THE ROLE or mums, SPEMNG DIALECT AND ASSOCIATIVE BRiDGING IN BEHAVIORAL ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTETUDE CHANGE Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MECHIGAN STATE ENW’ERSETY CHARLES H. mm ’ 1974 Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE ROLE OF READING, SPEAKING DIALECT AND ASSOCIATIVE BRIDGING IN BEHAVIORAL ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDE CHANGE presented by Charles "H . ‘" Tucker has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .D. degree in PSYChOIOgy 6%? WW Major professor Date /?//~ 721 0-7639 ABSTRACT THE ROLE OF READING, SPEAKING DIALECT AND ASSOCIATIVE BRIDGING IN BEHAVIORAL ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDE CHANGE BY Charles H. Tucker There is abundant accumulated evidence that both blacx and white students are experiencing significant failure in the public school system. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate whether bilingual associative bridging would improve behavior and learning and, further, whether black and white children would respond differently to this type of learning contrasted with the way standard English is usually taught. For the purpose of this study, a structured reading package and a set of procedures tailored to the language, experience, and interest of the urban youths that could be used as an effective tool to teach reading to children who are poor readers, was created. In the experimental bilingual condi- tion reading was taught by starting with the familiar, dialect, and bridging across to the unfamiliar, standard English, in a series of steps. This process, labeled ,-/“ ‘l/ “\r/ ’0‘ L”, {y / Charles H. Tucker Associative Bridging, played a major role in the strategy of presentation of the reading program. In the control condition an equivalent amount of time was spent in learning standard English. In both conditions teachers were trained to give positive rein- forcement to improving behavior. Peer group feedback also was operative in both conditions. The following measures were obtained before and after the program. A. Gates-MacGinitie Test for comprehension; B. Attitude scales for parents—-how the student perceives his parents feel; C. Attitude scales for teachers--how the student feels about the teacher; D. Attitude scales for self--how the student feels about his self ability; and E. Attitude scales for school-~how the student feels about school. 1. The main findings of this study show associative bridging significantly improves the performance of all students--black and white alike. This is an especially important finding because many researchers, both black and white, have promoted the position that it is difficult for both racial groups to achieve at the same rate and level by using the same material. 2. It thus appears essential to view this problem of learning as a multivariant phenomenon where the teacher Charles H. Tucker should attend to several variables at the same time, that if one is going to train citizens to participate in a democratic society one needs to train them for both healthy attitudes and good performance. Neither would be ignored. THE ROLE OF READING, SPEAKING DIALECT AND ASSOCIATIVE BRIDGING IN BEHAVIORAL ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDE CHANGE BY .;\. / Charles H. Tucker A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1974 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with deep and lasting appreciation that I ack- nowledge the contributions of the following persons whose assistance made the successful completion of this study possible: To committee chairman, Dr. George Fairweather, for his astute guidance, encouragement, helpful suggestions and criticisms, and example as a psychologist. Also, my special thanksexmxsto committee member, Dr. Louis Tornatzky, for his perspicacious comments and ideas in carrying out this re- search as well as for his generous friendship and feedback. I would also like to thank Dr. Robert Green and Dr. Thomas Gunnings for their interest and counsel and for their assist- ance in reducing the ambiguities of various problems that arose during the course of this study. To all committee members for their help in making the study relevant and adaptable to the needs of society. Very special thanks goes to Dr. John Schweitzer and Dr. Lawrence Lezotte as research consultants, for their in- terest and assistance with thecxmqnuxnranalysis of the data for this study and feedback about it. ii To the administrators, teachers, and children in- volved in this study for their interest and gracious coop- eration. To my parents, James and Lorene Tucker, for their love, help, and sacrifices too numerous to mention. iii LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. TABLE TABLES . . . . FIGURES . . . APPENDICES . . INTRODUCTION . . Hypotheses . . METHOD . . . . Material Development and OF Package Components Dialect Survey Reading Materials Question and Answer Sheet Reading Package Dictionary Peer Control CONTENTS Peer Control Procedure Role of the Teacher . . Descriptive Flow Chart . Design . . . Subjects . . Instruments . Procedure . . Daily and Classroom Schedule Site and Field Considerations Research Team Student Feedback Booklet RESULTS . . . Comparative Results Comparison of the Learning Process Associative Results iv Descriptions Page vi viii ix ll 12 12 l4 17 23 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 3O 31 31 31 32 33 34 34 42 48 Chapter Page IV. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . 52 The Learning Environment . . . . . . 53 Attitudes and Performance . . . . . 56 Recommendations for Improving the Program . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Future Studies . . . . . . . . 59 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Analysis of Covariance for Vocabulary Test Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Vocabulary Test . . . . . . . . . 35 3. Analysis of Covariance for Comprehension Test Scores . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Comprehension Test . . . . . . . . 37 5. Analysis of Covariance for Parent Attitudes . 37 6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Parent Attitude . . . . . . . . . 38 7. Analysis of Covariance for Teachers Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . 38 8. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Teachers Attitudes . . . . . . . . 39 9. Analysis of Covariance for Feelings about School Test Scores . . . . . . . . 40 10. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Feelings about School Test . . . . . . 41 11. Analysis of Covariance for Self Concept . . 41 vi Table Page 12. Means, Standard Deviations, and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Self Concept Test . . . . . . . . . '42 13. Repeated Measure Analysis of Variance of Race of Student Crossed with the Ten Repeated Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 14. Repeated Measure Analysis of Variance of Treatment of Student Crossed with Ten Repeated Measures . . . . . . . . . 45 15. Intercorrelation Matrix for the Control Group on the Pretest and Posttest Variables . . 49 16. Intercorrelation Matrix for the Experimental Group on the Pretest and Posttest Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 51 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The Four Experimental Conditions Used in the Current Study . . . . . . . . 30 2. Means of the Black and White Students on the Ten Repeated Measures . . . . . . 44 3. Means of the Ten Treatment and Control Conditions on the Repeated Measures . . 46 4. A Graph of the Means of the Four Groups on the Ten Repeated Measures . . . . . . 47 viii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Survey F, Form 1M . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 B. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Survey F, Form 2M . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 C. Teacher Expectations and Evaluations . . . 81 D. Feelings about School . . . . . . . . 85 E. Parents Scale . . . . . . . . . . 88 F. Post High School Self-Concept of Ability Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 G. Student Feedback Booklet . . . . . . . 94 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In a modern, technological and fairly impersonal society like that of the United States, a great deal of in- formation must be communicated and shared by means of the printed word. The ability to read is a necessary skill in making a personal adjustment in such a society. Yet more than a quarter of this country's population can be classified as functionally illiterate. Approximately half of the un- employed youth, ages l6-21, are semi—illiterate. In large city school systems, up to half of the student population read below expectation. In this country's adult pOpulation there are more than three million illiterate. The reading problems in this society (the most technologically advanced in the world) are of frightening proportions. "The average child in eighty-five percent of the black and Puerto Rican schools is functionally illiterate after eight years of school in the richest city in the world. Scores for 1970 are even worse. Of the forty segregated eighth grades in New City City, all but one were two or more years behind grade level; 43 percent read at or below the fifth grade level" (Stein, 1971, p. 25). The disadvantaged and urban black, a large subset of this country's functionally illiterate population, presents a reading problem of even greater magnitude. He comes from a family that is poor and whose eductional level is low. The schools he most often attends are of poorer quality than those of the general population. Often he comes from a broken home. His motivation is low. To further complicate matters, he must attend school and be taught by teachers who are not interested in his language experiences. Written language is a visual representation of spoken language. All people speak a language but not all people write their languages. Children first learn to speak and then to read and write. It has long been recognized that the predominant tendency among lower class black and disad- vantaged children has been towards low achievement, espe— cially in reading, together with an eventual high drop-out rate and a general lack of interest or participation in the very educational system which purports to benefit them. Since most people rarely read material which is outside their comprehension or interest, it is only logical to expect that voluntarily selected reading materials will reflect the lin- guistic achievement and interest of the student. The question of the dialect of black and disadvantaged children has been central to the discussions of the causes of and solutions to the problem of low achievement in reading. Poor reading has been attributed to poor language by some who attribute this poor performance to an innate inferiority ‘of black people. Such claims, relating poor academic per- formance to genetic factors in blacks of course have not left the academic scene (Jensen, 1969). Largely in reaction to this hereditary position, a general opinion was established that the poor language of black and disadvantaged children was due to the environmental factors inherent in their living situations (Herskovits, 1942-43). From this perspective the ghetto is seen as an environment devoid of intellectual stimulation which creates a lack of motivation to seek aca— demic education; as a place where there is virtually no language save occasional mumblings and monosyllables which satisfy some concrete need in the immediate present (Bereiter and Engelmann, 1968; Deutsch, 1965). These children who have not grown up in a middle class setting where what is known as standard English is spoken and where education learned in the home is continued in school are considered to be "cultur- ally deprived" or "disadvantaged." By this definition, an environmental deficit has replaced the genetic one as the pruported cause of black and disadvantaged children's failure to read. This deficit model of black and disadvantaged child— ren's language (and culture) has been discredited by lin- guists (Labov, 1969; Stewart, 1970; Kochmann, 1969) and be- havioral scientists in other disucssions (Baratz and Baratz, 1968; Kerman, 1967), who have shown that the English spoken by inner-city black and disadvantaged people throughout the .United States is a systematic, rule governed dialect and not a hodgepodge of random errors and careless speech. Moreover, this dialect is the language of a specific culture with dif— ferent human relationships, different values and different language behavior from the dominant white middle class culture (Labov, 1969; Kochmann, 1969). In other words, researchers have documented and "legitimized" what lower income black people have always known; that they have a language and cul- ture which best suits the needs of their community. Nonetheless, it is the deficit model which essen- tially denies the existence or value of this language and culture and that commands the biggest following in the edu- cational community. Research on language acquisition is mainly concerned with the acquisition of the standard dialect of English and of the type of verbal ability which this dia- lect and the culture it represents demand. Language develop- ment tests likewise fail to take account of dialect and cultural differences. Most teachers and school programs are oriented toward the middle class student. The teachers speak and read stan- dard English. Middle class children know, more or less, when they enter school why they have to learn to read and that they were going to learn to read (i.e., they have a model). They have at least a passing acquaintance with the alphabet. They engage in discussions in standard English, ask questions, and have been asked questions by adults in their standard English environment. Most teachers mistakenly assume that all children are very much alike, and more particularly, that they are very much like they (the teachers) were when they were children. Even further, they assume that if children do not have the teachers' learning skills when they enter school the child- ren's abilities are suspect (Tucker, 1970). The teachers falsely label these children as being "culturally deprived or disadvantaged." They often overlook the basic fact that much learning occurs in the child's environment external to the school, before the child enters school, and concurrently while he is in school. The black child on the other hand, has learned to follow a set of rules that are different from the set rules that middle class teachers learned by, learned to teach by, and that dictate their behavior in the classroom. Although there are similarities in the two learning situations, there are nevertheless distinct differences. Failure to recognize and adapt teaching approaches to these differences often in- hibits formal classroom learning. Most ghetto children develop two sets of verbal skills that can come into conflict. Verbal skills which are necessary for ghetto children to negotiate successfully through their environment outside of the classroom differ from those required for his ultimate success in the school environment. These verbal skills are often unknown to teach- ers, and are considered by them to inhibit formal learning. Children of the ghetto with highly proficient verbal skills in their natural environment are discouraged from using these skills because they are often considered to be vulgar, backward, wrong, or irrelevant to learning in the classroom. Middle class teachers fail to realize that there is no such thing as learning the wrong way if what is learned fosters adaptive behavior. They try to extinguish these well learned verbal skills in order to facilitate formal "correct" learning. The effect of such well meaning ef- forts often results in the opposite of that intended by the teacher. Rather than building upon the available verbal skills and competencies and seeking to modify them, such an approach seeks to replace one set of verbal skills with an- other strange and conflicting set. The result understand- ably is that school learning and the child's progress in school can be severely inhibited. Thus it is not surpris- ing to find that a disproportionate percentage of black and disadvantaged children are placed by the schools in special classes for the educable slow learners, for reasons that may have little to do with their ability to learn. The accepted criteria for placement in special education classes for the slow learners (SL) have been a persisting pattern of academic failure and a sub-average I.Q. (80 or below). What often develOps under these conditions can be described as a phenomena sometimes labeled the "black six- hour retarded child"; retarded five days a week, from 9:00 to 3:00, on the basis of his school performance and I.Q. scores. This occurs without regard to his adaptive and learning behavior outside of school in his natural environ- ment. He is sometimes labelled as functionally retarded by the schools to distinguish him from others that are believed to be slow learners for reasons other than their environment. A In time he often will come to be considered by his teachers and his parents, on well—meaning advice from the school, as organically retarded even though there exists no evidence of organic deficiencies. Soon he may even begin to consider himself as retarded and act out the role. Although these children are not organically retarded, many of them be- come functionally retarded as a result of their stay in spe- cial education classes. The end result is "loss of talent to the person and to the black community" (Simpkins, 1970, p. 20). The phenomenon of the "black six-hour retarded child" is a part of the urban school system in this country. It emotionally destroys black and disadvantaged children. It flourishes in the ghetto schools, and it is on the increase throughout the country. That the same phenomenon occurs for Other minority groups is seen in this recent quotation, "The rate of placement of Spanish surnames in special education classes is about three times higher than for Anglo children in Chicago and Kalamazoo, the Negro rate is close to four times higher than the Anglo rate . . ." (Riles, 1969). o The term educable slow learners (ESL) is frequently applied to those in special education classes. An observation in schools is that adolescents who complete an extended period of time in special education classes (classes for edu- cable slow learning children) tend to read at a fourth or fifth grade reading level by the end of their formal school- ing. That is, they tend to leave school functionally illit- erate, since the traditional definitions specify minimal reading competence at fifth or sixth grade level (Tucker, 1970). This ceiling on reading is accounted for by educators in the following way. They argue that these students' under- standing of the structure and contents of language roughly corresponds to this ceiling, i.e., that final reading level is determined by usable language level (however that may be defined). Their language competence may be no greater than that of a 10 or 11 year old student as measured by a mental age score (Budoff, Meskin, and Harrison, 1968). As a result of this relationship many educators have come to consider reading scores to be interchangeable with I.Q. scores (Budoff, Meskin, and Harrison, 1968; and Simpkins, 1970). All of this becomes especially critical in the case of the black six-hour slow learning or retarded child. In most instances he displays low reading and I.Q. scores. But both these low scores may be a function of the inhibitory effect exerted by the schools when teachers extinguish his already learned ver- bal skills and replace them with standard English. If this is the case, it seems reasonable that reading programs designed for black and disadvantaged youth should take cognizance of the factors that act to inhibit formal classroom learning. The basic notion of this preposed re- search is that the language abilities brought to school by ghetto children can be used to complement and facilitate the learning of the "new" dialect, standard English. This study represents an attempt to use the learning of the child out- side of the school situation to enhance his learning in school. Formal learning in the classroom and learning out- side of the classroom could then complement - not oppose - each other. This may be accomplished by means that I have chosen to call associative bridging. This involves having the student proceed from the familiar (his dialect) to the unfamiliar (standard English) in small steps. Associative bridging is the process of going from the familiar to the unfamiliar in small steps. Learning is taught via a method that systematically contrasts the two dialects. For Associative Bridging to constitute a realistic preparation it must include contrasts of culture, values, and life styles. The object of associative bridging is thus to 10 teach the student standard English in addition to his black English, rather than to teach the black English speaker stan- dard English at the expense of his black English. In associa- tive bridging standard English is presented as the language of most written materials and the language of the Schools, and the majority culture. Both dialects are presented to the student as of equal value. Careful attention is given to eradicating the negative value connotations that most schools and teachers, and the society at large have placed on black English. Advantages of Associative Bridging are: 1. It incorporates a sense of true accountability to black children and the black community; 2. It aids language development within the child's own dialect; 3. It assists in the development of a positive self—image toward black English; 4. It provides a meaningful presentation of stand- ard English; 5. It helps to develop a positive self—image in the black child. Associative bridging is applied in this study by us- ing the verbal behavior already learned by ghetto students outside of the formal school situation as a starting point. This technique plays a major role throughout this study. The present research program has two major goals. They are: 1. To develop a self-contained reading program for urban, disadvantaged black ghetto children. ll 2. To evaluate the utility of the reading program with children who are defined by the schools as being educa- ble slow learning or retarded and who are usually very poor readers (usually less than eighth grade by adolescence). Hypotheses Hypothesis 1 Black students in the bridging experimental reading program will achieve higher achievement scores on the reading tests than white students while white students will perform better than blacks in the control condition. ‘ Hypothesis 2 Students in the experimental program will demonstrate a more positive attitude towards reading than those students in the non-experimental program. Hypothesis 3 Students in the experimental program will develop a better self concept of themselves by using their associative bridging in the experimental group. Hypothesis 4 Students in the experimental group program will have fewer student-teacher conflicts because the sub-”‘ system is conflict reducing rather than conflict producing. Hypothesis 5 This new educational program can be created and im- planted in the school and community to help the deficient and non-deficient students. ‘ CHAPTER II METHOD Material Development and Descriptions of Package Components Language is often conceptualized by educators as a neutral terrain, devoid of any attachment to a culture, where one might justifiably correct the student without fearing ac- cusations of racism. But this is only a convenient naivete. The verbal behavior of the students reflects and represents their culture. If one rejects the "cultural deprivation" notion that disadvantaged and black ghetto children have no language and no culture then one is led to place a great deal of importance on the socio-cultural context in which the child learns and uses his language. The black dialect in this country stems from an oral tradition. Hence the dialect is learned by disadvantaged and black ghetto children solely from the socio-cultural context or environment in which they use it. Linguists have recently devoted a great deal of attention to the study of the black dialect references. They have delineated certain phonologi- cal, grammatical, and lexical features closely associated black ghetto dialect speakers. DevelOpers of reading in- structional material have used these features as a system of 12 13 rules, as a prescriptive formula by which to translate from standard to disadvantaged or black dialect. The results of this procedure are usually reading materials that are stilted, lifeless, colorless, and unnatural. They often entirely miss the beauty, richness, humor, and poetry of the disadvantaged or black dialect. In any language there are varying degrees of compe- tence among speakers. There are these speakers who are ar- ticulate and those who are inarticulate, those who possess average verbal facility and those who possess exceptional verbal facility. In the case of standard English a great deal of research has been devoted to the assessment of verbal competence and language developmental norms. Out of this re- search numerous instruments for measuring verbal ability have issued forth. Well defined norms have been established. In the case of black dialect there are no standard- ized instruments for assessing verbal competence or language developmental stages. Educators generally assess the disad- vantaged or black child's language competence using norms and instruments developed for standard English speakers. They overlook the fact that developmental stages and verbal facility can only be meaningfully ascertained in the context of the child's own dialect. Norms which characterize one dialect should not be applied to another dialect as a measure of linguistic competence. 14 Faced with the lack of instruments and norms based on research, the developer of instructional material in the dialect must turn to knowledge of the social context in which the dialect is used for his norms, his standard of ex- cellence. He must be knowledgeable of those individuals who are considered by the black community to be highly proficient verbally, "those Brothers who can really rap, really get down." For this reason a basic premise about the creation of culturally specific materials requires a thorough knowl- edge of the culture itself. The developer of instructional reading materials and the child for which the materials are designed should share a common cultural and linguistic back- ground. In the case of this reading package, a prerequisite for the development of dialect content materials is that the developer have lived through similar experiences in terms of language (dialect) and culture as the consumer of the mate- rials. This necessitates the developer to have first learned the dialect from an experiential frame of reference in the natural cultural context rather than from formal instruction or study. Dialect Survey Prior to the writing of the materials used in the trial version of the reading package, a dialect survey was conducted in the Chicago area by the author. The purpose of 15 the survey was to familiariZe the author with the verbal be- havior of the target population, disadvantaged and black ghetto youngsters of junior and senior high school age, be- fore attempting to write dialect reading materials. This was accomplished by recording the everyday unobserved conver- sation of black youths in the high school and junior high school age range. Using a concealed tape recorder, speech samples were collected in various ghetto areas of Chicago. These speech samples were collected at teen posts, settle- ment houses, playgrounds and other locations where ghetto youths were known to congregate. In addition, the author spent several weeks talking and interacting with youths matching the target population characteristics. This was done in a variety of settings: on basketball courts, in pool halls, at parties, and, on a number of occasions, sitting on the grass at neighborhood parks. When engaged in these activities the author dressed, walked, and spoke in the manner of the target population. The author, being a native speaker of the dialect was able to blend in quite successfully with the surroundings on both a verbal and cultural level, i.e., he was able to relate. The speech samples collected were analyzed and cata- logued in terms of stylistic variations, phonological, lexi- cal, and syntactic arrangements. Particular attention was given to the speakers' subject matter (interest). 16 Materials were developed and pilot tested in the Chicago area, based on information collected in the dialect survey and the author's knowledge of the dialect. Fer the materials developed for the Kalamazoo area a different procedure was used. The author spent several months interacting with youths of the target population in the Kalamazoo and Lansing areas in the North and West Ends. This was accomplished in a similar manner as in Chicago with similar results. Following this, new materials were written and existing ones were modified. After the materials were modified and new materials develOped, three groups of disadvantaged and black ghetto youngsters were selected from the North and West Ends areas of Kalamazoo and Lansing. These groups numbered fifteen each. The only criteria used for selection was that they be disad- vantaged or black, poor, between the ages of twelve and eighteen, and have lived in the Kalamazoo and Lansing areas for at least half their lives. The youths, who had recently moved to Kalamazoo in order to attend graduate school, were given a tape recording of four stories in the Chicago dialect. Two of the stories were developed in Chicago and two were developed in Kalama- zoo. After listening to the stories, the youths were asked three questions: 1. Who do you think wrote the stories and where do you think the writer lives? l7 2. Where do you think the characters the writer was writing about are from? 3. Do the characters in the story talk like you, your friends, or family? The object of these procedures was to determine if the materials developed in Chicago and the new materials were compatible with the dialect of Kalamazoo and Lansing youths and to assess whether regional differences in the dialect were substantial enough to render the material inapprOpriate for the Kalamazoo and Lansing areas. Of the 45 youths inter- viewed 80% stated that they believed the stories to be written by a local Brother or black person, 14% believed the stories to be written by a black person in New York, and 3% were un- decided. In response to the second question 86% stated that they believed the majority of the characters to be from the local area, while 14% believed them to be from a big city. In response to the third question 98% stated the characters in the stories talked like their friends and relatives or themselves. Based on the responses to the questions, it was decided that regional differences were not substantial enough to justify conducting a formal dialect survey and excluding materials developed in Chicago from the package. Reading Materials The materials develOped in the Chicago area were in the form of short stories written in three versions: a. Offensive Vernacular (OV) 18 b. Neutral Vernacular (NV) c. Standard English (SE) Each version of the story consisted of approximately three pages. No specific formula, except reader interest, was followed in writing the stories, i.e., they were not trans- lated from standard English or composed via a set of lin- guistic rules. The stories were written to reflect the ex- perimential frame of reference of the target pepulation in terms of objects and events in their environment. Most of the stories carried a hidden theme of "why learn to read." Thi hidden or subliminal theme was written in the value sys- tem of the youth. For example, "Learn to read because it can keep you from losing your cool," was the hidden theme of one of the stories. The stories were written in the following sequence. First a story line was sketched in black dialect. This was then expanded into a rough draft of four or five pages draw- ing freely on "offensive vernacular" words, terms and phrases. The story was then rewritten, edited and polished until the writer was satisfied with the outcome. Next, the second version was developed (NV). This was accomplished by strip- ping the story of all "offensive vernacular." Appropriate euphemisms in disadvantaged and black dialect were then sub- stituted. An example of this would be "mother-fucker" changed to sucker, or "shit" changed to stuff. The substi- tutions were analogous to the changes in dialect terminology tfluuzblaCkyouth often make when moving from a peer setting 19 to a family or school setting. After completion of the of- fensive vernacular version and the neutral vernacular.version, the story was then translated into standard English in the following manner: OV Version Bill Smith, an old Brother from the South, had gotten some bread from an accident 20 years ago. With the dough he got himself an apartment building. The Old Brother was out in front of his building watering his lawn. This fine little Sister named Pat came up and asks the old Brother if she could see the pad for rent. The Sister had dug on a "for rent" sign stuck in the lawn. The old Brother say, "No, Sister, cause ain't no- body here." The Sister rapped back, "You're heah honey. Why can't you show me the pad.” "Cause I ain't the manager," the old Brother blew. "If you ain't the manager," the Sister asked, "Where can I find the dude? And who is you baby?" "I'm the owner, But I ain't the manager." SE Version Bill Smith was in front of his apartment watering his lawn. A prospective tenant, Pat Jones, came up to inquire about a vacancy. Bill Smith said that he couldn't help Pat Jones. He said that she would have to come back the next day if she wished to see the apartment. Pat asked where and when she could contact the owner. Bill Smith informed her that he was the owner. This surprised Pat. She could not udnerstand why she couldn't see the apartment. She asked, "Why can't I see the apartment now?" Bill Smith told her ther the manager would have to show her the apartment and that he wasn't around at the present time. 20 Due to the unfavorable reaction the "offensive ver- nacular" version received from the educational community (black and white), the "offensive vernacular" version was eliminated from the package. Based on recommendation from a pilot study conducted in Kalamazoo by the author and some untested ideas, existing materials were modified and addi- tional materials were created. The new and modified materials had three versions. A. Written Vernacular (WV) B. Street Vernacular (SV) C. Standard English (SE) The street vernacular version is devoid of all "of- fensive vernacular" words. Appropriate euphemisms in dis- advantaged and black dialect are substituted. It is written as close to spoken conversation as possible. It is generally a page or two longer than the other versions of the story. The written vernacular version of the story has a tighter structure than the SV version in syntax and paragraphs. It is closer to standard English than the SV version but essen- tially written in black dialect. The standard English version remained the same. The method for developing the stories is as follows: A. Written Vernacular (WV) l. A story line is sketched in black dialect. 2. The story line is expanded into a complete story in rough draft form. 21 3. The rough draft is then rewritten, edited, and polished until the writer is satisfied with the. final form. B. Street Vernacular (SV) l. The final WV version is given to a fluent native speaker of the dialect, one who possesses the quality of a good story teller, to read and discuss with the author until he is thoroughly familiar with the version. 2. He tells the story in his own words. After a number of practice trials he tells the story to a small group of youths matching the target population. This session is recorded using a microphone set up in an inconspicuous location. 3. The story is then transcribed from the tape and edited for written consumption. As much of the conversational quality of the story as possible is maintained. C. Standard English (SE) The WV version is translated into standard English. This is not a literal translation. It involves character changes from a black cultural context to a white middle cul- tural context. Several things happen during the change, some things dramatically and some things subtly: 1. Personality of the character changes. 2. The characters' responses to certain situations changes. 3. Value system changes. 'There is no formula for these changes. They automatically (accur when one is true to the cultural context of the particu- .1ar dialect. Ideally, this version (SE) should be written lay a native standard English speaker. ‘The reading materials are divided into four sections. (Phe first section contains five stories in three versions (SV, WV, SE). These stories all contain the hidden theme, '“why learn to read." The second section contains four stor- iras in two versions (black dialect—-both SV and WV-—and srtandard English). The third section contains two stories Jill black English. The fourth section contains two stories :ira standard English. Several of the stories used in the package are based (Dr: a body of black folklore known as oral epic poetry or 'tlDEiStS. This body of folklore is an outgrowth of African fOlklore coming in contact with the "New World," the expe- Ifiiearace of slavery, and the aftermath of slavery, the urbani- zation of the black man. They belong to the black man in tile? arts. With the exception of those narratives which de- 35317j4be certain specific historical events, the stories are difficult to date. They are simply considered as part of lDJ-éi<:}{ culture. They appear to have no geographical focal They are equally as well known in the South as in the 'PCDjL11t: Just about all blacks who N . . C>1?1:}1, 1n the East as in the West. he: . . . . . ‘753 grown up in an inner Clty setting are acquainted Wlth 23 them. A review of the literature reveals that no use has been made of this body of oral literature for reading pur- poses. Question and Answer Sheet Accompanying each version of each story there is a separate set of ten questions. The questions are constructed to match the form of items given on a wide range of reading tests. The items are written in most instances in the lan- guage of the reading selection, i.e., standard English ver- sions have standard English questions and black dialect ver- sions have disadvantaged and black dialect questions. The items are designed to test vocabulary and comprehension. Some of the items are designed to encourage the students to think critically about the selections and relate them to their own lives. Each set of questions has an answer sheet. The ans- wer sheet is for the teacher's use only. Reading Package Dictionary There are two Reading Package Dictionaries, one for the teacher and another for the students. The teacher dic- tionary is composed of vocabulary used in the stories. It gives the meaning of disadvantaged and black dialect terms used frequently in the reading selections by contrasting them with their standard English equivalents. 24 The Student Reading Package Dictionary is laid out in a format similar to that of the teacher's. It is divided into two sections: black English and standard English. The sections are blank, i.e., they are not filled in. The teacher selects vocabulary, phrases, or sentences from the reading selection and writes them in the student's dictionary. The student must define the word, phrase, etc., by writing its standard English or black English equivalent. If the stu- dent is working on a version of a story using black English (SV, WV), the teacher gives him black English and he writes in the standard English equivalent. If the student is work- ing on a standard English version, the opposite is done. Peer Control Peer Control is the name given to a small group oral reading exercise. Although it is not a material component, it is nevertheless an essential complement to the reading ma- terials. The full name given to the small group exercies is Peer Control and Student Feedback Oral Reading Exercise. Since it is engaged in on a daily basis and is essential to the reading package, it is included as a reading package com- ponent separate of Group Exercises. Peer Control Procedure l. The students are assigned by the teacher to small groups. The optimal number of students per group is four or five. The groups are matched as closely as possible by the 25 teacher in terms of oral reading proficiency, i.e., each stu— dent in the group should be at about the same oral reading level. This practice is designed to maximize the probability of equal success on the part of all participants in the group. 2. Each student in the group is assigned a number ranging from one to four or five, depending on the size of the group. The numbers are randomly assigned by placing them on slips of paper and having each student select one blind. 3. One version of the reading selection is given to each student in the group. The story and version coincide with the reading material that the majority of the class is working on at the time. 4. The student who selected number one is designated the Reader. The others in the group are called the Correct— ors. The Reader's task is to read orally to the group a fixed portion of the reading selection without being stepped by the Correctors. The Correctors' task is to read silently along with the Reader, stopping him whenever they recognize an inappropriate response or error in his oral reading. 5. When the Reader makes a mistake it is pointed out by one of the Correctors. The Reader must return to the beginning of his portion of the reading selection each time he is stopped by one or more of the Correctors and give the correct answer. 26 6. When the Reader successfully completes his portion of the reading selection, he becomes one of the Correctors and the student whose number is two becomes the Reader, followed by numbers three, four, etc. The group continually rotates in this manner. Role of the Teacher The teacher assigns the portions of the reading se- lection. She generally starts by assigning two or three sentences and increases the amount as the group completes each rotation . In the initial stage of peer control the teacher is Ipart of the group, one of the Correctors. She models for ‘the group, pointing out the type of errors that they should Llook for, by example. Whenever she steps the Reader, she EiSkS the group what error he made. If the group cannot recog- rlize the error she tells them the error and asks them for tile correct response. If the group does not know the correct eraSponse she then shows them how to find it. For example, i—i? the error is a mispronounced word, she may give the group 53 ashort lesson in word attack skills, and demonstrate how to LISSEE the dictionary for such purposes. The teacher, as a member of the group, helps the E’JETCDIJp to recognize and correct simple errors, and gradually nn<:’J:We and more complex errors. The types of errors she alerts t:171‘33 group to from her position as one of the Correctors are 27 not limited to reading errors per se. For example, she may stop the Reader and ask him to put his reading selection down. She then informs the Reader that it did not sound as if he knew what he was reading. If the Reader cannot tell her what he just read it is considered an error. She explains to the group that the Reader must first understand himself what he reads. Comprehension is very important. The teacher, on a gradual basis, turns the control of the group process over to the students. Eventually she leaves the group entirely. At this point she enters the group only when the Correctors have spotted an error, but <30 not know the correct response. She may also enter the 'group when she hears them consistently overlooking a certain terror, or when the Correctors give incorrect information to ‘the Reader. .Ekescriptive Flow Chart 1. The student reads the stories. He may read the 531:0ries as long as he wishes. If there are things that he CiCDes not understand, he raises his hand for assistance from tlfle teacher. When he finishes he returns the stories to its designated place. 2. Upon returning the stories, the student takes the first version of the story (a). He reads the story as long as he wishes. When he finishes the story to his satis- JETEa-<=Vtion he returns the version to its designated place and 1: (3"3363ives the test from the teacher. 28 3. The student takes the test; he may take as long as he wishes on the test. He then returns the test to the teacher. The teacher scores his test. She informs the stu- dent of his score and asks him if he wishes to record the score. The student may elect to read the story over and take the test again. In the event he wishes to read the story over, he returns the test to the teacher and takes the story. When the student indicates that he wishes to record his score, the teacher reviews the test with him, pointing out his mistakes and the correct answers. The student then re- cords his score in the Student Feedback Booklet. 4. The student then takes version B and repeats the procedure in Steps 2 and 3. 5. The Peer Control group exercise is engaged in by students every day at a predesigned time set by the teacher (for example, every day from 9:10 to 9:30). At the prede- signed time the sequence of steps is stopped, Peer Control is engaged in, and the sequence is started again at the point at which it was stopped. The sequence is also stopped on an intermittent basis for various group exercises and started up again at the point which it was stopped. Design The design of this investigation is a 2 x 2 analy- £113 of covariance with pre—training scores serving as the Ccr-variate and post-training reading scores serving as the 29 criterion (see Table 1, page ). There are two treatment conditions, experimental and control. Participants are divided into two groups by race, black and white. Treatments In order to test the effectiveness of learning by standard procedures and learning by associative bridging two learning conditions will be created. The two conditions are called the experimental and control. They are presented be- low and in the figure on the following page. Experimental Control 1. 1 hour reading (black 1. 1 hour reading (Reading dialect followed by of standard English form) standard English) 2. Reinforcing state of 2. Reinforcing state of af- affairs. (Reward good fairs. (Reward good he- behavior and ignore bad havior and ignore bad behavior) behavior) Subjects Sixty black and white students between the ages of thirteen and nineteen years who have resided in black urban ghetto for a minimum of four years were recruited for the study. Parental permission was secured before 85 partici- pated in any aspect of the investigation. 85 are to be divided equally between sexes. The Ss in order to qualify for the study have to read at a minimum grade level of 2.0 and a maximum grade level of 5.0. The Ss in the study were not to be involved in any special projects or programs 30 Both Dialect Non-Standard Reading Reading Experimental Control Black Students N = 20 N = 10 White Students N = 10 N = 20 Note: In each cell, N indicates the number assigned to the condition. Figure l.--The Four Experimental Conditions Current Study. of subjects Used in the pertaining to reading or other educational aspects inside or outside of school. Instruments A repeated measure exam was given once a week. In addition, the following measures were obtained before and after the program. A. Gates-MacGinitie Test for comprehension; B. Attitude scales for parents - how the student perceives his parents feel; C. Attitude scales for teachers-—how the student feels about the teacher; D. Attitude scales for self - how the student feels about his self ability; and E. Attitude scales for school - how the student feels about school. 31 Procedure Daily and Classroom Schedule The reading program went on for one hour a day, five days a week for 12 weeks. At the beginning of the daily reading, all materials were laid out before the students entered the classroom. At the end of each two day period a reading comprehensive examination was given on the story to be read for those two days. Site and Field Considerations The major field problem encountered was in the area of subject recruitment. The author was unable to penetrate the public school setting immediately. This was due in large part to the controversy centering around the use of such dia- lect (also referred to as black English) in formal educational settings. Most teachers and administrators (including those sympathetic to its use), considered the use of such dialect in the school as a politically "hot potato." This considera- tion in most instances was based more on fact than fear. After several fruitful months of explaining the program and its goals to various black and white administrators, all ad- ministrative agreements needed for running the program in a public school was obtained, and an intensive search was launched to find a school site for the program. A site was secured at a high school (Everett) in an average income and racially mixed area. 32 Because of my past experience with the school system, the program appeared to be accepted more rapidly, which made the high school very cooperative for all aspects of the experi- mental program. For example, all school material was avail- able to me, as well as staff and administrative support, and support of the students. One of the problems I had was that I was interrupted several times by administrators at various schools, wanting me to help or consult in certain curricular areas (academic training) during my experiment. I also had access to a safe in which I could store my data and any other important research materials. Research Team One white teacher in education and sociology served as a teacher for the reading program. There are several reasons why this teacher was selected as opposed to many other certified experienced teachers. From an administrative point of view it was easier to have this teacher teach for two hours a day. The two hours could be worked into his school schedule, while an experienced certified teacher might find it very difficult to schedule in two hours a day during teaching time. Another reason for using this teacher was that She would probably be more amenable to teaching the black dia- .1ect. Also, two very well certified aides that are very Eunare of students' needs, and a reading consultant (who is (Zapable of scoring the tests and computing the scores), and 33 one black teacher, who was a minority literature teacher; all served as organizers, consultants, and evaluators to the program. Student Feedback Booklet The Student Feedback Booklet (see Appendix G) is designed to provide the students with a record of "knowledge of results" or "feedback of information." Used in conjunc- tion with the tests mentioned above, it allows the student to know and record how well he is doing. It provides the student with an on—going visual record of his progress. At any given point in the program the student may, by referring 'to his booklet, discover if he is improving, staying the same, or declining in his scores. It allows the student to compete against himself :rather than his fellow student. His scores on the test be- cxnne meaningful in terms of his previous performance rather than on a set standard. CHAPTER I I I RESULTS Comparative Results The results of the analysis of covariance for the vocabulary test scores are presented in Table 1. It can be' seen that the effect of dialect was highly significant (F — 41.97, df 1, 55). TPABLE l.--Analysis of Covariance for Vocabulary Test Scores. Source of Variation d_f Mean Square I . E Learning Condition 1 1318.06 41.97C Race 1 8.63 .27 Interaction l ' 5.16 .16 Error 55 a = p .05 b = p .01 *c =.p .001 I Table 2 shows that the effect was not only strong bUIl‘was similar for blacks and whites alike. The black and Vfliitxa experimental groups gained 12.90 and 11.30 points respectively, while the black and white control group gained 1~60 and l.67_points on the vocabulary test. The race effect Vwas INDt significant, nor was the interaction of treatment and 34 35 race. This indicates that the treatment works equally well in improving the vocabulary scores of black and white stu- dents. Although there was no significance, the black experi- mental group gained 1.5 points more than the white experi- mental group, and the white control group gained approxi- mately .5 points more than the black control group. TABLE 2.-—Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four GrOups on the Pre and Post Vocabulary Test. Pretest Post Test Mean. S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 64.35 23.01 77.25 25.58 12.90 Group White 54.60 21.83 65.90 24.43 11.30 Control Black 69.93 14.08 71.53 13.96 1.60 Group White 102.60 25.93 104.27 24.11 1.67 The results of the analysis of covariance for the comprehensive test scores are presented in Table 3. It can be seen that the treatment effect was highly significant (F = 17.12, df 1, 55). 36 TABLE 3.--Ana1ysis of Covariance for Comprehensive Test Scores. Source of Variation d: Mean Square E Learning Condition 1 3205.22 17.12C Race 1 111.44 .60 Interaction l 65.37 .33 Error 55 a = p .05 b = p .01 *c = p .001 The black and white experimental groups gained 19.44 and 14.10 points respectively, as shown in Table 4, while the black and white control group gained .80 and 5.73 points on the comprehensive test. The race effect was not signifi- cant, nor was the interaction of treatment and race. This indicates that the treatment wbrks equally well in improving ‘the comprehensive scores of black and white students. Al- though there was no significant difference, the black experi- Imental group gained 5 points more than the white experimental group. 37 TABLE 4.--Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Comprehension Test. Pretest Post Test Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 60.75 22.55 80.20 24.76 19.44 Group White 55.70 33.83 69.80 36.24 14.10 Control Black 63.67 15.28 64.47 16.89 .80 Group White 102.60 28.73 108.33 30.91 5.73 The results of the analysis of covariance for the parents attitude test scores are presented in Table 5. It can be seen that the treatment effect was not significant (F = .30, df 1, 55), although the treatment group gained more than the control group. 'TABLE 5.--Analysis of Covariance for Parents Attitude. —¥ Source of Variation Ni Mean Square E Learning Condition 9.97 .30 Race 3.69 .10 Interaction 3.11 .09 Error 55 Table 6 shows that the black and white experimental group gained 4.05 and 4.20 points respectively, while the blackand white control group gained .47 and .54. The race 38 effect was not significant (F = .10, df 1, 55), nor was the interaction of treatment and race (F = .09, df l, 55). This indicates that the Special reading program did not have a significant effect on perceived parents attitudes. TABLE 6.--Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Parent Attitude. Pretest Post Test Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 23.75 4.02 27.80 6.93 4.05 'croup White 23.60 3.98 27.80 7.75 4.20 Control Black 28.26 2.58 28.73 2.97 .47 Group White 30.40 3.52 29.86 4.51 .54 The results of the analysis of covariance for the teacher attitude scale test scores are presented in Table 7. It can be seen that the treatment effect was significant (F = 9.71, df 1, 55). TABLE 7.--Analysis of Covariance for Teachers Attitudes. Source of Variation if Mean Square E Learning Condition 1 288.03 9.71b Race 1 401.73 1.40 Interaction 1 44.49 1.50 Error 55 a = p .05 b = p .01 *c — p .001 39 Table 8 presents the means and standard deviations of the teacher attitude scale for the black and white stu- dents in the control group. Also presented are the mean gain scores for each group of students. The black and white ex- perimental groups gained 3.90 and 6.00 points respectively, while the black and white control group only gained .59 and 1.40 points on the teacher attitude scale test. The race effect was not significant (F = 1.40, df 1, 55), nor was the interaction of treatment and race (F - 1.50, df 1, 55). This indicates that the treatment works somewhat in improving both black and white students' attitudes towards teachers. TABLE 8.--Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Teachers Attitudes. Pretest Post Test Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 25.75 5.00 29.65 7.38 3.90 Group White 28.10 7.95 34.10 6.60 6.00 Control Black 25.87 1.80 26.46 2.99 .59 Group White 24.66 2.46 26.06 3.95 1.40 -—_._ The results of the analysis of covariance for the feelings about school test scores are presented in Table 9. It can be seen that the treatment effect was not significant (F = .60, df 1, 55). 40 TABLE 9.--Analysis of Covariance for Feelings about School Test Scores. Source of Variation df Mean Square E Learning Condition Dialect of Student 1 10.37 .60 Race 1 18.33 1.05 Interaction 1 12.77 .72 Error 55 Table 10 presents the means and standard deviations ofthe feelings about.school test scores of the black and white students in the experimental group and black and white students in the control group. Also presented are the mean gain scores for each group of students. The black and white experimental groups gained .55 and 4.20 points respectively, while the black and white control group only gained .60 and .13 points on the feelings about school test. The race ef- fect was not significant (F = 1.05, df 1, 55), nor was the interaction of treatment and race (F = .72, df l, 55). How- ever, the white experimental group gained more on the feelings about school attitude test than the other group, but not significantly more. 41 TABLE 10.--Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Feelings about School Test. Pretest Post Test Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 22.75 5.13 22.20 5.82 —.55 Group White 21.90 3.84 26.10 4.04 4.20 Control Black 23.60 2.55 24.20 3.07 .60 Group White 24.60 2.82 24.73 2.73 .13 The results of the analysis of covariance for the self-concept test scores are presented in Table 11. It can be seen that the treatment effect was not significant (F = .02, df 1, 55). TABLE 11.--Analysis of Covariance for Self Concept. Source of Variation df Mean Square __ E. Learning Condition 1 .30 .02 Race 1 4.97 .50 Interaction l 4.39 .45 Error 55 Table 12 presents the means and standard deviations on the self concept scale of the black and white students in 'the experimental group and black and white students in the control group. Also presented are the mean gain scores for 42 each group of students. The black and white experimental groups gained 1.50 and 2.90 points respectively, while the black and white control group gained 1.40 and 1.40 points on the self concept test. The race effect was not signifi- cant (F = .50, df l, 55), nor was the interaction (F = .45, df 1, 55) of treatment and race. TABLE 12.--Means, Standard Deviations and Gain Scores of the Four Groups on the Pre and Post Self Concept Test. Pretest Post Test Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Gain Score Experimental Black 18.45 5.21 19.95 4.86 1.50 Group White 17.80 4.44 20.70 4.85 2.90 Control Black 20.26 3.68 21.66 3.43 1.40 Group White 20.47 3.13 21.87 3.35 1.40 Comparison of the Learning Process In order to assess the effect of the learning through- out the experiment, a test was given at the end of each week of treatment over the stories that were read during the week. Each test was made up of ten items, with a maximum of one point for each correct answer. To accomplish this two repeated measures analyses were computed. The first analysis categorized students solely by race, and the second categorized the students by 43 learning condition. The results of the first analysis are presented in Table 13. It can be seen that the race effect was not significant, but there was a significant time effect and a significant interaction. Figure 2 indicates that the significant interaction was caused by the last three tests. White students scored lower on these three tests than black students. This could be explained by the fact that the last three stories dealt with characters that were likely to be more well known to black students. TABLE l3.--Repeated Measure Analysis of Variance of Race of Student Crossed with the Ten Repeated Measures. Effect d3 Mean Square N getween Subjects Race 1 13.83 1.24 Error 58 17.09 flélglip Subjects Time 9 25.84 17.64a IIl'teraction 9 4.08 2.79b Error 52 1.46 \ a = p < 001 b = p < 01. The results of the second analysis are presented in Table 14. The treatment effect, the time effect and the in- t . . . . . eraction of treatment by time were all highly Significant. 44 .mmusmmofi teammmmu emu msu so mucmosum cues: can guess we» Lo mcem2r1.m ousoflm ads as as us we we as my me He . ms.v .\ o.m \\\\\\ mm.m \\\\\ . m.m illllltllnlhilu .I I: I x .t \. ms.m t..\ \2/ .\.\ \. o.n \- ll. /) \\/\f/r \ i; \\\\x x *7/1\, mm.s \ltl \ \\\\\i1 m.n \ me.s \ 0.x. \\ m.» ms.» meets iiiiii gonflm 45 Examination of Figure 3 shows that the treatment group con- sistently scored higher than the control group. The overall mean for the experimental group condition was 7.289 contrasted with a mean of 5.367 for the control group condition. Figure 3 shows that the difference was greatest on tests four, five, six, seven, and eight. TABLE 14.--Repeated Measure Analysis of Variance of Treatment of Student Crossed with the Ten Repeated Measures. Effect df Mean Square E Between Subjects Learning Condition 1 278.80 47.70a Error 58 6.52 Within Subjects Time 9 25.84 18.02b Interaction 5.87 4.10C Error 52 1.43 a = p < .001 b = p < .001 c = p < .01. Although the interaction by race factor cannot be ob- tained directly from the two analyses shown in Table 13 (measure), Figure 4 strongly suggests that there is no sig- nificant black—white interaction. 46 .mwusmmoE kumoeou m: u so mcofiuwosoo Hon ucoo can ucwEumouu cm p mzu uo mcmo2ul.m musmd 2m 0H9. m8 ah ha oh ms 98 MB NB HE AJrIIIIIIJ m.h Houucoo Intuit ucmEumouB n.h 47 CHE ah ah ha o9 m9 «8 m8 .mousmmmfi owumoaou cop eta so wacouo know on» no mammE may no nmmum nnoo .m .oo> one .n aloocou uamucoo uaom wmow “anodes norcnne Hoosom Hoocom uconmm uuonom meow mane no» 33> umom . who umom mum umom one umom one used one umcm one me MA on o m e o m e m m n .mmHnoeum> amouumom one umoumum one so Lsouv Henncco ozu new Xenbei coeuoaonnounoucHuu.ma mama? 50 Table 16 presents the interrelational matrix for the experimental group on the pre and post variables. It shows that fundamentally the relationship between the four perform- ances still holds, as shown in the cluster enclosed by straight lines. They are all very high, varying 77 to 96, but the attitude correlations get much more spotty and much less definite, so under that the conditions of the experi- mental group, there are practically no high relationships, only one correlation which reached 40 in this area in terms of attitudes with performance. So the attitude performance that exists in Table 15 with the pre-school does not occur here, and beyond that the attitudes themselves are much less highly interrelated with the highest set of interrelation— ships shown in enclosed area of Table 16 by dotted lines. But in reduced magnitude, so the performance remains rela— tively constant, but the attitudes seem to have a less con- sistency. Table 16 is found on the following page. 5]. I'I'lllll"IIIU'llll|lill|tll'llllllllt|l't"||'II|J m on. ee. on.- em. oo. eo. mo.-u no. me. me.. me. neoocoo enom nnoe .Nn m oe.n mm. mo. mo. mo.- me. me. m me.- eo.- me.- o~.- neoocoo eeom one .nn . _ It IIIIII m co.~ me. me. oH.u we. mo.um ma.: He. mm. mm. genomes umcm .oH .----:.--.an..::-..N-.-::-emn----.n-en--:...-.-.-.u 8. 8. 8. 8.- 88.8 E a rn-::!uuum oo.n on. em. em.-m mo.- we. oe.: me. nooeom nnoe .e _ _ -::-: trim oc.e oo. co. m mo. me. no. mo.- noozom one .e rig-int.“ 84 mm. m 8. em. 2.- on. neonoe 3.8 .o .llllllll“ oo.Hm 5H. em. 50. no. ucmnmm Pre .m _ _ nan: —Iwo.e me. om. se. .eeoo nnoe .e oo.e em. mm. .eeoo one .m oo.e oo. .oo> umoe .m oo.H .oo> one .H umoucou umoocou meow uaom norumoe noroooe Hoorom Hoozom uconom acoucm mEou QEOU 00> 00> umce cum umom one umom one umom one whom one umom who me en on o m e o m e m N e .modnoeum> umouumom one amououm ecu co ozonu HoucoEenemxm one qu xenumr COADmHouuoonoDCHnn.o~ mamas CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION The primary purpose of this study was to investigate whether bilingual associative bridging would improve learn- ing and further, whether black and white children would re- spond differently to this type of learning contrasted with the way standard English is usually taught. For the purpose of this study, a structured reading package and a set of procedures tailored to the language, experience, and inter- est of the urban ghetto youths that could be used as an ef- fective tool to teach reading to inner-city children who are poor readers, was created. In the experimental bilingual condition reading was taught by starting with the familiar, black dialect, and bridging across to the unfamiliar, stand- ard English, in a series of steps. This process, labeled Associative Bridging, played a major role in the strategy of presentation of the reading program. In the control condition an equivalent amount of time was Spent in learning standard English. In both conditions teachers were trained to give positive reinforcement to im- proving behavior. Peer group feedback also was operative in both conditions. 52 53 A secondary goal of this study was to find the inter- relationships among commonly used measures of academic achievement, self-concept, and attitudes. The Learning Environment The main findings of this study show associative bridging significantly improves the performance of all stu- dents - black and white alike. This is an especially im- portant finding because many researchers, both black and white, have promoted the position that it is difficult for both racial groups to achieve at the same rate and level by using the same material. Thus the effect of this experi- mental condition was very profound in the area of perfOrm- ance - it had a great impact upon reading for all partici- pants. There was a significant time effect in the learning Situation. The learning curves, as shown in Figures 16 and 17 indicate a progressive acquisition over time. Thus the effects of associative bridging improved learning for the entire experimental period of ten weeks. Some observational evidence suggests the motivational value of the material. The Student Feedback Booklet appeared to be a big hit with the experimental and control groups. The students took pride in their booklets and often pointed out their increasing scores to the teaching staff and fellow students. This observational evidence suggests that the 54 Student Feedback Booklet should be redesigned so that the student can reCOrd and have a visual record of the number of times he answered the questions in order to improve his score, as well as the final score the student obtains. It is also important to note that students formed small groups and read aloud in both conditions. The peer group experience seemed to be a most enjoyable part of the program for all the students. They engaged in groups read- ing every day and often requested that the time be extended. The students in the group would correct the reader immedi- ately following his mistake. This also served as a behavior control in terms of rules and goals that were set by the class. All students' oral reading improved during the peer exercises and students displayed little anxiety about reading aloud 1x3 their peers. While this aspect of the program was common to both groups, it probably accounted in part for the improved acquisition of both groups and the continued improve- ment of the controls. Other observations indicated the following: 1. The oral epic poetry and the story about Malcolm X seemed to be liked the best. Examples showing this are: I dug the story about Malcolm, Shine and Stag. I wish we had things like that in our other classes; and If there was a class like this at my junior high school I'd go every day and not play hockey. 2. being in the 55 The older students stated that they disliked same class with younger students, while the younger students stated that they liked being in class With older students in both groups. Some representative quotes are: 3. to complain I liked the program. It should have been every day of the school year. I didn't like being with the little kids, but the mixed group work together was good; and I like peer control best. I wished they used it at school. It's fun. The students in the experimental group tended about the amount of work they had to do in the program, but generally stated that they believed that their school work of this are: 4. and grades had improved because of it. Examples I like the class, but I'd like it better if it wasn't so much work. I get tired after being in other classes all day long; I'm doing better in school since I took this class. I make C's now, I used to make D's and F's; and Since I came to the class, I don't hang around with some of my friends. They bad, they smoke and have boys over their house . . . I read more now. I think I like to, now. The students in both groups disliked taking the Gates-MacGinitie Test. One of the students refused to take the post—tests, and could not be located until later on. He was in the control group. 56 5. One of the most critical issues that arose throughout the experiment was that students liked for a teacher to be able to communicate with them about social things that are relevant to the students' future. When this came up the teacher discussed it with the students. Examples of this are: One of the students asked the teacher how she would go about solving a problem that he and his girlfriend had in relationship to sex. Another student asked the teacher how she would go about solving a particular problem which he had with a teacher in relationship to his class and what she would do if she were in his place. Attitudes and Performance The urban and familiar dialect appears to serve as a motivating force. It seemed to focus the students inter- est and attention on reading. As shown in the comparative results of the analysis of covariance, three of the six covariance tests were sig- nificant; two dealing with vocabulary and comprehension were highly significant, and the attitude scales toward teacher was also significant. The learning graph (Figure 3) Shows the longitudinal improvement in learning that can be attributed to associative bridging. The associative bridg— ing condition seemed therefore, to increase performance and to improve attitudes toward the teacher. However, other attitudes toward school, parent, and self-concept did not improve significantly. 57 Thus, where attitudes did change Significantly, they changed only in the specific area of attitudes toward the teacher. It seems therefore that as students improve their performance, they develOp more positive feelings towards the teacher but 395 toward themselves or other aspects of their environment. As for the differences between more general atti- tudes toward school, self-concept, parents and performance, the intercorrelation matrices (Tables 16 and 17) suggest that the relationships are very close to zero. The matrices further suggest that two general sets of criteria need to be measured during the learning process. There is a strong cluster of performance variables and a weaker cluster of attitude variables. Affecting one (except for teacher atti- tudes) does not necessarily mean that the other is going to be affected; thus persons can improve their performance but not change their attitudes; conversely you might teach them to change their attitudes and it might not effect their performance. It appears then that if one is going to train citizens to participate in a democratic society one needs to train them for both healthy attitudes and good perform- ance. Neither should be ignored. A word of caution seems necessary here: one Shouldn't assume that because attitudes change, performance is going to change, or that because stu- dents improve their performance that their attitudes are 58 going to improve. It appears therefore that an educational system that concentrates on only one aspect does so at the expense of the other. This finding seems to have relevance for nursery school training like that of Head Start. The idea inherent in the program seems to be that children should_improve T their performance so that by the time they get into the first grade their performance will be equal to or better than the other children who will be in the class. But what about their attitudes? According to the results here their improved performance might not be reflected in their atti- tudes. It thus appears essential to view this problem of learning as a multivariant phenomenon where the teacher should attend to several variables at the same time. Recommendations for Improving the Program Observations suggest that the teacher training period Should be extended to at least five weeks. This training period should focus more completely on the manage- ment of materials and dispensement of reinforcement. This seems very important because it appeared that when students become familiar with the procedural sequence they tended to work independently, reading the stories and calling on the teacher only when they needed assistance. It appeared that the stories should be shortened. The students generally found the stories to be interesting. 59 In the beginning of the reading program the students seemed to be overwhelmed by the length of the Street Vernacular versions which usually ran four or five pages. To start the students with a successful experience, the stories should be no longer than two or three pages in the beginning stages of the program; a readability formula. should be applied to the stories and the stories Should be presented with increasing difficulty levels, i.e., from low readability to a higher readability level. More stories based on oral epic poetry and the lives of contemporary black and familiar heroes should be written. Part one of the reading package should consist of oral epic poetry, and contemporary black and familiar heroes for both groups. Students Should be required to give an oral summary of the story to the teacher after reading the story. Depending on the summary, the teacher should then make a decision whether or not the student should progress to the next step. The questions should begin on a level where the students can correctly answer the majority of them. This is to insure that initially the students will have a successful expe— rience. The questions should progressively become more difficult. Future Studies Future studies in reading programs of this type Should explore the possiblity of developing more material 60 that will improve learning skills at the same time that the material is relevant to students' learning. Also, future studies should try to measure the long range effects of several variables to see what other effects might occur. It will be important to study the effect of the material for a longer period, because in this research the material was only used for ten weeks. One wonders what the effects would be upon students if they were to learn from them for one to two years. The material used in the program worked very well at the high school level, and for further study, we need to test the program to see if it works at other levels, such as elementary school. It would also be important to see if this approach could be used in particular subject matter, such as sociology, psychology, history, and the natural sciences. An attempt was used by the author to introduce such material in a psychology course during the summer. This experience indicated that the associative bridging technique may very well be relevant to other sub- ject areas. In future studies it also seems important to explore further the peer group control technique. One needs to ans- wer such questions as if peer feedback was separated from the learning material, would it have a greater or lesser im— pact on students' achievements. This seems important be- cause the peer group control worked very well in this re— search. 61 It also seems important to see what effect a longer training period for the staff would have on the use of the material: whether such training would have a greater ef— fect upon achievement because in this experiment the train- ing period was only two weeks. Future research should also strive to improve some of the main methodological deficiencies of this study. First, it would be desirable to have some additional meas- ures of performance and attitudes. Future studies should also explore the effect of the number of males and females in the learning situation. In this experiment having the same number of females and males in a class seemed important because females were much more apt to refuse to participate in the classroom when they outnumber the males. APPENDICES 62 APPENDIX A GATES-MACGINITIE READING TESTS SURVEY F, FORM 1M 63 64 ','o _~ _ .' . . ' . -1 “‘Y ., '.‘ - u. if.‘*“; .«4‘3‘; :‘ ‘ ‘f‘fic‘f‘h‘ 9’, ' '. r . .. x , , x. . : I - 1 . I!" ‘. , _ t's'x L: 1‘1...» - .1-K.‘ . -- ~"'»-'¢-b "I t .. ., » ','.‘v “(I I0 “I” OH "fl! IOOKLIT DIRECTIONS: Read sample paragraph 51. Under it are four words. Find the word that best answers the question. $1. In the far north, 8 frozen river winds between two high mountains. It does not melt even in summer. A river like this is found only in places that are A l c a mild hot cold may The word cold is the best answer to the question. The word cold has the letter C above it. C is the answer to paragraph 81. Now find number 51 on your answer sheet. Space C is already marked. Go over this mark with your pencil. Make a solid black mark but don’t go beyond the space. Now read paragraph 52. Find the word below the paragraph that best completes the paragraph. Mark the answer to paragraph 52 in row 82 on your answer sheet. 52. No one was at the airport to meet us. This worried us at first. but then we realized that we hadn’t told them exactly when we would E F G H sail go stay arrive The word arr-in» best completes paragraph 52. The word arrive has an H above it. You should have marked space H in row 52 on your answer sheet. On the next two paces are more paragraphs like these samples. When you are asked to turn the page. read each paragraph and find °h( uorrl below it that lies! .nsu'us the question or completes the paragraph \luil. on your answer sheet 'iu spa rt tor the letter of the best word. Mark only one space for each paragraph. Be sure the number on the answer sheet is the same as the number of the paragraph. Do the paragraphs in the order in which they are numbered: 1, 2. 3. etc. If you can't answer a question. leave its place on the answer sheet blank. Work as fast as you can without making errors. GATES- . _ MACGlNlTIE .: READlNG TESTS SURVEY F, FORM 1M Speed 8. Accuracy Vocabulary Comprehension DDDUDDDDU' m actual m NAOMI! COLL!“ COLUMN-A “NIB!" “SW YOIK to It. I.“ ll SUI! is follow to m In the Manual (Included In 00:. to» package) when .Ivlng we... run. the directions will roll you how to explain Iho loan “ how to work the ample "as: am: oh. mm Allow the n- u: the nodded l- oll. M .5, 1969 by Youth." Cello... Colo-I660 m hinted In USA. START 1. Samuel Morse is credited with making the first successful telegraph, and Thomas Edison made the first phonograph. These men were very famous A I C composers doctors artists .\‘ '\ 0 (3'2???) 2. One of the distinctive features of his work is his unusual use of color and shading on the canvas. He is 65 Speed and Accuracy 10. The Maelstrom. a swift and dangerous current that sweeps between two islands off the northwest coast of Norway, is a~ menace to c x". r " farmers '2‘ sailors” , w G H ' soldiers ”honours ll. Michelangelo painted the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican in Rome while regarded by many as a very imaginative lying on his back on a scaffold high above the x W. s G H '1? A s x (c . o .{ painter ) sculptor writer violinist ceiling dome , soar, , roof _..~"‘ ‘g' 3. Early Egyptians made raised bread without mod- ern prepared yeast. They let wheat dough ferment and form gases that made the bread A A 3 old bake /c “x 0 (rise) hard 12. It is thought that Asia and North America were once joined together in the region of what is now Bering Strait, permitting various land animals to [gs— “\ r o H cross-j swim escape drown 4. According to myth, Icarus made wings of wax and feathers, but he flew too high, the wax melted, and he fell into the sea. He had flown too close to the 13. The twelve jurors sat for many hours trying to come to a just decision. They could not reach a ver~ dict, however, because the evidence was so E F ,* G l H A " I C 0 sea mountains . sung ,’ island conflicting ,-) clear strong wrong ________ ' 5. The ibex is a wild goat whose forelegs are shorter than its hind legs. It can climb steep clifis and crags and can take long’leaps. The ibex is A s c o clumsy -.surcfooted careless huge 6. The chairman of a meeting usually does not vote on a question unless his vote is necessary to break what would otherwise be a . . e r o ,v' H vote rule record r 7. The Food and Drug Administration protects the public by insuring that all frmds. drugs, and cosmetics are properly labelled and A a C D , safe ' perishable proiitablc attractive fi 14. Waterspouts, whirling columns of air and mist. are tornadoes that occur over oceans or lakes. In such places, these tornadoes are a hazard to c r ‘ ‘ homes cities I x o E H \‘Qllgsmyl orchards 7 T 15. Pantomime, once a pop' lar form of entertainment, is acting without words. Knstead of speaking. the actors tell a story only by means of A " i a \\ c o singing gestures .2, writing pictures 16. The earth is baked by the blistering sun during! the day. Without air to filter and soften the sunshine the earth would be E F G H frozen gaseous overcmt cosmetic-d 8. A porpoise‘s vision is limited. It avoids objects by emitting pulses of sound and tuning in on the echoes. It might be said that a porpoise sees with its E ‘ F G H nose ears. skin fins 17. The initiative is a procedure by which the people can propose legislation and force a vote on their proposal. If such a proposal passesK it becomes a A B 3 C D legislature campaign law tax 9. In summer, temperatures in the Sahara desert may reach 120:; on a winter night, it may be near freezing. Temperature changes in the Sahara are A B C D minimal rare moderate extreme [21 18. Mix the eggs with small pieces of ham, onion, and green pepper. Season, and fry in a well-greased pan. The result will be a delicious western E F o . l-l steak ham omelet movie 00 ON 70 m NEXT PAGE 66 Speed and Accuracy 19. Stalactites are stone “icicles” on cave ceilings. Stalagmites are stone pinnacles on cave floors. Occa- sionally stalactites and stalagrnites meet to form3 A 8 0mm) eaves ll'ldges paths / 28. Accidentals in music are notes that are not part of a given key signature. Since, in the key of F major, G flat is not in the key signature, E error invention @fl aeooqanlment 20. Staring persistently at one thing could cause fatigue of visual receptor cells. In order to protect these cells from fatigue, the eye is constantly E F G H open moving tearing tired 29. The mace, originally a weapon, is now used in ceremonies as a symbol of authority. The mace used in the House of Representatives today“ is A I destructive clerical emerald QI‘II ) 21. Lightning causes the air through which it passes to expand rapidly and collide with cooler surrounding air. Thunder is a direct result of this A I C D collision, immobility \_ g , coolness noise 22. George Eliot was the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, famous author of Silas Marner and other books. Many readers never realized that George'was a e r o .7 H writer spy plan'st .woman 23. Goldenrod and ragweed are not unattractive to behold, but for the hay fever suflerer who is allergic to them, they are rather formidable a K s c o anhnais enemies ' defense suiicrcrs \_ a '— 30. A sharecropper is a tenant farmer who meeivos a share of the crop he grows in return for his labor. The remainder of the crop goes to the G H tenant state workers 31. Some sea animals are often mistaken for plants. For example, the coral. that grow so profusely in the warmwaters of the world are actually c a weed- is» 32. The Carib Indians were a warlike tribe who lived in the Caribbean area. They were independent, and lived by farming, hunting, and fishing. Theyfi were m:ek cowardly Q33\} /' \ I \ animals, plants P/ vegetarians 24. Richard I. King of England from 1189-1199, was sometimes referred to as “Richard Yea and Nay.” because of his characteristic of frequently changing his “as. e ( r ‘\ G H party plans ,' clothes horses 33. Anthropology covers a broad field. Some anthro- pologists study living races of people; others study ancient cultures. This science is the study of s c ‘ 0.- A insects fields- life ~ man 23. Computers have been found to be useful teaching devices. in addition to their other applications. This use ofthe computer should speed the work of 34. Some of the new superhighways are already un- able to deal with rush hour congestion. One of them is jokingly referredto as the world’s longest . A' s c o r r , e H '. teachers, engineers mathematicians astronomers superhighway“ parking lot railroad runway 26. Cork is the outer layer of bark of a tree called the cork oak. It is tough and durable and can be used in life presen'ers and buoys 3». cause it is e ‘ 1 r G H light elastic soft dry 35. “Foolish consxstency is the hobgoblin of little minds" was Emerson's appeal to avoid the pitfall of ’n z: i.) twin-3"? 'it fit- min-nae of being A " s c D \\ ise c i ii generous wealthy 27. Even sea plants can't live without sunlight. l’n- derwater plant life is therefore restricted to those layers of the ocean near the A f I B . C 0 bottom surface '. caves rocks it». Since tc'mpcmturcs on the centigrade and Kelvin scales (infer by a constant of 273 degrees, no further information is needed to make theappropriate s r ’ o ’ . H degrees temperatures conversions lthermometen STOP 67 Vocabulary 7 DIRECTIONS: Look at the sample test word VI below. The word is rush. Now read the five words just below rush. Find the one word in this group that means most. nearly the same as l'llsh. The word hurry means most nearly the same as rush. The word hurry has the letter O in front of it. D is the answer to number V1. Now find number V] on your answer sheet. Space D is already marked. Go over this mark with your pencil. Make a solid black mark but don’t go beyond the space. Now look at test word number V2, and find the word in the group below it that means most nearly the same. Mark the answer to V2 on your answer sheet. Picture means most nearly the same as illustration. Pic- ture has an F in front of it. You should have marked space F in row V2 on your answer sheet. For each numbered word on this page and the next page, find the word in the group that means most nearly the same. Mark on your ans-wer sheet the space for the letter of the best word. Be sure the number on the answer sheet is the same as the number of the test word. There is no penalty for guessing; no points are sub- tracted for wrong answers. Even if you are not sure of an answer, make the best guess you can. sAMPies V1. rush j 4. infinite A back .l F deep I grab £.l.imit.less‘ C grow : H tiny D hurry f I majestic E spend J binding V2. illustration _‘ 5. memorandum F picture .:. A dress 6 brightness ' B desk H sickness C grave I daring ‘9 record J unreal E flag 1' reduce 6. meddle-some A send F interfering B (:OUStht G exacting __ C_ ‘g_o_ubl_e~_‘\ H tuneful :9- -d‘ecrease — ‘ ‘ I tradesman '1 E discuss J average 2° 593m?!" 7. controversy F radius A journey. G swamp s muddle H multiply .c dispute 1,9,131,‘ D scheme V C J portion E reversal 3. lunge 8. munikin \A thrust F bowl 8 hit G wild C erase fl dummy 0 climb I‘ tidbit. E soothe J cloth . .a... [4] 9. larceny l3 l4. vocation . A theftf) 3 F trip - "fl” nonsense “ 6 song C decency g H hobby 7": D delight ii I vocabulary ": E burning 7; ;L 12.11:) 1" v ‘ .2.” :la 10. jubilant 15. revolting F saddened ii A fastening ‘. 6 sweet 1' l salutary 8 H shining . k. . C "disgusting \ i: ‘Iwrcjpicing ’ D energizing t J justifiable ,i E return "7 f.» l 11. outlandish l6. ruthless "- A starry-eyed F helpless -_§ _fantastic 6 silly C migratory $1.53!“?! D seaward I courageous E noisy J furious 12. nomadic 17. garb lwwandering A fork G uncouth B clothing H straight C roof I progressive D chatter J deserted E swallow l3. dreary l8. imlclicutt' A behind F permanent B frightening G curved C weak H show D beside J. crude E dull J spotless 60 on to rue urxr use 42" - ., -‘V - v, . J ‘32? 19. 20 21. 22. 23. N ya 26. m U nju > bedlam noose origin safari limitation disorder ‘) (mono, ineffectual distasteful unavailing s intelligent plain sinful u—zo-u mimicry devotion imitationfw caution shouting whimper anguish F projecting G sorrow ‘ H requirement I placate J enrage consolidate insulate launder offer unite V ’ sympathize mfona) . decompow eliminate decay embarrass reveal remite h-IO-n . fraudulent motionless detrimi. ntal pompous laden deceitful manta) toxic medicinal alcoholic liquid poisonous confused t—-IC)'H 1. ”'74! ' 'wflol n... 60" fr. 3 'nsvalzr " H“ .i‘ We») 02-} "' 27. 28. 30. 31. 68 Vocabulary dauntless A sword _B brave \ glove D discouraging E helpless fickle changing frail shy tiresome impatient h—zmlm . censure A perfume I survey.___-‘ j _ C disapproval“ D inventory E certainty crope F scatter G dislike H headache I opinion -._-L.fcel. .l clientele .aA .-customers ‘ 32. 33. 31. B escalator C dance D pause E meeting cauldron F buldilu G eddy kl‘l little“ I fastener J vapor lira/mi A melted B corset . C shameless D jeweler E abundant mediocre F ordinary 6 central H social l fierce J precise L ,.., ,- -5- ‘Ho ' r}. '7 J??? 2355‘ FELL"- 4*.- - . .1 12.-Wit. :1 “.33; fi'.75.‘.‘=-'9' .5 ’. 3.;- ; 'J.’ . .3’.’ 35. impede A attend It interest C surrender D reject it hindéb 36. captivate enervate charm": strengthen denounce release u-IOII 37. bureaucrat official) ‘ agency monarch closet dandy l mafia?) 38. rate wrath satisfy cover scold 3- offset hilt—20'“? 39. demure 40. obstrcperous juvenile dedicated evasive infected unruly ‘ L-IO'H l l . quandary .A dilemma . 8 total C worry D pit E journal 12. avarice container culpability information cowardice greed 15—16311 9.! ".51". “47:, 38..- O Q.’ r335...“ 1“? ‘17:-..“ " ‘1' .Q‘ A‘. -"‘1.r‘-J 43. 44. 45. Q—v’IO'fl ('OVCtOllfi A hollow B surrounding C agreeable D soft E grasping gibberish candor jerky jargon . " arboreal obnoxious loquacious A jellylike Lgmtalekative ~. 47. 18. 40. 50. A B p C subdue ' D E C frequent D exciting E amusing submissive sinister courteous docile '» destructive 59:01! improve undermine helper heterogeneous F perverse G diverse: "Hmconverse l obverse J transverse imminent A distinguished B immense C arrival ..D, impending‘ E uncertain re past meal enduring strike settled gone b-IQ-u STOP CHECK YOUR WORK underhanded ’I-d r. K.“ . ‘- and. lawsu'm 1' léia-iv‘ile ~.l-: 'fcflfir‘f .3. 69 Comprehension DIRECTIONS: Read the sample paragraph below. It has a numbered blanks in it. The first blank is number Cl. Look below the paragraph at the line of words with Cl is; in front of it. Find the word in line Cl that makes the best sense in blank C1. The word hurricane from line Cl makes the best sense in blank C1. The word hurricane has the letter 3 above it. B is the answer to number Cl. Now find number Cl on your answer sheet. Space B is already marked. Go over this mark with your pencil. Make a solid black mark but don’t go beyond the space. Now look at the words in line C2. Find the word in line C2 that makes the best sense in blank C2. Mark the answer to C2 on your answer sheet. 3233.1“) enam- I" W' 3.5!“ 9; I‘ll SAMPLES The Weather Bureau gives each hurricane a girl’s name. Each year the first __Cl__ is given a name that begins with A, such as ___C2__. A I C D E month hm name Bureau start F G H I J C2. Mary Betsy 11nd: Susan Alice #31:: L 'nsm. Cl. .i‘« 1:59 The word Alice makes the best sense in blank C2. The word Alice has a .l above it. You should have marked space .I in row C2 on your answer sheet 9" When you are given the signal to begin, find the best a word for each of the blanks that follow on this page ‘5 and on the next two pages. Mark on your answer sheet 3' the space for the letter of the best word. Be sure the 9 number on the answer sheet is the same as the number ;. of the blank in the paragraph. There is no penalty for guessing; no points are subtracted for wrong answers. Even if you are not sure of an answer, make the best 5.; guess you can. .. p.19 . .u Masks served three main functions in the ancient Greek g theater. Since only three male actors with speaking parts 7? were permitted on the stage, difierent -.._l___~ allowed is these actors to play two or three parts at one time. The _ familiar, laz‘ger‘than- life size masks also helped the audi- .; ences in the large, open theatres to ._- 2“. the char- . acters more easilj, Fin all}. some masks were designed to aid in projecting the actors‘ voices to all corners of the theater. v‘ a n A B C D E 1. players scripts -\_mas!\s costumes stages F G l l l .l 2. recognize change represent introduce applaud Life relies on light and infrared radiation. The earth 1 (0'1“? ,‘5 would be barren and frozen Will‘mlt _ _3_. ., energy. By means of photosynthesis which requires light. green . plants make food, and infrared radiation ,. “4,- .. the .4 heat necessary to sustain late A B C D E 3. ‘-\_solar having static giving potential F G H I J 4. curtails provides extracts changes precludes (6} All human communities employ some kind of language. Language changes through the _...5._._ of new words and the dropping of old ones. These changes in languagi often ._6__ changes in conditions within the com- munity. A s I: o .' “a ‘ 5. deleting return spelling lengthening \addlng 15‘ r o 5' ii" I J 6. end prevent Jeflect plan forego 16 Though a few moments earlier I had felt that I could" walk no further, the sight of the __7__. landmark, the solitary tree, tonight ..._8._ against the wintry grey sky, caused me to quicken my pace. A I C _, D “a. E 7. unknown nnnmal awesonn \familiar " sparse F G H "I ‘ J 8. pitted bloaomlng pooped-3 silhouetted invisible Helium is among the lightest of the elements. Helium 17 is often used instead of hydrogen in balloons because, like other noble gases, it does not readily react with other substances. With _9._..., on the other hand, there is always the danger of explosions because of its high -._.10__ of reactivity. A s ’ \ c o s 9. helium \hldrogen , atoms oxygen atmosphere F G H I J 10. content method combination stability degree . 11. He concluded by saying, “This, then, is one of the fundamental __.ll___ of our science: the making of predictions about a person’s life, based upon the position 1‘ of the stars at his birth. If _._l2__. is to survive, we must convince others of the validity of our position.” 1 A 8 C D E survey 5 deterrents lacks causes purposes 2 r G H l - J __ 12. genetics astrology physics nature psychology The architect who has studied acoustics knows how to provide good ._._ 13-- for listening to music and speech. Not only must an auditorium be shaped for good acous- tics, but it must also be furnished with materials selector! to control res erl‘ieration. When submitting plans for an auditorium. the architect includes acoustic materials in 1. his __._M~__--. A s c o e 2- 13. soundings music times - conditions enjoyment F G H I .I 1 l4. specifications walls equipment auditorium materials 60 ON TO THE NEXT PAGE 70 -. . Comprehension The tradition of the caste system __15_. India’s transition to a modern democratic state. By fixing an individual‘s place in society at birth, the caste system prevented many talented people from _-16_.. posi- tions where they could use their abilities for the benefit of the nation. A s , «c o e I5. helped hastened \ hamper::' started ended o i .l 16. desirihie successful attaining Swopeuing using 7 \ The British Broadcasting Corporation has the respon- sibility for providing radio programs for all of Britain. A _..l7_ populated district in the North of Scotland is entitled to its programs as much as an industrial area. The B. B. C. cannot design its radio coverage as a -__18___ station might, concentrating on highly popu- lated regions and ignoring the rest. A x B C D E 17. sparsely hcai ily foreign Scottish British F G H I J 18. popular public news legitimate commercial 0—; l 1' M‘- ww ' “63" is.“ in": S‘tfar '4 3‘":- ML‘ .1 ’1 'J'J‘de 4.3 ' ' ." u, '3' 337W The development and preservation of .s...l9w .. space in urban areas is a growing concern. The problem arises because the growth of _- - 20.... _. ordinarily decreases the available area at the same time that it _,_2i _. the need for parks and playgrounds. A B C D E 19. renewal \ open city classroom crowded F G H I J 20. pollution noise freedom \ population space K ‘ l M N O 31. : increases plans decreases overlooks proves In reference to a .-- .22 acquaintance of ours. a 5 particularly proud and. haughty woman. a friend of mine once said. “I cannot recall her name but she‘s the only person I know who can _,.. 23*”. uhile sitting: down!” Immediately I knew . -_."l _-._ whom he spoke. A B C D 32. close shy mutual dear meek F G H I J .3. n alk sufh cry strut sing K I. M N O 34. to for of with her ' N ~ 34. measured presencd prevented observed hue-sod ' [7) I Since radio waves travel at the known and constant speed of about 186,000 miles a second, by .._25._.-- the time taken for waves to retum to the' radar transmitter after reflection from the aircraft it is possible to estimate the distance of the _.__.26_ from the transmitter. A s c o" ‘~ r 25. increasing changing reducing~. measnrlng’ wing I ' - G H I J 26._ craft ' wave radio reflectiu echo Existentialism protest the view of man as a passive being whose behavior is determined by natural or his- torical forces They emphasize the importance of the will in human nature and stress the necessity of ___27._.._. Urgent decisions must be made and man must make them, even in the face of ___28._._. Though he can never know the outcome, man must be responsible for his own commitments. A ,» s‘~ c o a 27. life . choice conformity peace dependence F G H ' ' I J 28. reason destiny \uneertninty defeat necessity Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by ___.29___ potassium chlorate. In this process, the po- tassium chlorate is heated in the ”-30.... of manga- nese dioxide and separates into potassium chloride and oxygen. The catalytic agent, manganese dioxide, does not ___31__ any change. A 8 C D i V 29. producing combining cooling freezing decomposing F G H I J 30. changing reduction explosion production \presence K t '\. M N O 31. cause ‘ undergo prevent help end Occasionally clouds that are sufficiently deep and that contain sufficient water content to produce precipitation fail to do so, presumably because of the lack of a few large water droplets or of temperatures low enough to produce ice at the cloud tops. In such cases, it is con- ceivable that the ._.32__ of large droplets into the base of the clouds or of artificial freezing bodies into the tops of clouds might cause precipitation or at least 33 s-.. its occurrence. While it appears that cloud seeding may cause fractional increases in precipitation in some areas. there is no evidence that precipitation as a whole can he .- -_ 34-“- in this way. A B C D s 32. occurrence elimination cluster 3 injection . path F G H '. I J 33. impede assume . hasten negate preserve K I. M was rat nor am so on 71 Comprehension . To determine a condition which is necessary for the occurrence of a given event, one must examine instances in which the event in question is “35.... and also instances in which it is lacking. A feature which ._36___ whenever the event takes place but which is never present in the .___.37_.__ of the desired event may be called a necessary condition. ’1" /‘\\ . c D E 35. , present / click-t treqnent dktinet general I: o\ H I J x l \‘ M N o 37. repetltlon absence I body presence wake Rousseau believed that man was born with certain potentialities which he attempted to realize. Conflict with other men arose when these ambitions were -NJ8._-... This was most likely to occur in large, eco- nomically complex societies marked by unequal distribu- tion of wealth and control by an active __39.__.. For a man to be on good terms with himself and his neigh- bors, he must live in a society of equals where he depends not on the caprice of a strong and wealthy minority but on ____40,-__ applying to all members of the community establishing them. fipu< o>fluumnno open cmHm_commoA REFERENCES 107 REFERENCES Abrahams, R. Deep Down in the Jungle. Chicago: Aldine Anderson, W. L. and Stageberg, N. C. Introductory Read— Baratz, Baratz, Booker, Brown, Bruce, Bruner, Budoff, Budoff, Publishing Co., 1970. ings on Language. 3d ed. New York: Holt, Rine- hart and Winston, Inc., 1970. S. and Baratz, J. C. "Urban Education: A Cultural a Solution." The Bulletin of the Minnesota Council A for the Social Studies, Fall, 1968, pp. 1-4. Re- éfl printed as "Negro Ghetto Children and Urban Educa- tion; A Cultural Solution," in Social Education. J. C. and Shuy, R. W. "Teaching Black Children to Read." Washington, D. C.: ERIC Clearinghouse for Linguistics, 1969, pp. 2-3. K. 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