«-94 " ’~a_., 1 Aw...) ’ M1941; F” - b ~vl‘ © 1979 FRANCINE PRISCILLA FISHER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCARCITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE CAREER ASPIRATIONS OF WOMEN TEACHERS By Francine Fisher A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1978 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCARCITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS AND THE MULTIPLE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE CAREER ASPIRATIONS OF WOMEN TEACHERS By Francine Fisher This dissertation explores the influence on female teacher aspiration for administrative positions in U.S. public education, of attitude-shaping factors such as the contemporary culture, the edu- cational climate, personal and psychological perspectives, and the general work environment. Since World War II, women have lost their previous position of dominance in the administration of public educa- tion. Although they currently constitute about two-thirds of the public school teaching force, women occupy less than one-sixth of the administrative positions. As a result, U.S. education is being deprived of a large percentage of the best leadership talent available to it. Discrimination and occupational sex-typing, two obvious causes for the small number of women in education administration, are being dealt with by strong and effective campaigns to give women equality under the law. The research of this dissertation, however, focused on a more subtle and difficult-to-correct restraint on women in education administration, namely the personal psychological inhibi- tions which keep women from seeking administrative jobs. Francine Fisher Methodology A structured questionnaire was developed to gather and compare data from women and men teachers in Michigan school districts. Questionnaires were mailed to 800 teachers selected from the popula- tion. From the 359 responses which resulted, data were extracted and analyzed with the assistance of the Institute for Research on Teaching at Michigan State University. The instruments were punched on computer cards and analyzed using the chi square Test of Associa- tion. Findings Sixty-nine testable hypotheses were used on the question- naire, 33 of which were rejected, indicating significant differences between men and women in their selection of multiple-choice possi- bilities. Among those subjects on which such differences were registered were: aspirations toward all levels of administration, i.e., elementary principalship, secondary principalship, central office, assistant superintendent, and superintendent. There were also significant differences between the men's and women's age level, number of children, teaching level, and number of years their mothers had worked. Clear differences between the sexes were expressed on: women's organizing ability, independence, dependability, effect on the status of the profession, and men's administrative ability and knOw-how in seeking administrative positions. There were differences too on working relationships between the sexes, the effect on female students of the scarcity of women administrators, and the influence Francine Fisher of early home life, later marriage and children. Differences sur- faced on such subjects as attitudes toward sacrifices in behalf of professional advancement, morality of administrators, and the competi- tive edge which being a male provides to an aspirant. Research Conclusions Among the negative conclusions are: (a) Women's aspirations decrease as the responsibility of the job increases. (b) Only a very small percentage of women apply for administrative jobs. (c) Only a small percentage of teachers of either sex aspire. (d) Large percen- tages of both sexes are unwilling to either move or further their education for the sake of bettering their chances for an administra- tive position. (e) The potential for administration aspiration by female students is adversely affected by the scarcity of female admin- istrators. (f) The virtual male monopoly on administrative positions and the perceived unfair odds of the competition intimidates women and inhibits their aspiration. Among the more positive conclusions are: (a) Men's acceptance of women in the profession is increasing. (b) Women teachers are becoming more willing to accept other women in administration. (c) Men are becoming more willing to accept the idea that women can, at one and the same time, be successful both as mothers and adminis- trators. (d) Women too are accepting the compatibility of family responsibilities and administrative success. Eight recommendations are made for increasing the number of women in educational administration. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is deeply indebted to a guidance committee who provided support and encouragement during the many phases of the doc- toral program. Sincere gratitude is offered to Dr. Howard W. Hickey, Chairman, for his understanding, insightful guidance, and direction; Dr. Lois Bader for her concern and valuable assistance; Dr. Richard L. Featherstone for his interest and encouragement; and Dr. Louis G. Romano for his helpful suggestions and advice. Warmest thanks is also due Dr. Larry Lezotte, although not a member of the guidance committee, who rendered invaluable service with problems of research and technique of design; Dr. Billie Rader from Secondary Education for his assistance in organizing the ques- tionnaire; Dr. George DePillo, whose willingness to share experience and expertise provided innumerable opportunities for doctoral enrich- ment; and Mr. Joseph N. Shugrue, whose technical and personal commit- ment throughout the doctoral program provided the incentive to achieve and succeed. Acknowledgment is also given to the Michigan Education Asso- ciation for providing the writer with the technical assistance neces- sary for a valid random sampling of the Michigan teachers concerned. Special thanks are extended to those concerned administrators and teachers in the field of education whose time, suggestions, and ii support gave impetus to the development of this thesis; space does not allow including all of them by name. Finally, the writer expresses sincere gratitude to her parents, Mr. and Mrs. Francis C. Fisher, her sister Mary, and brother George, whose encouragement, understanding, patience, sacrifice, and love made it possible to successfully complete the doctoral program. Gratitude is also expressed to my dearest and closest relatives and friends, especially Ervin E. Lewis, Sr., who shared friendship, companionship, and encouragement throughout the doctoral study. To all of these persons and to the many women who have or will in the future seek leadership roles in education--with love and appreciation—-the study and the degree are dedicated. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................ vii Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............... l Introduction .................... 1 Need for the Study ................. 4 Purpose of the Study ................ 9 Significance of the Study .............. l0 Assumptions ..................... ll Definition of Terms ................. ll Research Hypotheses ................. 12 Design of the Study ................. l2 Population .................... 12 Sample ...................... l3 Procedure ..................... l3 Limitations of the Study .............. 14 Summary and Overview ................ l4 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND RELATED MATERIAL ..... 16 Introduction .................... l6 Women in the Contemporary Professions ........ l6 Women in History .................. 20 Women in Education ................. 22 Women in Educational Administration ......... 26 Women and Sex-Bias in Educational Leadership . . . . 33 Women's ASpirations in the Education Profession . . . 39 Women's Diminishing Role in Educational Leadership . 47 Summary ....................... 50 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY .................. 53 Introduction ...... , .............. 53 Type of Study .................... 53 Population and Sampling Methods ........... 54 Instrumentation ................... 57 Collection of the Data ................ 61 iv ll ‘.I|J‘IIJIIIIIP4IxI1§ Il.‘ l Chapter Page Treatment of the Data ................ 61 Testable Hypotheses ................. 62 Statistical Procedures ............... 69 Summary ....................... 70 IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS .................. 71 Introduction .................... 71 Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Teachers for an Administrative Position--Part I of the Questionnaire ............... 72 Determined Demographic Characteristics of Men and Women Respondents--Part II of the Questionnaire . . 76 Perceived Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women Teachers-—Part III of the Questionnaire ...... 83 Cultural Considerations .............. 83 Educational Factors ................ 91 Personal Perspectives ............... 96 Psychological Aspects ............... 103 The World of Work ................. 110 Summary ....................... 119 V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 120 Summary ....................... 120 Purpose of the Study ............... 120 Limitations of the Study ............. 120 Review of the Literature ............. 121 Design of the Study ................ 124 Findings ...................... 125 Part I: Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Teachers for an Administrative Position . . 125 Part II: Perceived Demographic Characteristics of Men and Women Respondents .......... 126 Part III: Perceived Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women Teachers ............... 127 Conclusions ..................... 131 General ...................... 131 Cultural Considerations .............. 135 Educational Factors ................ 137 Personal Perspectives ............... 139 Psychological Aspects ............... 140 The World of Work ................. 141 Summary of Conclusions .............. 142 Chapter Page Recommendations ................... 143 Suggestions for Further Research .......... 150 APPENDIX ........................... 152 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 158 vi Table 2.1 2.2 (A) ..._.| bkbh-fib bWN .10 .11 #943543 \0 LIST OF TABLES Percentage of Women Among All Teachers in Selected Years . . Estimated Number and Percent Distribution of Full- Time Public School Professional Employees, 1970-71 (Instructional Staff and Central Office) ....... Percent of Elementary School Principals Who Were Women . Population of Sample by District, Group Number, County, and Teacher Enrollment ............ Elementary Principal .................. Secondary Principal .................. Central Office ..................... Assistant Superintendent ................ Superintendent ..................... Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Intent to Become an Administrator ................... What Is Your Age? ................... How Many Children Do You Have? ............. What Is Your Present Teaching Level? .......... Did You Actively Participate in Sports as a Youth? . . . How Many Years Did Your Mother Work During Your Growing Years? Either Full or Part Time ........... Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on the Demographic Variables ...................... For Psychological and Social Reasons, Men Are More Effective Administrators Than Women ......... vii Page 27 28 34 56 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 78 79 81 82 82 84 Table 4.14 4.15 4.26 Women Are Better Organizers Than Men .......... Women Are More Likely to Seek Proximity to Others Than to Work Independently .............. In General, I Consider Women Ngt_as Dependable as Men Because of Women's Biological and Personal Characteristics ................... Women Generally Have a Lower Level of Achievement Motivation Than Men ................. Men Know More Than Women About How to Seek and Obtain Opportunities to Become Administrators Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Cultural Considerations . Welcoming Women as Equals Into the Professional Management Levels May Tend to Downgrade the Teaching Profession ................. Students Who Never Experience Women in Leadership Positions Are Not Likely to Develop Aspirations or Values That Move Beyond Traditional Stereotypes I Feel More Comfortable Working for a Male Administrator Than a Female Administrator ...... Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Educational Factors . . . A Woman Can Be a Successful Administrator and Happily Married at the Same Time ........... I Have Too Many Family Responsibilities to Seek an Administrative Position ............... In My Home, I Was Encouraged to Get a College Degree . . I Would Be Eager to Become an Administrator, Even if I Had to Move Somewhere Else .............. I Have Personally Received Encouragement From an Administrator in My Building to Apply for an Administrative Position ............... viii Page 85 85 87 88 89 9O 91 92 93 97 98 99 100 101 Table Page 4.29 Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Personal Perspectives . . 104 4.30 I Am Satisfied With My Present Employment and Would Not Seek an Administrative Position ......... 105 4.31 I Would Be Willing to Further My Education for an Administrative Position ............... 106 4.32 If I Applied for an Administrative Position, I Feel I Might Be a Top Contender ............... 108 4.33 I Would Rather Not Compete for an Administrative Position ....................... 109 4.34 Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on Psychological Aspects . . 111 4.35 People Who Are at Administrative Levels Are Often Asked to Compromise Their Principles ......... 112 4.36 Men Advance Faster in Administration With Less Experience Simply Because They Are Men ........ 113 4.37 I See a Position in Educational Administration as Attainable for Me .................. 114 4.38 Men Are More Often Chosen for an Administrative Position Than Women ................. 115 4.39 There is Just Too Much Competition in Trying to Become an Administrator ............... 117 4.40 Results of Tests Looking for Significant Differences Between Males and Females on the World of Work . . . . 118 ix CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction The success of the National Women's Conference in Houston during November, 1977, has made it abundantly clear that the politi- cal power needed to raise women from second-class citizenship to full social and economic equality is well within the grasp of the contemporary feminist. Although there were major divisions and controversy concerning the larger issues of ERA, abortion, andlesbian rights, a common denominator which solidly united all the con- ferees was the determination to end once and for all unequal treat- ment of women under the law. As a result of the strong campaign which the Conference has unleashed, businessmen and public officials who continue to be identified with a policy of too frequently reject- ing women applicants for management positions will find themselves on the losing end of lawsuits. Courts will be empowered by tougher laws to impose both civil and criminal penalties on those who dis- criminate against women in personnel placement and promotion.1 Many factors in their external environment which have long inhibited women from assuming leadership roles in U.S. society are ]“What Next for U.S. Women," Time, December 5, 1977, p. 19. This cover story provides a colorful analysis of the Houston Con- ference. on the wane. Inequality under the law may all but vanish in the next decade or two. Unfortunately, however, legislation, no matter how finely honed, will not necessarily strengthen the will of women to seek administrative positions. Although preliminary studies have indicated that there are many personal and psychological restraints which curb women's quest for administrative positions, much more research will be necessary to analyze these restraints, measure their impact, and determine what remedial measures can be taken to overcome them. A rash of best-selling books are drawing conclusions about female attitudes which do not seem to be supported by what serious research has been done on the subject. John T. Molloy, for example, in his commercially successful The Woman's Dress for Success Book, writes: "American women want to get ahead. They want to sit in the boardroom and in the president's chair. And they are heading in that direction."2 Michael Korda, in his best-selling Success, continues the theme: "An increasing number of women today are motivated to 3 These success and more and more of them are in fact succeeding." glowing descriptions of modern women's transformation from the old stereotypes may well be creating an unjustified self-confidence among feminists which could cause them to concentrate their proven politi- cal strength exclusively in political action campaigns. In this 2John T. Molloy, The Woman's Dress for Success Book (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1977), p. 19. 3Michael Korda, Success (New York: Random House, 1977), p. 167.- regard, it is noteworthy that although the National Plan of Action proposed at Houston could, if implemented, cost U.S. taxpayers in the billions of dollars, there was no publicized concern with funding research programs to identify and correct feminine attitudes about themselves which impede their progress toward economic and social equality. An enormous amount of money, time, and talent has been and will continue to be devoted to winning political rights for women and educating them to what these rights are. All of this effort will be futile if women choose not to exercise their rights. The high optimism with which popular writers like Molloy and Korda are influencing the outlook of millions of Americans about contemporary women do not seem to be shared by more serious scholars. Jane Prather, for instance, writing in the American Behavioral Scientist in 1971,4 concludes that centuries of discrimination, which have perpetuated the "woman-servant" and "sex object" image, have modified modern women's desire for professional success. As a result, she writes, many women pursue one of the following courses: (1) do not prepare for a career at all, (2) acquire a college education not as a career preparation but as an "insurance policy" in case they cannot marry or the marriage fails, (3) prepare for a career but give up their profession when they marry. In the latter instance, according to Prather, women frequently do not continue their career 4Jane Prather, "Why Can't Women Be More Like Men: A Summary of the Sociopsychological Factors Hindering Women's Advancement in the Professions," American Behavioral Scientist 15 (November- December 1971): 172-83. because they are convinced in their own minds that they cannot succeed in both marriage and a career: "Women perpetuate the self-fulfilling prophecy because they see few role models of women who have success- fUIIY achieved or managed a career combined with motherhood."5 6 Other writers such as Florence Howe support the Prather con- clusion, and Gordon and Strober, in the very recent Bringing Women Into Management, carry the thesis one step further: What is unique about the situation of women is that almost everyone is to blame, including women themselves who have joined the conspiracy by accepting the idea that they must monitor their ambi ions and goals in terms of what everybody else expects of the including their husbands, children, fathers or bosses. An unpublished Ph.D. dissertation by Lois Hart, moreover, points out that although about one of three women is employed in the U.S., only a small percentage is in management.8 Need for the Study Based on the foregoing, there is a clear need for additional research on the relationship between the number of women in management and women's aspirations to be in management positions. It was in response to the need for such research that this dissertation was 51bid., p.179. 6Florence Howe, "Sexism and the Aspirations of Women," Phi Delta Kappan, October 1973, p. 102. 7Francine E. Gordon and Myra H. Strober, Bringing Women Into Management (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1977), pp. 17-18. 8Lois Borland Hart, "Training Women to Become Effective Leaders" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1974), p. l. undertaken to explore the relationship between the scarcity of women in educational administrative positions and personal factors which influence career aspirations of women teachers. It is hoped that the dissertation's research provides at least a modest contribution toward spotlighting the effect which women's own ambitions--or lack of them--have on the problem of professional inequality. The field of educational administration on which the dissertation focuses is an appr0priate one for study. The placement of women in educational administrative positions has, for whatever reason, been so limited that a diminution in the quality of U.S. public education administra- tion can logically be assumed. There is strong support in research which will be cited below that U.S. education has urgent need to tap the administrative talents of women. Statistics compiled in one study in the early l970s indicate that women constituted about two-thirds of the public school teaching force, yet occupied less than one-sixth of the administrative positions.9 The continued deprivation of U.S. children of the administrative talents of such a large percentage of trained educators is considered by many professional educators to be unconscionable. Scholarly research has played a vital role in the long cam- paign for women's rights. Now, victory in that battle seems to be at hand, it is time for the universities to turn more of their attention to those attitudinal changes in women which may be necessary 9Catherine Dillon Lyon and Terry N. Saario, "Women in Public Education: Sexual Discrimination in Promotions," Phi Delta Kappan, October 1973, p. 120. to the full exploitation of new opportunities. It is in conformity with such a trend that this dissertation was originally proposed. It follows from the above that before the administrative talent of women teachers can be more widely employed in the contem- porary education of our youth it is necessary to pin down the less obvious reasons why women, during the past century, lost control of the education of children. Although there are preliminary indica- tions of these reasons, much more research is necessary to develop a logical plan to restore the talent and expertise of female educators to areas of educational administration where it is so desperately needed. American education of children has traditionally been char- acterized as a "woman's field." Historically and culturally, women were viewed as able and willing to manage the organizational struc- ture and environment of America's youth. Dame schools were the acceptable mode of formal learning for youth. Women were considered the educational leaders. Current statistics, however, reflect a change of command. Although women hold 67 percent of all public school teaching positions, they occupy less than 16 percent of the administrative positions.10 In a national survey conducted in 1970-71, only 15 percent of principals and .6 percent of superintendents were female. The women who were in administration were concentrated in the elementary schools. There were 19 percent of elementary principals and 10mm. 34 percent of elementary assistant principals who were women. Even this percentage is changing. One study concluded in the 19605 that many retiring women elementary school principals were being replaced 11 by men. A young man recently out of college, with a few hours of administrative credit and a recommendation by the superintendent and the school board, is frequently selected for a principal position . . 1 over better trained, more experienced women. 2 A recent study expresses very well the unfortunate effects of the decline of female leadership opportunity in the schools. This decline of women in administrative roles in education is a major concern for public education and for our society. It is of particular importance now, at a time when our society is involved in the reevaluation of traditional sex roles and the limitation placed by sex role stereotypes upon the opportunities of women and men to make maximum contribu- tions to our society and to enjoy the full range of human experience. 3 The effect of the scarcity of women in administrative roles reaches right into the classroom. Role modeling is being jeopardized. Female students who never experience women in a leadership capacity are unlikely to develop career aspirations beyond stereotyped female 14 roles. In addition, women teachers themselves have a clear need nNorma Q. Hare, "The Vanishing Woman Principal," National Elementary Principal 45 (April 1966): 12. 12Ibid. 13Suzanne Howard, “Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools?" National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975, p. l. MIbid. to emulate successful female managers who have realized ambitions to excel in administrative careers: Another urgent need is to provide role models for aspiring women, since there are few practitioners for them to observe and emulate. Models cannot be provided of course, until women are appointed to executive level positions in school districts, . . .15 If a woman sees positions formerly maintained by female leadership steadily become unbalanced by the dominant influx of men, a feeling of the impossible may prevail. To the young woman teacher who harbors aspirations for a principalship, the preponderance of males in her administra- tion class may lead her to wonder what her chances are of making a significant contribution to education as an elemen- tary principal. U.S. education would clearly profit if better sexual bal- ance in educational leadership were achieved. Competent leader- ship should not be wasted. School districts need to re-evaluate and tap evident sources of responsible administration, male and female. The root causes of the continuing obstruction to success by women achievers must be sought out by much research of the type done in conjunction with this dissertation. The consequence of failure to remedy the sexual imbalance in U.S. educational leader- ship is well described by one educator: 15Glenda Lee Landon, "Perceptions of Sex Role Stereotyping and Women Teachers' Administrative Career Aspirations" (Ph.D. dis- sertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975), p. 197. 16Clare Broadhead et al., "The Woman Principal, Going the Way 3f the Buffalo?" The National Elementary Principal 45 (April 1966 : 6. In the coming years, if education does not begin using the untapped leadership abilities of women, it seems that the results will be predictable. At a time when good and perhaps great leadership is needed in education, the pool of leader- ship development must be expanded to include women or we must all learn to live with the mediocrity which is certain to result from a restricted source of leadership talent. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this dissertation, then, is to investigate the relationship between the scarcitytyfwomen in educational administra- tion and the administrative career aspirations of women teachers. It may be assumed that discrimination and sex-typing of occupations are two apparent causes for having so few women in administrative jobs. But investigation of less obvious factors is a worthy objec- tive of intensive research. It is only through the employment of the results of such research that erroneous notions about feminine capa- bilities in administrative jobs can be countered. Is it, for example, that: . Women don't want the responsibility, or it is assumed women don't want the responsibility? . Women can't handle the job, or it is assumed women can't handle the job? . Women are too emotional, or 18 it is assumed women are too emotional? It is the stated purpose of the dissertation, therefore, to expand upon the research title and to explore whether or not multi- factors, such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, 17Charlene T. Dale, "Women Are Still Missing Persons in Admin- istrative and Supervisory Jobs," Educational Leadership, November 1973, p. 125. 181bid., p. 123. 10 psychological aspects, and the world of work, may have an influence on women teachers in their aspirations for a position in educational f I administration. Significance of the Study Operating on the premise that women can be married, suc- cessful, and career oriented, and that society needs a balance of human talent to maintain effective educational institutions, it is of considerable significance to research in some depth factors that act to limit female opportunities in educational administra- tion. Feminine acceptance of their limited role in educational leadership, as described below, can and should be reversed by proper education: The pattern that emerges is that women who strive to achieve are systematically discouraged from reaching for their high- est human potential. Growing numbers of women in education, as in other fields, are becoming increasingly aware that the employment options Open to females are extremely limited and that if you happen to be born female you have little control over your professional life.20 Academic research must respond to the necessity of educating women to the connection between their awareness of the obstacle course leading to administrative hiring, and their aspirations toward administrative jobs. It is hoped that studies like this one may be significant if they gather data concerning the conditions under which more women are likely to aSpire; the environments in which women are more apt to succeed in administration; and the pitfalls 2Duane, "WomenAre Still Missing Persons," p. 125. 11 which can be pointed out by women who have aSpired to administrative roles and failed.21 Assumptions This dissertation was based on two assumptions: 1. Women, in general, are as capable and trainable as their male counterparts of discharging the responsibilities of educational administrative positions. 2. Sex should not be a consideration in selecting qualified individuals for educational administrative positions. Definition of Terms Career Management Aspirations-~Active and/or passive desire for a managerial position which is characterized by movement from one to another level in a hierarchy.22 Educational Administrative Positions--Those educational positions designated as line positions of management. These would include: district superintendency, assistant superintendency, secondary principalship, elementary principalship, and central office staff personnel appointed in line of command.23 Multiple Factors--Elements which may correctly or incor- rectly influence career profession. They include: cultural 2lLandon, "Perceptions of Sex Role Stereotyping," p. 193. 22Robert J. Havighurst and Bernice L. Neugarten, Society and Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967), p. 484. 23Landon, "Perceptions of Sex Role Stereotyping," p. 116. 12 considerations, educational factors, personal perspectives, psycho- logical aspects, and the influence of the world of work. Research Hypotheses The research hypotheses of the dissertation are: 1. Population Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and the intent of one to aspire for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and the influence of demographic characteristics on one's aspiration for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and the influence of cultural factors on one's aspiration for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and influence of educational factors on one's aspiration for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and influence of personal perspectives on one's aspira- tion for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and the influence of psychological considerations on one's aspiration for an educational administrative position? Is there a relationship between the sex of an individual and the impact of the world of work on one's aspiration for an educational administrative position? Design of the Study The population of the study consisted of the men and women teachers in Groups II, IV, and VI of the Michigan School Districts 13 as defined by the Michigan Association of School Boards in Lansing, Michigan.24 Sample A systematic random sample was taken of 400 men and women teachers selected on the basis of every fifth name from a population of 4,226. The Michigan Education Association computed the sample and provided the mechanical labeling materials to be used in the survey. Procedure A structured questionnaire was designed based on the follow- ing: a review of pertinent literature pertaining to women's aspira- tions in educational administration; consultation with individual women teachers who demonstrated experiential knowledge of women's aSpirations in education; and the advisement of trained personnel who had previously done formal and informal research on women in leadership positions. The questionnaire was designed to determine those multiple factors which teachers perceive as barriers to obtaining educational administrative positions. At the suggestion of the writer's doctoral committee, male teachers were included in the questionnaire survey as a means of comparison and contrast with the indicated view of female teacher respondents. To this end, the questionnaire was 24The Groups were selected from the four counties in Michigan around Michigan State University: Ingham County, Clinton County, Eaton County, and Shiawassee County. 14 mailed to men and women teachers by the dissertation writer in order to ensure as much validity and accuracy as possible in the procedural task. Limitations of the Study 1. The data collected were based on one specific geographical location--The State of Michigan: school districts, Grouped II, IV, and VI, as defined by the Michigan Association of School Boards in Lansing, Michigan. 2. The validity of the study was affected by the degree of sincerity and frankness of response to the instrument administered. 3. The investigation was limited to five categories of women teachers' educational administrative aspirations: cultural considerations, educational factors, personal perspectives, psycho- logical aspects, and the world of work. These factors were treated as opposed to legal or organizational determinants. 4. The descriptive nature of the study represents a limita- tion inasmuch as it only describes what is perceived to be true--not what is true. 5. The findings of the relationship between factors cited in the previous statements are viewed as correlational and not causal. Summary and Overview The general purpose of Chapter I has been to briefly intro- duce the rationale for and implementation procedures of the study. Most of the material in this chapter will be expanded upon in later chapters. Concepts have been explained in this chapter on the 15 basis of preliminary research and resulting observations of the writer. The thrust of this in-depth examination of the attitudes and opinions of men and women teachers, which is developed in later chapters, is to determine the need for professional educators to develop a broad plan of action that will more equally incorporate the services of women in the educational administration of public schools throughout the country. Research questions and statements have been suggested deal- ing with the aspirations of women educators. The assumptions have been stated, the design of the study outlined, and the problem explained. In Chapter II the literature related to the study will be explored. In Chapter III the procedures will be defined dealing with the basis for the selection of the population and the sample. Instrumentation and techniques of analysis will be reviewed and reported. Chapter IV will contain a summary of the statistical results. In Chapter V the study will be summarized, conclusions stated, and recommendations made. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND RELATED MATERIAL Introduction This chapter will be devoted to reviewing some of the litera- ture and related material which is background to, or in other ways related to, the original research undertaken for purposes of this dissertation. A setting from the literature will be established in which to present the dissertation's research and its conclusions concerning the career aspirations of women teachers. Several subjects mentioned in Chapter I will be expanded upon. The following topics will be discussed: 1. 0501th Women in contemporary professions Women in history Women in education Women in educational administration Women and sex-bias in educational leadership Women's aspiration in the education profession Women's diminishing role in educational leadership Women in the Contemporary Professions When speaking of "the literature" associated with scholarly pursuits, one normally refers to the written presentation of the results of formal academic research. The evolution of the role of 16 17 women in contemporary professions, however, has so accelerated in the late 19705 that it is impossible for formal research to keep pace. As this chapter was being prepared, a front-page article in the New York Times provided a remarkable account of an instance in which the mask which normally conceals sex-bias in the professions was torn away in a most dramatic fashion.1 As indicated in Chapter I, the woman of the late 19705 looks to the courts to secure those rights which she has won in law. If the allegations in the Iimg§_ article are correct, it is ironic that the display of male bias against a professional woman was openly exhibited in a courtroom by an officer of the court, and apparently tolerated by the presiding judge. Because those events took place during a sensational mur- der trial, they were widely reported. This type of media report- ing may reduce female aspirations to become lawyers. Because this dissertation deals with female aspirations in a related profession, it is appropriate to summarize the courtroom incident as a relevant case study. In March 1978 former teacher Mrs. Sybil Moses, then a New Jersey prosecuting attorney, was found in contempt by the judge pre- siding over a case in which a doctor was accused of murdering five patients. The following day the prosecutor's office called on the judge to withdraw from the case. The Iimgs_seemed to support Mrs. Moses' contention that the judge harassed her, treating her as 1New York Times, April 3, 1978. All the information and quotations concerning the trial are taken from this article. 18 a novice while deferring to the defense attorney. The latter, Raymond Brown, a leading criminal lawyer, openly expressed to the press his low opinion and dislike of Mrs. Moses and women lawyers in general. Mrs. Moses charged that Brown taunted, insulted, and mocked her and was implicitly encouraged by the judge. The Ijgggi reported that once when Mrs. Moses was speaking, Brown "wiggled his hips in an effeminate gesture." Brown repeatedly in court proceed- ings referred disparagingly to the female prosecutor as a "school- teacher." He once interrupted her statement to the court with the sarcastic question: "Is school in session?" Brown also accused her in court of not knowing legal rules and improperly phrasing ques- tions. Throughout the trial, the judge tended to lecture Mrs. Moses but not Brown. At a bench conference, the judge was overheard to say to Mrs. Moses: "We shouldn't have to teach you the basic rules here." The judge used Brown's name correctly from the outset of the trial but for weeks had trouble remembering Mrs. Moses' name. Occasionally the judge expressed anger when asked by Mrs. Moses to restrain Brown from interrupting her. At one point the judge snapped: "Don't you tell me what to do." Despite Mrs. Moses' difficult situation, she told reporters that it helps a trial attorney to be a woman because people remember and relate to the few women who practice law in the courtroom. The newspaper article described the 38-year-old Mrs. Moses as wearing stylishly tailored clothes but being stiff in her movements. By way of contrast, Brown was said to wear baggy suits and to be relaxed and 19 confident. He was most forthcoming with reporters about his back- ground. Brown, a 62-year-old black man, was born in poverty in Florida. He is frequently mistaken for white. His father, whom Brown admired, was an illiterate laborer who had no use for school. He "went to his grave at 87 clinging steadfastly to his illiteracy." Perhaps important in shaping Brown's attitude toward women--particu- larly professional women--wa5 his father's belief that "reading was for women." Brown, who has been active in many civil-rights causes, is quick to inform people that he is black. It is pertinent to this study to note that a black attorney, who worked his way through college and law school and battled race-inspired prejudice, makes no secret according to press reports that he dislikes women in his pro- fession. This should be far from encouraging to women who aspire to leadership roles in any profession, whether it be law or education. If those who have felt the lash of prejudice themselves are not in sympathy with women's campaign for equality under the law and in the legal profession, the modern feminist is fighting a lonely battle. If the alleged attitude of the 64-year-old judge in this case is typical, women cannot look for support to the conservative establish- ment either. The judge was educated in Ohio, a state with a reputa- tion for conservatism. Like Mrs. Moses, he was a New Jersey assis- tant prosecutor for a time before becoming a judge in the early 19605. He rejected the prosecution's request that he disqualify himself in this case and in the process was critical of the New York Times' reporting of his conduct. 20 Women in History If women who are making current headlines are not faring well in the professional esteem of some men, neither are some of the famous women of history. Sidney Hook might be designated as representative of historical perspectives regarding women. In a study entitled Ihg_ Hero in History, Hook indicates that the influence of one of the oldest of well-known women, Cleopatra, "has been enormously exaggerated and she herself has been the subject of romantic myths that are great 2 poetry but poor history." Hook, however, does attribute what influ- ence Cleopatra did have, more to intellectual qualities than to sexual appeal: Like most women who have played some role in history, Cleo- patra's influence was achieved by influencing men. And like most women who have influenced eventful men, Cleopatra owed her success not so much to her beauty as to qualities of intelligence, will, personality and an obscure appeal that does not depend upon face or figure. And again: Cleopatra was not a great courtesan but a shrewd politician with overreaching ambitions, who fought a losing battle to preserve the independence of her empire. The preservation of her empire was the fixed principle of her policy, to which she showed a far greater constancy than to any of her royal lovers. She was willing to learn to love anybody who would save her dynasty.4 Although Hook gives a somewhat higher estimate of the influ- ence on history of Theodora, he hedges his assessment by stating that she "at most must be regarded as a potentially event-making 5 woman." He writes that de5pite her successful manipulations of 2Sidney Hook, The Hero in History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1943). p. 176. 3 4 Ibid., p. 177. Ibid., p. 178. 5 Ibid., p. 180. 21 the military, the politicians, two popes, and Emperor Justinian himself, the heresies Theodora championed made little permanent headway, she bankrupted the imperial treasury, and shared responsi- bility for the crumbling of Justinian's empire. As in the case of Cleopatra, Hook attributes Theodora's historical influence more to intelligence than to beauty: In short, she showed herself the keenest statesman in the whole line of Byzantine rulers. As a woman she was attrac- tive but her contemporaries thought her more graceful than beautiful and were more impressed by her spirit, intelligence and sharp wit. Only to Catherine 11 does Hook attribute high historical sig- nificance and even this distinction is grudgingly yielded, and modi- fied with the statement: "It is difficult to evaluate her influ- ."7 Again, however, Hook acknowledges, as with the other ence. . . two women, that Catherine's success was not due to feminine attrac- tiveness but to her unique intelligence: She was not beautiful enough to hold her own husband whom she deposed and murdered in order to clear the way for herself. And although she never denied the needs of her passionate nature, she did not allow any of her favorites to swerve her from her fixed policy. . . . In his account of these three women, Hook seems too much the revisionist. For some reasons he does not explain, he believes that positive influences are automatically of more historical signifi- cance than negative influences. His stress of the importance of intelligence over beauty of famous women leaders is a more important feature of his commentary. History is not devoid of women in the 6 7 8 Ibid. Ibid., p. 181. Ibid., p. 152. 22 highest management roles. They won these positions, for the most part, by their intellectual qualities rather than by sexual appeal. This view is in contrast to one which downgrades female capabilities and promotes sex—bias against women in contemporary education. That the latter view is not uncommon, we shall shortly see confirmed by test results. Women in Education According to Taylor, women did not participate in the educa- tional process during the beginning years of American schooling.9 Women were considered homemakers and outside careers were taboo. The first female involvement in the educational system took place in the seventeenth century in "dame school" where young boys were pre- pared for the standard village school. Actual male and female academies were not established until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.10 The "dame school" grew in support and popularity in Massa— chusetts between 1639 and 1680. Taylor reports that by 1682 Springfield, Massachusetts, contracted with a headmistress, "Goodwife Merrick," to support her educational endeavors which allowed girls to receive an education as well as boys:]] "The girls learned to read, but usually were not taught to write because they might learn how to forge their future husband's signature."12 9Suzanne Taylor, "Women in Education," 51% Minority, Connecti- .cut Conference on the Status of Women (National Education Association, 1972), pp. 61-68. 10 11 12 Ibid., p. 61. Ibid. Ibid. 23 The Civil War provided opportunity for women to fill posi- tions in the classrooms as teachers mainly because the men went off to fight the war. As a result the demands for qualified women edu- cators emerged: But to do the same task as men, the women had to receive an equal education. From this point in time women made steady progress. By 1870 nearly two-thirds of all public school teachers were women and the careers of women educators blos- somed up to the passage of the 19th Amendmegt in 1920 when they reached the plateau of their success. During the depression years of the late 19205, the 19305, and continuing through the years following World War, II, there was a decline in the involvement of women in education and specifically in educational administration. Statistics reveal that the percentage of women elementary principals to the total number declined between 1951 and 1962, from 56 percent to 37 percent.14 The decline in the percentage of women was no less dramatic at the level of secondary principals, school superintendents, and higher education administra- tors. Current studies disclose that the same type of administrative decline continues today. Taylor believes that these trends are rooted in certain historical aspects of women's education: Although girls were permitted to attend the "dame schools," and the private venture schools, they were informed that intellectUglity, politics and philosophy were not intended for them. What has come to be known as the Women's Rights Movement of 1792 supported the need for coeducational institutions. While female 13 14 15 Ibid., p. 62. Ibid. Ibid. 24 academies were in vogue until 1850, the innovation of public high schools provided the optimum environment for equal education oppor- tunities for women: Despite the conflicting opinions about education and what education of women should be, by the 18805 the basic problem appeared to have been resolved. Most state universities admitted women on a par with men, and they were producing many outstanding women educators. The move for equal education for women, however, had many critics. Hiring practices involving women educators were influenced by such factors as: the appropriateness of women teachers for boys over ten years of age; teaching work as an alleged strain on the physical make-up of women; and the belief that women were out of their element in principalships. Employment trends in the 19305, 19405, and 19505 provided some evidence that even women themselves questioned whether they belonged in the professions. In 1960, 11 percent of the professional work force was female, compared to 15 percent in 1930. Yet more women were attending college in 1960 than in 1930.17 Contemporary women are confused as to their status in the field of education. Psychologists and educational specialists cite a variety of causes for the vanishing woman educator. Among them are: personal attitude changes, consistent stereotyping, and conflict of roles. In 1890, nine-tenths of teachers were females, but by 1971 18 the percentage had been reduced to two—thirds. Taylor is pessi- mistic about the possibility of large numbers of women continuing 1616id.. pp. 63-64. 17Ibid., p. 65. 18Ibid. 25 in education during the future. Women, therefore, may well lose their prominence in a profession in which they had developed great strength over the years: "The prognosis for women in education appears unfavorable. At this juncture women must unite and fight to protect even the status quo."19 Suzanne Howard examines in her research teaching as a "female 20 She main- occupation" and arrives at some interesting conclusions. tains that not only the shortage of men during the Civil War, but the fact that women were anxious to get out of their homes and enter the professions, explained the willingness of women to work for half the wages of men. Howard submits that the gradual predominance gained by women in teaching "labeled" teaching as a low-status profession, and, indeed, by some a semi-profession.2] Her prognosis of a further decline in the percentage of women teachers attributes this reduction to an infiltration by men not only of the teaching profession but of other professions formerly dominated by women, as well: Men are not only gradually infiltrating the teaching profes- sion but other female occupations as well, e.g., nursing administration, social work, library science. However, while female occupations have become less segregative, or more open about including males, male occupations continue to be resis- tant to female entry. It may be argued that sex-typing of occupation gets in the way of finding the best qualified per- son for the job. What is needed to reduce sex-typing in education is not greater inducements to bring men into the 19Ibid., p. 67. 20Suzanne Howard, "Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools?" The Status of Women Public School Teachers and the Factors Hindering Their Promotion IntBFAdministration (Arlington, Virginia: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975), pp. 1-23. 2'16id., p. s. 26 profession (higher salaries) but rather a broadening of alternatives for women. Whatever the reasons, the evidence is quite clear that women in education are statistically diminishing. Sexton comments: The phenomenal growth of secondary and especially higher education greatly diminished the numerical dominance of women. In 1970, male teachers, including those in higher education, almost equalled the number of female teachers--1.2 million and 1.7 million respectively. In 1930, women teachers were almost four times as numerous as males--819,000 and 216,000 respectively.23 Women in Educational Administration As dramatic as the diminishing percentage of women in educa- tion is, it is overshadowed in significance by the very small per- centage of women in educational administration positions. Tables 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate the imbalance of women in instructional staff work as compared with those in line and staff administrative posi- tions. The obvious difficulties, as indicated by the tables below, which women encounter in being appointed as elementary principals, secondary principals, superintendents, and associate superintendents fully justify the concern of women about their place in the educa- tional profession. 'Several relevant studies of leadership in the field of edu- cation were conducted during the 19505 and 19605. They revealed some interesting characteristics of women administrators. 221m. 23Patricia Cayo Sexton, Women in Education (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, 1976), p. 15. 27 Table 2.1.--Percentage of women among all teachers in selected years. Elementary Elementary Secondary and Secondary 1957-58 87.2 49.6 73.2 1960-61 85.8 47.2 70.7 1963-64 85.5 46.1 68.9 1966-67 85.4 64.0 68.3 1970-71 84.7 45.9 67.2 1971-72 84.5 45.8 66.9 Source: Estimates of School Statistics, 1971-72, National Education Association, Research Report, 1971473. Reprinted in Patricia Cayo Sexton, Women in Education (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, 1976), p. 15. In 1955, Niles and Grobman wrote about three types of leader- 24 The first is democratic leadership, which involves QVOUP ship. policy making and individual creativity and initiative. This type of leadership provides two-way communication as a by-product. The second type is authoritarian leadership, which assigns decision making to the status leader and his inner circle. The third kind is called laissez-faire leadership. It is the least desirable and results in failures to assume leadership responsibility and/or take action. Niles and Grobman believed that through certain test situations, the leadership style of the administrator would emerge. In one study of men and women administrators in Florida, the women ranked significantly 24Kimball Niles and Hulda Gross Grobman, "Principals as Leaders," Nation's Schools 56 (October 1955): 75-77. 28 ...-o. .6. ..o.m. .maaax 63.69 .5. .mcmpvc. .co»m:_soo.mv co_uou:um cw case: .couxmm oxmu c_u_.uoa ”mucaom no.mo u..om no.oc. omm...e.. ~6¢.Omm ~.~.~om.~ mpaxo.a=p .aco.mmpcoca 65..-..5. .686. o.m~ ..eh, o.oo. m.s.o. .mm.w¢ oom.mo meooacom.=.scm pu...o-.ac.=pc .aoc. ~.om m.mo o.oo. m...~ .mm.e mce.. mecca .uphnsm .a.caam m.o¢ ..mm o.oo. mmo.m mvm.m .wm.o. co..acum.=.sua .mco..uscomc. m.mm ...m o.oo. ¢.m.~ 6mm.v o.m.. mac.>cam .a==6mcca ..asa m.m m..a o.oo. com omm.o omm.o .=6.a .oogum 6:6 66:66.. ~.me m..m c.oo. e.o.e mam.m 4.6.o. co.uacom.=.spa .mcpcpo "Low acouccum_:_su< ~.m. m.em o.oo. 6mm amm.. mem.~ .caucp.=.caa=m 6;. 6. 68:686.mma ps.pacom.=.su< o.~ ...m o.oo. cm. o.~.e No¢.e mucpccaoc.caa=m occum.mm< m.. m.~a o.oo. mm 8.6 .m. mucaucpoc.cca=m 686.cowma 6:6 x8366: 6.0 «.mo o.oo. as om~.¢. m.m.e. mocaucouc.can=m . "muouocumwcwsc< oupwmo pocucou o.mm o.mm o.oo. mme.eme.. ..¢.~m. oom.om~.~ ccapm .mco.puscpm=. .686. c..o «.mm o.oo. emm.m. mme.mm .6..m. .Laom .mco..p=c.m=. 263.6 .636. m.mm ...e o.oo. wwm mmm mom coupon Ho: co Lagos N.mm m.o o.oo. m.m.m. em. omo.m. mpmcs: .oogum ..¢m ¢.m¢ c.oo. mm..~ .Nm.. omm.m 635.cupeocuama 6:6 mom.mo.o;csma m.~m m... o.oo. .mo.e .mo.. ~oo.e ”Lacuna“ m=.p.m.> 26\u=6 626.co: .a.uom a.o¢ ..mm o.oo. .m¢.m. .mm.o~ mem.mm meo.am=sou e..¢ o.m o.oo. mmo.m~ mme.~ .m..om 6:6.cacn.. .oogum m.om N.mc c.co. omm.m mac.» m.e.~. mangSLaapp .6 pump: .wuaum pocopuozcamcp Lozuo o.mp o.mm o.oo. com.m mm~.m. mm~.mm m.~n_ucpcn acoumpmmu .auoh a.m ...m o.oo. QNOA. mmm.o. mos... ga.=-cc.=pm .... a.mo c.oc. mm. -o.o ....o sa.g-cc.=sa «.mm ~.me o.oo. .nk.. mmm.m a...m scaocasp.m nm_oa_u:_.a accum.mm< m.mpi ..em o.oo. mm..o. lmoe.am om~.oh m.ag.u=.ca .686. o.m o..a o.oo. 5.6 mem.m. no..m. gm.g-co.=pm m.n m.om o.oo. o.m ~.e.m ~m..m ga.;-co.==a ~.om m.so o.oo. ma..~ moo.m .o~.. m.~a.c=.ca m=.gupap-.caucpsp.w ¢.a. o.om o.oo. mem.. moo.~m mme.c¢ .gaucasu.u .m—ua_ucpca u~..o um.~m uo.oc. omm.mom.. .m...mm .mm.¢mo.~ «smegma. "c.68m .cco.uc=.um:. case: so: pouch case: co: .uuop copunawgum_o acmugoa mcomgoq we Logan: =6...mca .Amu_wmo .mcucou wen wmoum .m:o_uuagumcwv xmm an ._~io~m. .mmmxa—aso .acowmmomOLQ .oogum u__a=n ae_u-._=m mo :o_u:a.gumwu acoogoa new guess: touos_umu--.~.~ «pan» 29 25 To further test the higher than the men as democratic principals. hypothesis, Grobman and Hines conducted a similar study in Florida the following year.26 The study involved test situations which included the schools, teachers, students, parents, and members of the communities in which the principals worked. The findings confirmed the previous search. Women were identified with the democratic leadership style more often than men. Seawell and Canady's critical review added insights concerning women administrators provided in two relatively recent studies regard- 27 The first study was ing women as elementary school principals. conducted by the National Association of Elementary Principals in 1968. The second similar study was conducted in the Commonwealth of Virginia for the Virginia Association of Elementary School Principals. The authors note the following conclusions of the studies:28 1. Both for the nation and for Virginia, women holding posi- tions as elementary school principals were older than men principals. 2. Only 39.1 percent of men elementary school principals included in the study in Virginia reported the elementary principal- ship as their final professional goal. 0n the other hand, 71.6 per- cent of the women principals did list it as their final goal. The 25Ibid., p. 75. 26Hulda Gross Grobman and Vynce A. Hines, "What Makes a Good Principal," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary Prin- cipals 4O (NovemBer 1956): 5116. 27William H. Seawell and Robert Lynn Canady, "Where Have All the Women Gone?" National Elementary Principal 53 (May-June 1974): 46-48. 2816id.. pp. 46-47. 30 authors indicate that most men consider the elementary principalship as a stepping stone to higher levels of educational management. 3. The Virginia study further revealed that 27 percent of the men reported had nine or fewer years of experience in education, compared to only 5.5 percent of the women. Further, 27.6 percent of the men had 20 or more years of experience, compared to 45 percent of the women. Again, men entered the elementary school principalship at an earlier age than did women. 4. In the Virginia study, male elementary principals had far less actual experience in teaching children of elementary school than female principals had. 5. Only 34.3 percent of the men had ten or more years of experience in the elementary principalship, compared to 47.9 percent of the women. 6. More than half of the men reported in the Virginia study had been in their present positions for three or fewer years. Only 16.7 percent of the men had been in their present positions for ten or more years. Conversely, only 36.2 percent of women had three or fewer years experience. Further, 32.9 percent of the women had ten or more years experience in the present position. 7. Concerning educational preparation, 10.4 percent of the men majored in secondary administration and 30.1 percent majored in general school administration. Only 2.8 percent of the men studied majored in elementary supervision and curriculum. On the other hand, 34.8 percent of the women majored in elementary school admin- istration, 11.6 percent in elementary instruction, and 22.3 percent 31 in elementary curriculum and supervision. It was concluded that the women were better prepared for their specific positions. 8. The Virginia study also suggested that women principals devoted more time than did men to professional growth activities. 9. Seventy percent of all male elementary school principals were employed for a full 12 months, compared to 48.1 percent of the women. 10. Women principals in the Virginia study were more influen- tial than their male counterparts in selecting instructional mate- rials for their schools. 11. Women principals tended to work more cooperatively with faculty committees than male principals, who frequently dominated the selection of specific instructional methods used. The research of the above studies analyzed certain perceived differences in performance, training, and experience between male and female leaders. It concluded that at the very least, women are equally as competent as males in the leadership areas of organiza- tion, human relations, experience, and curriculum mastery. Seawell and Canady conclude: From the data and observations presented, it is obvious that a large number of competent persons are being overlooked in the selection of elementary school principals. Two things are apparent: (1) women perform at least as well in the ele- mentary school principalship as do men and (2) they are not being selected on the same basis as are men to fill these positions. 2916id., p. 48. 32 Suzanne E. Ester reviewed studies conducted from 1964 to 30 1973. They are similar to the Florida study, the Virginia study, and the study done by NAEP. She concurs with the implications for women: The results support the notion that there are few significant differences in leader behavior of men and women principals. In general, women principals are perceived as slightly stronger, especially on people-oriented aspects of their jobs, such as working with students and representing staff. . . . In short these studies would indicate that the perceived effectiveness of women as leaders is certainly as high as the perceived effectiveness of their male counterparts, if not higher.31 Fishel and Pottker summarize the major behavioral and atti- tudinal studies regarding women principals from the early 19505 to 1975.32 They discuss findings in such areas as: instructional super- vision, relations with students, relations with parents and commu- nity, general administration, teacher attitudes toward women princi- pals, and attitudes of women principals toward their job. The results of the behavioral studies confirm earlier findings: The behavioral studies clearly indicate that in terms of ability to supervise and administer a school and to main- tain good relations with students and parents, the few women who have been able to obtain administrative positions have performed as capabgy as, if not more capably than, their male counterpart.3 30Suzanne E. Ester, "Women as Leaders in Public Education," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society_l (Winter 1975): 363-86. 311bid., p. 375. 32Andrew Fishel and Janice Pottker, "Performance of Women Principals: A Review of Behavioral and Attitudinal Studies," Journal of NAWDAC 3 (Spring 1975): 110-17. 33Ibid., p. 113. 33 It is significant to note in concluding this section that most studies of women administrators of necessity were conducted in the area of elementary principalships. This is clearly due to the dearth of women secondary principals and superintendents. Women and Sex-Bias in Educational Leadership It was established in the last section that of the total number of individuals in elementary and secondary school administra- tion, women, despite their high degree of competence, experience, and training, constitute only a small percentage. It is appropriate to next review the primary reasons indicated by research why this is true. The findings of attitudinal studies as summarized by Fishel and Pottker are enlightening: The results from these attitudinal studies indicate that there is prejudice shown by most male teachers, school superinten- dents and school board members against women serving as prin- cipals. As a result, the criteria currently used to recruit and hire principals is not related to characteristics needed for effective performance as principal. Sex has been the determinant in appointment to principalships rather than ability.34 Table 2.3 shows the percentage of elementary school prin- cipals who were women. Until recently, legal redress against discriminatory prac- tices and policies was difficult to obtain. Today new federal legislation makes legal recourse more practical. Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act of 1972, Executive Orders 11246 and 11375, 34Ibid., p. 115. 34 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Equal Pay Act all require educational institutions receiving federal funds to avoid unequal treatment on the basis of sex.35 The guidelines on sex discrimination issued by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1972), which enforces Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, includes employees of public and private educational institutions. As a result, each school district is mandated to comply with EEOC guidelines.36 Table 2.3.--Percent of elementary school principals who were women. Year Percent Women Principals 1928 55 1948 41 1958 38 1968 22 1971 21 1973 20 Source: Andrew Fishel and Janice Pottker, "Performance of Women Principals: A Review of Behavioral and Attitudinal Studies," Journal of NAWDAC 3 (Spring 1975): 110. The occupation of teaching is inexorably associated with the general trend of sex-typing in all occupations. As indicated earlier, 35Howard, "WhyAren't Women Administering Our Schools?" p. 11. 36Jacqueline Parker Clement, Sex Bias in School Leadership (Evanston, Illinois: Integrated Education Associates, 1975), p. 44. 35 men are not only infiltrating the teaching profession but other occu- pations traditionally associated with women as well, e.g., nursing, social work, library science.37 Howard cites national statistics: In the last 10 years the number of men teachers increased at a rate of 59 percent while women teachers increased only 37 percent. The most dramatic increase has been at the secon- dary leve1--a 67 percent increase in male teachers in the last decade. In the same period the increase in the ele- mentary schools was 39 percent.38 Clement confirms this type of sex bias from a historical perspective: Historically, sex discrimination at the elementary and secon- dary level has been an accepted mode of behavior. Dual pay schedules for men and women public school teachers have not been uncommon. Pregnant women are not allowed to teach in many systems. Until World War II married women were often disqualified from teaching. That boys and girls are subject to different treatment in schools has also been well docu- mented. Sex-role stereotyping in terms of classes programs and activities is accepted as a matter of course.39 40 In the high school, mathematics Howard elaborates further. background courses are generally taught by men, as are math, science and the social sciences. Women still predominate in teaching English and foreign languages. Vocational education as well as physical edu- cation still, for the most part, maintain separate instructional staffs. Men instruct boys; women instruct girls. At the elementary and secondary levels, status and prestige are measured by the age of the children taught. High school teachers, 37Howard, "Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools?" p. 5. 38Ibid. 39 4O Clement, Sex Bias in School Leadership, p. 27. Howard, "Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools?" pp. 6-7. 36 therefore, are usually somewhat higher on the educational social ladder than are elementary teachers. The "move" is usually "up" to secondary schools. The interesting fact is that men predominate at the secondary levels and hence a sex-ranking phenomenon is evident: According to NEA, men have been concentrated at the high school level since 1957-58. About 2 out of 3 male teachers are in high school, and men are now a slight majority of the teaching population at that level. In 1972-73 women still made up 83.5 percent of the elementary teaching force. 1 Another form that sex-bias takes is occupational stratifica- tion. Men become the superintendents or take over other prestigious positions. Most females in central office management occupy service or staff roles. Major responsibility is assigned to line super- visors, most of whom are men. The statistics on women at the super- intendency level attest to the fact that "of an estimated total of 144379 superintendents, ODIV 90 are reported to be women."42 Schmuck attributes sex-bias toward women as leaders in edu- cation to men as the manipulators of the profession: Men always have held positions of control in our public schools. Even when women have held management positions, they have typically not been in authority either to give direc- tions or to hire or fire subordinates. Men manage the schools and men are the gatekeepers to admit those who will hold man- agement positions in schools. Men as gatekeepers to the pro- fession--consciously and unconsciously, formally and informally --encourage males and discourage females from becoming adminis- trators. Clearly, the gontrol of our schools is structurally differentiated by sex.4 41 42 43Patricia Ann Schmuck, Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration (Arlington, Virginia: National Council of Administra- tive Women in Education, 1975), p. 86. Ibid., p. 7. Clement, Sex Bias in School Leadership, p. 5. 37 Schmuck uses psychological theories to explain male educators' resistance to women in school management. Men, she concludes, have a need to believe that women are inferior in ability because: 1. Society devalues women. Educators accept society's norms. 2. Men in education generally have a lower self-image because they are in what is considered to be a predominantly female field. 3. The typical personal life style of the male educational administrator is believed by men to be incompatible with society's view of what every woman's life style should be.44 Educators are usually accepting of societal norms, and schools generally reflect the social order. Women are viewed as best suited to be homemakers, good wives, and mothers. Cultural confir- mation of female stereotyping, Schmuck asserts, is still the popular norm. She writes: “Women who are in leadership positions in the schools belie the acceptable sex role norms for women."45 Men generally strive to prove their own self-worth and promi- nence in their work world. Men in education have a difficult task in this regard because the profession does not compare with law, medicine, or business as a masculine field. As Schmuck remarks: To share responsibility with women will be to share prestige with women. In our society, women as second class citizens detract--rather than add--to the prestige of the occupational position. Men in an accepted "female" occupation must continually strive to validate their self-worth. This sometimes takes the form of unjustly disparaging women to elevate themselves. 44Ibid., p. 102. 4516id., p. 103. 46Ibid., p. 105. 38 Finally, the typical life style of a woman in education does not conform to the general criterion which has been set as a stan- dard for administrators by men. Male school administrators find it possible to make a full-time commitment to the job because of suppor- tive wives and families. Since society views a woman's role as "help- ing" her husband and children, the woman administrator finds it difficult at best to ignore those responsibilities. The notion of women pursuing a career as well as "having" a husband and children seems to many people to be totally contradictory. Schmuck writes that, "In addition, the husbands of females who are administrators are viewed with some suspicion," for "what kind of man would 'allow his wife' to pursue such a masculine role?"47 A career woman with definite ambitions and aspirations can often be a source of confusion for males who believe in commonly accepted sex role behavior. From the foregoing, it seems logical to conclude that if sex-bias in education is to be eliminated, it must be the responsi- bility of the educational institutions themselves. It is at the institutional level that programs and policies must be initiated to end discriminatory employment practices. Educators, themselves, must be the leaders in the endeavor. Lyon and Saario list several recommendations concerning what can be done at the local, state, and national levels in order to eliminate sex-bias. Some suggestions for the local level are: 47Ibid., p. 106. 39 1. That school districts publicly identify and eliminate factors which promote discrimination against women in promotions to administrative positions. This should be an organizational priority. 2. That school boards actively seek female applicants for the superintendency and other administrative jobs when interviewing for these positions. 3. That school districts survey female personnel for interest in administrative positions and that profes- sional career ladders leading to promotions be designed and implemented.48 Women's Aspirations in the Education Profession The commentary above regarding women in education generally, and women in administration specifically, emphasizes the lack of upward mobility of women teachers. One reason why women have been held back clearly is sex-bias, but there are others. Various studies have been conducted to assess one of these other reasons, namely the lack of motivation on the part of females themselves to become admin- istrators. A number of reasons have been identified to account for lack of motivation.49 Some are: 1. Fear of failure. Inability to handle conflict. Reluctance to accept policy-making roles. Obvious bias against women applying. (Tl-DOOM Lack of encouragement to prepare for administrative positions. 48Catherine Dillon Lyon and Terry N. Saario, "Women in Public Education: Sexual Discrimination in Promotions," Phi Delta Kpppan 55 (October 1972): 122. 49Katherine Van Nessem Goless, Women Administrators in Educa- tion (Washington, D.C.: National Association for Women Deans, Admin- istrators and Counselors, 1977), pp. 14-15. 40 Lack of assertiveness. Little sponsorship by superiors. Lack of encouragement from other females. tomNO‘l Lack of informal interaction with male peers which reinforces aspirations. Although some research has attempted to isolate the factors which seem to inhibit female aspirations for administrative positions, three studies, one by McMillen, one by Dias, and one by Landon, pro- vide evidence that there is need for considerably more investigation of the matter. Each of these studies is summarized below. McMillen attempts to assess leadership aspirations of a number of women who were prospective teachers in the College of Education at the University of Florida. Questionnaires were distributed to 195 50 These women were asked if they would prospective women teachers. be willing to assume an administrative position in education if given the opportunity. The study attempted to investigate the relation- ship between time spent preparing for a career and the desire to be an educational leader. Each subject was presented with seven differ- ent situations regarding accepting positions ranging from assistant principal to president of an education association. In addition, each woman was asked to describe her career option after marriage from the following possibilities: 1. No further work after marriage. 2. Work even if she has children. 90Marvin R. McMillen, "Professional Leadership Aspirations of Prospective Women Teachers," Journal of SPATE 10 (March 1972): 63-70. 41 3. Work after rearing children. 4. On and off work periods. 5. Continued work with no intention of getting married. The majority of women in the study anticipated utilizing their undergraduate degree after marriage. Few planned to end their career after having children. A majority of women expressed a desire to interrupt their career when children were born but to reenter the profession as children grew older. Most women anticipated obtaining a master's degree. Few planned to work for a doctorate. Regarding interest by the women in positions of leadership, as the level of responsibility which the job involved increased, aspiration for appointment to that job decreased. Assistant principalships, for example, were more desirable than principalships. A leadership role at a county level was more desirable than at a state or national 1eve1.5' McMillen's study answers some questions but raises many others: Perhaps the greatest value of the present study is that it raises some interesting questions regarding leadership aspira- tions of prospective women teachers. Are they, indeed, less likely to accept a leadership role as the level of responsi- bility increases? Are they reticent to accept leadership roles in professional organizations? Are women who interrupt their careers less likely ultimately to accept school princi- palships if offered, than are women who work continuously? Further research regarding these questions appears warranted.52 Dias in 1976 examined the influence of specific variables on teachers' level of aspiration for certain positions in educational 51Ibid. 521bid., p. 70. 42 administrations.53 These factors were analyzed as a possible con- tributing cause of the scarcityof women in educational leadership positions. Questionnaires were completed by 342 male and female elementary and secondary teachers from four New England school sys- tems. Data were obtained measuring: role preference, commitment to a career, commitment to teaching, expectancy of support systems, likelihood of recruitment, self-role relationship, achievement moti- vation, and aspiration level toward administration. Analysis of the data revealed several important items. First, there was a ratio of 3.7 males to 1 female aspiring to positions at higher levels of administration. Although men scored significantly higher in the degree of aspiration toward administration, there is indication that a greater percentage of women than men aspire to these jobs in comparison to women's representation in the profession. The relationship of marital status to aspiration level was not sig- nificant in this study of teachers. Children, however, or future plans for children were significant. A relationship of position in the family to administration aspiration was also not confirmed by test results. Teaching level was more indicative of aspiration level for men than women, particularly at the elementary level. Role preference and time commitment to career were significant indicators of aspiration level. Commitment to teaching was also a factor. The interaction between achievement, motivation, and sex was significant 53Sally L. Diaz, "The Aspiration Levels of Women for Adminis- trative Careers in Education: Predictive Factors and Implications for Effective Change" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Ameri- can Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 19-23, 1976), pp. 1-70. 43 as well. The indication was a high correlation for women between motivation and aspiration level. Diaz offers this interpretation regarding achievement motivation: Evidently there are women not avoiding success in a male- oriented profession as evidenced by aspiration level for all whom achievement motivation is a significant predictor of aspiration. Degree of achievement motivation was not a factor in determining level of aspiration for men. There was no significant cgrrelation between these two variables for the male sample. 4 Generally speaking, the total findings indicate that women exhibit a lower level of administrative aspiration than men. Diaz attributes this to several factors, including:55 1. Home-career conflict. . Lack of planning for attainment of higher degrees. Lower support systems. Lower self-concept for self-actualization. 01-wa Discrepancy between self and administrator role. The study, however, pointed out that: It is also evident, however, that the ratio of women exhibiting high aspirations levels toward administra- tion is much higher than the ratio of women now repre- sented in the administrative ranks. It further indicates that: Women teachers who aspire to administration are those high in achievement motivation (not true for men) indicating that there are highly motivated women in education who do a5pire to the educational administration profession.5 54Ibid., p. 61. 55 56 Ibid., p. 65. 57 Ibid., p. 64. Ibid. 44 Diaz concludes by suggesting to school personnel directors several methods of hiring and recruiting that would increase the number of capable women in educational administration.58 Landon in her 1975 study attempted to establish the rela- tionship between sex role stereotyping and women teachers' adminis- trative careers.59 Questionnaires were mailed to approximately 281 female secondary teachers employed full time in grades seven through twelve in Wisconsin public schools. The questionnaire contained:60 1. A likelihood scale for rating a list of six adminis- trative positions. 2. Nine subscale factors: a. Confidence b. Career satisfaction c. Sex-biases d. Advancement opportunities e. Motivation f. Staff relations 9. Sex typing h. Socio-sexual ideologues an]. . Family role influence The findings have a relationship with the studies of McMillen and Diaz: 1. There was a significant negative relationship between career aspiration and actually seeking administrative positions. 58 59Glenda Lee Landon, "Perceptions of Sex Role Stereotyping and Women Teachers' Administrative Career Aspirations" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Wisconsin, 1975). 60 Ibid., p. 64. Ibid., p. 74. 45 2. There was a positive relationship between women teachers career aspirations and the confidence and motivation factors. 3. There was no significant relationship between women's intent to seek administrative positions and sex typing, socio- sexual biases, family role ideologues, staff relations, occupational sex biases, and promotional opportunities.61 The Landon study further indicated that there was a signifi- cant negative relationship between career satisfaction and women's intent to seek secondary principalships, assistant secondary princi- palships, and central office positions. There was also a positive relationship between the confidence factor and the aspiration for department Chairpersons. Finally, there was no significant rela- tionship between aspiration levels for positions of secondary prin- cipalships and assistant principalships, department chairs, and central office positions and the following factors: motivation, sex-typing, social-sexual biases, family role influences, staff relations, sex biases, and promotional opportunities.62 Landon concludes the study with the following remarks: Not only did the findings of the study suggest that women teachers in Wisconsin do not subscribe to many of the sex stereotyped notions about the role of women in society or in the organizational structure of the school system that have often been posited as the reason for their underrepre- sentation in educational administration, but they also revealed that there exists a substantial pool of women teachers who have expressed an intent to pursue careers in the field. These results have profound implication for further research and practice.6 6'Ipicl., pp. 165-66. 62Ibid. 63Ibid., p. 190. 46 All three of the studies cited, indicate the apparent increase of awareness among women educators of educational adminis- tration possibilities. In fact, there seems to be conclusive evidence that more women teachers are expressing an intent to pursue an administrative career, the questions of discrimination and sex-bias notwithstanding. The dimension of women's administrative aspiration needs considerably more research: Specifically, we need information about the number of women who have aspired to administrative roles and failed; the conditions under which more women are likely to aspire; the situation in which women are more lghely to succeed, the dimensions of the range of success. Women do become administrators whether by accident or by direct choice. The increasing evidence that more women are becoming interested in administrative positions demands that continued research be undertaken to provide guidance on how to obtain administrative positions and how to succeed in administrative roles. Public and private funding of programs to assist women in their quest for administrative roles in education will come only after enough research is completed to support the need for them. The most forward-looking program designed to promote the interests of women aspirants toward and women occupants of administrative posi- tions in education is a Ford Foundation funded project: Probably the first national project to help women get and hold school superintendencies is training 75 women admin- istrators in applying for positions and in developing self- confidence, job survival skills and management techniques. The project, sponsored by the American Association of School Administrations and funded by the Ford Foundation, will also 64c1ement, Sex Bias in School Leadership, p. 10. 47 provide support teams for four new women superintendents this year [1978] and four more next year. At present, 5 percent of guperintendents and assistant superintendents are women.6 The research undertaken in conjunction with this disserta- tion is in direct response to studies like those of McMillen, Diaz, and Landon, all three of whom independently arrived at the conclusion that further studies should be done on leadership a5pirations of women teachers. Their investigations tend to indicate that there is a substantial number of women who are interested in becoming administrators. These aspirants need all the help they can get from research results which may provide effective guidance. Women's DiminishingyRole in Educational Leadership "Where have all the women gone?" should, indeed, be a vital concern of our society if it really is interested in the best educa- tional system it can obtain for its money. If a large percentage of highly qualified educators are systematically being eliminated from educational leadership in the United States, we can not possibly be promoting quality education. Fortunately, there is some concern about this subject. In 1966, Broodhead, Heald, Hecker, Leu, and Rudman undertook to organize a symposium at the request of the editor of The National Elementary Principal, on the problems of "The 66 Woman Principal Going the Way of the Buffalo." Concern for the 65 66Clare Broodhead and others, "The Woman Principal--Going the Way of the Buffalo?" The Elementary Principal 45 (April 1966 : 6-11. Today's Education 67 (February-March 1978): 8. 48 steady influx of men into the educational field led the panel members to reflect on the plight of the aspiring woman administrator, who must compete for positions with a preponderance of males. The question of actual employment opportunities in administration was discussed at length: There are today in the United States many bright capable women who aspire to the principalship and to other administrative positions in education. What opportunities does the woman enrolled in a university class in educational administration have when she completes a Master's degree program? Will the fact that she is a woman automatically eliminate her from consideration for administrative employment? What does reality tell her about the mathematical odds she faces? The panel suggested that these women must make education a full-time career if they hope to be able to compete for administra- tive opportunity. It was the prognosis of the group in 1966 that the "elementary school principalship will, in the near future, become the exclusive fief of the male."68 The epilogue of the discussion con- cluded that administrative behavior of an effective principal has no generic basis whatever. The final statement of this 1966 session pre- dicted continued obstacles for women educators if the social conditions of 1966 did not change: But the continued desire to mix professional careers with personal family responsibilities will hamper the woman as long as the social milieu of the United States continues to stress the fundamental role of the woman as mother, wife and companion--the essential ingredients of the social cement that keeps families together in our American Society.69 In 1966, social role stereotyping was very much the accepted norm used to measure female performance. The perceived inability on 67 68 69 Ibid., p. 11. Ibid. Ibid. 49 the part of women to harmonize career life with personal goals raised questions about the suitability of career women as marriage partners. Margaret Mead comments: But the more successful a man is in his job, the more cer- tain everyone is that he will make a desirable husband; the more successful a woman is, the more most people are afraid she may not be a successful wife.70 And again: Success for a woman means success in finding and keeping a husband. This is much more true than it was a generation ago, when men were supposed to do the seeking, and some women found their new freedom outside the home so intoxicat- ing that they could abandon themselves to their work.71 In contrast to the general tone of the 1966 panel statements 72 is an article written by John McLure just eight years later. His analysis of the decline in women administrators in education con- sidered several other causes in addition to those already discussed.73 They included: 1. Redistribution of school district size and population. 2. Disappearance of the position of dean of girls. 3. Attraction to education of larger numbers of males by larger salaries. 4. The greater appeal to men generally of the "executive image." 70Margaret Mead, Male and Female (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1949), p. 324. 71 Ibid. 72John McLure, "The Case of the Vanishing Woman: Implications for the Preparation of Women in Educational Administration," UCEA Review 16 (September 1974): 6-9. 73Ibid., p. 6. 50 More important than his analysis of the causes are McLure's recommendations to improve the ratio of women to men in educational administration.74 Among them are: 1. IO. Shattering the myths about the superiority of male over female administrators. Developing women's a5pirations to positions of leadership. Building of female role models. Improving the sponsorship system for women as adminis- trators. Increasing awareness of the problem with an emphasis on sex discrimination as an issue. Providing appropriate administrative training models. Revising instructional materials used in administrator preparation. Helping women to see "the big picture" of career development. Understanding and using legal tests. Encouraging new research. Summary The purpose of this chapter was to substantiate from techni— cal educational literature and related materials the assertions in _Chapter I that there is need for further research on the career aspirations of women teachers. First discussed was a very recent newspaper case study which graphically illustrated the dilemma that 74 ' Ibid., pp. 7-9. 51 male prejudice poses for women in the professions in 1978. This story raised the question of the effect of widely disseminated accounts of sex-bias in the professions, on women's aspiration for a place in the leadership areas of the contemporary professions including education. Next considered were three historic female administrators, Cleopatra, Theodora, and Catherine II. An analysis of these ladies by a modern male commentator was examined. This study concluded through a none-too-clear analysis that the historic influence of the three women was limited. The author conceded a point, however, not always popularly accepted but relevant to this dis- sertation, namely that the sex of these famous women had little to do with their ascendancy to great power. He attributed their fame in each case much more to intellectual abilities which were superior to those of the famous men over whom they won dominance. With an emphasis on statistical studies, the path of women through the history of education in the United States was traced from their first inroads into teaching in the eighteenth century to their virtual domination of the profession in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and finally through the precipitous diminution of female influence in U.S. education during the past four decades. The results of a considerable amount of significant testing in. carefully executed studies were examined. They indicated that although women are at least equally as competent as males as edu- cational administrators, men during recent years have been strongly aided by society's traditional discrimination against women 52 in the professions, in infiltrating and gaining almost total control of educational leadership positions. Attention was then given to research conducted thus far on female aspiration to careers as educational administrators. The focus on this area of the literature was necessary because it directly leads to the rationale for the research undertaken in conjunction with this dissertation. Although some research indicates that woman's family role, particularly as a mother, does have some restraint on a5piration, and although aspiration seems to decrease as the level of job responsibility increases, the results also establish that there is a surprisingly large pool of highly motivated women in education, who do aspire to high administrative positions. Encourag- ing were results of'researchin Wisconsin which concluded that woman teachers do not subscribe to sex-stereotyped notions and their aspiration does not seem to be influenced by the fear of sex-bias. The literature reviewed establishes the increase of awareness among women educators of educational administration possibilities. It also reveals concern by important segments of the education pro- fession about the vanishing woman administrator. There is unanimity among the researchers on female aspiration that a great deal more research must be done in order to identify, find the cause of, and make recommendations to eliminate personal factors which negatively influence aspiration by women teachers to educational administrative positions. The succeeding chapters of this study will set forth this dissertation's response to the identified need for further test- ing of feminine aspirations. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter provides a description of the survey procedures and research methods used in conducting the study. The following specific areas will be described: 1. Type of study . Population and sampling method Instrumentation . Treatment of the data 2 3 4. Collection of the data 5 6 Testable hypotheses 7 . Statistical procedures Type of Study The main purpose of the study was to examine the career aspirations of women teachers for educational administrative posi- tions. The specific areas of interest concern the cultural, educa- tional, personal, psychological and the work environment factors that influence female teachers for advancement to educational manage- ment. The study utilizes the descriptive method of research. Sax h describes the goal of descriptive analysis: 53 54 The purpose of descriptive research is to show conditions as they exist without being influenced by the investigator. Descriptive research encompasses a number of different tech- niques, including correlational analyses, case studies surveys, and interviews as well as direct observation.1 Comparisons were made among male and female teachers--each responding to the same questionnaire devised to indicate levels of administrative a5piration as well as degree and intensity of aspira- tion. The importance of descriptive studies provided the basis for this kind of problem analysis: "Descriptive research may also help point out the extent of a problem and indicate how serious and widespread it is."2 Popplation and Sampling Methods The population used in the study consists of men and women teachers in Groups II, IV, and VI of Michigan School Districts as established by the Michigan Association of School Boards. The following list identifies the School District Groups within the organization:3 Group I --All intermediate districts Group II --School districts with pupil membership O-l,500 Group III--School districts with pupil membership l,501-3,000 Group IV --School districts with pupil membership 3,001-7,500 Group V --School districts with pupil membership 7,501-15,000 lGilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 36. 2Ibid. 3Michigan Association of School Boards, Inc., By-Laws (Lansing: n.p., 1978), p. 2. 55 Group VI --School districts with pupil membership 15,00l-lO0,000 Group VII--School districts with pupil membership over 100,000 Groups 11, IV, and VI were selected for the study so that a representation of small, medium, and large districts would be definitely defined. Due to the geographic extent of the groupings, a limit was placed on the territory to be surveyed so as to control and organize the population into a measurable sample. It was rationalized that a population of small, medium, and large districts in the State of Michigan selected from a definite territory or by particular counties might well be predictive of other districts and counties in Michigan with the same size or nearly the same size student population, geo- graphic location, and economic environment. To this end, the four counties around Michigan State University were selected as repre- sentative of school districts in Groups 11, IV, and VI. The counties were: Shiawassee County, Eaton County, Clinton County, and Ingham County. The district, classification, and active (retired teachers were not included) teacher enrollment of the above counties as of March, 1978, are shown on the following page. The total active teacher p0pulation in these districts was 4,226. The recent trend and interest in women teachers in adminis- trative positions prompted the writer to contact the Michigan Edu- cation Association for implementation of the sampling procedure and to secure the names and addresses of teachers for surveying purposes. Table 3.l.--Population of sample by district, group number, county, and teacher enrollment. District Group County EnliIIgght Dansville II Ingham 55 Webberville II Ingham 45 Bath II Clinton 65 Fowler II Clinton 41 Pewamo-Westphalia II Clinton 47 Byron II Shiawassee 60 Laingsburg II Shiawassee 41 Morrice II Shiawassee 42 New Lathrop II Shiawassee 51 Bellevue II Eaton 65 Olivet II Eaton 65 Potterville II Eaton 48 East Lansing IV Ingham 270 Mason IV Ingham 168 Okemos IV Ingham 175 Waverly IV Ingham 191 St. Johns IV Clinton 183 Durand IV Shiawassee 151 Owosso IV Shiawassee 225 Charlotte IV Eaton 176 Eaton Rapids IV Eaton 160 Grand Ledge IV Eaton 288 Holt IV Ingham 209 Lansing VI Ingham 1,505 57 It was decided to select every fifth name from the total population of 4,226 teachers. A sample of 800 names and addresses was secured and coded with a numerical order of 001 to 799 for mailing purposes. Two mailings were originally designed to be sent: The first 400 set of odd-numbered names would be sent as one group and a follow-up of the second 400 names of even numbers to be sent in order to balance a sparcity of reply in the first group. Such a procedure would eliminate a follow-up letter and yet secure a large enough sample for the study. Instrumentation The specific instrument used to gather the data necessary to fulfill the purposes of the study was a structured questionnaire developed by the researcher. The advantages of the questionnaire survey have been adequately summaried by Sax: l. The major advantage of questionnaire is one of economics: the time and expense involved in questionnaires sent through the mail has practical ramifications over other types of survey, such as the interview. 2. Each respondent receives the same set of questions phrased in exactly the same way: the job of summarizing and compar- ing responses is reduced. 3. The use of the mails in sending out the questionnaires 4 means that a larger variety of persons can be contacted. The format of the questionnaire was of considerable importance. Claire Selltiz5 cites five ingredients of an answerable questionnaire: 4Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research, pp. 214-15. 5Claire Selltiz et al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), pp. 237-41. 58 1. The questionnaire length 2. The attractiveness of the questionnaire 3. The ease with which the questionnaire can be completed and returned 4. Coding and quality printing 5. Offering the sample population an abstract of the study These factors were taken into consideration as the instrument was being developed. The questionnaire was based on topic areas considered to be important to the aspirational levels of women educators for adminis- trative positions. A review of the literature pertaining to women in administrative roles and the paucity thereof was reviewed. From such a research framework, all possible questions relating to admin- istrative aspirations were devised based further on interviews with men and women professionals who have attained administrative posi- tions at various levels. A multi-factor questionnaire with 207 items was formulated which encompassed 13 areas of inquiry: cultural, educational, personal, administrative task, career satisfaction, family life- style, sex-role attitudes, support systems, mobility, equal economic opportunity, social, economic, and psychological. This first draft questionnaire was then sent to all of the professional persons pre- viously interviewed regarding suitable questions. Their task was to indicate only those items which would be most relevant to the study. From their responses an attempt was made to synthesize the 13 categories into 5 major factors: Cultural, Educational, Personal, 59 Psychological, and the World of Work. All 207 questions were listed under one of the major headings described. At this point, a team of professional men and women teachers from a large school dis- trict in Michigan received each of the 207 questions under each heading and selected by majority vote items most crucial for testing purposes. Their selections were then drawn into the second draft of the questionnaire, which consisted of the five major categories and the respective questions. In order to establish face validity, the questionnaire was field tested at the Institute for Research on Teaching and their teacher collaborators at Michigan State University. Their answers, plus comments and editing, were carefully reviewed and analyzed. As a consequence, several questions were added, several were deleted, and several sentences were rephrased and ambiguous words were replaced. A final version of the questionnaire may be found in the appendix. The revised instrument was reviewed with the Michigan State University Research Consultation Office and the writer's doctoral committee of professors. It was decided that the questionnaire was acceptable and that it should be developed into its final form. An appropriate letter of explanation was developed to accom- pany the questionnaire. Each sample population received the same questionnaire during the week of April 7-14, 1978. A number coding on the outside of the return envelope was used to ensure the identi- fication of the two groups. The questionnaire was developed in three distinct parts: 6O Egr$_l_contained levels of aspiration in educational adminis- tration for which an appropriate response might be indicated: 1--I have already applied for this position. 2--I would aspire for this position. 3--It is unlikely that I would aspire for this position. 4--I would never apply for this position. The administrative positions described were: elementary principal, secondary principal, central office staff, assistant superintendent, superintendent. Part II contained 12 demographic items intended to indicate the various backgrounds among those sampled. Part III contained the five major categories with selected questions for each: Cultural Considerations--questions 1-11 Educational Factors --questions 12-21 Personal Perspectives --questions 22-31 Psychological Aspects --questions 32-42 The World of Work --questions 43-53 The Likert scale of five categories was used for response codes: 1--Strongly agree 2--Agree 3--Undecided 4--Disagree 5--Strongly disagree 61 Collection of the Data The questionnaires were mailed to all members of the sample population on April 4, 1978, along with an appropriate letter and self-addressed, self-stamped envelope. (See Appendix.) The first mailing of 400 odd-numbered samplees met with complications imme- diately, however, which eventually necessitated an attempted cor- rection and a second entirely new mailing of the 400 even-numbered names. At the first mailing of 400 odd-numbered names in the sample, the mailing company contracted to stamp and mail the questionnaires neglected to stamp the return self-addressed envelopes. The respon- dents were putting on their own stamp for reply mail. When the writer recognized the error, the mailing company attempted to correct the mistake with a letter of explanation concerning the error, and a new self-addressed, self-stamped envelope was sent to the original first 400 samplees. The attempted correction did not successfully elicit sufficient returns, and therefore a new 400 sample of even-named teachers was mailed from the 800 names selected. This time the mail- ing was correctly maneuvered. A table listing the responses of each of the groups surveyed and the final total for the collectivity of the sample may be found on the following page. Treatment of the Data The responses to the questionnaires were appropriately coded and then key punched and verified by the Michigan State 62 University Computer Center. Number values were assigned to all items in Parts I, II, and III of the questionnaire. Number Returned Gr°up "3231” N % Odd-numbered names 400 Volunteer returned envelope 107 27% Self-addressed envelopes 46 12% Even-numbered names 400 206 52% Total 800 359 45% Data analysis was accomplished using the chi square Test of Association.1 The hypothesis test of significance was based on the .05 level with various degrees of freedom. Testable Hypotheses In order to ascertain whether significance existed among men and women teachers concerning their aspirations for an educa- tional administrative position, it was necessary to test the follow- ing null hypotheses based on Parts I, II, and III of the questionnaire: Part I: Intent of Aspiration for a Position in Educational Adminis- tration Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as an elementary principal. 1Items in Parts I, II, and III crossed with sex. Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis 4: (Hypothesis 5: 63 There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as a secondary principal. There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position on central office staff. There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their a5piration for a position as assistant superintendent of schools. There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as a superintendent of schools. Part II: Demographic Data Hypothesis 6: Hypothesis 7: Hypothesis 8: Hypothesis 9: Hypothesis lO: Hypothesis ll: Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis l3: 14: 12: There is no significant difference in the ages of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference in the marital status of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference between the male and female respondents and the number of children they have. There is no significant difference in the teaching level of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference in the race of the male and female re5pondents. There is no significant difference in the level of education of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference in the number of years teaching of the male and female respon- dents. There is no significant difference in sibling placement in the family of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference in the educa- tional community environment of the male and female respondents. Hypothesis l5: Hypothesis 16: 64 There is no significant difference in the child- hood sports participation of the male and female respondents. There is no significant difference in the number of working years of the mother of the male and female respondents. Part III: Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations Cultural Considerations: Hypothesis l7: Hypothesis l9: Hypothesis 20: Hypothesis 21: Hypothesis 22: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one's col- leagues would react unfavorably if one became an administrator. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men are more effective administrators than women for psy- chological and social reasons. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women are better organizers than men. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that in a given task, women are more likely to ask for help, or rely on others in the face of a threat, than are men. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that generally women are not as dependable as men because of their biological and personal characteristics. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that a male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career- oriented wife. Hypothesis 24: Hypothesis 25: Hypothesis 26: Hypothesis 27: Educational Factors: Hypothesis 28: Hypothesis 29: Hypothesis 30: Hypothesis 31: Hypothesis 32: 65 There is no Significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men know more than women about how to seek and obtain oppor- tunities to become administrators. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women lack the drive to become administrators. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that college women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may tend to downgrade the teaching pro- fession. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women adminis- trators have less power to make decisions than men. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that it is more desir- able to work for a male administrator than a female administrator. There is no significant sex difference in the responses tothe question that most college courses are designed for male advancement and emphasis. Hypothesis 33: Hypothesis 34: Hypothesis 35: Hypothesis 36: Hypothesis 37: 66 There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would feel uncomfortable in an educational administration class of all males. There is no sex difference in the responses to the question that educational counseling enabled one to plan for advancement in a career. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether female administrators have been encouraged in the aspiration for an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether most admin- istrators in the schooling process were male. There is no significant sex difference in the re5ponses to the question of whether, in a given district, both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions. Personal Perspectives: Hypothesis 38: Hypothesis 39: Hypothesis 40: ,Hypothesis 41: Hypothesis 42: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether a woman can be a successful administrator and happily mar- ried at the same time. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one needs to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one may have too many family responsibilities to seek an admin- istrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that a spouse would be upset if one had to move as a result of becoming an administrator. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one's parents encouraged receiving a college degree. HyDOthesis 43: Hypothesis 44: Hypothesis 45: Hypothesis 46: Hypothesis 47: 67 There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one planned spe- cifically for advancement in educational admin- istration. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that what a spouse thinks about an administrative position has influence on the individual. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would be eager to become an administrator, even if moving were necessary. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one personally received encouragement from the building admin- istrator to apply for an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one has a negative image of school administrators. Psychological Appects: Hypothesis 48: Hypothesis 49: Hypothesis 50: Hypothesis 51: Hypothesis 52: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one is satisfied with present employment and would not seek an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one feels confident in most leadership positions. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one would be willing to further one's education for an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether administra- tors in one's district would react favorably if one became an administrator. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one has been in one's present position too long to seek an administrative position. The Hypothesis 53: Hypothesis 54: Hypothesis 55: Hypothesis 56: Hypothesis 57: Hypothesis 58: World of Work Hypothesis 59: Hypothesis 60: Hypothesis 61: Hypothesis 62: 68 There is no significant sex difference in the re5ponses to the question that one likes dele- gating tasks and working with people. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that being an adminis- trator would increase one's self-image. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that if one applied for an administrative position, one might be a top contender. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would rather not compete for an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether adminis- trators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that people who are at administrative levels are often asked to compro- mise their principles. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one's present position provides too much security for one to seek an administrative position. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that the "white male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis .Hypothesis 63: 64: 65: 66: 67: 68: 69: 69 There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one sees a position in educational administration as attainable. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one is willing to "go for broke" in the quest for a position in administration. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one con- siders working with children more rewarding than administration. There is no significant sex difference in the re5ponses to the question of whether there is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether university or college professors were helpful in seeking an administrative position. Statistical Procedures The Institute for Research on Teaching in the College of Education at Michigan State University assisted in recommending appropriate statistical techniques for data analysis. A staff consultant from the College of Education assisted in writing all computer programs for the data analysis. The computer programs and facilities of the Michigan State University Computer Center were used. 7D The statistical procedures used in the analysis of data are: 1. The chi square Test of Association. 2. The hypothesis test of significance was based on the .05 level, with various degrees of freedom. Summary This chapter has attempted to provide a description of the planning and implementation of the study. Specific attention was given to describing the type of study and discussing the population and sampling methods used. The development and pre-sampling of the instrument were traced, along with a description of the various parts which comprised the format of the final instrument. The procedures used to collect the data and the treatment of the data were presented. The testable hypotheses were reviewed and the statistical procedures used in the analysis of the data were discussed. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Introduction The main purpose of this study was to investigate the rela- tionship between the scarcity of women in educational administration and the administrative career aspirations of women teachers. This was done by examining and comparing the aspirations of both men and women teachers for a position in educational administration. The educational positions tested for intent were line-administrative positions within school districts. The factors considered as impor- tant influences of administrative aspirations were: cultural con- siderations, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychologi- cal aspects, and the world of work. . The analysis of the data is presented in the following manner: 1. Restates each of the original hypotheses of the study and provides appropriate data and explanation for each. 2. Restates and analyzes the original hypotheses chrono- logically according to Parts I, II, and III of the questionnaire. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings. 71 72 Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Teachers for an Administrative Position-- Part I of the Questionnaire Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as an elementary principal. This hypothesis was tested using response patterns indicating an intent to become an elementary principal. The obtained chi square of 18.99 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.1, 12 percent of the men have applied for this position and only 1 percent of the women. However, 13 percent of the men would aspire for an elementary principalship, as would 20 percent of the women. Table 4.l.--Elementary principal. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position 11 12 3 1 I would aspire for this position 12 13 46 20 It is unlikely that I would aspire for this position 35 37 89 38 I would never apply for this position 36 38 96 41 Total 94 29 234 71 Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as a secondary principal. This hypothesis was tested using response patterns indicating an intent to become a secondary school principal. The obtained chi 73 square of 29.76 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.2, 5 percent of the men have applied for this position and no women applied at all. Of the male respondents, 16 percent would aspire to secondary principal and 9 percent of the females. Table 4.2.--Secondary principal. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position 5 5 O I would aspire for this position 15 16 20 9 It is unlikely that I would aspire for this position 34 36 45 20 I would never apply for this position 40 43 157 71 Total 94 30 222 70 Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position on central office staff. This hypothesis was tested using response patterns indicating an intent to hold an administrative position in central office. The obtained chi square of 13.79 with 3 degrees of freedom was signifi- cant. Therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.3, 6 percent of the men applied for such a position and no women applied at all. However, 27 percent of the men would aspire to central office positions and 20 percent of the women. 74 'Table 4.3.--Central office. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position 6 6 l O I would aspire for this position 26 27 45 20 It is unlikely that I would a5pire for this position 28 30 71 32 I would never apply for this position 35 37 106 48 Total 95 30 223 70 Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as assistant superintendent of schools. This hypothesis was tested using response patterns indicating an intent to become an assistant superintendent of schools. The obtained chi square of 14.49 with 3 degrees of freedom was signifi- cant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.4, 2 percent of the men applied for such a position and no women applied at all. Of the male respondents, 14 percent would a5pire to assistant superintendent, but only 7 percent of the females. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference between men and women teachers and their aspiration for a position as a superintendent of schools. This hypothesis was tested using response patterns indicating an intent to become a superintendent of schools. The obtained chi square of 21.13 with two degrees of freedom was significant. There- fore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.5, none 75 of the men or women applied for this position. A5piration level reveals 12 percent of the men are interested in applying but only 2 percent of the women. Table 4.4.--Assistant superintendent. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position 2 2 I would aspire for this position 13 14 15 7 It is unlikely that I would aspire for this position 25 27 34 16 I would never apply for this position 52 57 170 77 Total 92 29 220 70 Table 4.5.--Superintendent. Male Female N % N % I have already applied for this position 0 0 I would aspire for this position 11 12 5 2 It is unlikely that I would a5pire for this position 23 25 29 13 I would never apply for this position 58 63 186 85 Total 92 30 220 70 Table 4.6 summarizes the data regarding administrative intent between men and women respondents. 76 Table 4.6.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on intent to become an administrator. Test of Adm1n1strat1ve P051t1on Null Hypothesis Elementary principal Ra Secondary principal R Central office R Assistant superintendent R Superintendent R aR = rejected. Determined Demographic Characteristics of Men and Women Respondents-- Part II of the Questionnaire Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in the ages of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What is your age?" The obtained chi square of 10.16 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.7, 74 percent of the males were ages 20 to 39, whereas 64 percent of the women were in that age bracket. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in the marital status of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What is your marital status?" The obtained chi square of 3.71 with 5 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no 77 differences in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The majority of both men and women were married or married with children. Table 4.7.--What is your age? Male Female Age N % N % 20-29 25 23 76 30 30-39 54 51 85 34 40-50 19 18 50 20 Over 50 9 8 41 16 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 8: There is no significant difference between the male and female respondents and the number of children they have. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: “How many children do you have?" The obtained chi square of 8.25 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.8, 36 percent of the men had no children and 40 percent of the women. Of those respondents with children, 55 percent of the men had from two to four and 41 percent of the women had that number of children. 78 Table 4.8.--How many children do you have? Number of Children Male Female N % N % None 38 36 100 40 °"e 8 8 37 15 Two-four 58 55 102 41 Five or more 2 2 12 5 Total 105 30 251 70 Hypothesis 9: There is no significant difference in the teaching level of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What is your present teaching level?" The obtained chi square of 55.14 with 5 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.9, 28 percent of the men teach pre-school to grade six and 59 percent of the women. At high school level, on the other hand, 45 percent were men and only 19 percent women. Hypothesis 10: There is no significant difference in the race of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What is your racial group?“ The obtained chi square of 5.34 with 5 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differences in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The majority of men and women respon- dents were Caucasian. 79 Table 4.9.--What is your present teaching level? Teaching Level Male Female N % N % Pre-school O O 9 4 K-3 6 6 88 35 4-6 24 22 49 20 7-9 28 26 42 17 lO-12 48 45 48 19 Other 1 L 9 15 6 Total 107 30 251 70 Hypothesis 11: There is no significant difference in the level of education of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "What level of education have you completed?" The obtained chi square of 6.76 with 3 degrees of freedom was not sig- nificant, indicating no differences in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Men and women respondents grouped evenly in the four listed categories. Hypothesis 12: There is no significant difference in the number of years teaching of the male and female respon- dents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "How many years have you been teaching?" The obtained chi square of 7.34 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differences in the responses of men and women. 80 Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Men and women respondents grouped evenly in the four listed categories. Hypothesis 13: There is no significant difference in sibling placement in the family of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the question: "What was your sibling placement in your family?" The obtained chi square of 5.56 with 5 degrees of freedom was not significant, indi- cating no difference in responses of men and women teachers. There- fore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Men and women respondents grouped evenly in the four listed categories. Hypothesis 14: There is no significant difference in the educa- tional community environment of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the statement: "Identify the educational community in which you are now teaching." The obtained chi square of .38 with 2 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differences in responses of men and women teachers. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Men and women respondents grouped evenly in the four listed categories. Hypothesis 15: There is no significant difference in the child- hood sports participation of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "Did you actively participate in sports as a youth?" The obtained chi square of 16.95 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.10, 81 48 percent of the men participated in both team and individual sports and 32 percent of the women. Of those who did not partici- pate in any sports, 17 percent were men and 37 percent were women. Table 4.lO.--Did you actively participate in sports as a youth? Type of Participation Male Female N % N % Team 25 24 43 17 Individual 12 11 34 13 Both team and individual 51 48 81 32 Did not participate 18 17 94 37 Total 106 30 252 70 Hypothesis 16: There is no significant difference in the number of working years of the mother of the male and female respondents. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following question: "How many years did your mother work during your growing years? Either full or part time." The obtained chi square of 10.81 with 3 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.11, 37 percent of the men and 54 percent of the women indicated their mothers did not work at all. Of the respondents whose mothers worked from six years to all the time, 44 percent were male and 32 percent were female. Table 4.12 summarizes the data regarding demographic char- acteristics of men and women respondents. 82 Table 4.ll.--How many years did your mother work during your growing years? Either full or part time. Number of Years Male Female N % N % 0 4o 37 136 54 1'5 20 19 36 14 5'10 23 22 49 20 A“ 24 22 30 12 Total 107 30 251 70 Table 4.12.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on the demographic variable. Question Test of Null Hypothesis What is your age? What is your marital status? How many children do you have? What is your present teaching level? What is your racial group? What level of education have you completed? How many years have you been teaching? What was your sibling placement in your family? Identify the educational community in which you are now teaching. Did you actively participate in sports as a youth? How many years did your mother work during your growing years? Either full or part time. Ra NRa R R NR NR NR NR NR R aR = rejected; NR = not rejected. 83 Perceived Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administrative Aspirations of Men and Women Teachers--Part III of the Questionnaire Cultural Considerations Hypothesis 17: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one's colleagues would react unfavorably if one became an administrator. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator." The obtained chi square of 1.88 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 68 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 18: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men are more effective administrators than women for psy- chological and social reasons. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administrators than women." The chi square of 56.13 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.13, 82 percent of the women and 43 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 84 Table 4.13.--For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administrators than women. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree lO 9 4 2 Agree 28 26 26 10 Undecided 22 21 16 6 Disagree 28 26 102 41 Strongly disagree 18 17 104 41 Total 106 30 252 70 Hypothesis 19: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women are better organizers than men. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women are better organizers than men." The obtained chi square of 30.03 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.14, 60 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement and only 44% of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed. Hypothesis 20: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: ""Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently." The obtained chi square of 18.36 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis 85 was rejected. As shown in Table 4.15, 61 percent of the women dis- agreed or strongly disagreed with this statement and only 43 percent of the men. Table 4.14.--Women are better organizers than men. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 1 9 26 10 Agree 10 9 64 25 Undecided 32 3O 50 20 Disagree 43 4O 91 36 Strongly disagree 21 20 21 8 Total 107 30 252 70 Table 4.15.--Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 3 2 3 1 Agree 17 16 51 20 Undecided 40 38 45 18 Disagree 35 33 122 49 Strongly disagree ll 10 29 12 Total 106 30 250 70 86 Hypothesis 21: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that in a given task, women are more likely to ask for help, or rely on others in the face of a threat, than are men. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help, or rely on others in face of a threat, than are men." The obtained chi square of 4.06 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. There- fore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 51 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 22: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that generally women are not as dependable as men because of their biological and personal characteristics. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In general, I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal characteristics." The obtained chi square of 27.77 with 4 degrees of freedom was signifi- cant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.16, 86 percent of the males and 94 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 23: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that a male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career- oriented wife. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career-oriented wife." The obtained chi square of 2.04 with 4 87 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. 0f the total responses, 71 percent of the males and females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.16.--In general, I consider women ppt_as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal character- istics. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 1 9 O 0 Agree 6 6 5 2 Undecided 9 8 ll Disagree 54 51 76 30 Strongly disagree 37 35 160 64 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 24: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women generally have a lower level of achievement moti- vation than men." The obtained chi square of 11.8 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.17, 69 percent of the men and 64 percent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 88 Table 4.17.--Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 1 9 5 2 Agree 20 19 72 29 Undecided ll 10 13 5 Disagree 51 48 86 34 Strongly disagree 23 21 75 30 Total 106 30 251 70 Hypothesis 25: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men know more than women about how to seek and obtain oppor- tunities to become administrators. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators." The obtained chi square of 9.95 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.18, 47 percent of the males and 62 percent of the females disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 26: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women lack the drive to become administrators. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “Women lack the drive to become administrators." The obtained chi square of 5.47 with 3 degrees of freedom was not 89 significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 75 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.18.--Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain Opportunities to become administrators. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 2 2 4 2 Agree 28 26 57 23 Undecided 27 25 34 14 Disagree 31 29 104 41 Strongly disagree 19 18 53 21 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 27: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that college women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popularity or social life." The obtained chi square of 6.90 with 4 degrees of freedom was not signifi- cant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Specifically, 69 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 90 Table 4.19 summarizes the data for the statements under the Cultural Considerations of Part III of the questionnaire. Table 4.19.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Cultural Considerations. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator For psychological and social reasons, men are more effective administrators than women. Women are better organizers than men. Women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently. In a given task, women are more likely to ask for help, or rely on others in face of a threat, than are men. In general, I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal characteristics. A male spouse would be threatened by a competent, career-oriented wife. Women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. Men know more than women about how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators. Women lack the drive to become administrators. College women who attempt to compete with men usually do so at the expense of their popu- larity or social life. NR NR NR NR aR = rejected; NR = not rejected. 91 Educational Factors Hypothesis 28: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may tend to downgrade the teaching pro- fession. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Welcoming women as equals into the professional manage- ment levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession." The obtained chi square of 24.00 with 4 degrees of freedom was signifi- cant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.20, 90 percent of the males and 96 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.20.--Welcoming women as equals into the professional manage- ment levels may tend to downgrade the teaching pro- fession. R Male Female esponse N % N % Strongly agree 0 O 2 8 Agree 3 3 1 4 Undecided 8 8 8 3 Disagree 53 5O 76 3O Strongly disagree 43 40 165 66 Total - 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 29: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develOp aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. 92 This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Students who never experience women in leadership posi- tions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes." The obtained chi square of 10.41 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.21, 42 percent of the men and 62 percent of the women strongly agreed or agreed with this statement. Table 4.21.--Students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop a5pirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 13 12 4O 16 Agree 36 34 115 46 Undecided 28 26 37 15 Disagree 26 24 46 18 Strongly disagree 4 3 13 5 Total 107 30 251 70 Hypothesis 30: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that women adminis- trators have less power to make decisions than men. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men." The obtained chi square of 3.72 with 4 degrees of 93 freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the re5ponses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 80 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 31: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that it is more desir- able to work for a male administrator than a female administrator. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator." The obtained chi square of 21.47 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.22, 66 percent of the women and only 42 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.22.--I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 6 6 ll 4 Agree 31 29 34 14 Undecided 24 23 4O 16 Disagree 32 3O 92 37 Strongly disagree 13 12 72 29 Total 106 30 249 70 94 Hypothesis 32: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that most college courses are designed for male advancement and emphasis. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis." The obtained chi square of 3.82 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differ- ence in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was not rejected. Specifically, 51 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 33: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would feel uncomfortable in an educational administration class of all males. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would feel uncomfortable in an educational administra- tion class of all males." The obtained chi square of 3.83 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 67 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 34: There is no sex difference in the responses to the question that educational counseling enabled one to plan for advancement in a career. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career." The obtained chi square of 6.03 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses 95 of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Specifically, 76 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 35: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether female administrators have been encouraged in the aspiration for an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an administrative position." The obtained chi square of .40 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of the men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 73 percent of the respon- dents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 36: There is no significant sex difference in the re5ponses to the question of whether most admin- istrators in the schooling process were male. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Most administrators in my schooling process were male." The obtained chi square of .87 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of the men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show 82 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 37: There is no Significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether, in a given district, both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions. 96 This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In our district, both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions." The obtained chi square of 6.70 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differ- ence in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 64 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Table 4.23 summarizes the data for the statements under Educational Factors of Part III of the questionnaire. (See p. 97.) Personal Perspectives Hypothesis 38: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether a woman can be a successful administrator and happily mar- ried at the same time. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time." The obtained chi square of 11.18 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.24, 88 percent of the women agreed or strongly agreed and 86 percent of the men. Hypothesis 39: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one needs to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the follow- ing statement: "I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position." The obtained chi square of 4.73 with 4 degrees of freedom was not 97 significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show even percentages for all responses, with 33 percent agree and 30 percent undecided. Table 4.23.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Educational Factors. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis Welcoming women as equals into the profes- sional management levels may tend to down- grade the teaching profession. Students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develOp aspirations or values that move beyond tra- ditional stereotypes. Women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. In my college career, most college courses were designed for male advancement and emphasis. I would feel uncomfortable in an educational administration class of all males. Educational counseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career. There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an administrative position. Most administrators in my schooling process were male. In our district, both men and women are encouraged to apply for administrative positions. Ra NR NR NR NR NR NR NR aR = rejected; NR = not rejected. 98 Table 4.24.--A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 22 21 86 34 Agree 70 65 135 54 Undecided lO 9 23 Disagree 3 3 8 Strongly disagree 2 2 O 0 Total 107 30 252 7D Hypothesis 40: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one may have too many family responsibilities to seek an admin- istrative position. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the following statement: "I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position." The obtained chi square of 13.98 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.25, 68 percent of the males and 55 percent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 41: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that a spouse would be upset if one had to move as a result of becoming an administrator. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator." The obtained chi square of 7.69 with 99 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 46 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.25.--I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 5 5 21 8 Agree 9 9 59 24 Undecided 19 18 34 14 Disagree 57 48 100 40 Strongly disagree 22 20 37 15 Total 106 30 251 70 Hypothesis 42: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one's parents encouraged receiving a college degree. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree." The obtained chi square of 16.10 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.26, 89 percent of the women and 79 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. 100 Table 4.26.--In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 43 41 157 62 Agree 40 38 58 27 Undecided 4 4 3 Disagree ll 10 14 6 Strongly disagree 8 8 10 Total 106 30 262 70 Hypothesis 43: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one planned spe- cifically for advancement in educational admin- istration. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I have planned specifically for advancement in educa- tional administration." The obtained chi square of 8.45 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show 76 percent of the respondents dis- agreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 44: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that what a spouse thinks about an administrative position has influence on the individual. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "What my spouse thinks about an administrative position has an influence on me." The obtained chi square of 1.00 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in 101 the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 49 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 45: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would be eager to become an administrator, even if moving were necessary. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would be eager to become an administrator, even if I had to move somewhere else." The obtained chi square of 12.93 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.27, 75 percent of the women and 63 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.27.--I would be eager to become an administrator, even if I had to move somewhere else. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 5 5 6 Agree 16 15 12 Undecided 19 18 45 18 Disagree 31 29 90 36 Strongly disagree 36 34 99 39 Total 107 30 252 70 102 Hypothesis 46: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one personally received encouragement from the building admin- istrator to apply for an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: “I have personally received encouragement from an admin- istrator in my building to apply for an administrative position." The obtained chi square of 25.63 with 4 degrees of freedom was sig- nificant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.28, 40 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed with this statement and only 17 percent of the women. On the other hand, 80 percent of the women disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement, and only 45 percent of the men. Table 4.28.--I have personally received encouragement from an admin- istrator in my building to apply for an administrative position. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree l5 14 14 6 Agree 37 26 28 ll Undecided 6 6 7 3 Disagree 38 36 121 48 Strongly disagree 20 19 81 32 Total 106 30 251 70 103 Hypothesis 47: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one has a negative image of school administrators. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "I have a negative image of school administrators." The obtained chi square of 3.32 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 55 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. Table 4.29 summarizes the data for the statements under Personal Perspectives of Part III of the questionnaire. (See p. 104.) Psychological Aspects Hypothesis 48: There is no significant sex difference in the re5ponses to the question of whether one is satisfied with present employment and would not seek an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position." The obtained chi square of 10.94 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.30, 71 percent of the women and 57 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. 104 Table 4.29.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Personal Perspectives. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator. In my home, I was encouraged to get a college degree. I have planned specifically for advancement in educational administration. What my spouse thinks about an administrative position has an influence on me. I would be eager to become an administrator, even if I had to move somewhere else. I have personally received encouragement from an administrator in my building to apply for an administrative position. I have a negative image of school adminis- trators. Ra NRa NR NR NR NR aR = rejected; NR = not rejected. 105 Table 4.30.--I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 23 22 91 36 Agree 39 35 89 35 Undecided 22 21 27 10 Disagree 17 16 33 13 Strongly disagree 6 6 12 5 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 49: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one feels confident in most leadership positions. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "I feel confident in most leadership positions." The obtained chi square of 8.54 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the re5ponses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 76 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. Hypothesis 50: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one would be willing to further one's education for an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "I would be willing to further my education for an administrative position.“ The obtained chi square of 12.54 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis 106 was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.31, 59 percent of the women and 41 percent of the men disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.3l.--I would be willing to further my education for an administrative position. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 9 8 l9 8 Agree 26 24 44 18 Undecided 28 26 4O 16 Disagree 25 23 103 41 Strongly disagree 19 18 46 18 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 51: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether administra- tors in one's district would react favorably if one became an administrator. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "Administrators in my district would react favor- ably if I became an administrator." The obtained chi square of 5.30 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differ- ence in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was not rejected. Overall, 39 percent of the respondents agreed with this statement, but 47 percent were undecided. 107 Hypothesis 52: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one has been in one's present position too long to seek an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the follow- ing statement: "I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now." The obtained chi square of 1.36 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show than 80 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 53: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one likes dele- gating tasks and working with people. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the fol- lowing statement: "I like delegating tasks and working with people." The obtained chi square of 4.17 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 75 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 54: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that being an adminis- trator would increase one's self-image. This hypothesis was tested using the re5ponses to the fol- lowing statement: ”Being an administrator would increase my self- image." The obtained chi square of .67 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and 108 women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 53 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly dis- agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 55: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that if one applied for an administrative position, one might be a top contender. This hypothesis was tested using the responses to the follow- ing statement: "If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender." The obtained chi square of 20.27 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As shown in Table 4.32, 52 percent of the males agreed or strongly agreed with this statement, but only 32 percent of the females. Overall, 66 percent of the respondents were undecided about the statement. Table 4.32.--If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender. Male Female Response N % N % Strongly agree 7 7 l9 8 Agree 48 45 59 24 Undecided 34 32 86 34 Disagree 16 15 67 27 Strongly disagree 2 2 l9 8 Total 107 30 250 70 109 Hypothesis 56: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one would rather not compete for an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I would rather not compete for an administrative posi- tion." The obtained chi square of 14.48 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. is shown in Table 4.33, 62 percent of the women and 50 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Table 4.33.--I would rather not compete for an administrative position. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 12 ll 67 27 Agree 42 39 87 35 Undecided 23 22 28 11 Disagree 23 22 48 19 Strongly disagree 7 7 l9 8 Total 107 30 249 70 Hypothesis 57: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether adminis- trators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Administrators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment." The obtained chi square of 3.97 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the 110 re5ponses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 71 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 58: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Seeking an administrative position involves too much 'politics.'“ The obtained chi square of 3.88 with 4 degrees of free- dom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 59 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. Table 4.34 summarizes the data for the statements under Psychological Aspects of Part III of the questionnaire. (See page 111.) The World of Work Hypothesis 59: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that people who are at administrative levels are often asked to compro- mise their principles. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: ”People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles." The obtained chi square of 15.60 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.35, 65 percent of the men and 49 percent of the women agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. 111 Table 4.34.--Results of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on Psychological Aspects. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position. I feel confident in most leadership positions. I would be willing to further my education for an administrative position. Administrators in my district would react favorably if I became an administrator. I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now. I like delegating tasks and working with people. Being an administrator would increase my self-image. If I applied for an administrative position, I feel I might be a top contender. I would rather not compete for an administra- tive position. Administrators tend to become "out of touch" with the teaching environment. Seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics." Ra NR NR NR NR NR NR NR aR = rejected; NR = not rejected. 112 Table 4.35.--People who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 15 14 22 9 Agree 59 55 100 40 Undecided 15 14 81 32 Disagree 16 15 43 17 Strongly disagree 2 2 6 2 Total 107 30 252 70 Hypothesis 60: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that one's present position provides too much security for one to seek an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My present position provides too much security for me to seek an administrative position." The obtained chi square of 2.92 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no differ- ence in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothe- sis was not rejected. The results show that 55 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Hypothesis 61: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men advance faster in administration with less experi- ence simply because they are men." The obtained chi square of 10.68 113 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.36, 57 percent of the women and only 40 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Table 4.36.--Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 5 4 32 13 Agree 39 36 110 44 Undecided 27 25 45 18 Disagree 28 26 55 22 Strongly disagree 8 8 9 4 Total 107 30 251 70 Hypothesis 62: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that the "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "The 'white-male club' promotes men over women for posi- tions in administration.“ The obtained chi square of 5.65 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Specifically, results showed 42 percent of the respon- dents agreed but 30 percent were undecided. 114 Hypothesis 63: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one sees a position in educational administration as attainable. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I see a position in educational administration as attain- able for me." The obtained chi square of 22.59 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.37, 68 percent of the males agreed or strongly agreed and only 41 percent of the females. On the other hand, 39 per- cent of the females disagreed or strongly disagreed and only 19 percent of the men. Table 4.37.—-I see a position in educational administration as attainable for me. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 12 ll 17 7 Agree 51 51 85 34 Undecided 14 13 49 20 Disagree 15 14 77 31 Strongly disagree 5 5 20 8 Total 107 30 248 70 Hypothesis 64: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question that men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Men are more often chosen for an administrative position 115 than women." The obtained chi square of 9.26 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.38, 72 percent of the men agreed or strongly agreed and 75 percent of the women. Table 4.38.--Men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 9 8 48 19 Agree 68 64 140 56 Undecided 19 18 3O 12 Disagree 8 8 28 11 Strongly disagree 3 3 5 2 Total 107 30 251 70 Hypothesis 65: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one is willing to "go for broke" in the quest for a position in administration. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: ”I am willing to "go for broke" in my quest for a posi- tion in administration." The obtained chi square of 3.67 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the re5ponses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 86 percent of the respon- dents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 116 Hypothesis 66: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether one con- siders working with children more rewarding than administration. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "I consider that working with children is more rewarding than administration." The obtained chi square of 7.67 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 72 percent of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Hypothesis 67: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether there is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: ”There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator.“ The obtained chi square of 10.54 with 4 degrees of freedom was significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is shown in Table 4.39, 54 percent of the males dis- agreed or strongly disagreed with this statement and only 36 percent of the women. Hypothesis 68: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women." The obtained chi square of 6.42 with 4 degrees of 117 freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results show that 55 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. Table 4.39.--There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. Response Male Female N % N % Strongly agree 5 5 11 4 Agree 16 15 57 23 Undecided 28 26 92 37 Disagree 49 46 76 31 Strongly disagree 8 8 13 5 Total 106 30 249 70 Hypothesis 69: There is no significant sex difference in the responses to the question of whether university or college professors were helpful in seeking an administrative position. This hypothesis was tested using responses to the following statement: "My university or college professors assisted me in seeking an administrative position.” The obtained chi square of 1.96 with 4 degrees of freedom was not significant, indicating no difference in the responses of men and women. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, 87 percent of the respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. 118 Table 4.40 summarizes the data for the statements under The World of Work of Part III of the questionnaire. Table 4.40.--Resu1ts of tests looking for significant differences between males and females on the World of Work. Statement Test of Null Hypothesis PeOple who are at administrative levels are often asked to compromise their principles. My present position provides too much security for me to seek an administrative position. Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. The "white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. I see a position in educational administration as attainable for me. Men are more often chosen for an adminis- trative position than women. I am willing to "go for broke" in my quest for a position in administration. I consider that working with children is more rewarding than administration. There is just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. My university or college professors assisted me in seeking an administrative position. NR NR NR NR NR 6R = rejected; NR = not rejected. 119 Summary Chapter IV has presented the analysis of data in an attempt to: 1. Assess the results of the hypotheses tested concerning perceived aspiration levels of men and women teachers for an admin- istrative position. 2. Analyze the results of the hypotheses tested concerning perceived demographic characteristics of the men and women re5pon- dents. 3. Analyze the results of the hypotheses tested concerning perceived multiple factors which influence administrative aspirations of men and women teachers. Data analyses of the chi square, Test of Association were used in the assessment of each of the hypotheses. The hypothesis test of significance was based on the .05 level for all tests of association. A summary of the hypotheses can be found on the following pages of the text: 1. Administrative Aspirations, pp. 131-133. Demographic Characteristics, pp. 133-135. Cultural Considerations, pp. 135-137. Educational Factors, pp. 137-139. Personal Perspectives, pp. 139-140. Psychological Aspects, pp. 140-141. \J 05 0'! «Fl 00 N o o o o o o The World of Work, pp. 141-142. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this final chapter a summary of the purposes, limitations, literature, and design of the study is presented first. The conclu- sions generated from analysis, followed by interpretations and recom- mendations for further research and administrative practice, conclude the chapter. Summar Purpose of the Study The central purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the scarcity of women in educational administra- tion and the administrative career aspirations of women teachers. The study was designed to explore whether or not multi-factors such as culture, educational climate, personal perspectives, psychologi- cal aspects, and the world of work may have an influence on women teachers in their aspirations for a position in educational admin- istration. Limitations of the Study 1. The investigation was conducted in a specific geographic area in the State of Michigan: school districts grouped as 11, 120 121 IV, and VI by the Michigan Association of School Boards in Lansing, Michigan. 2. The validity of the study is affected by the degree of sincerity and frankness of response to the instrument administered. 3. The investigation was limited to five categories of women teachers' educational administrative aspirations: cultural considera- tions, educational factors, personal perspectives, psychological aspects, and the world of work. These factors are treated as opposed to legal or organizational determinants. 4. The descriptive nature of the study represents a limita- tion, inasmuch as it only describes what is perceived to be true-- not necessarily what is true. 5. The findings of the relationship between factors cited in the previous statements are viewed as correlational and not causal. Review of the Literature The literature relating to the purpose of this study was reviewed in seven major sections. The sections and the major find- ings were as follows: 1. A recent incident illustrating some pppblems of women in contemporary professions. A citation of a front-page article in the New York Times provided the basis of an incident of masked male sex- bias against a professional woman, exhibited in a court room, by an officer of the court and apparently tolerated by the presiding judge. The major conclusion of this section supports the basis of this study 122 and is far from encouraging to women who aspire to leadership roles in any profession, whether law or education. 2. A review of women in history. The work of Sidney Hook was discussed in terms of such outstanding women as Cleopatra, Theodora, and Catherine II. Hook analyzes the influence and power play of intelligence, beauty, and sexual appeal in their lives. His assessment stresses the much greater significance of intelligence over beauty as qualities of famous women leaders. His view is set in contrast throughout the dissertation to the views of some male edu- cators who downgrade female intellectual capabilities and promote sex-bias in U.S. education. 3. A review of women in 0.5. education. The historical background of women in U.S. educational systems was traced. Sta- tistics related by Taylor, Howard, and Seaton illustrated the rise to dominance and decline of women in positions of power in the U.S. educational profession. Other statistics tended to forecast the virtual extinction of the administrative woman in U.S. education. Thus the question was introduced as to whether the woman educator may in the future go the way of the buffalo into extinction. 4. A review of women in educational administration. Several studies were examined which supported the conclusion that women in educational administration are equally as competent as their male counterparts. The Florida Study conducted by Grobman and Hines and the NAEP Study for the Virginia Association of Elementary School Principals demonstrated specific areas of female administrative strength. Ester and Fishel and Pottker concur through similar findings 123 that although women may be few in educational administration, their leadership abilities are of at least as high a quality generally as those of men. 5. A review of women and sex-bias in educational leadership. Findings of previous studies support the conclusion that sex-bias infects nearly every aspect of U.S. education. It is most clearly demonstrated in: the administrator selection process; the balance of men and women role-models; the composition of faculty at the elementary and secondary levels; sex-role stereotyping in terms of classes, programs, and activities; and finally in the ultimate control of the administration of public schools. Some consideration was given to the recommendations by researchers for programs and policies that must be initiated to end discriminatory employment practices. 6. A review of women's aspirations in the educational profession. The studies of McMillen, Diaz, and Landon supported an apparent increase of awareness among women educators of educa- tional administration possibilities. There seemed to be con- clusive evidence, in fact, that more women teachers are express- ing the intent to pursue an administrative career, the questions of discrimination and sex-bias notwithstanding. A survey of continued research in this area was outlined. Also discussed were programs of financial and other assistance by public and private organizations to women in their quest for administrative educational positions. 124 7. A review of women's diminishing role in educational leadership. Social role stereotyping of women who aspire to become educational administrators was discussed. The attitudes of the 19605, which considered as taboo female desires to mix professional careers with family responsibility, were contrasted with the recent trend to shatter the old myths about women's exclusive role as wife, mother, and companion in the home. It was concluded, based on the literature, that positive, swift action was essential to develop women's aspira- tions to positions of leadership. Design of the Study In order to test the hypotheses of this study, itwas deemed neces- sary to develop an instrument relating to the a5pirations of women for posi- tions in educational administration. The Administrative Aspirations Questionnaire was, therefore, constructed. It was largely a product of lengthy interviews with trained personnel who have previously done formal and informal research on women in leadership positions. The questionnaire was designed to determine those multiple factors which teachers perceive as barriers to obtaining educational administrative positions. The population of the study consisted of the men and women teachers in Groups II, IV, and VI of the Michigan School Districts as defined by the Michigan Association of School Boards in Lansing. However, only the four counties of Cl inton, Eaton, Ingham, and Shiawassee were selected for population source. A systematic random sample of 400 men and women teachers was drawn from each of the three groups and computerized by personnel 125 of the Michigan Education Association. A letter explaining the purposes of the study was mailed to each of the 400 selected respondents. The data were analyzed with the assistance of the Institute for Research on Teaching at Michigan State University. The instruments were punched on computer data cards and analyzed using the chi square Test of Association. The .05 level of significance with various degrees of freedom was selected as the critical region of rejection in the analyses. Findings Part I: Perceived Aspiration Levels of Men and Women Teachers for an Administrative Position 1. Significant differences exist in the aspirations of males and females for, and action to obtain, an elementary principalship. More men than women sampled had applied for this position (12 percent men to 1 percent women), while a higher percentage of women than men said they would aspire to become an elementary principal (20 percent women to 13 percent men). The men seemed to implement their desire to become elementary principals at a much higher rate than did women. 2. Significant differences exist in the aspirations of males and females for, and action to obtain, a secondary principalship. Five percent of the men tested had applied, but none of the women tested had applied. Only 9 percent of the women would aspire for the position, while 16 percent of the men would so aspire. 3. Significant differences exist in the aspirations of males and females for,and action to obtain, a position in central 126 office. While more males tested tended to apply (6 percent men to no women), an almost equal number of females would aspire for central office positions (27 percent of men to 20 percent of women). 4. Significant differences exist in the aspirations of males and females for the position of assistant superintendent of schools. Two percent of the males tested applied, but no females applied. While 14 percent of the men would aspire to be an assistant superintendent, only 7 percent of the females would so a5pire. 5. Significant differences exist in the a5pirations of males and females for the position of superintendent of schools. While none of the males or females tested actually had applied, more males would aspire than women (12 percent men to 2 percent women). Part II: Perceived Demographic Characteristics of Men and Women Respondents 1. There are no significant differences in the marital status, race, level of education, number of years teaching, sibling placement, or identification of teaching community. Male and female respondents tended to group into equivalent categories. 2. Significant differences exist in the age level of the respondents. The majority of males tested were 39 years of age or younger (74 percent). A lesser majority of females were in the same age group (64 percent). 3. Significant differences exist in the number of children male and female respondents had. Males tested had a higher percentage of families consisting of two or more children (55 percent), and 127 females varied between two or more children (41 percent) and none at all (40 percent). 4. Significant differences exist in considering the present teaching level of male and female respondents. Males clustered at the high school level (45 percent), as opposed to a much smaller percentage of women in high school (19 percent). 5. Significant differences exist in considering sports participation as a youth by the male and female respondents. A higher percentage of males participated in team and individual sports (48 percent) than did females (37 percent). 6. Significant differences exist in considering the number of years the mothers of the male and female respondents worked. A higher percentage, a majority, of females (54 percent) indicated that their mothers did not work at all during their growing years. A minority percentage of the male respondents (37 percent) indicated their mothers did not work at all during their growing years. The mothers of fewer women respondents (32 percent) than men (44 percent) worked part of the specified time. Part III: Perceived Multiple Factors Which May Be Related to Administra- tive Aspirations of Men and Women Teachers Cultural Considerations.--Significant differences exist in the re5ponses of males and females to 6 of the 11 questions under Cultural Considerations. 128 1. More men than women agreed that men are more effective administrators than women (35 percent men, 12 percent women). More women than men, however, agreed that women are better organizers than men (35 percent women, 18 percent men). 2. Higher percentages of women than men disagreed with the idea that women are less independent in work habits (61 percent women, 43 percent men), the idea that women are not as dependable as men (94 percent women, 86 percent men), and the idea that men know more about how to seek and obtain administrative jobs (62 per- cent women, 47 percent men). 3. Quite interesting, however, is the disagreement of a higher percentage of men than women with the idea that women have a lower level of achievement motivation (69 percent men, 64 percent women). Educational Factors.--Significant differences exist in the responses of males and females in three of the questions under Educational Factors. 1. A higher percentage of women than men disagreed with the idea that women in management positions downgrade the teaching pro- fession (96 percent women, 90 percent men) and with the idea that they would be more comfortable working for a male administrator (66 percent women, 42 percent men). 2. A higher percentage of women than men agreed that students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes (62 percent women, 46 percent men). 129 Personal Perspectives.--Significant differences exist in the responses of males and females in five of the questions under Per- sonal Perspectives. l. A greater percentage of women than men strongly agreed that a woman can be both a successful administrator and happily married (34 percent women, 21 percent men). In the combined percentage of strong agreement and agreement, however, the women had a smaller majority (88 percent women, 86 percent men). A higher percentage of women agreed that they were encouraged in the home to get a college degree (89 percent women, 79 percent men). A higher per- centage of men, however, agreed that they were encouraged by an administrator to apply for an administrative position (40 percent men, 17 percent women). 2. Male respondents more than female disagreed that family responsibilities would keep them from seeking an administrative position (68 percent men, 55 percent women). A higher percentage of women disagreed with the idea of moving to become an administra- tor (75 percent women, 63 percent men). Psychological Aspects.--Significant differences exist in the responses of males and females in four of the questions under Psycho- logical Aspects. 1. A higher percentage of women disagreed with the idea of furthering their education for an administrative position (59 percent women, 41 percent men). 130 2. A higher percentage of women agreed with the idea of being satisfied with present employment and being unwilling to seek an administrator job (71 percent women, 57 percent men) and with the idea of being unwilling to compete for an administrative posi- tion (62 percent women, 50 percent men). 3. Male respondents in a higher percentage indicated the feeling they might be top contenders for administrative positions if they applied (52 percent men, 32 percent women). The World of Work.--Significant differences exist in the responses of males and females in five of the questions under the World of Work. With the following two questions, a higher per- centage of men agreed than did women: 1. More men than women agreed that people who are at adminis- trative levels are often asked to compromise their principles (69 percent men agreed, 49 percent women). More men than women also saw a position in educational administration as attainable for them (68 percent men agreed, 41 percent women). 2. A higher percentage of men disagreed with the idea that there is too much competition in trying to become an administrator (54 percent men, 36 percent women). 3. In response to two questions, women agreed in a higher percentage than did men. More women than men agreed that men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men (57 percent women, 40 percent men). A slightly higher percentage of women agreed that men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women (75 percent women, 72 percent men). 131 Conclusions General 1. The findings of this study support the conclusions of McMillen discussed in Chapter II, that as the responsibility of the administrative position increased, the aspiration level of women educators decreased. 2. Nothing in the data of this study, however, is found to support Diaz's conclusion that a higher percentage of women in relation to their total number in education aspire to administrative positions than do men. Nor do the data here lend much support to Landon's opti- mistic statement that "there exists a substantial pool of women teach- ers who have expressed an intent to pursue careers in the field." 'That only five applications for any type of administrative position were registered by women in the hundreds of responses to individual items in the questionnaire would seem to indicate that at least in the implemen- tation, women's aspirations may be much less than other studies esti- mated. None of the female respondents had applied for a secondary school principalship. Even in unimplemented aspiration--which could include flights of fancy about ultimate success in their chosen profes- sion--on1y one in five of the female respondents aspired even for ele- mentary principalships or central office staff positions. Less than one in ten aspired to be a secondary principal and female a5piration to be assistant superintendent or superintendent was in the range of less than 1 in 20. 3. Although this study set out to analyze female aspiration, a resultant by-product which should be noted in passing may be 132 as significant as the lack of feminine desire to be educational leaders. A much higher percentage of males than females implemented aspirations for administrative jobs by applying for them. The very low level of male unimplemented aspirations, however, was surprising. A greater percentage of women actually aspired to be elementary principals. From the relatively high aspiration for safe positions as central office administrators to which about one out of four men aspired, the desire of men to obtain other administrative positions fell off precipitously to the point where only 12 percent of the respondents were inclined to seek superintendencies. It can thus be concluded from these test results that a very small percentage of all teachers, whether male or female, has much ambition to leave the classroom to become educational policy makers. Based on Part III results from the questionnaire, about three-quarters of women respondents and nearly two-thirds of male respondents would be unen- thused by the offer of an administrative position if it would require them to move. About six out of ten women and four out of ten men appear to be unwilling to further their education to become adminis- trators. At a time when the world is daily becoming a more complex and dangerous place in which to live and demands have increased for far greater sophistication in educational policy, the apparent apathy of U.S. classroom teachers toward contributing policy leadership should be a source of major concern to the American people. The political, military, and economic crises which today crowd the 133 education crisis off the front pages will accelerate at an alarming rate in the future if U.S. educational institutions are allowed to decay. If, as this study seems to indicate, about 80 percent or more of male teachers and a considerably higher percentage of female teachers have no ambition to fill any type of administrative job, the policy level of U.S. education is being deprived of some of the best brain power in the profession. It seems evident that one problem must be the very nature of administrative positions, which in the social conflicts of the times are placing almost impossible demands on education leaders. Although it is not in the sc0pe of this study to deal with that problem, it is, indeed, appropriate to mention it inasmuch as it is brought into passing focus by this research. 4. Significant demographic data resulting from this research support some conclusions of the studies outlined in Chapter 11. Those data reinforce the NEA statistics indicating that the majority of males are in the high schools and the majority of females are in the elementary schools. The higher the level of education, the greater the preponderance of males becomes. Schmuck's thesis that men in a "female" occupation must continually strive to validate their self-worth seems to be supported by the consolidation of men at the more prestigious levels of the educational system. Support- ing that theory in this study is the fact that the single area in which women top the male percentage in aspiration for administrative posts is for elementary principalships (20 percent women, 13 percent men). 134 5. Younger men seem to be increasing in the ranks of educators in public schools. This study's data indicate that 74 percent of the males surveyed were 39 years old or younger, as contrasted with 64 percent of the women respondents. These statistics would seem to predict that these young males will in the future occupy, merely on the basis of age alone, more administrative positions than women. 6. This study's data gave no indication that the re5ponsibility of having children lessened the desire of teachers to become admin- istrators. While a sizable majority of males and females had one or more children, a good majority of men and women disagreed with item 24 of Part III, that they had too many family responsibilities to seek an administrator position. The rising trend toward shared family responsibility seems to have eased the concern of women teachers about the idea of some educational researchers that the U.S. social milieu's stress on the fundamental role of the woman as mother and wife inhibits them from becoming administrators. 7. Hennig and Jardim1 proposed the interesting theory that attitudes and skills learned through childhood participation in team and individual sports affect men's adult aspiration for management positions. These data indicate that 62 percent of female and 88 per- cent of male respondents participated in some kind of sports during youth. These very large percentages have no correlation, however, 1Margaret Hennig and Ann Jardim, The Managerial Woman (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977)] p. 23. 135 with the small percentages of both men and women with management aspirations. 8. Although this study failed to establish any relationship between role models of working mothers and the a5pirations of either men or women, it is interesting that significantly more mothers of male teachers worked than mothers of females (63 percent mothers of males, 46 percent mothers of females). Cultural Considerations 1. Several items in Part III of the questionnaire dealing with perceived multiple factors seem to be related to both male and female managerial a5piration. Under Cultural Considerations, men's and women's views of the other sex's managerial ability are revealing. About three times as many men as women believed that men are more effective administrators than women (35 percent men to 12 percent women). Since more than a third of male respondents espoused this idea and since men are for the most part in control of the mechan- isms whereby new administrators are selected, some bias in the selection process would seem to be indicated. On the other hand, about a third of the females (35 percent women, 18 percent men) sampled believed women to be better organizers than men, so sex bias may not be unique to the male. The female response to these two questions seems to show a trend toward women rejecting the sex- type stereotyping which views men as superior to women in leadership roles. It also seems to indicate that women are becoming more open to other women serving in administrative jobs. 136 2. Some bias carries through to the male view of women's independence as workers, inasmuch as only 43 percent of men disagreed with the idea that women are more likely to seek proximity to others than to work independently (61 percent women disagreed). 3. Noteworthy, however, is a higher percentage of women agree- ing with the idea that women work less independently (21 percent women, 16 percent men). These responses might reflect a view of independence as not being an entirely desirable managerial quality. It will be recalled that Seawell and Canady cited test results indicating that women principals worked more cooperatively with faculty committees than male principals. This was obviously viewed as being desirable mana- gerial conduct. 4. An overwhelming majority of both male and female respon- dents rejected the statement that women are not as dependable as men (94 percent women, 86 percent men). The fact, however, that 15 percent of the men questioned, as Opposed to 2 percent of the women, agreed with the idea seems to point to the type of bias pre- viously observed. 5. Although the mentor concept and support system is frequently cited in the literature as working against women, significantly more women than men disagreed with the proposition that men more than women know how to seek and obtain opportunities to become admin- istrators (62 percent women disagreed, to 47 percent men). Some women may have interpreted the statement as disparaging feminine ingenuity. In any case, in response to a later question 40 per- cent men, as opposed to only 17 percent women, said they had 137 received encouragement from an administrator to apply for an administrative position. While there is no direct conflict in these two sets Of responses, they would seem to signal the fact that if men do not have more know-how on how to get a position than women, they do seem to get more help along the way from those who have already made it in the system. 6. A positive note was struck by the male respondents when they dissented in a higher percentage than women from the statement that women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men (69 percent males disagreed, 64 percent females). Cultural socialization, it would seem, has broken down enough barriers to elevate male regard for women's motivation to attain career goals similar or identical to those of men. If the data of this study are indicative, men appraise women's achievement motivation higher than women themselves do. The very act of men viewing women as equals in any competitive aspect should automatically, if it were known to women, raise their own perception of their capability to compete with men. Educational Factors 1. Women respondents to this section registered overwhelming dissent from the idea that women's acceptance as equals in educational management may downgrade the profession. A large majority of men also disagreed (96 percent women disagreed, 90 percent men). 2. While a large majority of women rejected the idea that they would feel more comfortable working for a male administrator, 138 a surprisingly large minority of men did also (66 percent women dis- agreed, 42 percent men). 3. That four out of every ten men would feel equally comfort- able working for a man or a woman reinforces the earlier-noted increased acceptance by men of women as equals in the profession. It would perhaps be revealing to sample an all-female group on their per- ception Of the degree to which men accept them as equals in the profes- sion, and then sample an all-male group on how they actually regard women in this respect. The data of this study suggest that women might seriously underestimate their acceptance, and this miscalculation may negatively influence their aspiration toward administrative positions. That nearly seven out of ten women reject the idea that they feel more comfortable working for a male reinforces earlier indications Ofaiprob- able increase of acceptance ofwomen administrators by women themselves. 4. Again, male respondents registered a high degree of accep- tance (46 percent agreed) of the idea that students who do not experi- ence women in leadership positions are not likely to develop a5pirations that move beyond the traditional stereotypes. Women accepted the idea in even a higher percentage (62 percent agreed). This seems to be a chicken-and-egg situation. If the current shortage Of women in educational leadership roles restricts aspirations of female students for administrative jobs, where does one start to correct the situation? In response to a later question in this section, large majorities Of both men and women respondents indi- cated that most administrators in their school process were male. 139 This male monopoly, by its very presence, seems to seriously inhibit what few programs there are to attract women to educational adminis- tration. Personal Perspectives 1. Some of the responses in this section were discussed above. Women more than men, if the sample is valid, are unwilling to move in order to fill an administrative position (75 percent women would tend not to move, as Opposed to 63 percent men). 2. Even more significantly, only 17 percent women, contrasted with 40 percent men, received encouragement from an existing adminis- trator to apply for an administrative job. The Odds piled up by their unwillingness to move, on the one hand, and their lack Of encouragement from a mentor, on the other, put women at a great disadvantage as far as getting into leadership jobs is concerned. Without either personal motivation from within or a mentor pull from the external environment, conquest of the "system" which leads to the top is unlikely, to say the least. 3. It is of only small consolation to learn from the study's results that women more than men are encouraged in the home to get a college degree (89 percent women, 79 percent men). A dissertation could be devoted to the reason for this encouragement. Why do women's families want them to go to college? Perhaps many families in the late 19705 may want to prepare women for a career, rather than exclusively for marriage. 4. As noted earlier, a change in trend may be indicated by the surprising majority of both men and women disagreeing that family 140 responsibilities are an obstacle to their seeking an administrative position (68 percent men disagreed, to 55 percent women). 5. An even greater sign Of the times finds 86 percent of all male respondents, as opposed to 88 percent women, agreeing that a woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. Are women aware of the change in men's attitudes toward their pursuing a career? The continued low degree of feminine aspiration for educa— tional leadership careers does not indicate that women have kept up with male attitudes. When women start to realize that men will accept a career woman as a marriage mate, they will understand that they no longer have to choose between a career and marriage. Psychological Aspects 1. This section is very telling in its indication that women clearly do not aspire to administrative educational jobs as fre— quently as men do. The reasons seem to be: that women are more satisfied with their present employment (71 percent women, 57 percent men); are less willing to further their education (59 percent women, 41 percent men); are less confident that they would be top contenders (52 percent men are confident, but only 32 percent women); or simply would rather not compete for an administrative position (62 percent women to 50 percent men). 2. Answers to some questions always raise many more questions seeking answers. Why are women more contented in the classroom? Why do they shy away from further education? Obviously they do not view themselves as top contenders and are not really interested in the 141 competition. Why not? It is logical to suppose that they do not like to lose and their experience has been that they lose to men when they compete. The World of Work 1. Women register less cynicism concerning whether adminis- trators are Often asked to compromise their principles. About seven in ten men said they were, but only about five in ten women agreed. Perhaps the fact that there are many more men than women in adminis- trative jobs lends more authority to the male opinion. 2. The realities of the employment arena seem to reinforce the female Opinion that they are at a serious disadvantage when competing with men. Women in higher numbers agreed that men advance faster in administration simply because they are men (57 percent women, 40 per- cent men) and that men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women (75 percent women, 72 percent men). 3. In addition, almost seven out of ten men agreed that an administrative position was attainable for them, while only about four out of ten women agreed. 4. A higher percentage of men than women disagreed with the idea that there is too much competition in trying to become an adminis- trator. The total Of the study certainly bears out the fact that there is remarkably little competition by either sex for leadership jobs. The state lottery motto of one state is, "You have to enter to 142 win." This is equally true of women and educational administrative jobs. As fewer women compete, fewer women win. As fewer women win, an even fewer number are willing to compete. Unless women chalk up some victories, they will soon abandon the field entirely to the men. Summary Of Conclusions The research results point to many negative factors: 1. Women's aspirations decrease as the responsibilities Of the administrative job increase. 2. Only a small percentage of women apply for administrative jobs. 3. A surprisingly small percentage of classroom teachers, male or female, aspire to be administrators. 4. Large majorities of men and women would not be willing to move for an administrative position. 5. Large percentages of both men and women would not further their education to aspire for leadership jobs. 6. Without the example Of successful female administrators, female students are unlikely to be future aspirants for administra- tive jobs. 7. The virtual male monopoly on administrative positions seems to be intimidating to women and inhibits feminine aspirations. 8. The female perception that there are unfair Odds against them discourages them from seeking administrative jobs. 143 There are, however, some positive indications: 1. Although some male bias against women seems to persist, it is probably decreasing and men's acceptance of women in the profes- sion seems to be increasing. 2. There are indications that female teachers are becoming increasingly more willing to accept their sisters in administrative roles. 3. There is strong evidence that men are becoming more accepting of the fact that women can be successful as wives and mothers while at the same time succeeding in an educational leader- ship job. 4. Results from this study indicate that women, too, seem to be more aware that family re5ponsibilities are not incompatible with successful careers in educational administration. Recommendations This dissertation began with a commentary on the women's conference at Houston. It is appropriate that the section on recom- mendations should return to that meeting to find the source of power to implement suggestions that will be made here. It is all well and good to say "school boards should" and "state and county governments should" and "universities should" provide the impetus for increasing the number of female administrators in education. The simple facts are that for the most part school boards, districts, and universities have done very little along these lines and they will not do anything 144 in the future unless they feel pressure from those most concerned, namely women themselves. Since the vast majority of women teachers seem to have no interest in administrative positions, the burden for promoting female leadership falls squarely upon that group Of females and males who have already made the grade in educational administration. This group is certainly composed of highly intelligent, industrious, determined women and men who refused to take no for an answer when they first encountered the bars to educational administration. They cannot now accept no as answer for their women confreres who are so discouraged with the slight possibility of success that they are unwilling even to compete. TO change feminine attitudes requires commitment and funding to sponsor necessary programs. The Houston conference indicates there is, indeed, money available to promote female interests. It is the clear responsibility of women and men educational leaders to recruit enough teachers to attend and make an impact on women's meetings such as the one at Houston. With the backing Of all the women who are uniting to promote women's rights in general, the rights of women teachers will be promoted. It is important to write dissertations like this one on the subject, but women and men educational leaders must also make their presence felt in a practical way. In this connection, plans are now being laid for a cabinet- level department Of education in the federal government which will provide dozens of high administrative jobs for educational leaders. 145 Women educational administrators should be seeking out themselves and supporting one another to fill these jobs. They should, more- over, be identifying and supporting men who are enlightened enough to understand U.S. education's serious need for talented female leadership if the formidable challenges of the last quarter of this century are to be met, in the most effective manner. It is recommended that: l. A crash program to educate, motivate, encourage, and recruit women teachers to compete for administrative positions should be undertaken. Women teachers should be provided with and made aware of well- funded educational career tracks, delineated and assured avenues of advancement, job training, and carefully thought-out mentor mechanisms which support them at every turn in the difficult road leading to leadership jobs. Skilled promoters should be enlisted to reverse some Of the currently held female attitudes toward their status in their profes- sion. Sympathetic and articulate men should provide evidence concern- ing the change in male attitudes toward career women in the profession. Meetings to promote the woman administrator should include husbands and male friends. Discussions of shared responsibility in marriage should be emphasized. Although research must back and substantiate these promotions, research works, no matter how scholarly and persuasive, are of little value if they do not serve as guides to constructive 146 action. Teachers must be provoked, challenged, encouraged, and inspired to assume more responsibility. Women who hold it must reexamine the view--1arge1y a rationalization for inactivity--that a switch from the classroom is a compromise which will put them out of touch with students. They should see administration as it is, if properly practiced by industrious, involved, innovative people--an avenue not only to personal and professional growth but to those seats Of power in which they can well do students more good with a single imaginative decision than they might by months in a classroom. 2. Internships for women under educational administrators at all levels should be massively increased and sophisticated. These internships should be filled by the best classroom teachers who are recruited even if they have not registered aspira- tion for administrative jobs. In addition to continued full salaries, bonuses should be paid to motivate teachers to leave the classroom for a semester or two and sample life and work in high leadership Offices. These teachers will not only bring an infusion of new, practical ideas to the educational bureaucracy, but they will gain effective, practical experience which in many instances will awaken or enhance aspiration for full-time positions. Funding internships is expensive but not nearly as expensive as continuing to lose feminine talent tO leadership positions. 3. An organized effort by current female administrators should be mounted to promote female visibiliiy. 147 Female presence at administrative meetings, workshops, discussions, luncheons, and decision-making activities creates an unofficial pressure group. Adeptness at articulating policy sugges- tions by unofficial groups not infrequently results in invitations to members of these groups to share administrative responsibilities. 4. Every possible device should be enlisted to motivate women to support each other. That women who have "made it" should reach down to assist other women up the administrative ladder has already been emphasized. A sense of pride in their womanhood should, however, be instilled in all female teachers. Consciousness Of their common interests, and the artificial limitations which the external environment has placed on them as a sex, will quickly increase their support of each other in the same way that the American labor movement united the working men earlier in this century. The leadership for such a program must again come from the successful female administrator and the small group of female aspirants. A special task of stimulat- ing emulation falls to those successful female administrators who are successful wives and mothers as well. 5. Women teacher pressureygroups should strive to force school boards, school districts, and other education control centers to mount affirmative action programs to recruit and appoint female education administrators. The Bakke decision, while disallowing racial quotas in medical schools, strongly backed affirmative action. If such 148 programs are desirable to right past racial injustices, they should be equally desirable tO right past injustices toward women educators. The political power of women that pushed the Equal Rights Amendment so far can be utilized toward attaining a number of other goals, including that Of bringing a reasonable balance between men and women educational administrators based on their strength in numbers in the profession. Well-funded internships, as described above, could be one mechanism used by school boards and districts to bring more women into administration. The equity employed by school boards in making appointments to administrative positions should be carefully monitored by women teacher groups and biased board members should be identified and forced out of their positions. Strong commitments to sexual equality should be extracted from those seeking places on school boards. Women's political influence should be used to make school board members live up to their promises. It is particularly important for pressure groups to ensure that women are not receiving only traditional staff positions in central Office, e.g., director or curriculum specialist. There should be strong, well-funded programs to encourage and hire women in line power positions, such as assistant superintendent, superintendent, and secondary principal. The word "encour- age" here is crucial. A lack Of women applicants may not always mean a total lack of interest but rather a lack of confidence that women have any chance Of being hired as line administrators. Those line and building administrators already in a district should be mandated to seek out, identify, and cultivate those women who demonstrate leadership 149 talents and to alert them to possible openings in the district. Finally, school boards and districts should evaluate the pay scale for men and women administrators and ensure equivalent pay based on equivalent position, regardless of sex. They should also evaluate the administrative positions themselves, examining the tasks and work hour scheduling. Possible women applicants should not conclude that administrative positions are traditionally male-oriented, geared toward long periods away from home life, or requiring typically masculine physical feats unconventional for women. These unreasonable factors discourage all applicants, but especially women. 6. Women pressure groups should use political and other influence to force colleges and universities to promote strong cam- spaigns to attract women to take programs at both the graduate and undergraduate levels in educational administration. Institutions of higher education must provide career coun- seling for women in educational administration at much earlier stages Of career development. An administrative career should be fostered at the stage where personal development will not be sacri- ficed for women. Administrative course work specifically designed for the woman administrator should deal, among other things, with such realities as the formal and informal network and specifically the "old boy" communication system regarding promotions and appoint- ments. Efforts should be made to prepare women administrators for the financial and legal aspects of the administration of schools as 150 well as curriculum development. Leading universities should house in-service workshop programs for those women who are actual and/or potential candidates for administrative Office. Federal and state grants should be Obtained to train and place women in administrative positions through the state's educational system. Finally, uni- versities should themselves hire women in the higher administrative branches of university office so that adequate role-models are provided for the woman administrator and to further balance sexual representation in line positions of university administrations. Suggestions for Further Research The following areas for further study are suggested: 1. Replicate this study using women already in administra- tive positions and attempt to identify those areas which were per- sonally and professionally most significant in Obtaining an administrative position. 2. Replicate this study and add specific economic/time factor questions regarding number of months actually on the job as opposed to summer months free of teaching. Also, an analysis of administrative salary schedules computed on the basis of months worked might be contrasted to a teacher's salary schedule computed in the same way. 3. Replicate this study using female administrators and attempt to ascertain how many had a mentor and then make a comparison 151 of the possible advantages enjoyed by those females who had a mentor with those who did not. 4. Select a dozen or so women teachers who responded to this dissertation's questionnaires and interview them to ascertain why they did not a5pire for the various levels of administration. 5. Construct a study to determine why and how districts which have an unusually large number of women in line positions Of administration attracted the women administrators. The level of administrative aspiration for their female teachers could also be examined as a part of this study. 6. Construct a study which would compare male attitudes toward female administrators with female perceptions of what male attitudes toward female administrators are. 7. Replicate this study to determine whether male and female members of educational associations have a positive or nega- tive view of the association's leadership and how this view influ- ences their aspirations to leadership roles in these associations. 8. Construct a study to determine specifically whether local university and school district hiring committees have and follow through on the Affirmative Action Policy in terms of trying to recruit women. APPENDIX ' 152 ADMINISTRATIVE ASPINATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE mm This questionnaire is designed to obtain the opinions and feelings of the teachers of local Michigan school districts concerning their administrative aspirations. Aspiration is a term to describe the seeking after or actively applying for a particular level of educational administration. It is an important issue regarding equal employment opportunities for all administrative applicants. What is wanted is yOur own point of view about each of the statements in Parts I. II. and III of the questionnaire. Part I indicates actual administrative positions; Part II simply seeks demographic data to aid in analyzing results obtained. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and at no time will individuals or school systems be identified. After reading each item in Part III. indicate the extent of agreement with your point of view on each item by circling the appropriate response selected. RATING SCALE: 1 -- Strongly Agree 2 -- Agree 3 -- Undecided 4 -- Disagree 5 -- Strongly Disagree PART I Answer each item under 'Level of Aspiration" with an appropriate response from below. Numbers may be used as often as necessary. -- I have already applied for this position. -- I would a5pire for this position. burn-a Level of Aspiration Elementary Principal Secondary Principal Central Office Staff Assistant Superintendent . Superintendent mane.) Answer each of the following questions: PART II -- It is unlikely that I wOOld aspire for this position. -- I would never apply for this position. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 1. What is your age? 7. how many years have yOu been teaching? ( ) a. 20-29 ( ) a. first year (16.30-39 ()b.-5 ( c. 40-50 ( ) c. 6-10 ( I d. over 50 1 ) d. ll-lS ( ) e. 15 or more 2. What is your marital status? ( ) a. single 8. What was yOur sibling placement in year family? ( ) b. married ( ) a. youngest child I c. llrried with children ( ) 6. second yOungest to middle ( d. widowed/divorced with children ( c. middle child ( a. divorced without children d. middle to second oldest ( f. separated a. oldest child f. only child 3. How many children do yOu have? ( 1 a. 0 9. Identify the educational community in which you are now ( b. one teaching: ( c. two-four ( ) a. urban ( 6. five or lore ( ) b. suburban ( ) c. rural 4. What is yOur present teaching level? ( ) a. Pre-School 10. Did yOu actively participate in sports as a youth? ( I b. K-3 ( ) a. team ( c. 4-6 ( ) b. individual ( ) d. 7-9 ( ) c. both team and individual ( ) a. 10-12 ( d. did not participate 5 What is your racial grOOp? 11. How many years did yOur mother work during yOur growing ( l a. Native American years? Either full or part time. i b. Black ( ) a. 0 c. Asian American ( b. 1-5 ( d. Caucasian ( ) c. 6-10 5 I e. Latino(a) ( ) d. all f. Other 12. What is yOur sex? 6. What level of education have you completed? ( ) a. male ) a. Doctorate ( ) 6. female b. Graduate hours beyond Master's ) c. Master's degree ( ) d. Bachelor's degree 153 PART III DIRECTIONS: Circle yOur response to each item. Cultural Considerations I. My colleagues would react unfavorably if I became an administrator. 2. For psychological and social reasons. men are more effective administrators than women 3. women are better organizers than men. 4. women are more likely to seek DrOllfllty to others than to work independently. 5. In a given task. women are more likely to ask for help. or rely on others in face of a threat. than are men. 6. In general. I consider women not as dependable as men because of women's biological and personal characteristics. 7. a male spOuse would be threatened by a competent. career- Oriented wife. 8. women generally have a lower level of achievement motivation than men. 9. Men know more than women abdut how to seek and obtain opportunities to become administrators. l0. Homen lack the drive to become administrators. ll. College women who attenpt to compete with men uSUdIIy do so at the expense of their popularity or social life. Educational Factors l2. welcoming women as equals into the professional management levels may tend to downgrade the teaching profession. 13. Students who never experience women in leadership positions are not likely to develop aspirations or values that move beyond traditional stereotypes. ld. women administrators have less power to make decisions than men. IS. I feel more comfortable working for a male administrator than a female administrator. l6. In my college career. most college cOurses were designed for male advancement and emphasis. I7. I would feel uncomfortable in an educational administration class of all males. 18. Educational cOunseling enabled me to plan for advancement in my career. 19. There have been female administrators who have encouraged me to seek an administrative position. 20. lbst aministrators in my schooling process were male. 2l. In our district. both men and women are encOuraged to apply for amini‘strative positions. Personal Perspectives 22. A woman can be a successful administrator and happily married at the same time. 23. I feel I need to know a few administrators well in order to win their support for an administrative position. 26. I have too many family responsibilities to seek an administrative position. 25. My spouse would be upset if we had to move because I was selected as an administrator. 26. In my home. I was encouraged to get a college degree. 27. I have planned specifically for advancement in educational administration. Strongly Agree Agree Undecided 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Z 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Disagree Strongly Disagree 154 Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Disagree 28. what my spouse thinks about an administrative position has an influence on me. l 2 3 l 5 29. I would be eager to become an administrator. even if I had to move somewhere else. I 2 3 4 S 30. I have personally received enc0uragement from an administrator in my building to apply for an administrative position. I 2 3 4 5 3l. I have a negative image of school administrators. l 2 3 A 5 PsychologicalAapocis 32. I am satisfied with my present employment and would not seek an administrative position. l 2 3 4 5 33. I feel confident in most leadership positions. I 2 3 l 5 34. I would be willing to further my education for an administrative position. l 2 3 A 5 35. Administrators in my district wOuld react favorably if I became an administrator. l 2 3 4 S 36. I have been in my present position too long to seek an administrative position now. I 2 3 A 5 37. I like delegating tasks and working with people. 1 2 3 l S 38. Being an administrator would increase my self-image. l 2 3 A S. 39. If I applied for an administrative DOsition. I feel I might be a top contender. l 2 3 A 5 so. I wOuld rather not compete for an administrative position. l 2 3 l 5 Al. Administrators tend to become "out of touch“ with the teaching environment. I 2 3 l 5 l2. Seeking an administrative position involves too much "politics.“ l 2 3 4 S ThaVlorld oi Work 43. People who are at administrative levels are often asked to comprOmise their principles. 1 2 3 a 5 44. My present position provides too much seturity for me to seek an saninistrative position. I 2 3 a 5 ‘5. Men advance faster in administration with less experience simply because they are men. l 2 3 l S 46. The “white-male club" promotes men over women for positions in administration. l 2 3 A 5 47. I see a position in educational administration as attainable for me. I 2 3 4 5 48. Men are more often chosen for an administrative position than women. I 2 3 I S 49. I am willing to ”go for broiie" in my quest for a position in administratiOn. l 2 3 l S 50. I consider that working with children is more rewarding than administration. l 2 3 4 5 5l. There is Just too much competition in trying to become an administrator. I 2 3 A 5 52. Being a successful administrator is easier for men than for women. I 2 3 d S 53. My university or college professors assisted me in seeking an administrative position. l 2 3 4 5 Thank you for your assistance in Our efforts to improve education. Please return this form in the pre-addressed and stamped envelope to: Francine Fisher £848 Hestwood Drive Port Huron. Hichigan £8060 155 4848 Nestwood Dr. Port Huron, MI 48060 April 3. 1978 Ladies and Gentlemen: This letter is an invitation for you to participate in a study con- sidering the factors that are important in aspiring to educational administrative positions. The study is being conducted to determine the relative difference, if any, in the administrative aspirations of men and women teachers. The purpose is to obtain information upon which to assess the perceived lack of aspiration of women at the administrative levels of education. Just a few minutes of your time will provide data that may help educators to assess the factors that influence a career for women in educational leadership. The meaningfulness of the survey depends greatly on a reply from every teacher surveyed. Your answers will remain strictly confiden- tial. Please answer the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the stamped addressed envelope. A return by April l9 would be very much appre- ciated. Sincerely. e ! i‘lllllighaL/Vchcmn.l.< :iédaaaltatahc.. Francine Fisher Doctoral Candidate Michigan State University Enclosure 156 4848 Nestwood Dr. Port Huron, MI 48060 April l0. 1978 Ladies and Gentlemen: This letter is an invitation for you to participate in a study con- sidering the factors that are important in aspiring to educational administrative positions. The study is being conducted to determine the relative difference, if any, in the administrative aspirations of men and women teachers. The purpose is to obtain information upon which to assess the perceived lack of aspiration of women at the administrative levels of education. Just a few minutes of your time will provide data that may help educators to assess the factors that influence a career for women in educational leadership. The meaningfulness of the survey depends greatly on a reply from every teacher surveyed. Your answers will remain strictly confiden- tial. Please answer the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the stamped addressed envelope. A return by April 2l would be very much appre- ciated. Sincerely, s t .1 Mm Francine Fisher Doctoral Candidate Michigan State University Enclosure 157 April 24, 1978 Ladies and Gentlemen: At long last the questionnaire which you so generously gave time to help me devise is complete. Copies have gone to a random sample of four hundred men and women teachers around the area of Michigan State University. The results should prove interesting. I am very grateful to each of you for your suggestions and con- tributions to the research on this dissertation. If you wish a review of the results when the dissertation is complete, just let me know and I will be happy to oblige. Thank you again for your efforts to promote women in educational administrative positions. Sincerely, :fi::%;;‘¢€:;d// Francine Fisher 4848 Nestwood Drive Port Huron, MI 48060 (313) 984-3076 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Acker, Joan, and Van Houten, Donald R. "Differential Recruitment and Control-~The Sex Structuring of Organizations." Administrative Science Quarterly 19 (June 1974): 152264. Bass, Bernard M.; Krusell, Judith; and Alexander, Ralph A. "Male Managers' Attitudes Toward Working Women." American Beha- vioral Scientist 15 (November-December 19711?’221-35. Bird, Caroline. Born Female. New York: Pocket Books, 1972. Broadhead, Clare, and others. "The Woman Principal Going the Way of the Buffalo?" The National Elementarerrincipal 45 (April 1966 : 6-11. Clement, Jacqueline Parker. Sex Bias in School Leadership. Evanston, 111.: Integrated Education Associates, 1975. Dale, Charlene T. "Women and Education." Educational Leadership 31 (November 1973): 123-27. Diaz, Sally. “The Aspiration Levels of Women for Administrative Careers in Education: Predictive Factors and Implications for Effective Change." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 19-23, 1976. Ester, Suzanne E. "Women as Leaders in Public Education." Si ns: Journal of Women in Culture and Society l (Winter 1975 : 363-86. Fishel, Andrew, and Pottker, Janice. "Performance of Women Princi- pals: A Review of Behavioral and Attitudinal Studies." Journal of NAWDAC 3 (Spring 1975): 110-17. Gibb, Cecil. "The Principles and Traits of Leadership." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 42 (1947): 267-84. Goless, Katherine Van Nessem. Women Administrators in Education. Washington, D.C.: National Association for Women Deans, Administrators and Counselors, 1977. 158 159 Gordon, Francine E., and Strober, Myra H. BringinggWomen in Manage- ment. New York: McGraw-Hi11, 1977. Grobman, Hulda Gross, and Hines, Vynce A. "What Makes a Good Prin- cipal?“ Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary Principa1s 40 (November 1956): 5-16. Harragan, Betty Lee. Games Mother Never Taught You. New York: Fawson Associates, Publishers, Inc., 1977. Hawley, Peggy. "Perceptions of Male Models of Femininity Related to Career Choice." Journal of Counseling Psycho1ogy_l9 (July 1972): 308-13. Hennig, Margaret, and Jardim, Ann. The Managerial Woman. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977. Hook, Sidney. The Hero in History. Boston: Beacon Press, 1943. Horner, Matina. "A Bright Woman Is Caught in a Double Bind. In Achievement Oriented Situations She Worries Not Only About Failure But Also About Success." Psychology Today 3 (November 1969): 36-38, 62. Howard, Suzanne. Why Aren't Women Administering70ur Schools? The Status of Women Public School Teachers and Factors Hindering Their Promotion Into Administration. Arlington, Virginia: Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975. London, Glenda Lee. "Perceptions of Sex Role Stereotyping and Women Teachers' Administrative Career Aspirations." Ph.D. disser- tation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1975. Lyon, Catherine D., and Saario, Terry N. "Women in Public Education: Sexual Discrimination in Promotions." Phi Delta Kappan 55 (October 1972): 120-28. ‘McLure, John. "The Case of the Vanishing Woman: Implications for the Preparation of Women in Educational Administration." UCEA Review 16 (September 1974): 6-9. McMillen, Marvin. "Professional Leadership ASpirations of Prospective Women Teachers." Journal of SPATE [Student Personne1 Asso- ciation for Teacher Education] 10 (March 1972): 63-70. Mead, Margaret. Male and Female. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1949. Michigan Association of School Boards. By-Laws. Lansing: n.p., 1978. 160 Niles, Kimball, and Grobman, Hulda Gross. "Principals as Leaders." Nation's Schools 56 (October 1955): 75-77. Prather, Jane. "Why Can't Women Be More Like Men: A Summary of the Sociopsychological Factors Hindering Women's Advancement in the Professions." American Behavioral Scientist 15 (November- December 1971): 172-83. Sax, Gilbert. Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Engle- wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Ha11, Inc., 1968. Schmuck, Patricia Ann. Sex Differentiation in Public School Admin- istration. Arlington, Virginia: National Council of Admin- istrative Women, 1975. Seawell, William H., and Canady, Robert Lynn. "Where Have All the Women Gone?" National Elementary Principal 53 (May-June 1974): 46-48. Selltiz, Claire, et a1. Research in Social Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. Sexton, Patricia Cayo. Women in Education. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, 1976. Taylor, Suzanne. "Women in Education." 51% Minority. Connecticut Conference on the Status of Women. National Education Asso- ciation, 1972. "I11111111111111.171715$