......

THE CULTURAL PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
AND ITS RELATION TO EDUCATION

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
AKBAR MAHDAVIAN, M. P. A, M. B. A
1976

 

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thesis entitled

THE CULTURAL PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT IN
IRAN AND ITS RELATION TO EDUCATION

presented by

Akb ar Mahdavian

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Educational
Administration

 

 

Major professor

Date Ma 17, 1976

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ABSTRACT

THE CULTURAL PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
AND ITS RELATION TO EDUCATION

By
Akbar Mahdavian

Purposes of the Study

The researcher's purposes hithis study were:

First, to examine the managerial thinking, attitudes and
factors of motivation in private and semi-private organizations.

Second, to examine the comparable attitudinal patterns of
educational administrators in their administrative practices in
education.

Third, to compare the "managerial thinking" of Iranian
managers with what has been reported on managers in fourteen
other countries in all parts of the world.

Finally, to trace the cultural attributes and the educa-
tional characteristics of Iranian society and to examine their
effects on administrative behavior of managers and educational

administrators.

Procedure
The study was conducted in Iran on a limited scale with

managers in private and semi-private organizations--including a

Akbar Mahdavian

certain number of educational administrators, mainly from the
primary and secondary school levels.

The instrument used was a replica of the one used by Mason
Haire and his associates, from the University of California, in a
similar study of managerial thinking conducted in fourteen different
countries. The instrument was originally composed of a question-
naire divided into three parts. However, in this study only two
parts were duplicated. No hypotheses were examined. It was pri-
marily a descriptive study of managerial thinking, attitudes and
motivations as they relate to cultural and educational attributes
of the society. For the analysis of data, certain statistical
measures, which include the mean raw scores, the standard deviations
and the standard scores of the sample survey were used. Also, for
purposes of comparison, certain methods were used in conjunction

with the existing data.

Major'Findings

The analysis of data and the review of the pertinent litera-
ture revealed the following findings:

1. Iranian managers hold a relatively democratic attitude
toward management practices.

2. Iranian educational administrators reflect the same pat-
terns as managers with greater attitude intensity.

3. For the most part, Iranian managers reported they were

unfulfilled and unsatisfied in their needs for autonomy, security

Akbar Mahdavian

and self-actualization, while the other two levels of needs, social
and esteem, were reported to be better fulfilled and satisfied.

4. Iranian educational administrators reported a similar
pattern of need emergence as did managers. This was not true in
their needs for autonomy and security, which were less fulfilled
and satisfied than for managers. They were more fulfilled and
satisfied in their need for self-actualization.

5. Both groups attached a great deal of importance to all
needs across the scale, but with greater intensity on the part of
educational administrators.

6. In comparing Iranian managers with managers throughout
the world (data from the previous study), Iranians on certain atti-
tudes rated on the same level as the British and the French. How-
ever, they rated low in other attitudes comparably with the three
developing countries of Argentina, Chile and India.

7. With regard to the Iranian managers' motivation
factors:

a. They appeared to lead all countries on the list for
their social and esteem fulfillment. The Iranians came
close to the French managers in their need for security and
self—actualization. They appeared to be relatively parallel
to Italian and Indian managers in their need for autonomy.

b. In their need satisfaction, they appeared to be

least satisfied of all managers in their needs for autonomy

Akbar Mahdavian

and security. Iranian managers came, on the average, very
close to all managers in their social needs, and relatively
close to the three developing nations in their esteem and
self-actualization. However, as for self-actualization in
particular, Iranian managers came very close to the French.
c. In their need importance, Iranian managers scored
higher than the mean for all managers--a pattern similar to
Argentinian managers--and they scored relatively close to
the other two developing countries.
8. The cultural attributes and the educational character-
istics of the society were found to be unavoidably intertwined.
Both factors affect the underlying managerial thinking and motiva-

tions and administrative behavior of educational administrators.

Recommendations for Further Research and Action

In order to obtain a more complete and comprehensive illus-
tration of managerial thinking, attitudes, motivations and cultural
and educational characteristics of the society, the following areas
of research are recommended:

1. To conduct studies in all areas of Iranian management
especially with regard to the thinking, motivations and educational
deficiencies in its higher echelons.

2. To further research managerial thinking, social
attitudes and the feelings of responsibility of corporate owners to

initiate development of a "managerial creed" for Iranian management.

Akbar Mahdavian

3. To conduct a special study into the deficiencies of
educational administrators in terms of their social understanding,
educational philosophy and administrative capability.

4. To investigate further the pattern of change in Iranian
culture and to trace the inter-cultural transfer for the purpose of
cultural reappraisal and avoidance of the so-called "cultural lag"
which might follow.

In order to further motivate the Iranian managers and educa-
tional administrators for more effective job performance, the fol-
lowing actions are recommended:

I. To provide Iranian management and educational adminis-
trators, especially in the middle and the lower organizational
levels, with further autonomy and discretion in decision-making and
action.

2. To furnish Iranian management and educational adminis-
trators with further opportunity for growth and self-actualization,
by providing educational opportunities and broadening their scope
of authority and responsibility.

3. To look for more economic incentives for both groups,
but particularly for educational administrators.

4. To upgrade Iranian management thinking and attitudes by
devising a continuing re-education program with extensive coverage

of all organizations and of all managerial levels.

Akbar Mahdavian

5. To establish immediately an independent department for
teaching educational administration in either Teacher's Training
University or the University of Tehran (College of Education).

6. To provide for increased involvement of the mass media
in promoting further public interest in education and harmony in
the thinking and attitudes between public and private institutes
toward achievement of a common social goal in education, culture

and management.

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THE CULTURAL PATTERN OF MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
AND ITS RELATION TO EDUCATION

By

Akbar Mahdavian, M.P.A., M.B.A.

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Administration and Higher Education

1976

© Copyright by
AKBAR MAHDAVIAN
1976

In the spirit of "the Era of the Great Civilization" and
with the hope fbr full achievement of its human side of progress,

this work, though of little magnitude, is dedicated to

His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Pahlavi,

The Shanhanshah of Iran

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Upon the successful completion of this research, I would
like to extend my sincere appreciation to the members of my disserta-
tion guidance committee: Dr. Samuel A. Moore, 11, Dr. Archibald 8.
Shaw, Dr. Carl C. Gross and Dr. R. Winston-Oberg. I should especially
express my utmost gratitude and thanks to Professor Samuel A. Moore,
II, chairman of the committee, who from the very beginning and all
along the research not only extended his academic guidance, but also
continuously persuaded me to accomplish the work.

I am extremely grateful to the Iranian Government and espe-
cially to the Authorities of the Imperial Iranian Army who initially
provided me with the opportunity to pursue my graduate study at Michi-
gan State University. In particular, I am thankful to Lieutenant
General H. Rastegarnamdar and Brigadier General Mohammed Valla who
understood my situation and assisted me in obtaining the necessary

leave to come to the United States.

The author is specifically indebted to the many Iranian mana-
gers and educational administrators, without whose participation this
work could not have been accomplished.

And, too, my special thanks and heartfelt appreciation go to
my loving wife Mahin, who had so much understanding and endurance
while having a working/student husband, and to my two little children
Maryam and Amir, from whom I took away so much fatherly attention in
the process of studying and preparing this work.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES .

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the Problem 3
Further Explanations . . . . . . . . . . 4
Methodology . . . . . . 8
The Form of the Research Instrument . . . . 8
The Content of the Research Instrument . . . . 9
Sampling Method . . . . . . . . ll

The Method of Data Analysis . . . . . . . 13
The Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . . 14

II. REVIEW OF THE PERTINENT LITERATURE . . . . . . 17

Introduction . . . . . . . . . l7
Part 1. What is Culture?. . . . 18
Part 2. The Iranian Culture; A General View . . 24
The Culture: Past Versus Present . . . . . 27
Individualism and the Interpersonal
Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fatalism . . . . . . . 3l
Fear of and Respect for Authority . . . . 32
Other Norldliness, Enjoyment of Life and a

New Thinking Pattern . . . 35
Part 3. Culture and Managerial Behavior in Iran . 39
Management Organization in Iran . . . 4O

Interpersonal Relationships and the Role of
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Decision-Making . . . . . . . 45
Punctuality and Time Conception . . . . . . 51
Culture and Management Needs in Iran . . . . 55
The physiological basic needs . . . . . . 57
The need for security. . . . . . 58
The belongingness and social needs . . . . 60
The esteem and autonomy needs . . . . . . 61
Self-actualization and the need for
achievement . . . . . . . . . . . 62

iv

Chapter

Part 4. Education in Iran
A Historical View . .
The Arab Conquest and the Change in Education
Pre-modern Education in Iran . . .
The character and the traditions of
education in Iran . . . .
The school system: pre-schooling, elementary
and secondary education . . . . . .
Literacy corps and its dimensions .
The training of teachers, literacy corpsmen.
and the educational administrators .
The goals of education .
Modern Education in Iran . . . . .
Regional Board of Education . . .
The structure of the board .
The authority of the Regional Board of
Education . . .
The New System of Education
The structure of the system .
Vocational Education .
Free and Equal Education .
The Objectives of the New System of Education
Culture, Education and Management: An Overview

III. MANAGERIAL THINKING AND ATTITUDES IN IRAN

Introduction . .

Expectations and Assumptions Concerning Mana-
gerial Thinking in Iran . .

Attitudes and Assumptions Underlying Management
Practices in Iran . . .
The Importance of Such Attitudes and

Assumptions . . . .

Methodology . .

Procedure and Sample . .
The Major Findings and Their Implications
Attitudes Toward Belief in the Average
Person's Capacities .
Attitudes Toward Sharing Information and
Objectives . . .
Attitudes Toward Participation .
Attitudes Toward the Nature of Supervisory
Control . . . .
Variations Within Groups . .
Integration and Interpretation

IV. MANAGERIAL MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION IN IRAN

Introduction
Methodology

109
111

112
113

113
114
115
117

117
118

Chapter

The Major Findings

Need Fulfillment .

Need Satisfaction .

Need Importance .
Variation of Need Perception Within Groups
Integration and Interpretation .

V. IRANIAN MANAGERS VERSUS OTHERS: A COMPARISON .

Methodology . . . . .
Attitudes Toward Management Practices. Iran
Versus Other Countries

The Impact of Culture on Management Attitudes.
Belief in Individuals' Capacity for Initative

and Leadership .
Attitudes Toward Sharing Information
Attitudes Toward Participation .
Attitudes Toward the Nature of Supervisory
Control

Managerial Motivations and Satisfactions: . Iran.

Versus Other Countries
Need Fulfillment .
Need Satisfaction .
Need Importance

VI. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

AND THE CONCLUSION.

Purpose of the Study

Procedure . .

The Major Findings

The Minor Findings . .

Implications for Iranian Culture, Management
and Educational Administration

Recomnendat1 ons .
Recommendations for Further Theoretical

Research

Recomendationsdor Cultural, Managerial and .

Educational Actions
Conclusion . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendices
A. QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH .
B. QUESTIONNAIRE IN FARSI (PERSIAN)

vi

Page
121
122
123
125
127
129
132
132

134
134

134
139
139

140
141

147

150
150
150
152
159

161
163

163

165
168

170
175
176
182

Table

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

LIST OF TABLES

Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward
Management Practices (Raw Scores) .

Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward
Management Practices (Standard Scores)

Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward
Management Practices (Standard Deviation)

Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores) .

Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Standard
Scores) . . .

Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores)

Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Standard
Scores) . . . . . . . .

Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores)

Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Standard
Scores) . . . . . . . . . .

Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Standard
Deviation) . . .

Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Standard
Deviation) . . . . . . . . .

Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Standard
Deviation) . . . . . . . .

Managers' Attitudes Toward Management Practices
(Raw Scores). . . . . . . .

Managers' Attitudes Toward Management Practices
(Standard Scores) . . . . . .

Need Fulfillment of Managers (Raw Scores) .

Need Fulfillment of Managers (Standard Scores)

vii

Page

110

110

114
122

123
124

124
126

126

127

128

129

135

136
142
143

Table Page
17. Need Satisfaction of Managers (Raw Scores) . . . . 145
18. Need Satisfaction of Managers (Standard Scores) . . . 146
19. Need Importance of Managers (Raw Scores) . . . . . 148

20. Need Importance of Managers (Standard Scores) . . . 149

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A11 developed and developing societies are rapidly becoming
societies of organizations: societies in which every major task is
being carried out in and through organizations. The trend of the
organization expansion is to the extent that, in classifying soci-
eties into developed, developing and under-developed,the matter of
organization could be taken for such categorization, although the
patterns of organizations may differ greatly from one society to
another.

It may be thought that the extent to which societies are
organized, the pattern, the form and the content of organizations
are different in the free and the Communist world. In the Soviet
Union of Russia, the Republic of China, and other Communist coun-
tries, the pattern of organization extends to the very roots of
life for the Common Man. It, in fact, extends to the integration
and unification of not only the material resources, but of all
human ideals, interests and differences--the phenomena which seem to
make the human world so dull and monotonous to the free individual.

In the Western world, on the contrary, the roots of social
organizations are different. Organizations are patterned after
common differences to achieve common social goals. That is, the
integration and unification are achieved through and based upon

1

differences. These are not organizations imposed to eradicate all
differences and to bring out an overall unity in thought and action
to mankind.

In this world of organization, management is thought to be
the key element. Recognition of the present and the future needs;
amassing man and material resources; organizing work elements-~human,
material and technological; and moving the organized whole toward
its predetermined destiny are the commonly accepted functions of
management. In addition, it is the management initiation, creative
thinking and the moods of change and progress accompanied by posi-
tive leadership which extract and enhance the individual's potential,
which by itself and in general increase the society's productivity.
In fact, it has been said without too much over-simplification that
the essence of economic and social development is good management.

In the opinion of Drucker, the so-called under-developed
countries are not really under-developed. They are under-managed.

A good example is Japan. As Drucker states:
Japan a hundred years ago was an under-developed country by
every material measurement. But it very quickly produced
management of great competence, indeed, of excellence.
Within twenty-five years Meiji Japan had become a developed
country, and, indeed, in some aspects, such as literacy,
the most highly developed of all countries. We realize
today that it is Meiji Japan, rather than eighteenth-century
England--or even nineteenth-century Germany--which has to be
the model of development for the under-developed world.

This means that management is the prime mover and that
development is a consequence.1

 

1Peter F. Drucker, Technology, Management and Society
(New York: Harper & Row, 197D), p. 40.

In another well-known book, Managing for Results, Drucker
puts fOrth that "managers have become a leadership group in the last
two decades, largely because they have developed such a discipline
for the managerial half of their job: the planning, building and
leading of the human organization.“2 It is but natural that planning,
building and leading business organizations in a society, as the
experiences of other nations have proven, are the essential grounds
for social and economic development. It is also natural that man-
agement functions in conjunction with culture and education in any
society. Therefore, the significance of management could not be
over-emphasized without reference to cultural attributes and the
educational endowments of the society; particularly if management
is to be seen from the cultural standpoint. The main theme of the
present study extends, therefore, to the interrelationships among

culture, education and management in Iran.

Statement of the Problem

The problem upon which the present study is conducted com-
prises three different dimensions: First, an appraisal of cultural
attributes and educational characteristics of the Iranian society;
second, a search and exploration of the thinking, attitudes and
motivations of managers and educational administrators with refer-
ence to Iranian culture and education; third, a comparison between
Iranian managers' thinking, attitudes and factors of motivation

with those of other managers in the world.

 

2Peter Drucker, Management for Results (New York: Harper
8. Row, 1964). p. 227.

Specifically speaking, the selected problem and its differ-
ent dimensions will be recapitulated as the following:
1. What are the patterns of management in Iran, that
is, the patterns of managerial thought, leader-
ship philosophy and factors of motivation?
2. What are the underlying factors that affect
Iranian managerial patterns, such as culture and
educational system of the society?
3. How do Iranian managers compare in certain mea-
surable factors with managers in other parts of
the world?
4. What are the prospects for change and improvement
in management in Iran?
Further Explanations
Iran, a country rich in material resources, has been drag-
ging along the road to development, previous to the past two decades.
In this new era of development, the Iranian government has launched
an aggregate of developmental plans and programs, which are still
being continued. But, in carrying out these overall plans and
programs, Iran has faced a serious shortcoming in providing quali-
fied human resources in all areas, including the management field.
Though Iran in the past two decades has especially enjoyed consider-

able social and economic progress, it could have achieved greater

social goals if the management at different levels and of different

institutions, whether public or private, had been of greater capacity.

According to the available statistics, over 45 percent of

the population live in the urban areas, from which a good percentage

 

3The term management, here, is implied to educational
administration as well.

 

 

Afim a: -. .31.: ‘l ...v .....101. P.. In“
. _
‘11..

«‘1'.

are working in public or private enterprises, managing or being
managed in the interest of economic ends and social services.4

How economic ends are achieved and public services are
performed, very simply, is the consequence of management competence
in Iran. The nature of management thinking and motivation, in its
general sense, and its different aspects comprise the first attri-
bute of the selected problem for this study.

In the second chapter, Review of the Pertinent Literature,
the author will examine in detail Iranian management background,
cultural setting, education and formal training. Here, it would be
in context to mention a few words concerning the change in social
and economic environment in Iran and its relevance to management.

Iran, as has been mentioned, set out on the road to rapid
economic and social development in the 19605. Expansion in indus-
tries such as oil, automotive, textile, petrochemical, appliances,
communication and others, though partly borrowed and partly original,
is important to mention. To achieve the planned expansion, which is
mainly aimed at raising people's living standard and modernizing the
nation, the existing institutions have been expanded and many new
ones have been created. The expansion, as is evident, will create
its own problems of priorities and allocations from a material
resource standpoint and complexity and confusion from a social point

of view. It is actually the same experience which other advanced

 

4The Census Bureau of Iran, Statistical Yearbook (Tehran:
The Bureau, 1972), p. 19.

nations have gone through in the process of transition, though there
are differences.

One difference is that the change is occurring in a differ-
ent cultural setting. Another difference, which may be of more
significance, is that other nations changed through trial and error
experience. They changed things, whether social, material or tech-
nological, without apprehension of the side effects. Their advance-
ment materially and technologically was actually a mechanical
advancement, but they lagged drastically in cultural, social and
humane aspects. Progressive nations, such as Iran, can avoid this
so-called "cultural lag" by not moving on the same path which other
advanced nations followed or, if they do, by not repeating the same
mistakes. To avoid this type of problem and to advance and develop
in all dimensions, not only in the technical side, requires insight
and competence on the part of management as well as educational
administration.

Discovering the extent to which Iranian managers are compe-
tent and motivated, and providing them with a source to determine
how other managers in the world function is, therefore, another
part of the selected problem. Another facet of the development
in Iran is the expansion of its world trade. The Iranian economy

today is to an appreciable extent related to the world economy.

It is a market in which many countries are interested and it -it is, as

well, gradually becoming active in the world market. Again, it
is evident that details of all the activities mentioned are shaped

through management. Therefore, it would appear very essential

 

for both sides, the Iranian managers as well as their foreign
counterparts, to get to know each other's way of managing. This
would be the third attribute of the selected problem. The fourth.
and probably the most important attribute of the problem, would

be the background factors of management in Iran, the cultural
setting, the educational system and the reciprocal effect among
culture, education and management. In this sense, the author has
tried to look at the problem from a "cause and effect" standpoint
in order to see the patterns of management and to look for the
possible causes of such pattern making.

Finally, there is an abundance of research literature on
management in the advanced world, especially in the United States.
Unfortunately, this is not exactly the case in Iran. There, in
spite of the apparent need for such an effort, there is little
systematic research concerning management and its problems. The
researcher's objectives in this study, then, can be specifically
formulated as the following:

1. A diagnosis of the thinking, attitudes, motivations,
factors of satisfaction and dissatisfaction and the assumptions
underlying leadership patterns for both managers and educational
administrators. ’

2. A diagnosis of background factors of cultural traits
and educational attributes as far as their impact on management
is concerned and the reciprocal effect among the three institu-

tions.

3. The gathering of information to help many foreign
agencies, public and private, that may have business interests or
advisory activity in Iran. Selecting, training and sending mana-
gers or advisors who are oriented toward the managerial climate in
Iran would appear of great importance in their effective performance.
On the other hand, as has already been stated, Iran has started
participating in world business. Therefore, it will be as essen-
tial for the Iranian managers to become aware of the managerial
thinking of other nations. This study is intended to provide
information essential for this purpose.

4. The furnishing of a framework, particularly after it is
translated into Persian, for self-recognition and self-development
on the part of Iranian managers. Also, it might be used as a launch-
ing pad for further study and research in the field of management,

which is so urgently needed in Iran.

Methodology
The Form of the Research Instrument
The instrument for collecting data is a two-part question-
naire which has been used previously by the Institute of Industrial
Relations of the University of California, for the same purpose.5

For the present study, the research instrument was translated into

 

5Mason Haire, Edwin E. Ghiselli, and Lyman w. Porter,
Managezial Thinking (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966),
PP- - .

II!“
A

 

9

Persian (the formal native language generallyis called Farsi).6

To assure the proper translation, the Persian version of the ques-
tionnaire was checked and re-translated into English by two quali-
fied persons in management with good knowledge of Persian and
English. Then through close cooperation and consultation with these
two persons, the final adjustment and refinement of the question- pm.
naire was made. In translating from one language into another,
small differences in terms and comprehension of the terms are
unavoidable, therefore, the translation of the instrument in this

case necessarily has the same minor shortcomings.

 

The Content of the Research
Instrument

The content of the research instrument was originally a
duplication of the instrument used by the Haire group in their
study. Due to the difficulty arising in the course of investiga-
tion, a modification was made. The part of the questionnaire which
dealt with the role of manager in culture by implementation of
Semantic Differential Format was deleted. To compensate for this
necessary deletion, the scope of the research was broadened in the
areas related to culture and education.

Being a participant-observer in the culture subject being

researched, schooled in the same educational system, and having

 

6Originally,ithad been pr0posed to collect the data through
mailed questionnaire. But, as one of the professors put it, the
author was too optimistic. When the first mailing was sent to the
first sample groups, almost no answer was received. Therefore, it
was decided to conduct the research through personal contact with
the selected samples, which was done with the assistance of two stu-
dents from Tehran and Isfahan Universities.

 

.Ira,...o.l...... .i...._n.an .. .191-.. La 61). I".

10

been exposed to other cultures and educational systems provided the
author with a more solid ground with which to see the mutual inter-
action between culture, education and management in Iran.

Two parts of the questionnaire used by the Haire group were
replicated in the present study. The first part, Questions on
Leadership, consisted of eight items to which managers responded _.$
by checking a 5-point scale ranging from "strongly agree" to

"strongly disagree.“ The items, as Haire and others put it,

n . Fwd-L A -__.

were constructed logically to provide a series of steps
from a somewhat unilateral autocratic approach to manage-
ment, to a more group oriented team approach. They cov-

’ ered managers' beliefs in the capacity of subordinates,
and their view of the efficacy of participation, of
sharing information and of providing opportunities for
internal self-control on the job.7

1-
Mn“

 

The second part of the questionnaire dealt with motivation.
The set of questions composing this part "was made up of a series
of eleven items designed to elicit responses geared to the Maslow
hierarchy of needs for security, social needs, esteem needs and
needs for autonomy and self-actualization."8 For each item, three
questions were asked? How much is there now (of the opportunity
to satisfy a given need)? How much should there be? and How
important is it? The respondent answered each question by cheek-
ing a 7-point scale labeled from minimum to maximum. The difference
between "How much is there now?" and "How much should there be?"

provides a measure of the satisfaction of a need in question.

 

7Haire et al., pp.

81bid.. pp. 3-4.

11

SamplinggMethod

Selection of the sample organizations.--In selecting the
sample organizations, public (governmental) organizations were
excluded, to the extent that was possible. Because of the
centralized system of administration in Iran, in which many social
services and economic activities are managed by the government,
there were occasions in which there was no choice but to select an
entirely public or semi—public organization. For selection of the
sample organizations in business or industry, where there were
several organizations of the same kind, managed independently, a
list of the organizations was obtained. Then the sample organiza-
tions were selected randomly from the provided list. In two cases,
the selected organizations did not accept the questionnaire, stat-
ing that involvement in this sort of investigation was against
their policy. Therefore, two other similar organizations were ran-
domly selected from the remaining similar organizations in the

population‘pool.

Selection of individual managers within the organizations.--
The original approach of mailing questionnaires intended for the
collection of data was found not to be applicable in Iran. There-
fore, a different approach was taken. The researcher and his two
assistants contacted either the presidents or vice-presidents of
the selected organizations. Through this personal contact, the
author's purpose in the research was thoroughly explained. Then,

with the assistance of the president or vice-president, a group of

12

five to twelve managers were called upon. The purpose of the
research and the manner by which the questions should be answered
and the blank spaces should be filled in were explained to the
managers. To receive more cooperation on the part of the selected
managers and to relieve their reservations, if any, it was empha-
sized that there was no need for them to put their names or other
personal specifics on the questionnaires. Rather, it was asked
that the managers should respond to the questions anonymously.
Normally, within one week of the distribution date, the responses
were collected.

For selection of educational administrators, the following
approach was adopted: First, among the ten educational districts
of Tehran, the odd-numbered districts were selected. Then, by
contacting the superintendent of the district, a list of the princi-
pals working in the district was provided. Based on the numbers
appearing on the list, the even-numbered principals were contacted
in the same manner as described above. In addition to this, there
was an opportunity to expand the sc0pe of the research with educa-
tional administrators. In summer, 1972, a conference on education
was held in Tehran, at which the participants were the selected
superintendents and principals from across the country. The
Director of the conference accommodated the researcher by assign-
ing a few hours of the conference time schedule to the researcher
and assisted in conducting the investigation. The result was very

positive. The administrators participating in the conference

13

welcomed the researcher and more than 80 percent of the question-
naires were completed during this time.

Of course, in the process of getting managers and educa-
tional administrators to respond to the questionnaire and collect-
ing the responses, there was some difficulty and lack of cooperation.
However, overall it was satisfactory. The average rate of response

was about 60 percent of the questionnaires that were distributed.

The Method of Data Analysis

The design of the research instrument, as it was intended
in the Haire study, enabled the researcher to present the informa-
tion in quantitative form. The tabulated raw scores, the standard
deviaion, and the standard scores resulting from the statistical
computation of the scores were regarded as the quantitative basis
of the analysis:

1. The tabulation of the raw scores made possible an
analysis of different managerial dimensions. Through this part of
the analysis, the managerial pattern of leadership and its dimen-
sions, motivation and different facets, and factors of job satis-
faction and dissatisfaction were determined.

2. The computation of the standard deviation and the
standard scores of the sample surveyed were used to reflect the
variation within and between the two groups of respondents.

3. The comparison of the mean raw scores and the standard
scores of the two studies, which were developed through the use of
previous data, was implemented to determine how managers in Iran

compared with other managers previously studied.

14

4. Finally, and more important in the researchers's point
of view, was the question of how culture, education in general and
educational administrators in particular relate to managers in
other areas and how these affect the quality and the content of
management in Iran. For this purpose, two analytical approaches
were followed. In the first place, by virtue of participation in
the culture and the educational system and by having knowledge of
other cultures and educational systems, the special characteristics
of culture and education in Iran were described. Then, the recipro-
cal relationship between culture, education and management were
inducted and analyzed. In the second place, educational adminis-
trators were treated as an independent group of managers and the
data collected from the distributed questionnaires among the
administrators were compared with the data of the managers and
analyzed to see the line of relationship and the mutual interaction.
In administering the research for comparison purposes, educational
administrators were excluded and only data related to Iranian mana-

gers were compared and analyzed against previous information.

The Scope of the Study

In selection of the organizations in business and industry,
the organizations studied by the Institute of Industrial Relations
of the University of California were used as a guideline.9 Orga-

nizations contacted during the Haire group research were:

 

9Haire et al., p. 286.

ASH-e .

 

15

--Transportation and Shipping

--Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone

--Power, Light and Electricity

--Wholesale and Trade

--Chemical and Petroleum

--Mining

--Steel and Metal Fabrication

--Manufacturing

From the above organizations only two, shipping and mining,
were excluded in the present study. The rest were covered by the
sample organizations.

Selection of the same type of organizations as in the pre-
vious research was mainly to keep the study consistent with the
original one and to provide comparable data for comparison purposes.
But, concerning the general question of representation, the sample
organizations, as already stated, cover more than fifteen different
organizations of which some are the largest of their kind and some
are the only ones in the country. If one takes into consideration
the character and the scope of the organizations selected and views
the overall organizations in Iran, the selected sample would be, to
a great extent, representative. That is because, for one thing,
these organizations cover a good range of activities which extend
throughout the country and, two, have a continuous transfer of
management from the Capital to the Provinces and vice-versa. Though,
in the selected sample, it was necessary to preclude many of the
tiny companies in existence, yet the author is of the opinion that
these large organizations are, in a sense, opinion leaders of

others and are more broad and extensive in their character and

scope. Therefore, exclusion of smaller firms which normally do not

16

have research-oriented managers does not impair the representa-
tiveness of the sample. The managers selected as the sample group
were of middle and lower levels of management, so that though they
may not represent the population of managers in terms of totality,
they would represent the population in the levels selected.

In drawing a representative sample of educational adminis-
trators, the researcher was in a more advantageous position.
Administrators in education were easier to locate, more homogenous,
and more feasible to sample randomly. Overall, especially with
reference to Dr. Haire and other explanations of the sample sur-
veyed, it is highly likely that the drawn sample would be represen-
tative in the general sense of the term. It is evident that to
draw a representative sample in absolute terms, more exact informa-
tion is needed concerning the population components and other ele-
ments involved. Therefore, until there is found a means of
obtaining such exact information in the realm of reality, the

relative representation may be accepted as reasonable.

 

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE PERTINENT LITERATURE

Introduction
What makes a nation, a society, a community particular in
its character is more than merely its set boundaries, its political,

economic or other social systems. It is, in fact, the cultural

 

system, the total configuration of its ways of life, which makes

1
1
‘4”-

one nation stand out as American, German, French or Iranian.

Except for developing countries, which in material and technological
terms are somewhat behind the developed ones, what actually differ-
entiates others, being technologically equal, is their cultural
patterns of life; their perception of the world, their interactions
with attitudes of other people and their ways of thinking. 50 the
concept of culture appears to become a real phenomenon in our life.
A phenomenon such as this should be understood and dealt with
properly for a common understanding among nations, which seems to
be essential.

The Iranian society is one of the oldest societies of the
world. Throughout its history, it has faced many social upheavals;
some fortunate, others tragic. Through all of these, it has sur-
vived. Today, the Iranian carries his own character, a character

which the author intends to amplify through the study.

17

18

In the review of the pertinent literature, the author has
tried, first, to see what culture is in general, and then to see
how the concept applies to the Iranian society. In doing so, close
attention has been paid to two fundamental institutions of the
Iranian culture, namely, education and management. Therefore, it
should not be surprising that the researcher has not considered -'.
the refined, more artistic part of the culture, such as fine arts, *fi]
painting, music, ceramics and poetry. In fact, the concept in its

general sense has been taken to see into the minds of the Iranian

 

pe0ple regarding their perceptions, attitudes, motives and ways of .J
thinking. Although the ultimate goal is a diagnosis of managerial I
thinking in Iran, here in the review of the literature, the ground-
work will be laid for such a diagnosis. It will be seen how men
are psychologically made and what factors were involved in that
making.
The review of the pertinent literature is based upon two
sources: first, the available research literature and personal
reports of recent travelers or officials to Iran, and second, per-
sonal observations and reflections of the author, which have high.
validity by virtue of his being an indigenous participant-observer

within the culture itself.

Part 1. What Is Culture?
A culture is said to be the organized groups of learned
responses, the characteristics of a particular society. It becomes

a medium through which individual human minds interact with one

19

another in communication. Culture may be seen in two different
ways. One is when we speak of a culture as the way of life of a
particular society. In this use of the term, culture is a "con-
figuration of learned and shared patterns for behavior and of
understandings concerning the meaning, the value of things, ideas,

1

emotion, and actions." The other usage of the term is when one

refers to some specific aspects of human behavior that indicate
taste, refinement and interest in fine arts. What concerns the
writer here is the term in its general sense, culture as the con-
figuration of the total ways of life of a particular society.

In the manner of analogy, R. A. Webber depicts culture.

as a sea; a warm, comfortable, supportive and protecting
sea in which we are immersed. A sea in which most of us
float below the surface, some bob about, catching
glimpses of land from time to time, and a few emerge from
the water entirely. The sea is our Culture, most of us
act, think and dream in terms of the norms and standards
we have absorbed from the culture in which we are reared.
We value what our culture values, and abhor what our cul-
ture abhors.

Ruth Benedict, in her classic work, Patterns of Culture, states

 

that:

No man ever looks at the world with pristine eyes. He sees
it edited by a definite set of customs and institutions and
ways of thinking. Even in his philosophical probings, he
cannot go beyond these stereotypes; his very concepts of

 

1John Biesanz and Mavis Biesanz, Modern Society (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 25.

2Ross A. Webber, ed., Culture and Management (Homewood,
111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1969), p. 10.

 

 

 

__ ; such-FF

20

the true and the false will still have reference to his
particular traditional customs. These traditional customs,
i.e., the common ideas, and the stangards are really what
binds men together in their culture.
As anthropologist Melville Herskovits points out: "Culture fills
and largely determines the course of our lives, yet rarely intro-

duces into conscious thought."4

 

This determination of the course of our lives, thus, comes “3
through our culture as those historically created definitions which a
we acquire by virtue of participation in and contact with groups.
Participation in and contact with groups in a society gives indi-
viduals different value-orientations which, as Parsons puts it, A J

“is a generalized and organized conception, influencing behavior,

of nature, of man's place in it, of man's relation to man and of

the desirable and non-desirable as they may relate to man's environ-
ment and interhuman relations."5 If a value is defined as a con-
ception of the desirable which influences the selection from
available modes, means and ends of action, then it realizes a
preference which is felt to be justified. This value conception,

or in a gross term, preference, can instigate and somewhat canalize

the individual behavior.6 Value-orientation or preference

 

3Ruth Benedict, "The Meaning of Culture," in Culture and Man-
a ement, ed. Ross A. Webber (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
6 . pp. 57-65.

4Melville Herskovits, Man and His Work (New York: Knopf,
1948). p. 18.

5Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils, Toward a General
Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951):’p.44ll.

6

 

Parsons and Shils, p. 412.

21

conception, which can be assumed to be at the roots of cultures,
therefore, influences what human needs are emphasized, what
behavior is approved or disapproved and what personal and social
attributes are desirable or undesirable. Based on the definitions
just presented and the norms and standards inherent in different
cultures, the anthropologists or the so-called culturalists have
categorized cultures into different patterns. The three broad
patterns of cultures known as Apollonian, Dionysian and Faustion
are good examples of such categorization.7

The Apollonian society, as described by Webber, is a society
which stresses security, friendship, equality in relationships and
mutual efforts for common things. In this culture, there is a ten-
dency to adapt to nature, even to fit into it, rather than to
overcome it. Distrust for the individual who attempts to satisfy
egoistic drives for prestige, achievement or power and disrespect
for the idea of "great man" are common among Apollonians.

The Dionysian society, on the other hand, values low-level
needs for security and affiliation but emphasizes different
behavior. In this culture, rather than passive acceptance of the
world, the misery of existence is stressed. The self is encour-
aged to escape the confines of nature and the art becomes free of
the need to be utilitarian or representative. In the Dionysian
culture, realism is obliterated in a riot of form and color
expressed in a variety of ways. The individual behavior lacks any

particular social discipline, and the spontaneous expression of

 

7Webber. pp. 10-11.

 

22

emotion is honest and a paradoxical means of self-expression and
escape. Many of these characteristics may apply to the Iranian

culture which will be described at a later time.

The Faustion society, contrary to the previous two cultures,

glorifies the individual and his egocentric behavior. Life is a
challenge to the individual and he must compete to achieve its
objects. Intense drives for prestige, power and achievement and
less expression of emotions are the traits of the Faustion society.
The culture highly values competition, therefore, the noncompetitor
is odd. Altruism may be acceptable and even praised but it is

not accorded honor for it does not conform to the culture's highest
values. Art is less an expression of emotions or utilitarian deco-
ration as it was in the other cultures; it is actually a means for
reflecting the glory of man or his God.

A similar categorization of cultures can be seen in the
work of Mead. Margaret Mead, in her provocative work, Culture and
Commitment, while concentrating on inner cultural complexes such as
the generation gap, similarly divides cultures into three broad
categories which she calls post-figurative, co-figurative, and
pre-figurative cultures.8

In defining cultures, Mead explains that a post-figurative
culture is past-oriented. In these cultures, children learn pri-
marily from their forebears with a view that the past would con—

tinue to the future without a change. A co-figurative culture,

 

8Margaret Mead, Culture and Commitment (New York: Natural
History Press, Doubleday E Co., Inc., 1970).

..._ or ( z: ”we..."

 

23

Mead writes, is a culture in which the prevailing model for mem-
bers of the society is the behavior of their contemporaries. And
a pre-figurative culture, then, is future-oriented. It is a cul-
ture which is essentially different in terms of expectation and
acceptance of ever-occurring changes.

Edward Hall, in The Silent Language, expresses a similar,
but more practical and tangible, point of view in cultural classi-
fications.9 He suggests that cultures have three levels: formal,
informal and technical. In business dealings and most likely in
their social understanding, members of these different cultural
levels or cultures at different levels of orientation would take
different paths. For instance, a member of a technically oriented
culture would insist upon legal contracts and well-defined speci-
fications when making a business deal. If he were dealing with
someone who was functioning on a different level, it is likely

that a mutual feeling of distrust and discomfort might result.

Understanding by classifying another man's motivation and attitudes,

Hall argues, would reduce this distrust and make friendship more

likely.

Categorization of cultures, though, may not be in existence

in the absolute sense of the term, yet in terms of relativity, it
reveals certain truths and serves certain purposes. First, it
reveals the gap, the differences and similarities, which may exist

in value-orientation between individuals of different cultures.

 

9Edward Twitchelly Hall, The Silent Language (New York:
Doubleday Press, 1959), pp. 84-114.

 

24

Second, it serves as a frame of reference to which different cul-
tures may be attributed or studied. Third, it provides one with a
background through which may be seen the process of inter-cultural
transfer among nations. Fourth, it asserts the ever-increasing
cultural fusion and confusion in modern times and calls for an
avoidance of fixation of any culture in certain periods. Finally,
and most important of all, it provides one with more systematic
information concerning the values, needs and modes of behavior in
different cultures. Therefore, it will help one to become socially
more understanding, politically more communicative and more

realistically aware in business dealings.

Part 2. The Iranian Culture; A General View

The country, known historically in the West as Persia, is
today called Iran, which means "land of Aryans." Its written his-
tory dates back to 550-450 B.C., the glorious period of Cyrus,
Darius and Xerxes. But the real history of Iran extends as far
back as 7,000 years ago as shown by the evidence found in differ-
ent excavations. At that time, the Persian Empire extended west
to Greece, north to Caucasus, south to Egypt and east to Central
Asia. It was in 330 B.C. when the land was destroyed and put to
fire by Alexander the Great. A hundred years later, the Greeks
were succeeded by the Parthians (an Iranian people), who were
overthrown by the Sassanians, also Iranians, Eventually, they
were conquered by the great Arab conquest in the seventh century.

The Mongols, under Chingiz Khan and later Timur-i-Lang

[Lame Timur], overran the country in the thirteenth and fourteenth

25

centuries, and it was not until the early sixteenth century that
another Iranian dynasty, the Safavids, came to power. The last
major dynasty of modern times, that of the Qajars, began in the
late eighteenth century and was replaced in 1925 by the present
Pahlavi dynasty begun under Reza Shah, which is continued under
his son at the present. In addition to these major dynasties and
different takeovers, Iranian history is characterized by many minor
dynasties, many victories as well as conquests by foreign powers
and many natural disasters and other social upheavals. Despite
this succession of changes, Iranian culture has shown an amazing
capacity fOr continuity and endurance. Even when under foreign
domination, the culture was not vitiated, but it was the conquerors
who were Iranianized.10
Geographically, Iran today is bounded on the west by Turkey
and Iraq, on the north by the Soviet Union and the Caspian Sea,
on the east by Pakistan and Afghanistan and on the south by the
Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Its area of approximately
628,000 square miles makes it bigger than a great deal of Europe,
namely Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and the lower

11

lands combined. The population of Iran, according to the sample

census taken in 1972, amounted to 30.8 million which, with an

 

10Donald N. Wilber, Iran (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1975), pp. 16-125.

11The Area Handbook for Iran (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 39-50.

 

 

26

approximate three percent annual average growth, makes about 33
million at present.12

Two points should be considered regarding the race and
the homogeneity of the population of Iran. The first point is that
the people of Iran are not to be confused with those of the Arab
countries. Iranians are of Aryan, not Semitic, stock. The second
point is that there has been a good deal of mingling over the cen-
turies with Greeks, Turks, Mongols, Arabs and Afghans. Therefore,
in today's Iran, even though the majority of the population is
Moslem, there are ethnic groups such as Kurds, Lurs, Bakhtiaries,
and religious groups such as Armenians, Jews, Christians, Bahaists
and Zoroastrians. Although all these ethnic and religious minori-
ties share the general characteristics of the overall culture, they
hold as well to their own particular value systems.

The structure of the Iranian society at present is mainly
composed of the farmers (previously called peasants under the
feudal system), the industrialists and the businessmen and govern-
ment employees. The economy of Iran is a combination of a highly
developed oil industry, a semi-developed manufacturing industry
and a subsistence type of agriculture. The Iranian society, as a
whole, is on the path of social as well as economic growth. An
increase of per capita income from $400 (U.S.) to $1,000 (U.S.)

within a few years and an increase in school enrollment from

 

12
pp. 12-26.

Census Bureau of Iran, Statistical Yearbook (1972-1973),

27

1,885,000 in 1963 to 5,545,000 in 1972 with over seven million in

1975-76 are numerically good signs of progress.13

The Culture: Past Versus Present

The Iranian society due to a long and, in some cases, tragic
history has developed its own particular character. This character
has been observed by some as mystical, skeptical, individualistic

‘4 To others,

and interested in the content and objectives of life.
it has appeared more authoritarian, more insecure, irresponsible,
and self-centered. Yet others have viewed its character in terms
of fatalism, respect for authority, individual integrity and tense
as well as friendly interpersonal relationships.15
As viewed by the researcher, the Iranian culture contains
other characteristics in addition to the attributes mentioned above
but all can be considered in relative terms. That is to say,
Iranians are authority-oriented yet they are individualistic as
well as self-centered. Based on several years of scrutiny through
the available literature and close observation of the thoughts and
actions of his fellow men, the author tries to give a true picture.

In the following pages, the researcher has made the effort to fol-

low the cultural traits of the Iranian society up to the present

 

13Keyhan, The Semi-Official Daily Journal, January 8 and
10, 1976, pp. 2 and 5.

'40. H. Iliffe, The Legagy of Persia, ed. A. J. Arberry
(Oxford: The Clarenden Press, 1953), p. 15.

'5 . R. Arasteh, Man and Society in Iran (Leiden, Nether-
lands: E. J. Brill, 1964), pp. 41-46.

28

by considering the changes which have occurred in the past several
decades. One should briefly refer to the trends of the future in
this regard, a significant undertaking which has not been accom-
plished in recent years.
Individualism and the Inter-
pgrsonal Relationships
As one might expect in a society frequently characterized

by unstable administration and unfavorable conditions, a strong
sense of individualism has been fostered both in terms of the indi-
vidual and the local group loyalties. On the one hand, individually
appearing characteristics are self-endeavor, self-protection,
diversity of Opinion and behavior and resourcefulness. On the
other hand, emotional ties and strong interpersonal relationships
exist at the group level. On the whole, all express the individual-
istic character of the Iranian peOple. As one Iranian writer
states:

Iranians have found numerous ways to express their sense

of individualism; it is most obvious in their diversity of

opinion and behavior. One American anthropologist

believes that because Iranians do not conform as readily

as do Americans, they have more difficulty in working

cooperatively together. History seems to bear this out.

Powerful land owners have never collectively opposed the

practices of the ruling monarch even though he confiscated

the property of his strongest rivals. Mossadegh is

reported to have said on one occasion: "in our Parliament

each deputy has his own personal opinion and that is why

bills, even the simplest, cannot be passed readily by this
body."16

 

16Arasteh, p. 41.

 

29

Another sociologist, Norman Jacobs, states that Iranian individual-
ist behavior is legendary. He then recites a tale about Khosrovi,
the famous medieval author-philosopher. He writes:
Khosrovi had raised the ire of the clergy for certain anti-
religious sentiments in his writings, and the religious
leaders organized a party to kill him. When the party
came to his house, Khosrovi offered to submit if the party
would nominate a single individual to kill him. Each mem-
ber of the party, eager for the prestige to be gained by
killing the famous Khosrovi, disputed who would be the one
to carry out the decision. In the anticipated confusion,
the clever Khosrovi escaped.
The author then analyzes the Iranian individualistic character by
saying:
Iranian individualism contrasts with the individualism of
the developed societies in which autonomy coexists with a
sense of responsibility to others. In the case of Iran,
rather autonomy coexists with irresponsibility and with

an attempt to avoig any possible entrapping personal com-
mitment to others. 7

These views, though true at times, could not be accepted as a sweep-
ing generalization about the Iranian character at present.

In response to Mossadegh's report on Parliament, one may
observe today that the Iranian Parliament is a fully cooperative
body in its dealings. The difference would probably stem from the
situation and the kind of leadership which the Parliament was and
is receiving. Concerning the feelings of irresponsibility of
peeple and the lack of commitment on their part, it is again a
matter of the situation and of the individual. Many do feel

responsible and socially committed and yet some do not. The author

 

17Norman Jacobs, The Sociology of DevelOpment, Iran as an
Asian Case Study (New York: F. A. Praeger, 1966), p. 252.

 

3.. E... IL: £3.31? .11.... 1. .
...qu..1

If.

30

is of the opinion that the intensity of these feelings should be
questioned rather than their existence. The writer will return to
the subject again in the discussion of education.

Concerning the interpersonal relationships, one may observe
that the society is bound together, to a great extent, by the
personal relationships which take the form of a deep, unquestion-
ingly loyal friendship and provide the links between families, the

18 In addition, the author's observa-

basic units of the society.
tion, in many instances, suggests that most Iranians definitely
develop and rely upon the friendly relationships outside the
family which, in a sense, provide them with greater security.
Jacobs, in his writings, sees these personal relationships in
quite a contrary way:

The Iranian, then, thinks and acts in two worlds, a world

of absolute ethical standards (the inner-self) and a world

of no ethical standards (the outer-self) which is subject

to an empirical test of power and wits. But he must pro-

tect1 he outer-self in this social jungle of all against

all.
Basedcnihis conception, he rules that the world of the outer-self of
the Iranian people is a world of formalized interpersonal relations,
completely devoid of the ethical considerations. Surprisingly, the
fact is that these considerations are biased and in disagreement
with the cultural patterns of today's Iran. There might be game-

playing and mask-wearing behavior in certain situations, but that

 

18B. J. Spooner, Journal of the British Institute of
Persian Studies, Vol. 1 (London: British Academy, 1963), p. 89.

19

 

Jacobs, p. 267.

 

31

is generally nonexistent in interpersonal relationships in the gen-

eral sense of the term.

Fatalism

Fate used to be a frequent theme in Persian literature and
daily conversations. Even today Iranians habitually use the
expression "Enshaalah" (if God wills) when speaking of future events.
Looking through history and the flow of events which the Iranians
have faced would reasonably justify such fatalism. Frequent inva-
sions by the Mongols, Turks, Arabs and Afghans, the absolute
tyranny of rulers, added to the natural disasters such as floods,
earthquakes and epidemics forced the nation to take shelter in
something superstitious and supernatural. In these cases, the
individual alone could not do anything to avoid them but had to

20 In today's

stick to fate and wait for the events to happen.
Iran, though fatalism may have not been eradicated from the roots,
the importance still attached to it depends on the particular
individual and the situation. The majority of Iranians make every
effort to utilize favorable conditions or even to manipulate situ-
ations to gain their ends. But a small minority may still exist
which, due to religious beliefs, adverse and uncontrollable situ-

ations and somewhat social isolation, has had no choice but to be

fatalistic.

 

2oArasteh, pp. 42-43.

 

32

Fear of and Respect for Authority
A society caught in the adverse situation of frequent for-

eign attacks as well as absolute domination by the tyrant rulers
could not avoid the adoption of a code of behavior which enabled it
to survive in that perilous environment. That was the case of
many and probably the majority of Iranians in the past. Arasteh
recites a story from Sa'adi, the famous Persian moralist, which
illustrates how the pe0ple were ruled by a fear of authority even
to the extent of siding with authority at the ministerial level.
The recitation goes as follows: The Vizier (minister) Buzurgmihr
once chose to side with the king on an important issue. When the
other people asked him privately why he had done so, he replied:
"Only God knows the outcome of all matters and he alone determines
whether a man's view is right or wrong. Therefore, the wisest
policy is to follow the king's view; if it proves to be in error,
I have the excuse that I followed him and will thus be spared his
abuse." Sa'adi then concludes with the verse,

To urge a view against the Sultan's (king) view

Is to surrender hope of living too.

If he should say the very day is night,

Say 'Lo the Moon and there the Pleiads bright.'21

So the culture throughout history has been filled with this

kind of authority perception. This fear, which in the past has been

inculcated in the personality of the Iranian individual, now due to

many developments, such as the spread of general education, exposure

 

2ISa'adi, Gulstan, translated from Persian by A. J. Arberry,
quoted in Arasteh, pp. 43-44.

33

to the Western culture, reception of broader communications and
more individual social growth, gives way to respect for authority.
This respect for authority, which is deeply rooted in the Iranian
culture, as is discussed here, holds true mostly at fbrmal levels.
Therefore, it should not be misconstrued that it will apply at all
societal levels and even in interpersonal relationships. Unfor-
tunately, many observers do not differentiate between social cour-
tesy and behavior and that demonstrated in authority relationships.
Norman Jacobs implicitly states that all relationships between
individuals in Iran come to be authoritarian with absolute rigidity
in formal relationships.22 Gable states:
The Mosaic system in Iran is based on agricultural and tri-
bal traditions, both of which are organized on hierarchical
lines. Society is socially graded, and a pattern of domi-
nance and submission is pervasive. The tenant is subser-
vient to the landlord, the employee to the employer, the
peasant to the city-dwelling elite who owns the land, the
enlisted man to the officer. The relationship requires a
ceremonial politeness, eyes cast downward, hands clasped
or hand-over-heart, an "after-you-please" insisEgnce, which
often carries with it an air of obsequiousness.

As it was already mentioned, the observer's misconception
is due to the fact that he does not differentiate between formal and
informal authority. He sees it through the same glasses. The
Iranian does respect authority and, in some cases, does fear
authority. But this conception of authority is of a dual nature.

An aspect of this concept is that one does not have any choice but

 

22

23Richard W. Gable, "Culture and Administration in Iran,"
Middle East Journal 13 (1959): 409.

Jacobs, pp. 256-60.

34

to accept what is being ordered. In this case, the unique Persian
personality comes through. The acceptance is made superficially
but the resulting performance is the minimum required, or doing
nothing if at all possible. The second aspect of the case is that
when the Iranian individual respects the merit, the knowledge and
the expertise which is inherent in authority, then he will accept L,
it and act upon it pr0perly. This phenomenon reminds one of Bar-
nard's conception of authority. If the authority is within the
acceptance or the indifference zone mentioned by Barnard, the

Iranians, like others, will accept it. The difference may only be

 

in the manner of acceptance. It would not be out of place to cite
one more quotation in this regard. Haas, in his insightful percep-
tion of Persian psychology. states:

. . what made the task less difficult was the unhesitat-
ing recognition the Persian has always shown for personal
merit. While he bows readily to power and wealth, with
every outward sign of Oriental submissiveness, he reserves
free and unlimited respect and reverence for superiority
of wisdom, of knowledge, of integrity and of justice.
Authority of this moral kind has always carried weights in
Iran and has contribute? constantly to the maintenance of
social order and peace. 4

To sum up all these different views about authority concep-
tion of Iranians, the author would like to suggest that the Iranians
are very outwardly authority oriented, but they differentiate
between false and true authority. If they see it as false with no
way out of the situation, they will accept it, without taking it

seriously or putting much personal effort into it. But if they see

 

24William S. Haas, Iran (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1946), p. 136.

35

it as true authority, they will accept it with sincerity and will
do their best to carry out its intentions.

As far as the personal and the family relationship is con-
cerned, authority, in the sense stated before, is not involved.
There is, of course, a pattern of dependence, obedience and courtesy
in the family, and a pattern of mutual respect in personal relation-
ships. Neither of these two patterns in the Iranian cultural
standards may be interpreted as authoritarian. To some extent,
however, an authoritarian nature exists if one attempts to relate
the family life situation to real life in the society in terms of
character making and attitude shaping of the individual people.
Still, the author wishes to be cautious in making such generaliza-
tions, for there are, and will continue to be, many exceptions to
this.

Other Worldliness,_Enjgyment of Life
and a New Thinking Pattern

As in other cultures, the Iranian culture used to be divided
into many subcultures such as the two mentioned above which seemed
to be the most popular. Other worldliness, as the term denotes,
reflects a state of mind which does not care about the material
life. Rather, it is a conception of life as a transitory process
which should be tolerated. What is important is the eternity which
will be full of everlasting justice and real pleasures. Therefore,

25

one should prepare himself for such eternal life. Other

 

25The other worldliness conception is both religious and
cultural. The researcher has on many occasions heard the same words
from different preachers as well as others. Though the concept is

 

36

worldliness usually is associated with asceticism and used to
embrace peoples of all classes. Its extreme expression was in the
Persian Sufism where the individual was seeking the union with the
Divine, trying to become devoid of any material needs and self-
loving aspirations.26 Another countergroup to the one just
described was of those people who, due to the unpredictable life
situations they held, used to consider life on a day-to-day basis,
welcoming anything which might happen with no real anxiety about
tomorrow's events. These two so-called subcultures developed very
naturally out of the human condition in Iran. In a social environ-
ment where individuals could not have a hand in its making, there
was no alternative but to resort to the fantasies of the other world
or to live by the day. This pattern of thinking has had certain
implications for managerial behavior in Iran which will be discussed
at a later time.

The new pattern of thinking in material terms for the
Iranians, which the author believes to be of recent origin, seems
to be somewhat parallel to the Protestant ethic of the Western
cultures. Though material gain is not considered exactly as God's
will implied in the Protestant ethic, it is greatly valued for its
own sake. There are other mental revolutions as well. The Iranians

do not live on a day-to-day basis any longer. They do not resort

 

fading gradually, morally speaking, people still have a certain
appreciation for the term, at least in the literal sense of the
word.

26Haas, p. 121.

37

to the other world for eternal peace of happiness. They are becom-
ing realistic in their outlook on life. They have found that the
fantasies of Sufism and a goal of life in an eternity have not
accomplished much and have only promoted stagnation. Therefore,
today the Iranian society appears to be more realistic in perspec-

tive, more competitive in nature, more material minded and, to a

greater extent, more future oriented. An accurate picture of r-
today's Iranian is not presented when looking just at observations
or studies such as those by Haas, Wilber, and Jacobs that have
portrayed a society of several decades ago.
L

 

Evidence of internal changes, which the author is inclined
to call mental revolutions, is based on several facts. In response
to continuous efforts toward furthering material gain and raising
the general standards of living, aspirations to an education to an
extent never seen before, competitive struggles for entrance into
the institutes of higher education, discontentment with the life
situation as it is, and many other changes are all signs of this
mental revolution. It is natural for man to continuously adjust
himself to the emerging life situation. That being so, practically
the face of Iran is changing in all its features. If we accept the
short phrase "the man-made environment" as the definition of cul-
ture, then the Iranian culture along with its overall environment
is changing. In an unpublished report to the government of Iran,
John Macy and his fellow members from the Development and Resource

Corporation in Tehran state that:

 

38

In the course of a brief time period, measured in weeks
and months rather than years and decades, Iran has experi-
enced dramatic change . . .
. an economic revolution has occurred.
. the country has moved from financial deficiency
to financial sufficiency.
. from manpower excess to manpower shortage.
. from aid receiving to aid dispensing in inter-
national economics.
. from predominantly rural to increasingly urban.
. from modest development goals to highly ambi-
tious development goals.
With these dramatic changes have emerged a range of oppor-
tunities for human as well as material progress, for inno-
vations in national programs as well as the importation of
goods and ideas from abroad, for broader distribution of
the benefits of Byogress as well as the increase in
national wealth.

Thus, all these changes, to a greater or lesser extent, have
occurred and are occurring and, accordingly, are altering the cul-
tural characteristics of the Iranian society. Yet one should not
forget that all these changes occur in the Persian cultural refer-
ence. Thus they will carry with them the sublime Persian sense of
history as well as the cultural continuity of the Iranian people.

To speak of a culture in its general sense--namely, of its
configurations of total ways of life, of thinking, attitudes,
motives, norms, and values prevalent in that culture--one needs to
consider further details of the cultural attributes. This considera-
tion would, of course, be legitimate if the purpose here was mainly
to discover the cultural domain of that society from a general sense
to the particular. But the author's intention here, as it was dis-

cussed earlier, is to look at that part of the culture which is more

 

27John Macy et al., an unpublished report on the Iran public
sector (Tehran: Development and Resource Corp., May, 1975), pp.
3-4.

 

1r
Wu.

39

closely related to management and education in Iran. Therefore,

the researcher himself is well aware of shortcomings in the general
sense and is not apologetic for them because he assumes that going
in depth into the culture would require an independent inquiry with
different dimensions and probably a different methodology. Yet the

following section has been designed to complete the cultural picture

1' “'7'

 

F—
of the Iranian society in regard to managerial behavior, which by
itself provides an aid to further cultural understanding.
Part 3. Culture and Managerial Behavior in Iran
There is, unfortunately, very little literature in which L

 

the writer directly addresses the above subject. Yet, the author by
scrutiny of that literature which is available and his personal,
planned observation of the managerial situation in Iran has gathered
what information there is which deals with the subject.

Generally speaking, management, one of the main institutions
of any society, does function in relation to the effects of other
social institutions. Skinner has very aptly dramatized this rela-
tionship. He suggests that management in all countries is the
focal point of four intermeshing systems; namely, political, eco-
nomic, technical and cultural. The elements underlying the cultural
system, according to Skinner, are: values, beliefs, assumptions,
relationships, motivating factors, status symbols, customs, social
institutions, social mobility, education, classes, castes and

literacy.28

 

28C. Wickham Skinner, "Management of International Produc-
tion," Harvard Business Review (September-October 1964): 132.

40

Many of the cultural elements mentioned by Skinner are
covered in the present study of managerial culture in Iran; some
in detail and some in brevity. In addition, the author has covered
certain aspects of Iranian management thought to be of high sig-
nificance in regard to managerial functions. Included in the cov-
erage are functions such as decision-making in the general sense
of the term and aspects such as management organization, inter-
personal relationships, patterns of need and motivation and the

concept of time and work.

Management Organization in Iran

In general, organizations in Iran may be divided into three
categories: public, private and mixed state and private ownership.
Organizations in the public sector have been instituted around the
highly bureaucratic model which regards the top peOple as the
people of knowledge, merit, competence and ultimate authority. As
far as the bureaucratic model of organization extends, there is an
abundance of rules and regulations to govern all aspects and acts
of administrative behavior at all levels of the organization. Public
organizations are highly centralized, with almost no room for the
delegation of authority. The delegation of authority might exist
in some organizations, but that is essentially personal and not a
general phenomenon prevailing in all organizations. Authority
implementation for rendering public services and decision-making is,

therefbre, a slow process, incompatible with the spirit of time.

 

F- m“. —

41

The private sector in Iran, as elsewhere in the world, has
more discretion in determining its organized pattern. In the pri-
vate sector, normally the top man, or the man who has initiated
the business either alone or in cooperation with other friends and
relatives, is the owner-manager (except for a recept development),29
and naturally carries with him the ultimate authority in all respects.
The private organizations usually have fewer levels than public
organizations, and as a consequence, there is less delay and red
tape, as in the overwhelming patterns of public organizations. The
general structure of private organizations has been patterned after
similar counterpart organizations of the West with certain cultural
modifications. The talent and the technical competence of young
managers are utilized better here than in the public organizations.
While in the public sector everything pivots around tenure, seniority
and status, in private organizations the technical authority of
young managers and the economic wit of the entrepreneurs make a good
combination.

The mixed state and private organizations are normally pat-
terned after the bureaucratic model of public agencies but function
under commercial law rather than public service law. In practice,
as far as this researcher views it, there is not much difference

between employees' attitudes of the former organizations to the

 

29According to the 13th Principle of the White Revolution,
the corporate ownership would be shared in terms of stocks between
the original owner or owners and the common laborers. The Principle
?3;5been carried out by many leading industrial organizations in

 

,." DA

42

latter. After all, they are the subordinates of the same boss,
the government.
Interpersonal Relationships and
the Role of Management

Regarding the interpersonal relationships among individuals
in organizations, there is a whole array of observations and specu-
lation. One goes as far as to say that due to certain character-
istics of the Iranians, namely, their individualistic view of
life, their lack of cooperation and their sense of irresponsibility,
only an authoritarian relation between a strong leader and his

30

unwilling follower can accomplish anything. Another observation

claims that the orientation of an Iranian is constantly upward
where authority is found. Naturally, then, when one comes to the
realm of the organization this authority orientation is not conducive
to effective and efficient administration. The sole criterion for
decision-making often is authority and the lack of it leads to
reluctance and irresponsibility toward the organization.31
Another cites the following:
The authoritarian structure of the family extends out into
other areas of Persian life, particularly in relations
between landlord and tenant, and between government and
the governed. Within government itself, authority is

highly centralized. Little is delegated and little ini-
tiative is allowed at lower levels.

 

3O
31

Jacobs, p. 256.
Gable, p. 417.

32Herbert H. Vreeland, Iran (New Haven: Human Relations
Area File, 1959), p. 5.

1

 

'Fm-IT'M‘“

43

In regard to managerial role and behavior, the same observer holds
the view that the system, as a whole, is so designed that every
individual member of the organization is only held to his role and
responsibility. Therefore, one should not expect the Iranian mana-
ger to be highly initiative or overly creative in his organizational

atmosphere.

‘

One of the main problems in this regard, as Professor Sher-
wood puts it, is that the whole administrative bureaucracy in Iran
and its related patterns are outdated and simply incompatible with

the present situation. He cites many experiential examples of how

 

1r

management in Iran, especially the top management, is involved in
the details and the trivialities. In light of the changed situation,
he thinks there should be more discretion at the disposal of man-
agement in the lower level and more time in the higher level of

33 Sherwood rightly perceives the function of manage-

organization.
ment to be quite different at these two levels. By way of summary,
the author would like to add a few points to the authority concep-
tion and the interpersonal relationships which were just discussed.
As mentioned at the outset, the appearance of management
in Iran could be regarded as a system of authority based on formal
superior-subordinate relationships. But, by looking deeper into
the nature of these so-called authoritarian relationships, one

would find many aspects to be unauthoritarian or at least no more

authoritarian than in the Western society.

 

33Frank Sherwood, An interview, Management Todgy 21 (Sum-
mer 1975): 162-68.

44

First, when an organization has been patterned after the
norms of bureaucracy, a Western phenomenon, the establishment of
certain authority relationships in that organization is inevitable.

Second, when organization members, including management,
are reared in a culture which highly respects knowledge, competence
and personal merits associated with authority, then the flow of
authoritarian relationships appears naturally. As William Haas
puts it:

The Iranians reserve free and unlimited respect and rever-
ence for superiority of wisdom, of knowledge, of integrity
and of justice. Authority of this moral kind has always
carried weight in Iran and has contributedsgonstantly to
the maintenance of soc1al order and peace.

Third, by the same token that the Iranian individual merits
the competence associated with authority, if he sees it the other
way around, namely, an authority without competence, then he resorts
to a pattern of pretense, passivity (passiveness) and even resistance
to authority. This perplexing fact is often overlooked by many
observers and misinterpreted by others.

Fourth, it is commonly recognized that Iranians are indi-
vidualistic. If that is so, then ascribing the general attribute
of the absolute authoritarian orientation to them could not be
considered seriously.

Fifth, although Iranian culture expects the individual to

properly recognize authority, it also permits him to retain his

dignity and self-respect. In fact, individual integrity and

 

34Haas, p. 136.

 

45

face-saving are significant aspects of interpersonal relationships,
the very aspects which may be left unseen by the foreign observers.

Sixth, out of the very formal authority oriented relation-
ships, as it appears on the surface, there emerges, in many cases,
a strong bond of friendly, conmitted relationships between top- and
lower-level management which extends to the Operational level. It
happens generally when management is employee-centered rather than
product or organization oriented. This is again one of the aspects
which cannot be easily observed.

Finally, the author is not rejecting the observations made
by others or supporting the role of authoritarian management in
Iran. The author is well aware of the shortcomings and deficiencies
of such a system. The purpose here has been to present a more

realistic and clearer picture of the situation as it is.

Decision-Making

Decision-making, as it is everywhere in the world, is a
difficult function of management in Iran, a function which is not
performed to the point. Decisions are generally authority related,
and most of the decisions, whether important or not, are made at
the higher levels of the organization. Sherwood recites several
examples of how decisions are made in Iran. Though these should
not be considered as the absolute pattern of decision-making, they
are revealing examples. In the course of his study of administra-
tive affairs in Iran, Sherwood finds that in one of the provinces;

the matter of marking taxis has been taken to the governor general

 

46

to decide. If one considers that the governor general of a
province is the top political as well as administrative authority,
then it is easily justifiable to question why he should involve
himself in such trivial matters as marking taxis. In another
instance, Sherwood finds that in order to handle a very simple
matter in one of the far-flung cities in Iran, more than twenty

letters had been sent back and forth from that city to Teheran.

. ._ .. ).

These letters carried about 25 signatures of different authorities.

He also writes about the ministers he has met, saying they are

35

heavily burdened, very tired and exhausted. Norman Jacobs

 

expresses a similar view in regard to superior-subordinate relation-
ships and decision-making. He cites an example of group consulta-
tion, or in native language, "conference," in which important
problems are discussed and acted upon. In such conferences, Jacobs

views that:

The average Iranian soon learns to appreciate what deci-
sions will be made and enforced exclusively by those in
position of superiority in spite of the possible existence
of fermal conferences or meetings to discuss interpersonal
actions. Consequently, in conferences, the kind of tapics
discussed are limited and basic policy never is decided.
Yet conferences are held because, it is claimed, the
decision-makers in the group must always have a chance to
act on alternatives even though ridiculous alternatives
are suggested. In this game of proposing mock solutions,
the illusion of authoritarian infallibility by the
decision-making superior is reinforced. The ordinary
participants, because their suggestions have not been
accepted, once again, ceremonially are removed from the

 

35$herwood, p. 154.

47

area of responsibility and alleged decision-makers are

excused from responsibility, because they may not receive

the proper information, or the good alternatives, upon

which to act.36

This lack of participation in decision-making carries with
it several implications. First, Iranian subordinate managers do
not develop a sense of obligation and commitment toward their
organizations. Second, a feeling of irresponsibility always pre-
vails in the situation. They see that with or without consultation,
decisions are made and they will be the ones to execute those deci-
sions. Therefore, their common reaction to the situation would be,
as Jacobs puts it, "Why should I bother, it is not my job."37
Third, if this pattern continues to develop, which hopefully it
will not, then even simple things will be taken to the top man to
decide. As a consequence, the top authority will be overburdened,
and the lower levels will be busy with trivia. The fourth, and
probably the most important, aspect of it will be the stagnation,
the lack of growth and the frustration felt by subordinate managers.
John Macy and his fellow members in their extensive study

of administration in Iran state a similar view:

In Iran, the making of a decision is conceived to be a com-

mand function, part of the right of the chief in running

his staff or organization. Such a concept appears to be a

product of an elite society, where decisions are not to be

challenged or questioned by underlings who indeed are not

expected to understand what is going on. The landlord-
master-father makes the decision; it is the duty of the

 

36
37

Jacobs, p. 257.
Ibid., pp. 258-59.

n- Plan“ —“

 

 

48

tenant, servant or son to obey. Participation in decisions

is unknown, in fact, antithetical to the relationship. And

gggziiggsmzzg EagzcgglynaEBthe top, no one else has the
Parallel to this approach to decision-making, many observers see
the problem of planning and cooperation. As it might seem evident,
inherent in any planning is decision-making; decisions regarding
what alternative should be chosen from so many available alterna-
tives, and then what approach should be followed for the act of
planning. Planning in Iran, above all, lacks the necessary coopera-
tion among those concerned in the process. Other shortcomings are
over-simplification of the plans, lack of reflection upon relevant
and reliable data and a shortage of planning experience. A common
practice, which has been stopped at present, was for the planning
organization, an independent governmental organization, to decide
upon those bodies who would be responsible for the execution of the
plans. Often this was done with little or no direct participation
from the regular government ministries. Consequently, there was no
sense of commitment and responsibility toward the success or the
failure of the plans that were made.39

The point, again, is that even between organizations and

related matters, the decision process is somewhat unilateral and

lacks the essential cooperation. Rationally, this can be attributed

 

38Henry Reining, "The Problem of Decision-Making in Iran,"
in John Macy et al., an unpublished report on the Iran public
sector (Tehran: Development and Resource Corp., May, 1975), p. 34.

39J. Amuzegar and M. A. Fekrat, Economic Development Under
Dualistic Conditions (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1971), p. 134.

49

both to the individualistic thinking of Iranians and their concept
of authority. Donald Wilber has an extreme view on this point.
He says:

Always marked individualists, the Persians seem reluctant
to enter into group cooperation or to accept collective
responsibility. The Persian is not a junior nor does he
find it normal to work with others toward a mutually
desired goal. This is not due to any lack of initiative
but because his primary concern is for his own family.
Whereas in many countries a feeling of belongingness and
of group association is fostered at the higher educational
levels, at neither the Iranian secondary or college levels,
are student organizations emphasized. 0

Based on Wilber's judgment, which this author does not fully

support, one could conclude that this method of decision-making
without participation and cooperation of others is a cultural trait
of the Iranian society. Baldwin, a fellow of the Harvard Business
School, has been directly involved in the Iranian planning process
for a number of years. He states an interesting but different view
about the planning process and decision-making in Iran. What he
'says essentially is that in Iran, as in many other countries, it is
difficult to get anything done. While it is easier to decide what
ought to be done, in actually deciding what will be done allows a

whole spectrum of difficulties to arise.41

In the light of this
discussion, Baldwin's experience is easy to interpret. As a matter

of interpretation, one could say that decisions are made in a quick

 

40Donald N. Wilber, Iran: Past and Present, 4th ed.
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958), pp. 90-91.

41George 8. Baldwin, "Iran's Experience with Manpower Plan-
ning," in Manpower and Education, eds. Harbison and Myers (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965), pp. 171-72.

 

 

 

50

fashion because the decision-makers at the top make the decisions
without much consideration of practicality or little participation
of the people who should carry them out. As a result, in the execu-
tion process, a whole array of difficulties, both mechanical as well
as psychological, will arise. But the surprising phenomenon is that
Iran is developing in all dimensions. Baldwin himself views this
expansion as paradoxical in the light of the situation he confronts.

As an overview of the decision process in Iran, the author
would like to make the following observations:

First, managerial decision-making in Iran is highly authority
directed. In other words, most of the decisions, whether important
or not, will be taken to the top to be decided.

Second, the managerial decision process in Iran does not
involve all those concerned in the decision. Also, it does not
take place at the level or the point of its impact but far distant
from where it will be executed.

Third, managerial decisions are based more on values rather
than facts. That is essentially so because (a) there might not be
enough factual information available on which to base the decision.
and (b) the top manager mentality assumes superior knowledge and
competence for individualistic decision-making.

Fourth, considerations are personal rather than organiza-
tional. The criteria for decision-making, in the general sense
of the term, are not efficiency, effectiveness, and rendering
better service. They are, rather, personal interest and the

consideration of how the decision may be seen by the superior

51

authority and the extent to which it may affect the position of the
decision-maker.

Fifth, and finally, as may be the case in other countries,
management decision-making in Iran is a process of infbrmality to
some extent. Namely, there are decisions, especially those inter-
related or interorganizational decisions, which come to be made
through informal contacts and friendly relationships. This type of 1
decision-making might have its own negative side effects. In the :
Iranian cultural setting, this is probably the best way to attain

cooperation. As with other aspects, the decision-making process is

 

1" -’“_ [-4.4- .

also undergoing change. The Iranian corporations grow large, the
regional market expands for them and the competition becomes tight.
As the situation grows more complex, the management decisions should
be more factual, and this is the trend today which will extend

naturally into the future.

Punctuality and Time Conception

Historically, in the north European cultures, there appears
a basis for time consciousness, measurement and a sense of punctu-
ality. It appears to many that this time consciousness may have
fostered entrepreneurship and the rise of capitalism in those
states. What does time really have to do with entrepreneurship or
the rise of capitalism? McClelland's work and many similar studies
have found the answer to this question. Knapp and his co-worker
conducted an interesting study in this regard. They selected a

group of students and provided them with a series of tests concerning

52

time. The researcher's purpose in the study was to determine what
correlation there was between students' time imagery conception and
the level of their performance. As a matter of methodology, after
completion of the study, they classified students' attitudes toward
time into three different groups which they called dynamic-hasty,
naturalistic-passive and humanistic. In relating time conception
to the level of performance, or achievement, they found that students
of dynamic-hasty attitudes toward time are more achievement oriented
and do perform better than the students in the two latter groups.
As a result, they concluded that time conception is somehow corre-
lated with the level of performance and achievement.42

This concept is also what McClelland and his co-workers
found on the subject of motivation and achievement. To them,
anticipation of future goals, scheduling and other such concerns
with the measurement of time would characterize the individual

43 Based on the research evidence,

with high achievement motivation.
therefore, there should be a correlation between time conception
and the managerial level of performance and motivation.

One, then, might examine how this concept of time will
come to be realized in Iran. Until recent years it would appear

natural for managers, as well as non-managers, to have a different

time conception. Hall cites several examples of the Iranian culture

 

42Robert H. Knapp and J. Garbutt, "Time Imagery and the
Achievement Motive," Journal of Personality 26 (1958): 426-34.

43David C. McClelland et al., Motivating Economic Achieve-
ment (New York: The Free Press, 1969), p. 22.

 

53

in regard to this notion. He says that many Iranians plan on things,
which they never accomplish, or make appointments, which they never
keep. He gives an example of an Iranian who made an appointment to
meet someone 19 times and never once showed up.44
There are other observations regarding the Iranians' time
consciousness. These speculate that Iranians seem to be late for
their appointments, they seem to delay getting down to business and
they tend to make promises which, in terms of time, may never be

45 All of these observations are true to a certain extent, but

met.
not exactly in the way they are usually proposed. They are true
because time is measured in an environment which is different
physically, technologically and culturally. The author is confi-
dent that the time conception among educated people, of whom there
are many and the subject of several of the observations referred

to here, is similar to that of their Western counterparts. How-
ever, the physical barriers such as traffic in Tehran or lack of
good public transportation create problems in terms of punctuality.
Regarding the delay in getting down to business, this is an Iranian
mentality. Iranians culturally prefer to, first, relate to others
personally and create a climate of intimacy and then turn to busi-

ness. This is disappearing to some extent because of frequent

association with the time-minded cultures.

 

44

45James A. Lee, "Cultural Analysis in Overseas Operation,“
Harvard Business Review 44 (1966): 106-14.

H3119 PP- 40-4].

 

54

The Iranian orientation toward the past, the present and
the future, particularly concerning the area of management, has been
studied by various observers. One says that "history has been Iran's
everlasting claim to fame. In their many darkest hours, particu-
larly during the last two centuries, Iranians have found inspiration
and courage in their more distant and glorious past. But contemporary
Iran is trying to make a history out of its own." He adds in another
statement that: "Iranian reverence for tradition and a glorifica-
tion of the past are easily discernible traits. The past weighs

heavily on the present and therefore the backward orientation

 

weakens the ability of the managers to cope with contemporary prob-
lems and to plan for the future." Amazingly, the observer continues
to say that "the future seems to have little meaning in Iran except

46 In many of

as it is possibly a means of recapturing the past."
the books written about Iran in the past few decades, one can
readily find much similar flowery prose concerning the time notion
among Iranian people.

In general, it is true that Iranians regard the past as
glorious and extol it whenever possible. This is because they have
inherited a past with a history dating back centuries and encompas-
sing so many monumental glories which many others lack. But the
pride in the past does not necessarily affect the present or impair

the future. Aside from so many developmental plans which are made

and administered by the government, people themselves readily show

 

46Amuzegar, p. 8.

55

signs of future orientation. The author has witnessed many
instances in which the very poor, illiterate family is caught in
the middle of the future. The author has observed that the small
children of rural areas walk miles to get to school. There are,
therefore, signs and syndromes for future orientation on the part
of the general public. After all, Iranians as a nation do not plan
to reach the moon, rather, they plan to make a life out of living.
The managerial attitudes toward the future, the way it is perceived 1

and planned for, contain some shortcomings. A few of these are too

 

much involvement in the present affairs of the organizations by top L
managers, too little consideration of the trends of change and too

much attachment to the status quo (for it provides further security

and very little research-based information). For these reasons,

the managerial planning of the future in Iran, as was stated earlier,

could not be expected to be in the same league with the more sophis-

ticated varieties. Yet, it would be unfair to say that all Iranian

managers think in terms of the past and live at present with no

reference to the future. This would be an untrue interpretation

of management time conception in Iran.

Culture and Management Needs in Iran

Basic to behavior is one's physiological as well as psycho-
logical need structure, which is formed through a particular
environment. This environment influences the extent to which each
behavior-related need has been fulfilled or satisfied and the per-

ceived opportunity for further need satisfaction. A discussion

56

of individual need pattern and motivation would be incomplete with-
out reference to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow,
human needs are structured after a hierarchical pattern in which

the basic physiological needs (set) build the foundation (the basis).
Then as an individual develops biologically and physiologically,

other higher needs, namely, safety or security; social love or

 

 

belonginess; esteem, prestige or status; and lastly, self- r‘a
actualization, will emerge in the hierarchy.47 The question which
arises is whether this need pattern of the individual being shows 1
any similarity or disparity to different cultures; if it does

L._

indeed, then what is the extent of such similarities or differences.
Maslow himself makes this point: _

There is now sufficient anthropological evidence.to indi-
cate that the fundamental or ultimate desires of all human
beings do not differ nearly as much as do their conscious
every day desires. The main reason for this is that two
different cultures may provide two completely different
ways of satisfying a particular desire, let us say for
self-esteem. In one society, one obtains self-esteem by
being a good hunter; in another society by being a great
medicine man or a bold warrior or a very unemotional per-
son or so on. 8

The point that could be extracted from the above statement is that
essentially an individual's need pattern or need structure should
be the same all over the globe. The differences that actually exist
are in the way the needs emerge and the degree of their intensity

in different cultures. Actually, this is the individual's

 

47A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1958), pp. 80-91.

481bid., p. 67.

57

"motivational content" in Maslow's terminology, which usually will
be different from the conscious motivational content of an indi-
vidual in another culture.

From a general review of the Maslow hierarchical model of
needs, which has been under serious consideration more than two
decades, one may conclude that from the management standpoint, the
needs which actually become potent are the higher level needs,
namely, the need for esteem, autonomy and self-actualization, or in
more conmon terms, needs for competence, power and achievement.

With this brief introductory note in mind, consider now the

 

management hierarchy of needs in Iran.

Theyphysiological basic needs.--As it may be assumed, mana-
gers by virtue of being managers earn relatively good money, which
in turn fulfills their physiological needs. Although in considera-
tion of physiological need and its level of fulfillment, the stage
of economic development, the standard of living and the management
expectation of material life should be taken into account. For
instance, in Iran, managers, especially the young, newly hired
ones, face a situation in which possessing or renting a house is
difficult to accomplish. Therefore, it is not surprising that
managers, especially the young, respond positively to the money
motive. Generally speaking, managers in Iran are relatively well
off and do better financially than their counterparts at the same
age and education level in other jobs. There are two exceptions

to be noted. First, for those managers who, for one reason or

58

another, have had a long-lasting deprivation Of physiological needs,
there is the possibility that they will continue to be motivated

by these lower level needs. They might never be well satisfied in
this regard or never move to higher level needs. In effect, a need
structure truncation might occur here.49 The second exception,
which might occur, is that due tO the perceived lack Of Oppor-
tunity regarding certain higher needs satisfaction, a reversal in
the order Of need may occur. Examples of this may be in the need
fOr autonomy or in self-actualization. In other words, if a manger
perceives that his Opportunity for growth, recognition and advance-
ment is somehow blocked, he may retreat psychologically to where

he was at the very beginning, where he sees and evaluates every-
thing in terms of money. One other point that should be mentioned
here is that in this type Of study, the basic physiological need

is eliminated from consideration. The reason, as Haire and his
associates implicitly state, is that since the physiological need

is basic and general to all, then it must be satisfied.50

The need for security.--When the lowest level need, namely,
the physiological need, is fulfilled or relatively satisfied, the
second higher order need in the hierarchy, i.e., the need for
security, will emerge. This need appears rather naturally for

one who, having found specific sources for deriving satisfaction,

¥

49Harold Leavitt, Managerial Psychology (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 64.

50Haire et al., p. 76.

59

would be very concerned with securing those sources. Security,
therefore, is not an independent concept but very closely related
to the environment in which a person, manager or non-manager,
happens to work. For instance, an economic environment with full
employment naturally provides more security to the people than an
environment with deficient employment.

In relating managerial motivation and satisfaction to the
need for security, Haire and his associates report that the 3,600
managers studied generally reported a relatively high degree Of
fulfillment, associated with a high importance attached to the need

5] But this might not be the case in other countries.

for security.
As far as the concept is related to Iran, there are some Observa-
tions which state the contrary. Essentially, Jacobs perceived

the life environment of the Iranian individual as being under con-
tinuous pressure, regardless Of his specific position in the hier-
archy Of social stratification. Jacobs believes that Iranians are
under continuous feelings Of insecurity and make all kinds of
efforts tO gain further security.52 Haas has another conception Of
the moral insecurity which many Iranians face. He perceives that
to Iranians, "life resembles a game of hazard, where incalculable
chances, gOOd and bad, emerge and disappear, like bubbles on the

surface Of the water."53

 

51
52
53

Haire et al., p. 75.
Jacobs, p. 251.
Haas, p. 119.

60

Iranians' feelings of security or insecurity can be divided
into different arenas. One is security, as the material sense of
the term; the second is security, as it relates to the position
and the status held. As to the former, the author has Observed
that there is, at least, relatively less feeling Of insecurity.

But regarding the position held, it appears that the feeling Of
insecurity is relatively noticeable. This may be again attributable
tO the individualistic nature Of decision-making and the one-way
directive approach that normally tOp mangers follow. The extent

and the intensity Of feelings Of security Of insecurity in the
material sense of the term will be revealed by the data presented

in the following chapters.

The belongingness and social needs.--After the two lower

level needs Of physiology and safety are fairly fulfilled, the indi-

vidual will lOOk outward searching for love, affection and belonging-

ness. In doing so, different patterns of relationships may develop.
The two principal patterns are (1) relationships based on mutual
respect, love, affection and trust; (2) relationships based upon
the superiority Of one individual and the subordination Of others.
In Iran, in fact as a result of the characteristics of the
social environment, both patterns have developed. On the one hand,
there is a warm, affectionate, personal relationship between the
individual, his family and his clique groups, and on the other hand,
a strong bond Of superior-subordinate relationships among individual

members of an organization. Specifically, the assumption could be

 

61

made that while Iranian managers' need for belongingness is highly

fulfilled, they also attach great importance to it.

The esteem and autonomy needs.--This category Of needs
usually is referred to as self-respect, self-confidence, status,
reputation and prestige, strength, adequacy, mastery, independence,
importance, attention and the appreciation of others.54 According 'rrfi
to Maslow's general conception of need hierarchy, this develops 1
when an individual, who is relatively satisfied in affiliation and

belongingness, retreats into his self and becomes introspective in

 

order to see really what he is and where he stands in relation to , J
his own personal evolution. Some scholars believe that the esteem
and autonomy needs are strongly related to management motivation.
In fact, some go as far as to relate motivation directly to the
management level Of competence.55
White is one of the scholars who concurs with this view.
He suggests that one of the forces Of human motivation is man's
interest in knowing the world around him and having a sense of

56

mastery over it. How this need category applies to Iran will be

considered later. But as far as the available literature permits,

 

54

55Robert W. White, "Competence and the Growth Of Person-
ality," Science and Psychoanalysis 11 (1967): 42-58; see also Lay W.
Lorsch and John J. Morse, Or anizations and Their Members: A Con-
tingency Approach (New Yor : Harper 8 Row, 1974), pp. 37-39)

56Robert W. White, "Motivation Reconsidered, The Concept Of
Competence," Psychological Review 66 (1959): 307.

Maslow, p. 90.

 

62

One might say that the individualistic Iranian would possess a high
need for esteem and autonomy. Though there is the contrary thought
that Iranians have, by force of their nature, developed a pattern

Of dependency.

Self-actualization and the need for achievement.--After the

other lower level needs are relatively fulfilled, there emerges a
need which the author believes will never be fully satisfied; the
need for self-actualization. Self-actualization in Maslow's con-
ception simply means that a man must become what potentially he is
able to become. At the time the concept was new and relatively
unknown, Maslow tried to attach certain traits to it. Some Of the
traits he enumerated are spontaneity, problem seeking, detachment,
autonomy and independence Of culture and environment, the demo-
cratic character structure and creativeness which he believes to
be closely associated with the self-actualization.57 Parallel tO
this explanation of self-actualization, Murray describes the term
achievement in tangible terms. To Murray, achievement is:

to accomplish something difficult; to master, manipulate,

or organize physical Objects, human beings or ideals. To

do this as rapidly as possible. TO overcome Obstacles and

attain a high standard. TO excel oneself. To rival and

surpass others. TO increase self-regard by the successful
exercise Of talent.

 

57Maslow, pp. 199-234.

58E. J. Murray, Motivation and Emotion (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 97.

63

McClelland, who could be considered the originator of the concept,
associates the higher need for achievement with first, those nations
Of greater economic development; second, entrepreneurial and mana-
gerial behavior, which he assumes to have greater need for achieve-
ment than other people. In relating managerial behavior to the

need for achievement, he brings out certain traits to be the syn-
dromes Of achievement, such as risk-taking, novel instrumental
activity, sense Of responsibility, knowledge Of results Of actions
and long-range planning.59

How does this relate to Iranians in general and to Iranian
management in particular? Concerning self-actualization and the
general public, there is a paucity of literature available although
some revealing instances may be shown. First, Iranians have
asserted their need for self-actualization in terms of survival and
a national unity throughout history. Iranians have faced many
tragic events. Greeks, Mongols, Arabs came and conquered the land,
but after some time, they themselves were conquered by the spirit
of "Iranianism" and the creative personalities Of the Iranian
peoples.

Another aspect of self-actualization is realized when
Iranians engage on a personal basis to create arts and crafts for
which so much appreciation is expressed by the Western Observers.
Another facet of the self-actualization in Iran which the author

is inclined tO call spiritual self-realization is reflected in the

 

59David C. McClelland, The AchievingSociety (New York:
0. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1961)} Chapters 2 and 6.

64

Sufism school of thought which in itself tries to reach self-
perfection by the re-union with God and the creation.60 Lastly,
the Iranians' conversion Of Islam to the Shiite creed has been
interpreted by some as a self-reflective measure which "does credit
to the instinct Of self-assertion and self-preservation of the
Persian mind."6]
Concerning the need for achievement, in the modern sense Of
the term, the only minor information available is from McClelland's
study Of achievement motives based on Turkish and Iranian stories
for children. At that time, 1950, McClelland explained that the
score of the Iranian stories regarding the need for achievement was
well below many Of the countries studied, including Turkey. Based
on the data gathered, which were supported by the econometric
measures at that time, McClelland reasoned that possibly the rate Of
economic growth, which was higher in Turkey then, might be associ-
ated with the higher need for achievement as was inducted from the
stories in the children's books.62
If one were to assume that the study carried with it certain
truth and that the concept Of achievement acquisition based on the

"laws Of learning" brought out by McClelland himself is true,63

 

60
61

62David McClelland, "National Character and Economic Growth
in Turkey and Iran," in Communication and Political Development, ed.
Lucian W. Pye (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963),
pp. 152-83.

63David McClelland, "Toward a Theory of Motive Acquisition,"
American Psychologist 20 (1965): 321-33.

Arasteh, pp. 69-73.
Haas, p. 133.

 

65

more probably then, the situation in Iran could not be extended to
the present. For one thing, the books and the stories which were
McClelland's bases for study have been revised and changed several
times. Another factor for McClelland's judgment Of the achievement
motive, namely, the economic situation in Iran, has been drastically
altered. Therefore, if there is any correlation between the need
for achievement and the economic growth, as McClelland believes
there is, then the author would suggest that in today's Iran, par-
ticularly for the young, educated managers, there might be assumed

a high degree Of need for achievement.

 

Part 4. Education in Iran

 

A Historical View

The history of education from ancient Persia through
present-day Iran is as Old as the country itself. In the
Archaemenian times, there was an integrated pattern Of family-
state education which served to build the nation by develOping
citizens who were religious, Of good moral character and patriotic.
In ancient Persia, education started at home simply for children
to Observe and imitate the elders' behavior. As it develOped, it
became a method of keeping the community abreast of the social
norms and values in which there was held a high regard for citi-
zenship, good relationships with others and the community and a
deep sense Of loyalty to the state. There was a rigid family
structure and a highly immobile class system, which served to

strengthen the individual's personality in relationship to the

66

family, the community and the state. Education, in this period,
essentially had three different aspects. First, it dealt with
religious as well as social development of the children in terms

of teaching "good thoughts, gOOd words and good deeds," a religious
creed, and loyalty as well as the social dimension Of a sincere
sense of responsible kin relationship tO the family, the community
and the state. The second aspect pertained mainly to physical edu-
cation as Iranians believed that a good mind should have a healthy
body in which to live. Therefore, there was an array Of physical
exercises such as running, horseback riding, pOlO, swimming and
shooting, which were Often practiced as part Of the community life.
The third aspect could be labeled vocational training in which

each individual child would observe and practice his father's voca-
tion to Obtain a necessary skill. Of course, it should be noted
that along the line Of this general education, Often limited in
scale, there was a special education for the ruling class children
which included reading and writing as taught by the Zoroastarian
teachers. All in all, one may conclude that in ancient Persia, the
general education was of a religious and social character based on
Zoroastarian thought. At the community level, the family held the
major role and the formal education had a preaching nature enforced
by cultural norms and what few teachers were available. It was
only in the higher level Of society where religious teaching was
combined with some general education as preparation for the elite
who were trained to rule the nation. There was also a famous insti-

tute Of higher learning which will be referred to later.

67

The Arab Conquest and the
Chggge in Education

After the Arab conquest Of 642 A.D., the earlier integrated
policies and practices Of education were completely uprooted.
There was a halt in the educating process and a state Of confusion
regarding what should be done. It took about two centuries for the
Persians to become part of the Islamic fabric. After this time,
the Iranians developed their own institutions of learning though in
different form and with different content. Specifically, in this
period which extends to the first half Of the 19th century, there
were five institutions or places in which learning and skill acqui-
sition tOOk place; the family, the mosque, maktab (a kind Of reli-
gious school), madresseh (a school higher than maktab both in form
and content) and the bazaar.

The family: The Iranian family, a departure from a Persian-

 

Zoroastarian culture now in the fabric of Islam, found it essential
to rear and raise its Offspring in certain ways. The family educa-
tion centered around teaching the children to read the Koran and to
write, if the parents were literate, and inculcating religious
beliefs and ideas as well as the social norms. Of course, in the
child-rearing process, the father assumed the unchallenged authority
role which he inherited from his culture. Aside from the teaching
part, which was not common in all families due to the illiteracy Of
the family itself, many other religious as well as social attributes
such as timely prayer and social courtesy and manners were inculcated

and learned through mere imitation and practice.

68

The mosque: Religious teaching found a high place in the

 

Iranian society after the adoption Of the Shiite creed, and
especially in and after the reign Of Safavid dynasty. The teaching
Of the mosque was preaching which consisted of the details Of the
Shiite creed practices, and reading and interpreting the Koran and
many writings Of the Shiite scholars. Comonly, a major part of
the preaching was assigned to extolling the heroic memories Of
Imams, the disciples who the Shiites believed to be the true heirs
to the prOphet, and the merits of virtue, honesty and altruism.
Here, again, the theme conveyed the idea that the Imams and the
Mojtehids, religious scholars, should be obeyed and followed
unquestionably by virtue of their knowledge and merits. This pattern
of religious preaching, though weakened to a certain extent, con-
tinues in the present society in Iran.

Maktabs, either formal or informal, were the first community-
based institutions Of learning established by the local communities
and supported by private contributions and religious foundations.
The curriculum Of maktabs was to teach children how to read the
Koran and other religious texts. Part of this concentrated on
group praying and the choral singing of the religious texts. The
attendants Of maktabs were from all levels Of the community with the
exception Of those few who could hire private teachers for their
children. Here, again, the sole authority rested in maktab-dars
or mollahs, equivalent to school masters, who used to enforce their
authority through corporeal punishment, the kind Of authority

enforcement that was thoroughly accepted by the community.

69

Madresseh: An educational level higher than maktab was
madresseh (school) which was established, in most cases, in more
populated areas and conducted by one or more teachers. At
madresseh, the students were Offered such courses as Islamic
philosophy, literature, science and mathematics. Of course, all
children who had previously attended maktab could not enter
madresseh, for acceptance was based on fortune, interest and apti-
tude Of the student. Here also the teachers were authoritarian in
their instruction, and this was culturally prescribed as illus-
trated by the community acceptance Of the phrase, "teacher's pun-
ishment is better than father's affection." After completing.
madresseh, those who were interested and could financially afford
a higher education would find their way UJthe institutes Of higher
learning such as Nezamiyeh in Baghdad, Neishabur, or other cities.
As an example of the scope Of education in this period, Arasteh
writes that the "record from the Safavid dynasty (1499-1736 A.D.)
states that in Isfahan, the capital city with a population of about
600,000 then, there existed in the sixteenth century: 160 mosques,
100 maktabs and 46 colleges Of theoiogy."64

The bazaar, a familiar term to Westerners, was and still

 

is a place in which trades and vocations Of all kinds were adjacent
to one another. For centuries, because there was no schooling for
any particular trade or vocation, the bazaar itself was used to

function as a schooling ground. Normally, traders and artisans

 

64Arasteh, p. 13.

70

would take their adult sons with them and expose them tO the ways
Of the trades or vocations in which they were engaged. For some
children, this exposition to the father's trade or vocation started
very early in life, because, for one reason or another, they did

not have the Opportunity to attend the maktab. But for many Obtain-
ing the skill Of the trades did not take place until after some
years Of schooling in maktabs and madressehs. In terms of relation-
ships, the bazaar lacked the semi-formal setting Of maktab and
madresseh, yet it held its own rule Of superior-subordinate rela-
tionships which was conducive to the bazaar environment and
relatively essential for skill acquisition. In the bazaar, there
was no curriculum or teaching in the sense which we know today.
Rather, learning would take place by virtue Of Observation and
practice Of the games that others played.

To have a more complete picture Of education in Iran in the
period between 500 B.C. tO 1800 A.D., two more points should be
noted. First, in all types and phases of education, girls were
excluded except for those few enlightened families or the ruling
class and their close circles, who could afford to provide private
'schOOling. Second, in the area Of higher education, both before
and after islam, Iran was known for her zest and support Of
knowledge to which many scholars from all areas were attracted.
Jundishapoor University in the Sassanian period, and later, after
the Islam takeover, similar institutes Of higher learning in
Neishabur and Merv are a few Of the well-known institutes to be

mentioned. One should not forget, though, that higher education

71

was only for the few who had the desire, the ability and the finan-
cial support to pursue it.65
In relating the review Of the literature pertinent to edu-
cation in ancient and medieval Iran to the purpose Of the study,
the writer would like to draw attention to certain Observations:
First, Persians from earliest times have regarded education
as a high virtue in relation to the family, to the community and to
the state. The daily prayers Of parents in ancient Persia Offered
such a theme:
Oh, Ahuramazda, endow me with an educated child; a child
who will participate within his community; a child who will
fulfill his duty in society; a child who will strive for
the happiness Of the family, his city, and his countr ; an
honorable child who may contribute to other's needs.
Another instance is the advice given by Pandnameh Azarbad, a book
Of Zoroastarian:
See that your wife and children pursue knowledge and virtue.

If you have young children, boys or girls, send them to schools
because the torch of living is the light and vision Of the eye. 7

 

65A. R. Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening in Iran
(Leiden,Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1969), pp. 1-27; Wilber, p. 202;
Harvey Smith et al., The Area Handbook of Iran (Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 165-76; Clifford Bos-
worth, The Ghaznavids (Britain: Edinburg University Press, 1963),
pp. 171-202; L. P. Elwell-Sutton, Modern Iran (London: George
Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1942), pp. 40-51; Sir Percy Sykes, A Histor
Of Persia (London: Macmillan & Co., 1951), pp. 102-14 (Chap. iix);
Clement Huart, Ancient Persia and Iranian Civilization, trans. M. R.
Dobie (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927), pp. 152-54; and C. Colliver
Rice, Persian Women and Their Ways (Britain: Riverside Press, Ltd.,
1923), pp. 149-59(Chap. xiii).

66Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening, p. 3.
67H.I.M. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, The White Revolution
(Tehran: The Imperial Pahlavi Library, 1967), p. 104.

 

 

72

Education, therefore, has been of great importance and has been
regarded as a high virtue in the minds Of Iranians.

Second, child-rearing practices and the educational processes
were intended to develop a patriotic character, community-minded
and family-loving individual who would sacrifice himself for the
community and the state if necessary.

Third, to develop such character, the educating process
occurred in an environment of sole authority. In some cases, this
authority was based on fear Of the elders, particularly fathers and
teachers with the mothers Offering a sympathetic, affectionate
counterbalance.

Fourth, the authority relationships between fathers and their
children and teachers and their pupils were mostly based upon trust,
respect and indulgence. It was not a relationship out of fear or
threats, as it sometimes appears in specific cases.

Fifth, and finally, as one may conclude by now, the education
process in ancient Persia and in the medieval era did not pursue the
Objective Of individual development to reach his ultimate potential.
Rather, it aimed at extracting obedience and loyalty Of the individual
citizen to the family, to the community and to the state. This
pattern extended to the pre-modern system Of education and extends,

to some extent, to the present system as well.

73

Pre-modern Education in Iran68

According to Arasteh, the Iranian defeat by Russia in 1828
greatly alarmed the government and the nation. The defeat and
disorder that followed led to administrative reorganization and
later to establishment of an institute Of higher education to prO-
vide personnel for the government bureaucracy. In addition to this,
close contact was begun between Iran and some Of the European
countries, which by itself created more demand for change,
especially in the area of education. In 1951, the reform-minded
Amir Kabir, then the premier to Nasir-al-Din Shah, established the
first poly-technique Of Iran, called Dar-al-fonun. The purpose Of
establishing this school Of higher learning was originally to train
military Officers for the improvement of the administration Of the
Army. But soon, the school, which was staffed mostly by Austrian
professors, broadened to include several other fields such as medi-
cine, chemistry and pharmacy, engineering and mining and other minor
fields. These steps taken, though, could not be considered as a
major effort toward modernizing education in general. But, in
fact, it was the beginning of change in education in Iran. Preced-
ing the Opening Of the school, a group Of Iranian students who had
studied sporadically in local madressahs were sent tO foreign
countries for further education. A few years later the first groups

Of graduates, both from Dar-al-fonun and abroad, by virtue Of being

 

68The term pre-modern has been adopted by the author to
cover a period starting from the first half Of the nineteenth
century through the 19605 when some major steps were taken to
modernize education in Iran.

74

exposed to a different style Of education and unhappy with the
political situation initiated the noise and the demand for better
education.69
In tracing the development of education in Iran, one cannot
overlook the fact that the schools that were established by differ-
ent foreign missionaries have played a role as well. In 1836,
fifteen years prior to Opening the Dar-al-fonun, the first American
school was established in Rezaieh, a city in Eastern Iran, populated
by Assyrians and Armenians for the most part. This school and
several others to be opened later were conducted by the Presby-
terian Board of Foreign Mission. In addition to these American
schools, there were British, German, French and Russian schools in

70 In the years follow-

Operation in various parts Of the country.
ing, namely, from 1855 to 1911, when the administrative structure
Of the Ministry of Education was founded, further interest in
education developed and became significant for the future Of the
nation. But naturally during this period in which the country was
undergoing radical political changes, such as the revolution Of
1906 and later the Reza-Sha's coup-d'etat in 1921, many enlightened
Iranians and religious scholars were involved in the changeover.
There frequently was little place for a sufficient attention to

education.71

 

69
70
71

Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening, pp. 27-29.

Wilber. pp. 202-3.
Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening, pp. 32-37.

75

Based on the available literature, one may conclude that
schooling, in the modern sense Of the term, started somewhere
between 1911 and 1925, the year in which Reza-Shah the Great, the
head Of Pahlavi dynasty, ascended the throne. There was a formally
established Ministry of Education headed by a cabinet member, a
minister; several department heads, each responsible for certain
functions; and several other lower authorities. The Ministry Of
Education was essentially charged with the responsibilities Of
supervising and administering the internal affairs Of the Ministry,
carrying out the educational laws for the furtherance Of education
and providing for compulsory education and the promotion Of second-

72 Later in the course Of time as pre-

ary and higher education.
elementary, elementary and secondary education grew in magnitude,
the bureaucratic structure of the Ministry Of Education was
expanded accordingly. Also, certain functions, such as adminis-
tration Of higher education, of endowment and Of art and culture,
were taken away from the Ministry and given to new ministries
fOunded for these same purposes. Prior to 1968, the administrative
structure and the functions Of the Ministry were along the same
bureaucratic model as the original organization. It was a central-

ized administrative structure in which every detail Of education was

determined at the ministerial level with no authority delegated

 

72Adminstrative Law Of the Ministry Of Education, Arts and
Endowment Tehran: hfinistry Of Education,41910), p. 51.

76

73 The pattern is still very much the same

downward in the system.
except for some developments to be referred to later.

Speaking in terms Of quantity, education in Iran has grown
extensively in the past fifty years. From almost nothing in 1925,
it has grown tO a population Of 7.7 million pupils and students in
all levels Of education today. It is by itself a great leap for-
ward to educating the society, though it is far from being ideal.

The following figures, from the 1940 yearbook published by the
Ministry Of Education, show that rate Of growth from the standpoint

 

of sheer numbers:74

Year Number Of Total Graduates Number Of
Schools Enrollment Boys Girls Total Teachers

1924-25 3,285 108,959 1,498 380 1,876 6,089

1939-40 8,281 457,236 10,442 3,367 13,809 13,078

In a report issued by the Ministry Of Education in 1973, a
comprehensive comparison Of two different periods takes in all
levels, including kindergarten, elementary, literacy corps, second-
ary and teacher training institutes.75

Comparison figures are listed below.

 

73

74Ministry Of Education, Statistical Yearbook: 1940
(Tehran: The Ministry, 1940), p. 15.

75

Arasteh, Education and Social Awakenigg, pp. 223-36.

Farrakh ROOie Parsai, Kayhan Journal, January 8, 1973,

77

 

Number of
1962 1972

Kindergartens 245 431
Elementary schools 12,451 23,001
High schools 1,207 2,606
Guidance & orientation schools --- 2,312
Vocational schools 66 237
Teacher training institutes 39 94
Schools for exceptional children --- 105
Teachers 68,895 143,900
Pupils 1,885,000 5,545,000

In late 1975, His Imperial Majesty the Shananshah reported
to the Parliament that in the current school year (1975-76) about
7.7 million students were attending various kinds of schools at all
levels Of education.76 His figures showed 43,000 schools and 184
institutes of higher learning in the country with 149,000 students
in Iranian colleges and universities and 40,000 students abroad.
SO it appears that quantitatively, education in Iran has expanded
to the point of having many large and expensive institutes. How

the quality Of the product stands in relation to the quantity is a

point to be considered later.

The character and the traditions of educat1on in Iran.--

 

According to an Old Iranian educator, Issa Khan Sadiq, the character
of Iranian education has been defined by the seven following areas

Of religion, private initiative, discipline, French influence,

 

76H.I.M. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Kayhan International,
September 13, 1975, p. 2.

 

78

centralization, social attitude and a deterministic point of
view.77

1. Religion: As was discussed in the course of the pre-
vious review of the literature, Iranian education historically has
been closely associated with religion, both in the Zoroastarian
era and in the Islamic period. Sadiq states that for about thir-
teen centuries, the Zoroastarian religion was the nucleus of educa-
tion. The minister, Buzorgmehr, a scholar-politician, wrote that
"a man should spend one of three parts of every day and night in
getting religious training and asking sensible questions of pious
men.“ When the country was conquered by the Arabs in the seventh
century, the religion changed but the tradition remained the same.
Religious training, therefore, continued within the family, the
community, through the mosques and maktabs and later was reinforced
by the sanction Of law through formal education.

2. Private initiative: Before 1851, the government was,
for all practical purposes, uninvolved in education. Rather, there
were families and communities who sought education for their chil-
dren. Mosques, maktabs and madressehs were among the institutes
founded and supported for this purpose. Later, local merchants and
tradesmen taxed themselves for the sake of supporting their schools.
The aristocrats, though they held most Of the wealth, did not par-

ticipate in supporting the private system. They had their own

 

77Issa Khan Sadiq, Modern Persia and Her Educational Sys-
tem (New York: Teachers Training College, Columbia University,
1991 ) . pp. 39-55.

79

private tutoring. It was in 1926 that Parliament passed a law
that called for one-half Of one percent Of the land revenues of
the country to be collected for education. This was not in effect
very long, however.

3. Discipline: From the earliest times through recent

 

years, the schooling in Iran has been characterized by extreme
severity and rigidity, a pattern which was sanctioned by the com-
munity and the culture. An illustration is this philosophic line
from a Sa'adi story: "A king sent his son to school and hung a
tablet Of silver round his neck. On the face Of the tablet he had
written in golden letters: The severity Of the master is more use-
ful than the indulgence Of the father." This tradition of severity
and corporeal punishment, even though forbidden by a law passed in
1911, continued to influence education until very recent years when
the community has changed its attitude toward it.

4. French influence: Iran has turned to France more than

 

any other nation for access to Western education. At the time Of
developing the school system and its curriculum, there were, of
course, other alternatives available. The American, as well as
British system, was known to the Iranians. Yet because Of the
psychological closeness that Iranians felt toward the French people
and the inspiration of the French Revolution that guided the Iranian
Revolution Of 1906, they turned to the French system. The reflec-
tion Of French influence could be seen in the organization and
administration Of education, its methods Of teaching curricula,

examinations and standards. Only in the past few years has the

8O

counter-influence Of the United States, as well as other educa-
tional systems, been felt in elementary, secondary and higher

education.

5. Centralization: As was briefly mentioned before, edu-

 

cation in Iran has been highly centralized. The Ministry Of Educa-
tion in Teheran has traditionally controlled almost every aspect
Of education through an organizational chain Of command which
reaches all the way to the most remote villages. The line Of
authority goes from the Minister of Education and his particular
undersecretaries descending to the provincial director, the dis-
trict chief of education, a sub-district chief Of education in the
cities and, finally, to the school principal and the individual
teacher. There has been a change which will be discussed later.
6. Social attitudes toward teachers and children: Origi-

nally, the social attitude toward teachers was one of high esteem.
Teachers were considered close to disciples and were regarded with
much respect. Even in the Islamic period and the centuries that
followed, teachers were highly respected. Through the course Of
time, a children's verse developed that reflected this respect:

Six duties are Of supreme importance to man

The first is the duty to God the absolute

Then comes the duties to Mother and Father

TO the Teacher, tO the Shah, and the PrOphet.

If thou accomplishest these few duties

There will descend upon ghee the bounty

Of the Most Benevolent.7

In a later period, especially in the years before 1911, because Of

the high demand for literacy, anyone could Open a school and teach.

 

78Sadiq, p. 41.

81

This, tO some extent, lessened the esteem attached to the profession
Of teaching. Still, in today's Iran, teachers are generally well
respected. But teachers themselves find little satisfaction in the
public attitude. The prevailing attitude regarding children,
especially in the rural areas, was one that expected them to become
productive citizens as soon as possible. In the case of girls,
education was almost neglected in the past. Today, according to the
law, there is no difference in educational Opportunity between girls
and boys, and the emerging communities sanction the law and neces-
sity of education for all children.

7. Deterministic view of education: The last area Sadiq

 

presents is the tradition that if children have the ability to
learn, education will have an effect upon them. Otherwise it will
not. This attitude has changed both at the formal and the informal
levels. The Iranian family, in general, has great hopes that its
children will be educated regardless Of their ability. This view

is held at both levels, also. As stated in the plan for education
during the Third Plan Period (1962-67), "The aim of the Iranian edu-
cational system should be the development, through knowledge and
training, of the full potentialities Of the individual. The ulti-

mate Objective is the education Of all citizens for living."79

The school system: ,pre-schooling, elementary_and secondary

education.--Previously, there was not much attention to pre-schOOl

 

79Education, Third Plan, Division Of Economic Affairs
(Tehran: Plan Organization, 1961), p. 23.

82

education for children. What little was done in this regard
occurred in the family and not outside of it. The material usually
taught in this period was mainly of a religious character. The
essential parts Of pre-schooling were learning how to pray and
fOrming certain social behaviors. Presently, especially in larger
towns, there is a tendency to have a preparatory class held before
the first grade to which children under seven years of age are

80 As was mentioned before, in 1973 there were more than

admitted.
500 kindergartens in operation.
Before 1970, the school system was patterned in three cycles:
six years in elementary school and two cycles Of three years each
in the secondary level. In the first six years, which was the
compulsory course by law, children used to learn reading, writing,
religion, morals, Object lessons and hygiene, geography, history,
arithmetic, geometry and other subjects. The methodology Of learn-
ing was rote memorization and recitations Of the material learned.
The curriculum, the methodology and the overall programs of ale-
mentary education were fixed by the Ministry Of Education and
carried out similarly all through the country. Essentially, school
buildings had several classrooms with no sanitary facilities,

especially in rural areas. Many of them lacked sports fields,

libraries, and other facilities which the modern schools have.8

 

80
81

Sadiq, p. 56.
Sadiq, pp. 56-60.

83

Later, as education expanded in scope, more school buildings were
constructed. These were located in many cities and even in small
towns and were based on the total population and the school-age
population, as well as the ability of local administrators to get
approval and money from higher levels. Yet, they were not buildings
which could be considered to be modern educational facilities.82
In today's Iran, though, many more modern schools are being built
and the Older ones are being renovated.

As a result of the increase in elementary education, second-
ary education also expanded. In June, 1929, there were 9,549 pupils
in the secondary schools Of Iran.83 Thus far, it has expanded to
the extent that in 1972-73, there were more than 800,000 pupils at

84 The secondary schools used to have a

the secondary levels.
course of six years, two cycles Of three years, organized in order
to prepare pupils for entrance into institutes Of higher learning.
The curriculum in the first cycle consisted mainly Of Persian,

religion, Arabic, French or English, mathematics, natural science,

history, geography and a subject called civil instruction. The

second cycle, which was a preparatory stage for colleges and

 

82The author recalls that he was fortunate enough to attend
school in a building that was previously the Khan's palace. It was
a spacious building with two pools, flowing water, and a large garden.
The various rooms were used for classrooms and the surrounding areas
used as sports fields. There was no library or other facilities.

83

84Census Bureau, Statistical Yearbook (Tehran: The Bureau,
1972), p. 95.

Sadiq, p. 62.

84

universities, was divided from the beginning into three sections:
letters and literature, natural science and mathematics. Upon
completion of the first cycle, pupils who were continuing their
education selected one of the three sections. Their selection as a
career choice was dependent upon graduation from the second cycle
and admittance to a college.

The curriculum of each cycle emphasized the course subjects
which were most relevant to the section selected. The methodology
was an extension of the elementary methodology. namely, memorization
and recitation of materials. The school buildings were somewhat
better than elementary buildings, but many Of them lacked libraries,
laboratories and other desired facilities. Because of the nature Of
the methodology, these facilities, even if possessed, were not needed
to accomplish instruction.

The expansion Of secondary education, the nature Of its
curriculum and methodology and the lack Of capacity Of the universi-
ties and colleges to accept all graduates from the secondary level
created a dilemma for the Iranian youths. To this time, it has not
been fully resolved, though some measures have been taken to avoid
the recurrence of the situation in the future.85 This will be dis-
cussed later under modern education in Iran. As is evidenced
through this review, secondary education was largely devoid Of prac-
ticality and it did not reflect at all the life realities and the

requirements Of the work environment. What secondary education

 

85Sadiq, pp. 55-82; also see Arasteh, pp. 85-105; and
Harvey Smith et al., pp. 168-172.

85

actually produced every year were tens Of thousands of frustrated
graduates who neither could enter a college or university nor the
work market. They essentially lacked any special capability to
enter a factory or a profession. Therefore, the pressure was for
one to get into a college at home or, if financially able, to go
abroad for further education. Of course, by way of necessity, the
government used tO employ and retrain many Of the graduates for
different jobs in public institutes. Also, a sizable number Of
graduates entered the private sector in clerical jobs, for which
they were not mentally suited. Secondary education in Iran seemingly
has failed to meet the purpose of its foundation. From the very
beginning, there were not clearly defined Objectives, especially
fOr secondary education, except to prepare the students for college

and later for government bureaucracies.

Literacy corps and its dimensions.--Iran, as was explained
at the outset Of the study, is a large country which by itself
covers more area than many of the EurOpean countries combined.
Demographically, the country consists Of one metropolitan area:
Tehran, about 200 cities with populations between 5,000 to 500,000
and over 66,438 small towns and villages with populations below
5,000. Of the last group, there are 29,150 villages with popula-
tions between 300 to 1,000 persons as well as 18,775 villages with
less than a hundred population.86 The vast geographic area, the

widely scattered population and the lack Of roads, transportation

 

86Census Bureau, Statistical Yearbook (1972), p. 20.

86

and other facilities explicitly reveal the difficulties in carry-
ing out any comprehensive schooling program. The statistics show
that, in 1963, the year in which the literacy corpsmen were actually
dispatched to the villages, only 24 percent Of the children in the
villages went to school. At that time the rural population of Iran
was almost three times that Of the urban population, and the number
Of school-age children who were being deprived of any schooling was
revealing.87 Simultaneously, there were thousands Of Iranian youths
who were graduates Of high schools with no place fOr them in the
universities and with no skills needed by the market. The wise plan
was to engage these people in a productive function which would
benefit the nation. That was accomplished through the literacy
corps.

The young high school graduates, instead of being drafted
by the Army, were absorbed into the literacy corps in cooperation
with the Ministry of Education. The young literacy corpsmen
received four months Of basic military education and relatively
extensive orientation in their respective missions. They were
acquainted with methods Of teaching as well as the social and
physical environment Of the villages to which they would be sent.
Administratively, the literacy corpsmen would function under the
sub-district chief of education in related cities or towns in
cooperation with a liaison teacher Of the same school system. The

curriculum and the methodology were essentially the same as in other

 

87H.I.M. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, p. 109.

87

elementary schools. As might be expected, the first time the
corpsmen were sent to the villages, there were few schools or, in
many cases, not even any buildings to be used as a school. But
as one Of the corpsmen put it, "When I got to that far-flung vil-
lage out there in Baluchestan, the people's reception was so warm,
appreciative and friendly that soon I found myself working with them
in the building Of a school." The achievements Of the literacy
corps within a period Of ten years (1963-1973) have been that, in
the school year 1972-73, 23,940 schools were in operation and
serviced more than 1,664,381 children and 113,054 adults. In the
year that followed, from April, 1973, to April, 1974, 8,486 new
schools were built and opened in the villages all over the country.
As Of January, 1975, the report states that 29,400 Iranian villages
each had one school, of which 15,200 schools are run by the literacy
corpsmen and the rest by ex-corpsmen who now have been formally
employed as teachers by the Ministry Of Education.88
Taking into consideration the diverse factors involved in
the situation, an appraisal of the effort of the literacy corps can
be made. As the term conveys, it has been formed to bring many
illiterates, especially the children, to the light Of literacy; it
has never aimed at educating masses of illiterates in rural areas
according to the known standards Of modern education. It carries
with it the same characteristics Of formal schooling conducted by the

Ministry Of Education. But it has an apparent advantage: that

 

88Hossein Al Ebrahim, "Literacy Corps: The Symbol Of
Iranians' Thinking Process," Kayhan Journal,January 26,1975, p. 7.

88

is the zest and the interest of rural children which is so

pleasantly obvious to the visitor in the villages.

The training_of teachers, literacy corpsmen and the educa-
tional administrators.--Teachers: Throughout the years since the
founding of the Ministry of Education and the new school system,
many approaches have been'taken in teacher training. According to
Arasteh, after legal sanction of education and the establishment
of the formal system, the demand for elementary school teachers was
so high that the schools virtually hired anyone who could read and
write and accepted many who had only a traditional maktab education.
In 1918, the first Boys Normal School (equivalent to a teacher
training school) opened in Tehran. The lower level of the school
instituted a program to prepare elementary school teachers. The
applicants had to have a sixth-grade certificate to enroll in the
three-year course of study to prepare them for teaching. Some
years after, a similar school was opened for girls. Since 1929,
there has been continuous growth in establishing new teacher training

89

schools. Presently, there are training schools in almost all

90 However, the

major cities of Iran, numbering over 94 in 1973.
previous requirement of a sixth-grade certificate has been changed
to the ninth-grade level, allowing for two more years of special
training for certification as teachers. Certainly the level of

education, the eleventh grade, the age and the experience of the

 

89Arasteh. Education and Social Awakening, pp..122—25; see
also Smith et al., pp. 173-75.

90Parsai, p. 5.

89

graduates do not appear to be the best criteria for teaching. Yet
because of the applicability of the method and of other limiting
factors, this has come to be a pronounced way of providing teachers
for provinces, cities and other localities.

Literacy corpsmen: All literacy corpsmen are graduates of

 

high school. To prepare them, they receive four months of basic
military training and relatively extensive training in the method-
ology of teaching rural school children. Four months seems to be
too short a period for qualification. But the circumstances of
having a high school diploma and undergoing eight hours of daily
training for four months justifies to some extent the individual
competency.

Educational adminstrators: According to Article 9 of the
Fundamental Law of the Ministry of Education, an elementary principal
is required to be over thirty years of age and to have a high school
diploma and the principal of a high school must have a diploma-from
a higher institution. The principal should be of sound character,
have no police record and be free of any immoral behavior.91 As
is evident, no other requirements have been outlined for educational
administrators. In fact, the law and the legislators have made the
assumption that administering the affairs of a school is a matter
of common sense and does not require special education. In recent

years, though, the Ministry of Education has held short summer

classes for a group of principals in which they were very briefly

 

9]"Fundamental Law of the Ministry of Education," 1911,
reprinted in Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening, p. 229.

 

90

acquainted with the administrative terminology. The institutes of
higher learning, such as Teachers' Training University and the
College of Education, a faculty of Tehran University (in which the
author is a part-time teacher), have included two to fOur hours of
educational administration in the curriculum. The course content
essentially covers a brief discussion of the administrative structure
of the Ministry of Education and a relatively comprehensive review
of the administrative theories regarding education. In practice,
though, very little attention is paid to this course. For one thing,
the students in these two institutions assume themselves to be pros-
pective teachers of high schools and not prospective principals.
Secondly, there is an assumption that to be an administrator, one
does not have to have specialized education, rather one must meet
other criteria. In general, the lack of special education for admin-
instrators creates a serious shortcoming which will be addressed in

the last chapter.

Thg_ggals of education.--So far, this presentation has been
a brief review of education in Iran. Here, in the final part con-
cerning the pre-modern education, the writer intends to review
briefly the objectives of education as perceived by the law and by
one of the scholar-educators in 1931. According to the law, the
objectives of education have been regarded as training in religion.
morals, science, and physical fitness, in the broad sense of the

terms.92 No further explanation or details of the objectives could

 

921bid., p. 228.

91

be found. Using the Iranian desire for prosperity, national soli-

darity, a healthy citizenship and religious morality as a basis for

his perception of education, Dr. Sadiq depicts a scheme of educa-

tional objectives on which the educational programs must be built:

1.

To create in the minds of the people a living conscious-
ness of the past by showing the great achievements of
the race during its long existence, in spite of great
calamities and misfortuntes, wars and struggles.

To train boys and girls to become good citizens of
modern Persia, that is, to share those ideals which are
the idealsof the Nation, and to cooperate with their
countrymen for the attainment of those ideals. To
train the girls to be worthy mothers of the coming gen-
eration, upon whose education rests the future of the
Nation.

To teach by precept and by example that God extends his
blessings to those who have good thoughts, good words,
and good deeds, which are the bases of righteousness and
tolerance.

To teach the rural people and the tribes how to live,
how to make a home, how to furnish it, how to prepare
food and clothing, how to prevent diseases and to
acquire health habits; in other words, how to live may
be more important than mere learning of the rudiments of
literacy.

In secondary schools and in institutions of higher learn-
ing and the university the gifted youth must be trained
for leadership and service in the State. They must be
given a vision of Persia's place, past and present, in
the world, with the ideal of leading the country in cul-
ture, science, technology, business, statesmanship, and
government to such a height as befits a progressive
State.

In special schools those skilled workers who are to lead
in their callings must be trained for vocational effi-
ciency and must be given a sense of their responsibility.

The promotion of health and healthful sports must be
stressed in all schools.

92

8. Finally, the youth must be trained to use their leisure
time intelligently by aesthetic activities (paintings,
songs, music, dramatics, and plays), by social activi-
ties (visiting, parties, receptions, competitive games,
clubs), by pleasure in reading, by intellsgtual inves-
tigation, and by constructive activities.

Modern'Education'in Iran

 

The term modern education is used here to describe a period
from 1966 to the present in which several important measures were
taken. It should not be construed that the word modern is used in
the absolute sense of the term. It is relative to what education
was before and the changes that have occurred later. Measures, which
the author believes are of a modern nature, are those such as rela-
tive decentralization in education, more emphasis on vocational
education, new schooling system and the free education. There are,
of course, many shortcomings and many limiting factors, but the fact
is that steps for improvement have already been taken. The first
step to be discussed here is the measure taken toward decentraliza-
tion of education, namely, establishing a legal entity to look at

education at the regional level.

ngional Board of Education

The main objective stated in the plan for decentralization
of education is to encourage people to participate in the educational
affairs of their regions, cities and town. This measure not only
upgraded education but created cohesiveness and esprit de corps among

the people in the social context, which had been a disappearing

 

93Sadiq, pp. 84-85.

93

phenomenon in regard to education. The author, through the review
of the pertinent literature as well as through his observation, has
noticed that the more the state gets involved in education, the
more people alienate themselves from educating their children. To
avoid a continuance of this trend, to initiate more participation
on the part of people and to avoid further centralization in the
Ministry of Education, the above plan was initiated.

Specifically, the objectives of the Regional Board of Educa-
tion are the following:

1. To encourage people to further participation in
the regional education.

2. To enhance the local resources and to encourage
people to invest further in education.

3. To resolve local problems, where they arise and
avoid the amassing of problems within the Ministry
of Education.

4. To determine the local priorities in educational
planning.

5. Finally, to help people to grow and be prepared

for having the advantages of a democratic
government.

The structure of the board.--The Regional Board of Education

 

consists of:

a. Formal authorities of the city: chief of city asso-
ciation, mayor, chief of financial section and the
chief educational administrator in the city.

b. Representatives of different institutes: representa-
tives of schools and universities (if one exists in
the area), high schools, principals and representa-
tives of commerce, of industry and of rural cultural
houses.

94

c. The selected representatives of the people: in addi-
tion to the members mentioned above, two to seven
persons will be selected from the people in each
locality, using population as a basis for the alloted
number.

The authoritygof the Regional Board of Education.--It should
be noted that the Regional Board of Education resembles a legislative
body without power of execution. The authority delegated to this
body consists of:

a. Authority in local planning.

b. Authority in administrative and financial concerns.

c. Authority in educational concerns such as increas-

ing the number of schools, improving the sports

fields, libraries, laboratories, etc.
Of course, the authority given is to be carried out within the policy
structure of the Ministry of Education and the general developmental
plans of the government.94

In a review of this relatively progressive law, it can be
seen that people are given the opportunity to participate in the edu-
cation of both children and adults by determining what their needs
and priorities are and by planning for their educational needs. The
creation in itself of such a body is an encouraging sign and a con-
siderable step toward modernizing the education process and making
it meet the needs of the nation realistically. The scope of the
board relieves the Ministry of Education of many administrative

problems that can be handled regionally, although curriculum

 

94Foundation Law of Regional Board of Education (Tehran:
Ministry of Education, 1970), pp. 3-33.

 

95

planning,determination of textbooks and methodologies to be used
are still denied to the regional authority. In spite of the advan-
tages to the regional arrangement, several principals feel it will
not last if it is not taken more seriously and given more considera-
tion at the Ministry level. Among the functions which the board
should perfbrm are budgeting of the educational expenditures of the
region, modifications in the approved budget, incentive payment for
teachers, hiring new teachers out of the local budget, levying taxes
for educational purposes, determining the number of schools--elemen-
tary, vocational, teachers' training or high school--and upgrading

the quality of education.

The New System of Education

As was noted in the review of the literature, the previous
system fbrmat of 6-3-3 did not meet the purposes of education in
Iran, especially in the face of recent development. It did, however,
produce thousands of high school graduates who neither could enter
the universities and colleges because of lack of admission space
nor enter the job market for the lack of any marketable skill. 0n
the other hand, the nation, and especially its newly emerging
industry, badly needed the skilled manpower. Necessarily, there
came to be a change in education. The new system of education has
been planned to meet these emerging needs as well as to develop

ultimately the potentialities of Iranians.

The structure of the system.--The new system is comprised

of three stages of education. The first stage covers five years of

96

general education and is compulsory for all children from 6 to 12
years of age. The second stage consists of three years of junior
secondary studies which are used for educational and vocational
guidance. Under the direction of teachers and counselors, interests
and aptitudes are determined and students are directed to a future
career. It is, in fact, a primary vocational and academic education.
The third stage is divided into two different courses: aca-
demic and technical. As was mentioned before, the pupils' choice is
determined by the aptitudes and the grades obtained in the preceding
stage. The academic secondary stage is four years and is essentially
designed to prepare pupils for higher education. The vocational
secondary course consists of either two or four years and is essen-
tially designed to prepare pupils for immediate occupations in dif—
ferent vocations. The vocational secondary course consists of
either two or four years of technical education according to the

95 The new system is more promising in terms

chosen area of study.
of its meeting the real needs of the society. Of course, it has its
own difficulties such as lack of sufficient guidance and counseling
teachers for the second stage, prevalence of the old traditions in
curriculum planning and methodology, unequipped buildings and lack
of sufficient facilities especially in small towns and rural areas.

However, the important aspect remains that some changes have been

initiated.

 

95Ministry of Education, Preliminary Plan of National Educa-
tion (Tehran: The Ministry, 1966), pp. 15-19. See also Wilber,
pp. 204-5: and World Survey of Education (Paris: UNESCO, 1971),
pp. 607-9.

97

Vocational Education

Previously, the system of education was designed to educate
and train pupils only in one dimension, preparation for government
bureaucracies. Both the government and the public have come to
understand that education should serve more purposes than simply
preparation as employees. Due to this change, there is now much
emphasis by the government for vocational education as is reflected
in the second and third stages of the new system. Acceptance of
vocational emphasis by the public has resulted from a change in the
conception of work by the people. Previously, the occupations of
mechanic or electrical technician did not carry much social prestige.
Today, due to the need for such workers in a developing nation,
they do. Also, in monetary terms, a mechanic earns more money than
a civil service employee. As a result of this overall change in
attitudes, within a three-year period, the numbers of technical
institutes and students in attendance have increased by three and
four times, respectively. According to the statistical figures
given, in 1968, there were 138 technical institutes with a total
number of 16,273 students, while three years later, in 1971, there

96

were 309 institutes with 65,723 students. Another figure given

three years later (1974) shows that the number of students attending

vocational and technical schools had almost doubled, nearing a total

97

of 133,000 students. The writer feels that the relevancy which

 

96
97

Census Bureau, Statistical Yearbook (1972), p. 97.

Kayan International, September 13, 1975, p. 2.

98

this change in education has for the realities of the Iran society
makes vocational education an attribute of modern education in

Iran.

Free and Equal Education

Until 1975, education though primary was free and compulsory
and there were private schools which charged set fees for educating.
In 1975, due to the financial growth of the society, the government,
according to the Shah's desire, took the initiative to instigate
completely free education at all levels. At the level of higher
education, the government has the authority to decide the amount of
student expense based on his commitment to government work after
graduation. In the case of students who are unwilling to accept
that condition, they must pay their own educational expenditures.
Free education, therefore, expands the scape of equality of oppor-
tunities, an essential aspect of a democratic society. Though the
author would like to remind the reader, that even before free edu-
cation started, a kind of equality in obtaining an education existed.
The author himself was born in a poor family in the southern part
of Iran. But by virtue of the equality in opportunity, the per-
sonal need for growth and the ability to achieve, he attained the
apex of formal education. Free education can be categorized as a
modern aspect of education in light of particular characteristics
of Iranian society. However, an existing drawback is the lack of
financial commitment on the public's part which adds to an attitude

that is not sympathetic toward education.

99

The Objectives of the New

 

System of Education

For the first time in its history, education in Iran has

certain stated goals. According to the Preliminary Plan for

National Education and the summary made by the UNESCO experts, the

objectives of the new system of education are as follows:

Social:

Economic:

Political:

Cultural:

Health:

Ethical:

To provide an equal Opportunity for all
Iranians, men and women in all classes of popu-
lation, urban or rural, to receive instructions
and to take their rightful place in society.

To train a sufficient number of workers, tech-
nicians, engineers, specialists and executives
able to run the economy in the interest of
national development.

To train young people to participate actively
and effectively in political and social life,
to make judicious use of their social rights,
to respect the law and to become useful members
of a free and progressive society.

To develop the cultural and artistic talents of
young people so that they may contribute to the
enrichment of the Iranian cultural heritage and
civilization.

To ensure the physical development, health and
vitality of future generations.

To instill in young people faith in a morally
sound and rational form of social ideology and
foster in them the human qualities and virtues
inspired by agiritual principles and religious
instruction.

The objectives appear educationally sound, but, in practical

terms, they are difficult to achieve. To what extent their

 

98

World Survey of Education, p.607, the author's transla-

tion directly from the report. See also Ministry of Education,
Preliminary Plan for National Education, p. 3.

100

achievement might be possible is a question of the future. The
system is not on solid footing yet but it does have goals toward

which to strive.

Culture,gEducation and Management: An Overview

The interplay between culture, education and management has
long been recognized. Culture, on one side, influences deeply its
component elements, namely, education, management, religion, politics,
and on the other side, it is constantly being influenced and altered
by these institutions. The relationship between culture and its
component parts is, in fact, a reciprocal relationship, a general
phenomenon which holds true for all cultures. It is the same for
the American culture as it is for the Iranian. Here in this particu-
lar study of culture and its relationship to education and management
in Iran, the writer has sought to demonstrate this same reciprocal
relationship.

Through the review of the pertinent literature, it is noted
that, according to many observers, Iranians were and still are
highly individualistic, authority oriented, fatalistic. irresponsible
and insecure in many social instances. They were also observed as
being people who had little tendency toward cooperation or group
effort and a nature of being either a leader or a follower. They
possessed an inconsistent time and work conception with a style of
living by the day, only enjoying the present with no regard for the
future or planning for the future. They were labeled as self-

centered, opportunistic, aggressive, aloof, and indifferent

101

individuals in their social relationships. They were occasionally
described in such terms as humane, democratic, loyal and friendly
in their personal relationships.

The author, based on his observations and recent develop-
ments, attempted to clarify the observations and to provide a more
balanced picture of the present Iranian character. Nhile in agree-
ment with the observations with regard to authority relationships,
the writer made efforts to trace the roots of the behavior and to
reveal the failure of many published observations. He tried to
assert that the evidence shows that no culture is fixed in its attri-
butes. Therefore, if Iranians held certain characteristics at times,
it should not be assumed that the same attributes have been extended
up to this day or will continue into the future.

In reviewing the literature pertinent to education, it was
found that education since the earliest times has been consonant with
the cultural needs of educating children to respect authority, to be
obedient to elders and to be loyal and sacrificing to the state.
Nowhere, until the recent movement, does one see a trend to develop
individual capacity without predetermined expectations. Even now
education puts a high demand on children in terms of developing
certain attitudes toward the culture and the country itself. Out
of these two main institutions, culture and education, there emerges
the Iranian pattern of management. If management has certain
authoritarian attitudes, it is because it has evolved that way.

When management follows the double standard of behavior of submis-

sion to higher authorities and dominance over the underlings, that

102

should not be surprising either. A manager has been reared
through his family life and his education to play a dichotomous
role of superior and subordinate. If there is a conspicuous lack
of cooperation between individual managers as well as organizations,
it is because nowhere at the educational levels has cooperation been
emphasized. For example, there are no fraternities, sororities or
like organizations among the student community.

Education for management, though, is relatively expanded.99
It does lack the dynamic nature, the originality which can be
ascribed as to be Iranian. It follows the same old pattern of
the teacher lecturing about the American management thought and the
students passive and bewildered about what is being said. Educa-
tional administrators, as was noted in the course of review, receive
no formal schooling in administration. Administration of education
is looked upon as a common sense skill, which, in the long run,
is not very effective. Overall, there is a link between culture,
education, management and educational administration in Iran. The
writer in the following chapters will examine the observed reflec-

tions of traits as perceived by managers and educational adminis-

trators.

 

99Presently, there are more than ten colleges within uni-
verisites or independent colleges outside the universities who are
involved in management teaching.

CHAPTER III

MANAGERIAL THINKING AND ATTITUDES IN IRAN

Introduction

 

In the course of reviewing the pertinent literature, the
author has highlighted different attributes of the Iranian people,
managers and non-managers as observed by outsiders. In doing so, the
author, due to the nature and the purpose of the study, could not
remain silent and be merely a reflective mirror of the observations
previously made. Therefore--as was the purpose of this study--he
tried whenever and wherever possible to reconcile differing views
and add the results of his own observation study as they are related
to the people of Iran in general, and in particular to the managers
of Iran.

In conjunction with this, the following chapters present
the results of an objective study of managerial thinking and attitudes
in Iran. In Chapters III and IV, Iranian managers in both public and
private institutions and educational administrators (mostly principals
of elementary and secondary schools) are treated as two independent
groups in studying their attitudes and motivations.

In the fifth chapter, comparisons between Iranian managers
and managers in other countries are made, using available data from
both the original Haire study and the present study. To keep this
study parallel with the Haire study with regard to the types of

103

104

managers studied, for purposes of comparison, educational admin-
istrators are excluded.

Before opening discussion of the subject of the study, the
researcher, from his review of the pertinent literature, observa-
tions and personal understandings, will express certain expectations
and make certain assumptions concerning managerial thinking and
motivations in Iran.

Expectations and Assumptions Concerning
Managerial Thinking in Iranl

1. In a society under continuous change, it is very likely
that managers have gradually changed or are changing from a direc-
tive, autocratic attitude to a more modern, democratic conception of
management.

2. Performing in the same cultural context, educational
administrators will probably reflect the same pattern of thinking as
other managers in public and private institutions.

3. Because of the differences in the organizational climate
of education, the nature of educational activities and the outcomes
which educational administrators produce, from those of other insti-
tutions, it probably could be expected that educational administra-
tors might illustrate a more modern attitude than the managers in
other areas.

4. In terms of motivations, it may be expected that due to

the limits which are imposed upon the educational institutions,

 

Aln Chapters III and IV, whenever the term managers is used,
it refers as well to educational administrators.

105

educational administrators will probably be less satisfied and
motivated; or, at least, it can be expected that they will reflect
a different need pattern than other managers.

5. Both educational administrators and managers will reflect
a need pattern of dissatisfaction with regard to their needs for
autonomy and self-actualization.

6. When comparing the Iranian managers to other managers
throughout the world--though it would appear difficult to make any
assumptions--it might be expected that Iranian management comes
closest to the developing nations in some respects and to France in
another. (The latter assumption is based upon the cultural closeness
which some Iranians hold for the two nations.)

Attitudes and Assumptions Underlying
Management Practices in Iran

Management's fundamental responsibility in any society is
to get work done through people. The core of management thinking,
therefore, would be: what the job objective is; how the people are
going to do the job; and what is the best pattern to manage them.

To determine what the job is does not appear to be a very difficult
problem for management. But to determine who pe0ple are, how they
may react in different situations and what will be the best approach
to manage them is the real dilemma of management. Approaching this
dilemma, managers have developed different patterns of thinking and
attitudes in dealing with the people they work with. Some managers
think that people with whom they are working are inherently lazy,

have a dislike for responsibility, are self-centered and resistant

106

to change. Others think that people are not naturally passive and
indolent—-that they have a feeling of responsibility, a liking for
change, an inner urge to work and a conscience to control
themselves.2

Inherent in management thinking are a set of assumptions which
management makes about pe0ple. What these assumptions may be depends
upon what management is and in what cultural setting the management
functions. In order to observe what the pattern of management think-
ing is in Iran, the attitudes and assumptions underlying management
practices need to be diagnosed.
The Importance of Such Atti-
tudes and Assumptions

Attitudes may be defined as feelings, opinions or predisposi—
tions of an individual which may influence his/her reactions and
behavior in his/her environment.3 In a work situation where the
management's attitude is of one predisposition, i.e., that other
employees, managers or non-management, have certain capacity for
initiative, for leadership and for assuming responsibility, they may
broaden the span of control and/or may delegate further authority
and responsibility. On the other hand, if management is predisposed
to feel that the employees lack those qualities, they will be more

apt to adopt a different approach. The crucial point, as Haire

 

2McGregor Douglas, Leadership and Motivation (Cambridge:
The M.I.T. Press, 1966), pp. 5, 6, and 16.

3Aubray C. Stanford, Human Relations: Theory and Practice
(Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1973),
p. 271.

107

notes, "is not what abilities and traits the employees actually have,
but rather what their capabilities are as seen by their immediate

4 The attitudes or assumptions which

and higher level superiors."
management holds toward subordinates are really the determinant of
its behavior, and the approach it may take. The distinction between
traditional and modern management theory is actually a distinction
of management attitudes and assumptions about people. Management in
Iran is no exception. It has a pattern which is based on its atti-

tudes and assumptions that would appear to be a more effective

approach to managing people.

Methodology

 

Data for this part of the study were collected through the
use of a questionnaire containing eight items. The questionnaire was
constructed to reveal the contrasting assumptions between a classical
and a modern organization theory and the respective approach that
management might take. To aid analysis, the items were broken into
four new headings:5

1. Capacity fOr leadership and initiative

- The average human being prefers to be directed,

wishes to avoid responsibility, and has little
ambition.

 

4

5As it was stated in the first chapter, the questionnaire
and the included items are an exact replication of the instrument
Haire used as reported in Managerial Thinking, Therefore, in
explaining the items and their respective headings, no changes in
words and phraseology have been made. An English version of the
questionnaire appears in Appendix A. Another, Persian, version of
the questionnaire will appear in Appendix B of the dissertation.

Haire et al., p. 17.

108

- Leadership skills can be acquired by most people
regardless of their particular inborn traits and
abilities.

Sharing information and objectives

- A good leader should give detailed and complete
instructions to his subordinates rather than giv-
ing them merely general directions and depending
upon their initiative to work out the details.

- A superior should give his subordinates only that
information which is necessary for them to do
their inmediate tasks.

Participation

- In a work situation, if the subordinates cannot
influence me then I lose some of my influence
on them.

- Group goal-setting offers advantages that cannot
be obtained by individual goal-setting.

Internal control

- The use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and
punishment (failure to promote, etc.) is not the
best way to get subordinates to do their work.

- The superior's authority over his subordinates
in an organization is primarily economic.

For managers to respond, the eight items were mixed, with no

headings, and constructed in a 1-5 rating scale from strongly agree

to strongly disagree. The following is a typical item appearing in

the questionnaire:

1.

The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes
to avoid responsibility and has relatively little ambi-
tion.

Strongiy . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

The respondents were instructed to mark one of the ratings on the

scale which appeared to them to be most appropriate. The eight items

109

were stated in such a way that agreement with four items would indi-
cate a classical viewpoint and disagreement a modern viewpoint.

The other four items were stated in the reverse manner. In arraying
the responses for computation, the researcher had to rearrange all
items in one direction as did Haire in the initial researches.
Therefore, the tabular data are displayed such that a low score sig-

nals a classical attitude, and a high score a modern viewpoint.

Procedure and Sample

The researcher and his assistants personally distributed the
questionnaire to approximately 135 managers and 150 educational
administrators. The total responses collected later were 85 for
managers, and 123 for educational administrators, i.e., about two-
thirds of the managers and more than 80 percent of the educational
administrators responded to the questionnaire. The percentage return
might appear surprising in light of the fact that Iranian managers
do not appear to be research oriented. The main reason for such a
high rate of response may be due in part to the persistence of the
researcher and his assistants and the good fortune of having friends

within the organizations sponsoring participation in the project.6

The Major Findings and Their Implications

 

Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the findings in quantiative terms;
one contains the raw scores and the second, the standard scores of

the sample.

 

6Further explication of the sample and procedures used
appears in the first chapter.

110

TABLE l.--Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward Manage-
ment Practices (Raw Scores).*

 

Capacity Sharing
for Leader- Informa- Partici- Internal

 

Group ship and tion and pation Control N
Initiative Objectives
Managers 2.73 2.60 3.19 3.29 85
Educational
administrators 3.24 2.57 3.79 3.61 123
Average 3.03 2.58 3.45 3.48 --

 

*Higher mean values indicate a stronger endorsement of
democratic attitudes.

TABLE 2.--Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward Manage—
ment Practices (Standard Scores).*

 

Capacity Sharing
for Leader- Informa- Partici- Internal N

 

Group ship and tion and pation Control
Initiative Objectives
Managers -.35 .02 -.41 -.25 85
Educational
administrators '24 “'01 ~28 .17 123
Average -.05 .05 -.06 -.O4 --

 

*Positive mean values indicate a relatively democratic
attitude; negative values indicate a relatively autocratic attitude.

111

What do these findings mean? As is apparent from the raw
scores, it can be seen that Iranian managers as well as educational
administrators show positive attitudes toward democratic practices
of management. Educational administrators, with only one exception,
have more attitude intensity on all items. The similarity in direc-
tion might be attributable to the similar culture in which both
groups perform. The extent of attitude intensity, which is differ-
ent between the two groups, might be related to the differences
which exist in their organizational environment. It is evident that
the climate of organization in education is different from that of
public and private institutions. To analyze the findings in more
detail, the several attitudes are analyzed separately.

Attitudes Toward Belief in the
Average Person's Capacities

To accommodate analysis, two items were designed to measure
these attitudes:

a. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes

Egozvoid responsibility and has relatively little ambi-

b. Leadership skills can be acquired by most people regard-
less of their particular inborn traits and abilities.

On the management continuum, the first item deals with a more
classical point of view, while the second is a reflection of modern
organization theory. Turning to the tables which contain the raw
and the standard scores of the sample, if one looks at the bottom
row of Table l he will observe that both managers and educational

administrators hold a relatively positive attitude toward the

112

individual's capacity for leadership and initiative. With regard
to the variations between educational administrators and managers,
both the raw and the standard scores suggest that educational
administrators hold a relatively more positive attitude than mana-
gers in other areas.

Managers, on the other hand, illustrate a relatively nega-
tive attitude in comparison with educational administrators. The
range in this attitude is considerable: .59 standard deviation
from the mean of the total sample. The first finding, therefore,
is in accord with the expectation stated earlier in this chapter.
Attitudes Toward Sharing Infor-
mation and Objectives

The two items under this heading are:

a. A good leader should give detailed and complete
instructions to his subordinates, rather than giving
them merely general directions and depending upon
their initiative to work out the details.

b. A superior should give his subordinates only that
information which is necessary for them to do their
immediate tasks.

Both questions are stated in a classical point of view in
relation to management practices. The Iranian respondents, as is
reflected in the average raw scores (Table 1, Column 2, and Table 2,
Column 2) illustrate a relatively negative attitude toward sharing
information and objectives with almost no differential in attitude

intensity in either group. One might disregard differences of less

than a .05 standard deviation from the mean.

113

Attitudes Toward Participation
The items stated in this part of the questionnaire were
phrased to be in accord with modern management thinking:

a. In a work situation, if the subordinates cannot influ-
ence me, then I lose some of my influence on them.

b. Group goal-setting offers advantages that cannot be
obtained by individual goal-setting.

In the analysis of the responses given to these questions
(Table 1, Column 3), one observes that both groups reflect a rela-
tively positive attitude toward participation, with educational
administrators carrying greater attitude intensity. As far as the
variation between the two groups is concerned (Table 2, Column 3),
educational administrators show a relatively democratic attitude,
while managers illustrate a relatively traditional, autocratic con-
ception of management.) The range between the two groups is con-
siderable: .69 standard deviation from the mean of the total
sample.
Attitudes Toward the Nature
of SuperVisory Control

The items stated in this part deal mainly with the nature of
authority and the control pattern of management:

a. The use of rewards (pay, promotion, etc.) and punish-
ment (failure to promote, etc.) is not the best way to

get subordinates to do their work.

b. The supervisor's authority over his subordinates in an
organization is primarily economic.

As it is illustrated (Table 1, Column 4), the average raw

score of both groups reflects a relatively democratic attitude toward

114

the nature of supervisory control, again, with greater intensity on
the part of educational administrators. With regard to the vari-
ations and the differences which exist between the two groups,
educational administrators appear to be more democratic in their
supervision of subordinates, and managers reflect a relatively
autocratic attitude with a range of .42 standard deviation from the

mean .

Variations Within Groups
So far, the attitude intensity and the differences between
managers and educational administrators were examined. At this
point, by examining the standard deviation of each group, the vari-
ations within the group are measured. As is evident from Table 3,
there is relative agreement on the first and third items and rela-
tive disagreement on the second and fourth items. Altogether, the

variations within the groups do not appear very significant.

TABLE 3.--Expressed Attitudes of Selected Iranians Toward Manage-
ment Practices (Standard Deviation).

 

Capacity Sharing
Grou for Leader- Informa- Partici— Internal N
p ship and tion and pation Control
Initiative Objectives

 

Managers .82 .72 .73 .61 85
Educational
administrators '80 1°00 ~83 -80 123

Average .81 .80 .78 .70 --

 

115

Integration and Interpretation

To integrate the findings presented in this chapter, certain
observations seem to be justified and relevant.

1. The findings demonstrate that a relative change in the
mind of the Iranian management has occurred with regard to its
attitudes toward subordinates--assuming that in the past, Iranian
. management was simply autocratic oriented as so many non-Iranians
have stated.

2. The attitude toward sharing information and objectives,
in which both groups reflect a relatively negative attitude, it may
be interpreted as a reflection of the individualistic nature of the
Iranian managers and the lack of cooperation so often referred to
in the review of the relevant literature. Particularly in the case
of educational administrators, it may be attributed to the educational
institute's alienation from other institutions. As one writer put it

7 and therefore, their efforts

so aptly, "Schools are alone in Iran,"
could not bring about the expected results. It might be that this
isolation has influenced the educational administrators to go their
own way, regardless of others.

3. As was expected, educational administrators, across all
categories of attitudes, reflected a more positive conception of the

administrative practices--a conception which is consonant with the

nature of the work and organizational climate of education.

 

7Mehrangiz Kar, Kayhan Journal, October 2, 1975, p. 8.

116

4. The two consistent patterns in relatively opposite
directions seem to bear out the expectation stated earlier concerning
the cultural community of the groups under study.

5. The variance of the attitude variables within each group
is relatively negligible, with the exception of the two items,
sharing information and objectives, and internal control, where
it is slightly greater. This suggests that most managers in Iran

think in much the same way.

CHAPTER IV

MANAGERIAL MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION IN IRAN

Introduction

 

This chapter is opened by proposing three simple questions:
One, why do organizations hire individuals? Two, why do individuals
join the organizations? Three, what are the determinants of indi-
vidual performance in the organizations?

The first two questions are easy to answer. Organizations
hire people because without them nothing can be accomplished. Indi-
viduals join the organizations because they need to earn their living
and to satisfy their higher order of needs. It is question three
which creates the management dilemma. In management science the
matter is frequently seen as a simple formula: Performance as a
Function of Ability and Motivation, or P = F(A x M). The first
determinant of performance, namely, ability of the individual, is
relatively easy to obtain. However, it is the motivation factor
which forces us to focus our attention upon the complex psychology
of human beings. Many studies dealing with the motivation of the
individual worker, as well as many books on the subject, have been
conducted and written. Unfortunately, few studies have been con-
ducted in regard to managerial motivations and satisfactions--a
field of study which deserves much more attention because of the

vital role played by management.

117

118

Studies on motivation at any level of the organization have
dealt with the various needs and motives of individuals and the way
these needs and motives are satisfied. Maslow might be regarded as
a major contributor to theory on motivation. His hierarchy of needs,
namely, basic or physiological needs, security, social, esteem and
self-actualization, has been the basis for many studies in this

1 Few studies with which the researcher is acquainted have

field.
applied the same theory to management motivation, an area which to
some extent has previously been neglected.2

The researcher, having been inspired by the work of Haire
and others in this field, aimed at a similar diagnosis of management
motivations and satisfactions in Iran. The author replicated the
Haire instrument which, in turn, is a slightly modified version of
Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The study is very original in nature,
and certainly, the first one of its kind in Iran. Therefore, the

findings of this research take on a special significance and are

worthy of serious attention.

Methodology

As was stated before, Maslow's need classification system
has been used in this part of the questionnaire with some minor
modifications. However, no questions about physiological needs

was included and Maslow's Esteem category was subdivided into

 

1

2Lyman W. Porter, ”Job Attitudes in Management," Journal of
Applied Psychology (December 1962): 375-84; also, Haire et a1.

Maslow, p. 91.

119

Esteem and Autonomy. The five categories of needs investigated are
listed under five new headings with eleven questions arranged
randomly in the questionnaire rather than in the known theoretical
order. The following are the five categories of needs, and the ques-
tions under each.3

1. Security

1. The feeling of security in my management posi-
tion.

11. Social

1. The opportunity in my management position, to
give help to other people.

2. The opportunity to develop close friendship in
my management position.

III. Esteem

l. The feeling of self-esteem a person gets from
being in my management position.

2. The prestige of my management position inside
the company (that is, the regard received from
others in the company).

3. The prestige of my management position outside
the company (that is, the regard from others
not in the company).

IV. Autonomy

l. The authority connected with my management
position.

2. The opportunity for independent thought and
action in my management position.

 

3The questions and the headings stated here are the exact
replication of the Haire instrument reported in Haire et al.,
pp. 78-79.

120

V. Self-actualization

l. The opportunity for personal growth and devel-
opment in my management position.

2. The feeling of self-fulfillment a person gets
from being in my management position (that is,
the feeling of being able to use one's own
unique capabilities, realizing one's own poten-
tial.

3. The feeling of worthwhile accomplishments in
my management position.

For each of the eleven questions the respondents were
instructed to give three ratings such as shown on the following typi-
cal item.

The feeling of security in my management position:

a. How much is there now?

 

Min.l ° 2 ' 3 ° 4 ° 5 ' 6 ° 7 Max.

b. How much should there be?

 

Min.l ° 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 ° 6 ° 7 Max.

c. How important is this to me?

 

Min.l ° 2 ' 3 ° 4 ° 5 ° 6 "7‘Rax.
A check mark of l on a given rating scale of an item would mean the
minimum, and a check mark of 7 meant that there was a maximum amount
(as perceived by the respondent). To measure fulfillment, the
responses to question (a) for each of the eleven items were used.

To measure satisfaction, the responses Unquestion (b)--minus
the responseS'quuestion (a) for each of the eleven items--were

computed. Thus, the Operational definition of need satisfaction is

 

121

the difference between degree of fulfillment and the degree of need
expectations, i.e., responses to (b) questions minus responses to
(a) questions.

To measure need importance, the responses to questions (c)
were taken into account. As was mentioned earlier, each new heading
which reflects a need from Maslow's hierarchy encompasses one, two,
or three questions. The score for a heading or for a need category
is obtained by summing the scores of the questions which are under
that category divided by the number of questions.

In the following pages, there will be a need-by-need analysis
of the data tabulated in terms of the mean raw scores for need ful-
fillment, need satisfaction, and need importance; followed, respec-
tively, by the tables of the standard scores of the same need

categories.

The Major Findiggs

The findings point strongly to the significance of three
different needs for the Iranian management: needs for autonomy,
security and self-actualization.

With regard to need fulfillment, the average raw scores of
both groups reflected that both groups are relatively fulfilled in
their needs for social, esteem and actualization. They are both
less fulfilled in their need fOr autonomy and security.

In the area of need satisfaction, both groups in their needs
for autonomy, security, and self-actualization are the least

satisfied.

122

In relation to need importance, both groups invariably
attach high importance to all categories of needs across the scale.
There are, of course, variations among the two groups, and their
need emergence patterns. The variations will be discussed in more

detail in the following item-by-item analysis.

Need Fulfillment

As was noted earlier, in measuring the need fulfillment
the question "how much is there now?” was asked for each of the
eleven items. The responses given are reflected in Tables 4 and 5
in terms of the mean raw scores and the standard scores of the
sample.

Looking at the bottom row of Table 4, the average mean
raw scores reflect that both groups of managers and administrators
are relatively fulfilled in their needs for affiliation, esteem and
self-actualization. They are less fulfilled in their needs for

autonomy and security. In terms of the variations and the

TABLE 4.--Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actuali- N
zation
Managers 4.85 5.55 5.12 4.61 4.97 85
Educational
administrators 4.95 5.63 5.63 4.63 5.44 123
Average 4.90 5.59 5.42 4.62 5.24 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater need fulfillment.

 

123

TABLE 5.--Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Standard Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers -.04 -.O4 -.30 -.Ol -.28 85
Educational
administrators '02 '03 -21 -00 ~19 123
Average -.01 .OO -.04 .OO -.04 --

 

*Positive values indicate greater fulfillment of the needs,
and negative values indicate lesser fulfillment.

differences which could be observed from Tables 4 and 5, one can
observe that while there are not significant differences between the
two groups with regard to their needs for security, social and
autonomy, there are considerable differences in their needs for

esteem and self-actualization.

Need Satisfaction

 

This need satisfaction, as was mentioned before, is opera-
tionally defined as the differences between the perceived fulfillment
and the perceived expectation of the fulfillment.4 The results of
the expectation of fulfillment and the actual fulfillment would
appear to be very significant in understanding managerial behavior
in terms of motivational deficiencies.

Tables 6 and 7 reflect the Iranian management need satisfac-
tion as reflected by the mean raw scores and standard scores of the

sample surveyed.

 

4Haire et al., p. 79.

124

TABLE 6.--Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers 1.49 .70 1.00 1.80 1.37 85
Educational
administrators 1.70 1.08 .99 1.90 1.22 123
Average 1.62 .93 .99 1.85 1.28 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater dissatisfaction.

TABLE 7.--Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Standard Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers -.08 -.22 .00 -.05 .08 85
Educational
administrators .05 .15 .OO .03 -.05 123
Average -.01 -.O3 .00 -.Ol .01 --

 

*Positive values indicate greater dissatisfaction; negative
values indicate less dissatisfaction.

125

Referring to the bottom row of Table 6 and to the mean
scores of each group independently, one will observe that both
groups reflect their relatively greater dissatisfaction in their
needs for autonomy, security and self-actualization. In reference
to the other two categories of needs--social and esteem--both groups
are seen to be better satisfied. The biggest variation between
managers and educational administrators, in terms of the mean raw
scores and the standard scores, is their need for social security

and self-actualization.

Need Importance

So far, the questions of how fulfilled, satisfied, or dis-
satisfied managers and educational administrators are have been
answered. In this section, the question of how important are certain
needs--as perceived by these two groups of respondents in terms of
their motivation--will be answered. To find the answer to the ques-
tion proposed, the responses given to question (c) on all eleven
items have been computed. The following tables present the mean raw
scores and the standard scores of the given responses by the two
groups surveyed (Tables 8 and 9).

A look at the bottom row of Table 8 will show that both
Iranian managers and educational administrators attach high impor-
tance to all categories of needs across the scale. Educational
administrators, however, appear to show more need intensity on all
items. In comparison to managers, educational administrators

place greater importance on all needs than do managers. The range

126

TABLE 8.--Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Raw Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers 6.29 6.35 6.05 6.46 6.41 85
Educational
administrators 6.60 6.75 6.48 6.56 6.66 123
Average 6.47 6.59 6.30 6.52 6.67 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater need importance.

TABLE 9.--Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Standard Scores).*

 

 

Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers -.21 -.37 -.31 -.09 -.26 85
Educational
administrators '14 '26 ~21 -05 -I8 123
Average -.03 -.08 -.05 -.Ol -.04 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater importance.

127

between the two groups is considerable: from .15 to .63 of one
standard deviation from the total means of the sample. What does
this finding mean: One interpretation may be that probably educa-
tional administrators have a tendency to rate the need importance
higher. Should one refer to the mean raw scores of educational
administrators in Table 6, he will observe that educational admin-
istrators are less satisfied on the same categories of needs. This
consistency in need perception means that probably no tendency has

been involved.

Variation of Need Perception Within Groups
It is natural that individual managers and educational admin-
istrators might vary within their respective groups. The respondents
differ in their ages, educations, experiences, etc. Therefore, to
masure the variation within each group, the following tabulations

of the standard deviations have been made:

TABLE lO.--Need Fulfillment of Selected Iranians (Standard

 

 

Deviation).
Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers 1.20 1.04 .86 1.04 .92 85
Educational
administrators 1.73 .98 1.00 1.24 .96 123

Average 1.46 1.01 .98 1.14 .94 --

 

 

128

TABLE ll.--Need Satisfaction of Selected Iranians (Standard

 

 

Deviation).
Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers 1.22 .92 .82 1.02 .96 85
Educational
administrators 1.76 1.02 1.03 1.30 1.04 123
Average 1.49 .97 .92 1.16 1.00 --

 

TABLE 12.--Need Importance of Selected Iranians (Standard

 

 

Deviation).
Self-
Group Security Social Esteem Autonomy actual- N
ization
Managers .81 .67 .91 .51 .53 85
Educational
administrators .85 .50 .71 .69 .51 123

Average .83 .58 .81 .60 .52 --

 

129

As one may observe from the above tabulations, the figures
show clearly that the greatest disagreement between individuals in
both groups concerns the need for security, and the greatest agree-
ment is found in the need for self-actualization. In respect to the
needs of social, esteem and autonomy,the agreement among individuals
in each group is not close, The range of dispersion is relatively
narrower. The greatest agreement within the groups comes in their

response to the need for importance.

Integration and Interpretation

Certain observations with regard to motivation, satisfaction
and need importance of management and educational administrators in
Iran seem justified by this part of the study.

1. Managers and educational administrators illustrate a
consistent pattern of need fulfillment, need satisfaction (or dis-
satisfaction) and need importance--a reflection of cultural simi-
larity in managerial dispositions.

2. Both groups are least fulfilled and least satisfied in
their needs for autonomy, security and self-actualization.

3. Both groups attach moderately high importance in their
perceptions to all categories of needs across the scale.

4. The variation between the two groups is relatively
minor in two categories of needs, and somewhat greater in other
categories.

Comparatively speaking, educational administrators seem to

be less satisfied in their needs for social and security, and

 

130

relatively better satisfied in their needs for esteem and self-
actualization.

To interpret these variations, one may speculate that edu-
cational administrators are socially dissatisfied because they
expect more involvement on the part of the general public and more
cooperation and interaction with other related institutions, expec-
tations which at present are not met. Regarding their need for
security, they, no doubt, believe their counterparts in the private
sector make more money than they do.

If one takes into consideration the "rising level of expec-
tations" in Iran, parallel with the high cost of living, probably
their dissatisfaction will be somewhat justified. In terms of
esteem and self-actualization, educational administrators seem to be
better satisfied than managers. One may directly attribute this
difference to the nature of work in education. Educational admin-
istrators are in the process of educating the oncoming generation.
The work itself appears to be highly respected and psychologically
rewarding.

5. Managers on the average are younger and more educated.5
Therefore, their variations in certain needs can be attributed to
two factors: their personal characteristics, and their position in

the work environment.

 

5Selected managers on the average are 36 years old with
an average of 14.48 years of education. Selected educational
administrators on the average are 38.5 years old with an average
of 13 years of education.

 

131

6. In general, the findings reflect that there is ample
room for managerial motivation in Iran--especially in the case of

educational administrators.

In conclusion, managers and educational administrators con-
sistently reveal basic mutual agreement in their thinking, attitudes
and the patterns of their need diSpositions. This psychological
closeness reflects the reciprocal relationships which exist between
culture, education and management--the reflection which comprises

the main theme of the present study.

 

CHAPTER V
IRANIAN MANAGERS VERSUS OTHERS: A COMPARISON

Introduction

One of the author's objectives in the present study was to
inquire into the thinking of the Iranian management and see how it
compares to management in other countries of the world. To provide
a body of comparable data applicable for this purpose, the research
is mainly designed after the work of Haire. The research, however,
deviates from the original one in two respects. One, due to certain
difficulties in applying the Semantic Differential technique, it
was deliberately deleted. Second, the scope of the research was
expanded by taking into account the Iranian educational system in
general and the educational administrators as an independent group
of managers in particular in a broadened aspect. In comparing
Iranian managers to other managers, however, educational administra-
tors have been excluded specifically in the following pages. The
scores reported in the two parts of the Haire study--"The Attitudes
and Assumptions Underlying Management Practices" and "The Factors
of Motivations and Satisfactions"--will be compared with the A

respective scores obtained in the present study.

Methodology
The method by which the present study was conducted has
already been explained. It is essentially the same method used by

132

133

Haire and his associates in their international study, Managerial
Thinking.1 For the purpose of comparison, as far as the raw scores
are concerned, there was no difficulty in the analysis of data. The
scores obtained from Iranian managers have been added to Tables 13.
15, 17, and 19 and reflect the mean raw scores of all the countries
studied. Adding Iran to the available list of the nations under
study merely broadens the scope of the previous research.

In tabulation and comparison of the standard scores, however,
some difficulties were encountered. The author could not obtain
the individuals' scores used in the previous study. Therefore, to
obtain the standard scores, the following method was developed.
The mean raw scores of the present study were added to the tables
which reflected the mean raw scores for all countries studied. In
further development of the data, the means were weighted according
to the sample size from each country. This produced new means for
all managers including Iranians. These new means are considered to
be very close to those which would be obtained if all data were
available. Then, based on these new means, the standard scores for
all countries were computed. The standard scores will, however,
appear to be somewhat distorted because all of the raw data was not
available. In most countries, the nature, the direction, and the
ratio of the new standard scores remain the same; in a few cases it
might be that due to the nature of raw data distortions are somewhat

greater. Therefore, while presenting the tables of standard scores,

 

1Haire et al., pp. 19, 20, 77-79.

134

the author primarily bases his comparisons and interpretations upon
the mean raw scores of the samples surveyed, with only occasional
references to the standard scores.
Attitudes Toward Management Practices:
Iran Versus Other Countries

In reporting the major findings of this section (both from
the present study and the previous one) which are quantitatively
reflected in Tables 13 and 14, certain observations can be derived
with respect to the areas listed below.
The Impact of Culture on
Management Attitudes

Haire and his fellow researchers make the assumption that
management attitudes in different cultures will to some degree
reflect the broad stream of cultural traditions. Their findings
reveal that, except fOr Japanese managers who come somewhat closer
to American managers despite their traditional culture, for the rest
of the managers under study there is a visible stream of cultural
thinking which affects their attitudes.2 The case is more clearly
reflected with regard to Iranian management. In Iran there were two
groups working in different organizations, yet the findings across
all scales reflected the impact of culture on both groups.
Belief in Individuals' Capacity
for Initiative and Leadership

The findings reported in Managerial Thinking reflect that

almost all countries, except for the United States, Japan, and to

 

21bid., p. 21.

135

TABLE l3.--Managers' Attitudes Toward Management Practices (Raw
Scores).*

 

Capacity Sharing
Area and for Leader— Informa- Partici- Internal N
Nation ship and tion and pation Control
Initiative Objectives

 

Nordic-European Countries

 

 

 

Denmark 2.54 3.09 3.68 3.90 149
Germany 2.38 3.17 3.52 3.88 586
Norway 2.52 4.04 3.47 3.90 221
Sweden 2.22 4.01 3.35 3.88 342
Average 2.42 3.58 3.51 3.89 --
Latin-Eurepean Countries
Belgium 2.29 3.74 3.88 3.74 378
France 2.42 4.04 3.82 3.80 154
Italy 2.40 3.64 3.16 3.72 267
Spain 2.52 3.56 3.65 3.78 203
Average 2.41 3.75 3.63 3.76 --
Anglo-American Countries
England 2.72 3.78 3.48 3.56 239
United States 3.13 3.98 3.56 3.58 464
Average 2.93 3.88 3.52 3.57 --
Developing Countries
Argentina 2.64 2.96 3.31 3.62 198
Chile 2.80 3.08 3.32 3.65 159
India 2.81 2.96 3.35 3.38 114
Average 2.75 3.00 3.33 3.55 --
Japan 2.88 3.58 3.98 3.77 165
Iran 2.73 2.60 3.19 3.29 85
All Managers 2.60 3.56 3.52 3.73 --

 

*Higher mean values indicate stronger endorsement of demo-
cratic attitudes.

136

TABLE 14.--Managers' Attitudes Toward Management Practices (Standard

 

Scores).*
Capacity Sharing
Area and for Leader- Informa- Partici- Internal N
Nation ship and tion and pation Control

Initiative Objectives

 

Nordic-European Countries

Denmark - .115 -l.177 .694 1.120 149
Germany - .688 - .980 - .037 .987 586
Norway - .186 1.163 - .265 1.120 221
Sweden -1.262 1.089 - .813 .987 342
Average - .688 - .093 - .196 1.025 --

Latin-European Countries

Belgium -1.011 .424 1.607 .053 378
France - .545 1.163 1.333 .453 154
Italy - .616 .177 -l.680 - .080 207
Spain - .186 - .020 .557 .320 203
Average - .667 .382 .476 .133 --

Anglo-American Countries

 

England .530 .522 - .219 -l.l47 239
United States 2.000 1.015 .146 -l.Ol3 464
Average 1.500 .847 .022 -1.059 --
DevelopingCountries
Argentina .244 -1.498 - .995 - .747 198
Chile .817 -l.202 - .950 - .547 159
India .853 -l.498 - .813 -2.347 114
Average .585 -l.398 - .936 -1.066 --
Japan 1.104 .030 2.064 .253 105
Iran .566 -2.384 -1.543 -2.947 85
All Managers .000 .000 .000 .000 --

 

*Positive mean values indicate relatively democratic atti-
tudes; negative values indicate relatively autocratic values.

137

some extent, the developing nations (Argentina, Chile, and India),
illustrate "the tendency to disagree with the belief that the
average individual has a capacity for initiative and leadership and
at the same time a tendency to agree that the best methods of
leadership are the democratic participation methods." In inter-
preting this dichotomy of thinking in belief and attitude, the
authors state that it might be a reflection of the exhortations of
group-oriented consultants, the influence of professors of manage-
ment, and a result of management development courses.3

In Iran, there was not such a sharp difference between the
belief in the individual's capacity and the methods of management.
Iranian managers, though they come closest to British managers and
developing countries in terms of their belief in the average indi-
vidual's capacity, reflect a relatively more traditional attitude
in their management practices. A simple interpretation of this
might be that many Iranian managers have not yet been exposed to
modern theories of management. And those who have may not have
synthesized the theories, insofar as their attitudes are concerned.
These interpretations, of course, are comparative in nature. As
was illustrated in Chapter III, Iranian managers reflect a rela-
tively democratic attitude toward management practices. But when
they are compared with other managers, their attitude becomes
moderately negative in this respect.

The important fact is that the Iranian managers, as far

as the research data reveal, seem to be more congruent in their

 

3Haire et al., pp. 27, 30, 31.

138

thinking, attitudes and behavior than are other managers in the
world. They do not pay what Haire termed lip service to modern
management thinking.4 With regard to the variations among differ-
ent countries, both tables of the mean raw scores and the standard
scores (Table 10) reflect that American managers illustrate the
most, Swedish managers the least and Iranian managers a relatively
positive, belief in the individual's capacity for initiative and
leadership. This is an attitude very close to British managers and

fairly close to that of managers in the three developing nations.

 

Attitudes Toward Sharinngnformation p
In the second category of items (the second column in Tables

13 and 14), the attitudes toward sharing information and objectives

have been reflected. In terms of the mean raw scores and the stan-

dard scores, the French and Norwegian managers stand at the top

followed by the Swedish, American and Belgian managers. The three

developing countries followed by Germany show the lowest attitude

on this item.5
The Iranian managers, as was noted, held a negative atti-

tude on this particular item. In relation to the other attitudinal

dimensions, they came closest here to the three developing nations,

but well below the other countries.

 

4Ibid., p. 24.
51bid., p. 32.

139

Attitudes Toward Participation

On this category of items (column 3, Tables 13 and 14) con-
cerning participation and group goal-setting, the range of scores
across all countries, including Iran, is narrower than in the previous
items. On this item, Italy followed by Iran and the three develop-
ing countries display the lowest rating. Japan, Belgium and France
show the highest. Yet, the range of differences does not appear to
be that very significant. The interpretation made by Haire and
his associates is that probably on this item there is less cultural

influence and a lesser effect from industrialization. Also, it

 

might be thought that organization theorists and management develop-
ment courses have been able to influence management thinking in

6 In terms of comparison, Iranian managers, though

this respect.
they appear to hold a positive attitude individually, compared to
others, reflect a mildly negative view on the subject.
Attitudes Toward the Nature
of Supervisory Control

On these items, as is cited in column 4 of Tables 13 and
14, there is not a wide range of dispersion amoung the countries,
especially in terms of raw scores.

There are differences in the standard scores which reveal
the extent and intensity of the managers' attitudes toward the

nature of supervisory control in different countries. On these

particular items the Iranian managers, followed by the Indian

 

6Ibid., pp. 33-34.

140

managers, seem to reflect the most negative attitude. These two
relatively sharp deviations perhaps could be regarded as cultural
differences which exist between these two and other nations.

Managerial Motivations and Satisfactions:
Iran Versus Other Countries

 

In the previous chapter the importance of managerial moti-
vations and satisfactions was briefly discussed. The objective now
is to compare managers' perceptions of their need fulfillment, their
satisfaction and the importance they attach to different kinds of

needs in different cultures.

 

From the standpoint of managerial motivation, what appeared
to be of greater importance in the previous study were the needs for
autonomy and self-actualization. Both needs were regarded as rela-
tively important by managers, but their fulfillment and satisfaction
did not live up to their expectations. This means that most managers
are less fulfilled and satisfied in these two higher orders of needs,
and better satisfied in other lower needs.7

Iranian managers in comparison to others reflect almost the
same pattern except in their needs for security. They report that
they are relatively less fulfilled and satisfied in their needs for
autonomy, security and self-actualization, a pattern which is con-
sistent with other managers in relation to the first and the last

category of needs. They are, also, relatively consistent with

other managers in their needs for social and esteem.

 

7Ibid., p. 75.

141

As far as the need importance for Iranian managers is con-
cerned, they invariably attach high importance to all needs across
the scale, almost higher than all managers.

In the pages to follow a brief comparison will be made
between Iranian and non-Iranian managers based on the mean raw

scores and the standard scores of the samples surveyed.

Need Fulfillment
Turning to Tables 15 and 16 for a general comparison among
managers, one observes that there is a small difference in the

degree of fulfillment from one need to the next. It appears that

 

managers across all categories of needs are relatively well ful-
filled, except for social needs which are rather less fulfilled.

A finding which Haire and his associates point out shows
that "there does not appear to be any direct relationship between
the position of need in the hierarchical system indicated by

8 This is a point to which the researcher will refer in

theory."
Chapter VI. With regard to the Iranian managers' need fulfillment,
the raw scores illustrate that they are less fulfilled in their
needs for autonomy, security, and self-actualization and more ful-
filled in their needs for social and esteem as compared to non-
Iranian managers. As far as the variation among managers is
concerned, in Table 16 the standard scores of the sample surveyed

illustrate the situation. Generally speaking, very few countries

show, according to both raw and standard scores, a consistent

 

8Ibid., p. 80.

142

TABLE 15.--Need Fulfillment of Managers (Raw Scores).*

 

Area and

Self-Actual- N
Nation

Security Social Esteem Autonomy ization

 

Nordic-European Countries

 

 

 

Denmark 5.51 4.56 4.87 5.45 5.43 149
Germany 5.48 4.27 5.23 5.32 5.22 586
Norway 5.53 4.79 5.17 5.44 5.29 221
Sweden 5.57 5.06 5.33 5.61 5.39 342
Average 5.52 4.67 5.15 5.45 5.33 --
Latin-European Countries
Belgium 5.23 4.58 5.05 5.07 5.04 378
France 4.99 4.40 4.89 4.90 4.95 154
Italy 5.16 4.31 4.94 4.52 4.41 267
Spain 5.18 4.70 5.17 4.89 4.82 203
Average 5.14 4.49 5.01 4.84 4.80 --
Anglo-American Countries
England 5.53 4.92 4.85 5.01 4.97 239
United States 5.25 5.11 4.81 4.80 4.96 464
Average 5.39 5.01 4.83 4.90 4.96 --
Develgping Countries
Argentina 5.50 5.08 5.43 4.95 5.07 198
Chile 5.28 4.83 5.22 4.81 5.06 159
India 5.67 4.50 4.72 4.46 4.67 114
Average 5.48 4.80 5.12 4.74 4.93 --
Japan 5.50 5.10 5.17 5.26 5.54 165
Iran 4.85 5.55 5.12 4.61 4.97 85
All Managers 5.36 4.73 5.07 5.06 5.06 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater need fulfillment.

 

143

TABLE l6.--Need Fulfillment of Managers (Standard Scores).*

 

 

 

 

 

 

ANgzigad Security Social Esteem Autonomy 591:;éggxa1' ,N
Nordic-European Countries
Denmark .761 - .518 -1.051 1.188 1.339 149
Germany .601 -l.376 .768 .788 .565 586
Norway .867 .163 .465 1.157 .823 221
Sweden 1.080 .962 1.273 1.680 1.192 342
Average .791 - .399 .640 1.132 .863 --
Latin-European Countries
Belgium - .729 - .459 - .141 .018 - .100 378
France -2.005 - .991 - .949 - .505 - .432 154
Italy -l.lOl -l.257 - .697 -l.674 -2.424 267
Spain - .995 - .104 .465 - .535 - .911 203
Average -1.078 - .681 - .291 - .625 - .935 --
Anglo-American Countries
England .867 .547 -l.152 - .166 - .358 239
United States - .622 1.109 -l.354 - .812 - .395 464
Average - .116 .918 -1.285 - .593 - .382 --
Developing7Countries
Argentina .707 1.021 1.778 - .351 .011 198
Chile - .463 .281 .717 - .782 - .026 159
India 1.612 - .695 -l.808 -l.858 -1.464 114
Average .531 .356 .552 - .861 - .359 --
Japan .707 1.080 .465 .603 1.745 165
Iran -2.750 2.411 1.212 -1.397 - .358 85
All Managers .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 --

 

*Positive values indicate greater fulfillment; negative

values indicate lesser fulfillment.

 

144

pattern of need fulfillment. Swedish managers, followed by Norway
and Japan, reflect a relatively consistent pattern of need fulfill-
ment across the five categories of needs. Others, including the
American managers, show an inconsistent pattern of need fulfillment,
being rather highly fulfilled in one need and relatively less ful-
filled in another. As for Iranian managers, they reflect two con-
sistent patterns in their need fulfillment in comparison with other
managers. They are rather fulfilled in their social and esteem

needs and less fulfilled in their needs for security, autonomy and

 

self-actualization.

Need Satisfaction

Need satisfaction is a dependent attitude variable of need
fulfillment and need expectation. Need satisfaction becomes very
important in terms of its motivational implications. Turning to
Table 17, the satisfaction raw scores, one observes the degree of
need satisfaction or dissatisfaction as perceived by different
managers across the five categories of needs. If one looks at the
bottom row of Table 17, where the average mean of the raw scores
of all countries is shown, he will observe that the three lower-
level needs, security, social and esteem needs, are relatively well
satisfied. The other two higher-order needs, autonomy and self-
actualization, however, are less satisfied. However, this pattern
does not hold true for the Iranian managers. In their case, as is
evident from the raw scores, they are least satisfied with their
autonomy need, then followed by need for security and self-

actualization.

145

TABLE l7.--Need Satisfaction of Managers (Raw Scores).*

 

 

 

 

 

 

A . . -A -
Egiiggd Security Soc1a1 Esteem Autonomy selzatgggal N
Nordic-European Countries
Denmark .60 .54 .32 .58 .75 149
Germany .77 .52 .62 .86 1.02 586
Norway .57 .41 .32 .40 .87 221
Sweden .33 .40 .20 .48 .79 342
Average .57 .47 .36 .58 .86 --
Latin-European Countries
Belgium .80 .84 .45 .79 1.15 378
France .64 .98 .63 1.06 1.34 154
Italy .79 .83 .84 1.12 1.46 267
Spain 1.08 1.26 .85 1.19' 1.40 203
Average .83 .98 .69 1.04 1.34 --
Anglo-American Countries
England .29 .37 .42 .69 1.14 239
United States .29 .38 .60 .93 1.20 464
Average .29 .38 .51 .81 1.17 --
Developing,Countries
Argentina 1.15 1.18 .89 1.34 1.51 198
Chile 1.10 1.14 .81 1.13 1.25 159
India .72 1.19 1.12 1.52 1.58 114
Average .99 1.17 .94 1.33 1.44 --
Japan .52 .59 .56 .55 .58 165
Iran 1.49 .70 1.00 1.80 1.37 85
All Managers .67 .68 .59 .88 1.13 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater dissatisfaction.

' 'l-..‘ I.

 

146

TABLE 18.--Need Satisfaction of Managers (Standard Scores).*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Area and . . Self-Actual-
Nation Security Soc1al Esteem Autonomy ization
Nordic-European Countries
Denmark - .248 - .465 -1.l83 - .987 -1.479 149
Germany .322 - .532 .122 - .087 - .428 586
Norway - .349 - .897 -l.183 -l.566 -l.012 221
Sweden -l.154 - .930 -l.704 -l.309 -l.323 342
Average - .247 - .691 - .731 - .764 - .884 --
Latin-European Countries
Belgium .423 .532 - .617 - .312 .078 378
France - .114 .999 .165 .356 .817 154
Italy .389 .498 1.078 .749 1.284 267
Spain 1.362 1.927 1.122 .974 1.051 203
Average .522 .877 .307 .365 .710 --
Anglo-American Countries
England -l.289 -l.030 - .748 - .633 .039 239
United States -l.289 — .997 .035 .138 .272 464
Average -l.289 -l.008 - .231 - .124 .193 --
Developing Countries
Argentina 1.597 1.661 1.296 1.457 1.479 198
Chile 1.430 1.528 .948 .781 .467 159
India .154 1.694 2.296 2.035 1.751
Average 1.191 1.624 1.420 1.369 1.203 --
Japan - .517 - .299 - .139 -l.084 -2.140 165
Iran 2.738 .066 1.774 2.936 .934 85
All Managers .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 --

 

*Positive values indicate greater dissatisfaction than the
average manner; negative values indicate less dissatisfaction.

147

Turning to Table 18 (on page 146), the satisfaction stan-
dard scores for differences in satisfaction among countries, certain
patterns of differences are easily observable.

1. Japan and the four Nordic-European countries (Denmark,
Germany, Norway and Sweden) reflect a consistent pattern of relative
satisfaction across all categories of needs.

2. The four Latin-European countries (Belgium, France, Italy
and Spain) illustrate a consistent pattern of dissatisfaction. The
two Anglo-American countries, though they are highly satisifed in the

first two categories, are less satisfied in the next two, and even more

 

dissatisfied in the need for self-actualization. Iran and the other
three developing countries reflect a consistent pattern of relatively

higher dissatisfaction with respect to all needs across the scale.

Need Importance

A look at the bottom row of Table 19 reveals that almost all
managers attach high importance to all needs across the scale, with con-
sistentl y greater importance placed on the two higher order needs. Irani-
ans, followed by Argentinian managers,invariabTyattach high importance
to all needs--with greater emphasis on autonomy and $81 f-actual ization for
Iranians, and on self-actualization and security for Argentinian managers.

As far as the variation among managers is concerned, all coun-
tries, except for the three developing nations and Iran, do not vary
from each other appreciably in their perceptions of need importance.
Iran and the three developing countries, however, show a relatively

high variation from other countries, as is shown in Table 20.

148

TABLE 19.--Need Importance of Managers (Raw Scores).*

 

Area and

Self-Actual- N
Nation

Security Social Esteem Autonomy ization

 

Nordic-Eurgpean Countries

 

 

 

 

 

Denmark 5.53 4.96 4.50 5.65 6.00 149
Germany 6.04 4.66 5.28 5.96 6.19 586
Norway 4.80 4.93 4.76 5.54 6.05 221
Sweden 5.52 5.19 4.89 5.96 6.10 342
Average 5.47 4.93 4.85 5.77 6.08 --
Latin-European Countries
Belgium 5.70 5.32 4.95 5.87 6 24 378
France 5.22 5.08 4.83 5.83 6 35 154
Italy 5.68 5.18 5.73 5.72 6 17 267
Spain 6.07 5.86 5.58 5.86 6 13 203
Average 5.66 5.36 5.27 5.82 6.22 --
Anglo-American Countries
England 5.56 5.08 4.89 5.88 6.23 239
United States 5.30 5.37 5.09 5.80 6.30 464
Average 5.43 5.22 4.99 5.84 6.26 --
Developing_Countries
Argentina 6.49 6.18 6.15 6.36 6.59 198
Chile 6.31 5.94 5.97 6.10 6.48 159
India 6.42 5.66 5.82 6.16 6.37 114
Average 6.40 5.92 5.98 6.20 6.48 --
Japan 5.81 5.83 5.23 5.99 6.30 165
Iran 6.29 6.35 6.05 6.46 6.41 85
All Managers 5.78 5.37 5.26 5.90 6.25 --

 

*Higher values indicate greater importance.

149

TABLE 20.--Need Importance of Managers (Standard Scores).*

 

Area and

Self-Actual- N
Nation

Esteem Autonomy ization

Security Social

 

Nordic-European Countries

Denmark
Germany
Norway
Sweden

Average

- .458

.739
-2.171
- .481

- .215

Latin-European Countries

Belgium
France
Italy
Spain

Average

- .059
-1.185
~ .106

.810

- .068

Anglo-American Countries

England
United States

Average

- .387
- .998

- .790

DevelopinggCountries

Argentina
Chile
India

Average

Japan
Iran

All Managers

1.796
1.373
1.631

1.613

.200
1.326
.000

- .747
-1.413
- .813 -
- .236 -

- .924 -

.053

- :258
1.253

.132

- .480 -
.164 -

- .055 -

1.964
1.431
.809

1.505

1.187 -
2.342
.000

—I

-1.697
.097
.099
.800

.549

.662
.938
.131
.786

.067

.800
.340

.497

.097
.683
.338

.773

.018
.867
.000

-1.
.273
.892
.273

325

.279

.191
.397
.964
.242

.439

.139

- .552

.411

.335
.995
.304

.633

.428
.851
.000

.725
.348

2000
.850

.014
.812
.493
.783

.160

.058
.449

.277

.551
.754
.957

.896

.449
.246
.000

198
159
114

165
85

 

*Positive

values indicate greater importance attached to a

need than for the average manager; negative values indicate lesser

importance.

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

AND THE CONCLUSION

This final chapter contains a summary of the purpose of the
study, the procedures, the major and minor findings, the implica-

tions, reconmendations and the final points of conclusion.

Purpose of the Stugy

 

The researcher's purpose in the study was to examine the
patterns of managerial thinking, leadership philosophy and attitudes,
and factors of motivation with special attention on two groups:
managers from semi-private and private organizations, and educational
administrators. It was also designed to disclose the underlying
factors of culture and education and their effects on the Iranian
managerial patterns. Finally, by using the available research on
managerial thinking throughout the world, the present research was
conducted to accommodate a comparison between Iranian managers (with
the exclusion of educational administrators) and other managers in

the world.

Procedure
The study was conducted in Iran using limited numbers of
managers from six different organizations similar to organizations
studied by Haire and his associates and of educational administrators

150

 

151

within two educational 1evels--chief districts or sub-districts
and principals of elementary and secondary schools. The methodology
and the instrument used were an exact replication of Haire's instru-

ment applied in Managerial Thinking, an international study of man-

 

agement thinking, attitudes and motivations. In the analysis of
data the mean raw scores of both groups were used for general r
observations and interpretations of management attitudes. Standard I
deviations and standard scores of the data were used for measuring

variations within and between groups. To compare the Iranian mana-

 

gers with other managers, the previous research data reported in ;

Managerial Thinking were used.

 

The mean scores obtained from Iranian managers were added
to the previous mean raw scores and provided a new figure of the
mean raw scores for 15 countries, with a new average mean raw
score for all. In tabulation and comparison of the standard scores,
the mean raw scores of the previous study and the present one were
taken as the raw scores for all 15 countries. These adapted raw
scores produced new means for all managers including Iranians. Then
based on these new means, the standard scores for all countries were
computed. The standard scores are, however, nominally distorted
because all of the raw data was not available. Although, in most
countries, the nature, the direction and the ratio of the new stan-
dard scores remain essentially the same. For the same reason, the
comparison made was primarily based upon the figures of the mean
raw scores, plus the necessary references to the standard scores

already obtained.

152

The Major Findings

 

The following major findings are drawn from the review of
the pertinent literature and the analyses of managers and educa-
tional administrators in their thinking, attitudes, factors of
satisfaction and dissatisfactions reflected in the data obtained.

1. The review of the available pertinent literature
revealed that:

a. Iranians generally were considered individualistic,
self-centered, uncooperative and autocratic in their
behavior.

b. Iranian education, throughout history, whether
family, community, or the society's formal systems, had
rather effectively been patterned after culture, and as a
result has influenced the culture and its component elements.
2. The analysis of the data on the first part of the

instrument, namely, "Assumptions and Attitudes Underlying Management
Practices," revealed that:

a. Iranian managers hold a relatively positive atti—
tude toward the individual capacity for leadership and ini-
tiative, a relatively less positive attitude toward sharing
information and objectives, and a moderately more positive
attitude on participation and the nature of supervisory
control.

b. Educational administrators reflected similar pat-
terns of attitudes toward the administrative practices of

education with higher intensity in their attitudes in the

 

that:

153

belief of the individual's capacity, participation, and
the nature of administrative control.

3. The analysis of the data on motivation factors revealed

a. Iranian managers are considerably fulfilled in their
needs for social and esteem, and less fulfilled in their
needs for autonomy, security and self-actualization.

b. Educational administrators are more fulfilled in
their needs for social, esteem and self-actualization and
less fulfilled in their needs for autonomy and security.

c. Iranian managers are more satisfied in their needs
for social and esteem and very much less satisfied in their
needs for autonomy, security and self-actualization.

d. Educational administrators, in the same categories
of needs, are more satisfied in their needs for esteem and
social, and relatively satisfied for self-actualization.
They are relatively high in their dissatisfaction with regard
to their needs for autonomy and security.

e. With regard to need importance, both managers and
educational administrators rated all categories of needs
of high importance across the scale with greater need
importance intensity on the part of educational adminis-
trators.

7. The variations within groups appeared to be con-

siderable in the fulfillment and satisfaction of their

154

needs for security and autonomy, and less significant on

other needs and the perception of need importance.

9. The variations between groups seemed to be some-
what considerable in their fulfillment of the needs for
self-actualization and esteem, in satisfaction of social,
self-actualization and security needs, and quite a bit
higher in their perception of need importance all across
the scale.

4. The analysis of data concerning need expectations and
importance and the measures of need fulfillment and satisfaction
revealed that in three needs both groups are dissatisfied: needs
for autonomy, security and self-actualization.

5. The consistency of Iranian managers in their attitudes
on most attitude variables with those of the educational adminis-
trator, as well as their similarity in their need patterns of
fulfillment, satisfaction and importance, revealed that there is a
recognizable pattern of culture which influences managerial thinking
and attitudes.

6. The analysis of the data concerning motivations and
need dispositions of Iranian managers and educational administrators
illustrated that, in general, Maslow's hierarchy of needs does
not appear here exactly in the order that the theory implies.
Rather, the need emergence of the individual and its intensity is
relatively dependent upon the culture and the situational elements

of each of the individuals involved in the study.

"!
s'a'flJ

155

To give a clearer picture of the need position of the indi-
vidual in different cultures, a schematic comparison of the proposed
hierarchy by Maslow, with that of Haire et a1. and the one of the

'present study, is shown in the following:
HIERARCHICAL PATTERN OF NEED FULFILLMENT

Maslow's General Hierarchy:1

   

ization

/// Esteem \\\
Social or
belongingness

Safety or security \\\

/ Basic, physiological needs \

 

 

Haire et a1. Findings:2

Social

‘Z/fAutonomyfi\\\
//gelf-actualizati6>\\
Z// Esteem \\\\
/// Security \\\\

1A. H. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological
Review 50 (1943): 372-383.

2

 

 

Haire et al., pp. 80-81.

 

156

Findings of the Present Study:3

Autonomy

/ Security \
////Self-actualization\\\

/// Esteem \\\
/// Social \\\

It should be noted that Maslow himself while describing the

 

theory has mentioned that in any particular culture "an individual's
conscious motivational content will usually be extremely different
from the conscious motivational content of an individual in another
society."4 However, looking from an anthropological point of view,
he takes note of the unity in human need patterns behind the
apparent diversity which might exist from culture to culture. In
the two studies under discussion here, one may observe the differ-
ences which exist in need patterns in different cultures.5

7. The analysis of the comparative data concerning Iranian
managers versus other managers involved in the previous study illus-
trated that on attitudes toward management practices, Iranian mana-

gers reflect the following attributes:

 

3
4

See p.
Maslow, "Human Motivation," pp. 389-90.

5It is worthy of note that the schematic comparison has been
made only in the area of need fulfillment. There are, of course,
some differences in the patterns of need satisfaction and importance
in different cultures.

hula...

 

157

a. In their belief in the individual's capacity for
leadership and initiative, Iranian managers stand rela-
tively high, close to British managers and next to the
three developing countries.

b. On sharing information and objectives, which in

a sense would appear to be a reflection of the extent of

b7

trust, mutuality and cooperation between individuals,
Iranian managers appear to be negative in their attitudes,
and relatively close to the three developing nations.

c. On the other two attitudinal dimensions—-partici-

 

pation and the nature of supervisory control--Iranian

managers reflect a moderately positive attitude, yet one

that is below the average of all clusters of countries,

and relatively close to all three developing nations. The

only country which lags slightly behind Iran is Italy,

with a mean raw score of 3.16 for participation compared to

3.19 for Iranian managers.

8. The analysis of the comparative data concerning mana-'
’gerial motivations and satisfactions reflected that:

a. In the areas of need fulfillment the Iranian managers
appeared to head the list in their need fulfillment for
affiliation. In their need for security and self-
actualization, they came close to French managers. In their
need for autonomy they showed a pattern close to the Italian

and Indian managers. In their esteem need, they seemed

158

slightly above the average for all managers and very close
to the Japanese, Norwegian and Spanish managers.

b. In their need satisfaction, they appeared to be
least satisfied of all in their need for autonomy and
security. In their social need satisfaction they were close
to the average for all managers. In their needs for esteem
and self-actualization they appeared to come close to the
three develOping nations, and especially to French managers
in regard to the latter need.

c. With regard to their need importance, they invariably
perceived their needs of high importance; a pattern very
similar to the managers of Argentina, close to the other two
develOping countries and higher than in all other countries
previously studied.

d. The analysis of similarities and differences in mana-
gerial thinking, attitudes and the patterns of motivations
appeared to reaffirm Haire and his associates' finding that
there is, on one hand, a managerial culture which could be
defined in terms of similarity in management thinking,
attitudes and responses to the organization's problems. On
the other hand, there is a national character, a cultural
stream of values, beliefs and traditions which somehow con-
verge with managerial thinking and attitudes. As far as
the finding is related to the present case under study, the

impact of culture has conclusively been observed--which

159

suggests that Iranian managers are managers in the common
sense of the term. Yet, they are Iranians with their own

cultural mentality.

The Minor Findipgs

The following minor findings are drawn mainly from the
review of the related literature, the analysis of the information I
obtained, and the observations made in the cultural environment of
the Iranian society. As might be expected, the minor findings
relate principally to culture and education and some to management
and educational administrators.

l. Misconception of the Iranian culture: The review of
the pertinent literature revealed that most reporters, whether the
common traveler or the research-oriented observer, have used
"self-reflective criteria" to judge the Iranian culture. Many of
the observations made are based on single cases which probably
could not be a sound basis for generalization.

2. The review of the pertinent literature, and the many
observations made by the researcher, revealed that there is an
ever increasing inter-cultural transfer between Iranians generally
and managers in particular with more industrial and managerial
cultures around the world.

3. The analysis of data, the review of the literature and
the observations made revealed that, as of yet, management groups

in Iran do not have a clear philoSOphy, a managerial creed both in

regard to people and production.

160

4. In the areas of education, the review of the literature
and the observations reflected that:

a. There is not much genuine cooperation and teamwork
among Iranian pupils in the schools. Most pupils do their
work on an individual basis, a basis on which no sense of
c00peration can be developed in growing children.

b. The general public is virtually unaware of the merits
of education, except for the assumption that better educa-
tion earns them a better living, and they are therefore
uninvolved in educating their children; thus, the whole
burden is laid upon the government shoulders and that of the
educators.

c. There is little, if any, relationship between school
systems and other related media, such as radio, television
and the press to communicate the educational problems or to
further enlighten the public with regard to education.6

d. There is no special training for educational admin-
istrators--principals, superintendents and the staff members
of the Ministry of Education--with respect to the special
field of the administration of education.

e. The law of the Provincial Board of Education, which

can be considered as an effort toward the decentralization

 

6Presently, the National Television of Iran, in cooperation
with the Ministry of Education, carries out certain educational pro-
grams, but these programs are not in the direction to which the
author refers. Also, the Ministry of Education runs the Educational
Television which serves several purposes. It is also planned that
further utilization of television be made for the purposes of the
public, as well as educators and their pupils' further education.

161

of the educational organization, has not been taken seri-

ously and thus, as of yet, its goals have not been achieved.
f. Most of the research and innovations in education

is centralized at the Ministerial level. Therefore, there

remains little room for the individual district or the indi-

vidual school to initiate any new pattern.

 

 

3
Implications for Iranian Culture; Management ‘
and Educational Administration
The findings reported in this study have profound implica-
tions for social psychologists and culturalists, both Iranian and 1

foreign, managers and educational administrators. This is especially
true in the higher levels of organizations. In the areas of the
Iranian culture, the findings reflected considerable change, and a
trend toward further future change. Therefore, most of the informal
observations and formal studies, even the revised editions, would
appear incomplete and less revealing of the present Iranian culture.
There seems to be a need for restudying the Iranian culture, its
pe0ple and the changes which have occurred or are occurring. Also,
it brings to the fore the phenomenon of inter-cultural transfer,
reminding those in responsible positions to be attentive to the
changes, and the "cultural lag" which might follow. It implies
that in the process of inter-cultural transfer the Iranians should
evaluate the gain and the loss side of the transfer, and even to
plan for a cultural reappraisal congruent with further indus-

trialization.

162

Implications for management can be divided into several
parts:

1. Furnishing Iranian management, especially in the
higher echelons, a fresh, meaningful picture of their manager/
subordinates' mentality; of their psychological, as well as
physiological wants and desires;

2. Giving Iranian management, particularly in the lower .1
levels, a manifestation of their thinking, attitudes and assumptions I
regarding their managerial practices;

3. Presenting a framework for managerial motivations and J

 

satisfactions for better performance in their jobs and for being
further productive in running the organizations;

4. Informing the foreign manager counterpart as to
Iranians' thinking, attitudes, work patterns and the factors of
motivation; and

5. Providing Iranian management with a comparative frame-
work with which they can compare themselves to others around the
world.

Implications for education and educational administrators
are also manifold:

1. They provide the authorities of the Ministry of
Education with somewhat conclusive information with regard to edu-
cational administrators' way of thinking, their attitudes and their
patterns of motivation.

2. They inform educational administrators, particularly

the principals of the school system, as to their attitudinal

163

strengths and weaknesses and to the possible effects that they
might have on teachers, pupils and the society as a whole.

3. They bring to the fore the necessity of training educa-
tional administrators in their special field of the administration
of education.

4. They manifest the need for further emphasis in
socialization of the school children, in inculcation of an

esprit de corps, and of preparing them for a more cooperative role

 

in a changing society.

5. They remind the authorities that there should be a
re-evaluation of the role which the public plays in education--
both financially and otherwise.

6. They revitalize the significance and the importance of
education in all areas of life, socially, culturally, and

managerially.

Recommendations

In light of the data collected, the literature reviewed and
the observations made, two kinds of recommendations for further
study and actions are made.
Recommendations for Further
Theoretical Research

Further study is needed to furnish more accurate and up-to-
date information with regard to Iranian culture, managerial behavior

and educational characteristics:

 

164

l. to study more objectively the new cultural dimensions
of the Iranian society; to investigate whether those attributes
found in the studies of 1900 to the 1950s still hold true and, if
not, what are the changes and the change patterns of the present
society;

2. to study Iranian management in public and private F
organizations separately; in light of the changed situation to
further investigate the thinking, attitudes and the psychological,

as well as physiological factors involved for their effective job

 

performance; L

3. to investigate those newly established private firms,
factories and workshop's owner/manager organizations to see their
social philosophy in reference to their society, and observe that
it is very important in the starting stages of industrialization
to look for a strong, positive and definite social creed for
nanagement;

4. to investigate the educational deficiencies at all
levels of the Iranian management and note that it appears so
with owner/managers and the higher level management (somehow they
have not kept abreast of the theoretical and practical aspects of
modern management);

5. to further study the role of educational administrators
--primary, secondary and even higher levels--and of the whole
process of education in the socity; and

6. to study the role of other media, such as radio, tele-

vision, the press, community and the society as a whole for the

165

betterment of the educational system; to find ways to further
involve and enhance a dedication on the part of the public toward
the education of their children.

Recommendations for Cultural, Mana-

gerial and Educational Actions

For bringing cultural congruency with that of technological
advancement, and for the furtherance of the invaluable cultural
heritage of the Iranian society, the following is recommended:

1. through the Ministry of Education or the Ministry of
Culture and Art, certain immediate and sufficient grants be made
available to national and foreign researchers for making a reap-
praisal of the Iranian cultural attributes;

2. through developing a comprehensive educational plan
and an overall cultural scheme, the trends of change and the impera-
tives of tomorrow's society be determined.

These recommendations are in accord with the expectations
of the Iranian leadership, who on many occasions has expressed
long-lasting desires to make the future an "Era of the Great Civili-
zation" for the Iranian society.

In light of the changing environment from a more provincial
to more cosmopolitan, and from a state of less organization to one
of more organized and encompassing the managerial functions in all
facets of the Iranian life, and based on the collected data, the

following recommendations are made:

 

166

1. To upgrade the Iranian management thinking and attitudes,
a re-educating program should be conducted for all managers in all
levels of the organization.

2. To provide the opportunity for further growth and self-
actualization, the needs which were so astounding in the Iranian
managers' need pattern, there should be a revision of the span of
control, the delegation of authority, the area of decision-making
and the reasonable freedom in actions for all managers respective
to their positions in the organization. This recommendation is again
in line with the statement made recently by H.I.M., the Shananshah,
emphasizing that "there should be a role for everyone in sharing
policies."7 One might expect, in the light of the Shahanshah's
statement, that this recommendation will receive serious considera-
tion.

3. To motivate Iranian managers for more effective per-
formance, further economic incentives should be engaged. While
this might have been taken into consideration, in light of the
economic changes which have occurred in the past two years, the data
which reflect an earlier period imply great emphasis on the need
for security.

4. Through sincere participation and cooperation of all
industrial managers, especially those managers/owners of the newly
established large corporations, and under the auspices of management

scholars, a social philosophy or, in Sheldon's terms, a "Managerial

 

7Kayhan International, March 18, 1976, p. l.

167

Creed," be developed for the Iranian management. It is vital at
this stage of progress that Iranian management, particularly the
owners/managers, commit themselves in their conscience to the
society's overall well-being and development rather than amassing
individual wealth. The "Creed" shall not come through the literal
consideration of the social ethics by, let us say, some university
professors, but rather it should be developed through the managers
themselves by asking them, in psychologically sound ways, to think
of their people and of their country.

In the areas of education and educational administration
the following recommendations are made:

1. To develop the administrative capacity of all princi-
pals, superintendents and of staff administrators of the Ministry
of Education, through a continuing education program.

2. To establish an independent department of educational
administration in Teachers' Training University or the College of
Education (University of Tehran) to prepare educational administra-
tors in their special field of administration.

3. To provide further opportunities for growth and self-
realization for educational administrators. This may be achieved
by providing them more autonomy and further educational opportunities.

4. To introduce further economic incentive for better moti-
vation of educational administrators. This is very important in
light of the fact that most educational administrators perceive

their need for security as unfulfilled and unsatisfied.

168

5. To bring further and more meaningful decentralization
in education. One way might be the full implementation of the Law
of Provincial Board of Education. Another might seem to be the
provision of certain opportunities for innovation in different dis-
tricts and provinces.

6. To levy certain educational taxes for building and
renovation of the school buildings and educational facilities
throughout the country. The tax should be named for education and
levied on certain classes of people and their income.

7. To involve people, more and more, in the process of
educating their children, in working closely with the schools and
in more understanding and appreciation for the educators.

8. To provide the zest, the support and even the willing-
ness to make the necessary sacrifies in behalf of educating
society's children, the whole social environment should be imbued
with the thought of education, its problems, its needs and the

ways to improve it.

Conclusion

If there are any broad findings which emerge from this study

they must be:

1. The existence of a definite cultural pattern of
thinking for Iranian management and educational
administrators.

2. The astounding need for autonomy and self-
actualization found in both groups.

169

The reciprocal influence of culture and education
on managerial behavior.

The immediate need for further research in the
areas of management, culture and education.

The imperative for prompt action in management
development, cultural re-appraisal and educa-
tional improvement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

170

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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~ ‘5” a .'

 

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Baldwin, George B. "Iran's Experience with Manpower Planning."
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Census Bureau of Iran. Statistical Yearbook. Tehran: The Bureau,
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Douglas, McGregor. Leadership and Motivation. Cambridge: The
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Drucker, Peter F. Technology, Management and Society. New York:
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Management for Results. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.

 

Ebrahim, Hossein Al. "Literacy Corpsman: The Symbol of Iranians'
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Education. Third Plan. Tehran: Plan Organization, 1961.

 

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172

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Haas, William S. Iran. New York: Columbia University Press, 1946.

Hall, Edward T. The Silent Langyage. New York: Doubleday Press,
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Haire, Mason; Ghiselli, Edwin E.; and Porter, Lyman W. Managerial _
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Herskovits, Melville. Man and His Work. New York: Knopf, 1948.

H.I.M. Pahlavi Mohammad Reza. The White Revolution. Tehran: The
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Kayhan International (Tehran), September 13, 1975.

 

 

Huart, Clement. Ancient Persia and Iranian Civilization. Transla-
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Lee, James A. "Cultural Analysis in Overseas Operations." Harvard
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Lorsch, Lay W., and Morse, John J. Organizations and Their Members.
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McClelland, David C. The Achieving Society, New York: 0. Van
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APPENDICES

175

 

 

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH

176

 

APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH

Part I

In the section below you will see a series of statements.
Please indicate your agreement or disagreement. Use the scale
below each statement.
For Example:

It is easier to work in cool weather than in hot.

 

: : X : : :
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree

If you think it is easier to work in cool weather, put an (X) above
"agree"; if you think it is much easier to work in cool weather,
put a mark above "strongly agree." If you think it doesn't matter,
put a mark over "undecided" and so on. Put your mark in a space,
not on the boundaries.

There are no right or wrong answers. We are interested in
your opinion about the statements which follow.

1. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, and has relatively little ambition.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

2. Leadership skills can be acquired by most people regardless of
their particular inborn traits and abilities.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

3. The use of rewards ( ay, promotion, etc.) and punishment (fail-
ure to promote, etc.) is aet_the best way to get subordinates
to do their work.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

177

178

4. In a work situation, if the subordinates cannot influence me then
I lose some influence on them.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

5. A good leader should give detailed and complete instructions to
his subordinates, rather than giving them merely general direc-
tions and depending upon their initiative to work out the details.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided. Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree mam

6. Group goal setting offers advantages that cannot be obtained by
individual goal setting.

 

. Strongly . Agree . UndeEided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

 

7. A superior should give his subordinates only that information
which is necessary for them to do their immediate tasks.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

8. The superior's authority over his subordinates in an organization
is primarily economic.

 

. Strongly . Agree . Undecided . Disagree . Strongly
Agree Disagree

Part II

On the following pages of Part II will be listed several
characteristics or qualities connected with your own position in your
firm. For each such characteristic you are asked to give three
ratings:

a. How much of the characteristic is there now connected with your
position in your firm?

 

b. How much of the characteristic do you think should be connected
with youryposition in your firm?

c. How important is this position characteristic to you?

Each rating will be made on a seven-point scale, which will look like
this:

 

(mini—T'z'3'4'5'5'7Zmax)

179

Please put a mark (X) above the number on the scale that
represents the amount of the characteristic being rated. Low numbers
represent low or minimum amounts, and high numbers represent high or
maximum amounts. If you think there is "very little" or "none" of the
characteristic presently associated with the position, you would place
an X above number 1. If you think there is "just a little," you would
place an X above number 2, and so on. If you think there is a "great
deal but not a maximum amount," you would place an X above number 6.
For each scale, place an X-mark above only one number.

Please do not omit any scales.

1. The feeling of self-esteem a person gets from being in my manage-
ment position:

 

a) How much is there now? : : : : : : : :
(min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max)

 

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1'2'3'4'5'6°7'
2. The authority connected with my management position:

a) How much is there now? : : : : : : : :
(min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max)

 

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
3. The ppportunity for personal growth and development in my manage-
ment position:

a) How much is there now?

 

(min)l.2.3.4.5.6.7(max)

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

 

180
4. The resti e of my management position inside the company (that is,
the regard received from others jn_the company):

a) How much is there now? : : : : : : : :
(min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max)

 

b) How much should there be?

 

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.

c) How important is this to me?

 

l. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
5. The_gpportunity for independent thought and action in my management
position:

a) How much is there now?

 

: 7 (max)

.b
01
O}

(min)1°2°3°

b) How much should there be?

 

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1.2.3.4.SO6O7.

6. The feeling of security in my management position:

 

a) How much is there now?

 

(min51'2'3'4'5'6°7(max)

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
7. The feeling of self-fulfillment a person gets from being in my
management position (that is, the feeling of being able to use
one's own unique capabilities, realizing one's potentialities):

a) How much is there now?

 

(min)1.2.3.4.5.6.7(max)

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

181

8. The prestige of my management position outside the company (that
is, the regard received from others not in the company):

a) How much is there now?

 

(min)1°2°3'4°5'6°7(max)

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

l . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

9. The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment in my management position:

 

a) How much is there now?

(min)1'2°3°4'5°6'7(max)

 

b) How much should there be?

 

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
10. The Opportunity, in my management position, to give help to other
people:

a) How much is there now? : : : : : : : :
(min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max)

 

 

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .
11. The Opportunity to develop close friendships in my management
position:

a) How much is there now? : : : : : : : :
(min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max)

b) How much should there be?

 

c) How important is this to me?

 

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE IN FARSI (PERSIAN)

182

 

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