ABSTRACT

FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE MIGRATION DECISIONS OF
IRISH RURAL YOUTH

by Damian F. Hannah

This study is concerned with two research questionso
(1) What are the minimum number of variables that best predict
and explain the migration plans of rural adolescents who have
not yet selected a permanent occupation? (2) Do migration
plans and the factors affecting migration plans vary system~
atically with the position of the adolescent in the social
structure of the home community.

Examination of previous research indicated five vari-
ables to be strongly related to migration plans: Inability to
fulfill occupational and income aspirations in the home commune
ity (occupational and income frustration); evaluations of the
satisfactoriness of the present community“s relationships
(community satisfaction); family obligations which necessitate
remaining in the home community; and attitudes toward the
community's social provisions (community evaluation)o

It was expected that: (1) Occupational and income
frustration would be more highly correlated with migration plans,
than would any of the other independent variables" (2) Low
levels of community satisfaction would lead to plans to

migrate irreSpective of occupational and income frustration

Damian F0 Hannah
levelso (3 ) High levels of family obligation would lead to
plans to remain in the home community irrespeCtive of occupation-
al and income frustration levelso

With regard to structural factors, it was expected
that: (l) The level of occupational and income aSpiration and
educational level achieved would be highly related to migra-
tion plans, and to the factors affecting migration plansa
(2) Occupational status factors would predominate in the
migration decisions of those respondents with high levels of
occupational aSpiration or high levels of educational achieve-
ment: and that purely economic factors would predominate in
the migration decisions of those reSpondents with lowlevels
of occupational aSpiration, or low levels of educational
achievement. (3) Sex differences in migration plans, and in
the factors affecting migration plans would hold only for
primary and vocationally educated farm reSpondentso (4) Res»
pondents from the more remote areas of the community would be
more frustrated in their occupational and income aSpirations,
and be much more likely to plan to migrate than would respond~
ents from or near the centre,

The study was carried out in a highly migration prone
rural Irish communityo All 450 adolescents from this community
who were then involved in occupational and migration decision
making, were interviewed in the Spring of 19650

Results indicated that although the first hypothesis
was strongly supported, low levels of community satisfaction

and high levels of family obligations did not counteract the

'1

Damian r0 Hannah
effects of occupational and income frustration on migration
plans. Occupational and income frustration levels did increase
with level of occupational aspiration as hypOthesized, but
migration plans were not related to level of occupational
aSpiration. However, those presently employed on farms are
not included in the above relationship, because of the diffir
culty of assigning them to a relative status levelo When
these reSpondents are included, and education is used as the
control variable, occupational and income fruStration, and
migration plans are highly correlated with level of education
achievedo

Contrary to expectations, occupational frustration is
most highly correlated with migration plans at lower levels
of occupational aspiration or educational achievement, while
income frustration is most highly correlated with migration
plans at high levelso The joint effects of both variables on
migration plans is greatest at high levels of occupational
aSpiration, or educational achievement, However, when respond~
ents who were planning to migrate were asked whether they
would remain in the home community if their occupational and
income aspirations could be satisfied there, almost 90% of
the primary educated, (and low aSpirers), said that they would
remain in the home community under these circumstances, whereas
only 60 %.of the secondary educated, (and high aspirers), said
that they would remain,

The hypotheses on sex selectivity were generally

strongly supported.

Damian F0 Hannan

Contrary to eXpectations, however, reSpondents from the
more remote areas of the community had lower levels of
occupational and income frustration and showed lower tendencies
to migrate than did reSpondents from the center, This unw
eXpected result was accounted for by the lower levels of
occupational and income aspiration of the more remote reSpond~
ents, and their relatively greater chances to be ascribed

occupational roles on the home farmo

FACTORS INVOLVED IF THE MIGRATION DECISIONS

OF IRISH RURAL YOUTH

(v
,-

[L
q u
Damian bl nannan

..1i,
Ifiicnigan Strfime Universizyr
in partial fulfi' went cf the resurrements

.Q

\0
UN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have played a major role in the develop
ment and completion of this thesis” To all Of them I am
deeply gratefulo I am particularly indebted to Professtr
Jo Allan Beegle, my adVisor and chairman of my guidanbe
committee, who has always given freely of his time tc my
interests since I entered graduate school“ He was always
patient, counselled wisely, and his adVice and guidance have
been invaluable to me, Any value that the present wurk has
owes much to his stimulationo I would also like to thank the
other members of my guidance committee: Professors CAPU Loomis,
J.Wo Artis, Ho Choldin, and Go Troutn

The research on which this thesis 18 based could not
have been carried out without the aid of a grant given to me
for that purpose by the Central Statistics Office, Dublin”
Dro M.Do McCarthy, then DireCtor of the Central SYatistics OfflCE,

acted as chairman of the Irish committee which SapeEVised 1he

w

utilization of the research grant” His advice and help w s inr
valuable in deSigning the study, particularly in the TOflStruCtlQfl
of the questionnaires and interview schedule“ The he;p, advice,

and criticism of the other members of the superv;sary committee

6
of. n

m

is also gratefully acknowledged, Mr; Mac Gearalt, A
Secretary of the Department of Education was particilarly help~
ful in making available information on the primary school system
in Co. Cavan, Mro Pn Lynch of the Economics Department, and

11

Dr. Conor Ward of the Sociology Department, University College,
Dublin, were also very helpful throughout all the phases of
the research.

I am particularly grateful to the administrators and
teachers in the primary, vocational and secondary schools in
Co. Cavan, who c00perated actively with the research. Special
thanks are due to the respondents who without advantage to
themselves, took considerable pains to answer all the
researcher's questionso

I greatly appreciated the help and critiCism of other
graduate students in the sociology department, particularly
that of Allan Steeves, and Bill Rushbyo The latter has been
eSpecially helpful in his editorial suggestionso

Finally, I owe a Special debt of gratitude to my wife,
who Spent many long hours typing the several drafts of the
manuscript. Her patient understanding and encouragement
during the lengthy period required to complete the thesis was

greatly appreciatedo

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter
I STIEEMENT OF THE PROBLEM o o o o o o o o o o 0
Introduction 0 a o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Toward Hypotheses and their Rationale 0 o

The Structural Bases of the Independent
variables 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Definition of Terms Used and Resume of
the Major Hypotheses o o o o a o o o o
I I “mommy O O O O O O O O O O O O o O O 0 0
Introduction: TheeOverall Design 0 o o 0
Description of the County Population 0 o 0

Description of the POpulation Selected
for Study a o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

Data Gathering: Procedures and Problems 0
Operationelization of the Major Variables

III THE EDUCATIONAL MOBILITY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL
LEAVE R8 0 O O O O O O o O O O o O O O o o 0

Sex, Social Status, and Educational
MObility O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Post-primary Education and Ecological
Factors 0 a o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Post-primary education, Birth Order and
Family Size 0 o . a o a o o o o o o o 0

iv

Page

24

41

48
48

53

58

65

76

97

97

107

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS Continuedoooo

Chapter
IV

V

”BOLTS O O O O O O 0 O O O 0

Introduction 0 o o o o o

Tests of the Operational Hypotheses o o

The.Major Independent Variables o o o 0

Structural Factors and Migration

Occupational and Income ASpiration o
Levelso and Educational Level

Sex” Educationo and Occupational

Background 0 o o o o 0
Distance from the Centre
Cultural Orientation o 0

Summary 0 o o o o o o o 0

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 0 O 0
Introduction 0 o o o o 0
Summary of Results 0 o 0
Conclusions 0 o o o o o 0

Limitations of the Study”

0

O

and

O O O O

O O U D 0

O O O O O

Proposals

for Future Research 0 o o o o o o o o

C)

0

Page
119

119
120

120

140

166
182
199

206
208
208

208

217

226

Table
Chapter
1

Chapter
1

LIST OF TABLES

Page
II

Some characteristics of the population of
Co° Cavan, the Province of Ulsner, and
the Province of Connaught o o o o o o o o o o 56

Some characteristics of the community
population 0 O 0 O O O O O G O O n o o o O o 5 *7

Primary schools within the community:
size of schools and number of students
who finished their education in the
period 1960-1964 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 60

Parental occupations of all adolescents-who-
graduated from primary schools in the
community, in the period 196091964 0 o o o 0 6i

Characteristics and numbers of adolescents
tabeinterVieWedooooooooo 0000 64

Accuracy of information supplied by the
school principals o o o o o o o o o o o o o 69

Characteristics of the pepulation interviewed,
and of prospective reapondents not
inteer' awed O O O O O O O O O O O O o O o O 74

III

The educational achievement of all adoles=
cents from the community as related to
sex and occupational background 0 c o o o 0 01.00

The educational achievement of male and-
female farm adolescents, by valuation
of fam O O O O O O O O 0 D O O O O O O O O 104

The class characteristics of secondary
and vocational school students 0 o o o o o 106

V1

LIST OF

Table

Chapter
4

Chapter

TABLES Continued

Page
Percentage primary school leavers attending
secondary and vocational schools, and the
percentage receiving only a primary
education, by distance from the centre 0 a 0 109

Proportion of adolescents in occupational
classes receiVing a post primary
education, by birth order in the family 0 o o 112

Proportion of adolescents in OCCUpational
classes receiVlng post primary
education, by size of family 0 U a e 9 O o v 0 114

PrOportion of adolesc.ents receiving post~
primary education by birth order, and
family 81 23 I) a) (I) O O O O 0 o :J 0 0 L) O O O O L) 1 1 5

IV

The relationship between occupational
frustration and migration plans 0 o o 0 o o o o 120

The relationship between income frustration
and migration plans a Q U Q 0 Q o o o o q o o a 122

The relationship between levels of community
satisfaction and plans to migrate o a a o o o n 123

The relationship between family obligations
and plans to migrate 9 v o , a o o o u o o o o 124

The relationship between attitudes toward
the communityos social pICVlSlOnS and
p1 an 8 to m 1 g:- af- 8 .3 ‘) Q 1') ”-J I_) .3 D O J L) "J 0 i; O 1 2 5

A comparison of the relationships between the
independent variables and migration plans,
using Gamma as an index of association 0 0 o o 128

The relationship between occupational (and
income) frustration and plans to migrate
by levels of community satisfaction 0 o o o o o 132

The relationship between occupational (and

income) frustration and plans to migrate;
by levels of family obligations o o o o o o o o 134

vii

LIST OF TABLES Continuednfl_n

Table

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Table of interrelationships among the
major independent variables: and the
dependent variable 0 o n n U n a o o o o o o o
The relationship between occupational and
income aspiration and the level of
frustration of these aSpirations o o o 0 o o o

The relationship between occupational and
income aSpiraLion and plans to migrate 0 o 0 o

The relationship between levels of
occupational aSpiration and current
occupational achievement and U)
occupational frustration” and (2)
migration plans 0 o o o o o o o o a o o o o o

The relationship between (1) occupational
frustrationo (2) income frustrationc (3)
plans to migrate: and educational level
achieved 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c a o

The relationship between occupational
frustration and migration planso by
educational level 0 O 0 U o a o o U o o o o o

The relationship between income frustration
and migration planso by educational
1 ev El 0 0 O O 1') ’3 O C) C1 0 C) O ' ) U Q '3 O O 0 U

The relationship between income frustration
and migration plans by level of education
and occupational fruStration p g a U o o o o a

Controlling for those considering migrationo
(those who definitely plan to migrate and
those who are indefinite whether to go or
stay)” the reiacionship between level of
occupational aspiration and conditional
migration 0 0 0 3 a a o o a o o o a u o o o o

The relationship between levels of
family obligation and (l) occupation of
father” (2) sex of respondent” and (3)
educational level of reaponden: c o o o n o 0

viii

141

143

h‘

,45

148

152

154

158

160

164

LIST OF TABLES Confirmed“,M

Table Page

19 The relationship befiween sexg and fathers0
occupation” and (l) migration plans” (2)
occupational frustrazlono (3) lflCOme
frustrationa (4) aenitude toward the
community°s social provisionso and (5)
community satisfaction 0 O O 0 o o o o o o o o 468

20 The relationship between sex and level of
education and £1) plans to migrate? (2)
occupational frusnzataonp and g3) income
frustration O O O O n O o o O C Q U n o o o o O

p...)
*4
m

21 The relationship between type of work of
reSpondents and (l) occupational
frustrationo (2) income frustration,
and (3) plans to migrate by sex of
respondent o o o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o 177

22 The relationship between remoteness and
occupational and income aspiration o o o o o o 184

23 The relationship of place of work to the
remoteness of respondents0 homes” for
reapondents now working 0 o o O o o 0 o o o o o 186

24 The relationship between remoteness and
g (1) community satisfaction, (2) community
evaluationo (3) family obligations” and
(4) plans to migrate o O O o o O 0 o O o o c o 189

25 The relationship between remoteness and
plans to migrate o o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 195

26 The relationship between the cultural
orientation of respondents8 famglies
and plans to migrate U 0 n a a o a a U U o o O 201

ix

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
I List of District Electoral Divisions within
the community 0 o 0 o o o o o n o o o 9 o o o 239
II Questionnaire o o o Q Q o o 3 a a Q a a a a o o 240
III Occupational ClaSSifications O 0 D o O o O . o 267
IV Results of Scalogram analysis of occupational

prestige in Cavan o o o a 0 o o o o a o o o o 274

CHAPTER 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction

Research on migration has been undertaken at two major
levels of analysis: at the community or macromstructural
level and at the individual or social psychological level.

At the macro—structural level research has been done
largely by demographers and ecologists who have been concerned
primarily with two problems: the problem of migration streams.
and the problem of migration differentials. In the former
case research has focused on variations in migration rates
as they are related to variations in Objective sociCneconomic

differences between communities: with people moving from the

less to the more advantaged comrrmni’cies.‘L In addition research

in this area has been concerned with the distribution of

lBogus D.J« A Methodological Study#of Migration and
Labor Mobility in Michigan and Ohio in 1947. Scripps
Fcun ation Studies on Population Distribution June 1952:
Bogus D.J . Shyrock. H.S. Hoermann S.A. and Hagood, M;J.
Subregional Migration in the United States 1935~19g9
Volume l9 §treams of Migration Between Subregiong. Scripps
Foundation Studies in Population Disnribution No. 5. 1957;
Beegle J.A,. Marshall, M. Rice R. Selected Factors Related
tg_County_Migration Patterns in the North Central States 1940-~
1950 and 1950-1960, N.C.R.r Research Publication 147. Michigan
AeE.S. Bulletin, East Lansing, Michigan 1963.

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the inadequacy of these assumptions had become apparent,7 The
unemployed and the economically disadvantaged frequently
refused to leave the community of origin for better Oppor"
tunities elsewhere, even when aided.8 A sizable proportion
of those who had participated in the planned migration programs
of the UOSOD.A0, and as a consequence eXperienced considerable
improvements in their economic and social position, nevertheless
left these projects for less advantaged positions elsewhezeo9
Unemployed workers showed considerable reSistence to geographic
mobilityo10

The best theoretical approach to the motivations of
migrants at this time seems to be that provided by Lively and

Taeuberll and Williams,12 Migration was viewed largely as a

 

. 7Lively, COEO, and Taeuber, Co, Rural Migration in the
United States, UOSo Government Printing Office, Washington,
D,Co, 1939: Williams, R0, "Concepts of Marginality in Rural
POpulation Studies," Rural Sogiglogy, 5:292~302:1940: Kiser,
covo, Sea island to City, Columbia University Press, 19320

8

Williams, Ra, 93$ cito Brunner, The Growth of_a

Science, Harper and Brothers, 951, p. 510

 

9Loomis, CoPo, “Social Relationships and Institutions
in Seven New Rural Communities in the United States,“ F,SOAO
and B.AOEo Social Research Report, UOSODOAO, 1940: and
reprinted in Loomis, C.P., Studies of Rural Social Organization"
State College Book Store, East Lansing, Michigan, 1945,

10See Lipset, S.Mo, and Bendix, Ra, Social Mobility in
Industrial Society, University of California Press, 1959,
pc 160 for referenceso

l.lLively and Taeuber, opo cito

12Williams, Op, cito

4
reSponse to economic conditions; but these "conditions" are
experienced differently and the reSponses vary, depending on
the cultural context. "The controlling element is not objective
reality peg s2 but the individual's subjective evaluation of
the various alternatives he is considering."13 Because
residents of well provided communities may use a wider series
of more advantaged reference groups in evaluating alternatives,
such communities often lose their populations as rapidly or
more rapidly than poorer areas. In the latter case there is
a much narrower universe of comparison and as a consequence
residents may feel relatively less deprived. Some of the
poorest areas are also those in which there is a tradition of
stable residence, of family solidarity, of unwillingness to
move, and of extremely low regard for the usual canons of

14 Migration planning was then viewed as

material success.
prompted largely by economic motives, but as taking place with-
in a socially and culturally defined frame of reference.

Other non-economic motives might be important but occupied a
residual position in their discussions.15 Such approaches

to the motives of migrants, however, were very sketchily
deveIOped, and it was not until the 1950's that some more

useful conceptual models were prOposed. At that time a number

13Lively and Taeuber, 9p. cit., p. 80.

14Lively and Taeuber, opa cito

15Williams, 09, cit., pp. 301-302.

5

of authors proposed motivational models for migration planning.
Those of Eisenstadt and Beegle gt ale appear to be the most
relevant and fruitful for this studyole

Eisenstadt preposed that plans to leave the community
of residence are dependent on the individual's feelings of
"frustration, of inability to attain some level of aspiration
in his original society where he is unable to gratify all his
eXpectationso"17 But this motive for migration is not neces~
sarily "a feeling of insecurity and inadequacy in every sphere
of social lifeo The immigrant, as has often been pointed out,
may remain attached to his original society and culture in

18 And the particular aspirations in question -

various ways."
whether adaptive, instrumental, solidary, or ideological ~

will vary for individuals within a community as well as between
. . 19

communities.
Using essentially the same approach as that of

Eisenstadt,Beegle ‘proposed a specific system of variables to

predict migration planningo20 Subsequently a series of field

 

16Eisenstadt, SONG, The Absorption of Immigrantsn
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954; Beegle, J.An, (Chairman),
North Central Regional Progeot Concerning Field Studies of
Migration, Repgrt of Procedures Committee of NGC9 18,
Michigan State University, Department of Sociology, Mimeo,
1957, ppo 2~5¢

l7Eisenstadt, one cito, p0 1°

lsIbid,, pa 2.

lgIbido, pg 33

20Beegle, on, cite, pp» 2~30

6
studies was carried out using these variables to explain and
predict the migration plans of rural adolescents,21 as well as
the plans of rural adults to remain in the community of origin,22
There are some problems, however, in the continued uncritical

use of these variables.

Not only were there some differences between studies

in the Specification of the variables used, but these were

not in general Viewed from a structural perspective, With
some limited exceptions, the studies simply related variations
in certain attitudinal type variables to variations in plans

23 It is

to migrate, or to remain in the community of origino
apparent that most of these independent variables are equally

demanding of explanation, because unless the variables used

 

ZlSchulze, R»H.K., Community Satisfaction and
Migration. M.A° thesis, Department of Sociology and
AnthrOpology, Michigan State University, 1960: Cowhig, J,, 23 gl,,
Orientations Toward Occgpations and Residence: A Study of High
School Seniors in Foug Rural Counties of Michigan, Michigan
State University, AOEOSo Special Bulletin 428, l960: Goldsmith,
HOFO, The Meaning of Migration: A Study of the Migration
EXQectations of High School_Students, Ph,Do thesis, Department
of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University, 1961?
Goldsmith, H,F:, and Beegle, JnA,, The Initial Phase of Voluntary
Migration, Michigan State University, AnEoS,, Rural Boeiology
Studies N00 1, January, 1962: Schulze, RUHOKO, Artie, Jo,
Beegle, Jvo, "The Measurement of Community Satisfaction and
the Decision to Migrate," Rural Sociology 8283'6333gpp, 279~83,

 

 

2Eicher, Joanne B., Social Factors and Social Psycho;
logicaly EXplanations of Non-Migration, Pho D, thesis, Depart-
ment of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University, 1960,

23Goldsmith, opII ciE., and Cowhig, gt gl‘, 92‘ citH are
the only ones of the Michigan studies that attempt this; but
to a limited extent onlyo

7
are solidly grounded in structural analySis they cannot prov1de
a satisfactory sociological explanation of migration planning,
For instance, to show that variations in plans to migrate are
related to variations in attitudes to the home community is

not an adequate explanation of migration motives, until it is
shown how these attitudes are related to the different soc1al
structural positions of respondents,

The current research takes the Eisenstadt and Michigan
studies as a point of departure in developing a conceptual
approach to the problem, It combines these approaches with the
results of a series of studies done in Ireland, to develop
particular hypotheses to fit the Situation...24 Like most of the

Michigan studies, it is focused on the rural urban migration

4 5 . . .
of adolescents, It assumes that migration planning can be
explained best in terms of a small number of variables, and

that these variables should be examined from a structural

24Arensberg, COM,, and Kimball, S,T,, gaggly_gggm§9mmgg-
;;y in Ireland, Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass,, 1961 (first
published 1940); Arensberg, C M,, The I£i§h_gggg££ymag, Peter
Smith, 1961 (COpyright 1937): CommiSSion on Emigration and
other POpulation Problems l948~l954, ggpgggg, Government
Publications Sales Office, Dublin: Vercruijjse, E,V,w,, Eggpflgg
Hinterland Survey-1961, Department of Sociology, Leyden
University, mimeographed: Jackson, J,A,, Thg_lrish in B£LLQ;Q,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1963: Newman, J0, {Rev,),
(edo), Theygimerick Rgral Surveyy_l959;l964y Muintir Na Tire
Publications, Tipperary, Ireland, 1964,

25The fact that this research is restricted to adoleSn
cents is an important restriction on generalization, It is
proposed that the migration planning of adults, who already
fill adult roles locally and who have already been ”selected
out“ for their stability in the major outmigration which takes
place from the ages of l7m24, would pose problems far different
than those pursued here,

8
point of view, That is whether they vary in systematic ways
with the position of the individual in the social structure
of the origin community? as well as between communities with
different structures. The study is not, however, concerned
with inter-community variations, but given a particular Irish
rural community, it is concerned with two major questions:

1, What are the minimum number of variables that
best predict and explain, the migration plans of adolescents
who have not yet taken up a permanent occupation, but are in the final
stages of occupational decision making?

20 Do these factors vary in predictive importance in
any systematic way among adolescents from different positions
in the community“s social structure? SpeCifically, are they
structured by: (a) the sex of adolescents, (b) their different
social class and educational levels, (c) their farm or nonffarm
backgrounds, (d) their different ecological positions in the

home community,
Toward Hypotheses and Their Rationale

Some Previous Answers to Thesemguestioggz Certain
assumptions about the migration planning of adolescents are
being made in this study, The first is that the migration
decision is a voluntary one: that the actual decision to Stay
or go is made by the individual himself, that he is not migratm
ing with his family in accordance with decisions made by
parents or other fanuly members, It is assumed that parents

and many other family members are remaining on in the home

9

communityo It is expected, however, that family eXpectations,
as perceived by the individual himself, are important factors
in the migration decision°

The second assumption is that potential migrants have
extensive "knowledge“ of conditions in other communitieso It
is assumed that the decision results from an evaluation by the
potential migrant on the basis of his beliefs about the ability
of his own and other communities to satisfy his aspirations
or to minimize his deprivations. Such knowledge of alternative
communities is not necessarily very accurateo Indeed it is
often very imprecise, and sometimes grossly inaccurateo Since
it is based mainly on informal and personal sources of informa~
tion, these biases become understandableo

As this study is concerned with a community which has
suffered high rates of outmigration for over a century, the
existence of such informal comparative frames of reference can
safely be taken for grantedo

Making these assumptions and the additional one that
the migration decision can best be understood when viewed from
the individual‘s point of view, it seems to the author that the
best approach to the problem is that supplied by Eisenstadt,
and later by Beegleo

Eisenstadt proposed that the frustration of aspirations
in the community of origin together with the expectation that
the realization of these aspirations is possible elsewhere,

gives rise to migration plans“26 Moreover, he proposed that

 

26Eisenstadt, Opi cite, po 20

10

for most EurOpean migrations, these aspirations were largely
of an instrumental character, Some types of voluntary migra—
tion, however, may be expressive and not instrumental,27 Thus,
migration may be motivated by feelings of inability to ful—
fill aSpirations to solidarity or to mutual identification
with other persons and groups in the community of origin,
Examples would be the migration of ”loyalists” from Ireland
after the Treaty; of whites from Kenya after the change of
government: and of some whites from S, Rhodesia after Smith
took overo

Migrants may also leave because their society does not
afford them the chance of attaining a worthwhile pattern of
life, or of following out a progressive social theory, Such
was the case with the various UtOpian groups which settled in
the United States, Canada, and elsewhere,28

At first sight the two latter types of motives for
migration would not appear to be important in internal rural»
urban migration or in present day Western international migra~
tion, These movements are largely within particular societies
or between culturally similar countries, so that solidarity
problems are not likely to be very important, Solidarity prob;

lems, however, may be involved where migration takes piace from

 

27See Parsons, To, The Social System, Free Press, 1951,
pp, 49, 79u83 for definitions and explanations of "instrumental"
versus "expressive“ or "consumatory" behavior.

 

28Eisenstadt, op, cite, po 4,

ll
traditional rural areas to modern urban ones, Here motives of
rejection of the unchanging traditional community may be ins
volved in the decisions of young migrants whose values have
become urbanized, and who aspire to a style of life which is
characteristic of the urban community, On the other hand,
attachments to the values and way of life of the home commun~
ity, when perceived as being unavailable elsewhere, may retard
migration, These motives should be distinguished from motives
of rejection or attachment to local particularistic relation—
ships which may also be involved in migration planning,

In the former case the orientation is to the cultural
values and structural relationships Qgg‘gg which are nOt neces-
sarily idiosyncratic or limited to the community of origin,
but may be found in many communities within a culturally homOw
geneous area, Both of these solidarity dimensions are included

as one of three variables proposed by Beegle e; al, 29as a

major factor in migration planning, This variable-wsatisfactions
with life in the community of residencemis defined as ”feelings
of cohesiveness and security rooted in identification with
groups and structures,” When such satisfaction is high it
increases residential stability, The second variable usedv

Social Costs-refers to the roctlessness which attends migration

and which results from the severance of group ties and some

 

ngeegle, gt §;,, 93, gig., po 20 In the subsequent
research studies this has been generally taken to be satisfan
tion with particularistic relationships, but in such an evaluation
both the dimension of cultural differences between generations,
and dissatisfaction for other reasons would be intertwined,

12

, . . 30 a 2 . .
patterned relationships, The third variable-ASpirations-

 

refers to the future, largely instrumental, goals which are
desired,31 In the decision-making process, satisfactions with
life in the community of residence are weighed against the
social costs of moving elsewhere, This evaluation takes
place in relation to the level of aspiration soughto If
aspirations are such that they may be fulfilled locally, they
would be eXpected to weaken satisfactions and to reduce social
costs attending migration,32

With one exception,33 the series of field studies subm
sequently carried out, which used these variables to predict
migration proneness, dealt with adolescents who had not yet
left their areas of residence and had not yet assumed fulltime
occupational roles, These studies discontinued the use of the
variable Social Costs, as such, or incorporated it into other
variables. In Goldsmith°s study, the last and most intensive
of the series, the variables were reconceptualized and augmented.

Although he dealt with a problem different from the one pursued

here, Goldsmith°s research and his postmfactum critique of the

BOIbidfl, p, 2,

311bid,, p, 2,
32Beegle, JOA,, "Social Components in the Decision to

Migrate,“ Paper read at the Fourth World Congress of Sociology,
Stresse, Italy, 1959.

33Eicher, Opz gig,

13
variables employed was the point of departure for this study,
The research proposed here is an attempt to extend and improve
upon the conceptual and operational model used in these
studies and to test it in a very different cultural setting,

Aspirations in Goldsmith°s study were Operationally exr

 

pressed as two variables, The first, Specification Legel,
referred to the extent to which respondents felt that their
occupational and ”way of life“ aspirations could be satisfied
in their home communities,34 The second, Obligations, referred
to the extent to which respondents felt that their post
high-school education plans could be achieved in the local comm
munity, If they had no further educational plans, it referred
to the extent to which they felt that their home community
would be ”a good place" in which their occupational aSpirations
could be fulfilled, Alternatively, it referred to the extent

H

a good

~ 3
place" to find someone "they would like to marry," 5

to which they considered the home community to be

In this and other Michigan Studies, Commpnity_5§t;§+
faction was maintained as the major independent variable, but
it came to assume a meaning different from the original usage,36
It was regarded primarily as a catch—all category: a summary

evaluative attitude toward the social sysrem as a whole, as to

 

34Goldsmith, HUFo, The Meaning_of Migration, pp, Cit,,

p, 111.

BSEQLQ 9 pp, 114*1170 It is clear that these two
variables are not operationally exclusive,

36N,C, 18 Report, g2, cit,, p, 2,

14

whether it was satisfactory or unsatisfactory,37 It is also
treated as in part a resultant of one's perception that instrum
mental goals can or cannot be achieved in the local communitynBB
It has been measured either by the question: ”As a place to live
in soon after graduation, how well do you like your community?";39
or by a modification of the Vernon Davies scale, which sub~
stantively seems to measure somewhat the same thing,40

The study by Schulze g; gin showed, however, that the
attitude the scale was measuring was not statistically related
to the local frustration of occupational or educational aSpiraw
tionso Although measured in a different way and although
Community Satisfaction was statistically related to the
frustration of certain aspirations, it was also evident in the
Goldsmith study that feelings of liking or disliking the comm

munity of residence are only partly related to the frustration

of aspirationso41 Moreover, the operationalization of these

 

37

Schulze §£_gl&, gg$ gig., p, 279. Goldsmith, gpg gitp, and
Goldsmith and Beegle, g9; gig”, retained much of the original
conceptual definition, but included some of the latter as well;
ppo 19 and 3, reSpectively°

Schulze, opS cite. po 4: Cowhig, gt ale, ppo l7~18y

 

38Schulze , opacitm, po 97 and Schulze gt gl,, QR, Cltn,
p0 2800
39 .
Goldsmith, 92, g;£,, po 112.
40

Schulze, gt alg, op, cit,, p. 281: Schulze, 93* gig",
po 44: and V. Davies, DevelOpment of a Scale to Rate Attitudes
of Community Satisfaction," Rural Sociology: lO:lS45:pp,246--255o

41Goldsmith, op, cit,, ppo 124 and 141°

13
two variables in the Goldsmith study did not sufficiently
maintain their operational independencen
Here, however, Community Satisfaction will be treated

as in Beegle°s definition, as feelings of liking or disliking
of the home communityo Such feelings are hypotheSized to
spring from attachments to or rejection of one“s particularw
istic relationships, 9; the style or struCture of relationships
in the local communityi That is, an evaluation of the satis«
factoriness of one“s family and other primary and secondary
group relationships, as well as to the structural forms that
these relationships taken High satisfaction would arise from
having a highly pOSitive evaluation of these relationships and
truCtures, while low satisfaction would result from a history
of unsatisfactory personal relationships, or a low evaluation
of the structural forms that these relationships takei The
latter would result from differences in values between rest
pondents and mOSt community members: for example reSpondents
With ”modern” urban type values who live in a largely tradition:
al communityo To View the variable in this way, maintains
its conceptual distinction from the perceived frustration of
instrumental aspirations which cannot be achieved locally” The
studies cited also show clearly that respondents can perceive
that their occupational and educational aspirations cannot be
achieved locally, yet be highly attached to the local community,
The operational distinctiveness of the variables has then been
adequately demonstrated, Other studies also show that iighly

attached people do migrate,42!and indeed that high attachment

4 , .
2Schwarzeller, H K“, Family Ties, Migra;ign and
Trapsitional Adjustment of young Men from Easternmgentgggx,
'| .1

t...- ,v . .
’(' 'I Maqv TOR/l TY'n-é urnvnnrvy n-F Vnifif 11H1IY1 D 5‘ Q

 

D

l6

. . 43 .
can be accompanied by eXpectations to migrate“ So the

relationship between the level of attachment and migration is
not necessarily a one to one relationship. In order to explore
the interrelationships between Community Satisfaction, the
frustration of instrumental aSpirations, and plans to migrate,
this research study will carefully maintain the conceptual

and operational distinctiveness of these variables‘

Despite its importance, Community Satisfaction should
not be considered the major independent variable in most rural—
urban migration planningm It is probable that its role has
been overemphasized in reaction to purely ”economic" eXplana-
tions of migrationi It is proposed here, however, that the
ideas of Williams and Lively and Taeuber44 allow us to deal
with Igeconomic" variables in sociological terms” Almost all
of the studies dealing with rural-urban migration in the
United States and in Europe demonstrate the dominant pQSition
of economic and social mobility motives,45 These motives
should hold eSpecially for adolescents and young adults who

are about to take up adult roles for the first time, and who

 

43Crawford, C00H Family Factors in the Migration Plans
of Youth, Bulls N00 65, December, 1965, Cornell University,
A9305o

44Williams, op, Sigfl, and Lively and Taeuber, op" cit,

45Rural Migration: Papers and Discussions of the First
Congress of the European Society for Rural SOCiology, (privately
published Bonn, 1959): Krier, Ho, Rural Manpowerfland Industrial
Development Adaptation and Training, 0 E,C,DO Publication,
196l; OQEOCQDn, geographic and Occupational Mobility of Rural
Manpower, Documentation in Agriculture and Food, Report N00 75,
l964: Beijer, Go, Rural Migrants in Urban Settiga‘ Martinus
Nijhoff, The Hague, 1963i

17
comprise the bulk of the migrantsfi As Jogue remarks? migration

seems to be closely related to the ”first commitments and acts

of adjustment to adulthood that are made by adolescents as they
- ' ~ "‘ 46 ‘ ' "I - ' ‘1 ' - : n - as
mature,' Finding a "suitable JObI acnleVJng an adequate

incomey and a deSired style of life are consadered to be the
important variables here" These aspirations are socially
defined, secially struCturedfl and socially sanCLioned by group
members for adolescents who occupy different poSitions in the
soc1al structure, Other nonrinstrumental motives such as
marriage chances and the establishment of a new family may al~
so be important in the United States where the marriage age is
very lowg but not in Ireland where this major concern appears
- . _ 47 H.
almost 10 years later for mQSt adolescents; Howeverg other
orientations such as those subsumed under Community Satisfaction
are certainly important in migration planning, Even when
occupational} income, educational and Other aspirations can
be fulfilled locally, some still do not want to stay” If

frustrated in these reSpects, some are still highly motivated

to remain at home‘ Solidarity problems are certainly interr
vening nere‘ For the sake of conceptual clarity“ howevery and

from the pelnt of View of predicrive effiiClencyp Commanity

Satisfaction should be eonSidezed a less important vatiable

than trustration of aSpirationsm

_ -‘ my _ - —-“v .u— . _—.—— .-

4°Boguefi ”Internal Migration? Qpfi giéga pl 504,
47 . - i ,
Compare: Landisn thr; ~Rural Urban Migration and the
Earriage Rate: An HypotheSisa “émerican SOClOéQfi££§;_B§Z£§fii 31:
:1966:pp_ 155~158 where migrants have higher marriage rates
than nonvmigrants? and McNabb, gpgpgigog ppm l80~l83, whsre

there is some restricted evidence that “obstacles to marriage”
are not compelling reasons for migration‘

 

18

The great magority of American studies on the motiva~
tions of adolescent rural migrants show inSLrumental aspiram
tions to be more predictive of migration plans than any other
variable33 deepite the faCt that in many cases apparently con-
trary hypOtheses were prOposedi In Goldsmithfis study, 76% of
the respondents gave occupations as the main reason for inten»

- 48

tions to migratey and 50% gave it as a second reason, The
Other Studies in the Michigan series report Similar results»
In Cowhig‘s studyj the absence of ‘suitable‘ Jobs in the home
community was found to be closely related to plans to migrate,
with only 22-23% of the rural~farm and village males not being
frustrated in this wayw Ald despite the fact that 60% of the
respondents were highly attached to the home communityJ 70%

. 49 , . fl , ,
planned to m grate“ In Eicher s study of oluer community

, those who remain behind were found to be those

C‘fl '
pirations could be fuirilled locallygqu In one Utah

2

' 5
C
U)
(D
Q}
m

stud' only it% of the boys and 10% of the girls graduating from

5‘

 

 

high school felt that they could achieve their occupational
. ,{ :_. 51 w_ y , . . , . ..2
goals locally. most other American studies in this area
48 .
GOlGSIITn on Cit p, l°i
49i ‘ 4 ,,
“CT-m1?) 23.. £1 Elli 2.3:: , P 49“
50

SlChristiansen, J.RO, Cowhiga JnDQJ and Payneo Juwa,
Educalional and Occupational AsglraEIQES Of High SChOQL Seniors
in Three Central Utah Counties“ SOClal Solence Bulls N00 1:
Brigham Young UniverSltY; Junei 19620

 

 

l9
demonstrate the overriding importance of economicfl educational“
and SOCial mobility aspirations in migration planningi52
Educational aSpirations generally refer to plans to attend
university on the part of rural high school seniorsq Although
important in American adolescent populations? this aSpiration
should be much less important under Irish conditions; where a
much smaller percentage attend Universityi

The Irish studies quoted perhaps demonstrate an even

greater preponderance of Similar instrumental aspirations in

migration planning» To quote the CommisSi n on Emigration
Report. 3 mm gration has been due to two fundamental causeSrm

the absence of opportunities for making an adequate livelihood;

- _ . , _ a -53 .
and a growing de Sire fo r higher standards of iiVingn” The
fact that Opportunities to fulfill these aspifafllOnSrrwthh are

treetrated by the local opportunity StruCtureI~are seen to be
av:ilable els em'rere is also important herei This would hold
espeCially in traditional outwmigration areas where most

families have relatives, friends and neighbours who are working

 

 

 

SZCrawford; CCO opt cit” (here 75% ct t hose who
planned to migrate imneuia'eiy upon ciaouatitn from high
schouii planned to do so for mos Jy oc«:upat ional reasons)?
Andrews and Sardo Mil gfir *ion are Migran s f'rm éggggmggocountya
Colorado” Colored: S: a e University A E 8 Tech‘ Bull 82”

{of 156 migrants irt erViewed subsequent to the aCL, 6; % gave
reasons as seeia'ed with educationaiy occupationali and sodiai
advancementfl as the main reason for movement? and that limited
local Opportunities in these areas were their major complaint)?
Clsonk Job Mobili*y and Migration in a High Income Rural _Comr
mun;gy_ Purdue UHLJerSth; A E Si Bulln ?083 i960? Cohen and
bcnun Job Mobil L *y and Migiaficn lQ_9lM§§iE§m Inc one Rural

C;m uniLy Purdue UniveiSity, AiEiSi Bull, 763: l963: Motives
for social and economic betterment operated as the magor varir
able in each commurity although the aSpirations that could be
satisfied varied by communitx

53 . A . ,,
Comm155ion on Emigrations, gLL 3;;19 pt iJSH

20
and living in Great Britain and the United Stateso In general,

54 In the case

the other Irish studies support this p081tion9
of Britain” there are almost as few barriers to migration and
adjustment to the new community as would be the case for
internal rural to urban migration in the United States“

For these reasons, therefore) it is eXpeCted that
such instrumental aspirations as those discussed above are
far more predictive of migration plans than such nonwinstrumental
variables as Community Satisfaction” Furthermore” variables
akin to Community Satisfaction have other drawbackso From a
social structural point of viewo Community Satisfaction as it
has been usedo is not a very satisfactory variableo Considered
as a summary evaluative attitude toward the community” its
conceptualization has been too remote from a structural orientm
ation to give a satisfactory sociological explanation of migra-
tion planso Aspirationsa and the extent to which they are per-
ceived to be frustrated by the structure of local opportunities”
can be much more easily linked to a structural frame of reference
borh conceptually and operationallyo Howeverp if Community
Satisfaction is viewed as a composite measure of the attachment
of the respondent to local particularistic relationships, and/or
as an evaluation of local community structures in terms of
traditional rural vso modern urban values it becomes more ex»
plicit, more sociologically relevant, and can be more easily

tied into a structural frame of referenceo

 

54McNabe ope

ops cito, pp, 293‘, 306

cit0, p0 1730 and ppo 188w200: Newman,
1 J cksona ops cit”, p,“ 279

Zl

Considered as a cultural orientation there is no doubt
that Community Satisfaction is importanti Kaldor g; al, showed
clearly that adolescents who planned to farm and remain in the
local community had work values and community preferences
which could only be satisfied in farming as an occupation, and
in small rural communities,55 Goldsmith also showed the
relationship of Community Satisfaction to some of these values
and to the degree of satisfactory relations with parents,56
And Cowhig found that these attitudes are more characteristic
of rural farm adolescents, espeCially males,57 Among the
Irish studies, Vercruijjse“s showed that ruralistic values
may play an important role in migrationo If primary instru»
mental needs (occupational and income) are satisfied, then
dissatisfaction with such “secondary’E aspirations as local
shopping, housing, recreation and amusement facilities will
not lead to plans to migrate, because of strong ruraliscic
values“ If these latter values were to change, however, then
dissatisfaction with these community facilities might lead to

, a, 58
migration,

J
Community Satisfaction then Will be used here not as
the major prediCtive variable, but as a ”specifying variable”,

indicating conditions under which the relationship between the

 

55Kaldor, DORO, Eldridge, Ea, Burhinal, LOGO, and

Arthur, Imwo, gccupational Planscf Iowa Farm Boysn Reso Bull,
508, Ames, Iowa, 19620

56Goldsmith, gp$ cit,, pp, 243m273,
57 , . . ,

Cowhig, 3; air, op, City
58

Vercruijjse, gpi Clto, and Newman, op _cit,, p, 265,

22

frustration of aspirations and migration plans will exist in

5‘0
4.1

greater or lesser intenSity, For reSpondents negatively
oriented toward their local community relationships (low Commun-
ity Satisfaction), the correlation between the frustration of
aSpirations and migration plans will be lower than where
reSpondents are positively oriented toward these relationships,
That is, adolescents who are alienated from their home community
relationships will plan to migrate to a much greater extent
than those who are not so alienated? and they will plan to do
so even when they perceive that their instrumental aspirations
can be achieved there” For those who are highly attached to
their home community relationships on the other hand, such
attachments do not necessarily lead to plans to stay, if
aspirations are frustrated, However, it is expected that only
a minority of respondents experience such feelings of alienation,
that the majority are generally attached to their community,
and that for these it is their beliefs about their ability to
attain their aSpirations locally that is importanto

To summarize, certain instrumental aSpirationSmw
occupational, incomemware proposed as the major variables
affecting decisions to migratei If respondents think that such
aspirations cannot adequately be satisfied locally, they will
tend to migratea If they believe that they can be satisfied

locally, they will tend to stay, But certain other variables

 

59Goode, w...,Jo and Hatt, POKQ, ggthods in Social
Egggaggh, McGraw Hill, 1952, ppo 355-3569

23

intervene: notably Community Satisfactionfi which is taken to
measure both the degree of estrangement from or attachment to
local particularistic relationshipsp as well as an evaluation
of the satisfactoriness of local community structures in
terms of reSpondentsJ differential valuesq When respondents
feel estranged from the local community they will plan to
migrate irreSpective of their beliefs about their ability to
satisfy their aSpirations locallya On the other handy when
they are highly attached to their community, such beliefs
about the local fulfillment of aspirations play a crucial role
in migrationo This approach to the functions performed by
I"Community Satisfaction“ in migration stresses the alienative
aSpect of the variableo Previous studies had generally
emphasized the attachment aSpEC‘g in that it ”held back"
potential migrantso

Howevera it is expected that in the case of farm adole3m
cents, Community Satisfaction is also less predictive of migram
tion plans than primary role obligations to the family that
necessitate staying at homeo These obligations would include,
for instance: binding expectations on some farm males to stay
and work on the family farm, or on females to stay and help out
in the household‘7 or to look after older family members, etco
If this is an important variable under rural American conditionso

60

as Goldsmith found” it is likely to be much more so in

6OGoldsmith3 opt cito, p0 2210

24

Ireland where the farm family Structure is more patriarchical,
and the parents have much greater control over family members,61

The hypothesis is that such obligations are restricted
largely to male adolescents from farm backgrounds who have
only had a primary education and for those in the first stage
of the family cycleo Persons having these characteristics
are usually kept on by the family to help on the farm or in
the household at that stage in the life cycle of the family
when economic pressures are at a maximum. It is eXpected that
such family role obligations” when present” will have primacy
over any personal aspirations; so that even if aSpirations are
frustratedo they will not lead to migration when such obliga-
tions are present”

The Structural Basis of the Variables and th81£
Relationship to Migration Plans

Occupationa;;Aspirationsa Loca;_9ccupational_0pportunities and
Migration Plans

Since the opportunity structure of most rural commun-
ities is severely limited at the upper levels, high levels of
occupational aspiration should be closely related to beliefs
that these aspirations cannot be fulfilled locallyo The major
channels of vertical occupational mobility becomes accessible

only if aSpirants migrate to more urban areasn The quest for

 

61Compare Burchinal, J0600 “The Rural Family of the
Futureo" in COppp JOH. (edo) Our ChangingARural Society,
Iowa State University Press, 1965: and Humphreys, AGJ., SOJO,
New_2ubliners; Urbanization and the Irish FamilyI Fordham
University Press, 19669

25
social mobility leads to migrationo62 Of course, if there are
variations between rural communities in the structure of the
local off~farm labor market, this will cause proportionate
variations in the level of occupational aspirations that are
frustrateda There will also be variations among communities
in the structure of the occupational aSpirations of adoles~
cents, brought about by intercommunity educational, social and
cultural differencesn These are probably some of the reasons
why there has been so much confusion and so little progress
made in research dealing with the selectivity of rural-urban
migrantse No attention has been paid to the community differ-
ences which influence this selectivityo Unless the equation
takes into consideration both the number and structure of
occupational Opportunitiesg and the number and level of
occupational aspirants” a solution which takes numbers alone
into consideration will give an incorrect estimate of the
number and characteristics of ”occupational” migrantso Some
direct evidence for this argument exists: since it has been
shown that it is possible to have a highly develOped local
educational system which ”trains” students to aSpire to occupa—
tions beyond the level of those available locally: and at the
same time: to have well paid lower status occupational opporw

tunities which must be filled by in-migrantso63 On the other

 

62Kaufman, HOFO, gt alz, "Social Stratification in Rural
Society!” Rural Sociology: 18:121953o

63Williams, JOLO, “Some Social Consequences of Grammar
School Education in a Rural Area in Wales," gritish Journal of
Sociologys 10:2:pg 125g Vercruijjsep op. cito

26

hand, in poorer rural communities with inferior educational
facilities, it is equally likely that most of the local white
collar and professional positions are filled by outsiders,64
For the community under study, occupational opportunities are
largely limited to farm occupations, unskilled and semiskilled
manual work, and service and lower order nonwmanual occupations,
Consequently, the higher the level of occupational aSpiration
the greater should be the tendency to migrate,

Even given a particular community, however, and con-
trolling for the level of occupational aSpiration of respondents,
the perceptions of local occupational opportunities, and their
ability to satisfy aspirations will vary considerably among
reSpondents because these perceptions are in all probability
structured. Respondents from higher class levels should have
wider knowledge and greater contacts with agencies distributing
opportunities, Furthermore, such opportunities are not always
distributed on the basis of achievement criteria, Ascriptive
factors come into play, and class level should be a very
important one of these, So that in regard to offmfarm Opporw
tunities, and controlling for level of aSpiration, the lower
the class level of respondents, the greater occupational
frustration will be, In regard to those aspiring to farming as
an occupation, even under American conditions, ascriptive

criteria play a major role in achieving these aspirationso65

 

64Geschwind, R D, and Ruttan, V We, Job Mobility and
Migration in a Low Income Rural rCommunity Purdue Univ,, AOEOS,
Bull 730,1961

65Kaldor, t 10, Op, 243,

27
Under Irish conditions, inheritance is vastly more importanto
Generally, only favoured sons of farmers can hope to become
farmers,

The level of occupational aspiration should be clearly
influenced by stratification variables, The stratification
system in Ireland is much more rigid than in the United States,
or in most equally industrialized countries, As a result,
the cultural and aspirational differences between classes in
Ireland should be even more marked,66 However, the influence
of class level there can perhaps be most clearly observed on
the educational level achieved by adolescents, That postm
primary education is selective by class origin,even where it
is free as in Great Britain and the United States, has been
adequately demonstrated,67 In contrast, such education is
not free in Ireland, and should therefore be much more highly
selective by class origin,

The eXpectation then is that respondents from different
class levels will have achieved correSpondingly different

educational levels, and that the combined effect of class backs

ground and educational level achieved will be to increase the

 

66Hyman, H,, ”The Value System of Different Classes, A
Social Psychological Contribution to the Analysis of Stratifi-
cation": in Bendix and Lipset (Eds ), Class Status and Power.
Free Press, 1963, ppo 426~444,

67Havighurst and Neugarten, Society_and Edggation,
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1962, Ch, 9: Halsey, AOHO, and
Gardner, Lo, "Selection for Secondary Education and Achievement,“
B, Journal of Sociology: 4:12po 60: Stephenson, ROMO, ”Stratifio
cation, Education, and Occupational Orientation: A Parrallel
Study and Review," B, Journal of Sociology, 9:1:p, 42; Floud,
Jo, g3 gig, Social Class and Educational Opportunity, Heinemann,
London, l956,

 

28

level of aspirations and consequently the level of frustration
with each increase in class and educational level, Secondary
school students, who are selected largely from the non-farm
middle class and large farm class, will tend to undervalue all
manual and service occupations, and Will aSpire generally to
Jobs at the white collar level,68 Vocational schools, generally
attended by adolescents from the working class and small
farmer class, will orient their male students toward skilled
manual and service occupations, and the female students toward
serVice and lower status nonrmanual occupations, The primary
educated, again recruited largely from the working class and
small farmer class, have to realistically restrict their aSpira—
tions to unskilled and semiwskilled manual and lowerworder
service occupations, Because secondary school students have
excluded most manual and service occupations from consideration,
their levels of occupational frustration and migration plans
should be much greater than vocational school students, The
latter have aSpirations which are more closely matched by
local occupational Opportunities,

The primary educated should exhibit the lowest level
of aSpiration of all respondents, and consequently, the lowest

level of fruStration and of migration plans, In addition to

 

68Secondary Schools teach the equivalent of College
preparatory courses, They are almost exclusively private, and
they are not free, Technical or Vocational schools teach the
equivalent of vocational type courses in American High Schools,
and are public schools, See Vercruijjse, 92, g;t,, for
occupational aSpiration differences among educational levelso

29
the direct effect of the family class and status level on
educationr and thence on occupational aSpirationu it is ex-
pected that these factors have independent direct influences
on the level of occupational aspirations and frustration for
those who have received only a primary education” These can
realistically aSpire to lower level manual and service
occupationsi Howeverfi the local prestige level of the
family will still put a lower limit on the level of occupation
that may be taken up locallyp If true? this would exclude a
varying segment of these occupations for many reSpondentsp
depending on the status level of the familya This Situation
would nOt necessarily hold true if migration takes placeo as
the occupation taken can then be "hidden" or can be cons
sidered by the family and community as not adversely affecting
the local preStige of the family)69 Comparing primary edu-
cated respondents from low to middle income farm backgrounds
with those from semivskilled and unskilled manual backgroundsfi
migration should be greater in the former case because of
these local status limitations which restrict the range and
number of local occupations which may be taken up by farm
adolescents) However, Since it is expected that service and
skilled manual occupations may be taken up by most such farm
youth without loss of status; and that these youth are likely
to be preferred by employersg the effect of this selectivity

would probably be cancelled out»

 

69McNabby gp&lg;303 pi 215w

30

Sexy howeverfl is an important intervening variable here¢
The occupational aspirations and the occupational alternatives
Open to girls differ considerably from those of boys at all
educational levelsg The almost universal patternp in the
Western worldp of greater migration rates for girls from rural
areas reflects this greater disparity between aSpirations and
Opportunitiesr In rural farm areas: the only usual off—farm
occupation available for girls locally is in domestic service:

. a 70
an occupation of a very low Statusgand very limited in number“
This does not hold for males in farm areas who can remain to
work on the home farm with prospects of eventually owning the
farm; One can eXpect then a greatly diSproportionate efflux
of females from farm areasn On the other hand; in the centre
and in surrounding small townsfl Opportunities for males and
females are approx1mately equally balancedo Taking the commun~
ity as a whole then, a relatively greater pOpulation of
females than males compete for approximately the same number
of offrfarm opportunitiesa

In terms of the structure of these opportunities;
there are relatively more lower order service occupations
available for femalesg while more skilled manual occupations

7 .
are available for males._-.‘1 So that one would expect: (a) little

 

7
’OMcNabbo 99$ citM p0 1733

71See Tables 6A5 and 68g ppo 154 and 1709 Census of
Egpulation of Irelandi Vole V9 Government Publications Sales
Officeg 19640 In the age groups l4~l9 in C00 Cavan there are
approximately as many males as females employed in offmfarm
occupations? Whereas on the farm, approximately nine times
more males than females are employed@

31

difference between males and females in secondary schools in
regard to occupational frustration, (b) more females than
males in vocational schools to be frustrated: and (c) more
males than females who have received only a primary education
and are seeking off-farm occupations to be frustrated.

The ecological variable is another of importance here.
Since there are no school bus services, increasing distance
from the centre, where the educational services are located,
poses a physical barrier to attending post-primary schools.
Consequently, the greater the distance from the centre, the
lower should be the proportions attending post-primary schools.
If occupational Opportunities were distributed evenly through—
out the community, one would eXpect greater frustration and
migration levels nearer the centre because of the higher
educational levels and consequent higher levels of occupational
aSpiration there. However, offwfarm occupational Opportunities
are not distributed evenly throughout the community, but are
much greater near the centre: particularly for semi-skilled,
service, skilled and secretarial type occupationso This should
be more than sufficient to compensate for the higher levels of
occupational aSpiration near the centre? Therefore, the
greater the distance from the centre, the greater should be
the level of occupational frustration. This should hold true
for all education levels and for both sexes. And this increase
in occupational frustration levels with increasing distance
from the centre, should be prOportionately much greater for

girls than boys. Because of the increasing preponderance of

32

farm families with increasing distance from the centre, and
the consequent increasing proportion of males who enjoy
ascribed roles on the family farm, the increase in occupational
frustration is not nearly as great for males as for females.
Very few farm females stay on the home farm, therefore, given
that off-farm Opportunities decline with increasing distance
from the centre, their levels of occupational frustration
should correspondingly increase with distance. The sex
difference, then, in the frustration of aSpirations and in
migration plans should increase with distance from the centreg

To summarize, it is expected that: (l) occupational
frustration will be closely related to plans to migrate;
(2) the level of frustration will increase with the level of
occupational aspiration: (3) the level of occupational aSpira-
tions is closely related to (a) class level and educational
level, (b) sex, and (c) distance from the centreo The level
of occupational frustration should also be independently in-
fluenced by sex and by remoteness,
Qonsumption Aspirationsy Migration Plans and Some Structural
Antecedents

Aspirations to reach particular occupational status
levels have been shown to be related to occupational and
migration plans. This, however, refers only to the relative
prestige level of the occupation pg; §§. In choosing an
occupation, a community to live in, and how much education to
acquire, other types of aspirations are important: especially

aspirations to reach particular consumption levels with respect

33
to income, level of living, etc. This study focuses mainly on
income aspirations.

DeSpite the eXpected relationship between the level of
occupational aSpiration and occupational frustration, it is
likely that, in most rural communities, there is a surplus of
aspirants over Opportunities at almost all levels of aSpiration
but proportionally much less so at the lowest levels. It is
at this level that consumption aspirations,or motives for
economic betterment, rather than social betterment, become
important. The greater part of the decline in rural populations
all over the Western world has taken place among the smaller

farmers and farm laborers.72

Much of this off-farm mobility
cannot be regarded as upwardly mobile in a status sense. In
fact, much of it results in an apparent decline of occupational
status.73 But many studies show that it has led to an improve-
ment in economic status.74 Hence, at this level of occupational
movement, it is not the absence of occupational opportunities

as such that is important, (witness the great decline in the

self employed farmer category, and the almost universal com-

plaints about lack of farm labour) but the remuneration of those

 

72 See O.E.C.D., Geographic and Occupational Mobility
of Rural Manpower, 92. cit.

73Folkman, W050, and Cowhig, J.D.,“Intergenerational
Occupational Mobility in a Rural Area."Rura;;Sociology, 2834:1963.

74Schwarzeller, H. “Education, Migration, and Economic
Life Chances of Entrants to the Labour Force from a Low Income
Rural Area." Rural Sociology; 29:1964:ppo 152-167: Landis, P.H.,
"Educational Selectivity of Rural Urban Migration," Rural
Sociology: 11219463pp. 218-232.

34
occupations that are available, Income aspirations Wlli :hen

be conSidered as the second major variable affectzng deciSions

(1‘

O l

:3

igrate. It is expected that the higher the level of
aspiration, the higher the probability that respondents will
feel that their income aSpirations cannot be satisfied locally:
and that such lOC'l income frustrations will also lead to
plans to migrate,

In comparison with occupational aSpiration. very
little research has been done on the faCtors aSSOCiated with
variations in income aSpirations. The hypothesis is that it
will vary directly with the same factors that dfoCE occupational
aspiration level, But controlling for these, it is expected
that large variations will occur, eSpecially for the lower
levels of occupational aspirers, where the variable is expected
to have its major prediCtive influence. It is expeCted that
reference group faCtors «variations in the extent and depth
of contact the indiVidual has with significant others working
ff farms and outSide the community, and variations in the
cultural orientation of the indiv1dual°s family, whether of

a traditional non materialistic orientation or a modern

I-

I

. . . .4 .5 , .
urbanized orientation»: would account for most of this variation

Sex is a factor here again, with girls hav;ng lower levels of

 

 

 

 

aSpiration than boys. Since the level of opportunities for
girls, however, is much more limited, the influence of this on
income frustration Wlll be very limited.
75 i . . . .. . -..
senvenuti, BM, Farmingwingu;§pi l Change. Vanuarcum

 

 

 

Assen, N.L., lgél.

35

Occupational and Income Aspirations and Migration_§lgg§

Occupational frustration (whether respondent thinks he
can get the job he aspires to in his home community) and income
frustration (whether the reSpondent thinks he can get the in~
come he wants by staying and working in his home community)
are prOposed here as the major predictors of plans to migraten
They can be considered in isolation from the level of aSplrar
tion in both casesa This is an individualizing “psychological”
approach, focusing on individualistic characteriSticsa without
concern for their Structural antecedentsa but it has generally
been the approach taken by researchers working in this area»
Considered from this point of view, both frustrations can act
togetheroseparatelyr or be altogether absentg When both are
frustrated, there should be a greater tendency to migrate;
than where only one or neither is frustratedo These hypotheses
should be confirmeda but itis obvious that in the search to
summarize ”motives” in this wayc much of the richness and ext
planatory value of the variables has been 108E»

It is proposed that these two variables7 in their
effects on plans to migrates operate relatively independently
of each othero In both casesp frustration of aspirations is
pOSSible at all levels of aSpirationJ although much more likely
at the upper levels“ Howevero at the tpper levels of occupation?
a1 aSpiration, occupational frustration alone is much more
likely to give rise to migration plans» Here soCial mobility
motives are at a maximumd and local opportunities to satisfy
these motives at a minimum” At the lower levels of occupational

aSpiration, it is not the absence of an OCCUpation as such that

3b
is important but the remuneration oi the occupation in col-
parison With Similarly unskilled occupations in alternative
communities” This latter Situation should hold true for a
large sector of the population under study- those who have
had only a primary education: or have had onl/ a minimum of
post primary educationi This group can aspire only to un~
skilled and semi skilled occupations and to lower level ser
Vice occupations“ At this level oi occupationai aSplfdtlonq
income aspirations become very important in predictix.»~ out
migration plans» Great differences in iemuneration for the
same occupation, (particularly manual OCCUpaClOES)J exiSL
between most rural and urban areas in Ireland; and particularly
between rural areas in Ireland and urban areas in Great
Britaini Moreover, the ability to change occupations at the
level of unskilled; semi-skilled and loner level service
occupations in order to profit from higher incomesfi is much
easier than at the higher occupational levels“

Stratifying reSpondents by level of occupational
aspirations; it is expected that: (ll the higher the level oi
occupational aspirationb the greater the proportion o
ents who believe their occupational aspirazions cannot be
achieved locally; (2) inc me frustration lS equally likely a:
all levels of occupational aspirations (3) occupational
frustration, howeverj will be more preiictive of plans to
migrate at the upper than at the lower levels of aspiration:
and (4) income frustration peg §§ will be more pred13t1ve of

plans to micrate at the lower occupational “Spiration levelsi

Attitudes Toward the Communi-y‘s_8oc1al pTCVlSLORS

Arr-l -_r-— .r- firm—- -..—r‘-¢-.-

Even where people erceive that their c t'

J
( 1
Q

T)
DJ
‘4
p.
O
:3
‘1:
PI
m
I)
D;

consumption aspirations cannot be achieved locallyy other
individualp family, and community factors may rule out migraw
tion, And where both aSpirations can be satisfied; dissatis
“ac ion With such community provisrons as educational and
shopping faCilitiesJ roadsy recreation and en+errainnent
faCllltleSfi for exampleg may be suffiCient to bring about

migration to places where these faciliti e

U)

are better providedi
These latter factors have usually been overemphaSized as
”causes" of migration in Ireland.)76 It is prOposed herey how~
every that such prOVisions are so closely related to the
characteristics of the local economic syStem in most casesi
that the former two aspiration variables should at ccount for
most of the variation) It is eXpected that if the effects of
occupational and income frustration are controlled‘7 that such
attitudes toward the communityJS soc1al provrsions will have a
very low correlation with migration plans, or that a correla

tion will be absent altogether:

 

mComiuzu tr Sat-1 S f 22;;- 9:1,,
So far the ccncern has been with instrumental orient-

ations as related primarily to the local economic structured

 

 

 

‘1 t - "T-“ivn‘C—u'. ‘——_o

L

bCommiSSion on Emigration; 935 g ti? on 133, Th
E‘theories” that have guided the poliCies :r he national and
county governments” and rural organizations on rural depopulav
tiona (better roadsfi water supply schemes? parish hallw, etc”?

have generally greatly overemphaSized these factor 8 See 3
Newman” 9p“ £339, for a critiCism of this View and t.he con rary
need for offwfarm occupational opportunities; and (2) VBIC.1U1JJ593
99;.9330, where it is shown that dissatisfaction with such serVices
when OCCUpational he eeds are satisiiel usually does not lead to
migrationr

J11 L;

')

l

«"s
.—

38

There are, however; other variables of importanced and these
should also be related to struc2ural rectors, Community

Satisfaction as it has been previously defined. is one such

H.

variable? The evaluation of the satis accoriness or Currenty

V

J

as a and probably prospective soc1a; relationships and roles

'T

in the local soCial structure? es L.eciall}! in the family and
other primary groupsa should be dependent on the characteris-
tics of the structure itselfa the pOSition of the individual
in itp and the criteria used in evaluation It may be thatg
for farm girlsj the frustration of occupational and income
aSpirations~ though high” is no: as important in plans to

(1+-
huh.

Q}

migrate as are evaluations of the satisfactoxiness of p ,
present” and future roles within a largely traditional family

and community structure. Farm boys2 on the other handn who

have been assigned occupat.ionai roles on the family fanny
should evaluate these struCtures much more poSit ively than
farm girlso It is probablefl too? that such farm boys have
more traditional values than farm giris or others. A 'umber

of American Studies have shown major differerces in the values

of farm boys who plan to farm and those who aspire to non—farm

 

 

 

 

77 . . .. _ ,.
occupationsg' It is highly likely that similar nirierences
exist in Ireland” One would expect then that team boys are
more positively oriented toward their community than :‘e farm

7 7h * h] v. a
see Haller A90 Plannirig to rarrs . buc.al Psyche
logical Interpretorit “ SoCial “3g:gesd ;’1959§p; 263r268:
and his later Studies published in nural gc~~94932, 2533:1960:
ppi 32l 333: and Puiui‘a""*ology# 27:3:1902:pp, 2’5-2935 Kaldor;
gpp pipe, St nwarzwo“e*3 lKjJ ‘Value Ori enta-;cns in Educational
and Occupational ChUlCQSCM Rural bggiglpay 24:l959:pp 408v4253

 

29

V

,-

girls or non tarm boys and girisn

In regard to the direCt role that

plays in migration, the eXpectation is that&

satisfaction with local relationships eXists,

YQ
L

to migrate whether thei aspirations are tits

is eXpeCtedg however, that such

relationships is rare, and that the large ma}

’-

tive migrants would st 11 their ESpirations

:.

aY
On the other hand

ships and to the way of

the influence of fruStrated aspirations in pl
But it is expected that this will not have a

OppoSite and equal influeh ce on the reiation
frustration and migration as had alienation‘
aspect of attachment has been overemphaSized

planations since the notion is so common in

S

that the only function such attachment

is to hold back potential migra ntsp Other st

howeverfl that such high attachments and

7“

actions can persist: especially among family

after some have migrated and members are

78

distancesn‘ Indeedg the ide of

Q:

the perSistence of such at.t.aChm

 

 

 

 

nigh attachment to pa rticulari

cert a: n
inenbersj

semis

Community Satisfacti<2n

where high dis"
people Wlll plan

trated or noto It

alienation from community

ority of prOSpec~

I V
O
(“v " v

SIJ.

we I e

p+
5.,
h-

1c IGIaIlOD“

life of the home community COL .id reduce

ans to migrate‘
correSpondLngly

b

€11. ween occupati onal

Undoubtedly this

re
.J

migration ex:

*he 111'era1'ur'e

perform in migration

udies have shown;
types of inter~
ever-x

rated by gr

aSSI'une-(S

nts afiter migration

’8 dLitwak Edd ”Geographic Mobilit ty azzd Extended camiiy
CoheSion” , Ame riggn Sociological RQVJO 25:19oO:pp3 385-394;
Brown” JOSU, Schwarzweller. H K and JOJ Mangalana Kentucky
Mountain Migrat101 and the Stem Family “‘§q£1Lm§ quv 111 23:

l : l 9 6 3 2 pp) 45%.”.(ng o

"3

v

Q

79 - .
occurs) Crawford has resolved some of the problems here by
shoWing thatf where high attachments are accompanied by eXpec~

nations to migrate on the part of other famiiyinenbersj the

rate of migration is almOSL as great as that where very low

. _ . 80 - .
attachments eXist) It is expected here that such high
attachments will not retard migration where aspirations are

fruStratedc because of Similar counteraCting effeCts of family

eXpectationso

Erlmazy ROie_0bllsasiera

While the influence of Community Satisfaction may have
been overemphasized in migration planning? the influence of
family obligations whicn neceSSitate Staying and working in
the home communityp with some exceptionsfl has not been given
suffiCient attentioni Goldsmith found that this was a very
important variable”81 For farm adolescents who have family
obligations which can only be fulfilled locally it is expected
that the relationship between the perceived local frustration
of aspirations and migration will not hold truew It is hypo~

:hesized that such obligations to the famiiy take precedence

over any persenai aspirationsw The presence of such cbligations

 

 

,- ‘2‘; .W'-' _ _—._-.._ .a-"z'Vn-I‘

 

‘:

.;»a and Hillary:
on systems of the
21965¢ppw 33ffD

See Brown and Schwarzweller7 gpp g

G ADC Brown, Just, and GfiEg De Jongg j‘rvliginiti
Southern Appalacnians,” Bdrai Sociology: 30:1

Cl

80 -
Crawfordy op; git”

8-1 a , - a w - s
Goldsmith, ng pi; , pg 22;; and Goidsmith and

Beegle, eel Ellwv ppu 85~867

LI

41

should be closely related to: (a) the educational level of the
respondent? being largely reSLriCted to the primary educated:
(b) males: (c) reSpondents of farm background: and (d) respondw
ents from large families; who are among the oldest in the family“
The groups having these characteristics are usually Kept on
by the family to help work the farm or household after terms
inating primary educationi

It is thought that these latter three variables; attio
tude toward community servicesp Community Satisfaction, and
Family Obligations, will be much less important for adolescents
currently engaged in postwprimary educationc particularly for
those in secondary schoolso By increasing contacts with
urban areas and bringing about the use of wider frames of
reference in evaluation; such education shouid lower the probe
ability that community attachments would reduce migration, At
the same time? their relatively advantaged pOSition in the
community should reduce alienation” Moreovera the fact that
they are sent on for poet primary education demonstrates that
parents, etci: impose fewer family and local obligations on
them than on their peers who are Kept at home on the farm\

This completes the discuSSion on the rationale for
the hypotheses to be prOposed. The follOWing few pages will
attempt to pull the most relevant of these hypotheses togethera

and to state them in a developmental sequencei

a

.Qefiinitions of Terms USQQiH§Dd Resume of themMaior §¥£9tn95§§

‘ " amt-1.1" .w --

 

The follow1ng section contains both definitions of the

terms used in the hypotheses; and a summary statement of the

42

hypotheses developed in the preVious sectionso The hypotheses

are stated in a developmental sequence; the first dealing with

the relationship between the major independent variables pro~

posed and migration plansa while the succeeding sections deal

with the ways in which both the independent and dependent va:i~

ables are related to some major social structural factors)

Definitions of Terms

13

Occupational and Income Frustrations: Refers to
beliefs about the fulfillment of occupational and
income aspirations in the home communityr Such
beliefs are trichotomised into highg medium and low
levels or frustrationn High levels refer to be»
liefs that aspirations gannot be fulfilled locally,
while low levels of frustration refer to beliefs
that aspirations gag be achievedu Medium levels
refer to cases where respondents are uggggm
whether they can fulfill their aspirations locallyd
ggmmunity Satisf_;tionz Refers to the level of
ttachmen: of respondents to the home community,
as measured by respondents evaluations of the
satisfactoriness of the social relationships there,
Such attachments range from high levels, where
respondents have highly pOSitive evaluaticns of
these relationships, to low levels of attachment,
where reSpondents have highly negative evaluations

of these relationships”

43
A-w‘ v ‘. N A J- }- ~ ‘
gewily ériinefiggg: Reiers re reSpo nden1 beii»rs

about the level cf their obligations to the 1mm8d1*

ate family. High levels of obligation refer to
Spondents whose worx obligations to the family

are such that tr.es e can only be carried out if they

obii

H.

remain in the home community” Low levels 0
gation refer to Situations where re mp onden's have

no or very low levels of obligations] and these do
not require that they remain in the home communityt

Medium levels refer to intermediate poSitions be~

tween these twee

7

fiftit ude Tcward the Communityjs Soc1al Proxicig

_.r- w. u wig-.5; 'wm W1. A .2! 'a' rI-J—J Pam—12.21 - 7‘3??? L A”.

LL

3-:
C p

‘ T1‘~

N

or Comm unity Evalu we ion; Refers to respondenfs
evaluations of the ade uacy cf the local community s
SOClal proVisionsi These evaluations may range from

highly positive to highly negative”

50 Migragiqn _lans; Refers to respondentsi statements

about nigrafion intent 5 These are trichctemized

(D
1..
:V,
LQ
" V
in,

into (1) definite intention te migrat
(2) indeIinite whether to migrEte or net, and (3)

definite intention to remain locally (lcwlu

4,; same see
is Plans to migrate will be direCtly rtii*ed To
the JG\el of cccupationai fZQSZraLlan

gr ate Will be dire t‘y related to
f income frus: ra‘iori

3: Plans to migrate will be inversely iriafied to
.he level of Community Satisfac.iono

4: Plans to migrate

Wl' J. J. re:
the level if Family Caliga ioi

 

‘W l-r-l'; m:

_gs ggfluenc; ng_the Dep epdent_end Major Iggependent

 

N o 5 :
The Relative_Pr
Nod 62
Nos 7:
Nov 8:
N00 9:
Strucgpral Fact
Zealellléiéi

.13
J3

1

Plans to migrate Will be inver seiy related to
t rle leVEi of Community Eval iation

§1C11_e bilit y of the_ Inst _d tyargahies

Occupational and income frustration will be
more highly prediCtive of plans to migrate
than will any of the other variables“

Controlling for levels of Conimunity Satisfaction:
t.he lower the level of Satis fact lon~-the less
pres ictive are OCCUpationa‘ and income frustra~
tion of plans to migrate

Controlling for levels of Family Obli.gafions:

the higher the level of Family Obligations,

the less predictive are occupations and income
:ustrations of plans to migrated

The total proportion of migration plans explained
by low levels of CommuniI7 y SaIisfaction (those
who plan to migrate irreSpective of other fac tors)
and by high levels of Family Obligations (those
who plan to stay irreSpeotive of Other factors)
will be considerably less than that eXplained

by the frustration of OCCUpational and income
aspirationsi

(a) The Level of_ Occupational Asoira.itn aggmggggaiiona;
Level A nieved$

Noso

w

Moo

 

M“ ‘

lO and 113 The higher the level of occupational

a A
‘4.
u.

and income aspirationj the higher the level of
frustration; and therefore? the greater the
tendency to plan to migrate.

Corollary: The higher the level of educationp
the higher the level of occupational and income
frustration: and thereforeg the greater the
tendency to plan to migrate)

The higher the level of occupational aSpirationp
the more predictive occupational frus tration
will be of plans to migrated

The lower the level of occupat i.onai aSpiration,
the more prediCtive income fruStration W111 be
of plans to migrate;

Corollary to 12 and 13; The higher the level of educaw

tion the more predictive occupational frustra«
tion will be of plans to migrate

45

N00 14: High levels of Family Obligations will be
generally restricted to farm males, who have
only had a primary education and who work on
the home farmm

(b) The Sex; Educationy and Ogggpational Backgroundmgf
Respondents”

 

 

N00 15: Farm females will plan to migrate more than
farm males: while nonefarm males and females
Wlll plan to migrate in about equal proportionsr

Now 16: The level of occupational frustration of farm
females will be greater than that of farm males:
there will be no difference in the level of
frustration of non farm males and females?

Noo 17: The level of Community Satisfaction will be
greater among farm males than farm females;
there will be no difference among non farm
males and females in this respect”

N00 18: DissatisfaCtion with the Community“s Social
PrOVisions will be higher among farm females
than farm males: there will be no difference
among non-farm males and females in this reSpecto

N00 19: At the secondary level of educationc the inci»

dence of occupational frustration will be the
same for both males and females: hence, there

will be no difference in the proportions of
each sex who plan to migrateo

Noo 20: At the vocational level of educationg the inr-
cidence of occupational frustration Will be
greater among females than among males: hencea
more females than males will plan to migratei

N
f...»
0.

N00 Controlling for all reSpondents seeking offw
farm employmenta and for those who have
received only a primary education? more males
than females will be frustrated in their
occupational aSpirationsp and consequently,
more of the males will plan to migrate”

N00 2 The level of migration plans of females will
be directly related to the level of education
received:

[\3
00

N00 23: The proportion of males receiVing a secondary
education, who plan to migrate will be greater
than the prOportion planning to migrate from
vocational and primary educated levelso But
those who receive only a primary education]
and are not working on the home farma will
plan to migrate in greater proportions than
will those who receive a vocational education“

(C)

N00

N00

No.

N00

N09

(d) The

N00

46

Distance from the Centre and FaCtors Affecting
Migration Planso

24:

25:

26:

27:

28:

The level of occupational and income frustra‘
tion will be directly related to distance of
reSpondents' homes from the centero

The level of Community Satisfaction and Com—
munity Evaluation will be inversely related to
distance of reSpondentsa homes from the centre
for femalesa and directly related to distance
from the centre for maleso

The level of Family Obligations will be
directly related to distance from the centre
for maleso

The proportions of total reSpondents planning
to migrate will be directly related to distance
of the respondents“ homes from the centreo

The differences between males and females in
their levels of occupational and income
frustration, and of plans to migrate, will
increase with the distance of reSpondents'
homes from the centreo

Cultural_9r;entation of Families} and the

Major Factors AffeCting Migration Plans

29:

Controlling for education: youth from tradi*4
tional families as compared to those from
“modern” families” will exhibit:

(a) lower levels of occupational and income
aspirationso

(b) lower levels of income and occupational
frustrationo

(c) higher levels of Community Satisfaction,
and Community Evaluationo

(d) as a result of these differences, a much
lower proportion will plan to migrate”

Structural Factors Influencing the Level of Edggafion Received
by Adolescents

The probability of receiving a postwprimary education

will

be:

(a) directly related to the social status level of
adolescents0 families“

47

(b) related to sexo Farm females will receive a
better education than farm malesi

(c) inversely related to the Size of the familyr

(d) inversely related to the birth order of the lhdl‘
vidual in the familyo

(e) inversely related to the distance of homes from

the centreo
Organization of the Thesis»

In Chapter oneo the problem was stated, a theoretical
framework for its analySis was presentedj and twentywnine hypOm
theses were formulated” Chapter two describes the research
design, the data collection process” and some charaCteristics
of the population focused upono The educational mobility of an
adolescent five-year cohort from this population is described
in Chapter three? and the major social factors affecting
variations in this mobility analyzedi The results and teSts
of the major hypotheses dealing with migration planning are
presented in Chapter fouro In Chapter fivea these results will
be summarized and evaluated in terms of the theoretical model

prOposed, and the changes necessary in this framework discussed?

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

Introduction: The Overall DeSign

 

 

While numerous alternative designs were COHSldGIEdJ it
was decided early in the research to confine the investigation
to a single community; situated in a region of the country
where there had been heavy outmigrationn Although every commun»
ity has important relationships with othersg most Irish rural
communities can be considered as relatively correSpondent
microcosms of the larger rural societyo Although relationships
and trends observed in any particular community cannot be freely
generalized to the rural society at largeo nevertheless these
can be studied more intensively in a small homogeneous areao
Furthermore, in such a site: the influence of structural and
ecological variables on occupational and educational Opportun~
ities and migration planning can be more precisely observedo
This would be true particularly in cases where all educational
serviceso and most off~farm occupational Opportunities are conw
centrated in the centreo If a sample survey of the country or
region were attempted the problems of measuring the ecological
variable and assessing its influence would be maXimized;
whereas a community study minimizes these problems” These con«

siderations led to the adOption of a community approach to the

48

49

problemo Moreover, the requirement that educational services
be concentrated in the community centre limited the study to
a small number of centres.l Brief surveys were carried out to
assess the suitability of each of these, and eventually, Cavan
was chosen as the most suitable oneo

The areas excluded from consideration by this communw
ity approach may not all be situated within similar, easily
definable service communities. Educational services in parti-
cular are not always so neatly concentrated as in the community
selected for studyo In fact, for the areas immediately outside
the boundaries of this community, the schools attended by
secondary school students are very widely distributed geo-
graphically. Outside primary service areas, like that of
Cavan, the degree of concentration of services in one centre
declines. It is possible that limiting this study to such a
tightly organized community might underestimate the importance
of some variables in migration decision-making, especially
attitudes such as those toward community facilities and institu~
tions. It is conceivable that these variables might be more
important in more remote and more disadvantaged areas of the
country, but in view of the arguments preposed in the first
chapter, this is unlikely to be the caseo

Cavan, the centre chosen, is seventy miles northwest

of Dublin, (See map 2 overleaf) It has a population of 3,200,

 

lCastlebar, Roscommon, Longford and Cavan,

M43 3

 

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52

and it is a major service centre for the surrounding farm areas.
In this part of the country, Open country dwellers comprise al-
most 75%.of the total pOpulation, and over 60%Iof the popula-
tion is dependent on farming for a livingo From an ecological
point of view, Cavan is a very suitable centre because the
major county vocational school and four secondary schools are
located thereo Since the nearest vocational schools are 10 to
15 miles away at Belturbet and Kilnaleck, and the nearest
secondary schools are 15 to 20 miles away at BallyJamesduff
and Cootehill, there is a large area surrounding Cavan which
is dependent on its educational serviceso The previoua two
maps show the location of Cavan in relation to Dublin, and
the surrounding smaller centres and educational institutionso

The boundaries of the community were determined on
the basis of a single service: secondary school educationo
This service community included the area surrounding the centre
within which most secondary school service needs were satisfied.
Primary school areas surrounding the centre were the basic
units chosen to determine the boundaries of the communityo
Those schools with 50% or more of their secondary educated
ex-students receiving an education at schools in the centre,
were considered to be within the community. Primary schools
that had sent a majority of their secondary school students to
other schools were then excluded from the communityo A survey
of 102 primary schools was carried out to determine the loca-
tions of the secondary schools attended by ex-studentso Fifty»

two primary schools surrounding the centre met the required

53

criteria for inclusion within the service community and these
primary school areas formed an uninterrupted territory around
the centre. However, population figures are not given for
these small school areas. Since such data are required for
descriptive and comparative purposes, it was decided to use
the District Electoral Division areas, as used in the Census
reports, within which these school areas were included, A
total of 25 Divisions were included in all, each of which con-
tained approximately two primary school areaso

As the result of this primary school survey, a complete
enumeration was obtained of all former students from the commun-
ity who had completed their primary education in the previous
five years. Additional data were also secured on the social
background characteristics and the postwprimary educational,
occupational and residence movements of these former students,
Subsequently, a sample of these school leavers was interviewed
to gather information on migration decision makingo

The following sections will deal with: (1) some demo-
graphic and ecological characteristics of the county and com-
munity population selected for study: (2) characteristics of
the five year cohort of former primary school students; (3) the
procedures used for gathering the data; and (4) the operation-

alization of the major variables used,
General Description of the County and Community Population

One of the three counties of Ulster situated within the
Republic, Cavan is cut off from its northern neighbours by a

political bordero This has had deleterious economic and social

54
effects on some towns and communities in the northern part of
the county, In this area some towns have been cut off from
part of their previous trade hinterlands, and some rural
areas have been separated from their previous centreso Within
the Republic, it is situated in one of the most rural, most
farm dependent, and poorest regions of the countryo This
region, mainly comprising the provinces of Connaught and Ulster,
has been suffering the heaviest rates of outmigration for the
past few decadeso A comparison of several statistics for the
county with those for other counties of the region and the
country as a whole, as shown in Table 1, brings out these
characteristics of the county and the region very clearly.

If the counties of Sligo and Galway are excluded from
the Connaught data, over 74% of the population of the remaining
counties of Connaught and Ulster live in the open country, and
over 60% of the population depend on farmingo These farms are
primarily family farms, since little more than 5% of the total
male farm labor force are fully employed farm labourerso The
farms also are very small, with over 65% of the farm pOpulation
living on farms of under 20 Pounds valuation, compared to a
national average of approximately 50%, Agricultural and non-
agricultural incomes are also among the lowest in the countryo
As a result of all these cumulative disadvantages, this whole
region has been suffering the greatest rates of outmigration
of the whole country for the past few decades, with county
rates_of from 25% to 100% higher than that of the country as a

whole.

55

.ma .d ,NH mamas .Homa ~“Somme snaggefiamum . umH

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

r

OAmmHucsouImv runmdmccoo no mocw>oum mnu cam Ammaucsou my

rcofiumHsmom mo mowcmu ocm “mma em ~NH magma ..uHo Mmo .H .H0> ocoHDMHSQom m0 mamcmm am
0am .d .NH mamas .moma ,NH ,oz ummmm musuwuwCH
coummmmm oflEocoom .ooma CH mmEOUCH mucsoo anuH ,.o.m ransom pew .o¢.m .ooosuu¢ om
.Hmauoma Add rm magma .ouuo «mo .Hmma .m oao> .coHumHsmom um msmcmo ow
,on ,n ,mm magma .cuanso .muuuuo sumcoHumum comma amouumwumpm amusuasuwuma om
.mmauoma one .s magma
.mmma ,moamuo mumcoflumum omcoHumesooo .Homa .m aao> opcmamHH mo COHDMHSQOMIMO momcmu om
meImH .mn .m magma
,mmmH ,cwabso ,muumuo sumcoHumum .Homa .H .Ho> ,gcmamuH mo scupmaamom to msmcmo 0H
m.¢a e.ma 5mm so.mv sm.ma mm.qm smomv suucsoo
amuoa
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unmsmccoo
n.0m o.ma omm Xmomo Xm.o Rm.mm Room Aomoo my
wounds
meam m.ma 5mm Rvovm xmoo Xm.oo Kn dm>mo .00
kuom. omnamma mocsom -
10V Ame Avv Ame “NV Adv
musuasuwumd mcweumm
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.moa mmmum>m mo commmm om Mruoocs new mmame locmdmo
ooota umm mumm new mamE mo memo“ annoy mo coHu
COHumumflEm mo Hod mnsu c0 coHDmao mumusonmn IMHSQOQ .oootm um>o
mmumn Hmsccm aasofium¢ smog Eumu .uaumd Hmuou mo mason CH
mmmum>¢ ca mEOUCH Hmuou “0.x ucmcmeumd x mnp_uo x cofiumHsdom X mmu¢

umumaa mo moca>oum on» .cm>mo .00 m0 COHumHSQOQ mnu no muaumwnmuomumno mEOmlgoH manna

56

Table 2 sets out the characteristics of the community
selected within Coo Cavan. The various statistics were come
puted from unpublished District Electoral Division data
supplied by the Central Statistics Office, These districts
were arranged in distance bands from the centre, Since the
distances of each primary school from the centre had been
measured, and there were approximately 2m3 of these in each
D,E,D,, the average school distance per D,E,D, was used as the
relevant statistic here,2

As distance from the centre increases, the proportion
of the population dependent on agriculture also increases,
This holds true both for the percentage of the household heads,
and the percentage of the male labor force employed in agri-
culture. The differences between these two figures gives some
indication of the prOportion of males resident in farm house_
holds who hold jobs off the farm, That is, if we assume that
there are approximately as many employed males in both farm
and non-farm households within each distance level, The
differences between these percentages decreases with increasing

distance from the centre, as indicated below:

Up to 2 miles the difference is 22,6%
From 3 to 5 miles 1108%
From 6 to 10 miles 8,8%
And over 10 miles 9,7%

 

2Unfortunately, two D,E.D,'s, Larah and Corr, were ex-
cluded from the table because the researcher did not extract
data on these, having assumed at the time that they fell out-
side the community boundaries. One of these falls in band 4,
the other in band 5, However, both of them are very rural,
and their exclusion should not materially affect the argument.

57

.HCOw anEdC UCCQ CH mHHmm mco
MOM H xHocmdd< mom

,m>Hm CCwQ CH nonuo

 

nomooHoxm mum mmgmq UCm uuou m.,Q.meQ 039 (mHHmumU
,mumo omnmuansncs soup muwuuo muHumupmum Hmuucmo asp sh emwaansm.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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sooma mmnms Rooms . se.va «mm.om enm.oo cm>moooo .m
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x~4mm xH-mo xmqmm Roomm wmoh mmmm Wowm témnummo on»
Eouw mmHHE 0H
Hm>0 COHUMHSQOQ
nm>o ocm OOOH
Mo mCBOD 039 .m
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mCu Eouu
um>o ocm mmHHE
OH mUUHuumHQ om
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mCu Sou“ mmHHE
OHlo ocmn
CH muUHHUmHQ av
fimomH Xvomh RooHn xmomm &N.HH nmmw ommv .muquo on» mCH
IUCCOHHSm mmHHz
m on m camp
CH muoHuumHQ .m
xoomm Xmomn Xnome xmomo Xo.HH wmnH mHom .oHDCmo mcu
mCHUCCOHusm
mpUHuumHQ Hausm
«mnucmo on» Eoum
mmHHE N on no .N
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uOaN vH “00>
um>o mmHmsom ea nm>o
Hmuoa uo mmHmEmm musuHso
.mCoHumaCooo Hmuoe mo sHumC CH
EHCMICOZ tomHQCUUO UmmoHQEm
CH odesouo haasw .pdesuuo .mumeumm mum
mHasucho ucho no: maasucho pan» mommm ,HomHIHmmH
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HomH a moHumHumuumuMCUIflmmemmmnouo mNHm CoHDMHmmom mend

 

 

qmoHpmHumuomumco HmcoHDMQCooo oCm

«HomHuHmmH CH mmcmno new mmwm coHu

nMHCQOQ .muucmo 0CD Bonn mUCMDmHo an CoHumHsmom m.>uHCsEEoo mCu mo moHumHuouomumnoiuom mHQmB

58

These figures demonstrate very clearly that off-farm
Opportunities decline rapidly with increasing distance from
the centre, Similar trends appear in the data for females,
The proportion of females engaged full time in household
duties rises with increasing distance from the centre, and
the proportion of females having Offmfarm occupations consistm
ently decreases, All these figures clearly demonstrate the
great importance of ecological factors in the distribution of
occupational Opportunities in rural areas, and, consequently,
the importance of this factor in influencing outmigration,

A comparison of the community with the county as a
whole, however, indicates that it is a more advantaged part of
the county, It has approximately 10% more Of the male labour
force engaged in nonwfarm pursuits, than has the county pOpulan
tion, and nearly 4% more of the female labour force, Perhaps
it is partly as a result that there is less outvmigration from
this part Of the county, The similarity of the county populafl
tion to the provincial figures is also clearly demonstrated,
Furthermore, a comparison Of the provincial and the national
figures in the two tables clearly shows how disadvantaged the
whole region is in terms of general economic and social

characteristics,
The POpulation Selected for Study

Since the Study was focused on migration deCJsionm
making among adolescents who had nOt yet taken up a permanent

adult occupation, the problem largely dictated selection of

59
the population, It was felt that an adolescent age group of
from 13 to 19 was the one which fiISt wrestled with the problem
of migration, Very few of an earlier age had migrated, and
older age groups were already highly selected out by previous
migration, Information on the migration motives of these
older age groups, already highly selected by previous migration,
could not be generalized to all adolescents growing up in the
areao Moreover, the slightly older age group of 16~20 is one
Of the major groups in which migration occurs,3 All these con~
siderations combined to focus attention On an age group which
had not yet started to migrate on a subStantial scale, but
which had already become highly involved in occupationa ai and
migration deciSionmmaKing, The following two sections describe
first the overall age group upon which the study focused, and
secondly the sample selected from this for intensive personal

interviewingo

22g_Tota1 Cohort

In order to o tain a complete enumeration of all adoles~
cents in the area and an overall view of their mobility, it was
decided to gather limited information on all adolescents from
the community who had terminated their primary education in

the previous five years, For this purpose, a survey Of over

 

3Commission on Emigration and Other Populati n Problems,
1948-1954, Reports, Government PublicatiOns Office, Dublin,
(No date given). pp, 122 123,

 

60
100 primary schools in the area around the centre was carried
out between September and December of 1964, Of these schools,
52 fell within the community boundaries, These were the primary
schools whose secondary educated former Students had in the
majority gone to schools in the centre, The areas served by
these primary schools formed an intaCt territory surrounding
the centre, Map 2 shows the boundaries of the community and
the following table (Table 3) sets out some characteristics of
the schools,

Over twosthirds of the 52 schools falling within this
secondary school service area, were one or two room schools
located primarily in the open country, Over tWO'thirdS of all
school leavers came from these schools, The larger schools
were Situated in the centre or in the neighbouring small towns,
All but eight of the schools were coeducational,

Table 3,~~Characteristics of primary schools within the community,

Size of schools, and number of Students who have finished their
education in the period 1960:64,

ans—rurmf‘fu -r*r— “_Lm-m'«x—1<ml'z:w m.’ —: -r t' - I-finw ‘wcw
- —m". «twitzfi—N "tun; - an rum .ll u“... I Iur-qz-v—'- u.- .111; "—CIK. —-lol-'r—n—-‘:I:

 

 

 

 

 

fifimber—Sf
Size Of School Number of Schools Students finished
there in the

perigd l960wlgp4,

 

One Teacher Schools 21 218
Two Teacher Schools 26 784
Three Teacher Schools i 33
Four Teacher Schools 1 66
Five Teacher Schools 1 67
Six Teacher Schools 1 175
Thirteen Teache; ScthlS_ l 142

 

Total 52 1,485

 

6i

Table 4 gives a breakdown of the population of ex~
Students by fathers‘ occupation” The percentage of adolescents
from a farm background is much smaller? (47% , than the perv
centage of farm households in the community (66%)) This may
be accounted for by the older age of the heads of farm house~
hold and the lower proportion of them who are marriedr Of
these adolescents 37% went to secondary schools after complete
ing their primary education: 36% went to vocational scnoolsc
and the remaining 27% terminated their education at the primary
level, Chapter three includes an analySis of the relationships
between these educational movements and some selected soc1al
background factors,

The seleCtion of a sample of respondents from this age
group for intensive interViewing about migration planning will
be described in the next SGCZlOnn
Table 4jvaarental occupations of all adolescents who had

graduated from primary schools in the area in the
period 1960‘1964r

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Occupation of Father or Guardiah‘ % 0 total adolescents
jN = 11485_stggehgslfl_ by occupation of parents__
Farmers 47HO%
ProfeSSional and Semi Profs 4‘2%
Employers, Managers and
PrOprietorsrnt 8TO%

Intermediate Non Manual Workers 3JO%

Total §9n~Mahy§lugcgupatigps l5;2% 15j2%
Skilled Manual Workers 7m2%
Service and Sales Workers 6~5%
Semi Skilled Manual Workers 4‘7%
Unskilled Manual Workers 16.8%

Total Manual and Service Occupations 35 2% 35 2%
Other 2‘7% - 242%

 

TOtal loorifin__

62

The Population InterViewed

 

While doing exploratory fieldwork in outside areas, a
number of problems were uncovered in selecting a suitable
pOpulation for an intenSive interview study of migration
decision~makingr The youngeSt of the cohort focused upon
(14w18 year-olds) have given very little consideration to
occupational or migration decision‘making for at leaSt one
year after leaVing primary school, This was eSpecially
true for adolescents in their first of five years in second-
ary schools? It was less true of first year students in
vocational schoolsfl which offer only a course of two or three
yearso But in this case; and in the case of Similar youth
who had received no postrprimary education, such decision~
making was not of critical interest and they did not appear
to have yet entered the ”tentative stage” of occupational
deciSionnmaking.4 Such deciSionsg however; had become much
more relevant and had been much more fully considered by those
youth who had left primary schools two to three years previous~
1y (except for those who had gone on to secondary schools)o
On the other handy a considerable proportion of older youth who
had left primary schools four to five years previous to the bev
ginning of the Study had already migratedr It would be not
only difficult to locate these, but their major occupational

and migration decisions had already been made and acted upon.

 

4Burchinalq L3G», Care§£“Choices of Rural Youth in a
Changing SOC1etyu AUEQS, Bulla 4589 Minnesota: November,
19620

 

3

0‘

Although a representative sample of the total age cohort had
originally been conSidered the best sampling plan, it was sub-
sequently rejected? both because a large proportion of older
youth had already migrated and because occupational deciSion-
making was very poorly developed in the younger members) For
taese reasons it was deCided to focus attention on that part
of the age cohort whose members were seriously engaged in
occupational and migration decisionrmaking} but who had not as
yet acted on these GEClSiOHSJ

For those £92 in secondary schools, this population
included all adolescents who had terminated their primary edu«
cation in 1962 and 1963” This pOpulation included all second
and third year vocational school students; all those who had
received only a primary education and had left school two to
three years previously, and all 3dropouts° from vocational and
secondary schools who had finished their primary education at
the same timer The secondary educated group complicated the
selection of a homogeneous age groupo Since secondary schools
offer a five to six year course7 occupational deciSionmmaking
does not become relevant for such students until they have
reached at least the fourth or fifth year“ The fourth” fifth,
and sixth year students, where presentp then were the ones
chosenw although it was recognized that these age differences
might themselves be important variables” Neverthelessg these
students were the functionally equivalent pOpulation in second-
ary schools and their selection posed fewer conceptual and

operational problems than did any alternativeo The overall

64

Table 59®~Characteristics and numbers of adolescents selected
for interviewingo

 

Characteristics Numbers

 

at All students from the community who had
finished their primary education in
1960-61? and then in the two final years
at secondary school in the centre? 126

b. All students from the community who had
finished their primary education in the
years 1960 and 19619 and then at
secondary school elsewhere‘ 29

ca All students from the community who had
finished their primary education in
1962 and 19630 and then in their
second and third years at vocational
school in the centre, 74

p,

All students from the communityg who had
finished their primary education in the

years 1962 and 19630 and then attending
vocational schools elsewhereo 26

e9 All adolescents from the communityc then
working” who had graduated from primary
schools in 1962 and 19630 Includes all
those who did not receive any post~
primary education and those who had
dr0pped out from postprimary education” 250

 

Total number to be interviewed 505

5There are four secondary schools in the centrei One
is a Catholic diocesan school for boys? Sta Patricks; one is
a Protestant coeducational school; the Royal School? and there
are two Catholic girlsa schoolsg Loreto Collegep and Sta Clareso
The last mentioned is a day schoolo while the other three have
boarding facilitiesfi There are approx1mately 450 pupils in
these schools from the communityo There is one vocational
school in the centre which provided a two to three year course
for 165 students from the communityq There is one other
vocational school within the community at Belturbetg and two
other ones Just outside its boundaries attract some students
from the community)

65

pepulaticn seleCted then; is the one which was then actively en-
gaged in occupational planning? and generally one which had not
yet assumed a permanent OCCUpationQ Some characteristics of
the population interviewed are presented in Table 50

Unfortunately? this population selected for Study eX’
cluded a number of adolescents who had left secondary schools
between their third and fifth yearso Howevery in the only
school where this was a problemn interviews were also conducted
with all thirdwyear studentso This population also excluded
all those school leavers who had already migratedo These
numbered an additional 19 in all; ioevp 307% of the total
populationo Despite these drawbacks? however.7 this population

is probably the best compromise availableo

Data Gathering: Procedure§_and Problems

The Primary School Survey

In order to gather information on all esttudents who
had left primary schools in the area Within the previous five
yearsa a comprehensive survey of over 100 schools was carried
out between September and December of 19640 From this data”
the boundaries of the community were established” and it was
found that 52 schools fell within the community boundarieso

The information required was supplied by the school
principal? or was gleaned directly from the school recordso
The names and addresses of all schools7 school managers and
school principals in the area were made available by the

Department of Education; whose officers gave every assistance

66

to the surveyo Because of this support the assistance of the
school managers and principals was greatly facilitated, and
access to the school records was ensuredo A comprehensive
national study of the tetal school system had just been com~
pleted by an OGEWCWDG team working in cooperation with the
Department of Educationo For this reasong school managers,
principalso and teachers were conversant with similar types of
research” and this also facilitated accessq The COOperation
of the local branch of the Irish National Teachers Organization
was also obtained, and this proved helpful in some casesa As
a result, out of 102 schools visitedo only one refused to co-
Operate and this one fell outside the boundaries of the commun~
ity as subsequently delineated0

The following information was obtained on all students
who had finished their education in these schools in the pren
vious five years“
(1960-1964 inclusive)o

a9 Name and address of each student” and the name of

head of householdo

b0 Year finished in schoolg and grade reached”

co Sex and age of studento

do Attendance record in school”

en Results of examinationso

f¢ Teachersj evaluation of student3s abilityo

go Occupation of student‘s fathero

ho Number of other children in the student“s familyg

and their birth order”

67
10 Subsequent education, if any, the ex-student received
after leaving primary schoolo Occupation, if any,
that had been taken upo

Jo Residence movements, if any, that had been made.

Additional data were also secured on each school: size
of school, distance from Cavan, age of principal teacher, and
number of years of teaching eXperience, etc. Some information
was also gathered on the community in which the school was
located: number of organizations present, type and quantity
of social provisions, etco Information on the social character-
istics of students was obtained primarily from the school
records or the school principalo Any additional data required
was obtained from school children, such as sibs, friends or
neighbours of ex-students° This latter source of information
proved important for data on the educational, occupational and
residence movements of ex-students, especially where the
teacher was not a resident of the area or where he had only
recently taken up the posto If the parents were farmers, the
size and valuation of the farm was obtained from the records
in the county rates officeo

Much of the information secured from the primary school
records and teachers was subsequently chedked against somewhat
similar information supplied by the secondary and vocational
schools, and information later obtained personally from the
respondentso How accurate was this initial information? The
last four items in the above list are the important ones here,

since the other pieces of information were available from the

68

school records, Assuming that the information obtained
directly from respondents was the most accurate, for the 450
students later interviewed from this community, the following
errors occurred in the original data gathered in the primary
school survey. The following categories are compared: the
occupation of students“ fathers, the later education achieved
and the occupations subsequently taken up by school leaverso

The number of errors in each case refer to errors in
the coding categories, In the case of occupations, this
refers to the occupational category. There were a total of
nine of these arranged in a ranked order of status, according
to the North—Hatt scale, Of the 62 errors here, 26 were with~
in one category of the ltruen one, and 37 were within two
categories, Over two—thirds of the errors were made in the
farmer or manual categories, Although the unskilled, semi-
skilled and skilled manual occupations comprised only 29% of
the total paternal occupations, 50% of all errors occurred in
these categories, Apparently as the social distance of the
fathers“ occupations declines below that of the teachers own
status the chance of error increases, These errors, also,
occurred primarily in the larger schools, particularly in
schools located in the centre, Mistakes were minimal in the
smaller schools, especially if the teacher had been resident
or teaching there a long time, Most of the errors were in the
conservative direction, For over two-thirds of the total
errors, teachers gave occupations which were lower in status

than was actually the case. Although the total error proportion

69
is large for parental occupation, these characteristics of
the errors should greatly reduce their total significance,
Table 6,m-The accuracy of information supplied by the school
principals, or gathered from school records, Number

of errors made, An error exists where there is a
difference between the report of the teacher and the

 

   

 

 

 

 

reSpondent,
Occupation of father Education of res— Occupation of res-
of respondent: No, pondento lst year pondent receiving
and proportion of after leaving pri- only a primary
errors, mary school, No, education, lst year
and proportion of of work, No, and
_i errors, progortign of errggs,
N % Total Res- N % Total Res— N % Total Res-
ponses compared ponses compared ponses compared
62 13,8% 25 5,1% 29 6,4%

 

In regard to educational movement, 60% of the total
errors occurred in the number of years of postprimary education
received by the reSpondent , and the remainder in the type of
education received, These latter errors occurred almost ex-
clusively among those students who were alleged to have had
either a secondary education, or a primary education, Most of
these errors were also in the conservative direction: that is,
educational levels were given which were lower than was actually
the caseo

In regard to the occupation of reSpondents who had not
gone on to postprimary schools, 6,4% of total reSponses were
errors, However, of all subjects who had taken a job, 15,7% of
these responses were errors, Forty-six percent of these were

due to errors in education? 9 being classified as workers who

70
were actually in school, and 23 working respondents were class-
ified as in schoolo

The total error level in family size and position of
the student in the family cycle reached 10%, There was very
little gross error in family cycle, and the major error in
family size occurred in underestimating the size,

Overall a gross error of about 10-15% can be expected
in the data supplied by teachers, These errors are, however,
mainly in the conservative direction, particularly for OCCUpa-
tion of father, education of students, and size of familyo
These errors should act, therefore, to reduce any relationship
between occupation of father, size of family, and education of
children, If the information had been more accurate, any posi-
tive relationship would have been more pronounced, For the
450 community adolescents later interviewed, discrepancies in
the information supplied by the teacher were corrected and this
should reduce the error level to 10% or lower, However, data
on the occupations and residences of ex-students, who have
been out of primary school for over one year, is suSpect,

particularly for the larger schools,

lpterviewing Respondents: Procedures and Problems

 

 

The instrument was pretested on a similar population
in outside areas, It was revised several times, first after
20 interviews in Co, Mayo, and again after interviewing 15 res~
pondents in another part of Co, Cavan with the corrected
schedule, Further corrections were then made, and the final

form of the schedule was prepared,

71

The instrument was designed both as an administered
questionnaire and as an interviewing schedule, The former was
used for those respondents currently in secondary and vocational
schools, while other respondents were interviewed in their
homes or at their places of employment, if that proved agree“
able to the employer, This latter setting was found to be
more satisfactory in most cases, This was particularly true
for poorer families who did not have a separate living room or
sitting room in the house, where the interview could be carried
out free from interference, If the interviewer was a female,
this did not prove a major problem, because the interview
could then be carried out without embarrassment to the reSpond-
ent, in the open air, if the weather was favourable, or in the
interviewer°s car if not, In several cases, however, inter~
viewing problems arose because of the interviewing situation,
In two cases, a male interviewer attempted to interview a
female respondent in a car on the public road, It quickly bew
came obvious that this was a very embarrassing situation for
female respondents, and this approach naturally resulted in
very poor interviews, In some other cases, other family members
were present during the interview, This caused difficulties
with questions about parental and family influences, and about
reSpondent s own intentions and attitudes, where these might
have diverged from parental expectations, Many of these prob-
lems can be avoided by very careful attention to the Structure
of the interViewing Situation: by adjusting the resources of

the interViewing team to suit the situation, and by careful

72
scheduling of interviews to suit weather and light conditions,
etc, However, most of these problems could not have been
foreseen in the present case,

Locating respondents in the field survey was not very
difficult, The name of the head of household and the townland
address had been secured from the school records, and lwinch
Townland Index maps were used by the interviewers to locate
these, With some experience interviewers could easily locate
townlands, and once there, there was usually no difficulty in
finding the household since townlands usually contain a small
number of households, That this approach was successful is
shown by the fact that out of a total of 240 field interviews
attempted, it proved impossible to locate four households, In
these cases either the family name or address was incorrect,
If place of work was known, interviews were attempted there,
Usually the proprietors of shOps, garages, and other work
places were willing to have employees interviewed while at
work, Generally this interviewing situation proved satisfactory,

In the early phase of interviewing some problems
occurred in gaining access and establishing legitimacy, As
the study had the blessing of the Department of Education, this
name was used in the first few days of interviewing to help
establish the legitimacy of the study, It was also explained
that the names of the selected reSpondents had been obtained
from the primary school rolls, This information and the
general purposes of the study were always eXplained first to

respondents“ parents in order to get their permission to interview,

73
On the second day of interviewing, this procedure was adOpted
in one farm household, and the interviewer received the
father‘s permission to interview his son. Since the son was
not present, a tentative appointment was made for the following
day, On returning for the interview, the prOSpective respondent
was very emphatic in his refusal to cooperate, maintaining that
he had no intention of returning to school, despite the wishes
of the Department of Education, This misinterpretation was
buttressed by the fact that the young man had attended vocation-
al school for only a few weeks, although his parents would have
liked him to continue, It soon became apparent also that this
respondent had not kept his opinions of the survey to himself,
because two neighbouring reSpondents were equally unwilling to
cooperate for somewhat similar reasons, The relationship of
the survey to any educational institution was never emphasized
in subsequent interviews, Almost all of the direct refusals,
and a number of those who could not be contacted even after
repeated return visits, (in many cases an indirect refusal),
were due to similar misunderstandings of the purposes of the
survey, despite the fact that great care was taken to aVOid
this,

The following table (Table 7) sets out the number of
respondents interviewed, and the number of refusals, repeated
unsuccessful "callbacks”, respondents who were not traceable,
etc° Almost 12% of the total 505 were not interviewed for
these reasons, However, 110 "extra" interviews were obtained,

largely from students present in local secondary and vocational

74
schools, who were from areas in Co, Cavan ju-t outside the com~
munity boundaries, These additional interviews can be used to

test hypotheses which are not related to ecological faCtors,

Table 7,m~Number and characteristics of the population inter-

 

viewed, and of prOSpective reSpondents not contaCted,
WWm-zmfi‘—m~u ‘ _ 3, :;.-.--
Situation InterViewed Nos.Interm Nos, not Nos, Interw
viewed from contaCted viewed from
the commun- from the areas out‘
ity community, Side the

ESEEEBA£14.

 

§econdary_Schoo;§

 

 

 

St, Patricks Cullege 47 O 20
The Royal School 6 3 2
St, Clares 42 4 6
Loreto College 24 0 19
Other Secondary Schools _;g lg mug
Subatotal lég l1, ~_i
Issbnl cal 59119923
Cavan Technical School 61 13 3
Belturbet Technical
School 10 4
Other Technical Schools _lg_ _; _§§
Subvtotal ”g; lg_ _§2
Elfild Survey
Major Field Survey 206 O 4
Dropouts from Tech,
Schools _2; g; _FQ
Subatotal ugg:_ 23 _ g F_
Total Numbers 446 59 110

 

 

3. wt. -._.- _‘

Some disturbing ethical problems arose during the
course of the interviewing, This was due in most cases to a
glaring need for occupational counseling among adolescents,
In a numbe: of cases, respondents were highly confused about
what they could do, how they would go about obtaining a suit~
able job, whether or not they snould migrate, and what they

might eXpect if they did, It would have been possible, with

75

some additional work, to help solve some of these problems,
Even limited advice could have helped many reSpondents who
were very worried and upset about their future and who were
highly uninformed or misinformed about opportunities Open to
them. But this would, of course, have interfered with the
behaviour being observed.

Problems arose also in the case of a number of parents
who requested help from the interviewers for their children,
In two cases, fathers sought information on what their sons
wanted to do, after the interview had been carried out in
private with the sons, In both cases sons worked on the home
farm with an older brother, so that there was apparently no
future in farming for them, In both cases, too, there was
obviously no effective communication between father and son, a
situation which was not at all unusual, Both fathers appeared
to be very concerned with their sons welfare, but they didn°t
know what their sons wanted to do, or what their interests were,
Both felt, however, that they would have to seek work off the
farm, This lack of effective communication between parents and
children, eSpecially between father and son, as observed by the
interviewers, appeared to be very general and was typically
accompanied by a deep, but greatly thwarted desire to help
their children, It also appeared that parents and adolescents
would have generally welcomed counselling, The very narrow
limits of the sociologist°s responsibilities to his reSpondents
became painfully obvious to several of the interviewers who

encountered these family difficulties,

76

Operationalization of the Studyfs Malor Variables

—- "“175

The Instrument:

 

The instrument used was designed bOth as an administered
questionnaire and as an interview schedule, Two series of prev
tests were carried out in both modes: firSt with a sample of
20 reSpondents from Co, Mayo? and then using the initially
revised form, with 15 respondents in another part of Co, Cavan,
Extensive revisions were made as a result of the first pretest,
Problems of ambiguity, poor phrasing, use of words and phrases
too sophisticated for the pOpulation being Studied, use of
symbols which triggered verbal value responses, and sheer
length were the major difficulties, Some words (e,g,, ‘anx10us3)
have clear regional meanings: words like “exploited“ are too
sophisticated, eSpecially for the primary educated; a straight~
forward question on prestige or income level of the family
relative to other community families, usually gets a slightly
offended and highly unreliable reSponse, The positioning of
questions in the schedule also proved to be a problem, In some
of the early interviews, highly personal questions were asked
too early in the interview, before rapport had been suffiCiently
eSLablished, Unfortunately, this was overcompensated for in
the final edition and descriptive type, soCial background
questions took up too much time in the initial questioning, As
a result interviewers had some problems in stimulating the
interest of the respondents, Questions on personal intereSts
and attitudes should have come earlier in the questioning,
and some of the social background questions should have been

postponed until the end of the interview,

77

Information was obtained from the reSpondents about

the following areas, and roughly in the following sequence:

ao

bo

General demographic and social background data on
the respondent and his familyo

Occupation and residence of all siblings, uncles,
and auntso

Communication, organizational, recreational, etco
behaviour of his familyo

Feelings of relative deprivation of parents and
self in regard to education.

Educational role eXpectations of parents and
teachers for the respondent.

Educational and occupational roles (if any) of
respondent after leaving primary school, up to
the time of the interviewo

Occupational aspirations; beliefs that these can
be achieved locally: and parental expectations
about reSpondents' occupationso

Migration intentions, and parental expectations
about migrationo

Occupations rejected because of family prestige
factors,

Occupational valueso

Level of living aspirations, and beliefs as to
whether they can be achieved locallyo

Income aspirations, and the extent to which it is
believed they can be achieved locallyo

Reasons given for migrating, if thinking of doing
soo

Attitudes toward the home community’s social
provisionso

Community Satisfactiono

Family Obligations of the respondento

The instrument took approximately one hour to completeo

In most cases, the administered form took longer than the

78
interviewing form, once interviewers had some eXperience, See

Appendix No, 2 for the Questionnaire usedo

.1

grocedures for Operationalizing the Major Variables
The questions used here are generally highly structured
and, where applicable, scaling techniques were usedo

lo Dependent Variable: The Intention to Migrateo

 

Three fixedwalternative questions were used
in the schedule to measure this variable, two of
which most reSpondents were expected to answero
Question_;lig) or 25 Lkl, was asked of respondents
who were already workingo

”Do you think that you will stay permanently

(working) at this particular job?“ Yes No J Not
Sure

If reSpondent answered "Yes” to this particular
question, he was categorized as “not intending t9
migrate", and was not to answer Questions 35 or 64,

If he answered "No" or ”Not sure", he was asked to
answer bgth Questions 35 and 64, Question_§§, read me
"Do you intend to leave this part of the country to

get a job, and live your life elsewhere?"

Yes No Not sure
Question 64, read w- "Do you intend to leave this

part of the country so that you can get a better
income elsewhere?"
Yes No Not sure

If respondent answered "No" to both Question 35 and

Question 64, he was categorized as "not {ptendinq

79

to migrate,” If he answered ”Not sure“ to Question
35 and Question 64, or "No" to one and “Yes3 or
”Not sure" to the other, he was categorized as
"uncertain whether to go or stay," If he answered
"Yes" to both Question 35 and Question 64, or ”Not
sure" to one and ”Yes" to the other, he was categoro

ized as having a "definite intention to migrate,"
20 Independent Variables.

(a) Occupational;§§piratign Leygl,

To measure this variable, an earlier self-
administered instrument of Sewell and Haller6 was
used, with modifications appropriate for Irish res-
pondents and to suit the interviewing techniqueo
It was comprised of these questions:

Question 29¢

a) What jobs (occupations) have you thought of
going into?

 

 

 

 

 

 

lo 3,
2. 40
b) What job(s) would you really like to get?
10 3o '
2o 40

 

 

c) What is the first job(s) that you think
you will get?
10 3,
2o 40

 

 

An external criterion, the NorthrHatt Scale, was

 

6Haiier, A000 and Miller, Iowo, The Occugggioqgi
Aspiration Scale: Theory, Structure,_and Correlatgg, Michigan
State University, A.E,So Tech, Bullo 288, 1963, p0 25o

80

used to order the occupations in terms of their
relative prestige status, The scale is divided inn
to nine ordinal categories of occupations, ranging
from Higher Professional to Farm Labourer,7 Two
codes are utilized: 1) the highest status group to
which the respondents aSpired, and 2) the lowest
status group to which he aspiredo The former closev
ly conforms to what Kuvlevsky and Bealer8 call
"occupational aspiration“~woccupational goals which
are desired, The latter closely conforms to what
they call "occupational expectations“m~the probable
occupational position that reSpondents expect to
reach, whether they desire them or not, This latter
variable will be the one used in this research:

(b) Occupational Frustratigg,» This is operationalized
in Question 33, which follows soon after Question
29, It reads:

a) ”Of the jobs that you have Just conSidered,
do you think that you will be able to get
any of them in or near your home community?”

Yes No __‘NOE sure

‘u— m

If the reSpondent answered ”Yes“, he was categorized

ur—_- a...

See Appendix No, 3 for details of this classification,

8Kuvlevsky, WAP,, and Bealer, R,Co, “A Clarification of
the Concept uOccupational Choice”H3 Rural Sociology: 3i:3:
PPo 265-276: 19660

(‘O

l

 

as “net: frUSt-rat ed i11.2gst_2§_—El...eliil._3§2i35.1.9.1;
If he answered ”no“, the reSpondent was categorized
as ”unpertain“; Of course; if the respondent was

already working and did not intend to leave his job

(see under "Intention to Migrate"), he was regarded

as not frustrated occupationally“

(c) Income Asnirationsr m This is operationalized in

Question 61, as follows :

”Now? if you could get a permanent and other-

wise suitable job, in a place of your own choosingj

how much would the job need to pay per week before

You would be satisfied with it?"

(
(

(
(.

)
)

)

2 to 4 Pounds per week
5 to 6 Pounds per week
7 to 8 Pounds per week
9 to 10 Pounds per week
11 to 12 Pounds per week
13 to 14 Pounds per week
15 to 20 Pounds per week

Over 20 Pounds per week

(d) Income Frustration” - This was operationalized in

the following way in Question 62:

a)

"Now, for the type of Income that you want
to earn? do you think if you Stay in or
near your home community, that you will
be able to earn this income?” __‘Yes No

M

¢__Not sure

82
The responses were coded in the same way as for
occupational frustration,

(e) Community_SatisfactionU « This was operationalized
by using a considerable modification of the Schulze
23 gig scale itemsg9 and the Vernon Davies scale

itemsolo These changes were necess1tated by the

differences in the cultural environment” Ten items
were initially used in the pretests: and Since they
seemed to be highly relevantg and gave high item

variabilityo they were retained for the final scnedule)

The ten items are given belowq

Question 70:

a0 I am looking forward to leaVing this communm
ityo Strongly Agree ( )9 Agree ( )3 Unw
decided ( ), Disagree ( )9 Strongly Disagree (

be Any young people worth their sal: should
leave this community”
SOAU( ), A0( )0 UNDO ( )9 Do( L, SODJ L

c0 Not much can be said in favour of this com~
munityo
SOAA ). PM )9 UNDA )9 D4 )0 SnDoi )9

do No one seems to care how young people get on
in this communityfi
Svo( )0 Ao( )0 UNDo( )3 Do( )0 SnDof )0

e0 There is too much bickering among people

in this community”
svo( )3 A0( )i, UNDxi )9 DA )3 stud )u

QSchulzeo g; glad 3”The Measurement of Community Sat38v
faCtion and the Decision to Migrateu” Eggglmégggglggy: 2323:
pp) 279ffo:l963e

loDaviesg V00 "Development of a Scale to Rate Attitudes
of Community Satisfactiono” Rural Sociology : 10:3:pp0246 255:
1945i

83

f0 This community is not too bad really”
svo( )0 Ao( ), UNDo( )0 Do( )0 SODA )0

go The future of this community looks bright“
Svo( )0 Ao( )0 UNDo( )3 Do( ), SODA )0

ho The people of this community are very
friendly and helpful to one anothero
Svo( )9 A0( )0 UNDO( )0 DO( )0 SUD0( )0

i0 This community is a good place to live inn
SoA.( )0 Ao( )9 UNDo( )0 Do( ), SODA )0

jg I am very eager to Spend my life in this

community if I can at allo

svo( )0 Ao( ).~ UNDo( )0 Dn( )0 SODA )0
An item analysis of the reSponses was subsequently
carried out on a representative sample of 100 reSm
pondents” using the Chi-Square technique developed
by Sharp and Ramsey EE,EL%1 All ten items were
found to discriminate between the tOp and bottom
quartileso Since only nine items were required;
the least discriminatory item (item h) was droppedo
and the scale was scored from O to 9 by dichotomiZw
ing the responseso For the first five items of the
scale reSponses of ° Disagreeu or 3Strongly Disagree3
were each scored as 1: while responses of ”Agree“ or
6Strongly Agree0 were scored as l for the remaining
itemso Responses of aUndecided0 were coded as Oi

In all four of the scales used” it was clearly

observed that reSpondents were not making any

 

 

llSharp, 3030, and Ramseyo COED; “Criteria of Item
Selection in Level of Living Scaleso" Rural Sociolggy; 28:2:
l963:ppo l46~164o

84
comparable meaningful distinction between 0Strongly
Agree“ and “Agree°0 or between 0Strongly Disagree0
and ”Disagree°o As a result, no attention was paid
to this distinction in the scoringo
(f)o Attitudes Towa£g_the Community°s Social Provisions
or Communitnyvaluatigg - This was operationalized
by using a scale of similar design which.measured
satisfaction and dissatisfaction with 10 separate
social facilities and institutions in the communityi
A similar item analysis showed that the ten items
all discriminated between the tOp and bottom quartiles“
Since only 9 items were required, the least dis-
criminatory item, (c), was excluded from the score
ingo The scoring was similar to the previous scalea
except that there were no negative itemsc The ten
items are given below! with the initial reference
question which was of a mildly projective typeo
Question 66: Some young people from your community
have said that they would not live there alwaysg but
only in a community which had the following character»
isticso How much do you agree with them?
a” Which was nearer to a big town than the one
you live in?
SOA.( ), Ao( ), Uo( )5 DJ )0 snDGC )5
b0 Which has better roads than the one you now
live in?
S¢A.( ), A0( )9 U9( )0 Do( )9 stud, )9
c9 Which has better primary schools than the

one you now live in?
$vo ( )0 A~( )0 Uo( )0 Do( )9 s.,D.,( )o

Jo

85

Which was nearer to secondary and vocational
schools than the one you now live in?
Svo( )0 A3( )0 Uo( )0 Do( ), SoDo( )U

, Which allowed me to enjoy my time off much

better than in my home community?
svo( )9 Ao‘ )0 U0( )0 Do( )9 SODO( )9-

Where a person would not have to go so far
to enjoy a good dance or a good film?
svo( ),, Ao( )9 Uo( )3 DO( ), SODA. )0

, Where the community has better facilities

for games than this one has?
SOA0( )9 A0( )0 U6( )3 D0( )0 50D0( )0

Where people showed more interest in games
and organized clubs and teams for young
peOple to play and enjoy themselves?

Svo( )0 Ao( )9 Uo( )0 Do( )0 SoDo( )4

Where there would be more peOple to go to
films and dances With, and organize games
with?

Svo( )0 Ao( )3 U.( )0 Do( )0 SoDo( )0

Which is nearer to shOps and good shopping
facilities than the one you now live in?
Svo( ,0 Ao( )9 U0( )0 DO( )0 SOD0( )0

(g)o Family Obligations of the ReSponggggo m This was

operationalized by using 3 questions in sequence:

Questions 719 729 and 73:

a)

b)

C)

(1;) "Do you help out your family or some
Other relation in any way?“ Yes No

If yesg please give details of what you do

 

 

.a.-—n- . . .-

(1;) "Do you think that your family or
some relation depend on your help to any
extent?” Yes No

) A great deal
) Somewhat

) Undecided

) Not very much

If yeso how much?

INA/N"

(1;) “Now, if you were to leave your commun—
ity and homeo could somebody else do the
work that you are doing for them?“

86

Yes} very eaSiiy

Yes? somewhat so

I don‘t know

Noj n0t very ea511y

Not except with difficul-
ties

AAAA A
‘UVV‘vV

ReSpondents were categorized as haVing:

a)

b)

C)

No Work-Role Obligation if: 1) They were

in boarding school or 2) answered "No” to
Question 7i: or 3) if answered “Yes“,
obligations, as detailedg did not require
that the respondent remain at home to fulfill
them”

gery Slight Work Role ObligaLigng: l) Wozks
evenings at home while doing other work dur~
ing the day, or at school during the day. and
2) family does not depend “a great deal“ or
“somewhat” on his help (Question 72); and

3) somebody else could do the work ”very
easily”g "somewhat eaSily”J or ”donit know”q
(Question 73)u

medium Work. Obligations: 1) Works evenings
at homey while doing Other work away from
home or at school? 2) family do non depend
”a great deal” or "somewhat”on his help (0 72):
3) but could not be replaced "very" or
3‘somewhat ea51ly” (Q_73)_

High Work Role Obligations: 1) Works full

time at home; 2) family depends a ”great deal

or “somewhat“ (Question 72); and could be

8?
replaced only ”with difficulty” or ”not very
easilyo“ (Question 73)o

The Social Status or Prestige Level of the
WWW: ‘ r . m: n T..— 2-4.1.
Respondents Families

This variable proved to be a major problemo
both conceptually and Opera‘tionallyz> The
clearest solution would have been to use some
type of reputational technique” and to have
the respondents0 families placed on a relative
prestige continuumo But the population was
too largea and too widely scattered to allow
for any small number of 0judges0 to know the
populationo and thus to do this effectivelyo
Classifying respondents by the occupational
status level of their families seemed to be
the next best approach and was in fact the
approach taken for the nonmfarm sector of the
populationo

Occupations were classified into nine
groupings on the basis of their type of wcrk
and their loadings on the North=Hatt scaleo
The validity of the North=Hatt scale in this
setting was established by having respondents
evaluate 51 well known oCCUpations in terms of
their local prestige level.o By correlating 24
occupations which were common to the North=Hatt
and Cavan scales” a Rank Order correlation of

090 was obtainedo Furthermoreo only 18 out of

88

the 1480 respondents were incorrectly coded

had the Cavan occupational scale been used

to order the occupational categories instead

of the North-Hatt scaled (See Appendix Nov

four for the details of this occupational
scaling, and comparisons with the North~Hatt
scaleo) The occupational categories used are
as follows, ordered in descending order of
status:

10 fligher Professional;Worke£§Q This category
is as used in Vol. 111, Census of POpulation
of Ireland, 19619 ppo l7l~l720 Chemists
and Pharmacists have been included here,
taken from their Lower Professional categoryg
as well as all occupations that require a
university degreeo

20 Lower Professional Workeggu As in Volu 1113
Census of POpulation of Ireland, 93% gig;
This category also includes Army Officersr
Managers of large concerns, Senior Civil
Servants, and local county OfflClalSo

30 Employers and Proprietors of Wholesale and
Retail Shops, eth

As in the Census report quoted, but excludes
those occupations elsewhere ClaSSlfiedJ It
also includes all proprietors of Wholesale

and Retail concerns” whether employers or not“

4o

50

89

Farmerso
Intermediate Non-Manualwogkeggo This in«

 

cludes the remainder of the ”Salaried
Employees" category in the Census classifi»
cation quotedo It also includes Managers

of Small Retail and Wholesale Concerns,
taken from the "Employers and Managers"
categoryo

Skilled Manual Workers and Foremeno As in
the Census report quoted,

Seryige and Sales Workers and Other None
Manual Workerso This includes the category
"Other NoneManual Workers", and Shop Assist-
ants and Bartenders, from the Intermediate
Non-Manual Workers categoryo It excludes,
however, "Maids and other Domestic Servants,”
and includes these with the Semi-Skilled
Manual Workers and Lower Order Service

Workers category described belowo

Semi~Skilled Manual;Workers and Lower Order
Service Workerso This category includes all
those in a similar category in the Census
reports, and also includes Maids and other
Domestic Service Workers from the ”Other
Non-Manual Workers" categoryo

Unskilled Manual Workerso Includes all occu~

pations in the same category in the Census

90
report, as well as those in 10Other Agriculm
tural Occupations,“e

Occupations were coded individually using
two columns, The first column represents the
major occupational category, while the two
columns in combination give the individual
occupation, If necessary then, individual
occupations can be treated separately in the
analysis, See Appendix number three for details
of this occupational classification used,

Farmers as an occupational group are far
too heterogeneous in terms of social status and
its correlates to be treated in this wayo12
It was decided to ignore this dimension of
status for this category of respondents, since
it could not be equivalently measured, Instead,
attention will be focused on the income class
or size and valuation of farms,

(1) The Family Income Class
Incomes were reported by nonefanm reSpond=

ents, and estimated for farm reSpondents from

the farm production figures they suppliedo

 

128ee Duncan, 0,0,, and Artis, J,w,, gggigimggggpificam
tflon.;n a Rennai;vanis_82rsl Gommusit , Penn, A,E,s, Bull, 543,
Oct, 19517 Vidich, AOJ, and Bensman, J,, Small Town ggmgggg
Society, Princeton University Press, 1958, Ch, 30

   

91
(Question 16, p, 5 of the schedule. Appendix 2)‘
The income responses and estimates were coded
as follows:
Up tofi4 per week, or£:208 per annum,
fl ’- r\ '- ‘ 'S A '
Fromit5~o per week, ort;z09 to! did per annum\
n ‘ p D _ r
Froméi7-8 per week, or&.3i3 tOla4iO per annum.
O - g ’\ _'
From£.9le per week, OI£T4L7 toébeO per annum
- E - P.“
Froméjll l2 per week,or 52i t02§b44 per annum
From£13wl4 per week,or£ 625 to£ 7’28 per annum.,
From£l$~20 per week ,or£ 729 tot/51040 per annum.
Over £20 per week, or overflow. per annum,
Farm production figures were supplied by IGSpOUd’
ents from farm backgrounds, and production unit
Jincomeso were calculated from figures made
. a 13 ,
available for 36 farms in the County, Average
”profits” per unit of livestock and crops were
computed for each farm, and summed to get the
family farm income, a rough equivalent of nonfarm
incomes, The variability of the method was
estimated by comparing acrual and estimated
family farm incomes on these 36 farms, On i7
farms, the estimates and the actual income levels

occupied the same code categories, and, in 13

additional cases, the estimates were found to

3 . -. _

From figures kindly supplied by Dr. E A, Aznwood of
the Rural Economy DiviSion, Agricultural Institute, Sandymount
Avenue, Ballsbridge, Dublin,

92

be within two code categories of the true one.
The farms used in the incomes study were very
Similar to the farms included in this research‘
Thereforeg the income estimates should be
apprOXimately correct in over 40 % of the
cases] and should be within two levels of the
correct income category in over 90% of the
casese

(j) ghe CulturalgType of the ResgondeQEUS
Modern o£_2£aditional?

A Sewell type, socio-economic "living room'

scale was used in the schedule} SiXLeen of
the nineteen items used in the scale were recent-
ly introduced”15 During the pretests, it became
clear that this might be a useful and easy way
to distinguish between families with different
cultural orientationso It was found that, if
farm families of varying sizes and produCLion
levels were ranked on that basisn a comparison
with scores on the living room scale showed
that some farm families had reversed their pos:

tions on both scales, The cultural orientation

of the farm decision~maker was the important

a M' . . . “-3.

 

l"llaenvenuti‘: Farming in Cultural Change; VanGorcum Pressl

Assen, N L»; 19613

.‘

issee Question 12? page 3 of the schedule; AppendIX 2

(Mo

93

variableo If his orientation was traditional,
his living room items would also be of a tradiv
tional typeo This would lead to a low score on
the SOCio~economic scale useda On the other
hand: a smaller farmer of a modernistic
orientation would get a much higher score on
the same scaleo Income level is available for
each farmerc and it is a very important determ
minant of socio—economic scale scoreso It is
then proposed to analyze the data in such a way
thatp controlling for income level? the lower
tertile of the SOEOSO distributions within each
income level should give a good estimate of the
cultural orientation of the familyo
Birth Order or Position in the Family CXQLEi

The position of the respondent in the
family cycle was measured by asking respondents
to give the number of their older and younger
siblings” The responses were coded in the
following wayo

ggsition l in the family indicates that the

 

reSpondent is the oldest child in the family)

Position 2 indicates that the reapondent is

 

the second child in the family? where the
older child is a girlo

Eggigigg_§ indicates that the reSpondent
is the second child in the familya where

the older child is a boy‘

94

Position 4 indicates all Other situations}

 

The first position indicates a situation
in the farm family in which there is the great~
est proportion of young unproduCtive members;
and the greatest pressure on family resources,16
As a result, the family would be more likely
to keep this older child at home to help out
the parents with the farm and family problems“
These persons are likely to get less education;
and to exhibit different patterns of mobility
than the younger members of the familyl Posi~
tions two and three will be aggregated in many
cases in the analysiso

Other minor variables which are used through-v
out the analysis are operationally defined in

the footnotes or in the appendix?
Statistical Analysis of the Data

Due to the level of measurement established for the inv
dependent variables (nominal and ordinal) and for the dependent
variable (ordinal in the case of migration plans) it is obvious
that an analysis of variance technique cannOt be employed?

although it would have been theoretically the most appropriate,

 

16Loomisg CoPoa and Beegley JOA05 Rural Soc1al
Systemgy Prentice'Halla Incoc 19519 pp? 77'873

95
Some analogue to analysis of variance would be deSirable which
would provide information on the simple effects and interac:ion
effects of the major independent variables, Such an analogue,
however, is not available given the level of measurement,

The next most apprOpriate procedure which yields
approximately equivalent information seems to be the use of
bivariate and multivariate contingency tables, and this is the
procedure employed,

Since we are dealing with a total population, statis-
tical tests of significance are strictly unnecessary, However,
as an aid in decision making, where relationships are small
and not very consistent, a Chi Square test of significance

will be employed,17

Where the level of significance is more
than 005 (ioe. the relationship is not significant) this will
be stated for each table in Chapter fouro It could be argued
that very small relationships existing in the hypothesized
direction in the tables (which might lead to the confirmation
of the empirical hypothesis) could be accounted for by random
factors which change from year to year, and are not due to
the effect of the particular independent variable involved”
This could hold particularly in the case of the two year age

group treated in Chapter four, If one were to imagine this

pOpulation to be a representative sample of the total five year

 

l7Walker, HOMO, and Lev, Jo, Statistical_lnfe£§£ggn
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1953, Chn4, pp” 8i~lO9,

96

cohort treated in Chapter three, random faCtors alone might
account for some small relationships found in the hypOthesized
direction, Where the Chi Square statistic then does not reach
a level of significance of ,05 or less, it will be taken into
consideration in the decision as to whether the trend in the
table is clearcut enough to lead to the rejection of the null
hypothesiso

The Strength of the relationship will be measured by
Goodman and Kruskal‘s Gamma,18 where the variables are ordinal,
In such a cross-classification, Gamma measures the difference
in the conditional probabilities of like and unlike order,
It tells how much more probable it is to get like than unlike
order in the double classification, when two individuals are
chosen at random from the population, If there is independence,
the order within one classification has no connection with the
order of the other, In this case Gamma is 0, If there is high
positive association between the two, the order on one classiw
fication would generally be the same as that of the other
classification, and Gamma in this case approaches plus 1, If
there is high counterassociation, the order in one classificaw
tion, would be directly opposite to that of the other, and in

this case Gamma approaches minus 1,

 

18Goodman, LOAD and Kruskal, W,Ho, “Measures of
Association for Cross Classification," gournal of the American
Statistical Association, 49:(l954):pp, 732~764, See Zelditch,
M, Jr,, A Basic Course in Sociological Statistics, Henry Holt
and Company, New York, 1959, pp, 180-183, for the computational
method,

CHAPTER III

THE EDUCATIONAL MOBILITY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL LEAVERS

This chapter explores the relationship between the
postsprimary educational achievements of adolescents and certain
social structural variables, Since the education level achieved
by adolescents is thought to be a very important influence on
aSpirations and migration plans, this account of how educations
al mobility itself is structured sets the Stage for the later
analysis of migration planning, Sex, social status, family
size, and birth order, and distance from the center, were the
major variables prOposed as affecting educational mobility,

The relationships between these variables are explored in the
follow1ng sections, Although these relationships were stated
in the form of hypotheses in the first chapter, the conventional
hypothesis testing style will not be followed here because the
purpose of this chapter is descriptive and we are dealing with

a total pOpulation,

Egggagional Mobility, Sex_and Spoial Statgu

3.

Social status refers to the occupational status level
of parents, as defined in the previous chapter, Although risk"
ing the danger of some confusion, these occupational status

groups will, for the sake of clarity and in accordance With

97

98

traditional usagep sometimes be referred to as in three main

"class“

groups: the Middle Class: FarmersJ and the Working
Classo The Middle Class is composed of professional and semi»
professional workersa all employerso prOprietorsc and managers:
and all intermediate nonwmanual workers” The Working Class
includes all the manual occupations: skilled and serV1ce
workers, semiwskilled and unskilled workers” Each of these
three categories Will sometimes be dichotomized into upper

and lower levelso (See Appendix III for details of the
occupational coding usedo)

As can be clearly seen from Table lp both the occu—
pational background and sex of adolescents is very closely
related to post-primary educational careerso First, educational
chances are obviously highly related to sexo Of the females
in the cohorto 4004% go to secondary schools as compared with
3305%.of the maleso This difference lies mainly in the propor~
tions of secondary school students from farm backgrounds
attending the centre schools as day pupils (l896% males coma
pared to 2701% females)o Although only 39 more females than
males attend secondary schoolsg 46 more farm females than farm
males attend these schoolso This difference may be due ts
the fact that a girls“ secondary school in the centre offers a
secondary education at lower fees than that available for boysn
But since the differences do not hold in the same degree for
adolescents from the unskilled worker category where the vari-
able of cost should be of more importance, this is unlikely to

be the explanationo On the other hands it may be that even

99
where equal facilities exist, farm fathers, or more probably
farm methers, will see to it that their daughters get a

1 This rationale seems to

better education than their sonso
hold for farm adolescents in vocational schools“ In these
schools 603%Smore females than males in total attend“ Here
again the same pattern holds in regard to occupation” The
difference occurs completely in the farm category, with Other
occupational groups generally showing no great sex differences)
Indeed the reverse holds in the case of skilled and serVice
occupationsc where more males than females attend vocational
schoolso This sex difference for the farm categoryfl however)
does not lie in the centre schools but rather in outlying
vocational schoolso

It appears then that farm families Will generally
send more of their daughters on to post primary educationa
preferably to a secondary educationo Where this is not availv
able cheaply, (ioeo as in the outlying areas where only as
boarders can secondary education be achieved), they will send
the excess of females to vocational schoolsn This sex seleCm
tion in educating farm families is probably related to the
different work role obligations of farm girls and boys? with
more boys having to stay home and work on the farm upon leaVing

primary schoolo Of the 104 farm boys and 66 farm girls who

lMcNabb, P0, in Newman, J9 (Revo) Ehgwbimerick Rural
§grvey l958rl9640 Muintir na Tire Publicationss Tipperary,
Ireland, 19643 pp” 187, 2049 2100

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101

received only a primary education, 67% of the boys and only
56% of the girls stayed and worked on the home farm for the
first yearo Controlling for this opportunity to stay and work
on the home farm: of those who did not stay at home on the
farm, 78% of the boys and 90o7%.of the girls received a pOStw
primary educationo Even with these controls, farm females
received a better educations although this differential opporm
tunity to stay on the home farm, which favors the farm male,
accounts for the major part of the difference in attendance
at post primary schoolso The difference in percentages be~
tween males and females receiving a post primary education is
reduced from 27°5% in the total farm youth population to 1207%
for those moving off the farmo McNabb, making a similar
observation, theorizes that farm females, having greater diffiw
culty in ”establishing“ themselves in their home communitya
are given a better education, in order to better find OCCUpations
al and marriage opportunities of an acceptable status level in
other areaso2 The results found heree tend to confirm this
explanationo

It is also very clear from Table 1 that educational
life chances are very closely related to social statuso The
middle “class“ almost exclusively ensure that their children
get a post primary education, and almost always a secondary

educationo If we ignore the farmer category temporarilya and

 

ZMCNabbp Po, op2 cite, ppo 187 and 2109

102

take the average figures for skilled and service workers,
there is a clear linear relationship between the status
level of fathers‘ OCCUpations and (a) the proportion of adoles-
cents getting only a primary education and (b) the proportion
of adolescents getting a secondary education, The lower the
occupational status of the father the greater the proportion
getting only a primary education, and the smaller the propor-
tion getting a secondary education. This relationship is mOSt
clear for males, but it is also clearly and consistently present
for females if the skilled and service worker categories are
aggregatedo For vocational schools the picture is not as
clearo This seems to be due to the great popularity of this
form of education for the sons of Skilled and service workers
who, in comparison to unskilled workers, are much less con«
tent with a primary education for their childreno Children in
these two upper level manual occupational groups, who do not
receive secondary education, are given a vocational education,
The difference between semiskilled and unskilled workers is
very obvious at the secondary level of education, with only 9“
11% of the unskilled workers“ children in secondary schools
as compared to 22-33% for the semiskilledo However, the popu-
lation size in the case of semiskilled workers especially is
too small to be sure that these percentages are stableo

Because farmers are so heterogeneous in their class

and status characteristics they cannot easily be fitted, as a

103
group, into an occupational status system,3 If farms are
categorized by valuation of farm, however, Table 2 shows clears
ly that somewhat equivalent distinctions within the farmer
category are equally important in influencing the educational
chances of farm adolescents,

The pattern is very clear for females: a conSiStent
increase in the prOportion attending secondary schools and a
consistent decrease in the prOportion attending vocational
schools is associated with increasing valuation of the family
farmo The proportion in secondary school jump from 2902% for
those from farms under 15 pounds valuation, to 7305% for those
from the highest valuation farmso The prOportions in vocam
tional schools decreases from 50% to 17.6% reSpectively for
the same valuation categories. The pattern for males is less
clearo If the two lowest and two highest valuation categories
are aggregated, there is again a clear relationship between
educational life chances and the valuation of the farmo The
proportion in secondary schools jumps from 19 to 54% and those
in vocational schools decrease from 28 to 20% approximatelyo
If the two highest and lowest valuation categories are aggrew
gated, the relationship between valuation of farm and the
proportions receiving only a primary education is also very

clear for males, The prOportion receiving only a primary

 

3See Duncan, 00Do and Artis, Jo, Social Stratifigg;igg
in a Eennsylvania Rural Community, AOEOSo Bullo 543, Penn,
1951; and Vidich and Bensman, Small;Town in Mass Societyn
Princeton University Press, 1958o Hollingshead, also, in
glmtown‘s Yguth, takes note of the same phenomenon in regard
to large and small shopkeeperso This probably holds here too,
but cannot be controlled for,

Table 20--The educational achievement of male and female farm

104

 

 

 

 

 

 

adolescents, by valuation of farmo
M m
Post~Primary
Education Under£ 15 f: 15-29 £ 30-44 14; 45 and
Received, over
if any,
MALES % % % %
Secondary 2107 1704 5301 5509
Vocational 2403 3103 2500 1407
Primary Only 5202 5007 2109 2904
9802 99.4 10000 10000
N=115 N=l44 N=32 N234
FEMALES % % % %
Secondary 29,2 36,6 46,2 73,5
Vocational 5000 4602 3008 1706
Primary Only 2000 1702 2301 8.8
9902 10000 10001 9909
N=120 N=145 N=39 N=34

 

education jumps from approximately 25% to 51% with decreases
in farm valuationo For females, however, there is only a
slight increase from 17% to 19% with decreases in valuationo
Valuation of farms then is closely related only to the type
of postmprimary education received by females; but it is
closely related both to the type of postwprimary education
received by males, and to the probability of receiving post~
primary education of any type.

Both males and females from the highest valuation farms

(over 45 pounds) exhibit educational patterns similar to those

105
from lower middle class backgrounds, On the other hand, males
from the smallest farms (under 30 pounds) have educational
patterns very similar to those from an unskilled manual backs

groundo One difference, however, is that a much larger propor~

tion of manual workers“ sons go to vocational school, whereas
a larger proportion of farmers0 sons go to secondary school,
The pattern of educational mobility for females from small
farms is very similar to that of females from skilled manual
and service occupational badkgrounds, Overall however, the
poorest farmers are able to give their children a better edu~
cation than are unskilled and semiskilled manual'workers, The
better off farmers are able to give their children an approxs
imately equivalent education to that of lower middle class
familiesg

Secondary education then is largely a middle class
phenomenon, achieved by adolescents from professional, prOw
prietor, managerial, and all nonsmanual occupational backs
grounds? as well as the majority of those from large farms"
Vocational education on the other hand, is a small farm and
working class educationa Those who receive only a primary
education come almost exclusively from a small farm or works
ing class background,

This class selectivity of the two school systems is
brought out clearly in Table III, For both sexes, almost 90%
of all those who receive 9312 a primary education (and this
is only 31% of all adolescents) come from a small farm backs
ground or from the working class, A Similar situation holds

for those receiving a vocational education, On the other hand,

106

Table 3o~~The class characteristics of secondary and vocational
school studentso Percentage of total students within
each school system, from the different occupational
categorieso (Percentages are computed across the rows)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

langui=8=i
Class Characteristics of Families ,
Educational Middle Class Farmers Working Class
Level (All Profes~ (All manual
Achieved by sional, prop- Large Small Occupations)
Subjects rietorial and (30 (under
Noananual plus) 30)
Occupationgl TOtfil

MALES * *
Secondary 3608 1407 2005 2800 10000%
Vocational 801 604 3600 4905 10000%
Primary Only 302 603 4994 4101 10000%

% 1509 902 3508 3900 9909%
T°tal N 119 (66)(337)(259) 292
FEMALES ‘
Secondary 3206 1501 3009 2104 10000%
Vocational 503 705 5302 3401 100°1%
Primary Only 607 802 3304 5106 9909%

% 1609 1008 3901 3301 9909%
T°tal N 119 (73)(351)(265) 233

*Since information on valuation is not available for a small
proportion of farmers (13/351 females and 12/337 males), the
percentages are computed first for the total number of farmers

and then this percentage is distributed on the basis of the
proportion within each valuation category, for whom such data
is availableo

107
of those who receive a secondary education (37% of all adoles—
cents), almost 50% come from the middle class or from the
large farms, although these groups comprise only 25% of all
adolescentso Besides their purely educational effects, the
markedly different class profiles of these two school systems
must exert very different socializing influences on their
students, both in terms of interaction between students and
staff, and in terms of peer group interaction, These influ~
ences should have major consequences for the development of

aSpirations and migration plans.

 

Eost-primagy Education and Ecological FaCtors

There are no school bus services in the community
studiedo And except for one restricted route, the public
transport system is unsuitable as a means of getting to and
from school; both in terms of schedules and coverage of serViceso
Only a small proportion of families have cars and almost no
family can afford the luxury of sending their children to
school by caro Walking and cycling are virtually the univerm
sal modes of transport for school goingo Consequently, the
further away from the centre families live, the more diffir
cult should attendance at post-primary schools in the centre
becomeo Table 4 sets out the relation between distance from
the centre and school attendanceo Since occupation is so
closely related to distance this factor is controlledo

Restricting observation to those attending secondary
schools and those receiving only a primary education, it

appears that up to four miles, increasing distance from the

108
centre has little consistent influence on educational achieve»

ment, for any occupational group, Indeed for the middle class
group as a whole distance seems to have little influence on
educational chances at any level, For the professional cate~
gory distance has no discernible influence, while for the
lower middle class group there is a slight tendency for
decreasing attendance in secondary schools to be related to
increased distance, For the other occupational groups, how~
ever, there is a clear decrease in attendance at secondary
schools beyond a four mile radius, and there is a correSpond-
ing increase in the proportions receiving only a primary edu_
cation, Beyond this four mile threshold however, there is no
further consistent change with increasing distance, A comm
parison of those who live near the center with those living
more than four miles away, on the level of education received
by adolescents from farm and working class backgrounds, reveals
a drOp of approximately 45% in secondary school attendance

for those living more than four miles from the centre, Ale
most the same pattern holds in reverse for those receiving

only a primary education. Farm adolescents, living more than
four miles from the center, show over a 70% increase over those
living nearer in the proportions receiving only a primary edum
cation, There is a similar type of increase of over 100%

in the prOportions receiving only a primary education for the
more remote adolescents from skilled and service worker badk-
grounds, For those from unskilled worker backgrounds, the
proportion receiving only a primary education increased by over

50% for the more remote group,

109

Table 4,erercentage primary school leavers attending secondary
and vocational schools, and the percentage receiving
only a primary education, by distance from the centre,
Occupational background of subjects controlled,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

:2“::§;g§ Distance of home community from the centre
leavers by Up to
occupation 2 2~4 4®6 6m8 8m10 10
of fathers Centre miles miles miles miles miles & over
% % % % % % %

(1)Non®Manual
(Essaypemt 1 0 11s....
Sec, schs, 90,5 100,0 63,6 77,8 66,7 63,6 l00,0
Voc, schs,

a Centre 5,3 21,2 7,4 9,5 2,3

- Other 9,5 25,0
Primary only 4,2 15,2 14,8 14,3 901
Total N = 95 10 33 257 21 44 6
£gngrmers
Sec, schs, 46,7 50,0 49,5 20,5 38,7 26,3 28,4
Voc, schs,

a Centre 26,6 28,6 34,7 35,1 19,4 15, 0 0,0

m Other 0,8 4,7 6,5 24,3 32,8
Primary only 26,7 21,4 16,9 39,8 35 5 34 4 38,8
Total N = 30 14 118 171 124 160 67
(3)8killed &
Service
Workers
Sec, schs, 52,6 50,0 57,1 25,0 35,0 28,0 11,1
Voc, schso

m Centre 35-8 37,5 23,8 32,1 30,0 4-0

other 10,0 40,0 55,6

Prima' ry_gnly1 Ll W12é56 19 O 42 9 25 O 2§&O 33,3
’1 or. al =1 9 5 8 21 28 20 2 5 9
{4)Semiskilled
& Unskilled
1:19 the: 8
Sec, schs, 19,1 7,1 21,4 4,1 10,0 13,7 9,1
Voc, schs,

u Centre 41,5 57,1 40,5 28,6 13,3 2,7

m Other 14,3 20,0 21,9
Pygmggy only_39,4 35,7 38,1 53,1 56,7 61,6 90 9

 

 

Total N = 94 14 42 49 3O 73 ll

 

110

For those attending vocational schools the plftufe is
less clear, largely because there are vocational schools ogn«
venient to students in the outer distance bands, There is one
such school located within the 8'10 mile band and two more
Situated outside the community boundaries are very convenient
to many students living over 10 miles from the centre” Des~
pite this, attendance at vocational schools in the centre

does not fall off quite as rapidly with discance as does

' Y
m

attendance at secondary schoolso For unskilled workers t.
break occurs at about the same point for both secondary and
vocational schoolso For farmers, however, it occurs at the
six mile limit for vocational schools, while for semiskilled
and service workers it does not occur until over eight milesfi
The population sizes in both the manual categories are very
small, so that these percentage differences are probably very
unStablen Overall, however, the major break for vocations;
school attendance at the centre occurs at a greater distance
from the centre than is the case for secondary school attends
ancen

Up to four miles from the centre a higher proportion
of those from farm; skilled, and serVice occupational bacxw
grounds attend secondary schools than vocational SCSGOlSJ
whereas beyond this point the reverse pattern holdsr For the
unskilled and semiskilled the relative proportions also
change in favor of vocational education with increasing dis-
tance from the centre, but not quite so dramatically”

The ecological factor then plays a major role an the

diStribution of educational opportunitieso This finding

111
Should be complemented by an equivalent influence on the disw
tribution of occupational and income Opportunities, and this

question will be explored in Chapter fouro
Post-Primary_Education, Birth Order, and Family Size

It was hypothesized that birth order would have an inn
fluence on the education received by different family memberso
This was expected to be especially true for farm males, with
those born first having a much lower probability of getting a
postwprimary educationo Is this so? The relationship found
between these variables is summarized in Table 50

As shown in Table 50 the hypothesis clearly does not
hold for farm youtho In fact a slightly higher proportion of
firstmborn family members received a postwprimary education
than those whose birth order was second or latero This holds
for both males and femaleso The same reverse relationship
holds even more clearly for the semiskilled and unskilled
groupo It also holds for females from the skilled and serVice
occupations, and the lower status nonwmanual occupational

This finding contradicts the rationale proposed which
was based on the findings of Loomis et alia,4 However; since
the probability of falling in the later stages of the family

cycle is closely related to the size of the family, and Since

 

4 . 7 r .
Lodmisa COPM S udies of Rural Soczai Qggapiggtiogfi

State College Book Store, East Lansing, Michigan: 1945,
pp; 190~199o

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113

size of family should also be related to educational chances”
the relationships found may be Spuriouso The following table
examines this relationship between family size and educational
chances, controlling for occupational background and sexo

Table 6 shows clearly that family size is indeed rem
'lated to educational chances for adolescentsJ with those from
large families getting a poorer education than those from
smaller familieso This relationship holds for both males and
females and for all occupational groups except professionals
and farmerso That there is no relationship between these two
variables for professionals was to be eXpectedJ but it is not
at all clear why it does not hold for farmers” Family size
has the greatest effect on the unskilled and semiskilled
manual group, where adolescents from the smaller families have
a 27% higher probability of getting a postaprimary education
than those from the largest familieso

Now if family size is controlled, what is the relation~
ship between birth order and postwprimary education?- Table 7
below examines these relationshipso

An examination of the table reveals that for the total
population the uneXpected relationship already found persists
only for femaleso Indeed there is a slight tendency in the
hypothesized direction for males from the largeSt and the
smallest familieso This relationship is no: consistentd hOWm
ever, and the only clearcut relationship perSlstlng for males
is between family size and educational chanceso For females”
the larger the family and the later the birth order the poorer
the education receivedo In this case the effect of birth

order becomes more pronounced with increases in family sizen

114

Table GammControlling for sex, the prOporticns of adolescents
in occupational classes receiVing a postmprimary
education, by size of familyo

   

.- o.— . - l . .. _‘ .. r . ,-.- . —. . 5

Occupation M l F3§$ly~512e F l
of father a es emaies

i_e 3 4 _ 6 7 & over' 1 m 3 4 m 6 7 §uggég
The Percentages Receiving a PostaPrimary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Professional Education

& Salli" 100.30% 100°0% 10000% 1000096 940 7% 9700%
Professional (3) - (l4) , (ll) (6) (19) (8)
Proprietors, We“
Managers, and 95°8% 9409% 6805% 94o7% 8702% 8000%
IntoNoananual (24) (39) (19) (19) (39) (20)
Farmers 5007% 5205% 5609% 84°5% 7601% 8500%

(Mil—Al 38) $109L (84) LliELilll‘m

Skilled & 82°6% 87°2% 7lol% 6804% 8507% 69n4%
Service (23) (47) (38) (19) (36) (36)
Semi-Skilled 68°7% 4408% 41°2% 7500% 5901% 4804%
& Unskilled (32) (58) (85) (20) (44) (62)

 

There is a 5%.difference in favor of the first over the last
child for the smallest family sizes, of 10% for medium sized
families, and of 17% for the largest families,

For farmers and for semiskilled and unskilled workers,
the two most intriguing occupational groups, the hypotheses
holds only for farm males from the smallest families and for
both males and females from the largest manual laboring
familieso However, in all of these cases the percentage
differences are not very great and the numbers involved are
too small to be even sure of the stability of the percentageso
The theoretical hypothesis then is not generally confirmed

even in these cases, For all other groups, however, these

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116
coming first in the family generally received a better education
than those coming latero The theoretical hypothesis then is
clearly rejected in those caseso

To summarize, family size is definitely related to
educational chances for all nonmfarm adolescents, both males
and femaleso .But in regard to birth order in the family, the
hypothesis of a positive relationship between being later in
the family cycle and receiving a better education, has to be
rejected. In fact there is a consistent relationship in the
Opposite direction for females from all occupational groups.
For males there is a less clearcut and much smaller relation'
ship in this same direction for those from smaller families
in the unskilled and semiskilled manual categorieso The perm
centage differences for the other occupational groups are
small and inconsistent, or the cell populations are too small
to be sure of the stability of the percentage figures.

The rationale for the hypothesis was based on work role
requirements in the farm family. The oldest male finishes
primary school when there is the greatest pressure on family
resources, with many younger consumer units in the family and
only one older productive unit: in most cases, the father, It
was thought that in this situation, there would be a much
greater probability of retaining males at home on the farm;
or of males from manual families being expected to work, to
supplement family incomes. This is patently not the case, hows
ever. The reason for this may be located in the faCL that

family cash incomes are also related to the family cycle,

117

The income per equivalent adult in the family does not fluctu-
ate very greatly over the life cycle, particularly over the
period being focused on here. Total family income increases
as the oldest members of the family finish their primary
school education, and start working on the farm or for a wage.
This trend continues as each of the succeeding children pass
through the same stage, until the oldest leaves the family
and establishes a separate residence or home of his own. How-
ever,expenditures also increase greatly as children enter the
adolescent years, so that the adequacy of cash incomes to meet
requirements per unit of the family may be static or actually
decline. Loomis' summaries of the then literature showed that
the adequacy of such cash incomes remained static;5 But in
some later studies income adequacy declined.6 If either
situation held true in this study, and it is very likely that
it does, this would eXplain the findings of little difference
by family cycle. It is apparently the adequacy of cash in~
comes to meet the increasing family needs that is the import»
ant variable in educational chances, even on farms,and not
the varying work role requirements as originally thought

However, for those farmersu sons who received only a

primary education: of the 29 who were born first in their

5Loomis, op8 cit., pp. l93~=l96o

6Blackwell, G.W., “Correlates of Stage of Family
Development Among Farm Families on Relief," Rural Sociology;
73161-17431942.

118

respective families, 55% stayed on the home farm. 0: the 35
who came second in their respective families, 54% stayed at
home. But of the 77 who came third in their reSpective
families, 47% stayed at home. For the largest family Size
this trend becomes more pronounced. There is then a slightly
higher probability that those coming first in the family
will stay and work on the home farm.- Not only do those coming
later in the farm family 293 get a better education, but they
also have a lower probability of inheriting the family farm.

This completes Chapter three. The following Chapter
will be concerned with the tests of the hypotheses dealing
with migration planning. These will be examined in a more

formal manner than was the case in this chapter.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS: MIGRATION PLANNING

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present an analysis of
the data and to determine the extent to which the results cons
form to those hypothesized in the first chapter. The hypOM
theses will be restated here in their Operational form giving
both the null and alternative forms, and the data pertaining
to these will then be presented in contingency tables, Goodman
and Kruskal“s Gammal is used as a summary measure of assoc1ation
for each contingency table. In the first part of this chapter,
the major independent variables employed are evaluated and come
pared with reSpect to their ability to predict migration plans,
and their additive and interactive effects are analyzed. The
second part of the chapter analyzes the way in which the seeial
structural positions of respondents are related to the independ«
ent variables employed, and to migration plans. Sex, education
and level of aspiration, social class, remoteness of homes from
the centre, and the cultural characteristics of reSpondents“

families are the major structural variables used in the analySis,

 

Goodman, L.A. and Kruskal, W.H., "Measures of Associn
ation for Cross Classification," qurnal of the Ameriggg,
Statistigal Association: 49:1954:pp. 732ff.

119

Statement and Tests of the Operational Hypotheses

120

Effects of the Majgr Independent Variables:

hypothesis 1

Ho: Differences in plans to migrate will be unrelated

to levels of occupational frustration.

H 3 Plans to migrate will be directly related to

beliefs that occupational aspirations cannot be

achieved locally.

The data bearing on this hypothesis are presented in

Table 1.

Table 1.--The relationship between occupational frustration
and migration plans.

M

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Plans to
Migrate Levels of Occupational Frustration
Not Partly Definitely
Frustrated Frustrated Frustrated Total
Definite
plan to stay 40.7% 9.7% 6.2% 121
Indefinite whether
will stay or leave 40.2% 55.8% 17.7% 209
Definite
plan to leave 19.1% 34.5% 76.1% 189
% 100% 100% 100%
T°tal N 241 165 113 519

 

Gamma = 00522

121

The null hypothesis must be clearly rejected, and Since
there is a very strong positive correlation between the
frustration of occupational aspirations and plans to migrate,
the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Over 76% of those who
are occupationally frustrated definitely plan to migrate, com~
pared with only 19.1% of those who are not frustrated. Con~
versely, almost 41% of the latter definitely plan to stay at
home, compared with only 6.2% of the former. The order of the
relationship also is very consistently reproduced, The Gamma
measure indicates the magnitude of the relationship, It in-
dicates that if one were to make a number of random draws from
this double classification, picking two individuals on each
draw: given the order of the two individuals relative to one
another on the occupational frustration classification, the
probability of estimating their relative ordering on the
migration planning classification is increased by 52.2% over
a random guess. That is, the probability of like order on both
variables is 52.2%.
Hypgthesis 2.

HO: Differences in plans to migrate will be unm
related to levels of income frustration.

H : Plans to migrate will be directly related to
beliefs that income aSpirations cannot be
achieved locally.

Again the null hypothesis must be clearly rejected.

There is a very definite tendency for those who are frustrated

to plan to migrate and for those not frustrated to plan to stay.

122

Table 2.--The relationship between income frustration and
migration plans.

 

Plans to

Migrate .Levels of_;ncome Frustration
Not Partly Definitely
Frustrated _Frustrated Frustrated“ Total

Definitely plan

 

 

 

to stay 49.1% 11.9% 12.5% 124

Indefinite whether

will stay or leave 33.1% 61.6% 29.8% 209

Definite plan

to leave 17.8% 26.5% 57.7% 189
% 100% 100% 100%

T°ta1 N 163 151 208 522

 

Gamma = 0.473

Almost 58% of those frustrated in their income aspirations plan
to migrate, compared with only 17.8% of those not frustrated.
Conversely, 49.1% of the latter plan to remain compared With
only 12.5% of the frustrated. The relationship between in«
come frustration and migration plans is almost as strong as
that between occupational frustration and migration plans. The
smaller Gamma measure here results from the lower extent to
which those frustrated or partly frustrated (not sure)
definitely plan to migrate, and their slightly higher tendency
to plan to stay and to be indefinite in their migration plans.
On the other hand, a greater proportion of those who are not
frustrated definitely plan to remain than was the case for
occupational aSpirations.
Hypothesis 3:

HO: Differences in plans to migrate will be unrelated

to levels of Community SatisfaCtion.

H s

P!

levels of Community Satisfaction.

123

lans to migrate will be inversely related to

Here also there is a clear relationship between Comv

munity Satisfaction and plans to migrate.

must be rejected and the alternative hypothesis is clearly

confirmed.

Only 4 to 8%.of those with low levels of

Community Satisfaction plan to remain in the home community

compared with 35 to 42.6% of those

all relationship between Community

migrate, however.

occupational or income frustration

is not nearly as

 

with high levels.

The null hypothesis

The over«

Satisfaction and plans to
great as that between

and plans to migrate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3.--The relationship between levels of Community Satis=
faction and plans to migrate.
m .. 1.1 ._ -:--... 1.:—
Plans to
Migrate Levels of Community Satisfaction
Lowest Scorewu—mwx-mfiighest Score
0 & l 2 & 3 4 & 5 6 & 7 8 §m9 Togam
Definite plan 4.1% 8.. 4% 18.. 6% 35. 4% 42.6%
128
22 Stfl _ . t. 11,...
Indefinite whether 46 9% 41.1% 41.4% 35,4% 34,3%
will stay or_leave ‘ 203 __
Definite plans 49.0% 50.5% 40 0% 29.2% 23.1%
to leave .1 . £21 ,”
Total % 100.0% 100 0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
N 49 95 140 130 198“ “J 522
Gamma .03355

flypothesis 4.

H z
o

to levels of family obligation.

levels of family obligation.

 

Plans to migrate will be inversely related to

Differences in plans to migrate will be unrelated

124

Table 4 shows a strong relationship between family obliv
gations and plans to migrate. The null hypothesis must be
rejected, and the alternative hypothesis is confirmed. More
than one-third (34%m45%) of those with no or very slight obli-
gations, plan to migrate. while only about onemfourth (22%»25%)
of those with medium to heavy obligations plan to migrate.
However, only about onemsixth of all respondents have such
pressing obligations. Even of those that do, a largerpuopore
tion plan to migrate than do those who believe that their
occupational and income aSpirations can be achieved locally,
(19.1% and 17.8% respectively). The overall predictability of
the family obligation variable therefore, is much lower than is
that of occupational and income frustration.

Table 4.--The relationship between family obligations and plans
to migrate.

   

Migration
Plans Levels of Family Obligation
None Very
Slight Medium High Total

Definite plan
to stay 11.7% 26.5% 34 4% 51.6% 128

Indefinite whether
will stay or leave 43.3% 38-8% 40.6% 25.8% 213

Definite plan

 

to leave 45.0% 34-6% 25.0% 22.6% 194
Total % 100% 99.9% 100% 100%

N 180 260 64 31 535

‘1
, w -.—

Gamma = ~0.281

125
flypothesis 5.

HO: Differences in plans to migrate will be unrelated

to levels of Community Evaluation.

H 3 Plans to migrate will be inversely related to

levels of Community Evaluation.

The data shown in Table 5 clearly indicates that the
null hypothesis cannot be accepted. There is a clear relationi
ship in the predicted direction between attitude toward the
community‘s social provisions and plans to migrate. The rev
lationship, however, is not consistent over all values of the
independent variable. so that the overall relationship is not
nearly as strong as for the other independent variables.

Table 5.~~The relationship between attitudes toward the comm
munity“ 3 social provisions and plans to migraLe

:2 :,( . 1 _.1' I ‘_ -1.,1 x
-J— '573“;&:‘»'_‘!"l .. 'T'flz‘r. l '--~ 'R‘“ "r- a:

 

Plans to Attitude towards the Community“s
Migrate Social Provisions _
Positive-mmmuw~v~wrn~~mvNegatire
O & 1 2 & 3 4 & 5 6 & 7 8 & 9 Total

-: 'I- . “flg‘fl":..~; "‘t{1‘"r—"12;‘ 2:41,.

Definite plan
to stay 32.1% _g7.3% 29kg% 28%2/

Indefinite whether
gill stay 9r leave 4Qs£% 45 §% .5Qigéifiéiéfiilfié 1&1 £2 .11."

Definite plan

N
#O
W
fio

1)

0

p.15

M

J

 

 

E9 leave 21-4% 27.3% 29 8% 37 4% 3% m19qmnflnm,
% 100% 100% 6% .105% 100%
T°tal N 28 44 94 163196 526

'1 , . .
Mi.) .—‘ ~£;.'~ZZ"I.‘_‘I;‘ .‘ l..‘.'f;7m‘IX_rI Ll...’

‘---1—’- —.-.—m1 —- '3‘ Am “W '33—'- ‘1. u-ax_r':n‘;u~.u'm:2\;':c;

Gamma.= ().i3}’

,-
.-

Hypgthesis 6 deals with the relative p: edit-iv» sf”:

ciency of the five independent variables. The tables already

analyzed can be used to test this hypothesis.

126

H a No differences will be found in the strength of
the relationships between migration plans and any
of the independent variables employed, (Occupationfl
a1 Frustration, Income Frustration, Community
Satisfaction, Family Obligations, and Community
Evaluation.)

H z The strength of the relationships between occupas
tional and income frustration and plans to migrate
will be much greater than those between other
independent variable used and plans to migrate.

Table 6 below summarizes the preceding results which

bear on this hypothesis, and. it also includes the results of
another independent test of the hypothesis. The latter teen
is based on data elicited by means of a series of questions
asked of respondents who were either definitely planning to
migrate. or who were indefinite about whether they would leave
or stay, (in total, 76.2% of all reSpondents). The qQQStICnS
were phrased as follows:

”Now supposing that you could get the sort rt {1) 10b

(2) income i3) community facilities. that yen have

just considered {1.e. their aspirations) in or neat

your home communit‘, would you take it and Stay

permanently there?"

First, the strength of the relationships between

occupational and income frustration and plans to migrate is
much greater than that between any of the other independent

variables and plans to migrate. In fact, occupational and

127

income frustration “re almost twice as predictive of p;an to
migrate, as measured by the Gamma Statistic” Community sails
faction and family obligations are approximately equalLy pre‘
dictive of migration plansa whereas community evaluation is
the least important of the variableso The null hypothesis
must be clearly regecnedc and the alternative hypothes;s is
confirmedo

The second test of the hypotheSis also demonstrates
the overall importance of instrumental aspirations in plans to
migrateo Of the prospective migrants, 73”O% said they would
stay at home if their occupational and income aspirations could
be satisfied therec The great majority of potential migrants

therefore appear to have reached their deciSions on the basis

of beliefs about the adequacy of local economic OpporfiURlilagn

- $
LIL.

U]

They appear to be relatively satisfied with other aspert
the communitya or their dissatisfaction with th'se other as=
pects would not require their migrationo All of this is very
clear evidence for the validity of the alternative hypothe51s.
Neverthelessr a sizable minority (27i0%9 of prospec
tive migrants said that they would not stay or returnJ ever i.
their occupational and income aspirations could be attained
locallyo These respondents have aSpirations for community
social provisions? or for personal relationships in one cannons

ity which they believe cannot be fulfilled thezed For those

’2
O

?J
I;
‘5
fl

who said they would return only if their aSpiratiur”
munity social prOVisions were satisfied locally; the median

score was 805 on the scale measuring attitudes toward the

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129

community‘s social provisions“2 This may be compared with a
median score of 708 for those who would return if occupational
or income aSpirations were satisfiedu The difference between
these two groups was even greater on the Community Satisfaction
scaleo The median Community Satisfaction score for those sayw
ing they would return only if the community“s soCiai prOVisions
were adequate was 4950 compared with a median score of 5,9 for
those who would stay or return if income and occupational
aSpirations alone were satisfieda It is apparent, therefore;
that this group has more negative attitudes toward the commun~
ity's social provisionsa and that it is also more alienated
from relationships in the communityo

In regard to those who said they would not return under
any circumstancesa there is little difference between them and
others in their attitudes toward the community“s social pIOm
visionso Their level of Community Satisfaction; howeverg is
much lower than that of the majorityo They have a median score
of 406, compared to a median score of 509 for those who would

return if occupational and/or income aspirations were satisfied.

I
(1'

in-

(1

Neither of these community attitudesu however, di'
guishes between those who would return for “communzty provisson“
reasons, and those who are so alienated that they would not

return for any reasono In facto those who say they would not

 

. ix. .— W; --.—D

2In the scale measuring attitudes toward the communityls
social provisionsa the higher the score, the more negative the
attitudeo The Community Satisfaction scale runs in the opposite
directiono

130
return under any conditions have a lower median score {6r7l on
the scale measuring attitudes toward the community“s socxal pro~
visions than have any others (ioeo they have a more pQSJiive
attitude toward the community°s social provisions)u Apparently
this attitude does not play any role in this group“s desis;on
to migrate permanentlyo And there is no difference in the
median Community Satisfaction scores between these “permanent“
migration planners and those who say they would return if the
community"s social provisions were improvedn Later sections
will, however, eXplore some alternative distinctions between
these groups)
Hypothesis 20
Ho; The relationship between occupational fruStra210n
(and income frustration) and plans to migrate w;ll
not differ for differing levels of Ccmmunity
Satisfactiono
H1: The relationship between occupational (and income)
frustration and plans to migrate will be smaller

at low levels of Community Satisfaction than at

L1

higher levels (iqeo those who are highly alienatew

S

from the community Will plan to migrate whether a;

not their aSpirations are frustrated)»

U)
(D
:3
‘1
(D
Q;

The data required to test the hypothesis are pre
in Table 70 Community Satisfaction is trichotomized as fOllOWSS
Scores Ow3y 4~63 and 7m93

While the null hypothesis must be clearly reje;ied3 the

alternative hypothesis cannot be accepted because the relation”

ships are in a direction Opposite to that predicted” There is;

131
in fact, a higher overall relationship between occupational and
income frustration and plans to migrate at the lower levels of
Community Satisfaction. It should be noted, however, that
this stronger relationship is due to the fact that much greater
proportions of respondents who are frustrated in their occum
pational and income aspirations definitely plan to migrate, than
do those characterized by any other value of the control variable”
On the other hand, if they are not frustrated, far fewer of these
relatively alienated reSpondents have definite plans to stay,
If we restrict observation to one category of the table the
proportions definitely planning to stay the theoretical hypOw
thesis does receive some supporto Far fewer respondents with
low levels of Community Satisfaction definitely plan to stay
at home than is true for any other levelo In addition, whether
or not these relatively alienated reSpondents believe that their
occupational or income aSpirations can be fulfilled locally, has
far less effect on plans to stay than is true for reSpondents
having higher levels of Community Satisfactiono Comparing
those whose occupational aspirations are frustrated with those
not frustrated, the difference between the percentages planning
to stay between each of these groups is 1505 for those with low
levels of Community Satisfaction, 3004 for those with medium
levels of Community Satisfaction, and 4404 for those with high
levels of Community Satisfactiono The trends for income frustram
tion are very similar. Thus, these two instrumental variables
make less difference in plans to remain in the home community
for persons with low levels of Community Satisfaction than it

does for those with higher levelso So in terms of predicting

132

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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133
who will stay at home, the alternative hypothesis is supported?
while in terms of the certainty of plans to migratea the alienm
ation hypothesis is clearly rejectedo However, for all values
of the independent and dependent variables, variations in occuw
pational and income frustration make a greater difference in
migration plans at lower levels of Community Satisfaction than
at higher levelso
Hypothesis 8.
Ho: The relationship between levels of occupational
(and income) frustration and plans to migrate
will not differ for differing levels of Family
Obligationo
H a The relationship between occupational (and income)
frustration and plans to migrate will be smaller
for reSpondents with medium to high levels of
Family Obligation than for those with lower levels
of obligationo
Table 8 below has been set up to study these partial
associationso
The null hypothesis cannot be accepted since there are
major differences in the partial relationships between occupa»
tional and income frustration and plans to migrateo This is
especially true in regard to occupational frustrationo Howevere
the alternative hypothesis cannot be accepted here either, since
the differences are in a direction Opposite to that predictedo
This is due to relatively greater polarization in the medium a

high obligation part of the tables“ In this category, although

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135
the proportion definitely planning to stay at home is the larg-
est of all sub groups, those frustrated in their occupational
and income aSpirations plan to migrate in approximately equal
proportions as do those with similar beliefs from lower obliw
gation categories,

It would appear then, that high family obligations do
29; counteract the effects of beliefs about the fulfillment of
aspirations on plans to migrate, However, this drawback is offm
set by the much smaller proportions of reSpondents with medium
to high family obligations, who believe that their occupational
and income aspirations cannot be achieved locally, Over 60%
of this group believes that they can fulfill their occupational
aspirations locally, The comparative percentages for those
with no family obligations are 33% not frustrated in their
occupational aspirations and 17,5% not frustrated in their in"
come aspirations,

Looking at the table from the point of view of occupam
tional beliefs, where reSpondents° aSpirations are partly or
fully frustrated, the table reveals that increasing family
obligations have almost no influence on plans to migrate, On
the other hand, if they have fulfilled or believe they can fulm
fill their occupational aspirations locally, the presence of
obligations has a major influence on migration plans; only 19%
of those with no obligations are definitely planning to stay,
compared with over 60% of those with high obligations,

It appears that obligations operate to retard migration

plans only if occupational aspirations can be fulfilled locally,

136

The variable has no influence on the migration plans of reSpond“
ents who believe their occupational aSpirations cannot be ful»
filled locally,

The analysis of income frustration reveals a slightly
different pattern, For those who are not frustrated, increas~
ing levels of obligation have effects similar to these of
occupational frustration, But for those whose income aspira~
tions are frustrated, increasing levels of obligations do lead
to increasing percentages who plan to stay at home, and decre~s
ing percentages who plan to migrate, It is apparent, therefore;
that many of those who have high obligations, and who intend to
stay at home, have unsatisfied income aspirations, This, of
course, may lead to migration at a later date,

Hypothesis 9, This hypothesis assumed the confirmation
of hypotheses 7 and 8: namely, (a) that high alienation would
lead to plans to migrate whether or not aspirations were
thwarted locally, and (b) that major family obligations would
lead to plans to stay in the community irrespective of beliefs
about the possibility of fulfilling aSpirations there, Had
these hypotheses been confirmed, and had a large proportion of
adolescents either been alienated or had such obligations, then
the additive effects of both variables on migration plans would
have been substantial, However, given that beliefs about the
achievement of aspirations do have major effects in the case of
both variables, the predominant influence of instrumental aSpira—
tions on migration plans is again demonstrated, Had the hypo«

theses held up, however, 15,7% of reSpondents had such major

137

obligations, and 31,6% were highly alienated, Their additive
effects, therefore, would have accounted for the migration plans
of approximately 40% of all reSpondents, Since those who have
high obligations are also generally highly attached to their
community, very few reSpondents would fall in both categories,

Summarizing the results up to this point shows that:
(l) Beliefs about the fulfillment of occupational and income
aspirations locally are the most predictive of all the variables
used. (2) Low Community Satisfaction and high family obligae
tions although highly related to migration plans, were not as
predictive of migration plans as expected, and did not counter»
act the effects of beliefs about the fulfillment of aspirations
locally. (3) Both alienation and high obligations are highly
related to occupational frustration, Those who have high oblim
gations tend either to have current occupations which satisfy
them or to believe that they can achieve their aSpirations
locally (60.8%). Those who are highly alienated tend to be perm
sons who believe that they definitely cannot achieve their
occupational aspirations locally, (Only 31,l% of these respond»
ents believe they definitely can achieve their aSpirations
locally, as compared with 45,6% of the total population,)
Hence, the independent variables are highly intercorrelated,
Table 9 summarizes these intercorrelations between the variables,
using Gamma as an index of association,

This table shows that occupational and income frustraw
tion are highly correlated with each other and with most of

the other variables except Community Evaluation, If it were

138

Table 9.--Table of interrelationships among the major independ~
ent variables, and the dependent variable“ Gamma is
used as an index of strength of relationshipsn

 

Income Community Family Cfimmunm Mlgram

 

 

 

 

 

Frustration Satisfaction Obligam 11y tion
tions Evalus plans
afiign __
Occupational
Frustration 3599 s,278 * «0459 m_%9§;r , kggg
Income .
Frustration @9369 “0231 _%157 Q473
Community
Satisfaction ,237 «10g§3_;g;§;
Family
Obligations ~¢l62 agzgl
Community
Evaluation ,;;1

 

possible to use a multiple correlation model, the best choice
of variables would be: (1) occupational frustration, (2) income
frustration, (3) Community Satisfaction, and (4) Community
Evaluationo The Family Obligation variable is much less useful
for a number of reasonso

First, the distribution of cases among the values of
the variable is such that there are too few cases in the medium ,
high obligations category; secondly, there is a high interw
correlation between this variable and most of the other inde~
pendent variablesu Although the attitude toward the communityUS
social provisions has a low overall reiation to migration plans,
it has such low intercorrelations with the other independent
variables that it would probably add as much to the eXplanation
of variance as would Community Satisfaction,

An analogue to multiple correlation was, in fact, at~

tempted by multiple cross classification” This used CCCUpational

139

frustration as a major control variable, and related each of
the other independent variables in turn to migration plans,
This analysis showed, that although occupational and income
frustration were very highly correlated With each other, their
joint effects on migration plans were greater than that be-
tween any other two variables, This again gives additional
support to the major hypothesiso

These "intercorrelations" also provide some indication
of the causes of variation in Community Satisfaction scores,
Community Satisfaction is not apparently related to the atti»
tude toward the community°s social provisions, An important
component of the attitude, however, apparently results from an
evaluation of the adequacy of the community“s economic opporm
tunitieso The medium level of association between the varir
ables show that if reSpondents perceive that their occupational
and income aSpirations can be fulfilled locally, they will
tend to ”like" the community better: if not, then they tend to
dislike it moreo But this relationship may indeed operate in
the reverse direction, ReSpondents first come to dislike the
community for a number of reasons unrelated to occupational
planning and are consequently biased in their percePfion of
the.adequacy of the community°s opportunity structure” From
the data collected, however, it is not possible to decide be:

tween these alternative interpretations,

140
Structural Factors Influencing Plans to Migrate

The Level of Occupational and Income Aspiration, and Edugajigg;
al Level Achieved:

In this section, an examination of the relationships
between structural factors and the major independent and
dependent variables will be undertaken, In any strict sense,
the level of aspiration cannot be considered a structural vari~
able, However, the high correlation between it and structural
factors (social class and education especially) justifies treat'
ing it as a structural variable, It is employed as such in the
following five hypotheses as the major independent variable,
fiypothesis 10,

HO: The levels of OCCUpational and income frustration
will not vary by levels of occupational and inw
come aspirationo

H : The higher the level of occupational and income
aSpiration, the greater the level of occupational
and income frustration,

Both null hypotheses must be rejected, and both alterw
native hypotheses are supported, The higher the level of aSpi»
ration, the greater the tendency to believe that occupationai
and income aspirations cannot be achieved in the local community.
Over 44% of those who aspire to semi~skilled and serVice occuw
pations believe they can find such employment locally, For
those who aspire to professional or semiwprofessional occuoaw
tions, however, only 25,9% believe that they can find such

employment locally, AlmOSt the same situation obtains in the

141
case of income aSpirationso While over 52% of those aspiring
to incomes of 6 pounds or less believe that they can obtain
such incomes locally only 22% of those who aspire to incomes
of 20 pounds or more believe this to be possibleo
Furthermorep it is evident that the beliefs of those
who aSpire to semimskilled and unskilled manual occupations are

much more definite than are those of other groupso This is

Table lOo--The relationship between occupational and income
aSpiration and the level of frustration of these
aspirations.

 

"I'f‘rg—r “-7-ku Vnm
. 'u-v runs—— x wry—w

Level of Occupational Aspirationr

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Higher and Infermedo Skilled Service $81111”
Lower Non- skilled
Professional Manual and
UnStiélss
Not frustrated 2509% 3103% 3907% 4400% 44q2%
Partly frustrated 4OQ7% 4308% 4194% 36n9% 14,0%
Frustrated 33°3% 2500% 1900% l9nO% 4109%
% 9999% 10001% 10091%"”“ §§T9% "1357T2"””
TOtal N 54 176 58 84 43
Gamma : «”123
Income Level of ggcome Aspiration (3093§§fi£££mfl§351”mw2
Frustration Up to 6 7-8 9110 ll~12 13 i4 igéggmwggmpiug
Not frustrated 3% 4003% 3009% 2904% 3206% 2i(7% 22 9%
Partly frustrated 23°l% 2309% 2402% 33¢8% 3092% 2700% 3iq3%
Frustrated 24°6% 35°8% 4501% 3608% 3702% 51 3% 45.8%
Total % 100% 100% 10002% 100% 163%?”"T50% ‘353i"“"
N 67 91 68 115 48
Gamma : 2

 

'z~"‘.I,J mm? .

AZO

 

. WT. -

 

142
understandable since this group is primarily composed of those
who have received only a primary education, have been working
for a few years, and are relatively more advanced in their
occupational decision—making.
Given that the level of aspiration is closely related
to beliefs about the local fulfillment of these aspirations,
is it also related to migration planning? Hypothesis 11 deals
with this question, and Table 11 contains the relevant data,
Hypothesis llo
Ho: There will be no relationship between the level
of occupational and income aspiration and plans
to migrates
H z The higher the levels of occupational and income
aSpiration, the greater the tendency to plan to
migrateo
For those who are not currently in full-time permanent
occupations, there is no consistent relationship between the
level of occupational aspiration and plans to migrateo This
is true deSpite the fact that there is a clear positive rem
lationship between levels of occupational aSpiration and occur
pational frustrationo A comparison of Tables 10 and 11 would
suggest that this situation obtains because more aSpirants to
non-manual occupations plan to migrate than are frustrated in
their occupational aSpirations, and far fewer plan to stay than
believe they can achieve their occupational aspirations locallyo
This is true to a relatively greater extent of those who aspire

to manual occupationso At first sight, it would appear that

143
non occupational reasons p§£_§g are most important in the migra=
tion plans of persons who aspire to manual, than nonemanual
occupations, and that this is sufficient to cancel out the inm
fluence of the relatively greater occupational frustration of
reSpondents at the non-manual levelo

Table llo—-The relationship between occupational and income
aspiration and plans to migrateo

    

 
 

‘—_fi~_.

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Plans to Lowest Level of Occupational ASpiration
Migrate Higher and Intermedo Skilled Service Semi~
Lower Non— skilled
Professional Manual and Unm
skilled
Definite plans
to stay 808% lOo7% 2401% 701% 1502%
Indefinite whether
will stay or
leave 47o4% 4409% 4104% 4604% 3004%
Definite plans
to leave 43°9% 44.4% 3405% 4604% 54°3%
% 100% 100% 100% 9909% 9909%
T°ta1 N 57 17s 58 84 46
(X2 is not significant) Gamma = 0010
Plans to Level of Income Asgiration (Pounds_p§£mweek)
Migrate 15 and over 9 - 14 up to 8
Definite plans
to stay l7o7% 2307% 3208%
Indefinite whether
will stay or
leave 4201% 3403% 4108%
Definite plans
to leave 40°2% 42°0% 2504%
% 100% 100% '" i66%
T°tal N 164 207 134

Gamma =»0189

m.-..

144

It should be remembered, however, that excluded from
Tables 10 and 11 are respondents whose occupational aSpirations
were already satisfied by the time the survey had started 0
These were respondents who did not intend to change from their
current full-time occupationso When these are included, both
relationships become highly significant, as is apparent in
Table 120

A comparison of Tables 10 and 12 indicates that the
association between level of occupational aspiration and beliefs
about the fulfillment of these aspirations in the local Commune
ity increases from a Gamma of 0123 to 04040 By comparing
Tables 11 and 12, it may be seen that the association between
levels of occupational aSpirations and migration plans increases
from a Gamma relationship of -,OlO to a figure of «01400 The
Chi Square test of independence also reaches the 005 level of
significance. Therefore, if farmers are excluded, there is a
definite relationship between the level of occupational aSpira~
tion/achievement of respondents and their plans to migrate, Ben
tween 17 and 37% of those who aSpire to, or have achieved manual
occupational levels plan to stay in the local area, compared
to only 8 to 10% of those who aSpire to nonmmanual levels,
The null hypothesis must be rejected, and the alternative is
confirmedo

Of the manual occupational groups, the service category
has the lowest percentage who plan to stay, The semiskilled
and unskilled occupational aspirers/achievers are much more

definite in their migration plans than are others, so that the

145

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146
proportion of respondents from this category who definitely
plan to migrate is higher than was eXpectedo Because of these
differences among occupational levels in the “definiteness” of
migration plans, the magnitude of any order statistic (such as
Gamma)computed for the table is thereby reduced,

Thirtynsix adolescents from the sample selected for
study had already migrated by the time interviews had commenced,
Since all of these migrants were primary educated, and consev
quently aSpired to occupations which are primarily of a manual
or service category their addition to the proportions of manual
and service category reSpondents who plan to migrate would
further reduce the already very small relationship between
level of aspiration/achievement and migration plans, In this
case the null hypothesis could not be as clearly rejected, alv
though there would still be a much greater proportion of the
skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled manual categories who
definitely plan to remain in the home communityo

The relationship between occupational aSpiration/
achievement levels and occupational frustration is more clearm
cuto While 53 to 56% of those who have achieved or sepire to
manual and service occupations are not frustrated in these
aspirations, only 25 to 32% of those aspiring to nonmmanual
occupations are not frustrated, Again, because those who as»
pire to, or have achieved, semiskilled and unskilled occupations
are more definite in their beliefs about the fulfillment of
their aSpirations, the prOportion who are frustrated is higher

than was expected, If the “partly frustratedu and the

147

'frustrated' categories are aggregated, however, the overall
relationship becomes very clear and consistento

Although there is a very strong relationship between
level of occupational aspiration/achievement and occupational
frustration this variable has a very low relationship with
migration planningo Apparently the additive and interactive
effects of other variables on migration planning are sufficient«
1y strong at lower levels of aSpiration and achievement as to
greatly augment the effects of the lower occupational frustram
tion levels for those values of the central variableo
Corollary to Hypothesis 100

HO: The proportion of reSpondents who are frustrated in
their occupational (and income) aspirations will
not vary by levels of educationo
The higher the level of education received, the
greater the proportion of respondents who are
frustrated in their occupational and income
aSpirationso

The data pertaining to this hypothesis are presented
in Table 130

The null hypothesis must be clearly rejected in both
caseso There are clear positive relationships between educaw
tional level achieved and occupational and income frustrationo
As revealed by the Gamma statistic, the overall relations hip
is much stronger for occupational frustration than for income
frustrationo While 64% of the primary educated are no:

frustrated in their occupational aSpirations, this is true of

148

Table 13°~~The relationship between (1) occupational frustrationa

(2) income frustration, (3) plans to migrate” and

educational level achievedo
m

Level of Education achieved

 

m T

 

 

 

Primary only Two to Three to

or one year three five years
of vocation- years of second”
al education of vo~ ary educaw

cationm tion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

al eduw
cation
$12 Occupational Frustration
Not Frustrated 64.3% 4402% 3208%
Partly Frustrated 965% 42,9% 4201%
Frustrated 26.2% 1208% 2501%
% 100% 9909% 100%
TOtal N iea 156 195
Gamma = @259
(2) Income Frustration
Not Frustrated 4801% 2605% 1801%
Partly Frustrated 1108% 3407% 4105%
Frustrated 40ol% 3808% 4004%
% 100% 100% 166%
Total N £87 £47 188
Gamma = ,188
La) Migratign Plans -———~"
Definite plans
to stay 38°2% Zlol% 1201%
Indefinite whether
will stay or leave 2808% 4702% 4409%
Definite plans
to leave 3300% 3lo7% 42 9%
% 100% 100% 99 9%
Total N 191 Léi» 198
Gamma = 0244

 

149
only 32,8%»of the secondary educated, And while 48,1% of the
primary educated are not frustrated in their income aSpirations,
this is true of only 18,1% of the secondary educated, The
vocationally educated occupy an intermediate position in both
cases,

However, because the primary educated are more definite
in their beliefs about the possibility of fulfilling their
aspirations locally, there is no consistent difference between
these educational levels in the proportions frustrated in their
aSpirations, If the partly frustrated and the frustrated cater
gories are collapsed, however, the trends become very clear,
and are in the hypothesized direction, The alternative hypo“
thesis is therefore clearly confirmed in both cases,

Corollary to Hypothesis 11,

HO: The proportion of respondents planning to migrate

 

will not vary by educational level,

H z The higher the level of education received, the
greater the proportion of reSpondents who plan to
migrateo

The data relevant to this hypothesis are presented in

Table 13, The null hypothesis is rejected, and the alternative
hypothesis is strongly confirmed, The higher the level of edu»
cation, the lower the proportion of reSpondents who plan to
remain in the home community, and the higher the proportion who
plan to migrate, While over 38% of the primary educated plan
to remain in the home community, this is true only of 12,1% of

the secondary educated, Again the vocationally educated occupy

150
an intermediate pOSition here, Because the primary educated are
more definite in their migration plans, the corresponding
differences in the prOportions who plan to migrate are not as
great, Thirty three percent of the primary educated plan to
migrate, compared to 42,9% of the secondary educated, and only
31,7% of the vocationally educated, However if the two lower
categories of the migration variable are collapsed, the overall
trends are in the direction predicted,

Because those who are working on the home farm are here
included among the primary educated, the relationships between
educational level achieved, the frustration of occupational and
income aspirations and migration plans, is much greater than was
the case with occupational aspiration levels, Since most of
these farm employees are not frustrated in their aSpirations,
and plan to stay in the home community, the overall relationships
are strengthened,

Hypothesis 12;
HO: The strength of the relationship between occupation~
a1 frustration and migration plans Will not vary
by level of occupational aspiration (or educational
level),

H : The higher the level of occupational aspiration

F3

(and educational level) the greater the relations
ship between occupational frustration and migration
plans,

Table 14 contains the data bearing on this hypothesis,

Since the level of educational achievement and occupational

lSl
aSpiration are so highly correlated, the former will be used
here as the control variable,

The null hypothesis must be clearly rejeCted, Since
there are major differences among educational levels in the
relationship between occupational frustration and migration
plans, However, the alternative hypothesis cannot be accepted
because the differences are in a direction oppOSite to that
predicted, Occupational frustration is in fact more pred1C'
tive of migration plans for the primary educated than for any
Other level of educational achievement. This, again, is partly
the result of the fact that the plans of the primary educated
are more definite than are those of any other educational
groupo Moreover, when the primary educated are not frustrated,
they plan to remain in the home community in much greater propor‘
tions than do respondents from any other educational group,

The respective figures being 57,6% for the primary educated,
33,3% for the vocationally educated, and 20,3% for the seconds
ary educated, But when they are frustrated, the primary educated
also plan to migrate in much greater proportions than do rest
pondents with a vocational education, and in slightiy'lesser
proportions than do those with a secondary education, Of those
frustrated, if the two lower migration plan categories are col~
lapsed, the respective proportions planning to migrate would be
95,5% of the primary educated, 85% of the vocationally educated
and 95,9% of the secondary educated, As can be clearly seen
from these figures, and from other results in Table 14, the
smallest relationship between occupational frustration and migra'
tion occurs for the vocationally educated, and not for the

primary educated as predicted,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

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153
flypothesis 13‘
HO: The strength of the relationship between income
frustration and migration plans will not vary by
level of occupational aSpiration (or educational
level)o
H : The lower the level of occupational aspiration (or
level of education) the greater the relationship
between income frustration and migration plans,
The data bearing on this hypothesis are presented in
Table 150

The null hypothesis must be rejectedo But the alterna«
tive hypothesis is not confirmed since the results are in a
direction opposite to that predicted. The overall relationship
between the two variables is much stronger in the secondary
educated group. If frustrated in their income aSpirations,
the secondary educated plan to migrate in much greater propor—
tions than do reSpondents from any other educational groups the
reSpective proportions being 75% for the secondary grOUp, 49%
for the vocational, and 46.7% for the primary educatedu This
greater tendency of the secondary educated to migrate when
frustrated” is more than sufficient to counteract the effects
of the much smaller proportions who definitely plan to stay if
their aspirations can be fulfilled locallyg For those whose
aSpirations are not frustrated, only 3503%.of the secondary edum
cated plan to stay compared to 48°7% of the vocationally edu«
cated, and 54°4% of the primary educatedo

The results obtained with reSpect to the effects of

occupational and income frustration on migration plans, for

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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155

the different educational levels are, in both cases, directly
opposite to those predictedo Occupational frustration is more
predictive of migration plans for the primary educated, while
income frustration is more predictive of migration plans for
the secondary educated. The reasons why these particular correm
lations are the highest, however, should be taken into considerv
ationo

The relationship between income frustration and migra-
tion is greater for the secondary educated, because relatively
greater proportions of these reSpondents plan to migrate if they
believe that their income aSpirations cannot be fulfilled locallyu
On the other hand, the relationship between occupational frustra~
tion and migration is greater for the primary educated, because
relatively greater prOportions of these respondents plan to
stay if they believe that their occupational aSpirations can be
fulfilled locallyo There are minor differences among educational
groups, in the proportions planning to migrate, if occupational
aspirations are frustrated. On the other hand” using income
frustration as the independent variable, the smallest differences
among educational groups occurs in the llnot frustratedu categoryg

In terms of the marginal distribution of cases among
the values of the independent variable,3 however, some support

is given to hypothesis 120 For the secondary educated, of

 

3Boyle, ROPO, “Causal Theory and Statistical Measures
of Effect: A Convergenceo" American Sociological Review: 31:
6spp. 843-850319660

156

those who plan to migrate or are indefinite in their migration
plans 70.3% are frustrated or partly frustrated in their
occupational aSpirationso The equivalent figures are 57,3%
for the vocationally educated, and 55.3% for the primary edu-
cated. Therefore, although those who are occupationally
frustrated or partly frustrated plan to migrate in approx~
imately equal proportions among all educational levels; a
relatively greater proportion of the secondary educated are
frustrated or partly frustrated. However, the same situation
obtains in the case of income frustrationo Not only does the
frustration of income aspirations lead to higher rates of
migration for the secondary educated, but a relatively greater
prOportion of this educational group are frustrated or partly
frustrated in their income aspirationso

Over all values of the variable, occupational frustra'
tion is more predictive of migration plans at the primary level
of educational achievement while income frustration is more
predictive of migration plans for those with a secondary edu-
cation, It may be, that these two independent variables are
more highly correlated at the higher levels of education than
at the lowero If this is so and if the effects of occupational
frustration on migration plans are controlled, the additional
effects of income frustration on migration plans might be much
greater at lower levels of educational achievement than at
higher. Table 16 has been set up to determine if this is the
case,

The results, are directly opposite to those predicted,

Occupational and income frustration are, in fact, more highly

157
correlated at lower levels of education than at higher, More-
over, when the effects of occupational frustration have been
controlled, the additional effects of income frustration on
migration plans are greater at higher levels of education,
than at lower. For those who are not occupationally frustrated,
being frustrated or partly frustrated in income aspirations
lead to plans to migrate for 36 to 58.3% of the primary edu-
cated. The equivalent figures for the vocationally educated
are 75 to 76.5%, and for the secondary educated 81 to 91,6%o-
Income frustration, therefore, has much greater effects at the
vocational and secondary level of educationo Contrary to ex-
pectations, therefore, the combined effects of occupational and
income frustration are much greater at the secondary and
vocational level of education than at the primary level,

The intent of hypotheses 12 and 13 was to ascertain
whether occupational aspirations played a greater role in
migration planning at the higher levels of aspiration, It was
thought that social mobility aspirations would play a more
important role in this group, whereas purely economic considerm
ations would play a relatively greater role at the lower manual
levels of aspiration, Neither of these hypotheses were conm
firmed, Another test of this rationale can be carried out by
examining “conditional migration". Of those who are considering
migration, do a greater prOportion of the higher occupational
aSpirers say they would return if suitable jobs were available
locally than is true of the low aSpirers, And do a greater
proportion of those who aspire to lower status occupations say

they would return if acceptable incomes were available than is

158

 

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159
true of the higher aspirers? Table 17 has been set up to test
this hypothesis. It can also be used to determine whether
other factors, not in any way related to either occupational
or income aspirations, vary by level of occupational aspirav
tion in their effects on migration planning,

Unfortunately, the question asked reSpondents to test
this hypothesis did not sufficiently distinguish between the
status and income aSpects of occupational aspiration, However,
the table does show some major differences among aSpiration
levels in the proportions who say that they would return to the
community if their occupational and income aSpirations could be
met there. Whereas, only 64 to 68.6% of those aspiring to non»
manual occupations, say they would stay or return for these
reasons: from 81 to 86,8% of those planning to migrate from the
service, semiskilled and unskilled manual aSpiration levels,
say they would return under the same conditions, There are also
systematic differences among the remainder who refuse to return
for occupational or income reasons, The lack of recreational
and other modern urban type social amenities in the home communa
ity appear to be a more important variable for the high than
the low aSpirers, From 15 to 16% of those aSpiring to non~
manual occupations say that they would not return unless besides
the ability to fulfill their occupational and income aSpirations
locally, the community’s social provisions were also considerably
improved, The corresponding figure for the manual group runs
from 2 to 7,7%, What is more important, however, is that a
much higher prOportion of those who aspire to nonvmanual occupa«

tions (15 to 20,6%), as against those who aspire to manual

)\

l O

able i7,~wControlling for those considering migration (those
who definitely plan to migrate and those who are lno
definite whether to go or stay) the relationship
between level of occupational aspiration and con~
ditional migration,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-—.— _ _ _x .——- w- _._..., ‘ ...-, fig’!‘"‘_f.."‘¢ fig; 3=;!‘$'J~»“1:,1='qflé¥: ‘-;':“;:'.':.':: £72“? '99-me SUV" 'Mfi
ReSpondents who Level of Occupational ASpiration
say they would
return if the Higher Prof, Intermed, Skilled Service Semi-
following were Lower Prof, Non" Manual ski.”ed
available locally Manual and -n
s‘ " C 3
Suitable jobs 2,0% 309% 7,1% 10,3% 22;-
Suitable jobs and
suitable income 43,1% 37,4% 45,2% 51,3% 57.53
Suitable income 23,5% 21,9% 28,6% 23,1% 26.:,
Only if community
social provisions
were improved 15,7% 16,1% 2.4% 7,7% 5 73
Not return under
any condition 15 7% 20 6% 16,7% 7.7% 7.3;
0/ r) '3," ' )no/ 1 c/ ‘ 1;“. .: ' ;,
Total ,0 lOO/o 9909/0 lCO/a 02,1/0 {p
N 51 155 42 73 as

 

 

occupations, (7 to l6,7%) say that they would not return to the
community under any conditions,

Substituting the level of educational achievement for
the level of occupational aspiration as the major control vari~
able, gives even more pronounced results, Whereas, only 11,4%
of the primary educated state that they would not return to, or

remain in, the home community even if their occupational and

ab

income aspirations were satisfied locally, 23 1% 0' th vocam
tionally educated and 40 7% of the secondary educa*ed made simiw
lar statements, The differences among educational groups in

the proportions who state that they would not return to the

community under any conditions, are almOSt as great, Here, the

161

secondary and vocationally educated groups approach each other
very closelyo (2105% of the secondary educated? and 16,2% of
the vocationally educated)o The corresponding figure of 756%
for the primary educated is much lowero

It is therefore apparent that occupational and income
factors are most important in the migration decisions of the
primary educatedn The perceived inadequacy of the local comm
munity's social provisionsg on the other hand, is relatively
more important in the migration decisions of the secondary edu-
cated, and least important in the migration deciSions of the
primary educated (l9o2%.of the secondary group, 639% of the
vocational group, and only 338% of the primary group State
that they would stay or return only if the community°s social
provisions were satisfactoryL,4 0n the other hand, there are
very small differences between the secondary and vocational
groups in the proportions who state that they would not return
under any conditionsg whereas very few of the primary educated
made such statementsq

A summary of the results bearing on hypotheses 12 and
13 reveals that: (l) occupational frustration is most predic«
tive of migration plans at the primary level of education? (2)
income frustration is most predictive of migration plans at the

secondary level of education: (3) the lowest correlation between

4There is in fact, a stronger relationship between
Community Evaluation and migration plans for the secondary
educated groups than for any othero Gamma comes to 00220 for
the secondary groupo 00039 for the vocational groupc and 001;?

for the primary groupn

162

occupational or income frustration and migration plans occurs
for the vocationally educated; (4) both independent variables
are most highly correlated with each other at the primary edu»
cational level, and least at the secondary level; (5) the great;
est joint effects of the two variables on migration plans occur
at the secondary educational levelo

However, the results of the analysis of "conditional
migration" revealed that: (1) if occupational and income aSpi~
rations were fulfilled locally, the lower occupational aspirers
and the primary educated were much more likely than others to
remain in the home community, (2) if in addition to the satis~
faction of these, aspirations for the community°s social pro~
visions were also satisfied locally, the better educated and
those who aspire to higher status occupations are more likely
than others to remain, and (3) far greater prOportions of the
better educated and the high occupational aspirers than of
others would not remain in the home community under any condiw
tionso

The results from these two sources seem to contradict
one another at many points, It should be remembered, however,
that in the former case, we are dealing with correlations be:
tween two independent variables, and inferring from correlation
to cause, In the latter case, however, we are concerned with
the "causes" of migration in a more direCt sense, Although the
combined effects of occupational and income frustration are more
predictive of migration plans at the secondary level of educa-

tion, nevertheless, far fewer of these than others would remain

163

at home even if these frustrated aspirations could be satisfied
locallyo Aspirations for community social provisions, and atti«
tudes toward the local community°s social provisions are
important here, While there are no significant differences
among educational achievement levels in Community Evaluation
scores, the effects of negative attitudes toward the community‘s
social provisions are nevertheless much greater at the secondary
educational level, This variable, however, explains only part
of the variation here, In addition to these effects, there
appears to be a complex of aspirations and attitudes highly
correlated with high levels of occupational aSpiration which
are Operating hereo These can probably be satisfied only be
leaving the community to reside in a highly urban environment,
Hypothesis 14,
HO: The level of respondents“ family obligati'ns will
not vary by:
(a) Occupational background, whether farm or non:
farmo
(b) Sex0
(c) Educational levelo
H s (a) Farm reSpondents have higher levels of family
obligations than have nonwfarmm
(b) Farm males have higher obligations than non~
farm males or females, or farm females,
(c) Those who are primary educated and presently
employed will have the highest levels of oblie
gations; while those in secondary schools will

have the lowest levels,

The data classified in Table 18 may be used to teSt

this hypothesis,

Table 18.-—The relationship between levels of family obligations
and (l) occupation of father, (2) sex of reSpon ant,
and (3) educational level of respondent.

_:—_

 

-;—
‘ ’

—_—-_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A. '7 Level of Respondents' Work
Occupation of Father Role Obligations
and Sex of Respondent None Light Medium Heayy, Total '_
% Computed by Row % A
10 All Non-Manual
Occupations
Males 52,3% 34.1% 11.4% 2.3% 100,1% 44
Females 53,1% 42.2% 417% 0.0% 100% 64
2. Farmers
Males 27.1% 45.2% 15.5% 12,3% 100.1% 155
Females 26,8% 58,0% 7,1% 8,0% 99,9% 11
3. All Manual
Occupations
Males 28.9% 55.4% 14.5% 112% 100% 83
Females 34,2% 49,4% 15.2% 193% lgg,1% 79
Bo
Education of
ReSpondents
Primary educated and
working_ 10,8% 51.3% 20.9% 16,9% 99.9% 148
Vocational educated
mostly not working 27.3% 59.1%,~_12,3% 1,3% 100% 154
Secondary educated
and not working 59.6% 33,7% 6.2% 0.5% 100% 19;

 

The null hypothesis must be clearly rejected in each

case,

have by far the highest levels of obligation,

youth have high obligations,

pondents have such obligations,

are particularly evident for males,

and the alternative hypotheses are supported, Farm youth

Over 10% of fann

while less than.2% of manual res“

These occupational differences

Farm males have much higher

levels of obligation than any others,

to high levels of obligations,

with over 27% having medium

as compared to 15% for farm

165
females, Only 15,7% of males and 16,5% females from manual
backgrounds have such obligations, While less than 5% of the
females from nonmmanual backgrounds have such obligations, 13.7%
of the males do, Females from non-manual backgrounds, therefore,
have the lowest levels of obligations of all respondents, male
or female, Farm females, however, do not differ greatly from
females from manual backgrounds, in their levels of obligation,
Farm males, however, have by far the highest levels of obligam
tion of all respondents, male or female,

The primary educated, and those presently employed,
have the highest levels of obligation, Almost 38% of the primary
educated, as compared to 13.6% of the vocationally educated, and
only 6,7% of the secondary educated have medium to high obligar
tionso The alternative hypothesis is, therefore, borne out in
every detail,

Among the primary educated, and those from farm back~
grounds, high family obligations are most typical of those
presently employed on the home farm, Of those 60,6% have
medium to high obligations, This percentage may be compared to
the 24,3% of those working in manual occupations who have such
obligations, All of the alternative hypotheses can therefore
clearly be confirmed,

Obligations act as a strong deterent in migration decim
sions. They are disproportionately distributed among educational
levels, and between farm and nonfarm respondents, The previous
sections, dealing with hypothesis l2 and 13, showed that if the

primary educated believe that their occupational aSpirations

166
can be fulfilled locally, a far greater proportion plan to remain
than is true of any other educational group, Their higher level
of obligations is the important factor in explaining this
phenomenon,
The Sex, Educatign, and Occupational Background of Respondents
and Factors Influencing Migration Plans

One of the few consistent findings on rural-urban migraw

tion differentials is that migration is highly selective by sex,
Whether this is so here and why it should be so, are questions
eXplored in hypotheses 15w189

Hypotheses 15~18,

HO: There will be no differences between farm males and
females, or non-farm males and females in the
proportions who: (a) plan to migrate: (b) are
frustrated in their occupational and income
aspirations: (c‘ have low levels of Community
Evaluation; and (d) have low levels of Community
Satisfaction,

H : (l) A greater proportion of farm females than farm
males will (a) plan to migrate} (b) feel frustrated
in their occupational and income aSpirationSg
(c) have lower levels of Community Evaluation;
and (d) have lower levels of Community Satisfaction,
(2) There will be no consistent differences bem
tween the sexes from nonnfarm occupational back—

grounds on all of these variables,

167

The results pertaining to these hypotheses are presented in
Table 190

A comparison of males and females in the total popu1a~
tion reveals that 15% more females are definitely planning to
migrate or are seriously considering migration, Is this
general throughout all occupational groups or as predicted, do
those from a farm background account for most of this difference?

The results presented in Table 19 reveal that the farm
category does, in fact, account for most of the difference,
But there are also consistent sex differences in plans to migrate
among adolescents from skilled manual and service occupational
backgrounds, although thelX2 statistic computed for the latter
category does not reach the .05 level of statistical significance,
Nevertheless, 13%.more males than females plan to stay, and al-
most 14%umore females than males plan to migrate, In the case
of farm adolescents, the sex differences are highly significant,
Almost 20% more farm males than females plan to stay, whereas
7.5% more females are considering migration but are indefinite
in their plans; and 12,5% more females definitely plan to
migrate, Moreover, there are nearly four times as many farm
youth as those from skilled and service backgrounds, Therefore,
the farm category would account for the major part of the sex
difference in the pOpulation, There are differences also in the
semiskilled and unskilled worker category, but these are not
consistent over all values of the migration variable, The
smallest sex differences appear for the non-manual category,

Generally, the null hypothesis must be rejected and the

alternative hypothesis is confirmed, The major part of the sex

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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170
differences in migration plans is accounted for by the farm
category, There are small or no consistent differences among
other occupational categories in this respect,

Approximately the same pattern is repeated for OCCUpa~
tional frustration, Almost 14% more males than females are
not occupationally frustrated, whereas 11% more females than
males are partly frustrated, and another 3% more females are
frustrated, Are these sex differences general throughout all
occupational groups, or do those from a farm background again
account for most of this difference?

The same general trends apparent in migration planning
occur here, The only occupational categories within which con-
sistent sex differences appear are the farm and skilled manual
and service categories, However, the sex differences among
these are not as great as they were for migration plans, and

2 statistic does not_reach the ,05 level of significance

the x
for either of these categories, However, since the sex differ-
ence for these two categories are so consistent over all
values of the frustration variable the null hypothesis can be
rejected, Over 14% more farm males than females are not occur
pationally frustrated, whereas 9%»more farm females than males
are partly frustrated, and a further 5,3%.more females are
frustrated,

The trends for those respondents from skilled and ser=
vice occupational backgrounds are similar, Over 15% more males

than females are not frustrated, whereas 3,5% more females than

males are partly frustrated, and 13,l%»more females are

171
frustrated, Sex differences for the semimskilled and unskilled
occupational category are large, but they are not consistent
over all values of the frustration variable, Minimal sex
differences appear in the non~manual group,

Only the first part of the alternative hypotheSis is
therefore supported, The major sex difference in occupational
frustration, which accounts for the greater part of the total
pOpulation sex differential does occur in the farm category,
However, consistent sex differences also occur for the skilled
and service categories,

The overall pattern of sex differences is much clearer
for income frustration, In the total pOpulation, 9,7%umore
males than females are not frustrated, whereas 7% more females
than males are partly frustrated, and 2,5%Imore females than
males have income aSpirations which are frustrated, Except
for the farm category, however, the probabilities associated
with the X2 computed for these partial tables are so small,
that random variation could easily account for these differences,
There are no significant sex differences, therefore, except
among the farm group, For the farm category, 15,3% more males
than females are not frustrated in income aspirations, 9,l%
more females than males are partly frustrated, and 6,2% more
females are frustrated, The null hypothesis must be clearly
rejected for the farm group, Both parts of the alternative
hypothesis are therefore supported, The major sex difference
in income frustration is accounted for by the farm category,
There are no consistent differences among other occupational

groups.

172

Only in the case of reSpondents attitudes toward the comr
munityss social provisions (Community Evaluation) is the pre~
vious pattern disrupted? Hereo surprisingly, the relative
position of males and females is reversedo Males in general
have more negative attitudes toward the community’s social pro-
visionso Almost 5% more have highly negative attitudes, and 4%
fewer have highly positive attitudeso The breakdown by occupaw
tional groups reveals that the manual worker categories account
for these sex differenceso No consiStent differences occur
among farm or nonwmanual groupso In facta among all of the
variables studied the largest sex differences are found in
these two groups on this variableo Over 32% more males than
females from skilled and service occupational backgrounds have
highly negative attitudes? while 803%:more females than males
have moderate attitudesg and almost 24% more females have pOSi~
tive attitudesi The sex differences for the semivskilled and
unskilled are similar: l6o3% more males than females have
negative attitudes” and 15°7% more females than males have
positive attitudeso It should also be noted that males from
these manual OCCUpational groups generally tend to have more
negative attitudes toward the community”s social provisions
than do farm or non~manual maleso On the other hand, females
from these manual groups tend to have more positive attitudes
toward these provisions than do females from any other group)
Although the null hypothesis must be clearly rejected in this
casea the alternative hypothesis is not confirmedfi The major

sex differences do not occur for the farm groupw

173

Somewhat the same pattern occurs in the case of Communv
ity Satisfaction, Males have more negative attitudes than
femaleso In total, 702%:more males than females are alienated,
whereas 401% more females have moderate scores, and 301% more
females than males have positive scoreso An examination of the
remainder of the table shows, however, that these sex differ:
entials occur primarily for those with farm backgrounds, as was
predictedo There are no significant differences among other
occupational groups, Almost 9%.more farm females than males
are highly alienated from their communities, and a further 907%
more females than males have moderate scoreso On the other
hand, over 18.1% more farm males than females have high attache
ment scores, There are some small, but consistent sex differ»
ences among those from nonwmanual occupations and skilled and
service occupations, but they are in the Opposite directiono
More males are highly alienated, and more females have high
attachment scores, These sex differences, however, are not
very greato What is worthy of note, however, is that except
for farm males, both males and females from nonnmanual back»
grounds tend to be more satisfied with their community relation~
ships than do respondents from any other group, Their relativw
ely more advantaged position in the community class and status
Structure, with all its concomitants, appears to be expressed
1lere in their greatly superior subjective evaluation of the
<KMnmunity°s satisfactorinesso Farm females, and both sexes
‘15 the manual categories, are similar in their less sanguine
attitudes toward the community, Overall, however, the major

dev’iant category in the whole table, is that of farm males,

174

Their relatively greater satisfaction with the community prob-

ably Springs from being ascribed to more advantaged occupational

roles in the farm family, and to their, oft remarked, more tradi~

tional values.

Hypotheses 19. 20, 21.

Since each of these hypotheses contains two different

assertions about migration and the frustration of aspirations,

they will be treated separately.

(a) H0
H1
(b) H0
H1

Differences between males and females in plans to
migrate will be unrelated to educational level
achieved.

(a) Secondary educated males and females will plan
to migrate in approximately equal prOportionso

(b) Primary and vocationally educated females will
plan to migrate in greater proportions than
will males from similar educational backgrounds°

(c) For all primary educated respondents who seek
off-farm occupations, proportionately more
males than females will plan to migratea

Difference between males and females in the prOpor~

tions frustrated in their occupational and income

aSpirations will be unrelated to educational level
achieved.

(a) Secondary educated mal es and females will be
frustrated in their occupational and income
aSpirations in approximately equal proportionso

(b) Vocationally educated females will be frustrated

in their occupational and income aSpirations in

l75
greater proportions than will similarly educated
maleso
(c) For all primary educated respondents who seek
off-farm employment, more males than females
will be frustrated in their OCCUpational and
income aspirations.
Tables 20 and 21 contain the data pertinent to these hypotheses,
Of all educational levels, the secondary educated diSplay
the least sex differences in migration plans, Only with respect
to the certainty of plans do any major differences exist: males
being far more definite in their planso However, because there
is such a high probability that these differences could have
occurred by chance alone, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected,
Since this was the trend predicted, the original rationale is upm
heldo
In regard to the vocationally educated, 22,1% more males
than females have definite plans to remain in the home community,
Here again, males are far more definite in their plans than
femaleso Consequently, there is little difference between the
sexes in those definitely planning to migrate, However, if the
two lower migration plan cells are combined far more females
than males are considering migration, or are definitely planning
to migrate, Therefore, the null hypothesis must be rejected
and the alternative hypothesis is confirmed,
15%.more primary educated females than males definitely
plan to migrate, and 901% more males plan to remain in the home

community, It must be remembered, however, that far more prim

mary educated males than females enjoy ascribed occupational

17b

Table ZoomwThe relationship between sex and level of education

and
tion,

w

plans to migrate,
and (3) income frustration,
w

10 Plans to Migrate Education of Respondents

 

m

(2) occupational frustra~

' ‘SSL—w..:‘ti§mwl u. .:- lax-cum ~'

 

 

fw‘:“-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Primary Educated Vocational Secondary—
only_ Educated EQUCfiEEQWW_i,.
“mal—es .._.____F emales Liaise. females L215: £19326
Definite plans to ’ ' ‘
“ax 41 15% 3 2: 4% 3 201 % 1L 0:: 14...; 9mg
Indefinite whether
will stay or leave 30L2% 25LO%_ 37,0% 57,5% 33,;gwwfiig;§,
Definite plans to
leave 27,6% 42,6% 30L9% 32,5% ‘wgzyggpygghgrm
% 100% 100% 100% 100% 1005 100%
Total N 123 68 81 BO 2‘_, ll4
X2: 4,46 Ln,s,) X31=2A57 ings,
P),75<,9O ygzysgflur ,75
2, Occupational_Frustration _,mi.w.« fl
M...___.al e S .._....___.F em <31 e S M...___.al e s aeieiss 1.31.52: lei. Les
Not frustrated esigg 56,5% 54,4% 34,6% 31,3A_n;§ 9é_'
Partly frustrated 10,4% Qal% 3;,9% 52,6% 41,0§_ 42.95”-
Frustrated 20,8% 35,5% l2L7% 12,8% 27,7A 23¥4m
Total % lOOol% 10001% 100% 100% 100% lOOA
N 106 6; '79 7s 83 ll; .._,_
x2: 4, 40 In, 5,; final...
P 3:9 7 5 (n 90 P >110 3.2;.“
3, Encome Frustration ‘ _ur 4
Males Females Males, Females iéiéé r3v3£§
Not frustrated 49,6% 45,5% 32,9% 20,0% i§,;§%_,:,:gm
Partly frustrated l4,0% 7L6% 27y4% g1,§§, 4ghgénrwggign
Frustrated 3§ygg_ 47,0% 39,7% ‘3§&Z% _ .iiktié qqyggm‘
% 100% 10001% 100% 100% 100% ice .%
TOtal I 1 21 66 7 3 7 5 _ _s 2 _; rim“
X2: 2,86 (n,§,) X2: 4L§4 Ln,sL) X2r4,09 ” g
P7,,75 (.90 P7275§i90

 

roles within the farm family systemo

occupational opportunities, however,

as is indicated by Table 210

For those seeking offrfarm
the situation is different,

The Chi Square analySis indicates

that the probability of getting results as extreme as those in

the table by chance alone is so great that the null hypothesis

1??

Table Zlowahe relationship between type of work of respondenga,

and (l) occupational frustration,

(2) income

frustration, and (3) plans to migrate, by sex of

respondent,

 

J—I .1.- .«g;

 

OCCUpation of~r§§pondent

 

S

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Working on the Others now ”a
home farm workinq_
Males Females figles Eggglgg
Ll) Migration Planning
Definite plan to stay 54,2% 42 9% 35, % 27,5%
Indefinite whether
will stay or leave 35,4% 28,6% 25,7% 25,5%
Definite plans to
leave 10,4% 28,6% 33,Q§ g7,rt
% 100% lOOQl% 100% 100,l%
TOtal N 48 1 4 70 __y _ 51
X2=—1.2;3i9
P >, 25 .élégflmw...
{22 Occupational Frustration
Not frustrated 82°4% 63,6% 61,4% 54,9%
Partly frustrated 808% 9,1% 11,4% 708%
Frustgated 8L§% 27,3% 27,;% p.37i3%_
‘ as 100% 100,0% _99,9% 1.00%
“tau 2 34 11 7o 51.. __
x2: l9§4 .oa
P >0 50 (mall...
L3) Income Frustratiwp
Net frustrated 59,6% 38 5% 44,9% +4,9é
Partly frustrated 1208% 23,l% 15,9% 441%
Frustrated 27,7% 38,5% 39,;% 2;,Qfi 1m
_ % 100,l% 10001% 99 9% 330%
T0151 1‘ 47 1.3 69 Sag; ”mm
x2: 4,58

 

178

cannot be rejectedo There are no significant overall sex differ~
ences in the migration plans of primary educated farm adoleSw
cents who work off the home farmo

The very limited occupational opportunities for females
in farm areas is clearly demonstrated by the results in Table
21. Only 14 farm females out of the total of 117 were working
on the home farm or in the farm householdo at the time of the
survey° And only 6 of these planned to remain thereo On the
other hand, out of the two year cohort of 160 farm males, 48
were then working on the home farm: but only 26 to 30 of these
planned to remain thereo Although this is much higher than the
female total, it represents no more than 16 to 19% of the total
farm male cohorto

In summary, the major sex differentials in migration
plans, as indicated by the results in Tables 19, 20, and 21,
occur among those from farm backgrounds who have received only
a primary education or some additional vocational educationo
Not only do farm males stay on the home farm in much greater
prOportions than females, but even when they seek work off the
fanm, they plan to remain in the home community in greater pro~
portions than do farm females. This appears to be particularly
true for those who attend vocational schoolsa

The same trend recurs in the case of occupational and
income frustrationo There are no significant sex differences
for the secondary educated° The only groups within which clear
and consistent sex differences appear are the primary and

vocationally educatedo However, the probability associated

179
with these differents does not reach the ,05 level of signifi~
cance, Since we are dealing with a pOpulation, and the prob-
ability is less than 0025 that these differences could occur by
chance, the null hypothesis can be safely rejected in these
casesa More vocationally educated females than males are frus-
trated in their occupational and income aspirations, Almost
20% fewer females than males are not frustrated in their occum
pational aSpirations, and 1209% fewer females than males are
not frustrated in their income aSpirations, The alternative
hypotheses are clearly confirmed in these caseso

Considerably more primary educated females than males
are frustrated in their occupational and income aspirations,
However,‘as the results in Table 21 indicate, for those seeking
off farm employment the differences between males and females
who have received only a primary education are considerably rem
duced, although not eliminatedo Higher proportions of females
than males are frustrated, and slightly lower proportions of
females are not frustratedo In this latter case then the alterm
native hypothesis is not confirmed,

The major sex differences in occupational and income
frustration occur therefore in two educational groups, Among
the primary educated it occurs in two major occupational groups,
First among the farm employed, because of the relatively greater
proportions of farm males than females who have ascribed occuw
pational roles within the farm familyo And secondly for those
employed off the farm, because of the apparently greater oppor-
tunities for males locally, It also occurs among the vocations
ally educated where males have much better chances of finding

acceptable Jobs than have females,

180
Hypothesis 22
HO: For females, differences in plans to migrate are
unrelated to educational levelo
H : The prOportion of females planning to migrate,
will be greatest among the secondary educated,
less amongst the vocationally educated, and
leaSt amongst the primary educatedo
The null hypothesis must be rejected, as the results in
Table 20 show major differences among educational grOUpS in the
migration plans of females, As compared to the secondary edu»
cated, almost three times as many primary educated females plan
to remain in the home community (32,4% compared to 10,5%), Howw
ever, because primary educated females are far more definite in
their migration plans than others, slightly more of thanpdan to
migrate than others, If the two lower migration plan categories
are collapsed, however, the trends become very clear, From 25
to 32% more females who have received a secondary or vocational
education plan to migrate, or are indefinite whether to remain
or migrate, than are females who have received a primary education,
Although the null hypothesis is clearly rejected, the
alternative hypothesis is not fully confirmed, There are no
major differences in the migration plans of the secondary and
vocationally educated females, although the primary educated do
plan to remain in the home community to a significantly greater
extent than others,
Table 20 also shows that an almost identical pattern
holds in the case of occupational and income frustration, There

are minimal differences among the secondary and vocationally

181
educated, while the primary educated believe that they can ful-
fill their aSpirations locally to a significantly greater ex-
tent than otherso
Hypothesi§_g§,

Since the theoretical hypothesis contains two different
assertions they will be stated here in separate hypotheses,

HO: For males, differences in plans to migrate are unn

related to educational levelo

H1: (a) The proportion of males planning to migrate

will be greatest among those who have received a
secondary education, less among those who have
received a vocational education, and least among
those who have received a primary education,

As the results in Table 20 indicate, the null hypothesis
is clearly rejected, and the alternative hypothesis is clearly
and consistently confirmed. Eighteen percent more vocational
than secondary educated males definitely plan to remain in the
home community, while 9.4% more primary than vocational
educated males definitely plan to remain, This trend is clears
127 and consistently reversed in the case of those who are not
definite whether to go or stay, and amongst those who are
definitely planning to migrateo

However, if we partial out from the primary educated
males, those who have ascribed occupational roles on the home
farm, do the same trends appear? The following hypothesis deals
with this question,

H z (b) Males who have received only a primary educa-

1
tion, and who have to seek off—farm employment,

182
will plan to migrate to a greater extent than will
males who have received a vocational education,
A comparison of results in Tables 20 and 21 reveals

that this is not so, There are no consistent differences in
migration plans between primary educated males working off farms,
and vocationally educated males, Almost 36% of the primary edu»
cated definitely plan to stay, compared to 32% of the vocation!
ally educated, But because of differences in the how definite
migration plans are, 38,6%.of the nonwfarm primary educated
plan to migrate, compared to 30,9% of the vocationally educated,
Overall, however, the differences are too small to be significant,

The alternative hypothesis is not supported,
Distance frgm the Centre and Factors Influencing Migration Plans

In chapter 3 it was shown that distance from the centre
clearly affected educational chances, Adolescents living more
than four miles from the centre had a much lower probability of
receiving a post-primary education, Does this also hold true
for occupational and income frustration: and consequently for
migration plans? Do those living in more remote districts have
more negative attitudes toward their actually poorer social
provisions? And have they also more negative attitudes toward
their community relationships? Hypotheses 24 to 28 are con-
cerned with these questions, and the pertinent results are preu
Sented in Tables 22 to 25,

Hypothesis 24,

HO: Differences in occupational and income frustration

are unrelated to the distance respondents live from

the centre,

183

H1: The greater the distance from the centre the greater

the level of occupational and income frustration,

The results relevant to this hypothesis are presented
in Table 22,

Table 22 yields a very complex picture of the relation-
ship between ecological factors and the major variables affects
ing migration plans,

In regard to occupational and income frustration, the
null hypothesis is rejected, as distance from the centre is
clearly related to variations in occupational and income frustraw
tion for both males and females, For males, however, the trend
is directly opposite to that predicted, since frustration actu—
ally decreases as distance from the centre increases, Over 31%
of the males from the centre are frustrated, compared to 26,5%
frustrated in intermediate areas, and 14,3% frustrated in the
most remote areas, Income frustration levels decrease similarly
for males? from 80% frustrated or partly frustrated at the centre
to 70,2% in medium areas, to 50°4% in the most remote areas,

The alternative hypotheses cannot be accepted for males therefore.

However, since the proportion of farm adolescents in
the total popopulation increases very rapidly with distance from
the centre the proportion of males employed full time on the
family farm also increases, as section B of Table 22 indicates,
Only l7,4%.of males from the centre have jobs which satisfy them
and none of these work on farms, On the other hand, almost 24%
of the males from intermediate areas, and 35,6% of the males

from the most remOte areas have such satisfactory jobs, and

Table 22,v-The relationship between remoteness

184

and occupational

and income frustrationo

 

 

Level of Remoteness_§rom

theCentre

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Centre plus All large All.others,
area within towns in mostly open
two miles the comm ’—' country areas
of Centre munity plu; more than
country four miles
areas withm from the
in four Centre
miles of
Centre
A, Occupational Males Females Males ggmales_Males Females
Frustrationglz
Not frustrated 46,7% 37,3% 5L,O% 39,5% 65,5% 4l,8%m_
Frusgated 31011.41 01% amt. .23., at 14° 3%.,27, 3%
Total (46) (5;) (49) (43) (119) (i1o)
B, Occupational
FrustrationiZ!
Have Job at
present and 17,4% 109% 24,0% 11,6% 35,6% 12,7%
satisfied
(% of total
respondents) (46) (52) L§01_,*j431_ _L135) (liBl
Of Remainder:
(1)Not occupation~
ally frustrated 35,1% 36,0% 35,1% 31,6% 45,3% 33,3%
(2)0ccupationally
frustrated 37,8% 2;,Q% 35,1% 26,3% 22,7% 31L§%
Total (37) (50) (377' (38) (?51, (96)
Co Percentage of all
adolescents aspir-
ing to nonumanual
occupations 31,3% 65,4% ,;2% 67,4% 17,7% 53,3%
Total (461 (52) (so; (431, (iggl (ilal
D, Income Frustration
Ll)Not frustrated 20,0% g1,5% 29,8% 22,5% 49 §% 30,9%
Total (45) (51) (47) _(40) (1291, (110)
E0 Occupation of % who % who % who % who % who % who
ReSpondents by def, def, def, def, defo def,
Plans to Migrate plan plan plan plan plan plan
to to to to to to
stay leave stay leave stay__ leave
Working on Farm M 5000% 000%(2i 80,0% (5)6l,4% 6,8%(44)
F g§%3% 3l,§%fil6)
Working off Farm M 53,8% 30,8%(13) 16% 60%(25)48 8% 30,l%(43)
F 37,5% 37,5%(8)38,5% 38,5%(l3)23,7% 43,;zigs)

 

185

most of the satisfactorily employed males from remote areas
work on home farms,

Table 24 shows similar differentials in the case of
those with medium to high family obligations, Only 13% of
those from the centre have medium-high obligations: whereas
20,8% of those from intermediate areas, and 30%,of those from
the most remote areas have such obligations, Consequently
this increasing tendency of males to hold ascribed occupation~
al and family roles on the home farm may account for much of
this variation of occupational frustration with remoteness,
Of the remaining males, however, working at off-farm occupations,
occupational frustration levels remain relatively constant for
the two least remote areas, but decrease again in the most rem
mote areao Almost 65% of the males from the centre and the
intermediate area, are partly or fully frustrated, compared to
only 54,7% of those from the most remote areao Hence although
the differences are considerably reduced, they are still in a
direction opposite to that predictedo

Perhaps the more remote males, having lower levels of
occupational aSpiration, (as indicated by section C of Table 22),
are better able to fulfill these aSpirations locallyo Occupationm
al Opportunities, however, are not distributed evenly throughout
the community, but are more concentrated at the centre, As a
result, unless a considerable prOportion of the more remote
respondents commute to the centre, the influence of their lower
aspiration levels would be offset by the relatively Sparse
occupational opportunities available near their homes, However,

Table 23 indicates that such commuting does occur since low

186
aSpirers from the more remote areas take up a disproportionate
number of jobs in the centre,
Over 50% of the males and 47,4% of the females from
the most remote areas have jobs in the centre or near it, Adolv
escents from the two more remote areaS, in fact, account for

Table 23,~~The relationship of place of work to the remoteness
of reSpondents° homes, for respondents now working,

   

‘--—“-——-——

 

- ._ -._...__.-- __-_.&P y '

 

 

Remoteness of Homes of Resppndents now

Working
Remoteness of Center and up All small towns All Open counw
Place of Work to 2 miles and all Open try areas more
from centre country areas than 4 miles
up to 4 miles from the

from the Centre Centre
Males Females Males Females ,galgg Females
Centre and up to
2 miles from the
centre 100% 100% 40% 28,6% 51% 47,4%

Small Towns and

Open country

areas up to 4

miles from the

centre 60% 64,3% 12,2% 23,7%

Open country

areas more than 4

miles from the

centre 7,1% 36,7% 28,9%

 

Total No,of Cases 13 8 25 14 49 38

 

73%,Of the 78 reSpondents then working in the centre, These
more remote youth, having lower levels of occupational aSpira~
tion, fill lower level service and manual jobs in the centre,
Those nearer the centre, having higher levels of aspiration,
have also higher levels of frustration,

Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, 36 prospective rese

pondents had already migrated by the time the survey had started,

187
Thirteen of these were males, of whom 12 came from the most rev
mote areaso If we assume that these were occupationally frus—
trated, their addition to the relevant cells in Table 22 alters
the distribution there, Of the centre males, 31,l% would be
frustrated, compared to 28% of males from the intermediate area,
and 22°l% of the males from the most remote area, The differm
ences are considerably reducedo But even with these additions,
compared to the most remote, 9%.more males from the centre are
frustrated in their occupational aspirations, The alternative
hypothesis cannot be accepted, since the results clearly indicate
that the more remote reSpondents have lower levels of income and
occupational frustration than have others nearer the centre,

At first sight, the position is not very different for
femaleso Although there is an increase in the proportions
frustrated in occupational and income aSpirations, with increas-
ing distance from the centre, there is also a similar slight
increase in the proportions not frustratedo This is accounted
for by the fact that those near the centre are much more inm
definite in their beliefs about the possible fulfillment of
occupational and income aSpirations locally, However, if 50%
of these who are indefinite were to finally decide that they
could get a suitable job locally, there would be no significant
differences among remoteness levelso

For those not now satisfactorily employed, however,
there is a definite increase in occupational frustration with
increasing remoteness, Twenty two percent of those nearest the
centre are frustrated in their occupational aspirations, com"

pared to 26.3% of those in the intermediate areas, and to 31,1%

188
of those in the most remote areas,

In addition, 23 prospective female respondents from the
community had already migrated by the time the study had started,
Eighteen of these came from the most remote area, two from inter~
mediate areas, and three from the centre, If we assume that
these were occupationally frustrated, their addition to the
relevant cells in Table 22 alters the trends there in the direc«
tion predicted, At the centre, 25,5% of females would be
frustrated, compared to 2607% of those from intermediate areas,
and 37,5% of those from the most remote areas, The alternative
hypothesis can therefore, be accepted in the case of females,
Hypothe§;§_25,

HO: Differences in Community Satisfaction and Communm
ity Evaluation scores, will be unrelated to the
remoteness of respondents” homes from the centreo

H z (a) For females, the greater the remoteness of
respondents“ homes from the centre, the lower the
level of Community Satisfaction, and the more
negative the evaluation of the community’s social
provisions,

(b) For males, the greater the remoteness of res~
pondentsa homes from the centre, the higher the
level of Community Satisfaction and the more posi~
tive the evaluation of the community's social
provisions,

The results bearing on this hypothesis are presented

in Table 24, The null hypothesis is clearly rejected in both

189
cases, and the alternative hypotheses are both confirmed, As
the distance of homes from the centre increases, the prOportion
of females with low Community Satisfaction scores progressively
increases from l9,6% in the centre to 32,4% in the most remote
areas, The prOportion who are highly satisfied correspondingly

decreases from 39,2% to 27,9%,

Table 24,m«The relationship between remoteness and (13 Community
Satisfaction, (2) Community Evaluation, and (3) Family

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Obligations,
.__,___.___..-...___ h " Level of Remoteness ‘LLSE‘f?;’e*§;§E;re "W“
Centre Towns & areas 4 Miles
1~4 miles plus
Males Females Males Femaleg. ggigg ”eagles
A, Community
Satisfaction '
Alienated (0 _ 3) 40,0% 19,6% 34% 27,5% 15,6% 32,4%
Highly satisfied
(7 - 9) 326,7% 39,2fi 38% 20% 40,6fi gym.
Total 45 51 50 40 128 111
B, Commygity Evaluation
Negative I 7 a 9) 76,0% 40,8% 51,0% 60,0% 57,3% 56,8%
Positive (0 v 3) 4,3% 26,5% . l4,3% 15,0% l3,7% l,7%
Totad. 46 49 49 40_ lBl lllmh_

 

C, Family_0bliga2lgt§
% with Med, High
family obligagiggs 13,0% 9,6% 20,8% l7,l% 30,0%. l5,9%

 

Zetsl 46 52 48 41 J 13q‘ ”113

For males, however, the proportions with low Community
Satisfaction scores decreases with distance and at a much greater
rate, The proportions alienated drop from 40% at the centre to
only 15,6% in the most remote areas, The proportion of males

with highly satisfied scores, on the other hand, increases from

190
2607% at the centre, to 4OH6% for those from the most remote
areas, The alternative hypothesis is clearly confirmed in this
caseo

The proportion of females with negative Community
Evaluation scores also increases greatly with remoteness, while
that of males decreaseso Over 40% of females near the centre
have highly negative attitudes, compared to 60% with negative
attitudes in intermediate areas, and 5608% with negative atti»
tudes in the most remote areaso The prOportions with highly
positive attitudes similarly declines for females from 2605% at
the centre to lln7% in the most remote areas, The alternative
hypothesis, therefore, is clearly confirmed in this casee

The trends for males are directly opposite to those for
femaleso The prOportions with highly negative attitudes decreases
from 76% at the centre to 5793% in the most remote areas, The
proportions with highly positive attitudes correSpondingly in~
creases from 4,3% to 1307%o The alternative hypothesis is also
confirmed here, Although there is actually an improvement in
the adequacy of social rOVisions nearer the centre, males from
the centre have more negative attitudes toward these prQVisions
than have more remote males”

The rationale on which these hypotheses were based is
net confirmed for both cases by these results, howevero It was
assumed that there would be an increaSing difference between
males and females in their attitudes toward the community”s
social provisions, as remoteness increased: the prOportion of
males with pOSitive attitudes increasing with remoteness, while

that of females decreased with remotenesse t was eXpected that

191
the more remote femalesp living in largely male centered com~

munities, with very limited leisure, Sport, and entertainment
facilities (5 of 9 items in the scale), for girls; would have
much more negative attitudes toward these facilities, than would
the relatively more advantaged males in that communityn Females
from less remote areas of the community where facilities are
better, were eXpected to have more positive attitudeso Males
from the centre were expected to have less positive attitudes
than those from more remote areas, because of the more tradim
tional values and attitudes of the lattero However, no major
differences were expected in attitudes between males and females
from the centreo

This rationale seems to hold up in the case of Community
Satisfaction, at least in regard to differences between thd
sexes from the more remote areaso But the results completely
contradict the rationale in the case of attitudes toward the comm
munity°s social provisionso There are no important differences
between the more remote males and females in their attitudes
toward these social provisions” whereas there are major differ»
ences between the sexes at the centreo And it is these differ»
ences between the sexes near the centre that has led to the
confirmation of the second part of the hypothesiso Females
from the centre have the most pOSitive attitudes of all reSpondm
ents, male or femalea and males from the centre have the most
negative attitudes of all respondents, male or female”

Some previous results indicate why this might be 500
The results set out in Table 19 have shown that males from

manual backgrounds havec by farc the most negative attitudes

l92
toward the community's social provisions of all OCCUpational
groupso However, the same table also shows that the females
from manual backgrounds have, by far, the mOSt positive attiw
tudes toward the community°s social provisions than is true of
females from any other occupational group, Since these manual
groups are concentrated in the centre, these previous results
account for the unexpected findings in Table 24, The centre
males are the most negative because they contain a much higher
prOportion of highly dissatisfied manual maleso The centre
females are the most satisfied because they contain such a high
prOportion of the highly satisfied manual femaleso Of course,
why these differences should exist between males and females
from manual backgrounds, or why there should be such a great
difference between the manual group and others in their atti~
tude toward these provisions, has not been explainedo This
will have to await further researcha
hypothesis 261

HO: Differences in the level of family obligations for
males will be unrelated to the remoteness of
respondents8 homes from the centre,

H z The greater the remoteness of reSpondents' homes
from the centre the greater the level of family
obligationso

The results pertinent to this hypothesis are presented

in Table 25, Family obligations do indeed increase greatly
with distance from the centre, for both males and femaleso
For males, the proportions with medium to high levels of family

obligations increases from 13% at the centre, to 2008% at

193
intermediate areas, and to 30% at the most remote areaso The
null hypothesis is therefore rejected, and the alternative
hypothesis is confirmedo
Hypothesis 270

HO: Differences in migration plans will be unrelated
to the remoteness of reSpondents' homes from the
centreg

H : PrOportions of reSpondents planning to migrate
will increase directly with remoteness of their
homes from the centreo

Presented in Table 25 are the results bearing on this

hypothesiso The null hypothesis is rejected, as there is a
clear relationship between remoteness and the level of migration
plans. But the trend is in a direction Opposite to that prev
dictedo In general, the more remote the homes of respondents,
the lesser the tendency to migrateo This holds for both males
and femaleso

The differences between the centre population and that

of the next most remote area are not very great or consistent,
However, compared to these two groups, the most remote respond-
ents plan to stay in the home community in much greater prOporw
tionso For males, 23 to 26% plan to stay from the two least
remote areas, compared to 44o4%iof those from the most remote
areao The differences for females are much smaller, but in the
trend is in the same directiono Nine to l6,3% of females from
the centre and the next most remote area, plan to stay in the

home community, compared to l9o7% of those from the most remote

194

areasa Over 48% of those from the centre plan to migrate, while
only 38°5% of those from the most remote areas plan to migrate,
Overall then the alternative hypothesis cannot be accepted for
either sexo

However, most of those who had already migrated came
from the most remote areas, and if these are included with the
cases who now definitely plan to migrate, they may alter this
conclusiono When included, 39°1% of the males from the centre
plan to migrate, Over 45% of those from intermediate areas plan
to migrate or have already migrated, but only 2796% of those
from the most remote areas have already migrated or plan to do 500
Hence, the alternative hypothesis is not confirmed in the case
of males, The reSpective figures for females indicate that 49,1%
of those from the centre have already migrated, or plan to migrate,
whereas 37,8% of the females from intermediate areas, and 4697%
from the most remote areas are equally prone to migrationo
Hence the alternative hypothesis is not supported for females
either,

Instituting controls for educational level achieved by
respondents give similar results, as indicated by the results
in Table 25, For those who are primary educated and presently
working, those who live further from the centre plan to migrate
in smaller prOportions than do those nearer the centren This
holds true for both males and femaleso If the numbers who had
already migrated are added to these figures for the primary
educated, the results are altered to some extentn SiXLy per“
cent of females from the two least remote areas plan to migrate

or have already migrated, compared to 56,1% in the most remote

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196
areas. These differences are not very important, And only 29%
Of the males from the most remote areas plan to migrate or have
already migrated, compared to 51,2% from the two least remote
areas combined, The alternative hypothesis is not supported in
the case Of males either, The same pattern persists for both
males and females who have received a vocational or secondary
education, The greater the distance from the centre the lower
the tendency to plan to migrate, and the greater the tendency to
plan to stay in the home communityo

The fact that the more remote respondents have lower
levels Of aspiration and in the case Of males are more attached
to the home community, and are less dissatisfied with its social
provisions, accounts for part of these unexpected findings, It
also appears that increasing distance from the centre does not
act as a barrier to participating in the centre°s labor market,
It may also be true that the sons and daughters Of farmers from
areas outside the centre are being given preference by employers
Of manual and service workers there, In any case, it appears
that adolescents from these more remote areas are contributing
a diSprOportionate share tO the young manual and service labour
force in the centre, It may be, Of course, that these will
migrate from the area at a later date, although they seem deter-
mined tO stay at the present time,

Another factor that may be Operating here may be, that
the more Optimistic beliefs about local Opportunities that
characterize the more remote reSpondents may be due to their
less adequate knowledge of Opportunities in the community,

Furthermore, the more positive attitudes Of the more remote males

197
toward the community may also be influencing their views Of the
Opportunities available there. In any case, unless trends have
reversed in very recent periods, in the long run we can expect
greater migration from the more remote areas Of the communityo
(See Chapter 2,) The manner in which this occurs, however,
will have to be left for later research to answer,
Hypothesis 28.

HO: Sex differences in occupational and income frustram
tion, and plans to migrate, are unrelated to the
remoteness Of respondentsII homes from the centreo

H : Differences between the sexes in their rates Of
occupational and income frustration, and plans to
migrate widen as the remoteness Of respondentsn
homes increases,

Results in Tables 21 and 25 show that the null hypothesis
is clearly rejected, and that the results conform to the alters
native hypothesis, At the centre, 9,4% more males than females
are not frustrated in their occupational aspirations, This sex
difference increases to ll,5% at the intermediate area, and to
23.3% at the most remote area, Section B Of Table 22 shows that
Of those not presently satisfactorily employed, 009% more females
than males from the centre are not occupationally frustrated,
This changes tO 3,5% more males than females not occupationally
frustrated in the intermediate areas, and to 12,0%:more males
in the most remote areaso The figures for those occupationally
frustrated or partly frustrated gives coroborrating results,
with females becoming relatively more frustrated than males as

remoteness increases, Not only then do progressively greater

198
prOportions Of males relative to females enjoy ascribed occupae
tional roles on the family farm as remoteness increases: but
even for those seeking Off farm jobs, increasingly greater
proportions Of males, relative to females,can find acceptable
jobs locallyo

The trends for income frustration are similar, 7,5%
more females than males from the centre are not frustrated,
whereas 7,3%»more males than females are not frustrated in
intermediate areas, and 18,7% more males than females are not
frustrated at the more remote areas, The figures for those
frustrated corroborate these results, The alternative hypothesis
is clearly supported here,

The results on migration plans are presented in Table
25, At the centre l4,3%:more males than females definitely
plan to remain locally, This declines tO 9,7% more males than
females planning to remain at intermediate areas, but alters
tO 24,7%.more males than females planning to remain locally at
the most remote areaso The figures for those planning to
migrate support these trends, The alternative hypothesis is
again confirmed here,

In each case the null hypothesis has been rejected and
the alternative hypothesis confirmed, The greater the distance
from the centre, and the more farm dependent the area, the
greater becomes the sex differential in occupational and income
frustration,and in migration plans, Occupational and income
Opportunities are relatively evenly balanced near the centre
for males and females, but with increasing distance from the

centre, and with increasing rurality, Opportunities for females

199
steadily decrease while those for males actually increase,
The Cultural_0rientation of ReSpondents‘ Families
and Factors Influencinngigggtion Plans
gypgthesis 290
HO: Controlling for education; differences in the
level of (l) occupational and income aspiration,
(2) occupational and income frustration, (3) Comm
munity Satisfaction and Community Evaluation, and
(4) plans to migrate, are unrelated to the
cultural orientation of respondents” familieso

H1: Controlling for the educational level adhieved,

reSpondents from traditional families (those in
the lowest socio-economic status scale tertile
within each income level), will have: (1) lower
levels of occupational and income aspiration,

(2) lower levels of occupational and income
frustration, (3) higher levels of Community Satisn
faction and Community Evaluation, and (4) lower
tendencies to migrate, than will respondents

from modern families,

The results pertinent to this hypothesis are presented
in Table 26, A traditional cultural orientation is assumed to
exist where families within particular income brackets, fall
in the lowest tertile of the socio~economic status scale of
that income bracketo Those with scores in the other tertiles

are assumed to be "modern"o

200

The null hypothesis is rejected in the case of occupaw
tional and income aSpirations; as there are major differences
between the sociOweconomic groups on these two variableso The
alternative hypothesis is clearly confirmed for income aSpira_
tion, since a greater proportion of those from traditional
families aSpire to lower income levels, For the primary edum
cated, 42 to 58,6% of the 'traditionals“ aSpire to incomes of
7 pounds or less, compared to only 23 to 31,7% of those from
‘modern° families, From 29 to 36,7% of the “moderns‘ in vocaw
tional schools aSpire to incomes of 15 pounds or over per week,
compared to only 16 to 30% of the ”traditionalsa, And while
28 to 50% of the “traditionals” in secondary schools aSpire
to income of 15 pounds and over per week, 47 to 63%»of those
from “modern“ families have similar aspirations,

The same pattern holds only for the secondary educated
in regard to occupational aspirations, Here only 17 to 17,9%
of the 'traditionals” aspire to professional occupations, com“
pared to 22 to 34,4% of the "moderns", This pattern is reversed,
however, in the case of the vocational and primary educated,
From 31 to 47% of primary educated respondents from traditional
families have achieved only lower level manual occupations,
While 47 to 63% of the 'moderns“ have these occupations, And
in regard to the vocationally educated, 48 to 50% of the
'traditionals“ aSpire to nonwmanual occupations, whereas only
23 to 38,6% of the “moderns‘ do so, The alternative hypothesis
is not confirmed in these cases, therefore, Although the
'traditionals' then have lower levels of income aspiration, they

do not have correspondingly higher levels of oCCUpational

201

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203
aSpiration except for the secondary educated,

The null hypothesis is also rejected in the case of
occupational and income frustration, But the alternative hypo"
thesis is confirmed only for the primary educated reSpondents,
Here respondents from traditional families have lower levels of
occupational and income frustration than have those from modern
families, Sixty eight to 84% of those from traditional families
are not frustrated in their occupational aspirations, as against
51 to 61,7% of those from modern families, And 46 to 66,7% of
those from traditional families are not frustrated in their in»
come aspirations as against 40 to 45,9% of those from modern
families,

The relative position of the two types of respondents is
reversed however, for reSpondents from vocational and secondary
schools, A greater proportion of the 'moderns' than the 'tradie
tionals' are not frustrated in their occupational and income
aSpirations, While 33 to 37% of the “traditionals” in vocational
schools are not frustrated in their occupational aspirations, 50
to 51,4% of the ”moderns° are not frustrated, And while 20 to
30% of the “traditionals‘ in vocational schools are not frustrated
in their income aSpirations, 24 to 37,1% of the “moderns” are
not frustrated, The same trend holds true for the secondary
educated: a greater prOportion of the moderns than the tradim
tionals are not frustrated in their occupational and income
aspirations,

Here again the alternative hypothesis is supported only

for the primary educated, This has occurred deSpite the fact

204 .
that the “moderns” have higher levels of income aSpiration in
all cases, and have higher levels of occupational aspiration
for the secondary educated,

In regard to Community Satisfaction and Community
Evaluation, the only consistent differences between ”moderns”
and 'traditionalsl occurs for Community Satisfaction, Here,
for the primary educated °traditionalsa have slightly lower
levels of satisfaction than have moderns, In all other cases
no consistent overall differences appear, The null hypothesis
cannot be rejected; differences in Community Satisfaction and
Community Evaluation scores appear to be unrelated to the
family“s cultural orientation, as measured here,

In regard to migration plans, the null hypothesis can
only be rejected in the case of the primary educated and the
vocationally educated, There are no consistent differences be»
tween the two groups in the case of the secondary educated,
The alternative hypothesis is supported, however, only for the
primary educated, Here from 41 to 48,5% of the ntraditionalsn
plan to stay compared to 30 to 38,1% of the ‘moderns‘, The
alternative hypothesis cannot be accepted in the case of the
vocationally educated, since a greater proportion of the
'moderns“ plan to stay locally, From 15,4 to 15,6% of the
'traditionals' plan to stay compared to 22 to.23,4% of the
'moderns",

Overall then the only consistent differences between
the two groups occur for the primary educated and the vocations
ally educated, The alternative hypothesis is confirmed only

for the primary educated, Here the atraditionalsa have lower

205

levels of income aspiration” and lower levels of occupational
and income frustration than have the amoderns”o As an apparent
consequenceg relatively fewer of the “traditionals” plan to
migrateo However, the reverse position holds in the case of
the vocationally educatedo Here: although the ctraditionalsa
appear to have lower levels of income aspiration, they do have
higher levels of occupational aSpiration, and higher levels of
occupational and income frustrationq Again as an apparent con~
sequence, relatively more of the ”traditionals‘I plan to migrated

Why should these two educational groups exhibit such
different patterns of migration planning? The original rationale
holds up only in the case of the primary educated? The cone
servative influences of a traditional cultural environment is
nicely illustrated in their lower levels of aspiration and
frustrationo

One factor that may explain part of the lower levels of
occupational and income frustration of the “moderns‘ in vocation~
a1 school, could be that the more modern families have better
contacts with local employers, and have more influence in pIOm
curing satisfactory employment for their childreno The more
modern farmersg for example: would be more mechanized, and cone
sequently have more contact with local garagesj etc” Consequente
ly they would be in a better position to influence local employerso

The method of isolating traditional from modern families
may also be introducing extraneous variables into the analysis”
It was assumed that income and status values were the two most
important predictors of the score that families would receive

on the sociOWeconomic scale” Controlling for the effects of

206
income, it was assumed that peoples' values would then predict
in large measure the score received by each familyo If of an
equal income level, families of a traditional orientation
would have fewer of the recently introduced items included in
the scale, than would families of a more modernistic frame of
referenceo These assumptions are perhaps too simplea It may
well be, that given the errors involved in estimating family
income, and errors in the report of family income, etco, a
lower score on the socioeconomic scale is an indication that
the income estimate is too higho The overall trends are too
consistent, however, to support this inference, And the fact
that the position of the vocational and primary educated res“
pondents is so consistently reversed, would also suggest that
this is not the caseo It may well be that adolescents from
traditional families attending post primary schools, change
their orientations to a more modern frame of reference; and
in reaction to the cultural conservatism of their families etco
are more biased in their views of the home community‘s oppor»
tunities, and so plan to migrate in proportionately greater
numberso Future research would need to eXplore all these pos»

sibilities in greater depth,

Summary

Presented in Chapter four were the results of an
empirical study of the relationships between certain attitudes
and aSpirations, beliefs about the local fulfillment of these

aSpirations, and plans to migrateo Also explored was the

207
manner in which these independent attitudinal type variables
mediate the effects of the major structural factors on migra-
tion planso These interrelationships were examined in terms of
the rationale presented in Chapter one for their existenceo
In Chapter five the research will be summarized, the impact of
the results on the theoretical rationale will be examined, and
changes necessary in the theory prOposedo Some limitations of
the study will be pointed out, and some further problems for

research suggestedo

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Introduction

The tasks of the present Chapter are fourfoldo The
first is to summarize the results° The second is to evaluate
the results in terms of their consequences for the theoretical
rationale prOposedo The third is to examine the limitations
of the research procedureo And the fourth is to suggest the

course that future research should take in this areao

Summary of Results

Introduction

This summary is in two partso The first deals with the
relationship of five major social psychological variables to
the migration plans of individualso The second deals with how
these mediate the effects of some major social structural factors

on migration planningo

The Five Independent (Social Psychological! Variableso
Of the five variables proposed, beliefs about one‘s

ability to fulfill occupational and income aspirations in the
home community, (occupational and income frustration) were the

most predictive of migration planso And although they were

208

209
highly correlated with each other, their joint effects on migrao
tion plans were greater than those of any other variables,

After these, Community Satisfaction was the next most
predictive variable, This variable refers to evaluations of how
satisfactory local social relationships are, If reapondents
have a low regard for the community, they plan to migrate in
much greater prOportions than others, However, even at these
low levels of Community Satisfaction, the frustration of occupa-
tional andincome aspirations plays a major role in migration,

In fact, when Community Satisfaction is used as a control vari-
able, occupational frustration has a higher correlation with
migration plans at low levels of Community Satisfaction than at
higher, However, differences in beliefs about the ability to
fulfill occupational aspirations locally have less influence on
plans to definitely remain in the community (only one of three
values of this variable) than at any other level of the control
variable° That is, if reapondents are highly alienated from the
community, whether occupational aspirations can or cannot be
fulfilled there makes less difference in plans to stay locally
for this value of the control variable than for any other valueo

The fourth variable refers to reSpondents' work role
expectations within the family, If reapondents perceive that
their families have work expectations for them, which they can
only fulfill by remaining in the home community, respondents
will plan to remain in the home community to a much greater ex»
tent than others, Of the five variables it is the fourth most
predictive of migration plans, It was thought that such obligam

tions would lead to plans to remain locally irrespective of the

210
level of frustration of occupational and income aspirations,
This did not prove to be so, however, If frustrated in their
occupational aSpirations respondents will plan to migrate
irreSpective of their level of family obligations, High levels
of obligation, therefore, do not counteract the effects of occum
pational and income frustration, On the other hand, when occuw
pational and income aspirations are satisfied, high levels of
obligation lead to plans to remain in the home community in much
greater prOportions than is true of others, Only 17,6% of the
respondents have such obligations, however,

The fifth variable, attitude toward the community‘s
social provisions, or Community Evaluation, is the least pres
dictive of migration plans,

In general, beliefs about the ability to fulfill occupa-
tional and income aspirations predominate in the migration decim
sions of rural adolescents, Additional evidence for this con-
clusion comes from answers to questions asked all respondents
who were definitely planning to migrate, or who were not sure
whether they would migrate or not (76,2% of all respondents),

Of these, 72% said they would remain in the home community pro»
vided that they could achieve their occupational and income
aspirations there, An additional ll,5% said that they would
remain only if, besides their ability to fulfill occupational
and income aspirations locally, the local community social pres
visions were improved considerably, The remaining 16,3% said
that they would not remain in the home community under any

circumstances,

le
Those who said they would remain only if the community‘s
social provisions were improved, had lower levels of Community
Satisfaction and of Community Evaluation than others, However,
those two variables did not distinguish between those who would
remain only for social provision reasons and those who would not

remain in the home community under any conditions,

Structural Factors,

Sex, education, level of occupational aspiration, occu-
pational badkground of respondents, remoteness of respondents'
homes from the centre, and the cultural orientation of respond-
ents' families were the major structural variables employed,

'Excluding the farm category, the level of occupational
aspiration although highly related to the level of occupational
frustration, had a very low relationship with migration plans,
Apparently at low levels of occupational aspiration, or current
achievement, variables other than occupational frustration are
intervening in the relationship between level of occupational
aspiration and migration plans, However, if farm employees are
included, and level of education received is used as the major
independent variable, the relationship between level of educa-
tion and migration plans was very strong, Only 12%»of the
secondary educated plan to remain in the home community, whereas
21,l% of the vocationally educated and 38,2%»of the primary edu-
cated plan to do so,

When the level of education of respondents is used as a
control variable, occupational frustration is most predictive of

migration plans at the primary level of education, whereas income

212

frustration is most predictive of migration plans at the seconds
ary level of education, But the Joint effects of occupational
and income frustration on migration plans are greatest at the
secondary level of education, and least at the primary level,
All of these results are contrary to those hypothesized,

However, when reSpondents who were planning to migrate,
or who were unsure whether they would migrate or not, were asked
whether they would remain in the home community if their occupa»
tional and income aspirations were fulfilled there, the answers
conflicted with the above results, Only 11,4% of the primary
educated said that they would not remain there, whereas 23,1%
of the vocationally educated, and 40,7%pof the secondary educated
made similar statements. Therefore, although the Joint effects
of occupational and income frustration on migration plans are
greatest for the secondary educated, these are_the least likely
to remain in the home community if occupational and income aspi~
rations are satisfied, A number of other variables, apparently
highly correlated with high levels of education and high levels
of occupational aspiration, are interfering here, Attitudes t0m
ward the community°s social provisions is one of these factors,
This attitude is more highly correlated with migration plans for

the secondary educated than for any other educational group,
And, of those who said that they would not remain in the community

even if occupational and income aSpirations could be satisfied
there, considerably more of the secondary educated than others
said that they would remain if, besides these aspirations, the
community social provisions were brought up to their eXpectations,

The remaining respondents said that they would not remain at home

213
under any circumstances, This comprised almost three times as
many secondary educated respondents, as primary educated res»
pondents (21,5%.of the secondary educated, and only 7,6% of the
primary educated), The vocationally educated occupied an inter-
mediate position,

Therefore, noneconomic factors become increasingly more
important in migration as respondents level of education, and
level of occupational aspiration, increases, Economic factors
predominate for the primary educated, but other noneconomic factm
ors become almost as important for the secondary educated,

There is an apparent contradiction between the “correlam
tion“ results, and those from the questions about “incentives"

, to remain in the home community, Although occupational and in—
come frustration are most highly correlated with migration plans
for the secondary educated, considerably fewer of these would
actually remain in the home community if their occupational and
income aSpirations were satisfied, than would respondents from
lower levels of education, Attitudes toward the local commune
ity's social provisions eXplain part of this problem, These

have higher interaction effects at high levels of education,

But other variables are just as important, Individuals with high
levels of education and with high levels of occupational aspire“
tion are the socially mobile section of the pOpulation, Apparent»
ly other aspirations and attitudes are highly correlated with
these high levels of occupational aspiration, That is, social
mobility aspirations involve a whole complex of highly interw
correlated variables, of which occupational and income aspirations

are only a part, 80 that even if these latter aSpirations are

214
satisfied in the home community, these other aSpirations are
not, and therefore migration will result to places where these
other noneconomic aSpirations can be satisfied, What these
aspirations are, however, cannot be determined from the present
research,

Sex differentials in migration planning occur almost
exclusively in the farm category, Almost 20%.more farm males
than females plan to remain in the home community, Except for
much smaller differences in the skilled and service category,
there are no other consistent sex differences among groups from
other occupational backgrounds, These sex differentials in the
farm category are primarily explained by the much greater pro-
portion of farm males employed on farms, No consistent sex
differences in occupational and income frustration occur for any
other group, except again for those from a skilled and service
background, Farm females also have much lower levels of Com»
munity Satisfaction than farm males, while no such sex differ—
ences occur for other groups,

Sex differentials in occupational and income frustration
and migration plans are also limited to the primary and vocation:
ally educated groups, There are no consistent differences bee
tween the sexes on these variables for the secondary educated,
PrOportionately more females than males who have received only a
primary level of education, or a vocational education, are
frustrated in their occupational and income aspirations, and
proportionately more of them plan to migrate, These sex differe
entials are partly explained by the relatively greater proporm

tions of primary educated farm males who remain to work on the

215
home farm° In addition, for those not receiving a secondary
education who move off the home farm, there are relatively
greater opportunities locally for males than females, This is
particularly true for those receiving a vocational education,
There are minor differences between nonfarm males and females
in this respect,

Sex differentials in the structure of offofarm occupa-
tional Opportunities, therefore, are greatest for the vocation»
ally educated, moderate for the primary educated, and least in
the case of the secondary educated, where opportunities for both
sexes are minimal,

There are no differences between secondary and vocationm
ally educated females in migration plans, On the other hand,
on a percentage basis, over three times as many primary educated
than secondary or vocationally educated females plan to remain
in the home community, These migration differences are ex»
plained by almost exactly correSponding differences in occupa»
tional and income frustration,

Conversely, on a percentage basis, over twice as many
vocational as secondary educated males plan to remain in the
home community, and approximately 10%.more of the primary than
the vocationally educated males plan to remain, There are corm
responding differences for occupational and income frustration,
However, there are no significant differences in occupational
and income frustration or in migration plans, between vocationm
ally educated males and primary educated males who are working

off the home farm,

216

Contrary to expectations, the more remote male responde
ents are less frustrated in their occupational and income aspia
rations than are those nearer the centre, The hypothesis of
increasing levels of frustration, however, receives some support
in the case of females but only where these females who have al-
ready migrated are included as frustrated, While 25,7% of the
females from the centre are frustrated, 26,7% of those from
intermediate areas, and 37,5%»of those from the most remote areas
in the community are frustrated,

As expected the level of community satisfaction of
males increases with remoteness from the centre whereas that of
females decreases, And, also as eXpected, the proportions of
males employed on farms increases greatly with ranoteness from
the centre,

Despite the fact of the higher levels of occupational and
income frustration, and of the lower levels of community satisc
faction of females from the most remote areas of the community,
both male and female respondents from the most remote areas of
the community plan to remain in the home community in greater
proportions than do those from less remote areas,

A number of factors account for this unexpected finding,
First, as the remoteness of the home community increases, in»
creasing proportions of males are satisfactorily employed on
home farms, and have higher levels of family obligations, Secondm
ly, the more remote respondents of both sexes, have lower levels
of education, and lower levels of occupational and income
aspiration than have the less remote respondents, Since local

offmfarm occupational Opportunities are generally of a lower

217

status level, and pay a relatively low wage level, the aSpiraw
tions of the more remote respondents can be more easily satis~
fied, These off-farm opportunities are, however, concentrated
in the centre, so that geographical factors might have countere
acted the effects of their lower aspiration levels, This did
not happen, however, as disproportionate numbers of such jobs
at the centre were occupied by respondents from the more remote
areas of the community, On the other hand, respondents from
the centre, having aspirations for occUpations and incomes of a
much higher level than others, plan to migrate to other centres
in Ireland or abroad so that they can fulfill these aspirations,

‘Respondents from all educational levels who come from
traditional families (families whidh are in the bottom tertile
of the socio-economic status scale) had significantly lower
levels of income aspiration than others, Primary educated reso
pondents from traditional families, also had lower levels of
occupational and income frustration, and a much lower prOportion
planned to migrate than did others, Quite the opposite was true,
however, of the vocationally educated respondents, where the
traditionals had higher levels of occupational and income frusw
tration, and greater tendencies to migrate than others, There
were no consistent differences between the traditionals and

others in migration plans for the secondary educated,
Conclusions

The utility of the theoretical orientations which guided

this research has generally been validated, The approach taken

218
has elucidated many aSpects of migration planning and migration
differentials hitherto unexplained,

One of the basic assumptions guiding the research was
that instrumental aspirations, and in particular occupational
and income aspirations, were the major variables involved in the
migration planning of rural adolescents, It was hypothesized
that Community Satisfaction defined as “attachments to particu»
lar people, and to the style of relationships in the home commun=
ity“, played only a minor role in migration planning,

Variations in the levels of Community SatisfactiOn could
result from two sources, The first could result from feelings

1 In this case adolescents, in compare

of relative deprivation,
ing their own situation with that of significant others would
feel relatively more satisfied than others, (as those from higher
social statuses do), or relatively more deprived than others, (as
those in vocational schools tend to do), But variation in Comm
munity Satisfaction could also result from variations in the
criteria used to evaluate the satisfactoriness of the community°s

2 If these criteria, or values, were of a 'modern0

relationships,
order then the evaluation of the local community, which is of a
largely traditional structure, would be less favorable than would

be the case if traditional values were used, The former type of

 

- 1Merton, Ro, Social Theory and Social Structure, Free
Press, 1963, Chs, 8 and 9, pp, 225m386,

ZWilliams, ROM, Jr,, Amg‘rican Soggy, Alfred A, KnOpf,
New York, 1961, Ch, 9, pp, 397~47o,

219
evaluation could lead to alienation from the traditional culture
and social structure of the rural community, Feelings of rela»
tive deprivation could lead to alienation from particular people
and relationships in the home community, irreSpective of their
structure, The effects of both are assumed to be effectively
index by the Community Satisfaction scaleo

It was assumed that neither type of alienation was wide»
spread in rural areas, and that both played only a minor role in
migration planning, As a result, it was assumed that if occupam
tional and income aspirations could be satisfied locally, the
great majority of potential migrants would remain in the home
community, The results of this research support this point of
view, Nearly 75% of those who plan to migrate or who are serious~
ly considering migration from the community, would remain in the
home community if their occupational and income aspirations
could be satisfied there, And another ll,5% said that they
would remain there if along with the satisfaction of their occuw
pational and income aspirations, the home community's social pro~
visions were brought up to their expectations, This latter
reason cannot be considered as direct proof of cultural or
structural alienation, but rather of the intrusion of other
instrumental aspirations, On the other hand, the relative
poverty of these social provisions may be a direct consequence
of how the community is structured,

Even for those who said that they would not remain in
the home community under any circumstances, it was strongly
suggested by the results that this phenomenon could better be
explained by social mobility motives than by cultural or

structural alienation,

220

It may be that such alienation does play a major role
in migration from other rural communities in Ireland, but this
is thought to be very unlikely, It may be that such alienation
is more wideSpread and more effective in causing migration in
other Western countries, but the evidence available:would not
suggest this,

However, if the ruralistic values, that presently support
the rural social structure, were to change these conclusions
would be voido Migration would then result, even if instrumens
tal aspirations could be satisfied locally,

It was clearly demonstrated by this research that it is
useful to view migration as the resultant of a matching of adolo
escents' aspirations with the opportunities available in the home
community to satisfy these aspirations, It was proposed that a
simple matching of the number of adolescent entrants to the
labour force, and the gumber of local Job Opportunities available
for them, would give an incorrect estimate of migration levels,
The lgygl of aspirations and the lgygl of opportunities has also
to be taken into consideration, In the present case, job oppora
tunities were very scarce at the higher levels of occupational
aspiration, but they were also rather scarce at the lower levels,
Had the community's Job opportunities a different structure,
migrants would have been selected out on a different basis,

A comparative study of a number of rural communities
varying along the dimension of job opportunity structure, and
along the dimension of the occupational aSpiration structure of
the local adolescent “replacements“, would lead to very fruitful

findings about the dimensions on which migrants are selected,

221

The utility of structural variables was again demon:
strated in the use of educational level and the level of occu=
pational aSpirations, as major control variables, The joint
effects of occupational and income frustration on migration
plans were greatest at the secondary level of education, and
at higher levels of occupational aspiration, and least at the
primary level of education and lower manual levels of occupa«
tional aspiration, However, over 40% of the secondary educated
respondents who planned to migrate or who were considering
migration, would not remain in the home community even if
their occupational and income aspirations could be satisfied
there, while this was true of only 11,4% of the primary educated,
These apparently contradictory findings were resolved by
suggesting that higher levels of occupational aspiration were
part of a complex of social mobility aspirations and attitudes?
so that even where occupational and income aspirations were
satisfied locally, these other aSpirations were not, Conse»
quently it was suggested that it was these nonoccupational and
noneconomic variables that were reSponsible for their unwillingm
ness to remain in the home community, However, it should be
cautioned that there is no direct evidence for this interpretaa
tion, It may well be that cultural and structural alienation
which are not adequately indexed by the Community Satisfaction
scale are the responsible factors,

The above argument, however, may tend to underestimate
the effects of purely economic factors on the migration plans
of the high occupational aspirers, Only one third of the secondm

ary educated believed that they could fulfill their aSpirations

222

locally, and only one fifth believed that their income aSpiraw
tions could be fulfilled locallyo Even these beliefs are likely-
to be rather optimistico The secondary educated aspire almost
exclusively to non-manual occupationso Nondmanual Job opportune
ities are, however, in very short supply in rural communities
of the types studied hereo The small urban centres, scattered
throughout the countryside, are largely market and service
centres, with some light industryo Even if the light industries
were eXpanded rapidly, the increase in non-manual occupations
would not be very greato The structure of opportunities there-
fore, must necessarily be biased against the higher aspirerso
Overall, then, even for the socially mobile respondents, economic
factors are the most important ones° Consequently, although
the question posed as to whether they would remain in the home
community if their occupational and income aspiration could be
satisfied, does reveal very important information about their
migration motives, there is, in fact, a very small probability
that these aspirations could realistically be satisfied on any
large scale basiso

Rural economies, however, could be developed to satisfy
the aSpirations of the primary and vocationally educated respondw
ents, or for those aspiring to skilled, service, semimskilled,
and unskilled occupations, and to a lesser extent to those
aspiring to secretarial type noncmanual occupationso Occupation»
al and income opportunities to satisfy reapondents with these
asPirations are almost equally scarce in the present community
as are non-manual opportunitieso Only one third of the primary

educated, and less than one third of the vocationally educated

223
definitely plan to remain in the home communityo Of the remainm
der, 77 to 90% said that they would remain if their occupational
and income aspirations could be satisfied thereo A program of
economic development for rural centres should therefore be aimed
at these "economic migrants“o

Aspirations of youth, even primary educated youth, are
rising rapidlyo A stagnant economy therefore will not only lead
to a continuation of the present high migration rates, but to
ever increasing rates because of these rising aspirations,

Sex differentials in migration planning were satis-
factorily explained as due to the nature of the farm occupation,
which is highly male selectiveo Opportunities for females edua
cated in vocational schools, however, were also significantly
lower than those available for similarly educated maleso This
is partly due to the fact that primary educated females can
successfully compete with the vocationally educated for the
service Jobs available locallyo And the primary educated are
more likely to be satisfied with these jobso Furthermore, pro»
portionately more females than males in vocational schools as=
pire to non-manual occupations, largely clerical occupationso
These are in much shorter supply than the skilled and semi-
skilled Jobs to which the vocationally educated males aspire,
Industrial expansion could greatly increase these particular
non-manual occupations and so could minimize the excessive
female migration rateso

The role of the ecological factor in migration plans
was not anticipatedo The more remote reSpondents, having lower

levels of education and lower levels of occupational and income

224

aspiration, were better able to satisfy these aSpirations locally
than were reSpondents from the centre whose aSpirations were much
highero A diSprOportionate number of these reSpondents commuted
to work in the centre, while respondents from the centre, with
higher levels of aspiration planned to migrateo

This unexpected support for one of Ravenstein's much
earlier findings,3 may however, only amount to a temporary posts
ponement of migration, since population decline in the long run
is most rapid in the more remote areas of the communityo (See
Chapter 2, Table 20) On the other hand, people from the more
remote areas of the community may gradually be replacing the
more migratory centre pOpulationo This is unlikely to be so,
however: but a more complete answer to this problem will have
to await future researcho

It is worth noting that if the more remote reSpondents
had.not found jobs in the centre, their migration rates would
have been much highero It is probable, however, that the 'Job
service area' of Cavan would approximate its educational service
area, and that outside this the availability of offmfarm jobs
would decline rapidlyo Consequently, if even more remote areas
of the county had been included within the survey area, it is
likely that their aSpirational frustration and migration levels
would be much greater than those from the centreo

In conclusion, the theoretical rationale-whiCh guided

this research study has generally been validated. although

3Ravenstein, EOGO, “The Laws of Migration," ghgmgggrna;
of the Royal Statistical Society, Volo 48, ppo l98~199, and Volo
52, ppo 26lffo

225
adjustments are necessary at many pOints, Instrumental aSpiraa
tions are the major variables involved in the migration planning
of rural adolescents, The satisfaction of these aSpirations or
goals of adolescents depend primarily on local economic opporw
tunities, The level of these aspirations has been rising cons
tinuously over the past century,.and at an.increasing pace
since World War II, Unfortunately rural economic structures
have remained relatively static, This increasing discrepancy
between aSpirations and opportunities has resulted in increas»
ing rates of migration,

Although the values of adolescents growing up in rural
areas generally appear to support those values incorporated in
local social structures, and the norms governing day to day
interaction in the community, a small proportion of rural adolese
cents are alienated from these structures, and from particulariSQ
tic relationships in the home community, Whether this alienation
is due to feelings of relative deprivation, which would lead to
alienation from particularistic relationships, or to a changed
('urbanized') system of values about how these relationships
should be structuredmmwhich would lead to structural alienationmw
has not been determined by this research, Where such alienation
occurs, however, reapondents plan to remain in the home communm
ity in significantly lesser proportions than do others, irrespeCm
tive of the level of satisfaction of occupational and income
aspirations, This is not true of the great majority of potential
migrants, however, most of whom would remain in the home community

if their occupational and income aspirations were satisfied there,

226

Some aspirations other than occupational and income
aspirations have also been shown to be important, and should
be considered in future research, Those relating to the comm
munity's social provisions, and others relating to noneconomic
and nonoccupational social mobility aspirations, have been shown
to be important, Both of these, however, are important only in
the case of respondents with high levels of occupational aSpiram
tion, And since the occupational and income aSpirations of
these particular respondents cannot realistically be satisfied
within small rural communities or rural trade centres except on
a very limited basis, these aspirations alone would predict

migrationo

L mitations of the Study,_§nd PrOposals for Future Research

m

The research design generally proved satisfactory, and
its use provided clearcut answers to most of the research ques=
tions posed, There were, however, some weaknesses in the design,

The advantages of viewing migration from a community perm
Spective were clearly demonstrated, Examining the mobility of a
total cohort growing up within particular community boundaries,
gives more comprehensive and more precise information about
migration planning than any alternative strategy, This is partim
cularly true in examining the role of ecological factors in migra«
tion planning, However, this approach has its correSponding
weaknesses, A considerable prOportion of rural farm people are
not as tightly integrated into service areas surrounding market
centres as is the case for the community studied in this research,

Many of the outlying farm communities of Co, Cavan, which were

227

excluded from the community delineated, seek educational serm
vices and offmfarm occupational outlets for their adolescents
in centres which are widely scattereda and which are more diSm
tant from the home communityo Had some of these more remote
farm areas been included in the survey area, the effects of
remoteness on educational mobility, level of aSpiration, occupa»
tional and income frustration, and level of migration plans
could have been investigated in a more comprehensive wayo It
is highly probable that nonfarm occupational opportunities fall
off very rapidly in these more remote areas , and that much fewer
adolescents find occupational outlets in Cavan or in similar
local employment centreso Consequently the hypothesis of migra=
tion rates increasing with distance from the centre may be true
as one moves out of the effective employment range of the centreo

The fact that the study was limited to one centre and
its surrounding service hinterland, is also an important limits
ation on the studyo A comparative study of a number of rural
communities, which varied widely in the structure of local occua
pational Opportunities, would have more adequately tested the
basic assumption of the study that such variation would lead to
variation in the type of migrants leaving these communitieso
The effect of variations in the structure of adolescents0 aspiram
tions could also have been observed in such a studyo An ing
vestigation of these facets of migration would add greatly to
the knowledge about the factors which give rise to variations in
migration differentialso

A number of very important variables were not considered

in this researcho ”Migration systems” and the migration

. rt

azB

expectations of parents are two of theseo4 Since the major cons
cern of the thesis was with the relationship between aspirations
and opportunitieso it was decided to exclude these variables for
the immediate purposes of this researcho It was assumed that
the aspirations and attitudes of adolescents would generally
correspond with those of their parentso Except for family obli»
gations it was assumed that parental expectations would not act
as barriers to migration where the independent variables used
would have predicted it or would not act as a stimulus to migraw
tion where the variables used would not have predicted migrationo
Similar assumptions were made in regard to migration systemso
Except as their influences were expressed in the attitudes and
aspirations of respondents it was assumed that these variables
were not relevant for the purposes of this researcho The assumpm
tions about the independent influence of these two variables
obviously need to be investigated in future researcho

It was also assumed that the level of occupational aSpiram
tion was a sufficient index of social mobility motiveso This
assumption has proved to be too simpleo This research indicates
that high levels of occupational aspiration appear to be part of
a complex of aspirations and attitudeso Consequently even if

occupational and income aspirations could be satisfied locally

 

4See Hillery, G A0, et al06 ‘Migram on Systems of the
Southern Appalachians: Some ”Demographic Observations,“ Rggal
Sociology, 30:13ppo 33ff 1965: and Browne J so” 3: alo,
TKentucky Mountain Migration and the Stem Family: An American
Variation on a Theme by LePlay,“ Rural Socieiogy, 2831 sppo48w69s
1963: and Crawford C 000, “Family Attachments and Support for
Migration of Young People,“ Rural Sociologyo 3ls3gppo 293 310:
1966

 

229

the remaining unfulfilled aspirations would lead to migrationo
The content of these aspirations have not been considered in
this study, but should be the subject of some future researcho

ASpirations fore and attitudes toward, community social
provisions appear to be closely related to these social mobility
aspirations, as evidenced by the large proportion of high occur
pational aspirers, and secondary educated reSpondents who stated
that unless these were considerably improved they would not re»
main in the home community, even if occupational and income
aSpirations could be satisfied thereo Howeverc the attitude
scale used to measure attitudes toward the community‘s social
provisions has some major limitationso It was constructed in
too summary a manner” insufficient attention having been given
to the universe of relevant itemso and to the selection of items
from this universeo It was assumed.that “community provisions"
were viewed as a single dimension by reSpondents, although the
items included in the scale varied very widely in referenceo
Five of the items referred to recreational provisions and ass
pects of the community, two referred to the schools, one to the
roads, one to shopping facilitieso and one to the remoteness of
the community itselfo It is highly likely that this is a multim
dimensional constructo howevero Any future researcho therefore,
should attempt to separate these dimensions from one anothero
This could be done by devising a number of Guttman type scales
for each area as it appears to the researchero Alternatively,
a large number of items could be devised which referred to all
these aSpects of the community°s social provisions and institutionso

These could be administered to a test population, and the results

230
factor analyzed in o a number of unidimeflglufal scalesos

Some of the same problems arise for Community Satisfacm
tiono The conceptualization contains two distincc ideaso The
first refers to cultural or value differences among reapondentso
which leads to differences in evaluations of the satisfactoriness
of the local community relationshipsm The second refers to
feelings of relative deprivation in these relationshipso As a
consequence the relationship between the conceptual definition
of the variable and its Operationalization is rather tenuouso
It is strongly recommended that these two dimensions be separated
in future researcho

The measurement of social status used made it impoSSible
to compare the farm and nonfarm segment of the population on
this variableo It is possible that some modification of the
reputational technique could have been used for this populationo
Had it been available” the relation of class and status factors
to migration plans could have been investigated in greater
depthso This aSpect of migration planning should be pursued in
future researcho

The study indicated some unusual patterns of occupations
a1 recruitment W1 thin the communV My Either employers from the
centre discriminate in favor of more remote farm adolescents over

manual adolescents from the centred or the primary educated farm

W‘-
‘ -

SSee Guilfordo JoPoo Psyfhome ric Me“hods McGraw«Hill,
New York, 1954 ppo 341 3702 and Edwa.rds, ”A Loo .ecrnioues of
Attitude Scalgm Cune+rucficn Appleton Century CrofL.s New York,

1957, Chso 6 and 7 ppo 149 200 for techniques of attiLude
scale construction:

23l

adolescents are the only ones with sufficiently low levels of
aSpiration to be satisfied with the low paying service, semis
skilled and skilled jobs available thereo These and ether
factors reaponsible for the diSprOportionate recruitment of
remoter reSpondents for these jobs in the centre need to be
investigated in greater depth than was attempted hereo

The method used to measure the cultural orientation of
families has many defectso A more direct measure of the varim
able would have been more satisfactoryo Failing that, future
use of the method should first investigate some of the none
economic factors that might be related to variations in socio=
economic scoreso Such factors as place of residencesmtown or
Open countryomdistance from the centreo other expenses of the
family which cut down the money available for the household
items included in the socioeconomic status scaleo may all be
affecting the status score receivedo If this is so” the
lower tertile scores isolated may be indicative of factors
other than valueso

In generalo despite the limitations of the designo
the study does contribute some significant knowledge on
migration planning and migration differentialsn As indicatedp
however, there are still major gaps in our knowledge sf both
processeso It is, thereforeo apprOpriate to include these
remarks with the conventional exhortation that future research

in this area is both necessary and desirableo

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1951

 

 

Edwards, A.0Loo Te'hn1gues of A‘Tifude Scale Concjggcticgj

IV— C“— m ' -4._'__ 1:11.~'m

AppleLon CenLuly CrofLs: New Yo1K 1957

 

Eicher, J Boo Social Factors and Social Psvch01oguga1 EXDianaC1O
of Nonmlg1';.onp PhOD t.hes1s Department of Soc1ology
and Anfnropologjp Michigan State Un1vers1ty, 19600

234

Eisenstadt, SoNn, 1ne Aosc Q“1‘n :f Tm g:gg;g, Routledge and
Kegan Paul, London, 1954

Folkman, W080, and Cowhig, JODQ, ”Intergenerafl1ona1 Occupational
Mobility in a Rural Areao“ Rurafi Sociology} 2834119630

Floud, Jo, Social Class and Equ6311ona “Eporrun1ty, He1nemann,
London, 195 6

Francis, R0, "Relation of Theory to DataO“ Rural Soc1qlogxs
228ppo 158ml66319570 111

Geschwind, R Do, and Ruttan V we, Job Mob11_1L_and Migrafion
in a Low Income Rural Ccmmunmxy_ Purdue Un1versi‘y
Agricultural EXper1ment Sta11on Research Bulletin N00
730, September, 19610

 

Goldsmith, H F0, Th§_M§2ni ng of Migrat1on3 MA S+udy of_ the
Migration Ex xgectatI ons ome1gh Scnogl Sfudenrs, mPhoDo
thesis, Depar ment gofa Soc1oiogy an5 Anthropo1ogy,

Michigan State University,l96l

Goldsmith Ho F0, and Beegle, J A0, The Initifa1Phase of
Voluntary Migration, Michigan Saane Un1vers1 y, Agri=
cultural Experiment Station, Rural Sociology Studies,
Noo 1, 19610

Geode, WOJC, and Hatt, PoKoo Methods in Sgg1§l R Search,
McGrawnHill, 19520

Goodman, LOAo and Knuskel, WOHQ, "Measures of Association for
Cross Classification,” Journa1 of the Amer1can
Statistical Associationy 493ppo ’32 864 1954:

Gordon, M0 M0, Ass1m1‘ation in American L1f1¢ Oxfozd University
Press, New York 1964

Guilford, JOPO, B13 VChometric Methods McGraWaHill, New York,
19540 '

Halsey, AOHO and Gardner Lo 'Selecf1on for Secondary Educat1on
and Achievement “§'_II§n Journa1 of SQC1o1ggz3 4slsppo
42ff2196sl953o

Havighurst, RflJc and Neugarten, Sc cieizvaggaggggggIgg, Allyn
and Bacon, Boston, 19620

Haller, A000, 0'Planning to Farm, a Soc1almPsycholog1cal Interw
pretationoM gqcial Forcgéfi 372ppo 263~26831959o

Haller, A 00, and M1iler, I Wm, IfieL Q;
Iheory, Structure, and Coggg
Bull 288, E Lansi.ng, 1963

§a*fl,na1 Aagzration S 312:

CC
:1-0-1 3-1-1.1..
'-
at“

es M1chigan AGE, 50,

(3‘

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A

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Hill-91170 G3HA< a _."="~ $.30 11(Jra21'm $139!“; .3 2 .1“ 1:36: 8 3' Abe—M1
AFPdLavu.dh&5 Some Demvgzaga1c Orse va iJnsoW 31;;
5.991912323 3033 2 ppo 33ff0819653

1309 wa Dub11_r,mm,
1" 5:1” :31" «1er Furd aim UNI-‘8 "

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Humphreys AOJOU a
n1

Hyman, H09 0""171'163 Vaiue System of Diffezent Classeso A Sacial
Psyrnu1ug10al Con1.r1b1on to the And1y51s cf Strat1=
fication “ reprint ed in Bend1x, R3, Lipsezo SUMO (adsu),
Cla§§ S‘a“us .and»Power:1=A1391993,11mégggéiméiai:I§1~

‘gggéggo Fiee Pressp 1963 ppm 436~4413

Jacksono JOAOD $1311£2§Bflin13111§£23 Reutledqe and Kegan Paulo
Londcno 19 63,

Kaldoro DOROO E1driwdgm E00 Burch1na10 LOGO” and Arthuro IUW30
2992991~ona1 Plan W.2£1193§119§m18915n IOWa S‘Ja’
Univexs11y Agzacq1§ura1 Experimen; 5'“'1un Bu11o 5080
9
19620

Kaufman, HUFoo ef 5130 ”Sac1al Stratificat1on in Rural Societyan

Rura1_ Skc1u3uggs 1831219530
Kiser, CoVoo gggvggigggwfic C1tyfl Columbia University Press, 19320

and Indu511131 Devnlupmen1 Agapt atiog

2:15;

Kriera H00 :a1 Ma 93 {13 _”
11 E C Do Publlca‘1onp 19610

_; 9.?
arid T Ia It”; arqlp 0r
Kuvlesky WOPOP and Bealero Rocco onA Clarifi caai on of the Con:

cept JOccupanicnm Choice“ 0“ Bg§§1_§ggEg;ggxa 31333ppo
2652276319660

Landiso Po Ho: “Educational Selectiv1ty of Rural Urban Migratiangw
Rural qug111ogve 11333pp0 2183232319463

.._.r~x—-:tx

Lipset, some” and Bend1x R30 SCf1d1. E1311Lr1n_lndv~fi;1g1

-l.._.,_

gggEgEXD University Of Ca11rotn1a P3935019590

Livelya COB and Taueber Con Egggl
§ta1vs, Um; ed 8 a‘: as Gore:
Waufi‘rg' “a...” DOCO :9390

Loomiso COPOU giudi a_ E_Rg_,1
Bock STU e0 Eas Lan'

0:13: am!

Loomiso COPOD and Beeglea JOAoa BQIEQ:SSCE§1+§;§:E@§O Preutgce
Hallo 19510

Mertono Rog §9§?91_T399£X 9921§9§1§é191399:§£90 Free Press” 19630

Newman, J03 (9993): (ed )3 The L1jegigg FuraILQnr3ex1g9§5519§gp
Mu1n*1r na T1re Pub-1rqt @180 T1ppe3dr30 I1e an do 19640

236

OUEOCODOo Geugrapric and Orcaoa 33cra1 $333133X3o§3§n393 xagpcwer;

.1._J.C:L :.: ,_-__-_-.:-v~ his-L‘M

Rapott No ( 750 19640

Olsono POGOO ggp3gg§333 *Z3and M1graf1on 33n a33H1qn Income Put 1
ggmmg§3gyp Pugdue Un1vers13 y Agricu31u1a3 Egperxmenf
SLat1on Research Bullo N00 ?080 Nov v1” 1§60

Pasonso TUPUa g§g_§gg3§1 §Xst§g0 Free Presso 19513

f *he
92 an

‘filflc

. ." 'J°:.f, ,

Rg¥a_13 S: Yiefica SoL3eet13 V010 483pp” 198
VolO 52spp 161ff

Ravenstein E G,” ”The Laws of Migration “ gbe Ic ”n;
’4

u) The“

gggal M3gr§§3ggg Papers and D1scussions of the Firs: Congress
of the European Soc3ety for Rural Sociologyo Privateiy
pub11shed0 Bonno

Schulze” R H K0: CommunityrSatisfactlon and LM3gra:

,P M030

j\:’3
Thesis” Department of Soc1ologyg Macnigan gtai 1e Univerm
sityo 19600

Schulze, ROHOKOO Artie? J00 and Beegleo JOAQO ”The Measurement
of Community Satisfaction and the Dec1s3on to Migratea”
Rural §9g3g3ggxx 28:32ppo 279m283319630

Schwarzwellezo Hano Fam3ly Ties M1grat1on and Tranc 3399a;
Adjustment of Young Men from Eastern Kentucngo Un1ver®
sity of Kentucky” Agricu1tural Expex1ment Stat1on Bullo
691 Mayo 19640

Schwarzwellero H00 ‘Educationa Migrationo and Economic Life
Chances of Male Entrants to the Labor Force from a Low
Income Rural Areao“ §g£a3 Sgg3§3gggs 29323pp0 152e1673
19640

Schwarzwellero H30 ”Value Orientations in Educational and Occum
pational Choice?W Huge a1” Soc o33gys 248pp0 408e42533959o

of Ifiem Seieotzon 1n

Sharp” EOEQO and Ramsey; C0300 3Cr1teria
Level. at Living Scaleso ’° 231M in
164519630

 

Shuvalo TOJUP Imm13'an*s on #ne Threchold A’nez ton Presso New
Yorke 1’63

 

Stephensona RDMOP c°Stratificationo Eduoat1on0 and O“-upa*iona1
Orientations A Parailel Study and Revzewy“ 533‘19fi
Jourra1 of Scc1o1oqys 921ip1 42319581

Thomas” D 330 M1qra*10n Differen“ als Soci al Science Resea! ch
Connolly Bu1let1n 42 m1938

'30 Depart:

Vercruijjseo E Vawfl? Shrnncn H1nt9r‘axd Sirveg 9
NenLerlandsi

ment of Soc1o1ogyo Leydnn Un1ve s3ty Iné
Mimeoo

v - ‘.

(J!

Vidich, A0 Jua and Bensmeno Jo: :ma:1112991121§2§2=EQQEQLXJ
P11nce1on Un1"ers1ty Press. 19580

Walker, HOMO, and Levo J0, S1av1s;;ggL:1§1; 32g Holt, Rineharto
and Winston” 19.53o

Williams, JoLoo a1&30me Social Consequences 0f Grammar School
Education in a Rural Area in Walesom Briggah Jaggggl
9f gaggglggls 10:28ppo 12531959o

 

Williams, R0 Jroo éggrican chgggxo Alfred Knapf, New York, 1.961,o

Williamsg RnoJroa ”Concepts of Marginality in Rural Population
Studieso" Rur§l_§ogiologxx Ssppo 292:302319400

Zelditch Mo Jrno A 8351c Course in Scc1cloglca‘ _$:ma istgggo
Henry Holt and Companya 1959

APPENDIX I

.1 c-r .y~~ Q ’1 Ow E . P;:v ‘a ‘Q “.1 \r, 9 ’6 n .- r- . x» A 3: u ("g- u... ,1 . 0 '
I ;-~ n J— J c ‘.i‘ 'J, v'-‘ V' V:- ’1“. 13..., ‘5 _‘ é ' ‘l ‘ J L‘ '; . L. ‘ ' \. -_-f..'§ ‘5. ‘._'. . l
‘ ' {n.j.

esggiweelwh_,ll- .11..“ all, ..,,
The Names of the District Electoral D1v1510ns Infiluded
within the Communityc Arranged by Distance from Cavan”
1, Centers Cavan Urbano
20 Up to 2 miles from the centers Cavan Ruralo
3O Districts 3 to 5 miles from Cavan: Killykeeno
Moynehall, Clonervyo Ballyhaisea
Butlersbridgea Ballinagho Denno
4o Districts 6 to 10 miles from Cavan: Cufitragho
Carragino Crossdoneyo Crosskeyso
Ballintempleo Stradoneo Drumcarban, Drungc
Castlesaundersono Corro
50 Districts 10 miles and over from Cavan:
Drumcarno Milltown, Ardueo Kilconnyo
6o Tswns 10 miles and over from Cavan: Killashandrao

Belturbet

APPEND IX I I

241 ‘

Appendix II--The Questignnaire.

 

THE OCCUPATIONAL AND RESIDENCE PLANS 0F IRISH YOUTH

Every year thousandsof young people like yourself face the
problem of choosing a life occupation and making their own way in
the world. ‘slthough each individual has to make his own decisions
and face his own problems, the experience of others can provide
valuable information which can help you to solve your problems.
Similarly, your experience with the problems you are meeting can
help others. if it is brought to their attention. The information
that we are gathering in this survey will be of great value in
developing ways to help people like you in the problems that they
are meeting, when setting out to find a suitable job for the first
time. It is for these reasons that we ask you to answer the questions
that follow, as seriously, and as sincerely as possible. We are
interviewing about 600 people in Cavan on this survey.

The information that you give will be treated in the strictest
confidence, and will be used ggly_for research purposes. Your name
and address is required only for sampling purposes, and will 2333;,

be published in any connection.

1. Name:

 

v -r- w‘v— v '— vv w TV 7 w'

2. Home Address:

 

3. Name of Primary School that you attended:

 

7‘... if _f . .._7 ‘—

u. what year did you leave primary school? 1960 1961 1962 1963
105 115 (25 Z3;

5. What was your age on last birthday? 1n 15 17 18

16
7571171317573?
1

19 202
2177237217

6.

7.

242

What did you do when you finished up in primary school?

(Please check off (v’) that statersnt that is most true in
your case.)

(
(

(

)
)

)

I

I

I

didn't go on for any more education

went

went

went

went

went

went

ment

went

went

to the vocational school for one year

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

to

the vocational school for two years

the vocational school for three years

the secondary
the secondary
the secondary
the secondary
the secondary

the secondary

school for one year

school for
school for

school for

two years
three years

four years

school for five years

school for

How many older, living brothers have you?

how many older, living sisters have you?

How many younger living brothers have you?

How many younger living sisters have you?

six years

 

Hi

(0)
(1)
(2).
(a)
(a)
(5)
(e)
m
(a)
(9)

m. avenue 5&3 we waves «we seen». so». who. cocoa—«Most. woes“. ensued? snowshoe. moo
sounded opens on summonses om mono om «.05... 36936 new oneness. mg. om». they «so owes:

suave”. on. «so meets 85 Houses with. 545m 36903 who opened. Hesse—om a Sea. moons mos
«can. 93 opens we are mas—5%.

ii

 

a e no i Sean we are aware:

anaemic—sow Hoes“. someone ow .. . consonan- om 255

 

figwunnmo monsoon II «so: sees 3 mos condos. mamas use. wanes»
zmso amos . go 3mg A <08? monsoon m 9». use flax. om savour. ounce om .
moooow Mossy 3 A «humane and». Home. ow. repossess

on: 3:03. oosoow oudmoumwoo

 

l c w 1 1 L

*1

 

243
1
4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

244

9. How many uncles have you? (a)

(b)

How many aunts have you? (a)

(b)

on your father's side? no.

on your mother's side?

on your father's side?

on your mother's side?

"no.

no.

no.

10. As far as you know, did any of these have a secondary school

education?

oh

Yes ( ) No ( ) Not sure ( )

If yes, how many? Uncles - father's side

Uncles e mother's side

Aunts

father's side

Aunts - mother's side

 

11. What are, or were, the occupations and residences of'your uncles

and aunts? If your aunts are married, what are the occupations

of their husbands?

 

 

 

 

 

Names of all State whether each What is each one's Where does
your uncles and one is your occupation or each one
aunts father's or mother's that of their live? Name
blood relation husbands of place
1 v
2 v 7'
3

 

 

 

 

12. How many people live in your house at home?

How many separate rooms in the house?
(Do not include hallways, porches, bathrooms, or toilets, etc.)

 

13.

245

What kind of lighting do you have in the house?

(d)
(e)
(f)

(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(1)
(m)
(n)
(0)
(p)
(q)
(r1

(3)

(b)
(c)

(d)

~ (e)

(f)
(s)

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Please check off the statement that is most true in your
case.) '
( ) electricity
( ) gas
( ) oil lamps
( ) other. If this, what kind?
Do you have a piped water tap in the house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have hot water on tap in the house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have an indoor flush toilet in the
house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have a bathroom in the house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have a telephone in the house? Yes ( ) No ( 2
Do you have a radio in the house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have a TV set in the house? Yes ( ) No ( }
Do you have a washing machine in the house? Yes ( ) No ( 3
Do you have a kitchen range in the house? Yes ( ) No ( 3
Do you have an electric or gas cooker in
the house? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you usually eat your meals in the kitchen
at home? Yes ( ) No ( )
Does your family have a car? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do.you have a carpet in the sitting room? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you have linoleum on the floors of some
of the rooms in your house? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, which roomS? __
Have any new tiled fireplaces been put in'your
home in the past few years? Yes ( ) No ( )
Is there an electric doorbell on the front
door of your home? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you get the daily newspaper at home every day? Yes ( ) No ( )
Do you get the local newspaper at home every
week? Yes ( ) No ( )
Does your father read books regularly? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, what kind of books does he read?
n逧*yahr mother iéaa‘babk§"31gu1331§?' Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, what kind of books does she read?
Do you—getfiany weeklyfimagazines—at home?"
(incl. the 'Farmers‘ Journal') Yes ( ) No ( )
Does your family listen to the news on the
radio every day? Yes ( ) No ( )
Would they 'niss' the news if they didn't
hear it? Yes ( ) No ( )

2&6

1n. Is your father a member of any organization? Yes ( ) No ( )
(e.g. N.P.A., huintir na Tire, Red Cross, etc.)
If yes, what organizations is he a member of?

 

v ‘7 v

 

(b5 is your motherfia member‘of'any organization? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, what organizations is she a member of?

 

‘— fi T v—‘w v' v—v #—

vi Yfi—u— v fi—v ‘7' v v—v—v— w—v

15. (a) Have you ever gone on holidays outside your

home county? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, where did you go to? Ag_
(D) About how many times have you'gone on holidays

outside the county?
(c) Do your parents ever go on holidays away'from

home, even for a day or two? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, about how many times have they done so in

the past ten years?
If yes, wher“ do they usually go to?

 

 

 

 

(35 About how often do you have visitors at home?
( ) Less than once a year
( ) A few times a year
( ) About once a month or so, or less
( ) A few times a month
( ) Weekly, or more frequently
(e) What proportion of these visitors come from outside the county?
( ) Most of them
( ) More than half
( ) About half or maybe less

( ) very few
( 3 None
(f) Have you ever been to Dublin or Belfast? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, about how many times were you in these towns
altogether? _._~__ times

16. (a) What is the principal occupation of your father?

 

(b) Does he have another occupation? If yes, what is it?fi'
(c) If he is employed: (i.e. paid a wage or salary while working
for somebody) State:
(1) Type of work done?

 

(2) Where he is enployed?fiv fififi

247

(3) Approximately how much is he paid per week?
(Please check off that response that is most
true in your case)

( ) B 2 - B u per week (1)
( ) B u - L 6 per week (2)
( ) B 7 - B 8 per week (3)
( ) L 9 - L 10 per week (u)
( ) L ll ~ L 12 per week (5)
( ) L 13 - B 14 per week (6)
( ) b 15 r B 20 per week (7)
( ) Over 20 per week (8)
( ) Paid a salary on a monthly

basis (9)
( ) I don't know ' (0)

(d) If he is self employed (owns a farm, some kind of business, or
has a profession)
’4) State exactly the kind of business or profession?

q mi '1 fir fi‘ W Y_ v v—v V

(e) If he is a farmer, please state:
(1) Size of farm in acres (Are these Statute ( )
or Irisa ( ). )
(2) If land is rented as well, about how many acres
are rented?
(3) How wany milking cows are kept on the farm?
(Q) What is done with the milk if cows are kept?

 

 

(S)fiHow many other cattle arefikeptfion the farm?‘

Store Cattle
Fat Cattle
Calves or yearlings
Dry cows
(6) How many pigs are kept?
Sous
Weaners
Bacon pigs
Bonhams
(7) How many sheep are kept?
(8) About how many acres of tillage are cultivated on
the total farm, including rented land, this your?

 

 

 

 

 

(9) How many acres of each crop?

'— ‘v f r V‘v’ ‘V

 

.v— fi—V

“7

Are they Irish ( ) or Statute ( ) acres?

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

248

What did your father's education consist of? Answer to the best of

your knowledge. (Please check off 0/) that statement that is most
true in your case.)

( ) A National School education only (0)
( ) 1-2 years of secondary school education (1)
( ) 3-u years of secondary school education (2)
( ) Finished secondary school education (3)
( ) Some vocational school education (H)
( ) Completed vocational school education (5)
( ) Some University education (6)
( ) Completed University education ‘ (7)

What did your mother's education consist of? Answer to the best of

your knowledge: (Please check off 0/) that response that is most
true in your case.)

( ) A National School education only (0)
( ) 1-2 years of secondary school education (1)

) 3-u years of secondary school education (2)
t ) Completed Secondary school education (3)
a ) Some Vocational School education (u)
C ) Completed Vocational School education (5)
( ) Some university education (6)
( ) Completed University education (7)

What your father talks about his brothers and sisters, and compares

the education that he got to what they obtained, does he thinks
that: (Please check that response that is most true in your case)

( ) His education was better than theirs (3)
( ) His education was about as good as theirs (2)
( ) His education was not as good as theirs (l)

( ) I have never heard him discuss the question (0)

Has he ever mentioned that he would have liked to get a better
education?

( ) Definite yes (2)
( ) Yes, in a general sort of way (1)
( ) No (0)

Now about your mother, when she talks about her brothers and
sisters, and compares the education that she got to what they
obtained, does she think that: (Please check only that response
that is most true in your case)

( ) Her education was better than theirs (3)
( ) Her education was about as good as theirs (2)
( ) Her education was not as good as theirs (1)
( ) I have never heard her discuss that question (0)

22.

23.

2Q.

25.

26.

249

Has she ever mentioned that she would have liked to get a better
education? ‘

( ) Definitely yes (2)
( ) Yes, in a general sort of way (1)
( ) No (0)

Now, in regard to yourself, in comparing yourself to most of your
brothers and sisters, do you think that the education you received
or are receiving was

( ) Better than theirs (2)
( ) As good as theirs (l)
( ) Not as good as theirs (0)

Would you have liked to get a better education, than the one you
did get?

( ) Definitely yes (2)
€ ) Yes - (l)
< ) No (0)

When you finished up in primary school did any of your parents
want you to go on for further education?

( ) Yes

( ) No (0)
If yes, which of them?

( ) Father (1)

( ) Mother (2)

. ( ) Both (3)

If yes, how strongly do you think they/he/she felt about this?

( ) Very strongly (3)

( ) Strongly (2)

( ) Didn't seem to care that much (1)

(0 8 No in 20)
If yes, what kind of school did they/he/she want you to go to?
( ) Secondary
( ) Vocational
( ) Other. If this, what kind?

Did your Primary School-teacher ever encourage you to go on for
further education beyond primary sChool?

( ) Yes

( ) No (0)
If yes, how strongly did he encourage you?

( ) Very strongly (3)

( ) Strongly (2)

( ) Didn‘t seem to care that much (1)
If yes, what kind of school did he want you to go to?

( ) Secondary

( ) Vocational
( ) Other. If this, what kind?

27.

28.

250

Are you now, or he"? you been, working full time on a job, or on YOJP
home farm or business? Yes ( ) No i ) 0
If no, go on to question no. 29
If yes, and you have been working on your home farm, or in the family
business go on to question no. 28.
If at other type of work, please answer the following questions.
(a) What kind of work have you been doing?
(b) Where or what organization have you been working with?"w
(c) Do you live at home? Yes ( ) No ( )
(d) About how much do you earn per week?
(e) Is this a whole time job? Yes ( ) No (*3 T
(f) Do you like this type of work? Yes ( ) No ( ) undecided ( )
(g) Do you think that you will stay permanently at this particular

job? Yes ( ) No ( ) Not sure ( )

0 2 l

(h) If yes skip to question no. 51 or 53
(i) If no, skip to question 29

 

fu—

 

 

If you have been working on the home farm or in the family business.

please answer the following questions. (If you haven't skip to the

next question)

(a) Have you been paid a regular weekly or monthly wage for your
work? Yes ( ) No ( )

(b) If yes, how much have you been paid, about? 5 s d ,per week

(c) If no, about how much pocketmoney do you get? 4' per week

(d) Is this a whole time job? Yes ( ) No ( )

(e) Do you like this work? Yes ( ) No ( ) Undecided ( )

(f) Do you think that you will get to own the home farm or business
eventually? Yes ( ) No ( ) Not sure ( )

 

0 1
If yes, how sure are you of this?
( ) Very sure (5)
( ) Somewhat sure (D)
( ) No opinion (3)
( ) Somewhat unsure (2)

(I) If yes, (you think that you will get to town the home farm or
business), how old do you think you will be when you get to own
it? ears old

(h) How sure are you of this?

( ) very sure
( ) somewhat sure
( ) no opinion
( ) somewhat unsure
( ) very unsure
(i) Has your father ever discussed this question with you?

(5) Has your mother ever discussed this question with you?

AAAA
VN’WV

29.

30.

31.

2.5}

(k) Do you think th at you will stay on working at this job
permanently? Yes ( ) No ( ) Not sure ( )
If yes, pleaSe skip to question no. 91 or 53.

(1) If no, at what age do you think you will start looking for another
job? years old .

(m) If no, what plans have you of what you might do when you .
finish up? (If you have answered this question, skip to q. 29
next)

 

 

——v— f vv

If you think that you will stay working at what you are doing now,
please skip to q. 51 or 53. If not and you are thinking of
getting another job, or you are to start working yet, please
answer the following questions. (All students in secondary and

vocational schools should answer these questions as well.)
(a) What jobs (occupations) have you thought of going into?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 3

2 Y n Y Y
(b) What job(s) would you really like to get?

1 3

2 ‘ u '
(c) What is the first job(s)fthat you think you will get?

1 3

2 _' n V ,,
(d) What job(s) would you like to have when you are 30 years old?

1 3

2 'V H i“ Vi

 

 

(a) “hat isfi(are) thebeSt job(s) you think you 635 getby the time
you are 30 years old?
1 3

W v 'v _ w— v

2 4

vv 'y" '— vv w

 

 

Now in regard to choosing a job. how deeply have you thought
about it? (Please check off that statement that is most true
in your case.)

( ) I have thought a great deal about it.

( ) I have thought somewhat about it.

( ) I have not thought very much about it.

ow in regard to choosing a job, how sure are you of your choice?
ease check off that statement that is most true in your case)
I am sure that my mind is made up.
I am not sure that my mind is made up but I think so.
I am not sure that my mind is made up.
HY

P1
)
)
)
) mind is not made up.

32.

33.

3‘6.

35.

36.

37.

38.

252

In regard to choosing and getting a job, now anxious do you feel

“ about it.

( ) I feel very anxious.

( ) I feel somewhat anxious.

( ) I feel just a little anxious.
( ) I don't feel anxious at all.

Of the jobs that you have just considered, do you think that you
will be able to get any of them, in or near’your home community?
( ) Yes -‘ (0)
( ) No I (2)
( ) Not sure (1)
If yes, which one(s)?

 

' 'v 'v—w- v

What kind of jobs could you get around here if you wanted them?

 

Now supposing that you could get the sort of job(s) that you have
just conside-ed, in or near your home community, would you take
it and stay permanently there?

( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Not sure (1)

Do you intend to leave this part of the country to get a job and
live your life elsewhere?

( ) Yes (2)
( ) No (0)
( ) Not sure (1)

If you intend to leave, do you know of any place, either in
Ireland or abroad, where you could go to get a suitable job?
( ) Yes

( ) No

( ) Not sure

If yes, where is this place?

 

7

flow, or from whom, did you hear about this place?

 

fi' $.— w—fV Vr'

Has anybody offered to help you find a good job? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, who is this person?

 

v— ‘7'—

Do you have a definite job waiting for you?

( ) Yes

( ) No

If yes, is it one of the jobs that you have just considered? Yes
No

If it is not, what kind of job is it?

(
G

 

___r_...~ if

Do you intend to take it? Yes ( ) No (")
Where is it located?

 

v .— v V v—

)
)

39..

'40.

'40s.

'41.

“2.

M}.

‘5.

253

Which of the job; .: :zt you have just I or aidcmd, (’3 you know;
most about?

 

_—v-- v-w-"v: vw vav- —' "9' ——v -—v vwvavxw-

 

From whom, or how d:-' -d ya; get your infona ation about that (these)
jobs?

 

’0 m 1— ww TV 7 hf W WW—W—TvV—vwv-r ‘l'l’

I

Who could give you the most help in getting a job?

 

A -- A
W*- v,‘ if __. p l. v.. W w,._ v _v ,r

Now, about choosing a job, and getting a job: about how fully.
if ever, have you discussed this with your father? ‘-

( } very full}! _

( ) rate. r fully

( ) vaguely discussed it

i ) never discussed it

How fully have you discussed this matter with your mother, if eves?
' i) very fully
«. ) rather fully
x ) vaguely d'.scussed it
) never discussed it

About the type of job you should get, do you think that: (Please

check that response that is most true in your case.)

( ) Your father wants you to have a more important job than the
one he has

( ) me- father wants you to have a gob at least as important

asthe one he has

( ) Your 1‘ other wand. not mind if you took a job that was not as

import .nt as tin one he has

About the type of job that you should get, do you think the..:

{Please check that response that is most two in your case.)

( ) Your mother wants you to have a more important job than the
one your father b. as.

( ) Your mother wanes you to have a job that is at least as
important as the one your father has

( 3 Your rather would not mind if you took a job that was not as
important as the one your father has

About getting a ion», do you think that: xPlease check that

response that is most true in your case)

( ) Your father wants you to get a job that pr-ya better than the
one he has

i ) Your father wait»: you to get a job *;h:.-.t pays about as well
as the one be has

) Your father does not mind if you get -.-. job that does not

pay as well 8?- the one he has

Q6.

47.

48.

“9.

SO.

51.

254

About getting a job. which of the following do you think your

mother wants? (Please check that response that is most true

in your case.) .

( ) A job that pays somewhat better than the one your father has.

( ) A job that pays as well as the one your father has.

( ) She wouldn't mind if you took a job that does not pay as well
as the one your father has.

Now, what about your own feelings about a job, do you want: ~

(Please check that response that is most true in your case.)

( ) A job that pays better than the one your father has.

( ) A job that pays as well as the one your father has.

( ) You don't mind if you take a job that does not pay as well'
as the one your father has.

What jobs do your parents think that you should go into?
1 3
2

 

 

_‘._ I—‘noaw "l V ,_ Y

 

 

v—wv a 7—? ‘r ——v—f

(b) Would you like to take Up the kind of jobs that they want
you to take up? Yes ( ) No ( )

(c) If not, what is there about their selection of jobs that you
don't like?

 

w r.— W vvr r —w

 

v— V— ‘ ———v—

(d) Could they help you to get a job that you wanted?
Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, in what way could they help you? :e»-

 

‘r W V v7— ‘7 v—v ‘ v i W v v
-

Do you think that your parents expect you to take up a job locally!
Yes ( ) No ( )

Would they be disappointed if you go away to get a job?
Yes ( ) 3N0 ( )

no they expect you to leave to get a good job?
Yes ( ) No ( )

What does your father think of farming as an occupation?

 

w—v W "r- tv—r fiv— ‘7 T“!

(FOR BOYS ONLY, GIRLS GO ON TO Q. N0. 53)

For the following list of occupations, please check off 6’? all
those occupations that you feel you would be "lettingZdown:_your
family, if you were to take them up} f

( ) Co. Council road worker
( ) Farm laborer

( ) General unskilled labor
( ) Street sweeper

( ) Caretaker

255

Manual worker on the buildings
Factory worker - unskilled
Messenger boy '
Doorman or Porter

Creamery worker unskilled
Laundry worker

Petrol pump attendant

Lorry driver's helper

Milk delivery man

Bread roundsman

Bus conductor

Lorry driver

Factory worker - semiskilled
Bus driver

Ticket collector on train
Shoemaker or cobbler

Barber

Corpcfial in the army
Assistant in a grocery shop
Assistant in a drapery shop
Postran

Foreman over laborers
Foreman on a building site
Skilled factory worker
Garage mechanic

Painter

Carpenter

Plasterer or bricklayer
Butcher

Plumber

Tailor

Book keeper in shop etc.
Clerk in insurance or other office
Clerk in the county council
Bank clerk

Inspector on the buses, etc.
Gerda

Rate collector

Reporter on a local newspaper
Insurance agent

Farmer, owning own farm
Commerical traveller
Primary school teacher
Inspector for farm buildings or drainage, etc.
Cashier in the bank or equivalent
Agricultural Adviser
Secondary school teacher
Engineer

Accountant

Solicitor

Bank Manager

Dentist

52.

256

( ) Chemist
( ) Architect
( ) Doctor
( ) Judge
(FOR BOYS ONLY, GIRLS GO ON TO THE NEXT QUESTION)

For the following list of occupations, please check off 0/) all
those occupations you feel sure you would not be able to ge , even
if you tried; and if plenty of these jobs were available!

Co. Council road worker
Farm laborer

General unskilled laborer
Street sweeper

Caretaker

Manual worker on the buildings
Fact.oy worker - unskilled
Messenger boy

Doorman or Porter

Creamery worker unskilled
Laundry worker

Petrol pump attendant

Lorry driver's helper

Milk delivery man

Bread roundsman

Bus conductor

Lorry driver

Factory worker - semiskilled
Bus driver

Ticket collector on train
Shoemaker or cobbler
Barber

Corporal in the army
Assistant in a grocery shop
Assistant in a drapery shop
Postman

Foreman over laborers
Foreman on a building site
Skilled factory worker
Garage mechanic

Painter

Carpenter

Plasterer or bricklayer
Butcher

Plumber

Tailor

Book keeper in shop, etc.
Clerk in insurance or other office
) Clerk in the county council
) Bank clerk

) Inspector on the buses, etc.

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

53.

2%?

Cards

Rate collector

Reporter on a local newspaper
Insurance agent

Farmer, owning own farm
Commercial traveller

Primary school teacher

Inspector for farm buildings or drainage, etc.
Cashier in the bank or equivalent
Agricultural Adviser

Secondary school teacher
Engineer

Accountant

Solicitor

Bank manager

Dentist

Cherist

Archi-ect

Boomer

Judge
FOR GIRLS ONLY: BOYS GO ON TO Q. NO. 56

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

 

For the following list of occupations, please check off £/3 all
those occupations that you feel you would be "letting down" your
family if you were to take them up!

 

) Domestic servant

) Wardsmaid in a hospital

) Unskilled factory worker

) Clothes presser in a laundry

) Housework at home

) Housekeeper for a Priest or doctor, etc.
) Cinema usherette

) Barmaid

) Waitress in hotel or restaurant
) Cook in an hotel

) Assistant in a grocery shop

) Assistant in a drapery shop

) Chemist's assistant

) Bookkeeper in a shop or office
) Telephone operator

) Post Office clerk

) Dressmaker

) Hairdresser

) Clerk in solicitor‘s office

) Clerks in other offices

) Clerk typist

) Civil servant clerk

) Bank clerk

) Nurse

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

5‘4.

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

)

vvvvvvvvvvvv

258

Executive officer in the civil service
Teacher in a primary school
Librarian

Poultry Instructress

Domestic Science Teacher
Teacher in a Secondary School
Manageress of an Hotel
Fashion Model

Chemist

Air Hostess

Ardhitect

Dentist

Doctor

(FOR GIRLS ONLY: BOYS GO ON TO Q. 56)

 

For the following list of occupations, please check off (J) all
those occupayions that_you feel sure you would not be able to get,
even if you zried; and if plenty of these jobs were available.

a
1
\

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(.
(
(
(
(
(
(

)

vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv

Domestic Servant

Wardsmaid in a hospital
Unskilled factory worker
Clothes presser in a laundry
Housework at home

Housekeeper for a Priest or doctor, etc.
Cinema usherette

Barmaid

Waitress in hotel or restaurant
Cook in an hotel

Assistant in a grocery shop
Assistant in a drapery shop
Chemist's assistant
Bookkeeper in a shop or office
Telephone Operator

Post Office Clerk

Dressmaker

Hairdresser

Clerk in solicitor's office
Clerks in other offices

Clerk typist

Civil servant clerk

Bank clerk

Nurse

Executive officer in the civil service
Teacher in a primary school
Librarian

Poultry Instructress

Domestic Science Teacher
Teacher in a Secondary School
Manageress of an Hotel

55.

56.

259

Fashion Model
Chemist

Air Hostess
Architect
Dentist
Doctor

AAAAA"
VVVVVV

(FOR GIRLS ONLY: BOYS GO ON TO THE NEXT QUESTION)

(a) Do you feel that when you are to get married, that you would
like to be a farmer's wife? (Please check off that response
that is most true in your case.)

( ) Definitely yes
( ) Yes
( ) Undecided
’ )N

) Definitely no

(b) What is there about being a farmer's wife that you would
particularly dislike?

 

V—

(c) Is there anything about being a farmer's wife, that you would
particularly like? Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, what is it?

 

(d) Some people have said that even if good jobs were available
in this part of the country for girls, that they would not
stay here anyway; because there is so little chance of
getting married in this part of the country.

Do you agree with this? Yes ( ) No ( )

(e) For most girls of your age, what age do you think they should
be married at? years old

(f) If they stayed around home do you think that they would get
married at that age? Yes ( ) No ( )

(For both boys and girls)
Below each line represents two facts people think to be important
in getting a job, or in getting promotion. For each pair, you
should underline that fact that you believe to be the more important
of the two? This is not a test. There are no right and wrong
answers to this. It is just different peoples‘ opinions that we
are interested in.

1. Fact 1. The person with the best qualifications gets the job.
. Fact 2. The person who has the most pull with the boss gets
the job.

57.

58.

269

Fact 1. Although ability is important in promotion, you should
be always willing to pull some Strings to get ahead.

Fact 2. Even when you are on the friendliest terms with the boss,
he should never consider this factor in making a promotion.

Fact 1. There are some jobs, where no matter how much pull

you have if you haven't got the ability you will not get ahead.
Fact 2. There are no jobs where pull is not important.

Fact 1. The first thing that you should do in looking for a

job, is to see that you have the prOper qualifications, and to
improve these to better your chances.

Fact 2. The first thing that you should do in looking for a

job, is to see if you have some relative or friend of the

family, who can put in a good word for you, or who knows
somebody who can.

Fact 1. People should not compete with one another for promotion;
it should be given to the oldest one present.

Fact 2. Competition among equals for jobs and promotion is good,
it makes people work harder, and also improves their working
ability.

Below, each pair of statements represents two facts that people
consider when they are choosing a job. You should underline the
fact that you consider to be the more important one of the two
foryyou.

I.

2.

Fact 1. A job where you can meet a lot of people.

Fact 2. A job where you.work with your hands and with machines
and things.

Fact 1. A job which requires spending a lot of the time just
thinking things out.

Fact 2. A job which requires spending a lot of time working
with one's hands.

Fact 1. A job which allows one to meet a lot of new peeple

and do»business with them.

Fact 2. A job which requires spending a lot of time just
thinking things out.

Fact 1. A job which allows one to work outside.

Fact 2. A job which allows one to work inside.

Fact 1. A job where you can help people to solve their problems.
Fact 2. A job where you.can keep on improving your own abilities,
and your own position.

How strongly do you agree, or disagree, that young people like
yourself should provide for themselves, in the future, the
following sorts of things? (Please check that response that is
moot true in your case.)

(a) A better house than their parents have.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(b) Electric light and power in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

261

(c) A piped water supply for the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(d) Hot water on tap in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ). -

(e) An indoor flush toilet in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(f) A bathroom in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(g) A telephone in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(h) A radio in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Jisagree ( ).

(i) A T.V. Set in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(j) A washing machine in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(k) A kitchen range in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(1) An electric or gas cooker in the house.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(m) A dining room, separate from the kitchen,in the house.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(n) A car.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(o) A daily newspaper.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(p) The house papered and cleaned every year or so.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(q) Carpets on the floors of the house, at least in the sitting room.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

6k.

262

For the things that you have just mentioned above, and other things
like them, that you feel people should have, do you think that if
you stay in your home community or near it, that you will be able
to achieve these things that you want?

( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Not sure (1)

Now, supposing that you could get all these things and a suitable
job by staying around here, would you stay here permanently?

( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Not sure (1)

Now, if you could get a permanent and otherwise suitable job,

in a place of your own choosing, how much would the job need to
pay per week before you would be satisfied with it? (Please check
only that response that you agree most with.)

( ) L 2- L A per week ‘ (l)
( ) L 4— L 6 per week (2)
( ) L 7- L 8 per week (3)
( ) L 9- L 10 per week (u)
( ) A ll— 5 12 per week (5)
( ) L 13- 5 1n per week (6)
()515-520perweek (7)
( ) Over L 20 per week (8)
( ) I don't know (0)

Now, for the type of income that you want to earn, do you think
that if you stay in or near your home community, that you will be
able to earn this income?

( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Not sure (1)

Now supposing that you could get the sort of income that you want,
in or near your home community, would you stay there permanently?

( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Not sure (1)

Do you intend to leave this part of the country so that you can
get a better income elsewhere?

( ) Yes (2)

( ) No (0)

( ) Not sure (1)

65.

66.

263

If you are thinking of going, as a reason for leaving, is the fact
that you cannot get a suitable income here (i.e. if you cannot
get it) an important reason for leaving?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, it is ( ) more important than the lack of jobs as a

reason for leaving.

( ) about as important as the lack of jobs as a
reason for leaving.

( ) less important than the absence of jobs, as
such, as a reason for leaving.

Some young people from your community have said that they would not
live there always, but only in a community which had the following
characteristics. How much do you agree with them?

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(5)

Which was nearer to a big town than the one you live in?
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Which has better roads than the one you now live in?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Which has better primary schools than the one you now live in?
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Which was nearer to secondary and vocational schools than the
one you now live in?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Which allowed me to enjoy my time off much better than in my
home community?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Where a person would not have to go so far to enjoy a good
dance or a good film?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree 0 ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Where the community has better facilities for games than this
one has?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Where people showed more interest in games, and organized
clubs and teams for young people to play and enjoy themselves.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Where there would be more young people to go to films and
dances with, and to organize games with.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Which is nearer to shops and good shopping facilities than the
one you live in?

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

67.

68.

69.

70.

2§4

Now, suppose that you could enjoy all these things, and similar
amenities in your home community would you stay there permanently?
( ) Yes (0)
( ) No (2)
( ) Undecided (1)

If you have some idea of leaving your home community for elsewhere,
is the fact that your>home community lacks the amenities that you
would like it to have, an important reason for this decision?

( ) Yes ( ) No

more important than the lack of jobs?
more important than the fact that you wouldn't
be able to earn enough money locally?

less important than jobs, as a reason .

less important than the fact of being unable
to earn enough money locally, as a reason.
(Please check off (0/) only those statements that are true in your
case.)

If yes, is it: (
(

UV

AA
VV

Do you know of any place in which you could make more money than
at home, and which has all the amenities and advantages that you
think are satisfactory?

( ) Yes

( ) No

( ) Don't know.
If yes, where is this place?

 

For the following set of statements, please check off (V) only

that one response that you agree most with in each case.

(a) I am looking forward to leaving this community.

Strongly Agree_( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(b) Any young people worth their salt should leave this community.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(c) Not much can be said in favor of this coulnunity.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(d) No one seems to care how young people get on in this comnity.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(e) There is too much bickering among people in this community.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(f) This community is not too had really.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(g) The future of this community looks bright.

Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

71.

72.

73.

7k.

75.

76.

265

(h) The people of this community are very friendly and helpful
to one another.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(i) This community is a good place to live in.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

(j) I am very eager to'spend my life in this community, if I can
atall.
Strongly Agree ( ). Agree ( ). Undecided ( ). Disagree ( ).
Strongly Disagree ( ).

Do you help out your family or some other relation in any way?
Yes ( ) No( )
If yes, please give details of what you do

 

 

Do>you think that your family, or some relation depend on your
help to any extent?
Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, how much: ( ) A great deal
( ) Somewhat
( ) Undecided
( ) Not very much

Now, if you were to leave your coumunity and home, could somebody
else do the work that you are doing for them?

( ) Yes, very easily

( ) Yes, somewhat easily

( ) I don't know

( ) No, not very easily

( ) Not except with difficulty

Now if your family depend on you helping them out at home to some
extent, (or some relation does), would you feel guilty leaving
your family to get work, and live away from home?

( ) Yes ( ) No
If yes, how guilty would you feel?

( ) Yes, very guilty

( ) Yes, somewhat guilty

( ) I am undecided

( ) Not very guilty

If you are helping out your family by working at home, for how
long will you be expected to do this?

 

What do you intend to do when you think your obligations to your
family are finished?

 

77.

78.

79.

266

Now, if you are earning, or when you do start earning money, will
you be expected to contribute some to the family?
Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, do you think that your family might depend on you for this
support? (Please check that response that is most true in your case.)
( ) Yes, a great deal
( ) Yes, somemhat
( ) I am undecided
( ) No, not at all

Have you any younger brothers or sisters that have to be educated
yet?

Yes ( ) No ( )
If yes, will you expected to help them out in any way?

Yes() No ()
If yes, please give us some particulars of what kind of help you
would be expected to give?

 

Do you feel in any way that you are being exploited by your family
for the sake of’your'brothers and sisters? (Please check off 0/)
that response that is most true in your case.)

( ) Yes, very much so

( ) Yes, somewhat so

( ) I am undecided

( ) No, not at all

( ) No, in fact I am being helped by my brothers and

sisters

APPENDIX III

Appendi§_lglmm0ccupationai Classifiggg

3

2b~

(

one Used 19".

a’ 45;) x: f:
. - v ’ J;'.r’_ Juli-AIS!" um m- 1:

 

 

(a) Used in the Census of School_§eavers l960s64,

lo

Higflggwfrofessioggl_gggppsgiops, i,e, Those with a
UniverSity degree or equivalent, As in Vol, II,
Census of Population of Ireland, 19él, ppo l7lml720

Doctor Accountant

Dentist Veterinary Surgeon

Engineer Agricultural Instructor or InSpector
Clergyman Chemist

Solicitor

Lower Professional and Highs er Non Manual Occu pgtlgggo
As in the Census wof POpulation report, 9p; cl? 0

but includes also Army Officers from the a“Salaried
Employees' category,

National, Vocational, and Secondary School teachers,
Civil Servants? including Higher officers in the Co,
Council, Social Welfare Officers, Customs and Excise
Officers, and Tax Officers?

Higher Bank Officers

Army Officers

Occulists, etc,

Emplgyers, Managers, and Proprietors of Whplesale egg
Rgtail Shops and Businesses,

As in Census classification, but includes all shOp
proprietors, and Publicans from the ”Intermediate
Non=Manual“ category,

Owners of small Manufacturing concerns, including
Laundry owners,

Shcpkeepers, Merchants etc,, Grocers, Drapers, Shoeshcps,
Confectioners, General Stores, Newsagents, etc,
Creamery Business and Factory Managers

Postmaster and SubsPostmasters

Publicans

Garage Owners and Car Dealers

Building Contractors

Hauliers and Agricultural Ctr tract r

Livestock and Egg Dealers

Hoteliers, and Restaurateurs,

Other Preprietors of businesses, etc,

L a mere. 0
Int; mediate Non Manual Workers Includes the remainder

 

of “Salaried Employees and “Int? armediate NonrManual
Workers0 in the Census classification quoted, but excludes
Shop Assistants, Bannen, etc, to the ”Services” category

25:»:

below, and all Proprietors, and Publicans to the
”Employers, and Managers“ category above,

Commercial Traveler Bank clerks, Cashiers
Insurance Agent Bookkeepers, in shops,
etc,

Press Agent, or Newspaper Rate Collectors

Reporter Bus and other TranSport
Policemen, all ranks Inapectors

Draughtsmen in Engineers,

Clerks in Post Offices, and Co, Council

and other offices,etc, offices

ggflc.§ma§d~—s 2.1g? 5 WQIK e Isszcwélgd J Oil-25,1931; .1“ C2 1'? Mar}. gal-fir D
QEEflflfiiigflge

 

 

This includes the category, a"-‘Otiner Noananual Workersse
of the Census classification cited, Some individual
occupations from this census category, however, have
been demoted to the Semiaskilled category because of
their lower status,

Shop Assistants and Bartenders, and assistants in
garages, etc,

General Salesmen

Bus, Lorry, Taxi, and Van Drivers, Chauffeurs, etc,
Bus Conductors

Postmen

Bread Roundsmen

Barber and Hairdressers

Butlers, Housekeepers, etc,

Sorters in the Postal service

Soldiers? junior ranks

Storemen in Garages, etco

stillssmMasgalirsrters asslfiereseso As in the Census

. 1 I “.~’

Volume cited, p, 1720

 

Electricians Blacksmithg

Mechanics Bakers

Plumbers Tailors

Butchers Foreman, Landstewards, etc,
Carpenters General Tradesmen and Other
Cobblers and Saddlers Skilled Workers

Bricklayers, Masons, etc,

Semi:§kilisd_messsl Workers_esellsser,9£serl§l£vieel

 

 

 

Isa-y. .4'

As in the census classification, but includes some
ocCUpations from the “Other Non Manual“ category which
are of a demonstrably lower status,

270

Labourers with Builders, the Electric Supply Board,
and the Land Projecto
Unskilled Workers
Creamery Labourers,
Caretakers
Porters and Doorman in Banks, Hospitals, and Hotels, etc,
Petrol Attendants
Hospital Orderlies
Maids, Messengers, and other similar service categories

9, Unskilled ManualfiWorkers,

Labourers with the Co, Council, on the road service,
etc,

General labourers, etc,

Farm labourers,

This classification scheme is based on the Census classification,
“Social Groups”, Census of Population for Ireland, 1961, Vol,
III, pp, 171-172, But as it is primarily a classification based
on the relative prestige of the occupation, many occupations
have been changed around and the relative position of categories
have been changed too, These changes have been made on the
basis of prestige rankings of OCCUpations delineated in the
United States,1 and generally validated in Britain and EurOpe,
The author used his own Opinions of how some occupations would
be evaluated here for some occupations which were not mentioned
in any of these reports,

(b) When the previous classification had been used in the cod-
ing of the initial survey, it was found that certain in-
consistencies existed in the categorization, It was then
decided to make some changes, to give a more precise order:
ing of occupational categories and to reorder some indivi-
dual occupations which were wrongly classified, However,
only 18 out of 1,485 subjects coded were wrongly categorized
in the first coding, As this was so small it was decided
not to change the original coding here, However, this
second coding is likely to be a better ordering of occupam
tions according to their relative status, The group
PrOprietors, Managers, etc, was also changed so that only
prOprietors and employers were included in the categoryo
This was done so that owners of the means of production
might be differentiated from nonowners,

1, Higher Professional werkerg, As in Vol, III, Census of
P0pulation of Ireland, 1961, pp, l7lml72, 33$ cit,

u.—-__

 

1National Opinion Research Center, “Jobs and Occupations; A
POpular Evaluation,“ Opinion News, 93331331947, Reprinted in
Bendix and Lipset, Class,,3tgtus and Power, Free Press, 1956,

2Inkeles, A,, and Rossi, P,H,, ”National Comparisons of
Occupational Prestige,“ Americggmgggggal of Sociology, 613329m339,

z 1

ChemiSLS are included here, however, from “Lhe Lower

 

ProfessionalJo caLegoryo

Doctor, Surgeon, eLco Accountant

Priest or Minister of VeLerinary Surgeon

Religion Secondary School Teacher

ArchiLect Chemist

Dentist Agricultural Instructors

Solicitor Lner ProfeSSional Workers

Engineer who require a University
degree or an equivalent
to practiCeo

LowernP fiesslggal Workers, Classified as in the above

Census Volumeg BuL 1L also includes: Army officers,
from the”Salaried Employees” classo Managers of large
concerns m Creameries, factories, etco from the
”Employers and Managers“ category and Senior CiVil
servaan and local County officials etco

Primary and Vocational School Teachers who do not
require a UniverSiLy degreeo

Higher Bank officials and officials of large concerns,
Managers, Secretaries, Cashiers in banks, etco

Higher civil service and local county officials, Social
Welfare officers, Customs and Excise officials, tax
officers,

Army officers

Nurses, Radiologists, Physiotherapists, etco

Medical technicianso

Librarianso

Editors and higher officers in newSpaperso

Emp-cyers and ELnghegors of Wholesai and RgLaLLrgbogso
As in Lhe census classificatiOn, egg QLLU, buL exciudlng
all managers of large concerns to the 3'Lower Profession=
a1“ caLegory, and Managers of small concerns to Lhe
”InLermediaLe Ncn Manual “categoryo It also includes
aLl propri.etors of wholesale and retail es abi1*" ents
wheYher employers or not, from Lhe “Intermediate Non:
Manual” caLegoryo

Owners of PreprieLors of all manufacLuring concerns

Shopkeepers, Merchants, etc, whether employers or noL

Publicans, proprieLors only, wneLher employers or nor

Garage proprietors whether employers or not

Hotel and Guest Home Proprietors, and Prepxietors of
restaurants

Building Contractors

Hauliers and Agricultural ConLrac Lors, Livestock and
Egg Dealers, etco

Eases

£32

Infirmedfa e Mgn Minu :Workers This includes the
remainder. of Lne Salaried Employees” and the
“IntermedLaLe Non Manual Workers M from Lhe above

classificaLionn BuL it excludes Shop Assistaan, and
Ba Lenders, to the following MServicesM category, It
also includes Managers of small concerns, reLail and

OLherwise, from the JC'Employers and ManagersM caLegozy,

Commercial Travelers

Insurance Agents

Press Agents or Reporters

Bank Clerks, eLco

Other Office clerks, Lypists, eLco in other offices
Policemen, all ranks

Auctioneers, salesmen in garages, etco

Rate collecLors

Bus and of her LranSport inspectors

Draughfismen, etco

Skilled Manual Wo_rkers and Foreme en As in the census
report quoted

Electrician

Machinist

Carpenter

Motor Mechanic, fitter, eLco
Flamber

Butcher

Bricklayer, mason, plasterer
Tailor, dressmaker

Forenen, land steward, etco

gg vice .nd Sales Worgersw and MOLher Non Manual ngggggMo
Includes Lhe caLegory MO her Noananual Workers and
the Cited occupations from MInLermediate Noananual
WorkersMo BuL it excludes all private domestic workers
to Lhe next occupational caLegory belowo

 

Shop as 515 rants, Bartenders, and service assistants in
garages, eLco other Lhan petrol attendants

General salesmen

Bus, lorry, taxi, and van drivers

Postmen and poSL office sorters

Warehousemen and storemen

Barbers and hairdressers

Waiters and waitresses

Wardsmaids and ward orderlies

Housekeepers, roundsmen, soldiers, eLcO

Seni~ckir-ed Marcel Wernerskmanu L_cwer Orde‘ Ff’g;::
workers,

Includes all the occupations in the ”Semi~Skilled Manual
Workersm caiegory in the quoLed Census volumeo BuL iL
also includes maids and o+her lower order domestic ser»
vice workers from the MOLher NC n Manual WorkersMo

100

(A

Labourers with buildefs, eiecLXJCify supply board,

p.41 51;. offuge, eLc, and land project,

Semisk*‘;ed faCLory workers, in meat and shoe
facL‘22e52 oLher machzne operators

Labourers in creameries and oLher semi~skilled
labourers

Porters and doorman in banks, no.e.s, hospiials, etcn

Messenge:s

Caretakers, waLchmen, and related workers

Lorry drivers“ helpers, and other Lransport harks

Petrol atLendaan

Un‘.-..--4.ed Mama. Wu! Leg 5 Includes all Lhose in the
UHSKMMMEd Manual Worker M caLegcryo 3n Lhe census
class: ltl‘lifl LOIS, E391. Silica and Lhose fff'iL-m ':"'OL.her
59ricultural OccupaLionsMo

Co, council labourers and navies
General labourers and unskilled workers
Farm labourers

Gardeners and forestry labourers

Uremprioyed and £°herwise no: clas

APPENDIX IV

 

z¢5

éQoendixnIVeg§calgqram Anaigggs of QQ ence ? H.1l E

I“
Y‘nah'ml._n.x. L:2......:..:;‘.. 2?me dies; .
C'"an

11"
IL

:32 edu rel

First, one hundred and twenty five schedules of male
reSpondents were randomly extracted from the 546 completed
scheduleso Question 51 in the schedule dealt with Lhe reSpond>
ents evaluations of the relative prestige level of OCCUpationSU
This question placed a list of 61 occupations before the re5e
pondento The question asked, ”For the following list of occupam
tions, please check off (\/) all those OCCUpations that x33.
ggg; you would be “letting down' your family, if you were to
take upo" These occupations were widely known in the area”
and were arranged in an ascending order of status (according to
the author°s opinion)o The lowest occupation on the list was
“Coo Council Road Worker“ and the highest was “Judge'o As it
happened, the reSpondents did not at-all agree with the
author's assessment of the relative prestige of these occupan
tionso (See the appended respondent ordered list and their
original rank ordero) It was possible to rearrange and rank
order the items in terms of their degree of “difficulty“ of
reje~**on (ioeoo in terms of the relative gggpgg of reSpondw
ents cup of 125 who checked :he occupation as of lower status
than than of their family30 The Waisanen technique of the

. [7,. . l
Guttman Scalogram analysis, was used for this purposeo AS

 

 

. .um I” ,‘-. .1LW1’ZT 2.4m

IWaisanenp F030, ”A Technique for Scalogram Analysis,e

£923 9m:,zl. 1:4, 19600

276
the scale type of reSpondents was not immediately of interest
the concern was with the relative rank order of items (ioeo
occupations) aloneo If reapondents reject and accept rhese
occupations on the basis of their relative prestige alone, then
the only determinant of response to these items should be their
“amount‘ of prestige relative to that of the individual°s own
familyo Since the prestige level of reSpondents° families
varies very widely a Guttman type scaling of the item responses
should yield an undimensional scale of occupations ranked on
the basis of prestige aloneO That is, provided the scale meets
all the criteria of scalability required by the methodo The
procedure was as follows:

10 Start with a matrix of 61 occupations and 125 res=
pondents, with each person°s reSponse to each item,
ioeo (a) reject it as lower in status than that of
family (s (0)? or accept as equal or higher (sax),

20 (a) Compute for Eggg item (occupation) the number
who reject the occupationo (b) Compute for each
person his tonal score ioeo, gggggg of occupations
he rejected,

30 Reorder items and reSpondents into a new mahrix by
(a) the “pepularityno of item (ioeo number of times
occupation was rejected), and (b) she total core
of each persono

40 The rank order of items given by she previous siep
yields a rough indication of OCCUpations relative

prestigeo Because of response errors, (ioeo some

277

reSpondents vary in the relative ranking) this is
not the best rankingo The next step consists in
determining thezmost rigorous "cutting point“ for
each item, on the subject score continuum, (iceo
determine the point of least error)° In a scale
without response errors the cutting point would be
at that point where the responses suddenly changeo
With error the cutting point is located on a com-
promise basis so that there is (a) minimum error
(b) no category has more error than nonaerroro

50 Once the cutting points have been determined the
items are again reordered on the basis of their new
poPularityo

The following table gives the resultant rank of those

61 occupations, the total number of response errors for each

occupation and the original rank in the questionnaireo

1 - 476
50 x 125

0092

Qoeffo of Reproducability

Since the Coeffo of Reproducability meets the require=
ment set by Guttman it can be tentatively accepted as a- unfi-

dimensional scale of occupationso

278

 

 

Occupation Final
Rank Noso
(Cutting Rejected Nooof Original
Raine) .11 0961:2954 0mm Eur Israeémlanami
10 Street sweeper 1 121 3 4
2o Messenger boy 2% 107 4 8
3o CooCouncil road worker 2% 107 , 6 1
40 General unskilled labourer 4% 103 5 3
So Petrol pump attendant 4% 83 9 12
60 Laundry worker 6% 82 10 11
7o Lorry drivers helper 6% 76 12 13
80 Farm labourer 8 93 13 2
9o Caretaker 9 95 15 5
100 Factory worker unskilled 10 74 11 7
11° Doorman or porter 11% 76 9 9
12° Ticket collector on train 11%_ 67 9 20
130 Manual worker on buildingslB 65 14 6
14° Creamery workereunskilled 14 63 14 10
150 Milk delivery man 15 65 9 14
160 Bread roundsmen 16 57 14 15
17a Asst.o in a grocery shop 17 54 12 24
180 Postman 18% 52 14 26
19° Asst; in a drapery shop 18% 51 14 25
200 Shoemaker or cobbler 20 68 24 21
210 Factory worker semi»
skilled 21% 58 9 18
220 Barber 21% 47 8 22
23° Lorry driver 23 46 8 17
24° Corporal in Army 24 45 20 23
25° Bus conductor 25 39 9 16
260 Painter 26% 38 14 31
270 Butcher 26% 36 16 34
28° Bus driver 28 34 - 4 19
29a Tailor 29% 34 12 36
300 Plumber 29% 3O 10 35
31° Plasterer or bricklayer 31 3O 14 33
320 Carpenter 32 20 6 32
330 Garage mechanic 33 28 11 30
340 Foreman 34% 32 15 27
350 Bookkeeper in shop 34% 23 14 37
36° Skilled factory worker 36% 25 14 29
37° Foreman on a building site36% 23 9 28
38° Clerk in insurance office 38% 10 7 38
390 Clerk in Coo Council 38% 5 2 39
400 Rate collector" 4o 15 10 43
410 Bus inapector 41% 8 2 41
420 Commercial traveler 41% 6 S 47
43° Farmer 43 14 12 46
440 Reporter on a local
newspaper 44 12 10 44
450 Garda (policeman) 45 9 5 42

460 Insurance agent 46 6 . 5 45

Octal.:.pai;1 on

47v
480
490
500

There were no negafiive reaponses to the remaining 11 occur

3- 1r ‘-- :1: ~—.x.-- 7J‘4.‘T..m‘ . .1

Primary school teacher
Bank clerk

Agricalzural adviser
Secondary school teacher

1‘ I) _\
c ’ “.7

Final
Rank
(Cuiting
Pfiihfil-
47%
47%
49%
49%

N030 Neomf
Rejected Ezrcrs

0:995:18 Se

..w_.,..1x

rdrantn
#3 purl $.15 Spat:

Tani Ngrg‘f Brit:

1.? I,» "

 

and as a result they could not be scaledo

tions

"Ill!11111111111111“