TO r :5 AN lNVESTfGMiGU DESZGN EQUES As‘éD THE U 3‘23 \ z’TERéC‘x’ TECH. VISUAL L APPRGACH h? ”VEL TU READER’G TC ‘C-r. §~§ uFéABE 323423585 FOUR-’2' " mm ,2: 33min- F I an e "l U II_1f:¢ f 2.1.“ a ‘9'? ‘_ affix: m. UE" 35 sh; J v' “-2 {‘1} E 51; v 2 TE 1§74 .l‘lllllz l m l This is to certify that. the thesis entitled I AN INVESTIGATION DESIGNED TO mm‘ HE FEASIBILITY OF USING VISUAL LITERAYIY TECHNIQUES AND THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH TO READING TO DEVELOP THE READING ABILITIES OF REMEDIAL FOURTH GRADE READERS presented by has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctoral degppin Elementary 8 Special Ed. Major professor 0-7639 chlman . , are needed, too, for those students who have only marginal command of language by the time they reach school because of restricted experiential backgrounds and other related reasons. Fluency in oral language ability and a wide range of experiences give the student a foundation or framework for future learning through reading. Without these back- grounds to build on, concept development and understandings of ideas are seriously restricted. Visual literacy is a set of abilities to see, dis- criminate and interpret observable actions, pictures, pic- ture sequences, objects or symbols. The process involves the development of literal, interpretive and critical think- ing skills. Visual literacy based on a person's experiences is being recognized by noted linguists, philosophers, psy- chologists, physiologists, sociologists, archaeologists, and urbanologists as an important aspect of learning. There is a controversy about the use of wordless Picture books for teaching. Cianciolo7 suggests that DiC- ture books may be used to teach reading through the lan- guage experience approach to beginning readers, illiterate adults and remedial reading students. The uses of wordless Picture books recommended by Cianciolo are to develop lit- eral and figurative interpretations and for the study Of 7Patricia J. Cianciolo, "Use Wordless Picture Books" to Teach Reading, Visual Literacy and to Study Literature, $21? 0“- the News, Vol. XXIX, No. 3 (April, 1973), pp, 226- 34. literary devices, literary style and literary theme. In rebuttal to Cianciolo's article Groff8 argues that our so— ciety is already too dependent on visual messages to the extent that reading of literature is largely neglected. Groff bases his argument on five basic premises: (1) child- ren have extensive experience with television picture plots yet are not superior readers, (2) greater amounts of mental effort are required for reading literature than for "read- ing" pictures, (3) a difference exists between the types of affective responses stimulated by literature and word- less picture books, (4) picture books serve no separate function from that of picture books having a storyline, and (5) support by educators for wordless picture books in- dicates a deemphasis on reading. McLuhan9 warns against the subtle and altering role which visual electronic media Plays in altering our perceptual awareness. The National Council of Teachers of English and the Children's Book Council sponsored a meeting in New Orleans on November 27, 1974 to debate the use of visual literacy materials in language development. 8Patrick Groff, "Children's Literature Versus Word? less Picture Books," Top of the News, Vol. XXX, No. 3 (Aprll, 1974). pp. 294-303. 9Marshall, McLuhan, Understanding Media; The Exten- §19n of Man, Second Edition,—New York, New American Library, Inc.. 1964. 10 A number of studies lend support to the use of vis- ual literacy. Some of these studies are cited in the fol- lowing statements along with significant aspects of these studies and implications derived from them. Deno10 used verbal and pictorial symbols in observing processes which undegird perception. He found that pictures used with un— dergraduate students generally are an aid to learning the verbal symbol that the picture represents. The implication is that pictures can be a valuable aid to verbal learning. In a study by Bourisseau, Davis and Yamamoto,11 samples of verbal associations which elementary school children expressed when verbal symbols, pictorial represen- tations and combinations of the two were presented. The findings indicated that visual representations of ideas were superior to verbal symbols in evoking specific con- crete responses. However, a greater number of sensory re- Sponses were elicited by the use of words alone. The value Of this study was the indication of differing yet supportive relationships between visual representations and words. Based on a study conducted with a target population 0f four 10Stanley N. Deno, ”Effects of Words, and Pictures as Stimuli in Learning Language Equivalents," Journal of gflucational Psychology, Vol. LXI (June, 1968), pp. 202- 06. lle Bourisseau, O. L. Davis, Jr., and K. Yamamoto, "Sense Impression Response to Differing Pictorial and Ver- bal Stimuli," Audiovisual Communication Review, Vol. XIII, NO- 3 (Fall, 1965), pp. 249-258. \rwv‘,‘///wr '2‘ 11 and five year olds Strandberg and Griffithlz compared the language development of children that received special training in visual sequential activities with a control group. Findings were that the students in the experimental group had greater complexity in language skills used to describe their pictures. LaPolt13 conducted a study fo- cusing on the use of visuals as a basis for student writ— ings. Conclusions reached by LaPolt were that when stu— dents wrote stories based on pictures which they had taken themselves their writing in relation to the pictures in- creased in the number of happenings. Further, she found that these students had less difficulty with sentence and paragraph structure than they had experienced prior to par- ticipation in the project. Fransecky found that visual literacy was a valuable reinforcement to strengthen stu— dents' understandings of environments. Knowledge, theory and technology are the bases on which visual literacy is founded. It was not until the 1960's that technology was well suited to the development of visual literacy. Much of our learning is accomplished through the visual. Tele- vision, movies, films, slide sets, and other visual media 12Twila E. Strandberg, and Perry Griffith, A Study of the Effects of Training in Visual Literacy on Verbal Language Behavior, Charleston, Illinois, Eastern Illinois University Lithography (July, 1968). 13Ruth LaPolt, "A New Approach to Visual and Writ- ten Sequencing," éudiovisual Instruction, Vol. XII, No. 5 (May, 1968), p. 477. V 12 have had a tremendous impact on visual learning. These ed— ucational media are becoming an integral part of all areas of the school curriculum rather than being tacked on to the curriculum for entertainment for use when time allows.14 Visual literacy methods are effective in securing child- ren's attention and help them in self-development and per- ception. These methods provide a new means for students and their teachers to develop communication skills in a unique and meaningful way.15 Materials of visual literacy can serve as learning stimuli for students who may have formerly been disinterested in traditional schools. These visual materials also may make the students less apprehen- sive about learning so that they can effectively approach related verbal literacy learning.16 Educational Implications The procedures for this study involved the use of selected non-narrated films and wordless picture books as a basis for remedial fourth grade reading students' oral and written language development. These transcribed oral 14James Brown, Richard Lewis, Fred Harcleroad, Media Methods, New York, McGraw—Hill, 1969. 15Roger B. Fransecky, Roy Ferguson, "New Ways of Seeing: The Milford Communication Project,” Audiovisual Instructor, Vol. XVII, No. 4 (April, 1973), pp. 44-49. 16Hans M611er, Media for Discovery, Toronto, McClean Hunter Limited, 1970. 13 and written language samples were used for the development of each student's reading vocabulary and comprehension. The use of visual literacy materials and the language ex- perience approach in the remedial reading program could serve as an innovative means of developing each student's reading abilities. Instead of dealing with the reader's problems through the basal reader approach with which he has already had difficulties, the child's oral language and its written form serve as a basis for his developmental program in reading. Rather than rote drills on specific areas in which a student is weak, the language experience approach builds on the student's language successes. The combination of the visual literacy materials and the lan- guage experience approach to remedial reading constitutes a different approach to corrective work than has previously been offered in traditional remedial reading programs. The student is dealing with pictures, a means of communication which has been through history and continues as an elementary and important means of communication. Pictures are more concrete than words; thus visuals are usually more readily comprehended than written or spoken forms of language. Visual literacy materials make possible the fusing of cognitive, affective and psychomotor elements within the reading program.17 Visuals can be effective 7Steven Barley, A Visual Literacy Approach to Ibvelopmental and Remedial Reading, Rochester, New York, Eastman Kodak Company, 1969. 14 means of reaching non verbal students. Because of the large amount of visual materials which our society views each day, it is important that in- dividuals develop skills in "reading" these visual communi- cations and in effectively selecting among them. Lee18 suggests that educational experiences should be provided which provide a wide horizon for a child's world and serve to strengthen the way in which he senses that world, help him consider his thoughts about his world and make free reading choices available. The combination of the visual literacy materials and the language experience approach can make the attainment of the preceding goals possible. Further, these methods and materials make possible the cyc— lical development of language through direct interaction with language through reflection, expression, and reception 19 in motivating settings. Rosen recommends this interac- tion with ideas in an atmosphere conducive to learning. Statement of Research Hypotheses First Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex— perience approach to reading will result in growth in read- 18Doris M. Lee, "Reading as Contact," Educational Leadership, Vol. XXIV, No. 5 (February, 1967), pp. 413-417. 19Carl Rosen, "Reading and the Disadvantaged, Some PsyCholinguistic Applications for the Classroom Teacher,“ Vgews on Elementary Reading Instruction, Thomas Barnett \rnw 15 ing facility when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. Second Hypothesis There will be increased facility in oral expres- sion as a result of using visual literacy materials within the language experience approach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. Third Hypothesis There will be increased facility in written expres- sion as a result of using visual literacy materials within the language experience approach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. and Dale Johnson, Editors, Newark, Delaware International Reading Association, 1973. 16 Fourth Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex- perience approach to reading will result in improvement of students' attitudes toward reading significant at the .05 level when these materials are used with students ages nine to eleven who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. Explanation of Research Hypotheses First Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex- perience approach to reading will result in growth in read- ing facility when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. As a result of participation in this study it is expected that students will improve their reading skills. Students will have many experiences with words as they write stories. As they dictate stories to this researcher, to one another or on tape recordings followed by reading transcribed ver- sions of these oral stories students experience another means of associating with words. Students will thus devel- op significant increases in vocabulary understandings. The subject matter on which student writing will be based is common vicarious experiences the participants 17 will have via non-narrated films and wordless picture books. Students will work with their stories word by word, and sentence by sentence based on visual experience which they have had. Significant increases in reading comprehension are expected. Students will be working with the communication process from both the writer's and the reader's points of View. Second Hypothesis There will be greater facility in oral expression as a result of using visual literacy materials within the lapguage experience approach to reading when used with stu- dents ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in readinggvocabulagy and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. Participating students are ex- pected to make significant achievement in skills of oral expression. As a result of participating in this study students will increase the number of happenings presented in their stories. The students' discussions of these hap- penings will be in greater detail as students gain new understandings of the visual materials and experience suc- cess in using them in the language experience reading ac- tivities. The total number of words students use in their writing will also increase significantly. ~’ WI- 18 Third Hypothesis There will be greater facility in written expres— sion as a result of using visual literacy materials within the language experience approach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. There will be a significance level of .05. Students are expected to make significant increases in abilities in written expression. Through the development of vocabulary words and ideas as they relate to wordless picture books and non-narrated films students will have an increase in the numbers of in- cidents which they develop. The depth of writing in rela- tion to the incidents presented will be increased along with the total number of words used. Fourth Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex— perience approach to reading will result in improvement of students' attitudes toward reading significant at the .05 level when these materials are used with students ages nine to eleven who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary angLor comprehension. As students write and read their own stories and read stories written by other students participating in this study it is expected that students will have a significant increase in positive attitude towards reading. l9 Assumptions The first assumption is that there is such a thing as visual literacy. Visual literacy consists of a set of vision abilities a person develops along with other sensory experiences. The development of this set of vision abili- ties is basic to human learning. A visually literate per- son can discriminate likeness and differences in observable actions, objects, pictures, or picture sequences as well as interpret them. The process involves the development of skills in literal, interpretive and critical thinking. A second assumption is that reading is a complex process involving a number of skills which includes compre- hension, word analysis techniques and sight vocabulary. Rather than being a simple mechanical skill, reading con- sists of organization of patterns of higher mental processes. Skills of thinking, evaluating, judging, imagining, reason- ing and problem solving are all a part of the reading pro- cess. The third assumption is that each child has some potential for creating reading materials and that he can express his efforts through the medium or oral and/or writ— ten language. It is further assumed that the wordless pic— ture books and non-narrated films will serve as a suitable basis for student writings. Students can tell about their visual experiences while the researcher takes dictation or 20 students may write down their own ideas, or record them on tapes. Oral and written language are closely related. The quality of ideas expressed in children's written language is similar to their oral language expression. Design of the Study The basic design of this study is a one group pre- test/posttest type. The procedures to be utilized will focus on the development of each student's reading abili— ties, language abilities and communication skills. Visual literacy materials including select wordless picture books and non—narrated films will be used as a basis for the de— velopment of students' abilities in oral and written ex- pression and their reading vocabulary and comprehension. Alternate forms of the California Reading Test will be administered as pre and posttest. The Auburn Reading Attitude Scale will be administered as a pre and post mea— sure. Pre and post written samples will be collected and compared, as will transcribed oral samples. The Kellogg Hunt T Unit will be used along with total words as a mea- sure of the students' written and oral increases. Definitions of Terms Visual Literapy Visual literacy is a set of abilities to see, dis- criminate among and interpret observable actions, pictures, 21 picture sequences, objects or symbols. The process involves the development of skills in literal interpretive and criti- cal thinking. T Unit Minimal terminal units which are grammatically cap- able of being terminated with a capital letter and a period. This measure is similar to simple sentences. The concept differs from sentences because the compound and complex sentences are broken up. Run on sentences are also separ— ated. Language Experience Approach The language experience approach is a type of in- struction in which a child's reading material is based on his written language and the oral language which is re— corded in written form. This includes writings and trans- cribed stories by other students in the class. Remedial Reader Remedial reader as used in this study is a student of normal intelligence who for any of a number of reasons is a year or more behind his grade expectancy level in skills or word recognition and/or comprehension. Normal Intelligence Normal intelligence includes those students who score within the range of ninety to one hundred on the Lorge 22 Thorndike Intelligence test or the Weschler Intelligence Scale for children. ReadingiExpectancy Reading expectancy is the extent to which a child might grow from one level to another in reading facility under favorable circumstances. The level of reading ex- pectancy is computed by multiplying a child's IQ by the number of years he has been in school and adding one. This gives a grade level which can be compared with the child's reading achievement grade score. The formula for the com- putation of grade expectancy as described above is as fol— lows: IQ x years in school + 1.0 = grade expectancy. Examples.--A student with an IQ of niney at the start of fourth grade has been in school three years. The IQ of 90 indicated as .90. Computation (.90 x 3 years) + 1.0 = 3.7 grade expectancy. For a student with an IQ of 100 at the middle of fourth grade (3.5) years in school. Computation (1.00 x 3.5) + l = 4.5 grade expectancy. Wordless Picture Books Wordless picture books are those books consisting of a sequence of illustrations which tell a story without the use of a verbal text. 23 Non-narrated Films Non—narrated films are motion pictures which may have background music but with no verbal sound track. Word Bank A collection of vocabulary words which an individ— ual student keeps on file cards. These are words that a student wants to learn to spell or desires to use more ac- curately. Facility in Writing As used in this study facility in writing consists of increase in the students' total written words, T Units and words per T Unit. Fluency in Oral Language As used in this study fluency in oral language in— dicates an increase in students' total words, T units and words per T Unit, used in an oral language sample. Cloze Procedure A process in which a word is left out of a sentence. The student must use the context of the sentence to deter- mine what word or words will make sense in the sentence. Overview Chapter I began with a statement of the problem. The focus of this research project was on the development 24 of participating students oral and written language abili- ties, and their reading abilities through the use of visual literacy materials and the language experience approach to reading. The educational implications for the study and back- ground information deemed relevant to this study were pre— sented. An overview of literature focusing on the language experience approach to reading and on visual literacy was then developed. The hypotheses of this investigation were: 1. Visual literacy materials used in the lan- guage experience approach to reading will result in growth in reading facility. 2. There will be greater facility in oral ex— pression as a result of using visual liter- acy materials within the language experience approach to reading. 3. There will be greater facility in written expression as'a result of using visual lit— eracy materials within the language experi- ence approach to reading. 4. There will be increase in participants' pos- itive attitudes toward reading. Explanations of the hypotheses indicated the types of skills and attitudes which were expected to be developed 25 through the use of visual literacy materials and the lan- guage experience approach to reading. The assumptions relating to this research project were presented. Basic procedures of the study were pre— sented in the design of the study. A definition of terms concluded Chapter I. In Chapter II a review of research and related lit- erature is presented. The focus is on three areas of re- search and literature. The first area of related litera- ture is that which pertains to oral language as it relates to reading. Literature containing information and research utilizing the language experience approach to reading is presented next. The third area of literature reviewed is visual literacy. The findings of the pilot study are presented in Chapter III. Information on the selection of students and the procedure of this investigation are indicated. Finally Chapter III is concluded with a delineation of the design of the study. The data compilations of this investigation are in— cluded in Chapter IV concurrent with analyses of data. The data collected consist of participants pre and post scores on: the California Reading Test and the Auburn Reading At- titude Survey. Samples of the participants' oral and writ- ten language based on wordless picture books and non—narrated films were also collected as pre and post measures. 26 Conclusions, a summary and recommendations for fur- ther research are presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE This researcher has identified three basic areas of research and related literature which he deems relevant to this research study. These three areas are: (a) Oral lan- gpage as it relates to reading, (b) the language experience approach to readipg and (0) visual literacy in reading in- struction and other areas of communication. Oral language is important to this study because oral language development is included as an important aspect of language development which provides a base for children's reading development. If a student is going to be able to develop his reading abilities to the fullest extent, he must develop understand— ings for many words, understandings for multiple meanings of words, abilities to use context and increased understand- ings of materials which are read on literal, inferential and critical levels. Through a firm base of oral language development increased understanding for words is made pos- ible. Further, oral language development makes it feasible for students to hear and use the language which will be the primary focus of their reading instruction. This basis for reading instruction is based on experiences which children have had. Children tend to learn most when the materials 27 28 to be learned are related to what they already know, at a level of difficulty which is challenging but not frustra- ting and based on the development of those skills which each individual needs. Fluency in oral language ability and a wide range of experiences give the students a strong background for future learnings. Without these backgrounds to build on, concept development and understandings of ideas are seriously restricted. The literature on the language experience approach to reading is important to this research because both the oral and written language of the participating students will serve as a basis for their reading materials. Further, the written form of participants' oral language and their written language will be used for their reading development. Visual literacy materials in the form of wordless picture books and non-narrated films were used as a basis for stu— dents' languaging and reading development. Thus, the stu- dent is dealing with pictures, a means of communication which has been and continues to be an elementary and impor— tant means of communication. These visual literacy materials make possible the quing of cognitive, affective and psy- chomotor elements within the reading program. Studies which relate to oral language and reading were included in this review. These studies were included because one of the focuses of this research project was oral language development as it relates to the language experi- ence approach to reading. 29 The second area of research and related literature previewed was significant programs utilizing the language experience approach. This review was important in estab- lishing a rationale for the use of the language experience as an element of this study. Visual literacy research in reading instruction and other areas of communication and related literature is in— cluded in the final section of this chapter. The review of visual literacy materials was important to this study since wordless picture books and non-narrated films were to be used as a basis for participants oral and written language experession and their reading development. Review of the Literature Oral Language Research Adequate development of oral language is important as a basis for development of reading abilities. Studies cited in this section of Chapter II support this important relationship between oral language and reading. Two major studies which lend support to the close relationship between oral language and reading were con— ducted by Strickland and Loban. StricklandzO analyzed the oral language structure of students in grades one through six. Participants were 20Ruth G. Strickland, "The Language of Elementary School Children: Its Relationship to the Language of Read- 30 selected randomly from 3,801 students in sixteen public schools. There were approximately one hundred students from each grade except fourth grade which had only about seventy-five students. Syntactic structures of sentences, frequency of occurrence of certain patterns of syntax, amounts and kinds of subordination, length of sentences, flow of language within the student's oral language were compared with that found in text books at each grade level. Texts were analyzed for occurrence of patterns used by children. She concluded that (1) children at all grade levels used a wide range of language, (2) certain patterns which children use with great frequency appear to be basic build- ing blocks and (3) students' oral language patterns are more varied than patterns found in basal readers even though some congruence between the two is desirable. -A major strength of Strickland's study was the ana- lytical manner in which she systematically looked at the oral language used by children. A finding of Strickland's study which is particularly significant in relation to this research project was the varied oral language patterns of students as compared with the more limited language patterns used in the basal readers. ing Textbooks and the Quality of Reading of Selected child- ren," Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 4, 1962. 31 Loban21 carried out a seven year longitudinal study of children's reading and writing. Three hundred thirty eight subjects were chosen from eleven kindergarten classes. Data were collected concerning (a) their vocabulary, (b) their use of oral and written language, (0) their profici- ency in reading and listening, (d) teachers' judgments of their skill with language, (e) background information on their health and homes. The data was collected on these students through the sixth grade. Loban concluded that students who are high in gen- eral language ability are also high in reading ability. Those who are low in general language ability are also low in reading ability. The gap between the high and the low groups is apparently widening from year to year. An important aspect of Loban's investigation was that his study was a seven year longitudinal study of child- ren's reading and writing with data collection on the three hundred thirty eight subjects from the start of first grade through the end of grade six. An implication based on L0— ban's study which is of particular value to the study of this researcher is Loban's conclusion that there is a high degree of positive correlation between students' oral lan- guage abilities and their reading abilities. 21Walter D. Loban, The Language of Elementary School Children, NCTE Research Report No. 1, National Council of Teachers of English, Champaign, Illinois, 1963. 32 A study Ruddellz2 conducted relates to those com— pleted by Strickland and Loban. Ruddell's investigation went a step further to determine the effect of oral and written language patterns on reading comprehension. Rud- dell prepared six reading passages. Three of the passages consisted of language patterns which occurred with high frequency in children's oral language patterns. The re- maining three passages were constructed by the use of lan- guage patterns which rarely occurred in children's oral language. The similarity of the oral and written language was derived by assigning the empirically determined fre— quency of the oral language patterns of fourth grade child- ren to identical written patterns of language structure in a reading passage and totaling the assigned frequency val- ues based on Strickland's data. Difficulty of sentences were equated by using the Dale-Chall readability formula. Cloze comprehension tests were constructed for each of the reading passages by deleting the fifth word from the be- ginning of each reading passage and every fifth running word. This comprehension test was administered to one hundred thirty—one of one hundred forty randomly selected fourth graders. Ruddell concluded that reading comprehen- sion is a function of the similarity of patterns of struc- 22Robert B. Ruddell, An Investigation of the Effects of Oral and Written Patterns of Language Structure on Read- ing Comprehension, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Ind- iana, 1963. 33 ture in reading material and the oral language structure used by children. Comprehension increased as the patterns of written language more closely resemble the oral lan— guage structure of the students. A significant aspect of Ruddell's study was the systematic manner in which be constructed the reading pas- sages. Ruddell's study was important to this investiga- tion because of his conclusion that comprehension increases as the language patterns more closely parallel students' oral language patterns. A study by Angeloz3 was designed to investigate oral language performance of fifty-four fourth grade stu- dents through analysis of sentence structures and func- tions. The difference between the language performance of the fifty-four fourth grade students, ten third grade stu- dents and ten fifth grade students was compared. Groups were equated on the basis of age, sex and intelligence. Parents' occupations were classified for the fourth grade students based on the Minnesota Scale for Paternal Occupa— tions. This researcher questions Angelo's process of col- lecting oral language samples. Angelo indicates that stu— dents were encouraged to use an outline or notes on non- fictional material. These prepared outlines would tend to 23Anthoney Richard Angelo, A Descriptive Study of the Oral Language Performance of Fourth Grade Children. A doctoral dissertation, Boston University School of Educa- tion, 1971. 34 make Angelo's study of oral language become clouded with aspects of written language thus making his study something other than merely a study of oral language. The language samples were tape recorded, transcribed and then analyzed. Hunt's T-Units were used to analyze the samples. An im- portant finding of the study was that the fourth grade students whose parents were classed in the unskilled group used longer T-Units and had more T-Units containing less than nine words than did either of the fourth grade stu— dents whose parents were classed as professional or semi- professional. Angelo seems to overgeneralize when he in- dicates that there is minimal language accomplishment be— tween grades three and four but much more growth in language performance of fifth grade students. Growth in language de— velopment was not the focus of his study. Had this been the intent it would have seemed logical to follow the same students through the third, fourth and fifth grades. The importance of Angelo's study to this researcher was the use of Hunt's T-Units in analysis of the language samples. Cohen's24 study focused on cognitive and affective involvement of students with a variety of vocabulary and experiences found in children's literature. Twenty second grade classes were divided between experimental and control groups. The exposure of the experimental group to selected 24Dorothy H. Cohen, op. cit. 35 literature was designed to counteract inadequate oral lan- guage through the increase of students' vocabularies and improvement in reading. Teachers in the experimental group read a selection each day from a collection of fifty books and these books were made available to the students. Tests used were a free association vocabulary test, and the Metropolitan Reading Achievement Test, Upper Primary level. The number of different words students used were counted and quality points were assigned each word according to its frequency rating for grade two in Rinsland's Basic Vocabulary of Ele- mentary Children. The findings were that the experimental group had an increase over the control group in vocabulary, word knowledge, and reading comprehension. Conclusions were that: reading to children from selected literature as a means to reading success was important to socially disad- vantaged children, and there was substantiation of the re— lationship existing between oral language and reading. The importance of the relationship between oral language and reading related to this study since oral language was to be used as a basis for students' language development and their reading experiences. A study which further strengthens the use of stu— dents' language as a basis for their reading material was 36 that of Packer.25 Students' key vocabularies were compared with the vocabulary words in the basal texts of pre-primers and primers of four basal series. Packer concluded that there is a significant difference between vocabulary which is meaningful to culturally disadvantaged students and words which are included in basal readers. A study to determine the effectiveness of using ex- perience charts with twenty six first graders selected from a predominately black inner-urban, economically disadvan- taged community was initiated by Brazziel and Terrell.26 Experimental and control groups were used. At the conclu— sion of the six week program the researchers concluded that experience charts used in connectionwith other readi— ness acitivites provided meaningful reading. The experi- mental group scored higher on the Metropolitan Readiness test than did the control group. A major weakness of the Brazziel, Terrell study was the short term during which the study was conducted. The relevance of the study to that of this researcher was their use of the students' oral language as a means of developing reading materials for those students. 25Athol Packer, "Ashton Warner's Key Vocabulary for Disadvantaged,” The Reading Teacher, Vol. XXIII, No. 6 (March, 1970), pp. 559-564. 26William F. Brazziel, and Marry Terrell, ”For First Graders; A Good Start in School," Elementary School Journal. Vol. VIII (April, 1962), pp. 352-355. 37 Language Experience Research No studies which utilized the language experience approach as a basis for the development of the reading abil- ities of students classed as remedial readers were identi- fied by this researcher. However, studies which focus on the language experience approach as used in developmental reading programs have been identified. These studies and their findings have important implications which related to the study of this researcher because the language exper- ience approach to reading begins with individual students at the point they are found in language development. It is important for all students that learning take place on a level commensurate with their abilities. This individuali- zation is particularly needed for students in remedial read- ing programs. Studies which are supportive of the language exper- ience approach to teaching developmental reading are those by Allen, Stauffer, and Stauffer, and Hammond. Allen's27 study compared three approaches to teaching reading; namely, basic reading approach, the individualized, and the language experience approach. The basic reading groups were to fol- low directions given in the teachers' supplementary texts. The students in the individualized approach group read books of their own choice with teachers providing skill 27Allen and San Diego Public Schools, op. cit. 38 instruction as needed. The language experience approach groups concentrated on reading their written language for the duration of the study. Allen concluded that children in the language experience classrooms made as much or more progress in reading skill development as did the children in either the basic or individualized reading approaches. An important component of Allen's study was the comparison of randomly selected students who participated in one of three approaches to reading. Allen's finding that children who participated in the language experience approach group made as much or more progress in reading skill development as did children in the other groups was important to this research study. The purpose of Stauffer's study was to compare a language arts approach to beginning reading instruction with a basic reader approach for the same grade level. The oral language, writings, dictations and creative writ— ings were used to teach reading. Word attack training was initiated from the beginning based on words from the child— ren's spoken and written vocabulary. As soon as these children could read at the first grade level reading, time was divided equally between group instruction using basic readers and individualized reading using self-selection from a library. 28Stauffer, op. cit. 39 The teachers of the control group were instructed to follow directons outlined in the teacher's manual of the reader series. Students of both groups received one hundred forty days of teaching. Stauffer concluded that: l. The language arts group scored significantly higher on tests of word reading, paragraph meaning. 2. On word study skills and vocabulary tests stu- dents were equal. 3. The language arts approach produced good oral readers. 4. Pupils taught by the language arts approach are apt to have better word recognition skills. 5. The language arts approach is an effective way of teaching reading. This researcher questioned Stauffer's placement of the language arts group as soon as they had reached grade level one with equal time spent on basal reading and indi- vidualized reading. This practice would tend to minimize the difference in the experiences of the experimental group and those of the control group. Further this overshadows Stauffer's conclusions by making his findings of lesser strength. Stauffer's finding that the language arts group scored significantly higher on a test of word reading and paragraph meaning is significant to the study of this re- searcher. 40 The Stauffer—Hammond29 study was a follow-up study extending language arts and basal reader approaches into grade two. A variety of pretests were administered to ran- domly selected individuals. A different set of posttests were administered to these individuals. There were two hundred six subjects in the experimental group and one hundred eighty three in the control group. The only post— tests given to all subjects in both groups were The Stan- ford Achievement Test, an Attitude Inventory and Reading Interest Scale. The researchers concluded that: l. The language arts group was reading signifi- cantly better at the end of grade two than were students in the control group.v 2. Language arts approach fosters greater interest in reading than does the basal reader. 3. Reading accuracy and rate of language arts group was greater than that of basal reader group. 4. Language arts fosters greater facility in word recognition than does the basal reader approach. 5. Both approaches are effective but the language arts approach is more effective. 29Russell G. Stauffer and W. Dorsey Hammond, "The Effectiveness of the Language Arts and Basic Reader Approach— es to First Grade Reading Instruction--Extended into the Second Grade," The Readinngeacher, Vol. XX, No. 8 (May, 1967), pp. 704-746. 41 A weakness in the Stauffer-Hammond study was the use of different sets of pre and post tests. Use of alter— nate forms of the same test set would have strengthened their study. The significance of the findings of the Stauffer-Hammond study was the support for the value of the language arts approach in strengthening word recogni— tion and reading comprehension abilities of students. Of further importance to the study of this researcher was the conclusion of Stauffer and Hammond that the language arts approach fosters greater interest in reading than does the basal reader approach. Studies which found no significant difference be- tween language arts approaches to reading and other approach— es were conducted by Kendrick and Hahn. Kendrick's30 study compared four first grade classes using experimental and control groups. The experiemental groups used the language arts approach. The control groups were taught by tradition- al methods using basal readers. The Stanford Achievement Test was given to measure reading growth. No significant difference was found to favor either group. Kendrick had similar findings on extending the study into second grade. The implications of Kendrick's study were that the language arts approach was of no lesser worth in teaching reading 30William Kendrick, "A Comparative Study of Two First Grade Language Arts Programs," The ReadinggTeacher, Vol. XX, No. 1 (October, 1966), pp. 25-30. 42 than the traditional basal reader approach. Hahn's31 ex— perimental study compared ita, language arts and basal reader approaches to reading. Groups taught by ita used texts based on the in- structional teaching alphabet, the language arts approach was based on children writing their own stories to read. The basal reading group followed instructions in the teach- er manual. The Stanford Achievement test was administered and it was concluded that students taught by ita or lan— guage arts approach were significantly stronger on the Word reading subtest. No significant difference was found in comprehension. The implication of Hahn's study is that the language arts approach to reading was as valuable as ita or the basal reader approach. Two studies which tend to Support the use of the language experience approach are those of Giles and a study by Kendrick and Bennet. Giles32 investigated the oral lan- guage development of two first grade classes instructed by the language experience approach with two classes that used the basal approach. Conclusions were that the language 31H. T. Hahn, "Three Approaches to Beginning Read- ing Instruction: ITA, Language Arts and Basic Reader," The Reading Teacher, Vol. XIX, No. 8 (May, 1966), pp. 590- 594. 32Douglas E. Giles, The Effect of Two Approaches to_Reading Instruction Upon the Oral Language Development of First Grade Pupils, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1966. 43 experience children made greater gains in oral language than did the basal group. The advantage of the language experience approach was greatest for boys. An important aspect of Giles' study was his com- parison of the gains made in oral language by students participating in the language experience approach to read- . ing and those participating in the basal reader approach. His findings that the language experience students made greater gains in oral language than did students in the basal reader group lends support to the investigation of this researcher for the hypothesis that there will be sig- nificant growth in participants oral language development. Kendrik and Bennet33 found that when they compared groups of second grade students using the language experi- ence approach with those groups using the basal reader. The conclusions for total groups indicated no significant difference between the two groups in reading achievement. It was found that the lower socioeconomic boys who parti- cipated in the language experience approach achieved better than those in the basal groups. While Kendrick and Bennet found no significant differences between the groups which used the language experience approach and those which used the basal reader approach an important finding was that 33William Kendrik, and Clayton, Bennet, "A Compar- ative Study of Two First Grade Language Arts Programs Ex- tended Into Second Grade," The Reading Teacher, Vol. XX, No. 8 (May, 1967), pp. 747-755. 44 lower socioeconomic boys who participated in the language experience approach achieved better than those in the basal reader approach. This finding is particularly relevant to the study of this researcher since a significant portion of the remedial readers identified were boys. A study which supports the use of audio—visual material in conjunction with the language experience ap- proach was the CRAFT Project by Harris and Sewer.34 These researchers used four groups: 1. A basal skill centered group which adhered closely to basal manuals. 2. A phone-visual method skill centered basal approach group. 3. A language experience approach group. 4. A language experience approach group with a strong supplemental audio-visual program. Harris and Sewer added new dimensions to their project be- cause they compared not only basal and language experience groups but also phono-visual and language experience with supportive use of audio-visuals. The reading achievement of the basal group was indicated as making slightly more progress than the other groups. The language experience group with supplemental auido-visual matched the skill 34Albert J. Harris, and Blanche, Sewer, "Comparing Reading Approaches in First Grade Teaching with Culturally Disadvantaged Children," The Reading Teacher, Vol. XX, No. 8 (May, 1967), pp. 631-635. 45 centered group using phone-visual methods and exceeded the group using the language experience approach, alone. This finding supports the use of visuals as a part of this re- searcher's study. The studies of Hall and Lamb relate the use of the language experience approach with disadvantaged students. Hall35 investigated the language experience approach com— pared with basal approaches in a predominantly black com- munity. There were five experimental groups and five con— trol. At the conclusion of the study significant gains on reading readiness and word recognition on standardized tests were reported favoring the experimental group of language experience over the control. The language exper— ience students also made the greater gains in sentence reading ability. Hall's study gives added support to the value of using the language experience approach particu- larly among students with language patterns which differ from the language patterns used in basal readers. 36 Lamb utilized the language experience approach with five first grade classes in comparison with five ‘ 35Mary Anne Hall, The Development and Evaluation of a Language Experience Approach to Reading with First Grade Culturally Disadvantaged Children, an unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, 1965. 36Pose Lamb, The Language Experience Approach to Teaching Beginning Reading to Culturally Disadvantaged Pupils. Final Project Report Office of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D. C. 1971. 46 control groups of students using basal readers. She found no significant differences between the experimental and control group in reading achievement and attitude as mea- sured by the California Reading Test and the Primary Pupil Reading Attitude Inventory. The significance of Lamb's study was the use of the California Reading Test which is a standardized reading test identified for use as pre and post tests by this researcher. The language experience approach to reading incor- porates the major goals of reading which include develop- ing interest in reading, extending vocabulary and promoting competencies in word analysis and insightful comprehension. Capitalizing on the uniqueness of each individual, the language experience approach begins where the student is in language development and extends this language develop- ment through relevant experiences. This researcher has identified literature based on the language experience approach which is not research 37 cites but is deemed important to such research. Hall three categories of language information which all readers draw on in the processing of written information. The three categories are (1) information based on the writing and phonological structure or graphoponic information, 37Mary Anne Hall, An Effecpive Language Eaperience Approach, paper presented at the 17th annual convention of the International Reading Association, 1972. 47 (2) information based on the grammatical structures of lan- guage which is the syntactics of language and (3) informa- tion based on meaning and concepts with printed symbols known as the semantics of language. These three processes are incorporated effectively in the development of students' reading abilities through the language experience approach. The child is a user of language38 therefore reading and writing should be based in speaking. These acts should stem from children's in- terests and things they desire to talk about. Quality of a student's written language will closely parallel the Quality of his oral language.39 Not only should students who lack skill in verbal abilities have many chances to express themselves orally but there should also be oppor- tunities to transfer these expressions into reading and writing. This is indicated by Loban4O and Suslakoski.41 38Kenneth Goodman, "Reading, The Key Is The Child- ren's Language," The Reading Teacher, Vol. XXV, No. 6 (March, 1972), pp. 505-508. 39Alvina Burrows, Dorris Jackson, Dorothy Saunders, They All Want to Write. Written English in the Elementary School. (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1974). 40Walter Loban, "Oral Language and Earning," Oral Language and Reading, James Walden, Editor. (Urbana, Illi- nois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1969), pp. 101-112. 41Henry J. Suslakowski, "Some Contributions of Lin- guistic Science to the Teaching of Reading,” Oral Language and Readipg, James Walden, Editor. (Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1969), pp. 49-74. 48 Lee and Allen,42 Ashton-Warner, 43 and Stauffer,44 have in- dicated the strength of the language experience approach in reaching children. Psychologically the language experi- ence approach is effective because it is firmly rooted in familiar experiences. Linguistically it is a valuable ap- proach to use because attention is on language as a means of communication rather than a focus centering on small segments of language which may be limited in scope of mean- ing because it lacks relation to the child's experiences.45 In the language experience approach there is less need to ascertain the child's understanding of words since these words have emerged from his listening-speaking experiences.46 Reed says most linguistics are in agreement that basal reader presentations of new vocabulary words have been too rigid and highly structured. They have made the process 42Doris Lee and R. V. Allen, Learning to Read Throagh Experience (New York, Appleton Century Crofts, 1963). 43Sylvia Ashton-Warner, Teacher (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963). 44Russell G. Stauffer, The Language Experience Ap- pgoach to the Teaching of Readipg (New York: Harper and Row, 1970). 45Mary Anne Hall, The Language Experience Approach for the Culturally Disadvantaged, International Reading Association, Newark, Delaware, 1972. 463am Shohen, "A Language Experience Approach to Reading Instruction," Views on Elementary Reading, Thomas Barret and Dale Johnson, Editors. International Reading Instruction, Newark, Delaware, 1973, pp. 43-48. 49 of attaining new words repetitious and boring.47 According to Kress and Johnson,48 children who share experience through oral language come to appreciate language and its many values. They learn to think and fol- low the thinking of others. Personal experiences are im- portant sources for a child's language development. This finding was based on their personal observations of and associations with children. Thorn49 further supports the need for experiences to build a functional vocabulary. A classroom should pro- vide an abundance of experiences. Vocabulary develops from ideas stemming from one's experiences. New ideas are par- ticularly stimulating to communication. The teacher en- courages discussion and provides new words as well as clar- ifying points of misunderstanding. 50 Allen says that since the materials used in the language expereince approach are closely related to the 47David W. Reed, "Linguistics and Reading, Once More," Oral Language and Reading, edited by James Walden (Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of Eng— lish, 1967), pp. 75-88. 48Marjorie Johnson and Roy Kress, The Reading Teacher, Vol XXI, No. 7 (April, 1968), p. 610. 49Elizabeth Thorn, "Language Experience Approach," The Reading Teacher, Vol XXII, No. 1 (October, 1965) p. 5. 50R. V. Allen, "How a Language Experience Program Worksf'A Decade of Innovations: Approaches to Beginning Reading, IRA Convention Proceedings, Vol. XII, pt. 3 (Newark, Delaware: 1968), p. 5. 50 student's experiences the use of context clues is made simpler for him. The student's written language serves as a basis for teaching principles of phonics and word struc- ture. I Vilscek51 indicates that instruction through the language experience approach should be systematic. Reason- able and appropriate goals for each individual should be established. Evaluation should be objective, continuous, and should serve as a basis for what is taught. Visual Literacy Research The use of visual media makes it possible for stu- dents to vicariously experience their world and to associ- ate this experience with the storehouse of experiences which they have had. These visual experiences are strength- ened as students talk and write about them. Free choice of reading is possible as students select stories to read from their own writing and dictations along with those of other students. During the years since 1969 there has been increas- ing interest among educators in the use of visual literacy as it relates to education. To date there is a limited amount of related research based on visual literacy. A 51E. C. Vilscek, "What Research has Shown about the Language Experience Program" A Decade of Innovations: A - pgoaches to beginninngeading, IRA Convention Proceedings, Vol. XII, pt. 3, Newark, Delaware, 1968, pp. 9—23. 51 study which was designed to assess the relationship of vary- ing visuals on undergraduate student learning of medical concepts was one designed by Dwyer.52 He conducted a study comparing the presentation of information with no illustra- tions to that with varying degrees of illustrations: in black and white, abstract line illustrations in color, de- tailed shaded drawings in black and white, detailed shaded drawings in color, photograph of a heart model in black and white, photograph of heart model in color, realistic photo- graphs in black and white, and realistic photographs in color. Students were given five tests: a drawing test, identification test, terminology test, comprehension test, and total criterion test. Dwyer concluded that: types of visual illustrations vary in their ability to promote stu- dent achievement, color is important in increasing learning for some students, effectiveness of a visual is determined in part by the time students are allowed to interact with it, a given type of visual may not be appropriate at all grade levels. Dwyer's design for his study was significant in contributing to an understanding of how gradation from no illustrations to realistic photographs in color effect understandings of concepts presented. Another strength of Dwyer's research was his thorough and carefully designed 52 Francis M. Dwyer, "Visual Learning--A Critical Analysis," Proceedings of the First National Conference on Visual Literacy, Clarence M. Williams and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1970), pp. 92-96. 52 testing program. Of particular relevance to the study of this researcher was the conclusion of Dwyer's study that illustrations promote the learning of concepts. Substantiating Dwyer's study which highlighted the use of visuals for learning is a study carried out by Raven and Strubing53 who found that training on directly related visual materials and training on indirectly related visual materials significantly improved learning on a science unit for second graders. The study by Raven and Strubing was valuable because it focused on the use of visuals to pro- mote learning for early elementary students. Their find- ings have important implications for this researcher's study because of the indicated worth of visuals for concept development in early elementary education. Studies designed to gain insight into the value of using pictures as a means to learn words were investigations 54 used by Deno and by Bouisseau, Davis and Yamamoto. Deno verbal and pictorial symbols in observing processes which undergird perception. He found that pictures used with undergraduate students generally are an aid to learning the verbal symbol that the picture represents. Deno's study was important because the conclusion based on it indicated 53Ronald Raven and Herbert Strubing, "The Effect of Visual Perceptual Units on Achievement in a Science Unit: Aptitudinal and Substantive Transfer in Second Grade Children,” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 111 (May, 1968), pp. 333-342. 54Deno, Op. cit. 53 an important connection between a visual or pictorial rep— resentation of a word and a graphic representation making up the word itself. Bourisseau, Davis and Yamamoto,55 sampled associations for verbal symbols, visual represen- tations and combinations of the two as indicated by ele- mentary school children. The reported findings were that visual representations were superior to verbal symbols in evoking specific, concrete responses. A greater number of sensory responses were elicited by the use of words alone. The implications of the study by Bourisseau, Davis and Yamamoto support the concreteness of responses to pictures as compared with verbal symbols which elicit more abstract associations. Anderson56 investigated the presentation of state- ments which were presented in various media. These state- ments were equated in difficulty level and nature of con- tent. It was evidenced that each media used stimulated different connotative meanings. Anderson's study had im- plications for the study of this researcher. It was ex- pected that participants' verbal responses to wordless picture books will differ from their verbal responses to non-narrated films. 55Bourisseau, Davis and Yamamoto, op. cit. 56James A. Anderson, "Equivalence of Meaning Among Statements Presented Through Various Media," Audio-visual Communications Review, Vol. XIV, No. 4 (Winter, 1966), pp. 499-505. 54 Studies by Strandberg and Griffith, and by LaPolt support the reinforcement of sequential learning through the use of visuals. Strandberg and Griffith57 con- ducted a study with thirty children ages four and five years using pictures of their homes. An experimental group was given special training in visual sequential activities. A control group was used which did not receive training in visual sequential activities. The language measure of the experimental group was compared with that of the control group. Greater grammatical complexity in language was found in the experimental group when compared with the control group. They concluded that training in sequencing does have an effect on the length and complexity of the language a child uses to describe his pictures. The study by Strandberg and Griffith is supportive of the use of se— quentially arranged pictures by this researcher to develop and strengthen students' uses of language. An action research study which supports the use of visuals as a basis for students' writing is a study con- ducted by La Polt.58 A select group of pupils that had just completed first and second grade were the subjects for an experiment in teaching Visual and written sequencing. Four groups were set up. Group A used Photo Story Discovery 57Strandberg and Griffith, op. cit. 58La Polt, op. cit. 55 Sets to give practice in story arranging. The camera was introduced for them to photograph a sequence of events and tell a story. In group B each team had two or three stu- dents. The teacher outlined procedures for the groups to follow. Each team had to plan a story based on twelve pictures. Group C investigated the effect of photo se- quencing on writing. Pupils wrote, then worked with Photo Story Discovery Sets. Finally students selected topics, shot pictures and organized. Group D was more unstructured than the other groups. As soon as students had planned their own stories they could take necessary pictures. La Polt concluded that when youngsters planned a story based on photos that they had taken themselves the happenings in those stories increased in number. These students' materials were not only more descriptive but there was also less difficulty with sentence and par- agraph structure than students had previously experienced. This study was important because it adds to the findings of the value of visuals for language development. Further, use was made of these visual literacy materials to devel- op students' reading abilities based on their verbal abili- ties. Two studies which utilized student-made media as a means of developing students' visual abilities and related verbal abilities are those of Fransecky, and 56 59 conducted a six week Fransecky and Ferguson. Fransecky research demonstration project based on a migrant popula- tion of one hundred first, second and third grade students with fifty students in the experimental and fifty in the control group. The questions which the study sought an— sers for were: (1) Can a student use a camera to record and convey his environmental experiences? (2) Will a stu- dent's experiences in visual literacy help a student gain meaningful perception of the world around him? (3) Can experiences in visual literacy help students transfer from visual organizaton and recognition of visual patterns to more traditional verbal skills? The conclusion was that visual literacy was a valuable reinforcement to strengthen students' understandings of environments. The experimental group made significantly more progress in reading growth as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test. This study was important because it adds to findings of the value of visuals for language development. Further, use was made of these visual literacy materials to develop students' reading abilities based on their visual and verbal abilities. Fransecky and Ferguson60 conducted a long term project entitled The Milford Visual Communications Project. 59Roger B. Fransecky, Visual Literacy and Teach— ing Migrant Youth, Genesco Center for Migrant Studies, State University of New York, 1972. 60 Fransecky and Ferguson, op. cit. 57 This project involved students in grades K-12 in a series of visual and verbal language development experiences. The program consisted of five separate but interelated phases. The following is an outline of those phases: (1) visual awareness and development of ability to communicate visual perception, (2) Dealing with more complex visual elements and communicating these ideas to others, (3) developing awareness of positive and negative effects of sound on visual information, (4) developing skill with the use of hardware used in producing visual literacy materials along with the awareness of potentials and limitations of these hardware and (5) refining and synthesizing visual/verbal skills which have been learned. I Findings indicated that: (l) the addition of visual literacy activities enhanced the classroom educa- tional program by aiding students in the expansion and in- tegration of their cognitive, visual and verbal abilities in a new and valuable way, (2) connections between language arts skills and those of visual literacy can serve to re- inforce development of increased abilities in both areas of learning. Fransecky and Ferguson's study was carefully organized and systematically carried out over a long term which adds strength to the findings of their study. The implication which is relevant to the study of this research— er is the strength of visuals to reinforce verbal learning. 58 Research which seems to support the use of visuals for below average students is Gropper's61 investi— gation which was concerned first with visuals used to teach concepts either preceding or following a verbal les- son, secondly visual and verbal lessons were divided into small segments-~each segment devoted to a few concepts. The learning material was programmed. There were two groups of students. One group of students were active performers; the others were passive observers. The les- sons were basic science concepts. Gropper concluded that above average students seem to profit more from verbal presentations while below average students profit more from the visual presentation and responses to them. Gropper's finding that visuals are important elements in the process of teaching concepts to below average students is significant to the study of this researcher since this study will focus on remedial readers. This researcher had identified relevant discus- sions about visual literacy. Visual and verbal parallels are directly related to this research in the use of visual literacy materials as a basis for oral and written language. Debes states that it is his opinion that there are visual rhymes, visual puns, visual metaphors, and 61George L. Gropper, "Learning from Visual: Some Behavioral Consideration," AV Communication Review, Vol. XIV (Spring, 1966), pp. 37-69. la: ‘31 «\s. n u unis flux. \ h...\£.lu. «)1». h..\ r P» HQ . n 14 mud .n l. . u“ a... p .u {c r U4 59 possibly a visual counterpart for nearly every aspect of the verbal model.62 Guerin63 defines visual and verbal literacy as an extention of reality. The real object differs from the symbol. Verbal literacy is arbitrary and must be learned. The visual model offers cues to verbal meaning. Dworkin's64 opinion is that visual literacy de- mands as much intelligence and clarity of thought as does verbal literacy. The types of visuals used may make a difference as to the message conveyed. Kinder65 suggests the following criteria be used in the selection of visuals. Authenticity of subject and simplicity of arrangement make possible clear understanding. Relative size comparable to a familiar object allows for a 62John L. Debes, "The Loom of Visual Literacy-- An Overview," Procedings of the First National Conference on Visual Literacy, Clarence M. Williams and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1970), pp. 1-16. 63David Guerin, "Extensionality and Symbology," Procedings of the First National Conference on Visual Lit— eracy, Clarence M. Williams and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1970), p. 56. 64Martin S. Dworkin, "Towards an Image Curricu- lum: Some Questions and Cautions," Proceedings of the First National Conference on Visual Literacy, Clarence M. Williams and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1970), p. 130. 65James S. Kinder, Using Audio Visual Materials in Education (New York: American Book Company, 1965), pp. 33-34. 60 means of understanding size of new objects. Action indi- cating scenes and artistry provide interest in visuals. Photography carefully considered and controlled maximizes the degree of meaning conveyed. There are varying levels of ability in reading visuals. Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad66 suggests three levels; namely, recognizing and naming particular objects in the picture, determining and describing picture details and inferring past, present and future action in relation to the picture. Williams67 adds three more points: grasping im- portance of more points, adding imaginative elements, en- gaging in further activities related to the picture. In support of the visual literacy movement it is indicated that we are moving to visual education based on unity and organization. We are increasingly aware of the effects and strengths of visual imagery. The outer world of visual reality and the inner world of the affective closely relate in the provision of a foundation for creative learning. As a person develops visual liter- acy skills his experiences become more meaningful. 66Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad, op. cit. 67Catherine M. Williams, Learning from Pictures (Washington, D. C.: Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association, 1963). 61 One article by Geraci relates to visual and verbal development. Psychologists seem to agree that if there is a visual vocabulary it develops before the verbal. Child- ren observe a sequence of visual events and are able to interpret it.68 Regarding the use of visual literacy in the schools two opinions seem relevant. Culkin69 says too often schools give up on students who have problems rather than using visual media to stimulate their learning. Motion pictures seem relevant to education because they deal with the affec- tive and with experiences. The uses of films center around the projection of the film, discussions and analysis of it. Films make available many images perceived in uniquely dif~ fering ways by varying people. Students are native citi— zens to the new visual environment. The students which teachers meet with in the schools of this decade have had multi-faceted experiences. Therefore they need experiences involving many of the senses and integrating more of the various educational disciplines. Because of the large bulk of visual information which members of our society are con- fronted with daily through television, movies, magazines 68John A. Geraci, "The Use of Photography Stimu- lates Visual Literacy," Proceedings of the First National Conference on Visual Literacy, Clarence M. Williams and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Pitman Publishing Corp— oration, l970), pp. 237-239. 69John M. Culkin, Films Deliver, Anthoney Schillaci and John M. Culkin, Editors (New York: Citation Press, 1970). 62 and advertisements, students need to be both visually and verbally literate.70 Fillion,71 Sleuner,72 and Goldman and Burnett,73 substantiate further the importance of developing students' abilities to deal with visual media. They indicate that our present day citizenry has as its primary source of in— formation images and visual representations. Reading of visual messages is parallel in importance to reading a printed pattern of language symbols. Lee74 considers the following ideas as important in providing experiences for children: 1. Types of experiences provided should provide for both width and depth of associations within the child's environment. 2. Experiences should increase and intensify a child's perceptions of his world. 3. Provide opportunities for free choice of reading 7OAlexia Case-Grant, Visual Literacy an Exciting Environmental Adventure (Richmond Virginia: Virginia Public Schools, 1973). ‘ 71Bryant Fillion, "Visual Literacy," The Clearing House, Vol XLVII, No. 5 (January, 1973), pp. 309—311. 72Fredrick Goldman and Linda Burnett, Need Johnpy Read (Dayton, Ohio: Pflaum, 1971). 73George Sleuner, "After the Book," The Future of Literacy, Robert Disch, Editor (Englewood Cliffs, New Jer— sey: Prentice Hall, Incorporated, 1973), pp. 145-159. 74 Lee, op. cit. 63 so that students can pursue their personal in— terests. Miller75 and Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad76 suggest that media should be included in the school curriculum in increasing roles because of its diversity and richness of content. Films can renew interest in learning for child- ren who have become indifferent to learning. These same children can then turn with a sparked interest to written language for broader learning. As Barley and Ball77 indi— cate visual media are among the best means of aiding stu— dents with low level verbal abilities with the learning process. Consider how models, illustrations, diagrams and pictures aid in simplifying understandings of concepts. Barley78 indicates that pictures arouse the recall of other sense awarenesses concurrent with the actual ex- periences that the pictures represent. Gardner79 purpots that iconic messages, such as television, motion pictures, and still pictures generally 75M611er, op. cit. 76Brown, Lewis and Harcleroad, op. cit. 77Barley, Steven D. and Ball, Richard. The Ele- phants of Visual Literacy (Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company, 1971). 78Steven Barley, Why Visual Sequence Should Come First (Canandaigna, New York: Gennessee Valley School Dev- elopment Association, 1969). 79Hugh C. Gardner, "Effective Classroom Communication," Aggiovisual Instruction, Vol XVII (November, 1972), pp. 23-24. (.3" (7‘4 '1' (f) 64 present a clearer understanding of a concept than do verbal descriptions. This is thought to be true because the icon- ic message looks like the concept it represents while words do not. As a child begins to connect meaning with visuals in his environment he may more readily be able to associate meaning with word symbols and patterns with which he meets. This association is especially likely to occur as connec- tions are made between the visual cues in the environment and the written symbols which represent the environmental cues.80 Cianciolo81 recommends the use of wordless picture books to teach reading, visual literacy and to study lan- guage. Used within the language experience approach to reading wordless picture books can serve as a basis for student writing and reading. Many of the wordless picture books are valuable for literal interpretations while other examples such as Topsy Turvies: Pictures That Stretch The Imagination by Mitsumasa Anno deal with figurative expres— sions. Literary devices of point of view, mood, style and theme may be studied. 80Steven Barley, A Visual Literacy Approach to chelopmental and Remedial Readipg (Rochester, New York: Eastman Kodak Company, June 2, 1969), a paper presented at the Fourth Annual Reading Conference, State of Wyo- ming. 81Cianciolo, op. cit. 65 Groff82 attempts to refute Cianciolo's suggestions for the use of wordless picture books. Groff argues that our society is already too dependent on visual messages to the level of the reading of literature. Groff bases his argument on a number of factors as follows. While students have had lengthy experiences with television plots yet they are not superios readers. There is a distinct difference between the mental efforts required for reading literature and for "reading" visual. Affective responses required for each are different. There is no value served by wordless picture books that could not be served by picture story- books. There is danger in the support of certain educators for wordless picture books. This researcher believes that Groff has ignored a number of important ideas. The univer- sal language of pictures from which people of all language backgrounds can bring meaning is not recognized by Groff. A basic question is whether the parallel between television plots and wordless picture book plots is justified. Do the television shows which children watch have a plot? The mental energy required for reading words or viewing pictures or visual media depends on the use a reader or viewer makes of the materials with which he is confronted. Groff fails to recognize the inter-relatedness of language skill devel- OPment. Further he cites no evidence that children's stories 84Groff, op. cit. 66 based on wordless picture books will tend to be uniform, impersonal and limited in number. Reading is suggested by Groff as being a difficult, painful and possibly insur— mountable task. McLuhan85 warns against the effects of visuals when based upon Joyce's writing he indicates that photos may have been a creation from nothing, or a substitution of shadows for real substance. It is further suggested by McLuhan that all media plays a role in our lives which leads to pseudo-perception and arbitrary value. It is the View of this researcher that visuals are very much a part of today's culture and thus educators need to bring to student awareness the nature of visual repre— sentations so that students can deal effectively and criti- cally with visual media. Gropper86 suggests that an effective teacher chooses visuals to which a child can easily respond. These visuals serve as a basis for responses. The types of vis- uals chosen were those which required responses and allow for practice. These Visuals served as stimuli, as response cues or as feedback. 85McLuhan, 0p. cit. 86George L. Gropper, "Who is Visually Illiterate: The Student or the Teacher?" Proceedings of the First .Hfigional Conference on Visual Literacy, Clarence M. Wil- Jéiuns and John L. Debes, Editors (New York: Putnam Pub— llshing Corporation, 1970), pp. 223-226. V 1 a or; egg :2 ! “Mtg-Til. 67 For the evaluation of oral language based on vis— ual media Monroe87 designated five classification levels of students' oral language. These five levels are: (1) student doesn't respond or may make vary limited response, (2) student describes the action of some of the characters, (3) student indicates relationships between characters and objects, (4) student sees the picture as one part of a greater whole and (5) he discusses the picture in relation to the greater whole. Summary The focus of Chapter II has been directed to a re- view of research and literature related to this research investigation. Research and literature which was deemed relevant was that which concerned oral language as it re- lates to reading, language experience approach to reading and the visual literacy techniques. Studies related to oral language and reading es- tablish a strong relationship between oral language and reading. The difference in vocabularies of culturally disadvantaged and the lists of words presented in basal readers was indicated. It was indicated that students with high language ability usually are high in reading 86Marion Monroe, ”Necessary Preschool Experiences for Comprehending Reading," Reading and Inquiry (Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association Conference, 1965), pp. 45-56. 68 abilities. Word recognition and comprehension increases as reading passages more closely parallel language patterns which they utilize. Oral language through dictations and group stories can serve as an important base for student reading development. The findings of oral language re- search tend to support the use of oral language develop— ment by this researcher. The emphasis of most studies which involved the language experience approach has been on its use in early primary reading instruction. No studies were identified which utilized the language experience approach beyond the primary grades or in remedial reading. Children who par— ticipated in language experience approaches to reading made greater gains or as great gains in word reading and comprehension. Audio visuals were indicated to be valuable components of the language experience approach. The inner relatedness of language skills is an important segment of the language experience approach. The studies cited tend to support the hypothesis of this study that students who participate in reading development through the language ex- perience approach will improve reading skills. The review of literature related to the language experience approach indicated the multi-faceted aspects of the language experience approach. It was indicated that visual literacy has come to the forefront of education within the past decade. Because 69 of this recency of visual literacy research projects have been few in number. Studies conducted have been explora- tory in nature. Visual media were indicated as important and integral educational processes in our media saturated society. Research tends to support the use of visual to develop verbal language and further reading abilities. Related literature provided suggestions for the consideration of visuals for classroom use and the types of experiences which were deemed relevant to this use of visuals. A limited number of articles question the promo- tion of the use of visual if we are to develop a verbal society. Chapter III is delineated next. It includes a summary of the pilot study findings and information on the selection of students for the study. Procedures utilized in conducting the study are also presented. CHAPTER III SELECTION OF STUDENTS PROCEDURES AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY This chapter contains a summary of the findings of the pilot study. The information on the identification of students, procedures and data of the pilot study is presented in Appendix A. Approval to carry out the pilot study and the re— search study was secured from the principal of the target elementary schools the superintendent of the schools and the board of education. The school system selected for the pilot study and the research study was located in Columbia, a Middle Tennessee town with a population of approximately twenty thousand. The schools were made up equally of students from the rural area near Columbia and from Columbia itself. Problems encountered in the conduct of the pilot study and changes implemented in this study are presented. The major portion of the chapter includes information on the identification of students and procedures utilized in the conduct of this study. 70 71 Summary of Pilot Study Findings Total Reading Score First Null Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex- perience approach to reading will not result in growth in reading significant at the .05 level of confidence when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their abil- ity level in teading vocabulary and/or comprehension. t was 5.92 with 8 degrees of freedom. The nyll hypothesis on total reading was rejected and the research hypothesis accepted above the .05 level. Reading Vocabulary First Sub Null Hypothesis There will not be an increase in student vocabu— laries significant at the .05 level when visual literacy materials and the language experience approach to reading are used. t was 4.04 with 8 degrees of freedom. The null sub hypothesis on reading vocabulary was rejected and the research accepted above the .05 level of significance. 41.1%!»75.‘ ’- E a 72 Reading Comprehension Second Sub Null Hypothesis I Students comprehension will not be increased at a significance level of .05 when visual literacy materials and the language experience approach to reading are used. t was a 5.14 with 8 degrees of freedom. The null sub hy- pothesis on reading comprehension was rejected and the re- search hypothesis accepted above the .05 level of signifi— cance . Oral Language Hypothesis Second Null Hypothesis There will not be greater facility in oral expres- sion significant at the .05 level as result of using vis- ual literacy materials within the language experience ap- proach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. t was less than 2.3 with 8 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis was not rejected. There was no statistical difference between the pre and post number of total words used in oral language samples. 73 Written Language Hypothesis Third Null Hypothesis There will not be greater facility in written ex- pression significant at the .05 level as a result of using visual literacy materials within the language experience approach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. t was less than 2.31 with 8 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis H. 3 was not rejected be- cause none of the sub-hypotheses had t scores above 2.31 which was necessary for a significance level of .05 with 8 degrees of freedom. Reading Attitude Hypothesis Fourth Null Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language experience approach to reading will not result in improve- ment of students' attitudes toward reading significant at the .05 level when these materials are used with students ages nine to eleven who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. t was 2.07 with 8 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis was not rejected. There was no significant difference be- tween the pre and post reading attitude surveys. 74 Pilot Study Problems 1. One of the problems was in the time element. Classes were held for one hour each day. Within this time framework it was difficult for these students to get their mind set to writing. By the time students had watched a film a limited amount of time remained for the students to write. 2. This researcher found that the Upper Primary level of the California Reading Test which he used with the third grade students was too easy even for the remedial third grade students. 3. It was found that students had difficulty in remembering and sequencing ideas based on non-narrated films. 4. Many of the students were not only reluctant readers but also were reluctant writers. The primary Writing background which the students came to reading class with was rote response to textbook questions. Changes Implemented l. The time element was one factor that this re- searcher had to live with because this time coincided with the time that the other students in a given class were in reading. 75 2. Because of the nature of the Upper Primary level of the California Reading Test this researcher found it necessary to concentrate on children classed as fourth grade remedial readers. 3. Students were encouraged to make brief notes while viewing non-narrated films. Through making notes it was felt that students would have a framework on which to build their stories when they were ready to write. 4. Students were given a variety of options through which they could provide oral stories on tape. These tapes were then transcribed by this researcher. Copies of the transcriptions were run off by this researcher. Students could dictate a story to this researcher or to another class member for writing. Group stories and plays could be planned by a group of students and written by one stu- dent or the teacher. At other times students wrote their own stories. Research Project Selection of Students Students selected for the research project were from the same county school system as those selected for the pilot study. The superintendent and the board of edu- cation of Columbia, a Middle Tennessee town with a popula— tion of approximately twenty thousand had granted permis- 76 sion to conduct this project prior to the pilot study which was carried out during the fall semester of the 1973 school year. The population of the town was approximately ninety percent Caucasian with a ten percent Black popula— tion. The mean income per family was below $4,000 per year. Thus many of the students within the school system came from economically disadvantaged homes. Principals of target schools A and B were contacted during December, 1973 by this researcher to obtain their approval to conduct this research project within their schools. Approval was granted by both principals and ar- rangements were made for time slots and space allocation in which this researcher could work with the selected stu- dents. The process of selecting students was basically the same as the process used to select students for the pilot study. In selecting students for the pilot study teachers of second, third and fourth grade classes in the target school listed names of third and fourth grade stu- dents to be tested for possible participation in the pro- ject. The teachers selected these students on the basis of students' test scores on the reading section of the Standford achievement test taken during the previous school year and on teacher knowledge of student reading performance. The purpose of this initial selection was to delimit the unnecessary testing of all third and fourth 77 students. The primary difference between the two processes was indicated earlier in this chapter in the section on changes made. The focus was changed to fourth grade stu- dents rather than third and fourth grade students. This focus was necessary since the California Reading Test for upper primary students was found to be unsuitable for use in selecting remedial third grade readers who met the en- trance requirements for this research project. Fourth grade students who were in the middle and low reading groups at school A and B were tested for pos- sible selection. To participate in this project students had to have an IQ score of 90 or higher and score at least one year or more below their grade expectance in reading vocabulary, reading comprehension, or total reading score on a pre reading test. Level B of the multi-level edition of the Lorge Thorndike Intelligence Test was administered by this re- searcher to approximately sixty fourth grade students. The Califironia Reading Test, Elementary Form W was admin- istered to the same group of students by this researcher. This process of pre-testing for selection of students was conducted during the week of January 14 through January 18, 1974. Three students with IQ scores of close to ninety on the Lorge Thorndike Intelligence Test were admitted to the project on the performance of ninety or better on the 78 Weschler Intelligence Scale2fierhildren which was adminis- tered by this researcher. Twenty students who had IQ's of ninety or more and who were one year or more behind their grade expectancy in vocabulary, comprehension or total reading score as mea- sured by the California Reading Test were selected for par- ticipation in this project. (1) The range in IQ's for the twenty students who were selected for this project was from 91 to 150. (2) The mean IQ was 105.3. (3) The range in grade expectancy scores was from 4.1 to 6.1 (4) The mean grade expectancy scores was 4.6. The Bond and Tinker Expectancy Formula was used to determine the individual student's grade expectancy levels. Grade Expectancy scores for the Twenty students are listed. See Table l. 79 TABLE 1 PARTICIPANTS’ IQ's AND GRADE EXPECTANCY SCORES Student Number IQ Grade Expectancy l 91 4.1 2 97 4.3 3 98 4.2 4 100 4.4 5 100 4.4 6 99 4.4 7 100 4.4 8 119 5.1 9 98 4.3 10 108 4.7 11 95 4.1 12 115 4.9 13 107 4.6 14 150 6.1 15 115 4.9 16 92 5.0 17 120 5.2 18 108 4.7 19 101 4.4 20 102 4.5 Pre Reading Test The following information can be derived from the twenty students' scores on the California Reading Test which was administered as a pretest; the range in reading vocabulary grade equivalency scores for the twenty parti- cipants was from 2.9 to 4.6. The range in reading compre- hension grade equivalency scores was from 2.5 to 4.8. The range in total reading grade equivalency scores was from 2.7 to 4.5. The mean grade equivalency score in reading Comprehension was 3.5. Four students were a year or more 80 behind their grade expectancy in vocabulary only. Six students were a year or more behind their grade expectancy in reading comprehension only. Ten students were a year or more behind their grade expectancy in total reading scores. The scores on the pre test of the California Read- ing Test for the twenty students who participated in the reading project are listed in the following table, along with their grade expectancy scores figured through the Bond-Tinker Expectancy Formula. TABLE 2 PARTICIPANTS' PRE READING TEST SCORES AND GRADE EXPECTANCY SCORES Student Vocabulary Comprehension Total Expectancy No. Score 1 2.9 4.0 3.6 4.1 2 2.8 3.6 3.3 4.3 3 3.8 2.7 3.2 4.3 4 3.4 3.5 3.5 4.4 5 4.6 3.4 4.1 4.4 6 3.4 4.3 3.9 4.4 7 2.9 3.6 3.4 4.4 8 4.0 4.3 4.1 5.1 9 3.9 2.5 3.2 4.3 10 3.8 3.4 3.6 4.7 11 4.0 3.2 3.5 4.2 12 4.2 3.5 3.5 4.9 13 4.0 3.2 3.8 4.6 14 4.1 4.8 3.6 6.1 15 2.6 2.8 4.5 4.9 16 4.4 3.5 2.7 5.0 17 4.6 4.2 4.1 5.2 18 4.2 3.7 4.5 4.8 19 4.8 3.2 4.1 4.4 20 2.2 3.2 3.9 4.5 81 The Procedures This project was initiated on January 24, 1974 and continued through May 24, 1974. Classes were held five days a week for one hour each day during the second semester of the 1973-74 school year. Classes were sched- uled during the times that the other fourth grade stu- dents were in their reading groups. Thus this project was the only reading program in which these students par- ticipated. Students were administered the Auburn Reading At- titude Survey as a pre and post measure by this researcher. Oral and written samples by each student were taken at the start and the completion of the program. The students' oral samples were based on a wordless picture book which the student chose to tell a story about. Some of the titles of the wordless picture books used in this study include: Look What I Can Do! by Jose Arugo, A Cat Story by Eliot Gilbert, Shapes and Things by Tana Hoban, A Flying Saucer Full of Spaghetti by Fernando Krahn and Frog Where Are You? by Mercer Mayer. A complete list of all the wordless picture books used in this research project are included in Appendix B. Each student used the same book that he had chosen for his pre oral sample as a basis for his post oral sample. These oral samples were tape re— corded by this researcher. The same non-narrated film 82 was used as a basis for all students' pre and post written samples. Some of the titles of the non-narrated films used in this study include: Friends, A Rock in the Road, Leaf, Solo and Chromaphobia. Titles for all of the non- narrated films used in this study are included in Appendix B. Wordless picture books and non-narrated films were used throughout this project as a basis for students' vis- ual experiences on which they based their oral and written samples. Select pictures from magazines were also used as a basis for oral and written samples. Copies of some of the magazine pictures used in this study are included in Appendix C. These oral and written stories were used as a basis for developing students' reading abilities. Lists of words that individual students wanted to learn to use or spell correctly were listed on three by five note cards. Types of words which students kept on file cards were nouns and verbs from the stories that they wrote and read which were based on wordless picture books and non-narrated films. As help with words was needed by individual students in their reading or writing it was provided by this researcher or by other students within the class. This researcher provided spellings of any words which the students asked for. Students were free to select wordless picture books or a picture which they could use as a basis for 83 writing or telling a story. Written stories were com— pleted by individual students or two students sometimes worked together in composing a story. Students also wrote poems and plays based on the wordless picture books. Oral stories based on the wordless picture books were re— corded on tapes, or dictated to this researcher or an— other student. Taped stories were transcribed by this researcher so that students could use the tapes and the stories transcribed from the tapes as a simultaneous means of developing their reading abilities. Students kept note- books of their stories. Reading of these stories to this researcher, to another student or to oneself was an acti- vity which students engaged in at least two days a week. Non-narrated films were shown to the students at least once a week. These films were briefly introduced by this researcher. Students took brief notes as they saw the film. These notes served as an aid to story organization when students were ready to write their individual stories at the conclusion of the film. After the films were viewed, words that might be used in writing the story were listed on the chalkboard as students suggested them. When stu- dents were ready to write they could select words from those listed on the chalkboard to use in their stories, or they could use other words. Group stories were also written on select wordless picture books and non-narrated films. All students or a 84 a group of two or three students participated in these stories with this researcher or one student recording the story on the chalkboard or on paper. Typed copies of in- dividual and group stories were made for students to keep in their reading notebooks. Whenever necessary, this researcher edited stu- dents' stories since these stories were to be used as a basis for reading development by the total group of stu- dents within the reading project. Misspelled words were corrected and subject-verb changes were made to bring agreement. If a student had left a word out of a sentence a word was inserted by this researcher after consulting with the author(s) to make a complete sentenCe. The word to be inserted was determined by this researcher from the con— text of the story and by consulting with the author(s). Punctuation marks were placed as needed and words that needed to be capitalized were capitalized. The only changes made during the editing process were those changes which would clarify the meaning conveyed by each student's writings. This project was designed in an effort to provide the remedial students with an alternative means of devel— oping reading abilities without formal group instruction in word attack, word recognition or comprehension as an alternative plan. Experiences in individual stories and the stories of other students are familiar to students 85 since they have had vicarious experiences with the non- narrated films and the wordless picture books on which these stories are based. Students who are found to be remedial readers gen- erally have already participated in traditional type pro- grams which emphasize phonics drills, structural analysis, dictionary work, comprehension questions and workbook ac— tivities as the primary focus of their reading experience background. Design of the Study The basic design of the study was a one group pretest—posttest type. The pretest consisted of Form W of the California Reading Test and the posttest was Form X of the same test. An individual's score on the total pretest and its sub—sections have been compared with his scores on the posttest and its sub—sections. The data was analyzed statistically using the t test to determine the level of significance of the difference between the pre and posttests. Pre and post oral samples of each student were obtained. These samples were based on the same wordless picture book that each student chose for the pre oral sample. Tape recordings of these samples were made and this researcher transcribed and analyzed them comparing 86 total words, T Units, words per T Unit. The data was analyzed statistically using the t test to determine the level of significance of the difference between the pre and post oral language samples. Pre and post written samples were obtained from each student. These samples were based on the same non- narrated film which was shown to all students pre and post. This researcher analyzed the students' written samples comparing total words, T Units, words per T Unit. The data was analyzed statistically using the t test to determine the level of significance of the difference be- tween the pre and post written language samples. The Auburn Reading Attitude Survey was administered as a pre and post measure. The individual student's scores and mean scores for the total group were computed. The data was analyzed statistically using the t test to deter- mine the level of significance of the difference between student scores on the pre and post reading attitude survey. Summary A summary of the findings based on pilot study data was included at the start of Chapter II. Findings indicated that null Hypothesis 1 and the sub hypotheses based on the California Reading Test were rejected on the basis of t test scores which were above the 2.31 t score 87 necessary to reject the null hypotheses. Null Hypotheses 2, 3 and 4 relating to oral and written language and to reading attitude were not rejected by the findings of the pilot study. Problems discovered in the pilot study were indi- cated. They were as follows: The time framework pre- sented difficulties. The Upper Primary level of the Cali- fornia Reading Test was not a suitable measure for identify- ing third grade participants for this project. Students had difficulties in remembering and sequencing ideas from the non-narrated films. Many of the students were found to be reluctant writers. A number of changes were made. The time element could not be changed. ~Emphasis was focused on fourth grade remedial readers. Students were encouraged to make brief notes while viewing the films. Students were given a variety of options through which they could provide oral and written stories. The chapter was concluded with a discussion of the procedures for selection of students for the research study, a description of the procedures used in the research study and a delineation of the design of the study. Chapter IV is presented next and contains the data collected for each aspect of the research study. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA This chapter will include an analysis of the re- search data compilations which were derived from scores on the California Reading Test, pre and post oral and written samples, and scores on the Auburn Reading Attitude Survey. An analysis of six students' individual scores on each measure as compared with the mean of the group is indi- cated. Where appropriate and in order to analyze the data the research hypotheses have been restated as null hypoth- eses. The California Reading Test was administered in alternate form as a pre and post test. The discussion of the students' performance on the California Reading test will focus on students' scores on the pre and post sub sections of vocabulary and comprehension and the total test score. The same form of the Auburn Reading Attitude Scale was given as a pre and post survey of student attitudes. A comparison of students' pre and post scores on the atti- tude scale was made. Pre and post oral language samples based on a wordless picture book were taped and transcribed by this 88 89 researcher. These samples were analyzed using total words, T Units, and words per T Unit for a comparison of the pre and post samples. Pre and post written language samples were written by the students. These written samples were based on a non-narrated film. These written samples were analyzed on the basis of total words, T Units, and words per T Units in pre and post samples. Presentation and Analysis of The Data Compilation The data compilation consists of scores on a pre and post administration of the California Reading Test, a pre and post administration of the Auburn Reading Attitude Sclae, a pre and post sample and analysis of the students' written language, and a pre and post sample of the stu— dents' oral language. The pre and post written language samples were based on a non—narrated film entitled Tpp Little Blue Apron. The same film was used for pre and post so that conditions present for the post sample would parallel those for the presample. The pre and post oral language samples were based on a wordless picture book which each student selected to dictate a story. For the post oral sample each student used the same book which he had selected for his oral sample in an attempt to bring about close similarities between the pre and post language 90 sample. The students' oral samples were recorded on tapes. These taped stories were transcribed into written form by this researcher so that these samples could be analyzed. The Reading Test The California Reading Test, Elementary Form W was administered during the week of January 14, 1974 as a pretest for selection of students. This researcher ad- ministered the tests. The purpose of using the California Reading Test was to employ a standardized reading assess— ment of students' reading vocabularies, comprehension and total reading scores in pre and post comparison of stu- dents' reading abilities as measured by this test. During the week of May 2, 1974 the posttest Form X was administered. The following information was derived from the com— parison of pre and post grade equivalency scores on the reading tests. Three students had decreasing vocabulary grade equivalency scores of —l . 3, - .6 , and - . 3 years . Three students had no change in reading vocabulary grade equivalency scores. One student had an increase of .3 year in reading vocabulary grade equivalency score. Thir- teen students had an increase in reading vocabulary grade equivalency score of at least one or more months per month of participation in the program. Four students had decreasing reading comprehension grade equivalency scores 91 of .5 or less in comprehension. The mean gain in reading vocabulary grade equivalency scores for the twenty students was .7 of a year. One student had no change in his reading comprehension grade equivalency score. Two students had slight increases in reading comprehension grade equivalency scores of .2 year or less. Thirteen students had increases in reading comprehension grade equivalency scores of at least one or more months per month of participation in the program. The mean increase in reading comprehension grade equivalency score for the twenty students was .6 of a year. Two students had decreases in total reading grade equiva— lency scores of —.4. Three students had slight increases in total reading grade equivalency scores of from +.l to _.2. Fifteen students had gains in total reading grade equivalency scores of at least one or more months per month of participation in the program. The mean increase in total reading grade equivalency scores was .6 of a year. Students who had decreasing scores in vocabulary and/or comprehension made less effort to learn new words. Their writings were minimal. Their basic attitude towards the research study and school in general was negative. The California Reading Test is designed to test a student's vocabulary abilities in mathematics, science, social studies and general language abilities through having the student match word opposites from each of these areas . 92 The comprehension section is designed to assess a student's ability to follow directions, to deal with ref— erences, and to comprehend brief paragraphs read. The following table is a presentation of the par- ticipating students' pre and post grade equivalency scores on the California Reading Tests. The purpose of this table is to provide the reader with a synopsis of change for par- ticipants in grade equivalence scores rather than statis— tically analyzing scores. A table which follows presents a statistical analysis using the t test. TABLE 3 READING GRADE EQUIVALENCY_SCORES Student Vocabulary Comprehension Total Number Pre Post Gain Pre Post Gain Pre Post Gain 1 2.9 4.6 +1.7 4.0 3.5 - .5 3.6 4.2 + .6 2 2.8 3.5 + .7 3.6 3.4 - .2 3.3 3.4 + .l 3 3.8 3.2 - .6 2.7 3.6 + .9 3.5 3.6 + .l 4 3.4 5.2 +1.8 3.5 3.7 + .2 3.5 4.6 +1.1 5 4.6 5.5 + .9 3.4 4.2 + .8 4.1 5.0 + .9 6 3.4 4.5 +1.1 4.3 5.1 + .8 3.9 4.8 + .9 7 2.9 4.6 +1.7 3.6 4.3 + .7 3.4 4.5 + .9 8 4.0 5.1 +1.1 4.3 4.8 + .5 4.1 5.0 + .9 9 3.9 3.9 0.0 2.5 4.0 +1.5 3.2 4.0 + .8 10 3.8 3.8 0.0 3.4 4.1 + .7 3.6 4.1 + .5 11 4.0 3.7 - .3 3.2 2.8 - .4 3.6 3.2 + .4 12 4.2 4.2 0.0 3.5 4.0 + .5 3.8 4.2 + .4 13 4.0 4.1 + .l 3.2 4.1 + .9 3.6 4.2 + .6 14 4.1 5.0 + .9 4.8 5.7 + .9 4.5 5.4 + .9 15 2.6 3.8 +1.8 2.8 4.2 +1.4 2.7 4.1 +1.4 16 4.4 4.6 + .2 3.5 4.3 + .8 4.1 4.6 + .5 17 4.6 3.3 —l.3 4.2 4.1, - .l 4.5 4.1 — .4 18 4.2 4.9 + .7 3.7 3.7 .0 4.1 4.3 + .2 19 4.8 5.1 + .3 3.2 5.1 + .9 3.9 5.1 +1.2 20 2.2 3.6 +1.4 3.2 3.3 + .l 2.7 3.5 + .8 93 Analysis of the Research Project Data A Hewlett Packard 65 hand calculator was used to calculate the means of the pre and post tests and samples, the standard deviation of the means, standard deviation of the difference between the means, standard error of the means, covariance, correlation coefficient, and t scores. Total Reading Score First Null Hypothesis Visual literacy materials used in the language ex- perience approach to reading will not result in growth in reading significant at the .05 level of confidence when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their abil- ity level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. Total Reading Test The mean score on the total California Reading pre— test was 40.35. The standard deviation was 9.37. The standard error was 2.09. The mean score on the posttest was 51.2. The standard deviation was 12.18. The standard error was 2.72. The covariance was 65.51. The correla- tion was .57. The standard error of the difference be— tween the means was 2.29. t was 4.73 with 19 degrees of 94 freedom. This score was above the t score of 2.09 neces- sary to reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis was rejected above the .05 level of significance. Its re— search hypothesis was accepted based on the findings of this research study. See Table 4 on page 95. Six students were selected for individual compar- isons to the group. These students were selected from the total group using a random stratified sampling. The first student was drawn at random. Every third student was then selected. Results of these six students' pre and post scores with standard deviation from the pre and post means are reported for each aSpect of the California Reading Test, the Oral Language Sample, the written sample and the Auburn Reading Attitude survey. For the six students the change in standard devi- ation from the pre and post means it can be observed that: (1) three students had no change in standard deviation, (2) two students increased scores by one standard deviation and (3) one student lost one standard deviation. 95 mwcdno me.m mH.mH shoe me.e mm.m em. Hm.me oo.m em.o mm.oc one u memo: one cofivwaohhoo moasfipm>oo Hoapm aoflpcfi>on new: coospom ossocmpm ohmoccpm cocoaomwfin mo uounm ohdocdpm HH+ mm+ m+ ms- w+ mm+ sH+ NH+ m+ e- unease mm on me so on we cs on me an ence em on so on we mm so mm 44 mm one em as ms us ca ms 42 ms NH HH soessz eeocsem s+ oH+ cH+ Hm+ wH+ mH+ Hm+ 4+ H+ m+ nuance we co cm on me no an mm mm s4 shoe am on on em no >4 mm mm cm on one oH a w s c m c m m H soossz ecoooem mmmoom OZHQoo hoaam qude>oQ new: coospom pudendum oasoaasm moaohommfln Ho Hoanm pudendum oH+ 42+ c+ NH- H+ m+ w+ 2+ o m- owcsso cs Hm mm ms mm as am am am AH ence e um mm mm cu m an em mm om one on as ms AH ca ms 4H mH «H as sonssz ecooaem o o HH+ wH+ oH+ w+ mH+ mu m+ wH+ owesno ma oH Hm mm am am am ma ma mm shoe ms as om HH 4H cm 4H ms oH as one 0H m w s e m c m m H sonasz secessm >m¢ADm OZHQ¢mm m mqm<9 99 TABLE 7 SIX STUDENTS' READING VOCABULARY Pre Post SD SD Student Pre From Post From No. Score Mean Score Mean 7 110 —l 25 + l 10 18 +1 18 — 1 13 20 +1 21 - l 16 24 +1 25 +.1 19 27 +1 31 + l 2 10 -2 15 - 2 Note: Pre Test Mean 17.8 Post Test Mean 22.75 TABLE 9 SIX STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION SD SD Student Pre From Post From No. Score Mean Score Mean 7 24 +1 31 +1 10 21 -l 28 -1 13 18 -l 29 +1 16 24 +1 31 +1 19 18 -l 39 +1 2 24 +1 20 -2 Note: Pre Mean 22.55 Post Mean 28.50 Based on the analysis of the six students' scores on the comprehension section of the California Reading Test, it can be noted that three students had the same standard deviation from the pre and post means. One student lost three standard deviations. Two students gained two stan- 100 mm.m mwcwnu mc.H Hm.e om.wm shoe me.m em.H sc.+ cc.Hm we.H mm.c mm.mm one u made: one :oHuwHoHHoo monsHHs>oo HOHHm :oHpsH>oQ new: cooapom Unmocspm ohmoqapm mocmhommfin mo HOHHm pudendum 8+ Hm+ H- m- e+ cH+ 8+ HH+ m+ mu owesso oH on nu ma Hm Hm me am as cH shoe wH wH mm Hm cm pH on wH mm mH one om oH mH eH pH pH 4H mH NH HH sonssz eooesem 8+ wH+ m+ >+ w+ oH+ m+ m+ v: m1 cmaeno mm em on Hm om Hm mm mm om mm shoe Hm HH on em Hm Hm mm 4H cm mm use 0H m w e c m c m m H soessz ccoosem ZOHmzmmmmmzoo OZHQ¢mm w mqm<fi 101 dard deviations from the pre and post test means. See Table 9 . The Pre and Post Oral Samples Oral samples based on wordless picture books were dictated by each student. These stories were tape recorded. Each student selected the wordless picture book from this researcher's collection for his pre oral sample. This same book was used for the student's post oral sample. The re- corded oral samples were transcribed into writing by this researcher. These transcribed samples were then analyzed using procedures parallel to those used for analysis of the written sample. The data comparing the pre and post oral samples consists of T Units, words per T Unit and total number of words. Table 8, on page 100 contains the data on the pre and post oral samples. Oral Sample Analysis The Kellogg4hun:T Unit was used to obtain data on students' transcribed oral samples. The students pre and post oral samples were analyzed in terms of total words, T Units and words per T Unit. The oral samples were based on a pre and post oral language sample concerning a word- less picture book which a student chose to talk about. Each student's post oral language sample was based on the 102 same wordless picture book which he had chosen for the pre- test. Oral Language Hypothesis Second Null Hypothesis There will not be greater facility in oral expres- sion significant at the .05 level as a result of using visual literacy materials within the language experience approach to reading when used with students ages nine to eleven who are of normal intelligence and who are a year or more behind their ability level in reading vocabulary and/or comprehension. Oral Language Total The mean number of total words used in the pre oral language sample was 266. The standard deviation was 221.903. The mean number of total words used in the post oral language sample was 651.75. The standard deviation was 576.46. The standard error was 128.90. The covariance was 731.39. The correlation was .572. The standard error of the difference between the means was 108.45. t was 3.56 with 19 degrees of freedom. This score was above the t score of 2.09 necessary to reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis was rejected above the .05 level of significance. The research hypothesis was accepted based 103 on the findings of this research project. See Table 10 on page 104. All six students had considerable gains in total words. However, four students had no change in standard deviation from the pre and post test means. One student had an increase of two standard deviations and one student had a loss of one standard deviation. All except one stu- dent had large increases in total words. The mean of the post test was increased over the mean of the pretest so much that there was little change in each student's posi- tion. See Table 11. TABLE 11 SIX STUDENTS' ORAL LANGUAGE SD SD Student From From No. Pre Mean Post Mean 7 112 —l 301 -l 10 177 -1 455 -l 13 978 +4 1807 +3 16 235 —l 947 +1 19 150 -l 247 -l 2 169 -l 166 -l Note: Pre Sample Mean 266 Post Mean 651.75 The following information can be derived from the table of A Comparison of Students Pre and Post Transcribed Oral Samples: (1) four students had slight increases of from +2 to +5 T Units, (2) thirteen students had large in- 104 he.mwm omenso 88.88H 88.858 me.Hmo shoe 88.8 84.88H an. .88Hme 88.88 o8.H88 888 one u. madmfi OSp EOMPNHOHHOD OOGNHHNHVOO .HOHHM QOH de>®Q GGOE cooswom onmondpm onoampm cocmnmmwwn mo HOHHm ohmocwpm 888+ s8+ 88H+ H88H+8Hs+ mm- H88H+888+ 88+ HooH+ omsaco 888 saw one 8888 >88 88 mmcH sowH mom ecHH ence 888 88H 888 888 888 mHH HNH we8 H88 88H one 88 8H 8H eH 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H HH Hosssz ecocsem ms8+ 888+ 88+ 8mH+ em- 8H+ 88H+ esm+ 8. 88+ omcneo one 888 888 H88 888 8H8 com 888 88H scH shoe eeH coo 88H NHH 888 com 8eH we 88H 88H one 8H 8 8 e 8 m 8 m 8 H soossz eeocsem mnmog AH mm.> mm.mm mm.o¢ ch p mane: cap :oHpsHoHHoo ooeoHH8>oo Honnm coHp8H>oQ new: emoapom usecaepm oseoedpm coconHmHQ mo HOHHm camcqspm boH+ mH+ m+ me+ mm+ nu mbH+ NOH+ mH+ moH+ qusno bmH Hm mm ova NOH mm HmH New mm me smog om wH vw mm mm on mH omH we 8H can ON ma ma 5H ®H ma 3H ma NH HH Honfifiz ucmoapm mm+ mH+ NH+ mH+ oH+ m+ N+ om+ 3+ m+ omeeno Hm mm mm mm mm on mm as om mm pmom mm mm 5H 0H mm mm em NH em on can 0H m w u m m w m N H Honsdz uncospm mBHZD B MU¢DUZoo HOHHm aofipdfi>om new: comspom cadocmpm ondonmpm mocoHowwHQ mo Honhm pudendum 8.- 8.: H.8+ 8.H+ 8.H+ 8.- 8.H+ 8.+ 8.H+ 8.8+ 888888 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 H.8 8.8 8.8 one 88 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H HH sonssz scocspm 8.+ H.H+ 8.H+ 8.H+ 8.+ 8.8+ 8.+ 8.H+ 8.H+ 8.+ 888888 8.8 8.8 H.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 whoa 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 one 8H 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 H 888932 peoossm BHZD B mmm mnmos mw¢Dwzoo HOHHH :oHu88>oQ use: coospom camoampm pudendum coconomMHn mo HOHHm ohmoqdwm mHN+ 0®+ ®®+ ©ma+ 88H+ w8N+ mH+ 8m+ mv+ m®+ mwndno mom vma OHH va HNH wNm mm N8 mm NNH pmom mmH vmfi 88 mm mm ow mm mm mm om on ON NH NH 8H NH ma 8H NH NH HH Hmnasz uaoonpm 88+ 88H+ 88+ HH+ H8+ 8+ 8oH+ 08+ HH+ H8+ 888820 ON ®ON mNH m8 m8 HOH 88H HoH Nm moH pmom mm mm Ho we mv mm 08 Ho HN Nm ohm OH m w 8 m n v m N H Honasz pnmospm mQMOB A¢BOB mOoo HOHHH coflp8w>oo G802 coospom onmoqdpm oudonspm ooquommHQ mo HOHHm Undoc8um 88+ HH+ 8H+ H8+ 88+ 88+ H+ 8+ 8+ 8+ 888888 88 88 8H 88 88 88 8H HH 8H 8H 8888 88 8H 8 8 8 8 8H 8 . 8 8 888 88 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H HH scsssz 8888888 8+ 88+ 8+ H+ 8 8 HH+ 8+ 8+ 8+ 888888 8H 88 8H HH 8H 8H 8H 8H 8 8H smoa 8 8 HH 8H 8H 8H 8 HH 8 8 888 8H 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 H 888882 8888888 mBHZD B MOoo 80882 80888H>8Q 8882 888388m 888888pm 888888pm 8888888889 80 80882 888888pm H.H+ 8.H+ 8.8: 8.H+ H.H+ 8.8: 8.+ 8.+ 8.8: 8.8+ 888888 8.8 8.8 8.8 H.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 H.8 8.8 8888 8.8 8.8 HH 8.8 H.8 8.8 H.8 8.8 8.8H 8.8 888 88 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H 8H HH 888882 8888888 8.H+ 8.H+ 8.H+ 8.+ 8.H+ 8.+ 8.8+ 8.H+ 8.- 8.+ 888888 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8888 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 888 OH m w b 888882 8888888 B mmm meOB MU00 80882 808888>8Q 8882 8883888 88888888 88888888 8888888888 80 80888 88888888 NH: 82+ n.8mlo.m+ m.mm+ m.+ om: H+ 8N: 8+ 888880 um 08 m.®m m.8m mm mv hm m8 mm mm 880% mm mm Hm m.mm m.om m.w8 um 88 mm mm 88m om ma 8H 8H QH ma 8H ma NH HH 889882 #888888 8H+ 8H+ 8+ 8+ 8.8: 8+ 8: 8+ 8: 8+ 888880 mm N8 08 mm 08 an mm am 08 on 8809 om mm mm mm 8.88 Q8 08 Q8 88 m8 88% OH 8 w b m m 8 m N H 889882 p88cdpm wm>mbm mQDBHEB¢ GZHQoo 8088M 808888>8Q 8882 2 888388m 88888888 88888888 4 8888888889 80 l 8088m 88888888 ®H+ m+ mH+ 5+ ®N+ mm+ mN+ 8m+ mN+ swam mm mm om 8m mm mm to 8m mm 880m m8 wH b8 5N mm on mm on mm - 08m m w b o m 8 m N H 80QE§Z pamunpm mmOOm 48908 GZHQ¢mm BOAHQ mm mqm¢e 143 mm.m+ 8880 mm.m 88.5 oo.mm 8808 8o.8+ m8.N+ Hm.+ mm.bm+ mN.N 8b.® HH.mH 88% 8 88882 888 80888H888ou 8088888>0o 80882 80888H>8Q 8882 888388m 88888888 88888888 8088888882 80 80882 88888888 oH+ m+ H+ H+ ,HN+ 8H+ HH+ mH+ m+ 8880 Hm m mm mH mm HN hm Nm mH 8802 Hm m mm 8H 5 b ®H mH OH 882 m 8 b o m 8 m N H 888882 8888888 wm UZHQdmm BOHHQ hm mHm00 8088M 808888>88 8882 8883888 88888888 88888888 8088888888 80 80888 88888888 8+ 8+ 88+ 8+ 8+ 8+ 88+ 88+ 08+ 8888 88 88 88 88 88 88 08 88 88 8808 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 888 8 8 u 8 8 8 8 8 8 888882 8888888 ZOHmzmmm88EOO OZHQ00 80888 808888>88 8882 8883888 88888888 88888888 8088888888 80 80888 88888888 88! 8+ 888+ HHNI 888! 0N+ mm! 888! 88+ 8880 500 80N 8N8 88N 80N ONN ®8N 888 mNN 8808 888 00N 8NN 0N8 . 088 00N 888 N80 088 888 8 w b 0 m 8 m N H 889882 8888288 88803 8880 88809 90888 8N 8888B 148 T Units.--Tab1e 7 indicates data obtained from the students' pre and post oral language samples. The mean number for the T Units in transcribed pre oral samples was 50.00. The standard deviation was 21.38. The standard error of the mean was 7.13. The mean number for the post T Units in transcribed post transcribed oral samples was 40.67. The standard deviation was 18.95. The standard error of the mean was 6.32. Covariance was calculated as +161.50. The correlation coefficient was +.398. The standard error of the difference between the means was 7.40. t was 1.26 with 8 degrees of freedom. There was no significant difference between the pre and post number of T Units. See Table 30 on page 151. Words Per T Unit The mean of the number of words per T Unit derived from the pre oral transcribed samples was 7.11. The stan— dard deviation was .73. The standard error was .25. The mean of the number of words per T Unit was .25. The mean of the number of words per T Unit derived from the post oral transcribed samples was 6.91. The standard deviation was .88. The standard error was .29. Covariance was cal- culated as +.03. The correlation coefficient was +.05. The standard error of the difference between the means was +.37. 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