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Johnsé/ Major professor Date 10/4/74 0-7539 i SEVII~-’87$ ABSTRACT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION OF 180 FIFTH FORMERS By Bernard Maruwa Amalaha The purposes of this study were (l) to explore the differences in motivation and academic performance between Ibo secondary school students from the areas of scarcity of food, the heartland, otherwise known as group A, and from the areas of food accumulation, the fringe, otherwise known as group B; (2) to test a measure of academic motivation, 1 total index, its sub—components and the four control char- the M-Scales acteristic variables of food area, religious membership, parental educa- tion, and location of schools as predictors of achievement; (3) to factor analyse the students' responses to the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory with a view to understanding the factors that account for the students' academic motivation; and (4) to compare the result- ing factors with those derived in studies employing the Caucasians and Afro-Americans. Analyses were based on 370 boys and ll2 girls from 9 selected schools in East Central State of Nigeria. Motivational and achievement 1Developed by Farquhar, et al. at Michigan State University to measure academic motivation. Bernard Maruwa Amalaha scores were obtained for each research subject. The motivational scores were derived from the M-Scales test battery, while achievement scores consisted of the students' cumulative aggregate scores (WASC-S) in the West African School Certificate Examination. Independent analyses were carried out for both males and females. These involved in the main (a) a test of significance of the mean differences between groups; (b) multiple regression (stepwise) analyses employed to examine the relation between the dependent variable (NASC-S) and the independent variables (motivation, and the four char— acteristic variables of food area, religion, parental education, and location of schools); (c) factor analyses of the 53—item and 45-item responses of males and females, respectively, to the Generalized Situ- ational Choice Inventory (sub-test of the M—Scales battery) using the principal axis solution method with a view to determining the minimum number of independent dimensions needed to account for most of the variance in the students' responses. The quartimax procedure was adopted to modify each item so that it had high loadings on the fewest possible factors and zero or near-zero loadings on the remaining factors. The tftest analyses between groups showed the following results: (a) There were no differences in motivation between the heartlanders (group A) and the fringers (group B) either on the M-Scale total scores or on the sub-components for both sexes. But a significant difference (.Ol level) in performance was found in favor of group A boys over group B boys. There was no difference in performance for the girls. (b) There were no significant differences between Protestant Bernard Maruwa Amalaha and Catholic boys in either motivation or performance; but significant differences were found in favor of Catholic girls over their Protestant counterparts in both motivation and performance. (c) Male students from educated parents were significantly higher than male students from uneducated parents in performance and in two sub-scales, the GSCI and the PJCS, whereas no difference was found either in performance or in motivation between girls from educated and uneducated parents. (d) Male students who attended urban schools were significantly higher in performance and in one subscale, the HTI, than their counterparts who attended rural schools. (e) Male students as a group were signifi- cantly higher in performance than their female counterparts. Stepwise regression analyses indicated: (a) that within the boys'sample,location of school (l3 percent variance) followed by the M-Scales total index (8 percent variance) were the significant predic- tors of performance; (b) that within the girls' sample, the M-Scales total index emerged as the most significant predictor (20.3 percent of the total 26.8 percent for the model) of performance; (c) that for the sub-components, the GSCI was the most significant predictor of perfor- mance (6.6 percent) for the boys, while the WRL was clearly the most significant predictor (l0.9 percent for the girls); (d) that no back- ground variable had any significant influence on motivation for both boys and girls except religion, which appeared to influence motivation for the girls; (3) that the background variables had no significant influence on the M-Scales sub—components scores except religion, which had influence on WRL and food area on HTI for the girls. In other Bernard Maruwa Amalaha words, Catholic girls showed higher NRL scores than Protestants, while heartland girls scored higher on HTI than fringe girls. The results of the factor analyses showed that four and six factors were extracted for the boys and girls, respectively. These factors were named as follows: (I) For the boys, (a) chance-taking versus no chance-taking, (b) intrinsic satisfaction versus external superficiality, (c) problem—solving effectiveness, (d) need academic achievement. (2) For the girls, (a) need academic achievement, (b) unique versus common accomplishment, (c) work-success involvement, (d) self-reliance versus inadequacy of self, (e) delayed gratification, and (f) task orientation versus conspicuous leisure. Three of the factors were held in common between the Nigerian and American male samples, but they differed in variance contribution and ordering. One factor, problem—solving effectiveness, was peculiar to Nigerian boys. On the other hand, need academic achievement was the only factor common to both Nigerian boys and girls. The rest are dif- ferent, thus demonstrating differences in motivational patterns. The meanings of these factors to the groups were suggested. ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION OF 180 FIFTH FORMERS By Bernard Maruwa Amalaha A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education l974 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To The Ford Foundation of America for a generous "Study and Travel Award" without which this study could not have been easily com- pleted. I am profoundly grateful to The Foundation for this award. To Professor Walter F. Johnson, my major advisor, kind and warm friend, whose unfading devotion, inspiration, and financial aid encouraged me throughout the study. To Professor William N. Farquhar, for continued aid and statis- tical analysis of data. To Professor John Hanson, member of my guidance committee. To. Drs. Harry L. Case, Ralph N. Harbison, and Merritt Kimball (all of The Ford Foundation, Lagos, Nigeria) chairman and members, respectively, of my orals committee, whose understanding, pungent criticisms, selfless devotion, and encouragement enabled me to plod through the difficult task. I owe them immense gratitude. To Professor D. G. Morrison and Mrs. K. Olaofe of the Computing Center, University of Ibadan, for promptness in handling data and offer- ing useful advice at all times. To Professors J. A. Majasan and E. A. Yoloye, Department of Education, University of Ibadan, for making the departmental offices and library research facilities available to me. ii To Professor B. O. Ukeje and Dr. N. Uka, both of the Department of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for encouragement and support. To Dr. J. B. C. Okala, Director, Institute of Education, Univer- sity of Nigeria, Nsukka, for making some funds available through the Institute research grant. To Mr. Kevin I. Uzomah of the Department of Vocational Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for typing manuscript. Above all, to my wife, Mrs. Gloria N. Amalaha, for her patience and moral support throughout. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . ........... . ...... The Need for the Study. Objectives of the Study Theoretical Background of the Problem The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I : Summary . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms Used . . . ............ II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION . . . . . Antecedents of Achievement Motivation and Behavior . . . Cultural- Social Factors . . . . . . . ..... Parental Influences Relation of Need Achievement to Performance Relation of the M- Scales Scores to Academic Achievement . . ...... . M- Scales in Cross- Cultural Studies . . Factor Analysis as a Tool in Construct Validation Summary ..... III. DESIGN AND TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS The Sample . . . . Nature of the Data . The NASC- S . . . . The M-Scales Scores Analysis Procedures Correlation Analysis . . . . . Test of Significance of Difference Between Group Means . . . . Multiple Regression Analysis . Factor Analysis . . . . . Reliability Estimates iv l4 l6 l6 2l 27 36 36 37 42 45 49 5l 56 58 60 61 68 68 69 7O 7O 7T 7T 72 73 Chapter IV. PR V. SU APPENDICES . . . . Assumptions and Limitations Specific Limitations of the Study : I : : . I . Z Z . Summary ................... ESENTATION OF RESULTS ............... Differences Between Group A and Group B Ibo Fifth Formers Mean Scores ............ Differences Between Ibo Catholics and Protestants Mean Scores . . ...... . . Differences Between Mean Scores of Students of Educated and Uneducated Parents ....... Differences Between Male Urban and Rural Students' Mean Scores . . . . . . . . ...... Multiple Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . Factor Analysis ........... Results of the 53- Item and 45- Item Variable Analyses : : The Male Factors . . . . . . . . ....... . The Female Factors . . . . . . . . . ...... Summary. ......... MMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . ............ Differences in Academic Achievement Motivation Between Group A and Group B Using the M-Scales . . . . Academic Achievement as Measured by M-Scales ..... Underlying Factorial Structure: Comparison with U. S. Patterns . . . . . ......... Influence of Location of School ..... Religion, Motivation, and Achievement . ....... Parents' Education, Motivation, and Achievement Sex, Motivation, and Achievement . Suggestions for Further Research . 000000000000 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ...... Page 74 76 77 79 80 83 86 90 122 l23 l24 l3O l38 I42 l42 T46 l48 l5l l53 156 l59 l6l T63 I87 LIST OF TABLES Determinants of Prestige and Status as Seen by Four Representative Villages ..... The Polar Theory of Academic Motivation . Characteristics of the Total Accepted Sample Characteristics of Participants in the M-Scales Test Percentage of Total Sample Who Were Used in the Analysis . . . . . ........ The Matrix of Correlation Coefficients for Males and Females . . ........... Hoyt's Analysis of Variance for Estimating Reliability of the M-Scales . . . T- Tests of the Means Between Group A and Group B Ibo Male Students . . . . . . . ..... . . T- Tests of the Means Between Group A and Group B Ibo Female Students . . . . . . . . . . . T-Tests of the Means Between Catholic and Protestant Ibo Male Students . . T—Tests of the Means Between Catholic and Protestant Ibo Female Students . T-Tests of the Means Between Male Ibo Students of Educated and Uneducated Ibo Parents . . . T—Tests of the Means Between Ibo Female Students of Educated and Uneducated Parents . T—Tests of the Means Between Urban and Rural Ibo Male Students . . Gains in NASC—S by Sex, Means, Standard Deviations, and Test of Significance . . . . . . . . vi 66 7O 74 8l 82 84 85 87 88 9l 93 Table 4.9 Pattern of Hypotheses Confirmation and Rejection as Shown by.the Means . . . . . .......... 4.lO Stepwise Regression Analysis: NASC-S as Function of M-Scales Total Scores . . . . ........... 4.ll Stepwise Regression Analysis: WASC-S as Function of M-Scales‘ Total Scores and Characteristics of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males 4.l2 Stepwise Regression Analysis: NASC-S as Function of M-Scales Total Scores and Characteristics of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females . . . . . . . . . . ...... 4.l3 Stepwise Regression Analysis: NASC-S as Function of M-Scales Components for Males . . . . ..... 4.l4 Stepwise Regression Analysis: NASC-S as Function of M-Scales Components for Females . . . . . . . . . 4.l5 Stepwise Regression Analysis: WASC-S as Function of M-Scales Components and Characteristics of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 4.l6 Stepwise Regression Analysis: WASC-S as Function of M-Scales Components and Characteristics of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females . 4.l7 Stepwise Regression Analysis: M-Scales Total Scores as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males . . . . . . . ...... 4.l8 Stepwise Regression Analysis: M-Scales Total Scores as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females . . . . . . . ..... 4-19 Stepwise Regression Analysis: GSCI as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males . 4.20 Stepwise Regression Analysis: GSCI as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females . . . . . ..... 4.2 d Stepwise Regression Analysis: PJCS as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males . . . vii Page ‘ 95 97 98 99 l02 l05 lO7 l08 lll ll2 ll4 ll5 ll6 Table Page 4.22 Stepwise Regression Analysis: PJCS as Function of Food Area, Parents‘ Education,Religi0n, and Location of Schodls for Females .................... ll7 4.23 Stepwise Regression Analysis: NRL as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of . Schools for Males . . . . ................. ll8 4.24 Stepwise Regression Analysis: NRL as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females .................. . . ll9 4.25 Stepwise Regression Analysis: HTI as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Males . . . . . ............ . . . . l20 4.26 Stepwise Regression Analysis: HTI as Function of Food Area, Parents' Education, Religion, and Location of Schools for Females ..... . . . . . ....... . . . l2l 4.27 Factor I: Chance-Taking Versus Non-Chance-Taking (Male) . . . l25 4.28 Factor II: Intrinsic Satisfaction Versus External Superficiality (Male) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l26 4.29 Factor III: Problem-Solving Effectiveness (Male) . . . . . . l27 4.30 Factor IV . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l28 4.3l Factor V: N-Academic Achievement (Male) . . . . . . . . . . . l29 4.32 Factor I: N-Academic Achievement (Female) . . . . . . . . . . l3l 4.33 Factor II: Unique Versus Common Accomplishment (Female) . . . l32 4.34 Factor III: Work-Success Involvement (Female) . . . . . . . . l33 4.35 Factor IV: Self-Reliance Versus Inadequacy of Self (Female) . l34 4.36 Factor V: Delayed Gratification Versus Immediate Gratification (Female) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l35 4.37 Factor VI: Task Orientation Versus Conspicuous Leisure (Female) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T36 4.38 Summary of Derived Factors ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . l39 Bl.l Intercorrelations Among Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l67 viii Table Page B2.l Means and Standard Deviations for Variables-— Males and Females ..................... T68 C.l West African School Certificate Results l97l . . ...... l7O E.l Rounded Intercorrelation Matrix for 45 Items--GSCI Ibo Females .................... . . . . T75 F.l Quartimax Rotation Analysis for 53 Items--GSCI Ibo Males . . l77 G.l Quartimax Rotation Analysis for 45 Items--GSCI Ibo Females . l79 H.l HighestFactorLoadings for Ibo Males . . . . . ........ l8l I.l Highest Factor Loadings for Ibo Females . . . . . . . . . . . l83 J.l Reliability Estimates Using Hoyt' s Analysis of Variance Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l85 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. THE 180 TERRITORIAL MAP ................. l64 Bl. INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG VARIABLES ............ l67 82. MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR VARIABLES-- MALES AND FEMALES ................... l68 C. NEST AFRICAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE RESULTS l97l ....... l69 D. INFORMATION ON CLASS V STUDENTS ............. l72 E. ROUNDED INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR 45 ITEMS-- GSCI IBO FEMALES. ................... 174 F. QUARTIMAX ROTATION ANALYSIS FOR 53 ITEMS-- GSCI IBO MALES ................. . . . l76 G. QUARTIMAX ROTATION ANALYSIS FOR 45 ITEMS—- GSCI IBO FEMALES ................... l78 H. HIGHEST FACTOR LOADINGS FOR IBO MALES ........ . . l80 I. HIGHEST FACTOR LOADINGS FOR 180 FEMALES ....... . . l82 J. RELIABILITYESTIMATETHROUGH HOYT'S ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ....................... I84 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This study was intended (l) to investigate the nature of aca- demic achievement motivation1 of two samples of Ibo Fifth Formers2 drawn from two different localities, the Ibo ”Heartland”3 4 and the Ibo "Fringe Areas” ; and (2) to test current theory on the relationship of need achievement motivation5 and academic performance. A number of education undergraduates in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, have shown concern in educational seminars over non- attendance, absenteeism, or truancy of children in schools in various areas of East Central State. Personal experience showed that these prob- lems are more prevalent in some localities than in others. Cursory observation would show two distinct Ibo groups. The first group (hereinafter referred to as group A) consists of Ibos in the ”Heartland,” where pOpulation density is very high (much higher than 6) elsewhere in the State) and agricultural lands (the “acid sands" are poor and scarce. This relatively harsh environment is believed to have 1Infra, p. 29. 2Infra, p. 30. , 3See V. C. Uchendu, The Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, l965), p. 3f. 4 Infra, p. 33. SInfra, p. 29. 6A. T. Grove, “Land Use and Soil Conservation in Parts of Onitsha and Owerri Provinces,” Geological Survey of Nigeria Bulletin 2l (Zaria: Gaskiya Corporation, l95l). l taught its inhabitants a mode of adaptation which makes the individual self-reliant. In more recent times, this individual has learned to be mobile and an important factor in the Nigerian urban life. He special- izes in trade and crafts instead of farming as a dominant occupation. He farms all right, but he hopes to augment his meagre harvests by buy- ing and trading with those in the "Fringe Areas." Education for his children, as a means of providing for the unpredictable future, is fast becoming a way of life. Perhaps as a consequence, this heartland, agri- culturally impoverished owing to very short fallow system and to popu- lation pressure, possesses visible evidence, both on the personal and group levels, of attitudes and behaviors favourable to economic develop- ment. There are more schools and colleges here, more modern buildings and facilities such as post offices, health clinics, hospitals and dis— pensaries, town halls, pipe-borne water, and oil pressing mills, some of these organized by members of improvement unions7 from their ”foreign posts" in the urban areas. These improvement unions also initiate scholarship or cooperative schemes with a view to improving the lot of the less fortunate ones in the home villages. People from this area are the leading professionals of all sorts and constitute the bulk of the civil servant cadre. In child rearing, the people emphasize inde- pendence, a self-reliant attitude, achievement, and competition with a view to surpassing others in undertakings. The second group (hereinafter referred to as group B) consists of Ibos in the fringes away from the heartland, who migrated from it 7Infra, p. 34. initially either as a result of warfare or in quest of a better environ- rnent for good production.8 These people occupy the richer agricultural soils of the territory today. In terms of man-land ratio, they enjoy greater opportunity than their kinsmen in the former area. They have an abundance of good crops--much more than their counterparts in the former territory. A mark of their abundance is seen in the ubiquitous presence of the prestigious yam, which requires rich soil to grow big or produce multiple seed-yams from one sand. These people have been long enough in their present locations for differential behavioral characteristics to emerge. Going away from the certainties of the home to the uncertain- ties abroad carries some strong emotions. The beaten path is, therefore, preferred to risk-taking away from home. Education as an indirect means of encouraging mobility does not possess the same emotional involvement as it has for people in the heartland. They prefer to welcomeeuwiplay host to their ”less fortunate kin'I from the heartland (provided, of course, that the newcomer lays no claims of ownership to any part of the land) instead of going into the heartland for permanent settlement themselves. There are no remarkable improvement unions in this area that are solid and enduring enough to cause innovations, because of poor elite leadership and guidance. As a result, this relatively rich agricultural area possesses little visible and demonstrable evidence of attributes k 81. Nzimiro, ”Study of Mobility Among the Ibos of Southern Nigeria,“ International Journal of Comparative Sociology, VI (l965), ll7-l30. R. N. Henderson gives account of how the tripartite influences 0f the British Government, the Commercial Houses, and the Missions encouraged the Onitsha and adjacent Ibos into other areas of Nigeria. See his "Generalized Cultures and Evolutionary Adaptability: A Comparison of Urban Efik and Ibo in Nigeria,” thnology, V (l966), 365-39l. and behaviors which favor economic development. The environment here is purely rural. Housing is of the rectangularly built mud and thatched type. There are fewer schools, and few top civil servants originate here. Professionals are beginning to emerge, but not in any way comparable to the overwhelming number in the heartland area. Most parents do not see sending their children to school as a moral obligation. The greater number of children a man has, the more self-fulfilled he feels, since these will rally round him during farming season to help out in the farms. In some instances, children are allowed to go to school only because neighbors send their children. This attitude might account for the absenteeism of children from school during the farming season. The expectations regarding child—rearing practices are not the same here. Cooperative behavior is preferred to competition. Early independence of action of the youngster is not very much encouraged. Group A is more ”modern” than the more traditional group B. One evidence for this is Ugwu's fieldnotes reported by Huth9 in his dissertation, in which Ugwu asked samples in four villages representing Onitsha (Agulu), Owerri (Umunumo), Nsukka (Unadu), Abakaliki (Nkalike) to identify for him factors that determine an individual's social status and prestige. Examination of their responses showed that the two vil— lages representing group A mentioned education as one of the factors, while neither of the two villages of group B mentioned education. In Table l.l are listed the responses that Ugwu recorded. 9Powers William Huth, “Traditional Institutions and Land Tenure as Related to Agricultural Development Among the Ibo of Eastern Nigeria” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, l969). Table l.l.--Determinants of prestige and status as seen by four repre- sentative villages. Group A Group B Agulu Umunumo Unadu Nkalike Wealth Heredity Village No. of Yam service barns Village service ”32;:29 Truth and No. of and Honesty Village service Honesty w1ves Education Education Title taking Wealth --- Commenting on the above observation Huth remarked: Nkalike is probably the most traditional village of the group and hence the importance of particular traditional status symbols such as the number of yams and wives. Yams have always held a special place of importance not only in Abakalike province but in all Iboland. . . . "People whose yam houses are full and who have taken the Yam title command great prestige.” In places like Agulu farming is less prestigious not because this is a value of society but simply because under peasant techniques and depleted soil conditions it does not provide the average individual much of a living and so, by default, trading has become more prestigious. At any rate, Ugwu seems well justified in his statement: ”From information I gathered, I see Agulu as a typical Ibo village . . . republican irleverything, ruggedly individualistic, wealth being more important now than any other thing in deciding status.”10 The above contrast, no doubt, carries some motivational implica- tions for the two groups. The question is not whether Nkalike has no motivation and Agulu has all the motivation. The contrast is made to emphasize two important points made by McClelland and Goldberg. 10113111., p. 26l. McClellandH advanced a theory which views human motives as . a number of affectively toned associative chains arranged in a hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy for a given individual (or a group of people) is that associative chain which is cued off most easily by almost anything that happens to him (them) and which has the largest network of connections with other thoughts. If the responses by Ugwu villages characterize their associative chains, it is easy to see the value of education in one case and its lack of salience in the other. The other point is the assertion by Goldberg12 who said that the antecedents of need for achievement are various social-cultural, familial, and personal factors which interact to determine to what extent potential ability will be translated into commensurate attainment. He believes that some of the influences are fairly uniform throughout a given culture, while others are specifically related to the mores and expectations of the varied sub-groups; these sub~groups have their own means of evaluating success and of placing valuations on areas of endeavor and on the attain- mnet level which will bring the individual special status. Something in this vein is likely to be happening within the Ibo group as a cultural entity. It was thus hypothesized that these two modes of socialization and adaptation in the Ibo sub-groups might pro- duce a differential need for achievement in education as a psychological trait in the children of the two areas and that this will show up when a sensitive objective measure of the trait is used. R HD. C. McClelland, “Changing Values for Progress, " in Education 239 the Development of Nations, ed. by Hobert W. Burns (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, l963), p. 67. 12M. L. Goldberg, ”Motivation of the Gifted," National Society for Ifl§_§tudy of Education, 57th Yearbook, Pt. III, l958, p. 89. Researchers interested in the achievement of dichotomous groups, usually under-achievers versus over-achievers, have used one of four techniques in separating the groups for study. Some studies have employed the Central Tendency splits or the Arbitrary Partitions where the middle group is eliminated; others have used the Relative Discrepancy Splits or the Regression Model Selection.13 In the Central Tendency Splits, under- and over-achievement are determined by dichotomizing a distribution of combined aptitude and achievement measures. Under- and over-achievement in the Arbitrary Partitions technique are determined by contrasting extreme groups in achievement-aptitude distributions, and by eliminating a middle group as WinbergM did. The Relative Discrepancy Splits use grade point average and aptitude predictors which are ranked independently. Under— and over-achievement is determined by the discrepancy between the two ranks. T5 Diener, for instance, converted aptitude and grade point average into standardized scores. The discrepant groups were then defined on the basis of a difference of rank, plus and minus l5 standardized score distribution. The Regression Model uses a least squares equation to predict achievement from aptitude measures. Under— and over-achievement 13Discussions on these techniques are based on: William W. Farquhar and D. Payne, ”A Classification and Comparison of Techniques Used in Selecting Under- and Over-Achieving Students," American Per- sonnel and Guidance Journal, May, l964. 14Wilma A. Winberg, "Some Personality Traits of Collegiate Under-Achievers,” Proceedings, Iowa Academy of Science, LIV (l947), 267-270. 156. L. Diener, ”Similarities and Differences Between Over— Achieving and Under-Achieving Students,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVIII (T960), 396-400. are then determined on the basis of the discrepancy between predicted and actual achievement. A typical example is that by Farquhar and Payne.16 A thorough examination of the techniques of selection, whether considered adequate or inadequate, showed that: l. standardized instruments (intelligence, achievement, and aptitude scales) were used; 2. subjects of the studies took these standardized instruments either before or during the investigations; 3. those who had taken them before had their scores recorded in their cumulative record folders. Faced with the lack of these standardized instruments which would have added important variables to the research design, and faced with lack of time and money to secure or construct them, the author relied on the use of the M-Scales alone. Thus if differences were to emerge between the heartlanders and fringers, in whatever direction, ‘we will have unearthed strong evidence that the nature of achievement motivation of the Ibos is, at least in part, a function of the eco- logical environment in which they live. More specifically, we will have some, admittedly weak, basis for accepting the hypothesis that a sub- sistance economy, represented in this study by the Ibo heartlanders or the Ibo fringers, has some effect on the socialization of human beings and thus influences their achievement motivation. Observation of the urban Ibos, who are scattered all over Nigeria, might have created a false impression that all Ibos are 16Farquhar and Payne, 9. cit., p. 4. achievement oriented. This impression is assuming the character of a stereotype, especially after Ottenberg17 had described them as ”recep- tive to change" and LeVine18 empirically demonstrated that they ranked highest in need achievement in Nigeria. This impression the author doubted from personal knowledge and experience. This doubt was accentuated by the differential reactions of peOple to the vicissi- tudes brought about by the recent civil war. As a result of the Nigerian civil war much of the material pro- gress in Iboland so far achieved was wrecked. Buildings and other forms of landed property were destroyed. Money in the form of cash became valueless. People lost faith in life. But the determination to make up for lost time, rededication and resurgence, and an implac— able faith for the future the author felt were more noticeable in group A than in group B. In group A, markets were quickly rebuilt voluntarily, village after village made new pledges to defray the cost of their children's schooling despite their abject financial situation. It was many months afterwards that people in group B started some ventures, apparently in imitation of those of the heartland. Some people changed occupational roles from many years of civil service or of teaching to that of budding entrepreneurs——all with funds nego- tiated abroad or from banks and friends. More and more children, even 17Simon Ottenberg, ”Ibo Receptivity to Change,“ in antjggity_ and Change in African Cultures, ed. by W. R. Bascom and M. J. Herskovits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, T958), pp. l36-37. . . 18Robert LeVine, Dreams and Deeds--Achievement Motivation in Nflkflflg_(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, T966). l0 those considered overage in normal times, went back to schools that were devoid of equipment and hard furnishings. Again these actions were more common in group A than in group B. This is psychological resilience in action and might be activated by the presence of achieve- ment motivation, which needs to be studied and, if possible, understood. The foregoing account has made no distinction between males and females in either group. Each group has a way of evaluating children's performances. But on the whole, Ibo parents do not have the same expectations for girls as for boys. Being a male-oriented society they place more value on the actions of the boy than on the girl. Parents' most cherished desire is to have a boy who will inherit their property when they die.19 This accounts for more jubilation at the birth of a baby boy than of a baby girl. Some parents who expect to give birth to a boy but give birth to a girl instead Christen her with such name as ”Ejinwanyi Emeke” (what do you do with a woman) or "Nwanyi Meole” (what can a woman do). Parents are concerned that the boy represents the good quali- ties of the father. Some cultural rituals are employed to achieve this objective. Thus, the boy undergoes initiation ceremonies to introduce him to the thought processes of his group. He joins age-grade societies in order to learn the accepted characteristics of young and growing members of the group. Masquerade clubs inculcate in him the virtues of valor and taking pains. He has more freedom to do some reality- testing of his abilities. All these are denied the girl, who is expected to be groomed for motherhood. 19Very rarely does a girl become heir to the parents' property. ll It is entirely likely that this differential cultural treatment between the boy and the girl might be related to their need achievement motivation and academic achievement characteristics. This, in effect, would mean differences in M—Scale (including sub—test) scores and other measures between the sexes. Another level of the research problem concerns generaliza— bility of theorizing on achievement motivation. Theory construction and verification relating to need achievement motivation have been mainly the concern of the more advanced countries. There is no way of knowing whether the propositions formulated and tested only in a single culture, like the United States, or in closely related advanced cul- tures, like Western Europe, are generally valid, unless comparable data are available from culturally variant countries. Such comparable data, according to Kelman,20 will help develop theoretical models that can encompass contradictory findings in different cultural contexts. Farquhar2] realized this fact earlier while reviewing the progress made with the M-Scales as an instrument to measure achievement motivation. He observed that the ultimate goal was to replicate the motivational Project in a number of cultures in order to isolate the factors unique to each culture and common among cultures. M 20Herbert C. Kelman, ”Social Psychology and National Development: gagkground of Ibadan Conference,” Journal of Social Issues, XXIV (T968), -3. 21William W. Farquhar, “An Integrated Research Attack on ézaggmic Motivation,” Journal of Counseling Psychology, IX (T962), T2 The express intention of this study is to apply the M-Scales,22 a uneasure of academic motivation, to assess motivation of Ibos in the EEiSt Central State of Nigeria. In the later portions of the thesis, analysis will be based on 1:he assumption that the M—Scales are cross—culturally valid, that is, 1:hat they pick up differences in motivation between groups. On the (nther hand, we are consciously aware that the Scales have never been (:ross—culturally validated, at least in Nigeria. To do so, we would T1ave to select two groups known to be different in achievement motiva— tion and test the M—Scales to see whether those differences were picked up. This lack of certainty concerning the validity of the M—Scales in this cultural setting, however, is not a crippling weakness. None- theless, the reader should be aware that failure of the M-Scales to distinguish between groups A and B is subject to two conflicting inter— pretations-—that is, either the two groups wereirifact the same and the M~Scales validity showed that identity, or the two groups were in fact different, but the M-Scales failed to pick up the differences. Should such a null result occur, further research would be required to resolve this dilemma. 0n the other hand, if the two groups are mea- sured as different in achievement motivation by the M—Scales, the likelihood of the M-Scales' being a valid measuring instrument in this COntext will be enhanced, inasmuch as a spurious reading of a difference 22W. W. Farquhar, ”A Comprehensive Study of Motivational Factors Underlying Achievement of Eleventh Grade High School Students," Project 846, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, T963. T3 unauld be a chance occurrence of extremely low probability if there were TH) real difference between the two groups. Given the extremely dif- fLicult circumstances attendant upon doing social research in immediate [Dost-war Eastern Nigeria, the investigator decided to proceed with the sstudy, accepting the possibility of additional research being necessary 'in case the two groups showed no difference in M-Scales results. LeVine23 in a previous study hypothesized that since the Ibo SSociety possessed an open social system24 and ingredients of upward rnobility within its structure, the Ibos would conceivably possess more achievement motivation as a psychological trait than any of the other ethnic groups where ascription rather than individual acquisition is more emphasized. In testing the hypothesis, his selection plan con- sisted of comparable groups of Hausa, Ibo, and Yoruba students from the top grades of leading non-Catholic men's secondary grammar schools located in Zaria, Onitsha, and Ibadan. Methodology was a projective- type technique consisting of a. analysis of dream reports, for indications of desire to excel, the type of fantasy analysis originally used for uncovering unconscious motives; and b. analysis of contents in an essay on ”success.” The scoring technique was the McClelland~Atkinson method, reported as Appendices A and B of the LeVine study. His major finding was that frequency of achievement imagery in dream reports was greatest for the Ibo, followed by the southern Yoruba, northern Yoruba, and \— 23 24 LeVine, op. cit. Infra, p. 34. 14 Hausa in that order. Frequency of mention of obedience in the essay on success was greatest for the Hausa, Yoruba, and Ibo in that order. LeVine concluded by saying that his findings were consistent with the hypotheSis that there are indeed differences in achievement motivation between the Hausa, Ibo, and Yoruba, and that these differences have concomitants in achievement attributes and behavior. The present study is different from LeVine's in four ways: a. The present study uses objective measures instead of the projective techniques for generating data. b. This study is concerned with the Ibos alone as against the inter—ethnic comparisons made by LeVine. c. LeVine investigated students' fantasy need achievement without reference to a performance criterion, whereas this study employs such a criterion. d. The Onitsha sample featured in his study is from the heart- land area, as defined in the present study; hence the sample is biased in favor of Ibo heartlanders. If our assumption of differences in motivation between the heartlanders and the fringers of the Ibo cultural areas is correct, the LeVine sample from the Ibo areas cannot be considered rep- resentative of the culture as a whole. The Need for the Study The need to understand Ibo achievement motivation becomes apparent particularly now that it seems that the daily as well as the ultimate existence of a given society will depend more and more on the T5 results of the individual's achievement of excellence in his undertak- ings. This need becomes more important now that the belief is common and popularized by social scientists, especially McClelland and his associates, that it is not the abundance of wealth or highly trained manpower that makes a nation great, but the psychological disposition of individuals which helps them progress economically, take risks of a moderate nature, develop initiative and creativity, plan and utilize 'problem-solving as a way of life, and accept delayed gratification as a means of turning their material resources into usable wealth. In other words, there is a linkage between national rate of economic growth and level of achievement motivation in the population.25 Motivation, like any other psychological trait, may not be evenly distributed; but those who are highly and lowly motivated rep- resent extremes in reacting to the demands of the present-day society, extremes which need careful study if their psychological and behavioral rnanifestations are to be even partially understood. This study, then, aims at discovering the nature of academic aczhievement motivation26 in the Ibo territory and some antecedents to tfris kind of motivation, which may be operating singly or in combina- tion. 25See David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: ‘Van Nostrand, l96l). This book is not a further development of the achievement motivation theory, but an application of theory to the economic development of different societies at different times. 26Infra, p. 29. l6 Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are four-fold: T. To explore the differences in academic achievement motiva- tion between Ibos in two different environmental situations, using an objective measure, the M-Scales;27 2. To test the same objective measure as a predictor of aca- demic achievement28 of male and female fifth formers in East Central State secondary schools; 3. To explore the underlying factorial structure of academic achievement motivation for Ibo fifth form boys and girls, using the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI), which is designed to test academic achievement motivation within the M-Scales battery; and 4. To compare the findings with those of other investigators, who have studied whites and Afro-Americans in North America. Theoretical Background of the Problem The present research grows out of two theoretical areas of investigation, namely: the personal or individual aspect of motivation, and the socio-cultural influences on individual motivation. A number of theorists and investigators have touched upon them, and it is to their findings and theories that we now turn. 27Infra, p. 3T. 28Infra, p. 30. T7 Masden,29 in Theories of Motivation, has reviewed some 3T theories of motivation. Most of these have been organized into a taxonomy by McClelland30 in The Achievement Motive. On the basis of his original and valuable experiments on human motivation, he rejected the prevailing theories of motivation as depending too much upon experi- ments with animals and hence inadequate to explain the functions of the complicated nonbiological motives. McClelland calls one type of theory ”the survival model," another “the stimulus intensity model,“ and a third ”the stimulus pattern model.” His objections to these models are contained in The Achievement Motive (pp. T2-27). However, McClelland and his associates must have borrowed some ideas of earlier workers which they later cast into their own molds. A review of a few such precursors is in order here. Alfred Adler3] suggested that gratification of achievement needs may be one of the most important goals of human behavior. This is exemplified in concepts such as “inferiority complex, masculine protest,“ and ”striving for superiority” which taken together show that achievement is basic and necessary for positive feelings of satisfaction by human beings. 29K. B. Masden, Theories of Motivation (Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, T968 . 300. C. McClelland et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton—Century—Crofts, Inc., T953TT 3TATfred Adler, The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (New York: Harcourt, Brace and C0., T927). l8 Lewin32 went further than Adler in his study of the "upward striving" nature of human achievement aspirations and behavior. He observed that attainment of goals produced renewed vigor in goal- striving and levels of aspiration. Young,33 after some initial shifts, settled for motives based on affective arousal; and this emphasis was taken up by McClelland in. Murray34 was the actual "father” of the need achievement con— cept. He originally discussed it in terms of behavior, such as aspir— ing to accomplish something difficult, striving to rival and surpass others, and striving to increase self—esteem through the successful application of one's abilities to problem situations. He called it "elementary ego need," which alone may prompt any action or be fused with any other need. This construct has been examined in some detail by McClelland Eind others,35 and they have couched it in a general theory of motiva- ‘tion with emphasis on the affective components of striving behavior. According to their view the achievement motive is an underlying per- sonality characteristic which involves a learned predisposition to attain success in competition with an internalized standard of 32Kurt Lewin, A Dvnamic Theory of Personality_(New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., l936 . 33F. T. Young, ”Food-Seeking Drive, Affective Process, and Learning," Psychological Review, LVI (T949), 98-l2l. . 34H. A. Murray, Explorations in Personality (New York: Oxford Un1versity Press, T938), pp. 80-8l. 35 McClelland et al., op. cit. T9 excellence. For those who strive to acquire this characteristic, it is a personality need for them; hence it may be referred to as need a<:hievement motivation. Characteristic of high need achievement accord- irig to this view are (a) long-term involvement, (b) unique accomplish- Ineant, and (c) competition with a maximal standard of excellence. Farquhar36 and associates have made extensions to this con- si:ruct. McClelland's model represents the highly motivated without a<:counting for the lowly motivated. To round out the picture Farquhar a11d associates supplied the characteristics of low need achievement, wtlich are (a) short-term involvement, (b) common accomplishment, and (c:) competition with a minimal standard of excellence. The result of this bipolarity has been the M-Scales and a nLunber of research studies developed from them. Table l.2 summarizes ‘the theoretical viewpoints. Table l.2.--The polar theory of academic motivation. High Achievement Motivation Low Achievement Motivation l. Long-term involvement l. Short—term involvement 2. Unique accomplishment 2. Common accomplishment 3. Competition with maximal 3. Competition with minimal standard of excellence standard of excellence g 36Farquhar, “A Comprehensive Study.” 20 The M-Scales are a battery37 of four—sub-tests for males and females, which measure academic achievement motivation. The strategy of their construction is the forced—choice-type objective questioning in which one sub-item of a two—member item is in the direction of higher motivation and the other is in the direction of lower motiva- tion. The assumption when using these sub—tests is that the highly inotivated subjects will choose the higher motivation items and vice versa. The M-Scales as theory—based instruments have been used mainly vvith Caucasian samples. There is need to study African samples to see to what extent they are applicable. ‘ Another proposition that is being tested in this study is the "subsistence economy hypothesis“ of Barry and his associates.38 It states that child training in rural societies is an adaptation to the prevailing system of subsistence economy. These social scientists believe that in societies with low accumulation of food resources, adults tend to be individualistic, assertive, and venturesome. These are some of the characteristics of the highly motivated individuals 39 that McClelland and Rosen4O have shown. By parallel reasoning, adults in societies with accumulation of food resources tend to be 37Infra, p. 3T. 38H. Barry III, Irvin L. Child, and Margaret K. Bacon, “Relation of Child Training to Subsistence Economy,“ American Anthropologist, LXI (T959), 5l-63. 3 9McClelland, p. cit. . 40B. C. Rosen, ”Socialization and Achievement Motivation in Bra21lg' American Sociological Review, XXVII (T962), 6l2—24. 2T cc>nscientious, compliant, and conservative. Emphasis in child train- ir1g, according to this view, would be toward the development of kinds of: behavior especially useful for the adult economy. It was from this consideration that the author developed the ccnncepts of groups A and B Ibos which this study is investigating. Tl1e author reasoned that if students from the area of scarcity of fc>od (group A) who are trained early to be independent and self- reliant are set to compete with another group of students from the nu3re food-accumulative area (group B) whose upbringing does not empha— si;ze independence, self—reliance, and venturesomeness, the former will per“form better than the latter on the M—Scales, and on the West African Scfiool Certificate Examination-—a measure of academic performance. The Hypotheses4] From considerations of the study objectives, the characteris- tics of the subjects, and the theoretical background, the following null hypotheses have been developed to be tested: l. There is no significant difference in means on the total M-Scales scores between group A and group B fifth formers for either males or females. 2. There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate Examination 41The M—Scales have two versions, one for males and the other for females. The hypotheses developed here refer differently to males and females. N0 combination of scores is envisaged by the nature of thase hypotheses statements, as the nature of the M-Scales precludes this possibility. 22 (the WASC-S)42 between groups A and B fifth formers for either males or females. The M-Scales sub-tests are said to investigate different aspects vvh ich relate to academic motivation. The Generalized Situational Choice Iv1ventory (GSCI) is said to measure directly the academic motivation of tf1e individual. The items involved are concerned with continuing one's eciucation, getting better grades, and the like. A high score on this GSCII sub-test is an indication of concern for academic excellence. The Preferred Job Characteristic Scale (PJCS) is said to measure the job preferences 0f individuals who are high or low on acaudemic motivation. To secure and hold a high occupation presup- posees an academic background of a sort. If, for instance, respondents are required to choose between (a) a job which does not tie one down, and (b) a job where one could continue to learn the rest of one's life; or (a) a job where one could be known for outstanding accomplish— ments, and (b) a job which does not require a university education, the nature of their choices is an indirect measure of their concern for academic excellence, assuming they consistently choose those items keyed in the direction of higher motivation. The Word Rating List (WRL) on the other hand relates one's self- concept to academic motivation. The individual is instructed to react to stimulus words as he thinks his teachers would about him. Thus, the student who feels that he is thought of not as clever, studious, or serious might be different from the student who feels he is thought 0T as clever, studious, or serious. Since there are 72 such stimulus \— 42Infra, p. 30. 23 vvords, the consistency of choice a student maintains provides a measure ()f his academic motivation. It should be observed here that responses aloe judged on whether or not they are in the direction of higher moti- \/ation. Relating the responses to the teacher perhaps helps focus a1:tention on the school and academic considerations. Finally, the Human Trait Inventory (HTI) is said to relate pearsonality characteristics to academic motivation. Thus, given two 5 tudents one of whom says, ”I like to study always," and another who saays, "I never like to study,” it is possible to hold tentatively that tl1e former's personality is attuned toward academic motivation while 'tfie latter's is not. If both are consistent in the pattern of their cf1oices of items, the conclusion would be that their personalities dif— fer in matters academic in nature. Since the sub-tests of the scale are investigating different asioects which relate to academic motivation, the use of the M-Scales tc>tal scores alone might mask the finer discriminations of the sub- tessts; hence the following hypothesis will be tested: 3. There is no significant difference in mean scores on the four sub—tests of the M—Scales between groups A and B fifth formers for either males or females. Other variables apart from the nature of subsistence economy might be operating within the samples. From the research literature, as shown in Chapter 11,43 it is possible to isolate the following variables as featuring in one form of achievement motivation research or the other: 43Infra, p. 36ff. 24 i. Social status of parents. The index of social status is worked out by combining occupation with education weights. ii. Religious affiliation of parents. A given religion is generally believed to generate a specific world view in its adherents. iii. Intelligence of either parents or the students. Academic performance is related to intelligence as well as to achieve— ment motivation. Most studies have investigated the question of high or low intelligence versus high or low achievement motivation. iv. Aptitudes and school attainment of students. One can also think of other possible variables not included in the alaove list, such as the variables of the nature of one's extended fami‘Ly and the separation of children from their families. The extended family system was considered difficult to inves- tlgatee because it is a phenomenon that ramifies on both the mother's and trie father's sides. One's maternal and paternal uncles, for instarice, are regarded as part of one's extended family. It is not easy 'CC) think of anyone who does not belong to an extended family in the Niggerian context. In other words, it is difficult to form two groups of those who belong and those who do not belong to extended familiies for comparative analysis; hence this variable was dropped in this Study. The question of separation of children from their parents was COOSidered. From the responses, only very few children agreed that they were separated from their natural parents. In Ibo society 25 child-bearing is considered a special blessing from God. Very rarely do parents agree to part with their offspring, not even in the divorced state. Those who agreed that they were separated from their parents were mostly non-Ibos who are not considered in this study anyway. After some thinking on the matter the author decided to work with variables already established as important along with the variable of location of school. This last variable was suggested by the atti- tude of parents in persistently wanting to send their children to urban schools in East Central State. This persistence raises the question: DC) parents want to send their children to urban schools as a result of tlieir academic achievement motivation or some other consideration? In oi:her words, do those who insist on going to urban schools possess more ac:ademic achievement motivation than those who are content to stay in rural schools? As noted earlier, intelligence and aptitude scores are seldom available in Nigeria, nor have these instruments been standardized to measure these traits among the Ibos. Therefore, this study dealt with the education of parents, the religion of the students, and the loca- tion of their school as subsidiary variables to food area to which a student belongs. The hypotheses tested in this section of the study were: 4. There is no significant difference in the means of the total M-Scales scores between Catholics and Protestants for either males or females. 5. There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate Examination 4 IIIIIIIIl-______, 26 (WASC-S) between Catholics and Protestants for either males or females. There is no significant difference in mean scores on the four sub—tests of the M—Scales between Catholics and Protes- tants for either males or females. There is no significant difference in the means of the total M—Scales scores between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate Examination (WASC-S) between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. There is no significant difference in mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. There is no significant difference in the means of the total M-Scales scores between male students44 who attend urban and rural schools. There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores on the West African School Certificate examination between male students who attend urban and rural schools. There is no significant difference in the mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between male students who attend urban and rural schools. \W 4Only five girls showed up in the urban sample; hence it was ”0t Possible to compare results by sex. 27 To accomplish the second objective of the study the hypothesis tested was: T3. The M-Scales scores will predict WASC—S better than chance, both with and without control. The third and fourth objectives deal with determining the fac- tor"ial structure of the responses of the Ibo fifth formers to the Gerueralized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI) designed to test aca- denric motivation, and to compare the findings with those already found out ‘for whites and Afro—Americans in the United States. The operative hypcrthesis, therefore, became: T4. There is no difference in factorial structure between the fifth formers' responses to the GSCI and the responses of American whites and Afro-Americans on the same instrument. Summary This study involved two Ibo groups. Group A derives from the hear“tland where man—land ratio is very high and the pressure on the indi\/idual to eke out his own living is acute. Group B derives from the ‘Fringe areas where there is less pressure on the land and conse— queotly more food is available to the inhabitants than in the heartland. These two areas are different in modes of socialization of the indi— vidual. It was thought that these two differing modes of socialization and adaptation in the Ibo sub—groups might produce a differential need for achievement motivation as a psychological trait in the children of the two areas and that this would show up when an objective and sensi— tive instrument was applied to both of them. ¥ .T'lTITlllluA‘ 28 A previous study by LeVine drew samples from Onitsha students orfly and made use only of projective techniques. That study was dif- fear‘ent from this in four ways: (l) the present study used objective [neuasures instead of the projective; (2) this study was concerned with tI1e Ibos alone as against the inter-ethnic comparisons made by LeVine; (:3) LeVine studied students' fantasy need achievement without reference “to performance criterion, whereas this study employs such a criterion; ar1d (4) the Onitsha sample that was featured in LeVine's study was from 'thea heartland, and would, therefore, be biased in favor of group A, in terflns of the present research. Four objectives provided scope for the present study, namely: (l) the exploration of the differences in academic achievement motiva- tior1 between groups A and B Ibos; (2) the use of the M-Scale scores as preciictors of academic achievement; (3) the study of the factorial straicture of academic achievement motivation of the fifth form boys and giirls; and (4) the comparison of the resulting factors with those founci for American whites and blacks. The theoretical background of the problem was derived from the MCCTel land—Farquhar theory of academic motivation. Definition of Terms Used Human motives. The concept of human motives, as seen in this StUdy, is the same as given by McClelland, who viewed human motives as a nuniber of affectively toned associative chains (highly charged feelings that are focused on values of profound interest) arranged in a hierarschy, that is, dotted as it were on a chain in order of 29 irnt30rtance to the individual. At the top of the hierarchy for a given inciividual is that associative chain (link) which is cued off most e215 ily by almost anything that happens to him and which has the largest neytwork of connectives with other thoughts. Thus, if money, or power, or: achievement is at the top of an individual's hierarchy of motives eveery thought of his relates easily to it. Most of his life is occupied tkrinking about it. The other motives not so charged may be cued off by other thoughts but not so easily. Need achievement motivation. This term is interpreted as a forwn of human motivation dealing specifically with achievement. A per- sorI who has it thinks of achievement most of the time. In itself, it is a11 underlying personality characteristic which involves a learned preciisposition (cultural patterning) to attain success in competition witki an internalized standard of excellence. This term is synonymous with n—achievement or just achievement motivation. Academic achievement motivation. This term is used to mean that aspecrt of need achievement motivation which relates specifically to school achievement. It is the motive to explore, manipulate, organize, and PYWDVide the impetus for learning about important features of the school as a specific environment. Farquhar's45 definition which sees this term as a combination of forces which initiate, direct, and sustain behavior~ toward a scholarly goal would convey the same idea. Opera- tional Ly, the scores a subject obtains from the M—Scales are a measure x— _ 45William W. Farquhar, “Motivational Factors Related to Academic AChleVement: Summary, Conclusions and Discussions.” (Mimeographed.) 3O 01: his academic achievement motivation. In its shortened form, it is rerferred to as academic motivation. Academic achievement. Academic achievement was interpreted to nmean school performance. In the present study, it refers to the aggre- gate scores which an individual obtained after taking the West African Sc:hool Certificate Examinations.46 Fifth formers. These are students in their fifth and final .yeaar'of secondary school after completing a six-year primary school. Tl1ey'are regarded as the equivalent of the American eleventh graders for“ the purpose of comparison in this study. WAEC, This means the West African Examinations Council. It has; its headquarters in Ghana. It is concerned with preparing or app>roving school syllabi, setting and marking of examinations for the secc3ndary school leaving certificate, and conducting other examinations. WASC, West African School Certificate. This is the certifi- cate: a successful candidate obtains at the completion of his secondary school career. WA§§:§, This is interpreted in this study to mean the aggre- gate Escore a candidate obtains after taking the West African School Certi ficate Examinations at the end of a five—year secondary school. This aggregate score determines the grade of pass which a candidate attains. GCE, General Certificate of Education. This certificate is a conSOTatory one awarded by the WAEC to borderline students. To get It, One has to have at least three passes and a credit in the subjects \— 461nfra, p. 30. IIIIIIIIIIIIZ:::;______________________________________________c, 3T offkered for examination. It does not have the same meaning as the GCE avnirded by London University on different considerations. Pass grades in WASC. After marks have been awarded by indi- vichJal markers of student scripts on various school subjects, the "Avuards Committee" of the WAEC (chief examiner, syllabus panel member, scl1ool examinations committee member, and WAEC officials) arranges the SCC)res on a nine-point scale. The cut-off point for failures is dertearmined when the chief examiner's report is studied and comparison is rnade with previous years' results. The number that fails in a given ye21r-in a given subject is determined by the cut—off score. When the fa i1 ing mark is thus determined, the rest of the marks within the rernEIining range are distributed on an eight-point scale. See Appendix C, and pages 84 and 85 for further details. M-Scales.47 This is a battery made up of four sub—tests devrised in Michigan State University to measure the academic achieve- ment Inotivation of youngsters. The items are based on the McClelland- FaquJhar bipolarized theory of academic achievement motivation. The techr1ique of construction is the forced-choice variety. The items are scoreci in the direction of higher motivation. The assumption is that the frighly motivated subject will choose differently from the lowly motivaited. The four M—Scales have male and female versions because aPproximately 75 percent of the items are common to the sexes, while 25 Percent are not. M 47Description of this Scale is based on that of Farquhar. See W. W. Farquhar, ”Motivational Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of ETEVenth Grade Puerto Rican High School Students" (East Lansing, MTChlgarI: Educational Publication Services, College of Education, MTChlgarl State University, T967), pp. l4-l5. III-II-__, __...._..—-. 32 GSCI, This means Generalized Situational Choice Inventory. It consists of 53 items for males and 46 for females. The items dees<:ribe situations logically related to the polarized version of the Mc(3lelland—Farquhar theory. A high score on this test indicates an inciividual who has a high need for academic achievement and would gen- erally like the kinds of tasks and activities that schools would vallJe as part of the academic program. EQCS, The Preferred Job Characteristic Scale. This Scale was constructed to set up extremes in occupational motivation as logically typified by the polar theory of academic motivation. It measures academic motivation indirectly. A high score on it indicates a high academic motivation since a high occupational position, other things being equal, depends on high academic status. WRL, The Word Rating List. This test was originally struc- tured to measure the ”looking glass self.” The items were selected by extracting descriptive words and phrases from self-concept literature and from the review of personal, motivational, and intellectual char- acteristics of students representing extremes in academic performance. The items are rated on a four—point scale (never, sometimes, usually, and always). For each item the subject is asked to rate the way he thought his teacher would typically describe him if she were to use the descriptive phrases. A high score indicates high academic motivation. HTI, The Human Trait Inventory. This test consists of 50 items for males and 60 items for females which measure personality characteristics already established by previous studies. These per— sonality characteristics relate to level of achievement which may be 33 l()w, high, or discrepant. The same four-point scale of never, some- tyimes, usually, and always is used. Heartland. In this study, the heartland is referred to as the Sthposed dispersal center of the Ibo ethnic group, with higher man-land riatio than in the other areas. Group A typically derives from the T1eartland. fringe, Fringe refers to all Ibo occupied areas away from the tweartland, relatively rich in agriculture and having lower man-land ratio than in the heartland. Group B students typically derive from the fringe areas. Urban school. An urban school in this study is any school located in any town designated urban by the East Central State govern- ment. Rural school. A rural school in this study is any school located in towns and villages not accorded urban status by the East Central State government. These designations take into account popu- lation numbers, the variety or quality of the population, the variety and quality of services that can be rendered, and a host of other considerations. Subsistence economy.48 This term was interpreted to mean Peasant agriculture and rural animal husbandry of an unscientific nature with or without hunting and fishing as supplements to eke out a living. 48To an economist and some other social scientists, this term Tmplies not only a low standard of living, but also one based entirely uDon the material fruits of one's labor; that is, no participation in the monetary market economy. It is not used in this sense in this study. 34 Improvement unions. These are cooperative types of associa- tions formed by members of particular villages, village groups, or ethnic groups. The purpose, according to Huth,49 is to provide socialization, guidance, assistance, and discipline among members at ‘the "foreign post,“ the ultimate and most important purpose being the betterment of the home village or ethnic group. High food accumulation. The characteristic index of this is tf1e marketing of food surpluses throughout the year; crops involved ar1e mainly yams, cocoyams, cassava, and rice. Low food accumulation. The characteristic index is buying of foodstuffs to augment the meagre proceeds from one's own farm. Open social system. This was interpreted to mean a system of upward mobility which allows the individual to attain self-fulfillment without traditional or institutional hindrances except those hindrances posed by individual intelligence and capacities. Ex post facto research. This term was interpreted here accord— ing to the definition given to it by Kerlinger.50 He defined ex post facto research as that research in which the independent variable or variables have already occurred and in which the researcher starts with the observation of the dependent variable or variables. He then Studies the independent variables in retrospect for their possible rela— tions to the dependent variable or variables. H.— 49Huth, op. cit., p. 287. 50Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., T964), p. 360. 35 Projective techniques. This term was interpreted to mean those -teachniques or instruments based on the principle that the individual vvi ll reveal his deepest characteristics and feelings when his behavior is; most unrestricted and the situation unstructured. A wide variety of’ reactions is possible, and must be interpreted in terms of the total reesponse pattern. Such tests may be scored objectively to some extent, but: both the administering of the test and test interpretation involve a ritnnber of subjective evaluations which depend for their validity largely upon the skill and experience of the person giving the test. Objective techniques. As applied to behavior, this term was use< to the Study of the N-Achievement Construct (unpublished Ph.D. thesis;, Michigan State University, T965). . 31H. M. J. Hermans, "Questionnaire Measure of Achievement Moti- vathHT," Journal of Applied Psychology, LIV (T970), 353-63. 32Klinger, op. cit. 33Hermans, op. cit. _ 34William W. Farquhar, "An Integrated Research Attack on Academic Mot1vation," Journal of Counseling Psycholggy, IX (T962), 84—86, IIIIIIIIIIIII......._______ 50 Attack on Academic Motivation.” Farquhar, Payne, and Thorpe, the original Michigan State University group, developed an objective instrument based on a motivational theory that, at least, was reliable. Their objectives were to develop: a. a measure of academic motivation, b. a theory-based and thus an interpretable instrument, c. an easily administered and scored instrument, d. a device built upon fruitfulness of theory that would permit exploration of the motivational complex, and : e. an objective measure screened through external validating groups. These objectives resulted in a research design that was sup- iaorted by the U.S. Office of Education (Project No. 846). The final iristrument, the M—Scales,35 consisted initially of l39 male and T36 frynale items. As reported, the reliability estimates using Hoyt's36 ‘vaiciance analysis technique ranged from .60 to .90 for the four sub- 'tes;ts.calculated on major and sub-groups. The total scale reliability eS'tfimate using the same variance technique was .94 for males and .93 for fenuales. The validity estimates of the M-Scales total scores against grades were .56 for males and .40 for females. As Hermans37 had observed earlier, projective techniques and earlieer objective measures of academic motivation have not been able 35See definitions section, p. 3T. . 36Cyril Hoyt, "Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis Of Var1armxe,” Psychometrika, VI (T94T), l53—60. 37 . Hermans, op. c1t. 5T to report reliability and validity figures as high as these. However, in studies using the M-Scales, these figures are approximated in study after study, thus demonstrating the stability of the M-Scales as an academic motivational instrument. M-Scales in Cross-Cultural Studies Since the original work on Caucasians, a number of cross- cultural studies using the M-Scales have been undertaken. Green38 'investigated the relationship of personality and cognitive factors nrith academic achievement (GPA) for eleventh-grade Negro and white sthdents of both sexes. He randomly selected 233 Negro and 5T5 Cau- <:assian high school students of both sexes, and collected M-Scales scxares, aptitude measures from the Cooperative School and College Atrility Tests-Verbal (SCAT-V)39 and grade point averages information (an Tooth samples. The objectives of the study were concerned with the prenjictive efficiency of the M-Scales as applied to Negro samples and witfli the factorial structure of the responses of the Negro samples on the rd—Scales. The results showed a significant difference between NGQYT) and Caucasian males and females on one sub-test, the Generalized 4O Situartional Choice Inventory (GSCI), with Negro students achieving . 38Robert Lee Green, ”The Predictive Efficiency and Factored D1merusions of the Michigan M—Scales for Eleventh Grade Negro Students—- A".Exr>loratory Study” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State Un1versity, l962). 39The SCAT has both verbal and quantitative scores. The verbal SCOPE 'is derived from vocabulary items prepared in an analogies form that inequires close analysis. Why Green left out the quantitative score was not explained. 4OSee definitions, p. 32. 52 higher mean scores. No difference in mean scores was found for the three remaining sub-tests. A significant difference was found in mean GPA among the four groups, with the whites achieving higher mean scores. No correlation (- OT) between verbal aptitude and achievement for Negro rnales was found despite the significant correlation between verbal aratitude and GPA for Negro females. All the sub-tests, except the liunan Trait Inventory,4] correlated significantly (.T4) with academic acfliievement for both Negro males and females. The Word Rating List (WRL)42 was the best single predictor of academic achievement for the . T Negro sample (.36 males and .64 females). Overall, the M-Scales total corwoelated significantly with achievement for all groups (.37 male lhegrcoes and .55 female Negroes and .50 male whites and .43 female whites). In another study, Uri Rueveni43 used the M-Scales to explore diffkarences in academic motivation and aptitude between Jewish and non-wJewish high school students; and between Jewish Conservative, Orthcujox, and Reform students. The sample consisted of 388 Jewish and 369 non-Jewish male and female students selected from four high schocfls in the United States. Motivational, achievement, and aptitude 41Human Trait Inventory is one of the sub-tests of the M-Scales. See det‘initions, p. 32. 42See definitions, p. 32. . 43Uri Rueveni, ”Academic Motivation in Jewish and Non-Jewish Hl9h_Sc:hool Students” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State Uni- verSity, T966). 53 scores44 were obtained for each student. The results of analysis of variance indicated that the four male groups differed significantly in academic motivation and aptitude. The four female groups differed sig— nificantly in the GSCI and aptitude only. Analysis of co-variance indicated that when aptitude was controlled, the four male groups dif— fered significantly in academic motivation, while, except for the GSCI and M—Scales total, the four female groups did not differ in academic motivation. The Scheffe test45 revealed that the Jewish male groups exceeded the non—Jewish males in academic motivation and aptitude, while except for the GSCI, the Jewish females did not differ in aca- demic motivation from the non-Jewish females. Differences between the Jewish groups indicated the Orthodox male and female groups, each, to exceed the Conservative and Reform groups in academic motivation, achievement, and aptitude. Van Johnson46 worked with Caucasian and Indian samples. In his study, significant differences were found in GPA and aptitude test 44For reasons not quite clear, Rueveni made use of four different aptitude tests for each of his four groups of students. It may well be that he assumed without demonstrating that the Differential Aptitude Verbal Reasoning, the School and College Ability Test—Verbal, the Col- lege Board Scholastic Aptitude Test-Verbal, and the Minnesota Scholastic Aptitude Test which he used for the different groups were comparable. 45The Scheffe test is a post-hoc comparison of means following a one-way analysis of variance. It considers pair—wise differences betweer1 means in order to determine which difference contributes to the overall significance of F. See William L. Hays, Statistics for Psychol- 931§j§1 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, T964), p. 484ff. _ 46Van Johnson, “An Assessment of the Motivational Factor in the Estimation of Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Indian Students and Factored Dimensions of the M—Scales--An Exploratory Study” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, T963). 54 scores; the Caucasian samples had the higher score in each case. The Caucasian male sample recorded higher mean scores in the total score and all sub-tests of the M-Scales except in the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI); tytests indicated significant differences in all but the Preferred Job Characteristic Scale (PJCS) mean scores. The Indian female sample recorded significantly higher mean scores in both the GSCI and PJCS sub-tests. The regression analysis indicated the precision of estimation of GPA was significantly improved when M—Scale scores were added to the aptitude score in both the male and female Indian samples. A study by McDonald47 not only added evidence that when the M-Scales are combined with an aptitude measure the predictive effi— ciency is improved, but also indicated that socio-economic status does not predict academic achievement. His socio-economic status was com- posed of weighted contribution of education and occupation of parents. He reasoned that differences in results obtained by those who employ the socio-economic index in this type of research might be due to dif- ferent methods of deriving the socio—economic indices. 49 Two studies by Pettigrew48 and Hayden have demonstrated that the M-Scales have little utility for college populations. Pettigrew, 47Keith Henry McDonald, ”An Investigation Into the Relationship of Soc io-Economic Status to an Objective Measure of Motivation--The Mgthggan M-Scales“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 62 . 48S. H. Pettigrew, ”The Validation of an Objective Measure of Academic Achievement Motivation With Male College Freshmen” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, T964). . 49Mary L. Hayden, "The Validation of the Michigan State M-Scales With College Freshmen“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State Univer- Wity, T963). IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIl:::____________________ ________ 55 after gathering the usual data on each of 865 first-quarter freshmen at Michigan State University in l96l, employed the two-stage regression technique developed by Farquhar. Statistically defined samples of over- and under—achieving students were identified by regression analysis from their scores on the College Qualifying Test (COT), Michigan State University Reading Test (MSU—R), and Grade Point Average (GPA). The criterion groups consisted of Tl5 over— and l06 under-achievers who were randomly divided into sub—samples for validation and cross— validation purposes. Responses to each item of the GSCI were analyzed using chi square. Five items were found in the direction of the theory after cross-validation. Two other significant items were in the direc— tion opposite to that originally hypothesized. In view of the above, Pettigrew50 concluded, as did HaydenS] for the whole scale, that the GSCI items do not discriminate between over— and under-achievers in a male college freshman sample. This conclusion may have been brought about by restricted range within an already pre-selected sample, or else the M-Scales are inadequate for older subjects. The validation studies reviewed so far show statistically sig— nificant results when M—Scale scores are correlated with GPA and aptitude measures, provided the subjects are of high school age and under. Since the samples of this present study are on a transitional point age—wise, that is, between high school and university, it will be interesting to watch the behavior of the M—Scales with these samples. M 50Pettigrew, op. cit. 51Hayden, op. cit. 56 Factor Analysis as a Tool in Construct Validation Fred Kerlinger52 has defined factor analysis as a method for reducing a large number of measures to a smaller number of measures (factors) by discovering which measures “go together“ and the rela- tions between these clusters of measures that go together. In other words, it is a method of understanding a construct through its cor— relates. It tells us what tests measure the same thing and to what extent they measure what they measure. Cronbach53 defines construct validation as an analysis of the meaning of test scores in terms of psychological concepts. Every test, according to him, is to some degree impure, and very rarely does it measure exactly what its name implies. To determine whether a test does what its name implies necessitates some form of analysis. This has to be done, since a test cannot be interpreted until we know what factors determine scores. Cronbach outlines three important steps which are considered necessary in the analysis: l. Suggesting what constructs might account for test per- formance. This is an act of imagination based on observa— tion or logical study of the test (for example, factoring). 2. Deriving testable hypotheses from the theory surrounding the construct. This is a purely logical operation. 3. Carrying out an experimental study to test one hypothesis after another. \— 52Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., T964), pp. 453-54. 53Lee J. Cronbach, Essentials of Psychological Testing (3rd ed.; New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, T970), pp. l42—43. g 57 It is after the confirmation of these hypotheses that we begin to talk of the construct validity of a given test. Professor Farquhar54 has given the reason for factoring the M—Scales as (l) to empirically determine the homogeneity of the scales, and (2) to provide a psychologically meaningful interpretation of the item content groupings for re—theorizing about the nature of academic motivation. In other words, the aim was to focus attention on the con— struct validation of the M-Scales. It was to try to do this that a number of investigators had embarked upon factor analysis of some of the sub-tests of the M—Scales. Apart from the Farquhar project number 846 already mentioned, a number of studies have proceeded with this kind of aim in view, notably those of Farquhar and Payne, Marian Thorpe, Richard Bland Smith, David Allen Payne, Fred Smith, Taylor and Farquhar, Van Johnson, and a good number of others.55 Through these studies the factorial structures of 54William W. Farquhar, ”Motivational Factors Related to Academic Achievement: Summary, Conclusions and Discussions,” p. 4. (Mimeographed.) 55William W. Farquhar and David A. Payne,“Factorsin the Aca- demic Occupational Motivations of Eleventh Grade Under— and Over- Achievers,” APGA Journal, November, l963; Marian Thorpe, “The Factored Dimensions of an Objective Inventory of Academic Motivation Based on Eleventh Grade Male Over- and Under—Achievers” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, l96l; Richard Bland Smith, ”A Comparative Study of the Personality Factors Associated With Two Different Opera- tional Definitions of Discrepant Achievement“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michi gan State University, T963); David Allen Payne, ”A Dimension Analysis of the Academic Self-Concepts of Eleventh Grade Under- and Over—Achieving Students“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, l96l); Fred Smith, ”A Cluster Analysis of an Objective Measure of Academic MOtivation” (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, T965); R- G. Taylor and W. W. Farquhar, ”Personality Motivation and Achievement: Theoretical Constructs and Empirical Factors,” Journal of Counseling m, XII (1965), l86—9T; Johnson, op. cit. g 58 the responses of racial groups are beginning to emerge. For instance, Marian Thorpe, Green, and Johnson56 have studied the whites, Negroes, and Indians, respectively,and thus showed what factors were common among the respondents and what factors were unique to each racial group. Since one of the aims of the present study is to factor analyse the responses of the Ibo samples to the GSCI, it is left to be seen to what extent the resulting factors will corroborate other evidences or contradict them. Summary LeVine's study, in Nigeria, provides the only available evi- dence on the need achievement motivation of the Ibos. The other reviews made were on the basis of relevance to achievement motivation generally. From Crandall's review three categories of antecedent factors were delineated and discussed, namely: cultural-social factors, par— ental influences, and relation of need achievement to performance. Eric Klinger's reviews highlighted the difficulties involved in employing the projective instruments to determine relationship between need achievement and performance. Such instruments, apart from showing inconclusive results for males and females and for certain age levels, were reported to lack internal consistency, to lack test-retest relia- bility, to have deficient validity against performance criteria, and to have low intercorrelations among several projective need achievement measures. Furthermore, Hermans pointed out that questionnaire measures \—_—___ 56Thorpe, p. cit.; Green, op. cit.; Johnson, op. cit. 59 whose item constructions or selections were not based on a sound theory had also proven unsatisfactory. These revelations led to considerations of the M—Scales and their relationship to academic performance. From available evidence, these instruments seem to possess potential on the need achievement/ academic performance research. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS This study is not a natural experiment but an ex post facto analytical study. In the natural experiment, the experimental and control groups are carefully set up. Any variables that might vitiate the result of the experiment are taken care of. Next, and independent variable is applied to one group and denied the other. Assuming a good control, it is possible to observe the pffppt of the independent vari— able on the dependent variable by comparing the experimental and the control groups. Such a study can establish a causal relation between two variables. In the present case, the independent variable has occurred in an unknown amount. The function of the investigator is to start with the observation of the dependent variable. He next studies the inde— pendent variable retrospectively (usually using statistical models) for its possible relation to the dependent variable. In this study, the independent variables of food area, religion, education, and location are all events that have already occurred. This study is trying to explore what relation these have with the dependent variables 0t achievement motivation and school performance. The author is aware that this kind of design cannot establish a causal relationship because the investigated variables do not exhaust all possibilities. There might be a number of other variables, any one of which, of any combination 6O IIIIIIII--—_____ .4‘III 6T of which, may have caused the present state of academic achievement motivation in the students. Since this is so, the application of the regression model which establishes causality when used with natural eXperiments will not be so interpreted in this ex post facto design. The Sample The subjects of this study consisted of 423 male students and T43 female students1 drawn from the following schools in East Central State of Nigerigz l. Dennis Memorial Grammar School, Onitsha 2. Awo-Ommama Education Project, Owerri 3. Awgu County Secondary School, Awgu 4. St. Teresa's College, Nsukka 5. Nigeria Secondary School, Nnewi 6. Maria Assumpta, Oguta 7. Our Lady's High School, Onitsha 8. Adventist High School, Ihie 9. Evangel High School, Umuahia These nine schools were selected by randomization out of the original 264 secondary schools that existed in East Central State at the time of data gathering. About 800 boys and girls were considered a large , 1These students took the M—Scales test. All of their responses were involved in calculating the reliability indices of both the male and female samples. When the WASC results were published, 370 male Students and ll2 female students received their results. The rest, mostly from the Nigerian Secondary School, Nnewi, were penalized for cheating in the WASC examinations. This meant that further analysis USGd the scores of only those students who had both the M-Scales scores and the WASC-S. 62 enough sample to afford representativeness if a careful selection plan was adopted. Considering current school enrollments and sectioning, this number worked out at about nine schools. It was then decided to select the schools randomly by drawing tickets from a basket. Altogether, l5 samples were drawn and each had 9 schools. The principals of schools so selected were asked by letter to furnish the following details about their students in form five: name of student, sex, ethnic group of both parents, home division of the student (this helped to show whether students belonged to group A or group B), and religion of the student. After two months only five samples of nine schools each had conplete responses from the principals. Further efforts to recover more forms did not meet with success. All five samples of schools were subjected to analysis to determine if any one of them could be used for the study. Three were so lopsided that they did not merit further con— sideration. That is, the distribution of student characteristics in these three samples was too biased to permit their use. For example, one was overwhelmingly urban in nature, and another was overwhelmingly Protestant. Of the two surviving samples, one was discarded on the ground that Catholic girls were too few in it and group B was dispro- portionately larger than group A. The accepted sample of nine schools had the characteristics recorded in Table 3.la. This procedure of selection was adopted for a number of reasons: l. Earlier missionary influence had brought about scatter- ing of students. Missionary education supervisors 63 .mmmmpcmuewa mew mommspcwsma c? msmnE:zn . .mmm>_mcm mzoeem> wee :w empmmsp uo: mew; Anmumpm cowmw_mc o: .w—amem coev covpmw_eeem :o coemecoeCT pcm>mflms mcp uzogurz mpcmczpmm Aem.emv mme Ame.NeV “mm Aoo.oo_v ems Awm.omv mam Ame.aev Nam _eeoe “em.m_v MN_ A_m.m_v No_ Ame.mm V mNN Aem.epv m__ ANm.m_V oc_ m_ecw flee._ev 0mm Amm._ev mmm Amm._e V mom ANw.mmv mwm ere.mmv New msom m asoso < asosw _mpoe mpcmpmmuosa mow—ospeu can u z m.wFQEmm cmuamoom _mp0p we“ we movemecwpomcmzoii.m_.m mFQeH 64 assigned students to schools irrespective of homes of origin.2 2. The state take—over of schools from the missions and private proprietors caused further dispersion of students. Denomi- national schools were no longer in existence and many single- sex schools became coeducational institutions. Boys and girls were admitted to schools irrespective of the former status of those schools. 3. The belief that since these events had taken place the ran— domly selected schools would hold enough students from both groups A and B, and would satisfy other variables under con- sideration. After examining the accepted sample and its characteristics, the principals of the nine schools involved were contacted by mail and informed of the intention of testing the students on specified dates. Owing to absence and unwillingness to take the test on the part of some students-—they were in the revision period at the time——the number that emerged is as shown inTables3 lb and 3.lc.3 At this point, it might be 2Two forces shaped the pattern of secondary school attendance in East Central State. The first of these was distance. Schools were far apart and students were drawn from distant areas. This necessitated the erection of dormitories to cater to them. The second was religious in character. Missionaries wanted close supervision of their adherents, hence they did not permit day students in schools run by them. This was especially so with the Catholics. 3In Table 3.la and Table 3.lb, percentages are calculated on 790 and 566, respectively. But Table 3.lc records the percentages of obtained numbers over projected. .cowgmozcw Faucmcma w>_m Ho: new oz: mmozp eo momeucmocwa uco mcm552: mwumo_ncw m>onm m cowamELoecH ozw .g_cmswnEwE azosm xcm zocm uoc ewe on; omega co mmmoucmocwa use mswn53= mwueoevcw m>onm N :owuoELowcH ozc .coprFFecmm mzomech m>wm no: new on; omega co momeucmocmn wee mew253: mmpmuwuce w>onm _ coemeLowcH ozU .mmmaucmocma mcm mommcucwsma cw msmpEazn .mwmewcm mzowcw> on» cw uwummcu we: mew: Anopmum cowmwpms o: .m_Qmew coeV :o_ume_eewo :o coeamEcoccw ocm>mch may unecu_3 mucouzuwu 65 Amm.oV m A¢¢.mmv emu Amo.mmv «m— Amm.ov m A—m.mmv ~Nm Amn.N¢V New noo.oo~V mom Amo.~V m_ Amw.mvv mww Amm.uev omm —muop Am_.oV _ Ams.o_V mm Aom.w V Ne Aoo.oV o Aem.e_V 4w Ame.o_V am Aem.mm V me_ Am_.oV _ Aa_.N_V we Amp.__V me m_ece AFN.OV e Aem.me Nmm Akm.m_V Kw. Amm.oV m Aem.FeV NmN Amm.NmV mw_ Ame.ee V mme flee.NV e_ Aeo.emV «ON DANN.QMV mom msom :owumEcowcH co_uaEcoccH :oepmecoccc 6 oz m as am e 62 N m geese < agate _eooe mcmmwOL more m 6 oz _ e p e a ._ 5p a mom n z e.pmop me_eom-z one C? weeeacocoeea co moTCWVLoooeeeeu--.n_.m o_eee 66 pertinent to point out that the investigator could not have undertaken the data—gathering exercise any earlier than he did because of financial limitations.4 Table 3.lc.--Percentage of total sample who were used in the analysis. (in round figures) Catholics Protestants Total Group A Group B Boys 73 72 75 78 72 Girls 57 69 64 59 68 Total 68 7T 72 72 7T During the testing period, the students supplied information regarding the educational status of their parents. This information enabled a decision to be made about parental education. The students also supplied information regarding the proposed variable of separation from family. From their responses the decision was made to drop this variable. The information regarding parental education was supplied by the students after they had taken the test; it was not made available 4The Nigerian civil war disrupted the normal living of people in East Central State. This study was initially undertaken without any sponsorship. It was not possible to gather enough personal money in time for the exercise; and when something reasonable was at hand, it was 'late in the year. Sample attrition might have been reduced if testing had been done earlier. 51n the context of this study, a family of father and mother was regarded as educated if one of the two had formal education up to West African School Certificate. Those families without this background were regarded as uneducated. 67 by the principals. This explains the absence of the information in Table 3.la. Study of Tables 3.la and 3.lb reveals that there is little dif- ference in the characteristics of sex, religion, and membership in group A or B between the accepted sample and those for whom actual M-Scales scores were obtained. Reference to Table 3.lc shows the percentage of the projected or accepted numbers that was actually obtained. In terms of total numbers, 72 percent (566 over 790 multiplied by TOO) was actually obtained. When broken down into its component parts, a total of 68 per— cent Catholics, 7l percent Protestants, 72 percent group A, and 7T percent group B were obtained for the analyses. If these totals are further broken down into boys and girls percentages the percentage results are as recorded in the rows represented by boys and girls on Table 3.lc. Further examination shows that attrition was greater for the girls than for the boys. Attrition was due to three factors, namely: absence from school, unwillingness to participate in the testing, and disqualification as a result of cheating on the WASC examination. 0f the three causes of attrition, the most disturbing is the cheating question, in that it might conceivably have affected the entire result. Those who were not caught might have escaped with unrepresenta— tive WASC results, not in keeping with their true performance. If this were the Situation, then the validity figures obtained when the M—Scales scores were correlated with WASC—S would be defective. One other characteristic of the sample that needs mention is the age rarme. Ages of the subjects range from T6 to 26 years. This 68 phenomenon was caused by the war, which set most of the students back three years or more. For many of the subjects, this is the age at which they are expected to be in the universities; previous studies have con— cluded that the M—Scales are not effective in predicting academic perfor- mance for this age group. If the scale is found to discriminate between the samples, it would furnish some evidence that the scales are valid for older students. Nature of the Data Two main types of data were gathered on each student: (l) the aggregate scores from the West African School Certificate examinations (WASC—S), and (2) the M—Scales total and sub—test scores as well as necessary background information. The WASC-S The aggregate scores were collected from the records of the ”Awards Committee” of the West African Examinations Council for the year l97l. The ”Awards Committee“ decides what mark constitutes failure in each subject. Anyone who gets this failing mark or below receives a code of 9 in that subject. The rest of the marks, above the failing cutoff point, are reclassified and given codes ranging from T to 8. A code of T means excellent in a particular subject; a code of 2 means very good; and 3 means good. Four, 5, and 6 mean credit in a particular subject, while 7 and 8 indicate only a pass in the subject. When these codes are summed up in a candidate's best six subjects, he gets an aggregate score that determines his grade of pass in the whole examina— tion_ Thus, a candidate may get one of the following results: a) 69 a. aggregate 6 - l2 = grade l with distinction b. aggregate l3 - 23 = grade T c. aggregate 24 — 33 = grade 2 d. aggregate 34 — 44 = grade 3 (Appendix C shows a e. aggregate 45 - 48 = grade GCE (sample of results (from one school f. aggregate 49 — 54 = Fail In most Nigerian schools, there are no GPA's, aptitude, or IQ ineasures of any kind for the students. The West African School Certifi- cate Examination is about the only examination that is carefully set, rnarked, and recorded. Assuming freedom from cheating on the part of the sianents, the WASC—S is the best available measure of school achievement. T11e M-Scales Scores Students' responses to the M-Scales were obtained. The scales yrielded four sub-scores and a total score. The four sub—scales are: (a) the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, (b) the Preferred Job Cfuaracteristic Scale, (c) the Word Rating List, and (d) the Human Trait Inventory. A high score on the GSCI indicates an individual with a high need for academic achievement. The PJCS examines academic motivation through occupational aspiration. The WRL is a measure of self-image in relation to academic matters. The HTI examines personality characteristics that make for low, high, or discrepant academic achievement. The total score I‘5 the overall index of an individual's academic achievement motivation. .____.. .__._ _ .. _ n. ...______._-__._—- 70 Analysis Procedures The following procedures explained hereunder were utilized in the analysis of data: (l) correlational analysis, (2) test of signifi- cance of difference between means, (3) multiple regression analysis, (4) factor analysis, and (5) reliability estimates. Correlation Analysis A matrix of intercorrelations of the WASC-S, M-Scales total scores, GSCI, PJCS, WRL, and HTI was calculated using the CORR25 Program of the Computer Center of the University of Ibadan. The results are as shown in Table 3.2 for males and females. See Appendix Bl, Table Bl.l for further details on intercorrelations. Table 3 2.--The matrix of correlation coefficients for males and females.a WASC—S GSCI PJCS WRL HTI M-TOT Mole WASC-S —O.26 -0.24 -0.24 —O.l8 -0.30 GSCI -0.29 0.52 -0.37 0.26 0.63 PJCS g; -0.31 0.43 0.37 0.23 0.61 WRL "g? -0.33 0.20 0.28 0.46 0.90 HTI S: -0.31 0.25 0.22 0.23 0.64 M-TOT -0.45 0.54 0.75 0.77 0.54 aEntries above the diagonal are for males and below are for females. The negative coefficients are so because of the nature of correlated data. The higher the M—Scales scores the better the results, while the higher the WASC aggregate scores the poorer the candidates' results. 7T Test of Significance of Difference Between Group Means The §:test was used to test the significance of the observed differences between mean responses of two Ibo groups to the M-Scales. Tests were conducted between groups A and B, Catholics and Protestants, students of educated and uneducated parents, and students in schools located in urban and rural areas. The results are as shown in Tables 4.l through 4.7. Multiple Rpgression Analysis Regression was used to predict WASC—S initially from the M—Scales total scores. The regression analysis yielded R2, which is an index representing the percentage of WASC—S accountable for by academic moti— vation. Next, a stepwise regression was used to predict WASC-S from the M-Scales total scores and the characteristics of food area, education, religion, and location. This step was undertaken with a view of deter- mine whether the addition of these characteristics improved prediction of the WASC-S, and which of these characteristics possessed a higher independent explanatory power. The next logical step was a stepwise regression to predict WASC-S from the M-Scales components. It is to be observed at this point that the sub-tests are positively intercorrelated. This step became necessary to check on the power of each sub-test to predict the WASC-S, and also to see at which point further addition of any of the component tests became unnecessary. u... ......- ~..-— —-.—— 72 Following from the above was another stepwise regression involving the four components and the four characteristic variables. This was done to ascertain the predictive value of each of the com— ponents and each of the characteristic variables. The next step involved determining the effect each of the four characteristic variables had on motivation represented by the M-Scale total scores. The final step involved using each of the four components as a function of each of the characteristic variables in order to ascertain degrees of relationship. In order to accomplish the task, information relating to student identity, WASC—S, schools from where the students came, religion, food area, parents' education, location of schools, M-Scale total and compon- ents were coded and punched on cards. For the four characteristic variables l'dummy”6 codes were used. Finally, the multiple regression equations were solved using the regular IBM Program of the University of Ibadan Computing Center. The overall results are contained in Tables 4.lO through 4.26. Factor Analysis Two separate analyses of Ibos' responses to the 53 items of the GSCI males and the 45 items for females7 were conducted. Points 6Since food area, parents' education, religion, and location of Schools are characteristics and not scores, it was decided for analysis Purposes to make them dichotomous variables. In this regard group A received a code of l and B a code of O; Protestant l, Catholic 0; educated l, uneducated 0; urban l, rural O. 7The GSCI, as well as all the other sub-tests, has two forms-- male and female. The male form contains 53 items and the female form IIIIIII--___VV 73 of similarities and differences between the factorial structures of Ibos, Caucasians, and American Negroes were noted and recorded in Table 4.38. Factors and factor loadings are shown in Table 4.27 through Table 4.37. The procedure adopted was as follows: l. After building the response matrices (53 x 423) and (45 x T43) the intercorrelations among the items were obtained using the APLIB (LTT2245,L) program of Michigan State University Computer Center for both males and females. (Professor William W. Farquhar personally supervised this aspect of the analysis.) 2. The principal axis solution was employed to factorize the matrices. 3. The factors were rotated to simple structure by the quarti- max method (counter checked by the varimax method) of factor rotation. Appendices E, F, and G show the details. 4. The factors were interpreted. Tables 4.27 through 4.38 contain the extracted factors. Reliability Estimates The present study assumed the equivalence of the American eleventh grader and the Nigerian fifth former. Yoloye8 made this assumption and his results supported the validity of it. 46 items. But because item T9 of the female form showed no variance it had to be deleted from the analysis, leaving only 45 items for females. _ 8Ayotunde Emmanuel Yoloye, ”The Performance of Bilingual Nigerian Ch1ldren on Verbal and Non-Verbal Tests of Intelligence“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, l965). 74 The complete picture of comparability will unfold later in this report. See, for instance, the reliability pattern of the students' responses to the battery, Table 3.3, which compared favorably with the figures reported in previous studies. Table 3.3.--Hoyt's analysis of variance for estimating reliability of the M-Scales.a Sub—tests GSCI PJCS WRL HTI M—TOT Ibo Males .929 .868 .937 .742 .96T Ibo Females .888 .955 .899 .8TT .957 aSee Cyril Hoyt, “Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis of Variance," sychometrika, VI (l94l), l53-60. The analyses are based on 203 items for males and 257 items for females. Appendix J shows the formula for the calculations. Apgpmptions and Limitations The planning and executing of research in the behavioral science field involve some assumptions that affect results and interpretations. This is particularly so when factor analysis is involved. Factor analysis has as one of its assumptions that commonal- ity of processes is attained when scores are correlated. But it is known that factors found may be due to anything which introduces correlation between variables, and this may be a common level of dif— fic~ulty in items rather than a fundamental process of some kind. Helen Peak has outlined some of the limitations involved in interrrpreting the results of factorial studies. One limitation, she points out, is the free hand the investigator has in deciding, for 75 instance, whether to regard the factors correlated as Thurstone would or uncorrelated as Spearman would. In other words, the problem is one of subjectivity that enters into rotation considerations. What factors emerge would seem to be a function of the hypotheses which guide the investigation. Also, the nature of the sample employed in the investi- gation (sex, education, social and cultural background, and intelligence) may introduce identifiable factors that may not be in keeping with "reality” as sought. These are sources of error variance which factor analysis, per se, is not capable of isolating. Finally, Peak observed that the naming and interpreting of emergent factors are based purely on personal knowledge and considerations of the investigator--considera- tions independent of the procedures of factor analysis. The assumptions and limitations involved with employing the M—Scales in research have been dealt with by Farquhar.10 The assump- tions are those of regarding under- and over-achievers as motivational extremes and those implicit in the reduction of theory into instrument through item construction, with the obvious limitations of some sort of personal bias that can affect results. In spite of all these limitations, KerlingerH expresses opti— mism. For him, all scientific constructs, like factors, are averages 9Helen Peak, “Problems of Objective Observation," in Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, ed. by Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz TNew York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, T953), p. 278. 0William W. Farquhar, ”Motivational Factors Related to Academic Achievement,” pp. lO—l7. 1Kerlinger, op. cit., p. 684. 76 and are equally inventions of the scientist and can attain the status of "reality" if we can successfully predict relations from theoretical presuppositions and hypotheses. Peculiar assumptions of this research, apart from those already mentioned, are: T. The fifth formers and American eleventh graders are comparable. 2. The M-Scales as applied to the Ibo fifth formers are valid and reliable. 3. Catholic-Protestant behavior differences in the East Central State of Nigeria are similar to behavior differences between Catholics and Protestants in Europe and America. 4. WASC—S is a measure of academic performance. 5. No sample bias is introduced by sample attrition. (Examina- tion of Tables 3.la and 3.lb supports this. There was little difference in the characteristics of sex, religion, and mem- bership in group A or B between projected and obtained samples. Specific Limitations of the Study The major limitation of this study concerns its ex post facto natUre which makes it impossible to make categorical statements regarding causation. The design allows the use of a model, like the regression, which is used frequently to find a relation between two or more vari- ables that are related causally, but yet imposes a heavy limitation in interpretation of results according to the assumptions of the model. 77 There is the limitation of the unproved nature of the M-Scales in the Nigerian context, although (as explained in Chapter I) the assumption of M-Scales validity for this population will be supported by a finding of differences between the research groups. Only in the case of a no—difference result will this become a problem. Summary A sample made up of male and female students from nine secondary schools in East Central State of Nigeria was drawn. Altogether, 566 students took the motivational test. Further analysis involving the WASC-S used only 482 students made up of 370 males and ll2 females. (Eighty-four students were penalized for cheating during the WASC examination.) In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the following statistical techniques were undertaken: a. Correlational analysis. This analysis was done in order to get a simple measure of the degree of covariability between the vari— ables considered two at a time. b. Multiple regression analysis. The regression model, especially its stepwise variant, was adopted in order to determine the percentage contribution of the independent variables in predicting the WASC—S. c. Significant analysis. This was a measure of statistical significance of the differences between group means. d. Factor analysis. This was undertaken to try to determine the underlying characteristics (factors or traits) involved in the 78 motivations of the fifth formers and to compare them with American students. Such factors would, in future, lead to hypotheses generation ' for further investigation. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF RESULTS This chapter deals with the results of the study. It presents the statistical analyses used for testing the research hypotheses. It deals specifically with the results of: l. the pytests of significance of the mean difference for J males and females on the M—Scale total and sub-test scores, and the WASC—S between groups A and B Ibo fifth formers, Catholics and Protes— tants, students of educated and uneducated parents, and between urban and rural male students;1 2. the correlational and multiple regression analyses to try to understand the strength and direction of the relationship between the motivational scores and the achievement scores, and the effects of controlling the relationship for variation in four key background characteristics; and 3. the factor analysis of the responses of the Ibo males and females to the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory. 1There were not enough female urban students (only five) for the comparison. 79 80 Differences Between Group A and Group B Ibo Fifth Formers Mean ScoresZT The null hypotheses tested for groups A and B fifth formers, males and females were: Ho1 There is no significant difference in mean scores on the total M—Scales between group A and group B fifth formers for either males or females. Ho2 There is no significant difference in mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between group A and group B fifth formers for either males or females. Ho3 There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate examination (WASC-S) between group A and group B fifth formers for either males or females. As can be seen from Tables 4.T and 4.2, the results obtained fYTDUT testing the above hypotheses were as follows: l. The M-Scales total score mean differences for both males and females were not significant at the .05 level, with pyof 0.77 and 0.622 for males and females, respectively. It was thus not possible to rejectthe hypothesis with the requisite security from error; the data are <:onsistent with the hypothesis that there is no difference in achieevement motivation between Ibo heartlanders and fringers. 2. The sub-tests registered the following p_ratios for males and 'Females: GSCI (O 20 and 0.30), PJCS (l 06 and 0.72), WRL (0.96 and 2Tables 4.T and 4.2 present the means, standard deviations, and Erlruiices for groups A and B fifth form males and females. .ecmowwecmwm >__moepmwpmuw #0: n men .wmcm>coo wee mm:_e> cue; new wocmEcoecma owEmuoom ewe; memoevce mw:_m> zoo .m.zm ._o. v a .peeo_e_emcm s_eeowpmweeem,, m: Kd 0.5mm 9mm— mwdr 8.3 wmd: 8.21 .5an mm m: wmé oKmm o.mw— 23¢ mod modm dem :I m: mad 0.5mm cam: 8.: om.m— mmém vmdm .33 m: mo. oKmN o.mm— mm.m 36 mm.mm mm.mm mu: am: omé okmw 9mm— mozq omiq owdw :de 38 x3 image. 0.2: gm: wed ow.m mimm :.mm mmium<3 wocmowewcmwm xmucHrm mmrocmzcmw Mcoepae>ma < m mfinw_sm> . a eeeeeepm meme: owe n z .mpcwezpm meE 03H m qsocm new < asocm semapma mcwme esp mo mpmmprwii._.e m_gee 82 m: mm.o o.¢m o.mm eo.m_ ¢¢._m mm.~w~ om.mm_ Heel: w: n¢.— o.¢w 0.0m Fm.m om.m mm.wm mm.mm He: m: qo.F o.ew o.mm oo._P Rm.oF mw.mm wN.Fc Va: m: mm.o o.vw o.mm No.m ow.m mm.w¢ mn.n¢ mun; m: om.o o.¢w o.mm wN.m em.m qo.em ©<.em Home m: mo.o o.mo 0.0m mm.o Po.w mo.nm mm.om mium<3 wucmoeepcmrm xwecH.M < m < m < m . . . . mcowpww>mo m_omwcm> mmwocmzcmcm ecmvcmpm mcmmz me? n z .mpcmezpm mFmEme 03H m asocm ego < azocm :mepmn memos mcp co memopumii.m.e mFQmH 83 l.04), and HTI (T.47 and 0.58). These figures are not significant at the .05 level. The data are, therefore, consistent with the hypoth- esis that there are no differences between groups A and B on the several components of motivation. Hence we see that the no difference result for the overall M-Scales is not masking significant differences between groups A and B on the various components. 3. The difference in WASC—S was significant for the males in favor of group A, with a §_ratio of 3.08, but not significant for the females with a p-of 0.03. For the females, therefore, the data are in consonance with the hypothesis that there are no academic performance differences between heartlanders and fringers; but boys from the heart- land showed an academic achievement on the average three points or T0 percent higher than boys from the fringe areas. Differences Between Ibo Catholics and Protestants Mean Scores37 The null hypotheses tested were: Ho4 There is no significant difference in the means of the total M-Scale scores between Catholics and Protestants for either males or females. Ho5 There is no significant difference in the mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between Catholics and Protes- tants for either males or females. Ho6 There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate examination 3Tables 4.3 and 4.4 present mean scores, standard deviations, and 1; indices for Catholic and Protestant male and female samples. 84 m: mm.o o.mom o.wom mm.w_ _N.m_ mw.w¢_ mm.me_ Hoe-z m: _¢._ o.moN o.mom mm.e mw.¢ Nw.mm mm.om He: m: mm.o o.mom o.oom Rm.fl_ oe.m_ mm.mm __.em be: m: mm._ o.mom o.wom m¢.m mm.m mm.mw mm.mm mun; m: m_.o o.mom o.oom mm.e mm.e _m.o¢ mw.o¢ Home m: RN.o o.mm_ o.mm_ mm.m m_.m mm.mm mm.mm miom<3 wocmowcwcmwm xwvcHLM .posm .gpeu .pmmmppmpmwmu .poea .spmu m_nmwsm> morocwscmcm uceecopm mcmmz mow n z .mpcmvzpm wFGE onH pcmpmmuosm new oe_o:pwu cowzpmn mcmwe wee mo mumwprmii.m.e m_nme 85 ._o. v a .peeocecemcm s__eoeemepepm,, .mo. v a .peeowecemwm s_fieoeemcpepm, eom tame.m o.m~ o.e© om.om mm.mF mm.uufi Fo.Nw_ Hoeiz emm eme.m o.mN o.¢© m©.m NN.¢ Fm.em mm.mm He: emm *Fm.m o.mm o.em oe.~_ me.m om.mm mm.mm Va: m: om._ o.wn o.em m_.m mo.m ee.xq mm.me moan m: No.0 o.mm o.eo Nw.m o_.m Fm.em em.em Home emm teoo.m o.mm o.wm __.m mw.o m_.mm ¢_.mm mium<3 moceoeewcmwm xmncHip .poca .gpmo .poca .gpwu .poca .cpmu m_nepse> mmwucmzcmcu mmmmwmwwmo mcwmz . Nefi n z .mpcmuzum m_mEme oaH pcmpmmpoca use oe_o:pmu cmmmen memos we“ co mpmmpuwii.q.e m_npe 86 (WASC—S) between Catholics and Protestants for either males or females. The difference between the means in total M—Scales scores was not significant at the .05 level of confidence (p_= 0.55) for the males, but significant (t_= 2.78) for the females in favor of Catholics. The sub-tests had the following pftest results for Catholic and Protestant males and females, respectively: GSCI (O.l3 and 0.92), PJCS (l 38 and l.36), WRL (0.98 and 2.5T), and HTI (T.4T and 2.43). The only results significant at the .05 level were WRL and HTI for the females, both in favor of Catholic girls. The WASC-S was not significant at the .05 level for the males but was significant (P < .OT) in favor of Catholic girls, having recorded a t_index of 0.27 for males and 3.00 for the females. Thus Catholic girls showed both higher motivation and higher achievement than their Protestant counterparts, but religious affilia- tion had no discernible effect on either motivational or achievement scores among boys in this sample. Differences Between Mean Scores of Students of Educated and Uneducated Parents In appraising the academic motivation of students of educated and uneducated parents, the hypotheses tested were: Ho There is no significant difference in the means of the total 7 M-Scale scores between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. 4Tables 4.5 and 4.6 contain the results. 87 ._o. V a .eeeowcecmem s__eocpmeeepm,, .mo. V a .peeoceeemcm s__eoepmceepm, m: mm._ o.mmm o.mm _—.m_ mm.w_ mm.me_ mm.om_ Hoe-z m: m¢.o o.mmm o.mw mm.¢ o_.m om.om eo.om He: m: em.o o.mmm o.mw mm._— mN.__ o¢.qm No.mm Va: emm emo.m o._mm o.mm oo.e mo.m oe.mm NN.mN mun; emm *o_.m o.mmm o.mm om.e mo.¢ eo.oe FN._e Home emm temw.m o.mmm o.mm mm.w Fe.o— mm.em we.om m-um<3 wocmoeeecmwm xmvcHum .ozumcp .ozum .osmwmmpepmem .ozemca .osum mFDweco> morocwzcwcm . . mcmmz eseeeeem are n z .mecwcma oaH umpmozewc: new topmosew co mpcmezpm onH mFmE chmen mceme esp co mpmmpuw--.m.v mFDmH 88 m: nm.0 0.00 0.m¢ m0.0m mm.m_ 00.Fm_ m_.mm— Hoeuz m: 00.0 0.00 0.m¢ «0.0 Fm.0 No.00 00.00 HF: m: 00.0 0.00 0.m¢ N0.0_ m_._— 00.00 m_.—0 403 m: 00.0 0.00 0.nv «0.0 mm.e m_.wv No.00 0000 m: N0.— 0.00 0.m¢ mm.m 00.N 0N.¢m 0F.mm H0m0 m: m_.F 0.Nw 0.0m 0_.N 0¢.m Nm.0m 00.0m mium<3 moceowwecmwm xmncHuM .ozemzz .ozvm .o:mmmwuepwmmw .ozumcz .ozem mfinm_so> mmeocmzcwcm eseecapm meow: Ne— n z .mpcwcoa eopmosewcs use uwumosum co mucwvzpm mFmEow onH cmmzpmn memos asp co memmpnmii.0.e m_nme 89 Ho8 There is no significant difference in the mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. Ho9 There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate examination (WASC-S) between students of educated and uneducated parents for either males or females. In the M-Scales total scores, the male students of educated par- ents had a mean score of l50.59 while the students of uneducated parents had a mean score of l47.73. The difference between the two was not statistically significant (p_= l 28). Similarly, the females from edu- cated and uneducated families had mean results of l83.l3 and l8l.88, respectively. These gave a §_index of 0.37 that was not statistically significant. Hence the data are consonant with the hypothesis that there are no motivational differences between students of educated and unedu- cated parents. For the two groups, educated parents versus uneducated parents (males and females), the sub-tests gave results as follows: GSCI (2.T0 and l.62), PJCS (2.06 and 0.60), WRL (0.84 and 0.38), and HTI (0.43 and 0.89). The differences were significant for the males in GSCI and PJCS in favor of the students with educated parents; but the differences were not significant at the .05 level in the other sub—tests. The above conclusion on the total score masked the influences of the two significant components for the educated over the uneducated for males, while for the females the sub-components are in agreement with the total index. 90 The WASC-S yielded 30.48 and 38.30 means for male and female students of educated parents, respectively, while the means for the uneducated were 34.28 and 36.52 for males and females, respectively. The §_index (2.87) was statistically significant for males at the .OT confidence level in favor of boys with educated parents; while that of the females (l.l3) was statistically not significant. A close examination of the results as shown on Table 4.5 shows specifically that education of parents of male students has little effect upon motivation for academic achievement as measured by the study. The 95 percent confidence interval shown for GSCI and PJCS is not a very strict one, and the difference on the average is only about one point. On the other hand, the education of parents of male Ibo students appears to have quite a significant effect on the academic performance measure, the WASC—S. It is to be observed that the direction of the difference for males on the WASC-S is what might be expected. Sons of uneducated Ibo parents on the average scored nearly four points worse on the WASC—S than the sons of educated Ibo parents. Parents' education makes a difference in performance for boys but not for girls. Whether or not a girl's parents are educated is of no count in her academic performance. Differences Between Male Urban and Rural Students' Mean Scores5 In order to investigate if either urban or rural location of schools had any relationship with students' academic achievement 5The results are shown in Table 4.7. 9T ._o. v a .peeoeceemem s__eocmepeem,, .mo. v e .peeoeewemcm s__eoeemweeem, m: 0m.0 0.00m 0.x0F ~0.0N mm.m_ 0m.m¢— mw.m¢_ Hoeiz N00 kmm.m 0.00m 0.m0_ No.0 no.0 mm.0m mm.0m HP: m: 0m.0 0.00m 0.m0~ NN.N_ m0.F_ m_.¢0 00.00 403 m: 0N.0 0.00N 0.n0_ #0.m m0.m N0.mm N0.NN 0000 m: —m._ 0.000 0.m0_ 00.0 Fw.m 00.—¢ 00.0w H000 e00 *kF0.m 0.00m 0.00_ 00.0 00.0 00.00 Fm.0m mium<3 . .I _mczm cons: Fmezm cons: _ms:m cons: mocooweecmwm ancHip mmwocmscmsm mmwmwmmwma mcmwz w_nmwcm> 0Nm n z .mpcwuzpm w_me 00H Foss; 0cm cone: cmwzpmn mcowe mg» mo mpmwpum--.m.v wFQmH 92 motivation and their academic performance, the following three hypoth- eses were tested: Ho10 There is no significant difference in mean scores on the total M-Scales between urban and rural male students. HOTT There is no significant difference in mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between male urban and rural students. Ho12 There is no significant difference in mean aggregate scores in West African School Certificate examination (WASC-S) between male urban and rural students. The M—Scale total means yielded a §_index of 0.78 which was not statistically significant at the .05 level. The data, therefore, are consistent with the hypothesis that there are no motivational differ- ences between male urban and male rural students. Again, the tftest results on the sub-components were as follows: GSCI (l.3l), PJCS (0.25), WRL (0.75), and HTI (2.27). Only the HTI was statistically significant at the .05 level in favor or urban male students. Urban boys on the average enjoy academic performance advan- tage of nearly seven points over rural boys. Urban boys differ in per- formance but not in motivation. Table 4.9 summarizes the way the six variables (GSCI, PJCS, WRL, HTI, M—TOTAL, and WASC-S) functioned in this study in relation to the variables of food area, religion, education of parents, and location of schools. This study has now examined the various variables hypothesized as important. It is necessary now to examine whether boys do better than 93 girls on the WASC-S as independent groups. In order to conform to the null form pattern, the hypothesis tested was: There is no significant difference between the mean score of boys and the mean score of girls in the WASC-S. As Table 4.8 shows, the boys, as a group, had a mean score of 33.58 and the girls 37.00 in the WASC-S. The difference between the two means is statistically significant at the .OT level of confidence in favor of boys. We can very safely reject the hypothesis of no dif— ference in academic achievement between Ibo males and females in our sample. Table 4.8.—-Gains in WASC—S by sex, means, standard deviations, and test of significance. Gains in WASC-S Performance Sex Mean SD N 3 Boys 33.59 9.44 370 4.07l** Girls 37.00 7.29 ll2 **Statistically significant, P < .Ol. Multiple Rpgpgppjon Analy§is The second objective of this thesis was to study the predictive effects of the M—Scales total scores, the sub-tests, and the other inde- pendent variables of food area, religion, education of parents, and location of schools on the WASC-S. In order to accomplish this, the following hypotheses were tested: l3a T3b T3d l3e T3f l3g T3h 94 The M-Scale total scores, as proxy for oVerall academic achievement motivation, will predict academic performance better than chance. The M-Scale total scores will predict academic performance better than chance even after taking into account the simul- taneous independent influences of other variables of food area, religion, education of parents, and location of schools. Each of the four independent variables of food area, religion, education of parents, and location of schools has a significant influence on performanceemun1when academic achievement motiva- tion is held constant. Insofar as M-Scale total scores predict academic performance, that predictive ability is due to certain of the M-Scales' sub-scales. The M-Scales' sub-scales, controlled for the simultaneous influence of other variables, will predict WASC-S significantly better than chance. Each of the four variables, after controlling for the simul- taneous influence of M—Scales' sub-scores, has a significant effect on academic performance (WASC-S). Each of the four control variables has a significant effect upon the M-Scale total scores. Each of the four variables has an independent influence on the determination of each of the M-Scales sub-scale scores. When the M—Scale total scores were regressed on the WASC-S, it was fRMJnd that the M—Scale total scores predicted about 9 percent of 95 ._o>o_ mo. seep cocoon pa peeocc_emwm s__eocemcpeem, * an: m: Dum m: 0mm x 0A0 m: 0”; m: mu< k 0A< mium<3 m: a”: m: :"m m: sum 4 0X0 m: 0”; m: mu< m: mn< Howl: k m 0 m: 0mm m: 0H0 k 0A0 m: Una m: mu< m: mn< He: m: a": we saw me sum * 0A0 m: on; m: mn< m: mu< 4mg m: mu: m: Dnm x 0A0 m: 0“; m: 0mm m: mu< m: mn< 0000 m: a“: m: sum * 0x0 me one we Que me mn< m: mn< H000 msz m_med w_oz m_mEm¢ w_mz mfimswm waz cowmeOJ coepmozum :oe0Tme emc< noon .mcmme 000 an czocm mm :owpowfimc 0:8 :oemeLwccoo mommcpoaxc mo :cmpuoa--.0.e mFQeH 96 the variance of WASC—S for males and about 20 percent for females (see Table 4.l0). These figures are statistically significant (F = 35.9 males, F = 27.9 females). Each point increase in M-Scale total scores (mean l47.8 males, l83.5 females) on the average produces .l45 (male) and .l63 (female) points decrease (betterment) on the WASC-S (mean 33.5 male, and 37.0 female). Both of these coefficients are statis- tically significant (§_= 5.99 male, and -5.29 female). In effect, one standard deviation increase on M-Scale total scores (SD = T9.2 male, and 20.0 female) produces .3l and .44 (male and female, respectively) standard deviations of WASC—S (SD = 9.4 male, and 7.3 female). The improvement that would accrue for both boys and girls is not overwhelm- ingly influential, but nonetheless to be reckoned with. These data are, therefore, consistent with the hypothesis that motivation will predict achievement better than chance. Viewing this same question from another angle, that is, from the situation where the simultaneous independent influences of other variables are accounted for, we still find that this hypothesis is accepted. Reference to Tables 4.ll and 4.l2 shows that for the males the M-Scale variance contribution in the prediction of WASC-S is 8 per- cent, while the other four variables contributed a total variance of l5.7 percent as follows: (l) location of schools, l3 percent; (2) parents' education, l.4 percent; (3) food area, 0.9 percent; and (4) religion, 0.4 percent. An F value of 22.59 indicates that this 8 percent is a statistically significant contribution at better than .Ol level. 97 Apcmucmamnv w—omwcc> ampowumcq pcmwoweemoo cowmmmc0mc umN_ucmucmum ucmwowecwou cormmmcmmc mo coccm ucwccmum ucmwuweemoo cowmmwcmmc Apcmucmqmecwv mFQmwcm> 0cwpoenmcq momewomm co coccm uceucwpm cwozuoc cowucoaoca w>wum_:E:o amum mg“ cw uwosuwc cowpcoqocq umosnwc mmcmscm co Ezm o>wpm_:E:o ampm one cw vmozvmc moccscm co Ezm .m_85_umu co mmum_a cap 00 emeumccoo .cm> 0.0mca n comm n 00000 n 00m .Lm> 0.0mca n ummimm n 000 n a; n 000 u mm uncommg mew mmczmwm .m.z m-um<3 ee.o- mo.N8 mN.m- mo.o 8_.o- _epoe-z em.c ma.NN ON.o ON.o mo.ca__ eo.©m__ mms-e oommm 68m .ces emo-mm o=_e>-d A eV mag A mV me mmo mm e.eoca m.eoca N N .meoow FGpOp mmpmumlz $0 :Owuoczup mm mium<3 ”mwm>_mcc cowmmmcmmc mm_3ampm--.o_.e mfince 923 0000 0eee u <0 :e000000 n m :e_peee0e .00:0000 n 00 Foonum $0 Cowuwuop u m4 ”0:0000 .meFDeu “:00000000 000 0000 one 000 0000500 0:0 .m.z 0.000: 00.00 _0._- 00.0 0_._- 0 00.0 00.N0 0N.0 00.0 00.0000 00.0__ 00.0- 00.0 00._- <0 __.0- _0._ 00.0- 00 00.0- No.0 0_.0- _0000.2 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00 0000020 0000 00000000 000 0.000: N0.00 00.N- 00.0 00._- <0 00.0 00.00 0N.0 _0.0 00.0000 00.00N 00.N- 0_._ 00.N- 00 00.0- N0.0 0_.0- _eeoe-z 00.0- 00.0 0N.0- 00 0000020 0000 00000000 000 0.000: N_.0- 00.00 _0.N- 00._ 00.N- 00 00.0 00.00 NN.0 00.0 00.0000 00.N00 N0.0 0_.0- _0000.0 00.0 00.0- 00 0000020 00000 00000000 000 0-00 0000 000000000 00000-0 00000 000 .000 000-00 0000>-0 0V 000 0 0V 00 000 00 0.0000 0.0000 0 .mmFee com m_oe;um we :ewpeoep 0:0 .:e00__00 .:e_uee:0m .mucmcee .emce 0eew we mowumwcmueecece 0:0 meceom _eueu mmPeomiz we :ewuocze 00 mium<3 ”0000—0:e :000000000 00020000--._~.0 00000 99 muum<3 mm.mo No.0 NN.0 mo.o <0 mm.o 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00 No.0 om._ 00.N m mm.0u mo.m mo.mu m0 mm.¢u mo.o m0.o- 0muOHuz NN.0 oo.o mm.mwm_ No.0 ommmkzm m>00 m0m<~m<> 000 0.000: 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 0 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00000.: 0000020 0000 0000000) 000 0.000: . 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0 0 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00000.: 0000020 00000 00000000 000 0-00<3 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.000 00 0- 00.0 00.0- 00000-2 0000020 030 0000000> 000 0-0002 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 00000.: 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.0000 0000020 020 00000000 000 .000 0000 000000000 0000>-0 00000 000 .00> 000-00 0000>-0 A 00 000 A 00 00 000 00 0.0000 0.0000 0 0 .0000500 000 0000000 00 :0000000 0:0 .:o0m0000 .:o000000w .mwcmgma .mme 600% we mowumemuqumzu Ucw mmLOUm quou mm—mumlz n+0 Cowuuczop mm mtum<3 0000000:0 :000000000 00030000--.m0.0 00000 lOO The variance contribution by the M-Scale total scores for the females is much greater than that for the males. All the variables including the M-Scale total scores made an overall contribution of 26.9 percent distributed as follows: (l) M-Scale total scores, 20.3 percent; (2) location of school, 3.5 percent; (3) religion, 2.l percent; (4) parents' education, l.0 percent; and (5) food area, 0.0 percent. The M-Scale contribution is statistically significant (F = 7.77) at the .Ol level. The fact that the cumulative effects of the influences of other variables reduced its coefficient does not in any way alter the conclusion. See particularly Table 4.l2, rows one and five. In an attempt to understand what contribution each variable of this study made to performance, we next decided to determine if the variables of food area, parents' education, religion, and location of schools had significant influences on WASC-S when academic achievement motivation was held constant. For the males, the position is illustrated on Table 4.ll. When motivation was held constant, two things happened: (a) Religion (0.4 percent) and food area (0.9 percent) made no significant contribution as the tfvalues of -l.3l and -l.95, respectively, on their coefficients indicate; (b) Location of schools and parents' education made statis- ticallgy significant contributions at the confidence level of better than .Ol. However, parents' education contributed only l.4 percent of WASC-S variance. This is not a major contribution, though it is statistically significant. Location of school is, therefore, the single mosiz'hnportant predictor of WASC—S, accounting by itself for l3.0 percent of tine variance of WASC-S, and for a 6.8 point advantage on WASC-S lOl accruing on the average to students from urban schools over those from rural schools. For the females, details of analyses are contained in Table 4.l2. As row five of this table demonstrates, three variables of food area, parents' education, and religion made no statistically significant gain in the prediction of performance. Location of school accounted for an approximate 4 percent variance of WASC-S which was also signifi— cant at better than .Ol level of confidence. Controlling the relation- ship between WASC-S and M-Scale total scores for other characteristics shows motivation as still the single most important predictor (unlike the male sample where location of school was). But location of school is second in importance for females, with about 6.5 point WASC-S advantage accruing to urban over rural schools. What emerged out of the analyses was that for the males, the operative hypothesis was accepted for the location and parents' education variables and rejected for food area and religion variables. For the females, the hypothesis was rejected for all variables except location of school variable. It has thus been established that the overall motivation for both males and females plays a vital role in determining academic performance. It is pertinent to know if the ability to predict is due to certain of the sub-components and not to others. For the males, all the four sub—components, acting simultaneously, predict a total of l0.2 percent variance in performance (see Table 4.l3, row four). The relative contribution of each is as follows: (a) GSCI, 6.6 percent; (b) WRL, 2.3 percent; (c) PJCS, 1.0 percent; and (d) HTI, 0.3 percent. It is clear that for the males the contributions of the GSCI and WRL are m-um<3 mm.00 00.0- 00.0 m0.o- 002 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 m0.wmmm 00.00 00.0- 00.0 wN.o- 0000 00.0- mo.o 00.0- 003 o0.m- m0.o mm.o- Homo 0000020 0300 00m<00<> 000 muom<3 N0.mm 00.0- 00.0 mm.o- 0000 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.0mmm 00.m0m 00.N- 00.0 00.0- 003 00.N- 00.0 00.0- Home 90 0000020 00030 00m<00<> 000 nu 1| muum<3 00.0- 00.00 mo.m- 0o.o m0.o- 003 mo.0 00.00 00.0 No.0 wo.wmmm No.000 00.0- om.m- N0.o 00.0- Homo 0000020 030 00m<00<> 000 muum<3 0N.o- mm.0m 00.0- 00.0 00.0- Home 00.0 00.0w no.0 00.0 00.000m 00.000m 0000020 020 00m<00<> 000 .00> - .00> - - 0.0000 0000 0000000:H 0000> 0 00000 000 0.0000 000 00 0000> 0 AN0V 000 00 00 000 mm .00005 000 00:0:00E00 00000m-z 00 :0000:00 00 m-um<3 “000200:0 :000000000 0003000m-.m0.0 00000 103 more important than the others. As the tfvalue column of Table 4.l3 demonstrates, there is a gradual decrease in value of their coeffi- cients as each of the remaining three variables is entered. This gradual decrease leaves the GSCI as the most significant variable. The GSCI's coefficient fell from -O.58 to -O.32 (yet significant, t_= -2.40), that of the WRL fell from —O.l3 to —0.09 (barely significant, t_= -l.955) when the PJCS and the HTI entered the equation. Thus, from this infor— mation alone, one can infer that the PJCS and the HTI correlate highly with the GSCI and the WRL, respectively—-a fact that can be demon- strated from the intercorrelation matrix, Appendix Bl, Table Bl.l. In this table, one can observe that the PJCS correlates about .49 with the GSCI and the HTI about .49 with the WRL. These high intercorrela- tions are responsible for the depressed coefficient and t;values as shown in the fourth row of Table 4.l3 for males. In effect, it appears that not much will be lost if the GSCI and the NRL were retained and the PJCS and the HTI were eliminated for the male samples. The actual loss, in this case, is about one—ninth of the predictive value of the sub-scales in combination. Again, in terms of predictive effects, we do know that if motivation total index is increased by one standard deviation point we get 2.9 percent betterment in WASC—S, but if again motivation, as represented by the GSCI, were to be increased by one standard deviation point, the percentage betterment accruing in WASC-S woulci be about 2.5. This information shows that the GSCI is clearly tfuarnost important sub-scale predictor for the male sample, followed by true WRL. The HTI—-and whatever dimension of motivation it captures-- l04 has no relation to academic performance. The PJCS is only marginally related. The relative contributions for the four sub-scales for the female sample are as follows: (a) WRL, l0.9 percent; (b) HTI, 5.3 percent; (c) GSCI, 3.3 percent; and (d) PJCS, l.5 percent. As Table 4.l4 demonstrates, it is clear that for the females the contri— butions of the NRL and HTI are more important than the rest. As we scan the regression coefficient and t;value columns of Table 4.l4, we observe the same pattern of the tapering off of the values as in the case of the boys. Thus the WRL turned out to be the most significant variable (t_= —2.33) followed by the HTI (t_= —l.9l6). An examination of row three of Table 4.l4 shows that at that point, the NRL, the HTI, and the GSCI are significant as exemplified by their t_indices. This significance was lost with the entry of the PJCS in the last row of the sarne table. The reduction effect thus observed is not surprising when it is observed from Appendix Bl, Table Bl.l that the PJCS correlates with the GSCI .39, with the HTI .28, and with the NRL .30. For the females, the elimination of the PJCS would not seem to have an adverse effect on the battery as an academic achievement motivation measure. Having thus observed, we can safely conclude that of M-Scale sub- compxanents, the WRL is the most important determinant of WASC—S, fol— lowed by the HTI, and then by the GSCI. The PJCS is not significant. In sum, one can agree with the hypothesis that the predictive value of the M—Scales rests more on some sub—scales than on others. In this case, it is the GSCI and WRL for males and the WRL, HTI, and 1(35 0-0003 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 0000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 0000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 003 0000030 0000 00030003 000 0-0033 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 0000 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0000 00.000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 003 0000000 00000 00000003 000 0-0033 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 000 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.000 00.000 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 003 0000030 030 00030003 000 0-00<3 00.00 00.0- 00.0 00.0- 003 00.0 00.00 00.0 00.0 00.000 00.000 0000020 030 00000003 000 .003 0000 000000000 00003-0 00000 000 .003 000-00 00003-0 0 00 000 A 00 00 000 00 0.0000 0.0000 N N .0000500 000 00:0:O0Eoo 000000-: 00 00000030 00 0-00<3 000000000 0000000000 00030000--.00.0 00000 l06 GSCI for the females. There is then a difference in order of impor— tance of the sub—scales for both samples. Turning to the hypothesis that the M—Scales' sub—scales con- trolled for the simultaneous influence of other variables will predict WASC-S significantly better than chance, we observe in Table 4.l5 that all the four sub-scales and the four characteristic variables together contribute 25.5 percent variance in predicting the WASC-S for males. The relative contribution of all four sub-scales was: (a) GSCI, 7.8 percent; (b) WRL, l.6 percent; (c) PJCS, 0.5 percent; and (d) HTI, 0.l percent (see Table 4.l5). The four characteristic variables also con- tributed as follows: (a) location of school, l3.0 percent; (b) parents' education, l.2 percent; (c) food area, 0.9 percent; and (d) religion, 0.4 percent. It is clear that two variables stand out more prominently than the rest, namely: the GSCI and the location variable. From row eight of Table 4.l5 one can observe that after all the other variables had been controlled the GSCI alone possessed enough staying power to withstand the gradual eliminating effects which the simultaneous inclu- sion of other variables brought about. The hypothesis is true of the (SSCI males and not of the other sub-scales. In total, the model pre— dicts 25.5 percent of variance of WASC—S. Of this gross, the location variable predicts l3.0 percent and the food area variable predicts 0.9 percent, which is still significantly different from zero with about 95.l percent security. For the females, Table 4.l6, the relative contribution of each sub—scale is as follows: (a) WRL, l0.9 percent; (b) HTI, 5.3 percent; (C) GSCI, 2.8 percent; and (d) PJCS, 0.9 percent. Row four of Table 4.l6 Table 4. 15. --Stepwise regression analysis: edu NASC- S as function of M- Scales components and echaracteristics of food area. parents' cation, religi on, and location of schoo s for mal 107 66 666 PR (R2) CPR (R2) F—Value SE—est chfl'g RCo SERCo T—Value Intercept SRCo ngf'd FOR VARIABLE DNE ENTERED 4281.61 4281.61 0.13 0.13 55.10 8.82 LS -6.84 0.92 -7.42 36.65 —o.36 NAsc-s FOR VARIABLE Two ENTERED Ls -7.16 0.88 -8.lZ 2671.07 6862.68 0.08 0.21 48.32 8.42 GSCI -0. 63 0.11 -6.02 62.58 -o.29 wAsc—s FOR VARIABLE THREE ENTERED Ls —6.99 .88 —7.97 GSCI —o.61 0,11 —4.56 614.19 7366.87 0.02 0.22 36.23 8.36 NRL -o.10 .04 -2.72 63.34 wAsc-s FDR VARIABLE FOUR ENTERED L5 3 o. -7.82 GSCI -o 49 0.11 —4.37 HRL -0 To 0.04 —2.70 399.10 7766.93 0.01 0.24 28.22 8.30 PE 3 1.09 —2.41 62.83 wAsc—s FOR VARIABLE FIVE ENTERED LS - 61 0.88 -7.55 66c: —o.49 0.11 —4.39 wRL -o.10 0.04 -2.66 PE —2. 34 1.10 —2.13 283.89 8049.86 0.01 0.25 23.60 8.26 FA —1. 79 0.88 -2.04 63.5l -0.09 HASC—S FDR VARIABLE 61x ENTERED L6 - .66 . 8 ~7.48 GSCI - .41 . 2 -3.38 NRL - .09 . 4 -231 PE — .25 . o -2.06 FA - .77 . 7 -2.02 166.61 8216.37 0.01 0.26 20.16 8.24 ms — .21 . 3 —l.57 64.26 HASC—S FOR VARIABLE SEVEN ENTERED LS — .82 , o -7.6l GSCI — .43 . 2 >148 RL 0 .09 . 4 —2.19 PE — .02 . 1 —1.83 A 4 .69 . 7 —1.93 RJcs — .19 . 3 .1.47 134.00 8360.37 0 00 0.25 17.61 8.23 26 . 9 -1.41 64.96 wAsc-s FDR VARIABLE EIGHT ENTERED LS - . o —7.51 GSCI — .42 . 2 —3.41 NRL - . 4 —1.72 PE — 06 . 1 -1.86 FA — .71 . 8 -l.95 PJCS - .19 . 3 —1.46 R - .31 . o —1.46 28.74 8379.11 0.00 0.26 16.43 8.24 HTI — .07 . 1 —o.66 66.09 HASC-S 1 ()E3 Table 4.16.--Stepwi6e regression analysis: WASC-S as function of M-Scales components and characteristics of food area, parents' education, religion, and location of schools for females. Pred'd SS CSS PR (R2) CPR (R2) F—Value SE-est ngf 9 RCO SERCo T-Value Intercept 6Rco Var FOR VARIABLE 0NE ENTERED 646.29 646.29 0.11 0.11 13.60 6.91 NRL —0.21 0.06 —3.67 49.74 -0.26 NAsc-s FDR VARIABLE Two ENTERED NRL -0.17 0.06 —2.94 314.68 969.87 0.06 0.16 10.68 6.74 HTI —0.36 0.14 -2.63 61.60 -0.18 NAsc-s FDR VARIABLE THREE ENTERED NRL -O.l6 0.06 -2.86 HTI -0.41 0.14 -3.06 311.40 1271.27 0.06 0.22 9.88 6.66 L6 -8.l6 3.03 —2.69 63.43 NA66-6 FDR VARIABLE FOUR ENTERED NRL -0.lS 0.06 -2.6l HTI -0.36 0.14 -2.58 L6 —7.71 2.99 —2.57 162.64 1433.81 0.03 0.24 8.68 6.46 6661 -0.36 0.l8 -1.97 72.43 NAsc-s FOR VARIABLE FIVE ENTERED NRL -0.12 0.06 —2.1 HTI -0.33 0.14 -2.44 L6 —6.60 3.04 -2.14 6661 -0.37 0.18 -2.10 137.09 1670 90 0.02 0.27 7.69 6.39 R 2.36 1.29 1.83 69.63 wAsc-s FDR VARIABLE 61x ENTERED NRL —0.11 0.06 -1.86 HTI —0.30 0.14 -2.21 L6 -6.l0 3.06 -2.00 6661 -o.30 0.19 -l.62 R 2.33 1.29 1.82 63.26 1624.14 0.01 0.28 6.64 6.38 PJCS -0.09 0.08 -1.14 69.70 WASC-S FOR VARIABLE SEVEN ENTERED _ NRL -0.11 0.06 -1.90 HTI -0.29 0.14 —2.07 LS -6.69 3.08 —l.8l 6661 -0.32 0.19 -1.72 R 2.26 1.28 1.76 PJCS -0.10 0.08 -1.24 63.30 1677.44 0.01 0.28 6.90 6.38 PE 1.60 1.39 1.16 69 70 NAsc-s FDR VARIABLE EIGHT ENTERED NRL —0.11 0.06 -l.88 811 -0.29 0.14 -2.03 L6 —5.58 3.10 —l.80 6661 -0.32 0.19 -1.70 R 2.24 1.33 1.69 PJCS -0.10 0.08 -1.22 PE 1.61 1.42 1.14 0.18 1677.62 0.00 0.28 6.11 6.41 FA -0.09 1.31 —0.07 69.82 NAsc-s 109 shows that NRL, HTI, location of school, and GSCI together predict 24.3 percent for all the variables taken together. From row five onwards, there is a gradual reduction in coefficient effect due to the inclu- sions of religion, PJCS, parents' education, and food area variables. Their simultaneous inclusion left the coefficient of the HTI as the only significant one.6 The changes in regression effects notwithstanding, the conclusion is that our operative hypothesis is true of the WRL and the HTI. It is also necessary to determine what effect each of the four variables hypothesized as important in this study had on academic performance. (Refer to Tables 4.15 and 4.16, row eight of both.) After controlling for the simultaneous influences of the four sub-scales, two characteristic variables stand out as making significant contributions 'for the male sample. They are the location and food area variables. These variables contributed 13.0 percent and 0.9 percent, respectively. When all the other three characteristic variables and the four sub— scales were entered in the equation (Table 4.15, row eight), it became clear that the location variable was highly significant with 6.8 point advarnage on WASC-S accruing 0n the average to students from urban schoc31s over those from rural schoo16, even after holding all other varieables constant. Food area had a 1.7 point advantage accruing to studenits from the heartland over those of the fringe. This contribu- tion, as noted ear1ier, has 95 percent security, and thus constitutes 6The higher regression coefficient of the HTI in the final row 0f Tatfle 4.16 is surprising. The reason may be that many of the items 0f thee WRL can be subsumed under the HTI; but this is not borne out by the cm3rre1ation coefficient .27 between the two. 110 some weak congruent evidence for the subSistence economy hypoth- esis. For the female sample, none of the selected variables has any significant effect on academic performance as measured by the WASC-S; thus, there is no support whatsoever for the subsistence economy hypothesis for the female sample. Having examined the effects of the four variables on perfor- mance, we now turn to look at their influence on motivation. As Table 4.17 shows, for the males, the total contribution of these four variables in terms of percentages is 0.8 made up as follows: parents' education, 0.4 percent; (b) location of schools, 0.2 percent; (6) reli— gion, 0.2 percent; and (d) food area, 0.0 percent. Independently, the variables have no significant influence on motivation as represented by the M—Scale total scores. For the female sample, and as illustrated in Table 4.18, when the simultaneous influences of all four variables are taken into account, religion is the only variable that makes a significant contribution at better than .01 confidence level. Of the total variance contribution of 7.6 percent made by all the four variables, religion contributed 5.4 percent; and this contribution means that nine point M—Scale total disadvantage accrues to Protestants. Thus religion is the only variable that affects motivation for the girls, the advantage, of course, being 111 favor of Catholics. In order to complete the pattern of relationship among vari- ables and their predictive influences, the final hypothesis states that 111 4 goo 4 mom 4 moo 4 x06 .cm> comm pamocmch 6=_m>-c oummm cum .L6> 066-mm 6:46>-c A av mag A av m6 mmo mm u.uaca m_ewca N N use .cowmwpmc .covumuzuw .mucmcwa .mwcm woe? we cowuuczw mm mmcoom _muo“ moqumIE .mmFmE Low m_oo;um co cowumooy ”mwm>_wcm coemmwcmwc mmvzamum--.N—.w w_omp 2 .II .1 0