included in her life 0 = incorrect l = correct (A) (71) If a child becomes restless, a parent should simply tell him to "go play" 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) (72) Preschool children should be encouraged to draw pictures of real things, like houses or animals 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 1'1) Column. Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes Item Description 36' Blank 37 1 0-1 (73) Planning is not a part of children's p1 ay . 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 38 1 0-1 (74) Putting some toys away for awhile & bringing them out again later only confuses the child 0 = incorrect 1 = correct .((D) 39 1 0-1 (75) It is easier for a child to show what he thinks through play than to explain it with words 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (A) 40 Blank Item 76 not cOunted 41 1 0-1 (77) Children develop the necessary skills of using their hands for writing in kindergarten O = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 42 1 . 0-1 (78) Skill in striking with a bat & throwing a ball occurs at about the same time 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 43 1 0-1 (79) Children to whom parents read can tell stories by themselves 0 incorrect 1 correct (A) 44 1 0-1 (80) Lotto games are inappropriate for young children 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 45 1 0-1 (81) Puzzles provide practice in problem solving 0 incorrect 1 correct (A) 46 1 0-1 (82) The needs for prOps in dramatic' play increase with the child's age 0 = incorrect 1 = correct (D) 118 Column Number of Range of Number Columns Valid Codes 47' ' 1 0-1 48 1 0-1 49-50 2 00-83 51-53 Blank Item Description (83) Toy chests used for storage encourage the best use of toys 0 a incorrect l = correct (D) (84) Preschool children are too young to use hammers, nails, or saws O = incorrect 1 = correct (D) Total correct responses ATTITUDES TOWARD PLAY (score is recorded) 54 - 1 o-1 55 1 1-4 56 1 ' 1-4 57 1 1-4 0 = Pretest 1 = Postest (1) When Should children be allowed to take their toys apart? a = 3 only when toy is inexpensive b = 1 never c = 4 only when toy is meant to be d = 2 whenever child wants to ,(2) When should a child watch TV? a = 3 when he needs something to keep him occupied 2 whenever he wants to 4 when the parent approves of the program d = 1 never b c (3) Children should obey the old rule, "to be seen & not heard." a = 1 never b = 2 always (children should speak only when spoken to) 3 whenever what is said by the child could be embar- rasing or disrespectful to the parents d = 4 when adults are visiting together in the home and wish not to be interrupted 11 C Column Number 58. 59 60 61 Number of Columns 1 ‘ 179 Range of ‘ Valid Codes 1-4 1-4 Item Description (4) Boys should be discouraged from playing with girls' toys & games. a = 2 only when the child is playing with other boys b = 3 only when the child seems to play with girls' toys to excess or more than he plays with boys' toys 1 always 4 never c d (5) Girls should beidiscouraged from playing with boys' toys & games. a = 2 only when the child is playing with other girls 3 only when the child seems to play with boys' toys and games to an excess or more than she plays with girls' toys and games c = 4 never d = 1 always b (6) A child should share his or her toys with other children. a = 4 when parents can super- vise the sharing b = 2 when the child's friends also share their toys c = 1 always, whether he wants to or not _ d = 3 whenever he wants to Rinside or Outside of the home (7) Adults should play with their children. a = 1 whenever the parent has time to play with the child or just feels like it b = 2 except for some obvious exceptions, such as inter- fering with work, the parent should play when- ever asked by the child c = 3 whenever the conditions of play and the time are equally convenient and agreeable to both the parent and the child 4 whenever the parent and child set aside a time to play when they can be assured of not being inter- O- 11 Column Number of Number Columns 62. 1 63 1 64 .1 65 1 180 Range of ‘ Valid Codes 1-4 Item.Description (8) Parents should buy their child a new toy. a = 2 whenever the child has 3 1 4 earned a toy through good deeds or behavior mainly on special occasions such as ,ChrisUmas or birthdays whenever the parent feels in a mood to buy one whenever the child expresses a sincere desire‘for a specific toy (9) Wrestling or"rough housing" should be done: a = 1 only outdoors' b: 4 2 3 anywhere in the house or outside under parental supervision only in designated areas in the house whenever and wherever the child wants as long as it is done in modera- tion (10) When child receives new toy which he doesn't know how to use but gains enjoyment by using it in the wrong way, a parent should: a = 4 show the child the b: c: d: 3 2 1 correct way to use the toy let the child play with the new toy any way he wants as long as he is having fun put the toy away and bring it out at another time make the child stop playing with it (11) Children should check with their parents before giving away their play things. as: b: C 3 z, 2 1 completely agree agree but with some exceptions or reservations disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations completely disagree Column Number 66' 67 68 69 70 Number of Columns 1 181 Range of Valid Codes 1-4 1-4 (12) (13) (14) (15) (15) Item.Description Children should play anywhere they want in or around the house as long as it doesn't endanger their safety or health. a = 3 completely agree b = 4 agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c = 2 disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d = 1 completely disagree Parents should welcome their child- ren's chosen friends whoever they are in their home. a = 3 completely agree b = 4 agree, but with some' exceptions or reservations c = 2 disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d = 1 completely disagree The things that children do in their play should mainly be things that teach them useful skills. a = 2 completely agree b = 3 agree, but with some ' exceptions or reservations c = 4 disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d = 1 completely disagree The main purpose of a child's play Should be to have fun. a B 4 completely agree b = 3 agree, but with some exceptions or reservations c = 2 disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations d = 1 completely disagree ' Boys should be discouraged from playing with dolls or other female toys. 3 = 1 completely agree b = 2 agree, but with some exceptions or reservations disagree, but with some- exceptions or reservations c = 3 d = 4 completely disagree Column Number 71 72 73 _Number of Columns 1 1212 Range of Valid Codes 1-4 Item.Description (17) When a preschool child does not put his toys away, how should a parent react? a B 3 -(example: tell the child to put the toys away before he or she will be able to do something enjoyable having a snack, watching television, reading a book before bedtime, etc.) parents should pick up the toys and put them away parents should begin to pick up the toys and encourage the child to 'join in‘ d =~1 leave the toys where they are (18) When should a child be allowed to play in.water? a = 3 b c d 2 outside when he is dressed properly 1 whenever he wants to only in the bathtub 4 when the child wants to, and you are able to be nearby (19) When should child be allowed to play with brother's/sister's toys? a = 1 whenever the child wants to b = 4 whenever the brother or sister lets him c = 2 never d = 3 whenever the parents say it is alright 183 Column Number of Range of Number Columns 1 Valid Codes 74' 1 1-4 75 1 1-4 76-77 2 00-84 78 Blank 79-80 2 Ol-lO Item Description (20) How should parents react when they see their preschool child tearing a book? a = l spank the child b = 2 say nothing to the child and either repair or throw away the book c = 4 repair the book with the child's help and explain that books are for reading d = 3 scold the child and take the bdok away (21) Where should children be allowed to play alone outside? a = 3 only in the yard b = 4 within certain areas in the neighborhood c = 2 anyplace he wants to as long as he is home on time d = 1 they should not play outside alone Total Score Card number 01 = demographic data conceptions of parenthood 02 = toy & equipment inventory 03 = toy & equipment categories 04 = knowledge of children's play (items 1-46 of scale) 05 = knowledge of children's play cont. (items 47-84 of scale) and attitudes toward play (col. 54-77) 184 Codebook - Summary Sheet Column Number of - Range of Item Number Columns Valid Codes Description 1-2 2 01-99 Family ID 3 1 0-2 ‘ Sex of Respondent ' 0 = male ' -l = female , 2 = female without spouse 4 1 1-2 Treatment Condition 1 = Library with cards 2 = Library without cards 5 1 1-9 Total number children in family 6 '1 4 1-6 , Total # of preschoolers 17 1 1-5 SES Value 1 = Scores 11-14 2 = Scores 15-27 3 = Scores 28-43 4 = Scores 44-60 . 5 = Scores 61-77 8-9 " 2 11-77 SES Value 10 Blank 11-12 ‘ 2 0-83 Total knowledge score-pretest 13-14 2 0-83 Total knowledge ' . score-post test 1.5-16 - 2 0-84 Total Attitude score-pretest 17-18 2 0-84 Total Attitude score-post test 19-20 2 0-15 Developmental score 21. l 7 0-1 Deve10pmental category ' 0 = Traditional 0 - 7% 1 = Developmental 7% - 15 22 1 0-1 Use of toy sheets 0 = no 1 = yes 23 1 0-1 . Enough room for every day activities? 0 = no 1 = yes Column Number 24 25 26 27-28 29 30-31 32 33 34 79-80 Number of Columns 1 185 Range of Valid Codes 0-1 00-50 0-56 1-5 I Father role 1-5 Mother role 1-5 Child role 01-10 Item Description Does child have enough room to play inside? 0 8 no 1 = yes Does child have enough room to play outside? Adequacy of play space 0 = Score = O 1 = Score = l 2 = Score = 2 3 = Score = 3 Score is sum of columns 23,24,25 Number of times borrowed toys Play together with borrowed toys blank = no info. 0 = no 1 = yes Total number of toys owned Card number 01 = demographic data conceptions of parenthood 02 = toy & equipment inventory 03 = toy & equipment categories 04 = knowledge of childrens play (1-46 of scale) 05 = knowledge of childrens play (47-84 of scale) & attitudes toward play 06 summary card 186 SELECTED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Table E-l. Mean Number of Children and Mean Number of Preschoolers by Treatment 7 All Children Range X Preschool Children Range Experimental 2.957 l-6 1.391 1-2 Control 2.095 l-5 1.333 1-2 Table E—2. Mean and Range of SES Values by Treatment X SES Value Range Possible Range Experimental 53.870 30-62 11-77 Control 49.810 l7-62 Table E-3. Mean Pre- and Posttest Knowledge Scores by Treatment (Possible Score 83) X'Knowledge Posttest X'Knowledge Pretest 7 Range Range Experimental 54.30 46-66 59.65 51-66 Control 57.57 48-64 56.19 49-64 187 Mean Pre- and Posttest Attitude Scores by Treatment Table E-4. (Possible Score 84) Y Attitude Y Attitude Pretest Range Posttest Range Experimental 67.91 58-74 69.74 63-76 Control 67.86 61-74 g 68.81 46-74 Mean Scores of Conception of the Family by Treatment Table E-5. (Total Possible Score 0-15) X Devel. m X' m 'X' m Y' m Score g» Father 31 Mother 31 Child g» 3; 0-5 g 0-5 g 0-5 g 3.17 2-4 3.482 2-5 3.0 1-4 1-5 3.670 2-5 2.71 1-5 Experimental 9.652 7-13 Control 9.524 6-13 3.143 Table E-6. Mean Toys Owned by Treatment X Total of Toys Owned Range Possible Range Experimental 36.18 25-47 0-56 Control 31.19 19-42 REFERENCES AND NOTES 188 REFERENCES Arnold, A. Your child'§_play. New York: Essanders Special Editions, 1968. Ashby, W. R. Design for a brain: The origjn of adaptive behavior (2nd edf). New York: John Wiley 8 Sons, 1960. Auerbach, A. Parents learn through discussion: Principles and practices ofgparent grogp_education. New York: John Wiley 8 Sons, 1968. Berlyne, D. E. Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1960. Bing, E. Effect of child-rearing practices on development of differ- ential cognitive abilities. In G. Medinnus (ED.), Readings in the psychology of parent-child relations. New York: John Wiley 8 Sons, 1967. 205-222. 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Child-rearing practices of young mothers, what we know, how it matters, why it's so little. American Journal of Orthopsyghiatry, l974, 44(l), 70-75. Notes l. Boger, R., Kuipers, J., 8 Berry, M. Parents as primary agents in an experimental Head Start program of language intervention. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Family and Child Study, Michigan State University, l969. 2. Brown, J. Personal communication. October 2l, l975. 3. Hollingshead, A. Two-factor index of social position. Unpub- lished manuscript, l957. 4. Schmidt, W. H., 8 Scheifley, V. Jeremy D. Finn's multivariate and univariate analysis of variance, covariance and regression: Adaptation to the Michigan State University CDC 6500 computer. Unpublished paper, Michigan State University, 1972. 5. Seefeldt, V. Lecture notes. Summer l975. 6. Spodeck, B. Lecture on toys and materials. University of Illinois. Spring 1969. RRIES 11 "1111111111111