“‘n-I-I-I-Il-I-I THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CHARLES STEWART MOTT FOUNDATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL PROGRAM IN FLINT, MICHIGAN Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Peter L Clancy 1963 IHESIS .0 This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Contributions of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation in the Development of the Community School Program in Flint, Michigan presented by Peter L. Clancy has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. Education degree in____ _ . , '1 ,V 5,- ._. - ' 1’ . 9 7 ‘ ,‘L 2. AL} .. .L, 944,7, T “Tain'r TTI'OfPCQnI' Date a... /5-"" 4 .3 0-169 2 IIIBIIIHHIIIZIIUI IIILIIIIIIIIIMIIHIIMIIZIIIII | 3 é» PPPP «1‘ ‘7 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CHARLES STEWART MOTT FOUNDATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL PROGRAM IN FLINT, MICHIGAN By PETER L. CLANCY AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to the College of Education, Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ABSTRACT PETER L. CLANCY This document is an history of the development of the C. S. Mott Foundation of Flint, Michigan. One of the hypotheses of this study is that the contributions of this Foundation to the development of the nation- ally recognized community school program of Flint constitutes a demon- stration of how a foundation may serve to release the generative and cre- ative powers of the people of a community. A set of operating principles for effective philanthropic giving is derived from values expressed over the years by leading foundation offi- cials and observers. The major normative statements contained in this set of principles generalize that foundations should: (a) avoid palliative giving, (b) seek projects in which foundation funds act as l'seed money," stimulating the contribution of further efforts and/ or funds from other sources, (c) avoid ineffective "scatteration giving" by supporting pro- grams and projects over too broad a range of interests or too broad a scale geographically, (d) realize the increasing role of government in broad pro- grams of research and the consequent diminishing need for foundation sup- Port of research projects, (e) seek programs and projects where foundation support can be applied at pivotal points by bridging existing gaps between -11- PETER L. CLANCY needs and resources, (f) avoid the support of esoteric and whimsical pro- jects, (g) look for projects and programs with high demonstration value, and (h) consider the significant contributions that can be made by foun- dations at the community level. The program of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation is assessed with respect to this set of norms. Beginning in 1935 with a grant of $6, 000 to the Flint Board of Ed— ucation to support a school-centered, after-hours program, the Mott Foundation has become the only foundation of substantial size in the United States that channels the vast bulk of its spending through the pub- lic school system of one community. Since its inception, it has granted more than $20 million to the Flint Board of Education. Classifiable as a major foundation by virtue of its assets, as a family foundation by virtue of its trustee membership, the Mott Foundation is nevertheless most like a community foundation because of the abnormal extent to which it has in- volved the community in decision-making and in programming. A grant to the Flint Board of Education of $1 ,800,000 for the school year 1962-63 covers school-administered, school-centered programs in health care and education, adult education and recreation, dental care and education, cur- riculum enrichment, youth delinquency prevention, and high school drOp- -iii - PETER L. CLANCY out rehabilitation. In the course of an average week, more than 70,000 individuals take part in these self-help, school-centered programs. De- velopment of the now vast range of programs took place gradually through the years in response to expressed wants and needs. Flint is now described by many observers as an education-centered community. More than 8,000 visitors traveled to the city from over the nation and world in 1962 to study and observe the program. Officials and trustees of the foundation claim the community school concept to be the ideal way for effective philanthropic spending. This study analyzes the extent to which such practice adheres to the principles of philanthropic spending and concludes that it does indeed adhere admir- ably to the best ideals of effective philanthropic spending. Universal values inherent in such a scheme are pointed out which could be of signif- icance for any foundation seeking a channel for non-palliative giving. _iv- THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CHARLES STEWART MOTT FOUNDATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL PROGRAM IN FLINT, MICHIGAN By PETER LIVIICLANCY A THESIS Submitted to the College of Education, Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Harold J. Dillon of Michigan State University, Chairman of his Guidance Com- mittee, for invaluable advice and counsel through the years, both personal and with respect to the programs being conducted in Flint. He is also grateful for the help extended him by Dr. Clyde Campbell, Dr. Orden Smucker and Dr. Max S. Smith who were also members of his Guidance Committee. The writer also wishes to express a deep debt of gratitude to Charles Stewart Mott, Frank I. Manley and the trustees of the C. S. Mott Foundation for the opportunity to be associated intimately for a period of six years with the never-dull enterprise known as the Mott Foundation Program, for the opportunity of free and complete access to all of the records of the Foundation and for the opportunity to ques- tion both men at length in long and often tedious interviews. With- out these priceless opportunities, this study would not have been pos- sible . -11- TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................... CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM ................... Introduction. . . . . .......... Statement of the Problem ......... Delimitations of the Study ......... Definitions. . . . . .......... Significance of the Study .......... Hypotheses to Be Tested .......... II. THE PHILANTHROPIC FOUNDATION ......... A Brief History of Philanthropic Giving. CONNH (.40 General Research Foundations ....... Special Purpose Foundations ....... 14 Community Foundations. . . ...... 14 Company-Sponsored Foundations ..... 14 The Family Foundation .......... l 5 The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. . 16 Principles of Operation. . ........ 17 The Shift Away From Palliative Spending. ........... 21 "Venture" Capital or "Risk" Capital ....... . ..... 22 "Seed Money" . . . . . ..... 23 Concentrated as Opposed to "Scatteration" Giving ...... 25 Demonstration Projects ...... 26 The Tendency Away From Research. . . . 27 Foundation Support of Education ..... 29 Critical Appraisal of Foundations. . . . 30 An Established Set of Principles for 36 Foundation Operation. . . . ..... -.iii - CHAPTER HI. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page THE BEGINNINGS OF A UNIQUE PARTNER- SHIP, 1935-47 ................... 40 "The Flint Plan of Recreation'.‘ ...... 43 The Visiting Teachers ........... 61 The Children's Health Center ....... 65 Adult Education ............... 70 Contributions to the War Effort ...... 74 A Boys'Camp and a Program for Girls. . . 75 The Big Brother Program .......... 78 Influence on the Curriculum ........ 81 , Summary .................. 82 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PEOPLE ........ 87 Charles Stewart Mott ........... 89 Frank J. Manley ............. 107 THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL ............ 118 The Fairview Pilot School Program. . . . 118 The Community School Defined ...... 128 Community School Practice in Flint. . . . 131 Community School Activities Program. . . 135 The Community Activities Director. . . . 137 The Plant of the Community School. . . . 142 The Community Council .......... 144 IN TENSIF ICATION AND AMPLIFICATION , 1948-63. . 148 Health ................... 148 Adult Education .............. 1 51 The Interest in Higher Education ..... 154 The Regional Special Counseling Team. . . 160 Contributions to Inter-Racial Relations. . . 167 Contributions to Curriculum ........ 172 Other Contributions in Flint ........ 176 A Program of Workshops and Visitations. . .179 University Cooperation ..... . . . . . . 185 Summary ................... 1 8 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) CHAPTER Page VII. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ..... . . . 188 Implications: Three Essences of the Mott Foundation Program. . . . . . . . . 209 Future of the C. S. Mott Foundation. . . . 212 The Future Role of Foundations ....... 217 APPEN DIX A .................. . ......... 22 3 APPENDDC B ............................ 226 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 2 2 8 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction: The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation of Flint, Michigan, ranks as one of the 25 largest foundations in the nation. It is the only foun- dation that has consistently expended the bulk of its funds through the public school system of one community. Since 1935, it has contributed more than $20 million to the Flint Board of Education. Its contribution to the Flint Public Schools for the school year 1962-63 is slightly more than $1 , 800 ,000 . Beginning with support of a school-centered recreation program, the Foundation was successively led to the support of a variety of pro- grams in health, adult education, curriculum enrichment, youth activities and community betterment through the auspices of the public schools. This complete saturation of effort has taken the form of a broad "commun- ity school" program and officials of the Foundation now define the purposes of the Foundation as two-fold: 1) To build Flint into a model city through the instrument‘of the community school and 2) To thus demonstrate to other communities the desirability of this approach to social change. Whether social change must always be the result of crisis, disaster, technology or of some outward force is a significant question in our time. _ 2 .. The underlying thesis of the Mott Foundation's 28—year experiment in Flint is that it need not be that social change can only result from a deliberate effort to bring about understanding among men. This study makes a documented account and analysis of the Mott Foundation Program's effort to prove this thesis . Statement of the Problem: The purpose of the study is: 1) To present an analysis in terms of commonly accepted principles of philanthropy of the contributions made by the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation to the development of the commun- ity school program as practiced within the public school system of the city of Flint, Michigan, and 2) To imply how a local philanthropic foundation may serve the creative and generative development of a community through its use of its schools. Delimitations of the Study: This study will be confined to an account of major contributions of funds, ideas, programs and methods made by the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation in the period 1935-1963 to the development of the community school program as it now exists in Flint and an analysis of the extent to which these contributions adhere to an established set of principles of philanthrOpy. It will not attempt to compare the value of these contri— butions with those made by other foundations in other locales or in other fields of interest . Definitions: CONTRIBUTIONS -- For the purposes of this study, contributions shall be defined as programs, ideas, methods or experiments which have been introduced into the Flint Public School System under the auspices of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation and which have led to the develop- ment of the Flint Community School Program. COMMUNITY SCHOOL PROGRAM -- That program as operated through the Flint Public School System which designates the neighborhood school as a community center not only for formal education but for recreational activ- ities, informal education, socialization, health needs, and community socio— political action and which imposes upon the personnel of that school respon- sibility for the educational, health and social well—being of the community served by the school. Such a center defines its clientele as any member of the community regardless of age, race, religion or political affiliation. Such a center extends the school day to late evening, the school week to Saturdays, and the school year to summers. PRINCIPLES OF PHILANTHROPY -- Those principles as expressed 7 by foundations and leading experts as being norms for effective giving. Significance of the Study: There are, in the United States today, over 15,000 philanthropic foundations making grants in excess of a total of 700 million dollars a year. The American foundation is a phenomenon associated almost exclusively with the twentieth century. With the exception of a few, all have been .. 4 - chartered in the past 60 years. Particularly during the past 25 years has there been a phenomenal growth in their number. Of the various classi- fications of foundations (general research, special purpose, family, cor- poration, community, governmental) the greatest growth in numbers since World War II has occurred with " family" foundations. Andrews assigns to this category 3 ,006 foundations and attributes their rise to post war high rates of taxation as well as the United States Internal Revenue Service rul— ings that permit deductions for contributions to such foundations up to 30 per cent of income. Regardless of the motivation for the incorporation of foundations (three important congressional investigations have been conducted to as- certain the public responsibility of such organizations), most observers agree that the average foundation is genuinely concerned with that type of expenditure of its funds which will satisfy aims at least as worthy as those set down by the giant of all foundations, the Ford Foundation: . . .the aim is no longer merely to treat symptoms and temporarily to relieve dis- tress, but rather to eradicate the causes of suffering. Nor is the modern founda- tion content to concern itself only with man's obvious physical needs; it seeks rather to help man achieve his entire well- being--to satisfy his mental, emotional and spiritual needs as well as his physical wants. It addresses itself to the whole man and to the well—being of all mankind. Yet the neophyte family foundation, for example, seeking ways to help man achieve his "entire well—being, “ would be hard put to find any _ 5 .. directions on how it might go about achieving such lofty purposes. No standard set of criteria exist to which a foundation may turn for guidance. This is accounted for by Andrews for various reasons. (5) Among these are the inherent difficulties in treating so elusive a subject, the sheer numbers involved, the relative newness of foundations, the experimental nature of foundations (and, hence, a relatively fluid state of principles) and the relative paucity of printed material dealing with foundation accom— plishments. This last reason, Andrews points out, is primarily due to a feeling on the part of foundations that they should not boast of their ac- complishments. Says one observer, "The most amazing thing about foun- dations is that so few people, even informed and intelligent people, know about them. “ The relative dearth of information concerning the principles of 0p- eration of foundations is regrettable. No doubt it has contributed to the kinds of suspicions on the part of the public that have led to the congres- sional hearings conducted by the Select Cox Committee, the Reese Com- mittee, and those now projected by Representative Patman of Texas, all directed toward the investigation of the influence of foundations. It is a fact that foundations have been, and will probably continue to be a force in American life. In many ways they have been the vanguards of community thought and action. Said the American Association of School Administrators Committee on Foundations as recently as February, 1963: _ 5 - The philanthropic foundations that have pro- vided funds for experimentation and research and have provided risk capital for probing into new areas have not been among the least of many forces that have shaped public educa- tion in America. The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, an important foundation in Michigan, has been conducting for the past 28 years an experiment in com— munity improvement through the medium of the community school program. This foundation has been acclaimed by literally thousands of observers for its significant contributions to the development of the community school program in Flint. The Foundation Directory says of it: The Foundation has been instrumental in im- plementing a broad adaptation of the com- munity school concept by the Flint school system. The experience of this Foundation has significance for many reasons, among them: 1. It is the only foundation in the United States that has chosen to spend the bulk of its income through the public school system of one community. 2 . It is listed among the largest 25 foundations in the United States , yet is more typical of family and community foundations and until recent years, reported relatively small expenditures. 3. It has stated repeatedly that it has chosen this method of operation in order that Flint will become a demonstration center for broad com- munity education program practice. -7- The value of this study lies in the fact that it will attempt to: l. Delineate the practices and principles that have guided the Oper- ation of a unique and influential foundation. Analyze those practices in terms of those principles of philanthropic giving that have been set down by leading foundations. Point out how any foundation may find the community school program a successful tool for effective philanthropic spending. Hypotheses to Be Tested: The contributions of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation to the pub- lic school system of the city of Flint, Michigan, 1. Have been instrumental in the development of the Flint Community School Program. Have thus demonstrated that a foundation may comply with the best accepted principles of philanthropy by this method. The hypotheses are to be tested by: 1. An account of the major contributions of funds, ideas, methods, techniques and programs made by the Charles Stewart Mott Founda- tion that have become a part of what is now the total Flint Community School Program. An analysis of the extent to which these contributions satisfy the most widely accepted criteria for effective philanthropy. 1 CHAPTER II THE PHILANTHROPIC FOUNDATION A Brief History of Philanthropic Giving: Although the American philanthropic foundation is unique in many ways, its roots are traceable almost to the beginning of the age of liter- acy. At least one historian finds the beginnings of foundations in ac- tions taken by the pharaohs of Egypt: " Fourteen hundred years before the Christian era the Pharaohs of Egypt were thus setting aside funds in perpetuity. Inscriptions show contracts wherein the pharaoh is the donor of specified kinds and amounts of wealth to a college of priests who, for a designated por- tion of the income, obligated their order to use the remainder to keep the tomb perpetu- ally protected and the religious ceremonies observed." (50: 575) The principle upon which such perpetuities was based could hardly be considered altruistic. It was not until the Christian era with its ba- sic tenet of "Love one another" that evidence appears of charitable be- quests for the purpose of serving mankind. Kiger points out that, up until the time of Queen Elizabeth I of England such philanthropic activi- ties as were carried on were virtually a monopoly of the church. (54: 17‘1 8) With Elizabeth, however, came the belief that the state had an obligation to set aside funds for the relief of the poor, the aged. the crip- pled, orphans and other unfortunates. Kiger posits that the confiscation -3- _ g _ of church funds by Henry VIII and Elizabeth's subsequent dispersal of such funds exchanged one monopoly on charity for another-—the church's for the state's. This is historically significant for the reason that it established the precedent of state control of philanthropic funds--a concept which many authors in the field credit for the fact that foundation development in Europe has been practically nonexistent. Says Frederick P. Keppel in his classic work, The Foundation: It may be noted that across the Channel, the French Republic, originally perhaps because of its critical attitude toward the Church, has ex- ercised a most minute scrutiny over foundations, and that this is probably the reason why there are so few foundations in France, and why their role is comparatively unimportant. (53: 16) Kiger reports that nowhere among the countries of Western Europe can there be found a group of organizations similar in number and size to the great foundations of the United States. He adds that the concept is entirely foreign to the states of Eastern Europe. (54: 19) F. Emerson Andrews, Director of the Foundation Library Center of New York City, em- phasizes the uniqueness of the foundation to America: In other countries fixed trusts sometimes exist, but few have been established with the freedom characteristic among us. The philanthropic foundation is an American social invention of the twentieth century-~a bridge for two-way traffic between creative persons and accumu- lated capital. (5) It is true that the American foundation as we know it today is largely a twentieth century phenomenon. However, one foundation - 10 _ established in the nineteenth century is still very much in business and two others are credited for establishing patterns of giving that were to be adopted later by the twentieth century pioneers. The one still in business is that resulting from a bequest by an Englishman, James Smithson. The Smithsonian Institute was established in 1846 and still performs an important social and educational function. The two founda- tions considered to be " at one" with the twentieth century giants are the Slater and Peabody funds, established to relieve the post-bellum, im- poverished South. Leonard Ayres delineates four important character- istics of these two funds that make them similar to the American founda- tions of today: . . .First, the unit by which they measure their bounty is a million dollars. . .In a second place, in every case the donor has made the gift totally without religious or ecclesiastical conditions. The third note- worthy distinction is that the scope of each foundation is national or world-wide rather than sectional or local. The fourth dis- tinguishing characteristic is that the condi- tions governing the administration of the trust funds are in each case general in char- acter, and provision is made for future modi- fications as conditions change. (16: 11-12) As concern for the plight of the South stimulated this broader con— CePtion of philanthropic giving, the stimulation for further broadening of the concept was the character and thinking of Andrew Carnegie. The dynamic Scotsman's two essays, Triumhant Democra_cy and The Gospel _. ll _ of Wealth established a rationale for foundation giving that has exercised great influence in philanthropic thinking. The basic premise of his two essays was that the prevailing social, political and economic system was good in that it furnished a greater and greater number of people with the good things in life. This goodness, however, was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the amounts of surplus wealth held by a few in- dividuals. Carnegie thought that these extremely wealthy men could do one of three things with their wealth: 1) leave it to heirs, 2) leave it for charitable purposes at death, or 3) give it away for charitable purposes in their own lifetime. The first two he rejected as having been tried and found wanting. He concluded that the third alone affords men of great wealth a means for its wise disposition. Carnegie thereupon established The Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1911 with the broad aim of ad- vancing and diffusing knowledge. About the same time John D. Rockefeller, a great admirer of Carnegie, established a series of foundations along pat- terns suggested by Carnegie. Somewhat later came the Russell Sage Foundation established by Mrs. Sage, then The Commonwealth fund estab— lished through the generosity of the Harkness family. (54., 6, 8) Historical statistics on foundation formation are incomplete, but records available at the Foundation Library Center list 27 foundations in 1915, 185 in 1930, 505 in 1946, and nearly 12,000 in 1956. In 1963, Andrews reports as many as 42,000 tax-exempt trusts, etc. that label - 12 _ themselves "foundations. " He adds, however, that the Center counts 15, 000 genuine foundations, i. e. , organizations that fulfill the follow- ing definition: A nongovernmental, nonprofit organization having a principal fund of its own, man- aged by its own trustees or directors, and established to maintain or aid social, edu- cational, charitable, religious or other ac- tivities serving the common welfare. (6: ix) The very substantial increase in the number of foundations formed since World War II has enhanced the speculation that has always been carried on concerning the motivations for the establishment of foundations. There have always been those who state flatly that the only explanation is due to impelling economic factors. They cite the correspondence be- tween the rate of increase of foundations and the rate of increase of per- centage of income that the Internal Revenue Service allows the individual to deduct for charitable purposes. (From 15 per cent to 30 per cent, 1930 to 1955.) Others point out that a very wealthy man could not spend vast sums of money all by himself and do it intelligently, even if the wealth were devoted to the simplest form of giving, 1. e. , direct relief for the unfortunate--the problem of professional beggars would present itself. Therefore, reason such observers, there follows the necessity for the cre- ation of an organization that can separate the wheat from the chaff and act as a general staff for intelligent philanthropy. This viewpoint em- phasizes as well the idealistic semi-religious motive or prinCiple in the - 13 - establishment of a foundation. The majority of observers agree with the following observation made by Harrison and Andrews: But no one who has examined closely the beginnings of many modern foundations is likely to escape one conclusion: Most of the founders were seized by a social vision which stirred them deeply and which was in many instances a modern expression of religious feeling. (49: 23) The Foundation Directory and most authorities classify foundations into five types: 1) General Research, 2) Special Purpose, 3) Community, 4) Company-sponsored, and 5) Family. (6: xx-xxv) General Research Foundations: This includes nearly all the larger well-known foundations (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller, Sloan, Kresge, Kellogg. Davis, Danforth, Russell 7 Sage. Commonwealth Fund, etc.) . They support the research projects in education, health and welfare which characterize foundation work in the public mind. Usually, though not always, their assets are substantial. Their scope is usually national, often international. Though The Foundation Directory counts only 178 of these, they account for 66 per cent of all of the assets of foundations. One of them, the gigantic Ford Foundation, has assets valued at between three and four billion dollars and thus ac- counts for from 25 to 35 per cent of the assets of all the foundations. (Estimated at $12 billion.) _ 14 _ Special Purpose Foundations: Created to serve a special charitable purpose, these are usually the foundations that are the butt of jokes directed at the field. One such foundation in the southwest has as its sole purpose the provision of Christmas dinner each year for the five hundred hungriest cats that can be found. Andrews points out that many such funds, however, are very efficiently managed and serve highly useful purposes. They number 584 and control approximately 13 per cent of all foundation endowment. Communig Foundations: These are composite foundations, usually established as trusts and functioning under community control. Capital gifts or bequests are received and administered as to principal by the trust departments of qual- ified local banks and trust companies. Donors are usually numerous and may specify the uses for their contribution or may leave it to the discre- tion of‘the "distribution committee" , usually made up of people selected for character and knowledge of charitable affairs. The Kalamazoo Foun- dation of Michigan is one of these. One of its larger donors is the UPIOhn Company. Community foundations number 101 in The Foundation Rim with active capital of $340 million. (Capital is usually dis— persed annually.) Company-Sponsored Foundations: Company-sponsored foundations are legal entities separate from the Parent company, but with boards of trustees usually made up of the .. 15 _ officers of the parent corporation. Essentially they are a device created to facilitate corporation giving. Usually they confine their activities to their local communities and center upon philanthropies that benefit the corporation, its employees, stockholders, or business relationships. Most typically, they make grants for research in their field of interest and provide scholarships . They have increased greatly in number in the 1950's, numbering 422 in 1948 and 1,333 in 1962. Among those with substantial funds (assets over $20 million) are: The General Electric Foundation, The Ford Motor Company Fund, The United States Steel Foun- dation and The Sears—Roebuck Foundation. The Family Foundation: These are typically established by a living person. Generally, they are initially small and serve as channels for general charitable giv- ing by the individual or family. Family foundations in particular have shown spectacular growth since World War 11. They number over 3000 in 1963 and, though possessing only an estimated 11 per cent of the as- sets of all foundations, they represent 58 per cent of all foundations in numbers. Of significance to this study is the fact that it is a fairly typical pattern for such foundations to build substantial assets through yearly accretions as well as to become the recipients of very large bequests upon the death of the donor. Say Andrews and Wharton concerning this: .. 15 .. . . .As funds increase and experience lengthens, programs may change, the trustee board may grow in breadth and perhaps in size, and the founda- tion may take on projects of national importance. . . .In the family foundations of today and those still to be created lie possibilities for further larger foundations. (6: xxv) The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation: The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, with which this study deals, is a family foundation according to the foregoing criteria for classification. However, like those alluded to by Andrews and Wharton, it has built sub— stantial assets through yearly accretions and substantial bequests have been arranged for it by Mr. Mott upon his death. In 1956 it ranked 40th in reported assets of all foundations. Its assets have increased substan— tially since then. The Mott Foundation has characteristics of and hence, pertinence for, three of the types of foundations. It is similar to family foundations in that it commenced its activities on a small scale with the personal su- pervision of its donor. It is similar to community foundations in that it has confined its spending to one community while asking various citizens to serve either on its board of trustees or its "Coordinating Committee" and to recommend distribution of its funds. It is similar to the large research foundations in the size of its assets and in its potential national influence, an observation which will be expanded upon later in this study. - 17 _ Principles of Operation: With the great number and variety of foundations in operation, is it possible to derive a common set of principles of operation? If one excludes overly-detailed consideration of special—purpose, small family and company-sponsored foundations, the multiplicity of which makes gen- eralization virtually impossible, there becomes evident a pattern of fairly generalized principles of philanthropy. The activities of the larger foundations in particular have been the subject of three congressional investigations since l900--those con- ducted by the Walsh Committee (1915) , the Cox Select Committee (1952) , and the Reese Committee (1954) . Chances are that the efforts and in- terests of Representative Patman of Texas, currently conducting an inves- tigation of foundations , will lead to another hearing for the 60's. Prompted by these investigations as well as by what appears to be a desire to be effective and efficient in their spending, foundations have examined their own principles on frequent occasions. As a result of the publicity at- tendant to the hearings, and as a result of soul-searching activities by foundations themselves, various generalizations concerning the work of foundations appear from time to time. Difficult as it is, such general— izations do enjoy a certain popularity. A host of observers testify to the difficulty of generalizing about the work of foundations. One ob- servor who is also one of the more vocal critics of foundations, Waldemar A. Nielsen has said: -l8- It is difficult to generalize about the work of foundations because of their great vari- ation in size, purpose and pretensions. The vast majority are small with assets of $10,000 to $50,000 and annual grants of $2 , 000 to $5 , 000 . They normally confine their work to particular localities or to char- ities of personal interest to their founders. They are a useful, neutral source of finan- cial support for many educational, medical and religious institutions. (71: 27) However, based upon available literature and reports filed by some of the larger, more significant foundations, it is possible to discern cer- tain general tendencies and certain common principles of operation. The most obvious tendenCy became evident in the 20's and 30's when there occurred a shift in philanthropic spending from palliative spend— ing, 1. e. , efforts to "cure" social ills and to alleviate suffering, to pre- ventive types of philanthropy. History professor Merle Curti substanti- ates this tendency: It is true that the record supplies abundant evidence of a shift from the older compas- sionate response to individual suffering and need, through acts of alleviation, to a con- cern with the causes of poverty, illness, ignorance and esthetic deprivation, and to an attack on these causes. In other words it is true that the history of philanthropy in this country has come increasingly to accent the note of giving as a social investment, rather than as a mere act of benevolence. The pioneers in this shift were Benjamin Rush and Benjamin Franklin and it is common knowl- edge that the contributions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Rockefellers to these ends have in- deed been notable. (29: 7) - 19 _ In his ambitious 1954 study of 500 of the larger foundations, Ioseph Kiger reported that many foundations had shown an obvious progression from a stage where they were mere channels for the personal giving of the donor, often largely of a relief character, to a mature consideration of the causes of personal and social disaster, methods of cure, means of preven- tion and ways of building strength and creative opportunity into the lives of men and the fabric of society. He noted, too, that his study indicated a shift from the "bricks and mortar" concept of fixed endowment programs toward the underwriting of special projects and research. There has been a strong tendency, too, toward the institutional type of Operation. Kiger reports that this type of Operation has several advantages from a foundation standpoint: . . .the grantee institution or group relieves the foundation, to a considerable extent, of the responsibility of evaluating and carrying through specific projects or programs. It allows the foundation to dispense a great deal of money rapidly. It counteracts a tendency toward 'scatteration giving' , that is, a pleth- ora of small ineffectual grants. It has the effect, sparked in many cases by the addition of 'conditions' to the grant of causing supple- mentary grants from other sources, thus aug- menting the force or impact of the original grant. (54: 39) Generally, one can observe the following tendencies among foun- dations: _ 20 _ A shift away from palliative or alleviative giving. This can be expressed in the aphorism: "It is better to provide a fence at the top of a cliff than an ambulance at the bottom." Acceptance by the foundations of the desirability of providing "ven- ture capital" or "risk money. " This is the provision of funds for projects apparently worthwhile but for which funds would not be forthcoming from any other source. The placement by foundations of value on projects wherein founda- tion funds will act as "seed money. " These are cases where foundation grants will serve the purpose of stimulating other funds and/ or other efforts from other sources. An avoidance of "scatteration giving. " This is an acceptance of the desirability to concentrate funds and efforts in one area or in one locale, the purpose being to avoid the ineffectiveness that re— sults from "spreading efforts too thinly." The placement of increasing value by foundations on demonstra- tion projects. Essentially, this is the underwriting and support of projects perceived to have universal values which, if proved in action, may stimulate emulation by other organizations and com- munities. (A general, overall shift away from research grants, particularly in the natural sciences and increasingly in the social sciences. This .. 21 _ is occasioned by the increasing participation of government in research effort, not only in the natural sciences but in the so- cial sciences as well. 7. An increasing interest in education. In 1961 , 54 per cent of all grants made by foundations went to educational institutions. A brief account of the development of each .of these tendencies, along with the reasoning supplied for them by various leaders of phil- anthropic thought, follows . The Shift Away From Palliative Spendifing john D. Rockefeller once stated that it was hard indeed to give away money successfully and that haphazard methods of giving it away were due to a lack of thought. and effort. In a memorandum on Principles and Policies which was adopted by the Rockefeller Foundation in the early days of its formation, the third of six enumerated points was as follows: No permanent good could be anticipated by giving aid for any purpose that was incap- able of invoking a desire on the part of the recipient to assist and carry it forward. (45: 22-23) The fear of foundation grants making the recipients even more helpless is prevalent in most of the foundation literature. In recent Years, the criticism has diminished considerably, but in earlier times foundations were often criticized for being paternalistic. One defend- ant of the Rockefeller‘Foundation's efforts felt obligated to say: _ 22 _ Our task is not buttressing the weakness of our fellows with our strength, but organiz- ing the energies of man to reconstruct his world. (2 3: 299) Finding those projects which satisfy this objective constitutes to a great extent a major task of foundations. The major tendencies re- maining to be enumerated here are largely the result of the seeking, by foundations and others, of methods of spending that will satisfy this ma- jor objective. "Venture" Capital or "Risk" Capital Foundation expenditures amount to only three per cent of the total philanthropic expenditures in the United States in the average year. (54: 113) Therefore, one can see quite readily that although their total ex- penditures are in the range of seven million dollars a year, foundations are not going to underwrite vast programs in social condition improvement. The most prevalent concept is that they should seek to provide money to do the things for which money would not normally be available from gov- ernment or from other sources. Foundations, in other words, should pro- vide the stakes for treks into unknown and unchartered wildemesses of knowledge and social actions. Kiger quotes one foundation official as saying: The foundations act as catalysts in research and education through support of new ideas and invasion of unexplored fields of knowledge. -23.. Foundations can take gambles on new ideas, which until proven need not be supported by universities or public funds. By support of individuals and institutions, foundations have been able to advance standards of edu- cation and research. (54: 49) Kiger attests to the fact that the venture-capital concept enjoys wide acceptance by foundations: . . .certain general, rational principles of programming tend to develop among those foundations that have given careful thought to their function. It may be noted, too, that those same foundations with few excep- tions embrace the preventive venture-capital concept of function. (54: 55) "Seed Money" This concept represents something of an ideal in philanthropic thought. The ideal is that certain grants of funds will prompt or pro- mote the forthcoming of additional funds and/ or efforts from other quar- ters. Most recently the practice of this principle has taken the form of "challenge grants." These are cases wherein a foundation makes a grant of a particular sum of money and then challenges any other founda- tion or agency to match that grant. This is a sophistication of the " matching grant. " The matching grant usually takes this form: The foundation agrees to provide the last $100,000 of a fund of $200,000 needed for a particular project. Or, in another form, the foundation will match any amount of funds, up to a certain limit, raised in other ways for a particular project. _ 24 _ Andrews sees five distinct uses of seed money. (2: 39) First, as an incentive grant, a use already discussed here. Second, seed money may finance an unpopular need; for example, overhead costs for postage or circulars for which individual contributors would not be readily enticed to provide contributions. Third, seed money often finances a demonstration project. Says Andrews: You do the whole job of financing a demon- stration, not because you think this one operation will solve the whole problem or even believe that you should ordinarily con- tribute to ongoing problems, but if the dem- onstration project works, it will be widely copied. This is seed money in the real sense of sowing a few grains in a local field, and perhaps reaping a wide harvest. (2: 39) Seed money may be used to start an organization, according to Andrews. This fourth function offers enough money to get an organiza- tion going with perhaps a diminishing grant for several more years. Fin- ally, seed money may be used to start an experimental or extension ser- vice in an existing organization. Again, the hope is that this service will prove to be self-financing ultimately, or will be provided from other funds as its worth is established. The danger, of course, with seed money is that it will become a virtually perpetual grant. Andrews cites a Russell Sage Foundation grant made in 1907, ostensibly for the purpose of providing seed money, I! ' that was annually granted in the same amount on an "emergency basrs for 36 successive years thereafter. (2: 39) In short, seed money is -25.. "starter" money and the foundations which use this generating device, according to one foundation consultant, "have great potential for doing widespread good with limited outlay. " (l9) Concentrated as ijosed to "Scatteration" Giving There is fairly widespread agreement among foundations that "scat- teration" giving or the "shot-gun" method has a tendency toward palliation. In other words, many small projects cannot reach and remove the root causes of mankind's troubles. Says one foundation consultant: Foundations have discovered that giving to all phases of any one area quickly dissipates income and accomplishes little. They have invented spending devices known as 'risk capital' and 'Seed money.‘ (19) The executive director of the Chicago Community Trust, James Brown IV, sheds some light on the initial tendency of foundations toward "scatter- ation" giving and makes a plea for concentration of foundation efforts in lo- calities: There were good reasons for the early foun- dations--Rockefeller and Carnegie--to say that they were going to try to push forward the limits of present knowledge by research and experimentation and were not going to become involved in local building funds and operating budgets. The trouble is that the new hatch of local foundations, in their eag- erness to be respectable, had thought that they had to adopt these same classical policies. If our local, private health and welfare agen- cies are to remain vigorous and significant, .. 26 .. they should be supported by community foun- dations and they should not be required to jump through a hoop, or do something brand new each time they receive a grant. (20: 9) Andrews suggests that it would be a mistake were all foundations to devote all of their funds to discovery and promotion of new ideas and venture-capital types of projects, since most small foundations do not have the staff or special knowledge that would make such programs a re- motely hopeful gamble. (5) He points out that even very large founda- tions cannot afford the necessary staff that would enable them to spend their whole income experimentally. Often, says Andrews, these large foundations do best by using much of their funds to support, on a care- fully selective basis, going enterprises of proved merit. Demonstration Projects Andrews, Keppel and Kiger all allude repeatedly to the value of demonstration projects. (2, 53, 54) As indicated earlier, Andrews saw money expended in this way, as acting in the real sense of sowing a few grains in a local field and perhaps reaping a much wider harvest. Kiger reported that many foundation officials thought that their organization should attempt to select projects which, once their value had been demon- strated, would find popular support; thereupon the foundation could disen- gage itself to sponsor new ventures. Otherwise, their reasoning is, the venture—capital concept will die aborning in continuing support of projects Probably becoming less and less venturesome. - 27 ._ The dangers inherent in the demonstration project are sometimes alluded‘to by officials of recipient institutions. One witness before the Cox Committee, a university president, while speaking of the inter-rela- tion of foundations with higher education, said that grants growing out of the venture-capital concept were apt to be "inciting" or " accelerating" grants and when a foundation withdrew from a project, the institution spon- soring it was often at a loss for means to continue it, no matter how worth- while or successful it might be. (54: 52) Many observors would offer as an answer to this problem careful joint planning between the granting foun— dation and the institutional grantee prior to the initiation of the demonstra- tion. project. The TendencLAway From Research: In the late 1920's and early 1930's, as the Federal Government and other public sources began to support health, agriculture and the natural sciences to a greater and greater degree, foundations began to move into the social and humanistic areas where it was felt that limited funds could be utilized to the best advantage. Said Andrews in 1956, " no single pre- scription will serve (for foundations) for conditions are changing rapidly. Government has taken over large areas where foundation support was form- erly essential. . ." (4: 347) Professor Merle Curti, in 19 62 , pointed up this change in emphasis thusly: -28- On the whole the philanthropic dollar seems in large part to have favored the very causes to Which government is committed and for which public funds have borne and must bear the lion's share. Foundation giving for ed- ucation is a prime example. The largest of America's endowed philanthropies, the Ford Foundation, lists its 1961 grants and appro- priations in its most recent report under eight categories. Listed first is 'Education in the United States' , which received $37,000,000 or 25. 9 per cent of the Foundation's total 1961 in-program expenditures of $143, 000 , 000 . (29: 8) In criticizing the foundations for their lethargy in recognizing the increasing role of the Federal Government in research, Nielsen has this to say: (Foundations) are no longer unique nor even predominant in their role as financiers of research and in the past decade, a blight of greyness and mediocrity has begun to spread over their grants. (71: 93) Nielsen claims that, far from being a flexible independent force in help- ing American institutions adapt to change, foundations have become con- siderably bureaucratized. Most important, they have been struck full force, says Nielsen, by a massive development which has unhinged many of the basic assumptions on which they formerly operated, to wit: the rise of the welfare and scientific state. He goes on to elaborate: The expansion in recent times--through de— pression, war and cold war--of government programs in social welfare, health, educa- tion, foreign assistance and scientific re- search has produced a pervasive state- presence in fields which were once the natural, sometimes virtually the exclusive _ 29 .. province of private philanthropy. In med- ical research alone, as a striking instance, federal appropriations have increased from $46,000,000 in 1950 to $736,500,000 in 1962. (71: 92) Mndation Support of Education: Fifty-four per cent of all grants made by foundations in 1961 went to education. Education has always ranked high in interest among foun- dations and the trend is definitely on the increase. Keppel said that " surely the discovery and distribution of facts from which men and women may draw their own conclusions offers a field sufficiently wide and suf- ficiently vital to the welfare of humanity." (53: 109) Kiger found that of 54 foundations answering a 1952 questionnaire distributed by him, vir- tually all of them in one way or another listed education as part of their program. (54: 62) Interest in education is evident in the writings of nearly all of the creators of foundations, from the largest to the very small. What are the motivations for such consistent and intense interest in education? Lindeman believes that donor interest and foundation aid in education reflect the American belief that the way to get ahead socially and economically is through education. (56: 83) Kiger believes that the continuing and increasing interest in education reflects no less than the basic American philosophy of progress. Kiger says: Despite the many present day Spenglerians foretelling doom, Americans generally have an implicit faith that by study and learning the world will become a better and better _ 30 _ place in which to live. Both the men who founded and those who have guided the foundations shared this belief. Tying in this belief with the concept of prevention rather than palliation, it is readily under- standable why so many foundations sponsor educational programs. For by study and learning, many of the woes of mankind could be alleviated or eliminated right at the source, the mind of man itself. (54: 62) Concerning the advisability of spending through the medium of ed— ucation, Andrews has this to say: Where giving to relieve physical want has sometimes had the disasterous affect of destroying initiative, educational aid has usually spurred the individual to greater activity and higher achievement. (3: 188) Implicit in this summary of emerging trends in philanthropic giving are certain norms established for foundation giving by foundations them- selves and by analytical observers. Before attempting to derive a com- posite set of norms, which is one of the purposes of this chapter, it would be well to take an overview of the most prevalent criticisms of foundations. Critical Appraisal of Foundations: To the uninitiated, spending money may appear to be a delightful task indeed. Such persons may ask how there possibly could be any dif- ficulty associated with the satisfactory and satisfying spending of large sums of money. The average person can probably conjure up in his mind many wonderful ideas for the alleviation of the sufferings of mankind if he ._ 31 _ but had the funds with which to carry out the ideas. But a serious in- vestigation of the account of hard efforts and painful soul-searching done by foundation executives and boards of trustees reveals that the wise spending of money requires a great deal of effort coupled with knowl- edge, hope and wisdom--but most of all, effort. Warren Weaver, Vice- President of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, once said: No foundation, of course, can work in all the possible fields where its money might be spent. No foundation is large enough to be able to afford such an attempt and a small foundation cannot certainly even contemplate it. For the wise spending of money requires a great deal of knowl- edge along with a reasonable amount of wisdom. The acquisition of knowledge is a costly process both in time and money. You have to be prepared to talk to a great many people asking questions and then lis- tening hard and long to the answers you are given. The acquisition of wisdom is much more difficult. (89: 1) Paul G. Hoffman, then President of the Ford Foundation, testified in the Cox hearings that after heading the Ford Foundation for two years he was sure the Julius Rosenwald famous statement that it was easier to make a million dollars than to give it away intelligently was correct. His ex- planation was that in business one has a profit and loss guage that pos- itively indicates success or failure. No such mechanism exists in foundation work. Therefore, the necessity exists for painful soul-search- ing by foundation executives in evaluating their programs. _ 32 - The problem of evaluation is indeed a difficult one. In business a company makes a profit or a loss and the proof is written in black or red on a balance sheet. In politics a candidate wins or loses and the ballot box determines. But in philanthropy, such clear and indisputable meas- ures of results are not available, just as they are not available in social work. The paucity of quantitative evaluations of foundation efforts, es- pecially of those of the foundation under observation in this study, is a subject which will be dealt with later. The President and General Direc- tor of the Kellogg Foundation, in its 1961 Annual Report, comments on the difficulty of evaluating the social utility of a foundation's efforts: Activities supported by a foundation are not infrequently concerned with that which can- not be weighed on scales, measured by cal- ipers or calculated through tables at the back of a book. The resultant dividends some- times may be difficult to appraise in any con- crete fashion, yet eventually nearly every aided program may be measured by a valid criterion of its utility: has it yielded a significant social return? . . .The fact that in assisting such efforts, philanthropy has impact to one degree or another on people and/ or living conditions, illustrates the social usefulness of foundations, their real reason to be. (9: 2) Yet, despite the apparent difficulty of evaluation of foundation ef- forts, there remain those critics who are able to point out trends in foun- dation spending that they consider to be disturbing. One of the more vocal of these critics is Waldemar Nielsen. In an October, 1962, article -33- in The New York Times Magazine, Nielsen suggested that he saw six dis- turbing trends in foundation activity: 1. A strong penchant for the academic grants to develop promising "leaders" to go almost entirely to persons from universities-- Civil servants, politicians, businessmen, labor leaders and ar- tists are seldom included. A tendency to "geese-flock" , as Nielsen calls it. He says, "let a scholar win acclaim for his work and the next year he drowns in a multiplicity of foundation offers." A "hardening of the categories, " a tendency to judge proposals rigidly, sometimes mechanically in terms of formal program ob- jectives. A penchant for the "safe bet," for the big name scholar and for the prestigious school. Nielsen condedes that this may be defended as simple recognition of the few great centers and men of excel- lence, but that it may also reflect plain timidity and rigidity. A disturbing shyness in dealing with controversial issues. A retreat from relevancy and reality. Nielsen mentions esoteric studies abounding in the grant lists. of the large foundations, while many of the great issues of national concern, from medical care for the aged, to agricultural surpluses, to unemployment in chron- ically depressed areas seldom appear. Furthermore, says Nielsen, _ 34 .. when grants are laid to large and pressing problems they are al- most exclusively for studies, not for experimentation or action in solving them. (71: 27-94) Another critic of foundations, Edwin Embree, has accused founda- tions of suffering from timidity. He cites four specific criticisms: 1. Scatteration giving, 1. e. , the sprinkling of little grants over a multiplicity of causes and institutions. Bureaucracy and traditionalism which result in many safe programs and few new ventures. Too great a concern with conservation of resources. Abuses of the tax exemption privilege by some organizations coupled with the failure or refusal to divulge information. (35: 28-37) Curti criticizes foundations for too much of a concern with the eso- teric without consideration for practical, lasting effects. He reports that in June, 1962, the Ford Foundation awarded $120,000 to 15 concert. artists for the commissioning of 15 new works. Says Curti of the grant: A helpful grant, but no more inventive surely than dollars given to the hungary for food or to the sick for hospitals or medicine. Many (though not all) of the. composers so commis- sioned are of the stature, further, which makes the Foundation's assistance neither strictly necessary nor in the deepest sense even helpful. (29: 8) Considerable criticism exists in the literature of the tendency for the foundations to shy away from controversial areas and issues. Curti, again, says: -35- Indeed, despite the efforts of the Reese Committee to prove its case, philanthropy on the whole has avoided controversial is- sues, the very issues perhaps that offer the greatest challenge and that point to the greatest need. I do not know of any major philanthropy in the last 30 years which has endeavored to support civil liberties, mi- nority rights and other unpopular but socially significant causes. . .Urban renewal, civil liberties, racial justice, overseas relief and technical aid, and international peace and understanding have, to be sure, attracted some philanthropic support. ' But in terms of the importance and need, I venture to main- tain that what has been done--in terms of the giving of money, time and talent--has been utterly inadequate and far less worthy of the description of "venture capital" and social inventiveness than much of the literature of philanthropy suggests. (29: 9) In the hearings before the Select (Cox) Committee to investigate foundations in 1952, Robert M. Hutchins said that the only remedy for the problem of criticism of foundations was to get the people to understand that the proper function of a foundation is to take calculated risks in con- troversial areas, namely, areas where other institutions and agencies dare not or cannot go. (87: 196) In general, the most oft-voiced criticism of foundations is their lack of imagination; their tendency not to extremism, but to orthodoxy. They are criticized for being imitative, esoteric and out of touch with re- alitY- While the 1954 Reese Committee suspected subversion and neo- 1iberalism among the foundations, 1963 critics, for the most part merely suspect dullness . -35.. An Established Set of Principles for Foundation Operation: Based upon the foregoing discussion, we now attempt the estab- lishment of a set of norms for Foundations: 1. Foundations should avoid palliative giving. They should spend for prevention rather than cure. Foundation money should act as venture or risk capital. Foun- dation funds should go for projects or programs for which funds would not otherwise be available. Foundation funds are ideally effective when they serve as "seed money" . Such spending encourages efforts, either financially or human, from other sources. Foundations should avoid "scatteration" giving. They should pick either significant social or educational areas, or confine their efforts to geographic locales, in order to be most effective. Once they have satisfied discemable needs in a given area or geographic locale, then they should consider extension into broader areas. Foundations should consider the high potential for effectiveness in the subsidizing of demonstration projects. Such projects are most effective in encouraging efforts and funds from other sources. Foundations should try to avoid emulation of the function of early large foundations. They should take care to avoid subsidizing research that may be adequately carried on by government agencies. 10. 11. _ 37 - Foundations should evaluate carefully projects of a highly esoteric but often questionably utilitarian value. Foundations should avoid slavish imitation of other foundations. This very act defeats the purpose of a foundation, i. e. , to oper- ate on the periphery of knowledge, experimenting where others dare not go. Foundations should conscientiously avoid stagnation within their own ranks. Foundations should strive to be imaginative, inventive and utili- tarian. Foundations should seek the advice and counsel of as many persons as possible. They should publicize fully what they are doing, and they should welcome criticism. A fuller discussion of the importance of counseling with other peo- ple as well as of the importance of a foundation selecting for its work par- ticular kinds of people follows in Chapter IV. Based upon the foregoing discussion and upon lectures delivered at the American College Public Relations Association Foundations Relations Workshop held at the Park-Sheraton Hotel, New York City, November 12-13, 1952 I there follows now a derived list of questions that foundations should ask themselves when considering the provision of a grant to an institution: - 38 - Will this project contribute new knowledge to mankind or new techniques that do not now exist or that are not in op- eration elsewhere? Is this project a duplication of an effort being carried on elsewhere? Is the grantee asking for a contribution of funds to an op- erating budget that already exists? To what extent are taxpayers--or in the case of colleges, alumni groups-—interested in and supporting this project? Does this project have the approval and sanction of the top echelon of authorities within the institution as well as of the board of control of the institution? Is it more appropriate that this project be underwritten by another agency or another foundation? What is the tenure of this project? Should it prove suc— cessful, is there the possibility of continued financial sup- port from another quarter? Has this or a similar request been made previously of the board of control of the institution, of a governmental agency, or of another foundation? If so, what were the reasons pre- sented at that time for the refusal? Who will administerand carry out the project? Who are the people responsible for it? What are their qualifications, their experience? - 39 .. 10. What controls are there to assure that the funds will be spent as described? Thus armed with a derived set of norms for the operation of foun- dations, we proceed now to the examination of the operation during a 28 year period of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation of Flint. In the final chapter of this study, we shall analyze the extent to which the particular methods of operation of this foundation comply with these sets of norms. CHAPTER III THE BEGINNINGS OF A UNIQUE PARTNERSHIP. 1935 - 47 The sociological milieu which was the background for the develop- ment of the unique partnership that exists today between the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation and the Flint Board of Education was not atypical of that existing in many cities of the United States in the middle of the depression. In 1935 the city of Flint counted a pOpulation of 156, 000. This figure represented an 1100 per cent increase over the pOpulation 30 years prior to that. In the case of Flint, the increase was occasioned by the growth of the city's now-major industry--the production of auto- mobiles . Having successfully converted from the lumbering industry in the middle of the nineteenth century to the manufacture of carriages and buggy whips, Flint found itself in the first 30 years of the twentieth cen- tury becoming an automobile center. In the foreshortened time of 30 years the city had acted as a testing ground for the translation of American industry from the small independent enterprises of pioneer times to the highly mechanized production of a machine age. A team of researchers from the University of Michigan reported that very little had been done prior to 1934 to deal with the complex prob- lems arising out of the heterogeneous and rapidly: growing industrial- popu- lation. (44: 2) Social agencies were reported active but unable to deal -40.. - 41 - with all of the problems. Furthermore, reports the team, "these prob- lems became more acute with the rise of unemployment during the depres- sion of the 1930's." Sociological problems one would expect to be attendant to such population growth and its accompanying influx of various peoples were evident in the city. A study conducted by the Sociology Department of the University of Michigan reported that one-third of the total population had either entered or left the city within the four-year period, 1930-34 . Further, the average family had resided in the city 33 months . In one elementary school were represented 29 distinct ethnic groups. (36: 6) Another writer reported that: The greatest turnover was among negro and southern whites largely from Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee and Arkansas . Al— though a considerable group came from the cut-over area of Northern Michigan. (62) Manley, Burns, et al, report that unemployment was widespread and that Flint was particularly hard hit. (59: 20) There were large numbers of people who were unemployed over a long period of time. Relief and wel- fare lines were blocks long. Discouragement over the prospect that the depression might never end resulted in a pervading gloom and a general feeling of hopelessness . They report that there were few free recrea- tional facilities and that the city had only ten playgrounds staffed by 20 Playground supervisors while there were "612 beer dispensaries, pool- rooms and dance halls. " -42- In the face of these problems the schools of Flint were experi- encing what must have been frustrating disheartenments . The annual report of the Superintendent of Schools for the year 1934—35 stresses the "necessity of reducing the cost of the public schools through curtailment of the curriculum and personnel. " (8: 3) The Superintendent expresses regret at this trend and recalls , somewhat pitifully, that in September, 1932, the kindergarten had been reduced from one year to one semester, the number of kindergarten teachers cut from 50 to 24 and the entrance age increased from five to five and one-half years . He further notes that free instruction in instrumental music had been discontinued in the ele— mentary grades in June of 1932 . A center for mentally handicapped chil— dren had also had to be discontinued. The junior high school program had been reduced from six to five periods . Required art, music and aud- itorium classes in the seventh and eighth grades had been eliminated. Ninth grade classes in general science or biology had been reduced from five to two and one-half periods per week. Periods per day in the senior high school had been reduced from six to five. Many elective subjects had been cancelled. Periods per week were reduced in enrichment ac- tivities and several subjects had been dropped altogether, including hy— giene, geography, economics, advertising and salesmanship. There had been a forced reduction of approximately 10 per cent in the educational staff in the year 1933-34 and at (the end of that particular year, the Board -43- of Education had to ask all of the teachers in the system to work the last two weeks of the school year without pay. Present-day Flint school officials who were observers of the time report that at state and national meetings of educators, reporting the fact that you were associated with the Flint system automatically brought a look of pity. All of this was, in part, a prologue to the staging in Flint in 1937 the bitter sit—down strikes which led ultimately to the recognition of the United Auto Workers Union . Exactly 25 years later, in 1959, Readers' Digest roving reporter Karl Detzer was to describe these conditions thusly: Twenty-five years ago Flint, Michigan, was an uneasy, unhappy city with more than its share of industrial grime, sub-standard hous— ing, and petty crime . Big labor and big man- agement were building up tensions that in 1937 would splash Flint into the headlines as a cen- ter of the sit-down strike. Thousands of un- skilled workers lived shabbily in over-crowded quarters that nearby communities referred to as 'shanty town' . Education, particularly at high school or college levels, seemed unimportant. Flint knew nothing of art, music or literature; it cared even less. (32: 184) "The Flint Plan of Recreation ": The Director of Physical Education and Recreation for the school system at the time was Frank J. Manley. Manley had come to the Flint system in 1927 as a physical education graduate of Michigan State Normal College (now Eastern Michigan University) at Ypsilanti. As he describes -44- it (forthcoming biography of Charles Stewart Mott) he had learned from Professor Wilbur B . Bowen to believe in the importance of athletics in group recreation. He believed that athletics provided the key to good living and that all community facilities should be available for people to use for such activities . Says Manley of Bowen: He felt that when people have a chance to express themselves in athletics and recre- ation their tendency to do the right thing is improved for their whole lives . He was preaching a doctrine that my own experience verified and I was--and still am--inspired by his ideas. One of his specific ideas was keeping school buildings open around the clock, around the year, for public use in recreation programs open to everyone . (90) Manley also pays tribute to Professor Charles M. Elliott, Head of the Special Education Department at Michigan State Normal College, for another fundamental idea by which Manley lived. That was that every person is an individual and is to be treated as such; that each per- son must be respected and valued for himself. In 1928, the second year he was in the system, Manley became Supervisor of Physical Educa- tion for all Flint Public Schools . In his own words Manley relates the following: The most important things I brought with me to Flint were these two beliefs . I came to Flint with the idea of practicing these two things: treating everyone as an individual and using all the resources of the community for the people through recreation and athlet- ics . At least I knew exactly what I wanted to do. -45- I had enthusiasm and energy. I was teach- ing at Central and at Whittier, and directing the physical education program in the ele- mentary schools. In 1928, I became Super- visor of Physical Education for all Flint Schools . One day the principal at Martin School told me they were having trouble with a group of boys who were skipping classes and accom- plishing nothing when they did come to class. I said, 'Let's form a Sportsmen's Club. I'll come out noon hours .' We started with 15 boys, and the group built up to 30. I'd go out three noon hours a week and put on a bas- ketball suit, and those kids would maul the daylights out of me. Then we'd have a bus- iness meeting, which consisted of my saying, 'Give me the reports from your teachers. I want to know how you're doing.’ The reports got better all the time--and so did the boys. Some of those boys had already been in trouble with the courts--but they all turned out mighty well. I wasn't a social worker; I just knew that if you paid some attention to them--and gave them a chance at athletics--it would straighten them out. Later I came to under- stand that it wasn't athletics as such, but the personal attention that really mattered. I started two other Sportsmen's Clubs at other schools, and wanted to spread this kind of plan all over Flint--but the Board of Education could find no money for it. (90) Manley reports in another place that he and a great many other people during this time spoke to hundreds of PTA's and community groups urtiling the development of some kind of a plan to do something to reduce the alarming juvenile delinquency rates, the high traffic death rates of children, and Flint's poor child-health showing in National Chamber of -46- Commerce competitions. (62: 11) He was in the habit of making calls with members of the Flint Police Department. He reported to Probate Court every Saturday morning and at one time had a list of 90 boys on probation to him personally. About this he says: I'm not sure that I knew what I was doing, but I was trying . I worked with those kids . Maybe I learned a lot more from them than they learned from me . I found that a little love--a little personal atten- tion--and really treating them as individ- uals went a long way with those boys . I tried to get them organized into a club and got a few other fellows who felt as I did to take an interest in them. But as far as making progress with my major idea of pub— lic recreation and athletic programs using public facilities, I still was getting no- where . . . Chris Addison, who was in charge of traffic safety for the Flint Police Department, teamed up with me to see if we could do something about safety and juvenile delinquency, work- ing through the PTA's and child-study clubs . Chris gave more than 1,400 talks in one year, speaking in every schoolroom in Flint. I don't know how many groups I spoke to. We would try to get to these people with actual cases-mot naming names but telling the real circumstances of juvenile crime, drownings, traffic accidents, and the other ills threaten- ing Flint's young peOple . We did strike sparks of reSponse among these groups and made some loyal friends for what we were try- ing to accomplish. (90) In 1934, Manley was successful in forming a recreation council. The council developed the "Flint Plan of Recreation" as a means of pro- viding supervised play and safety for children. The plan was organized -47- by the Flint Automobile Club, the Flint Board of Education and the Parent- Teacher Association. Reportedly it received immediate cooperation from such local organizations as the Police Department, the Junior League, the Junior Chamber of Commerce, the Boy and Girl Scouts and the Council of Recreation Agencies . (62: 16) Programs centered principally around the use of back yards and vacant lots as play yards . Forty such yards were established in the summer of 1934 . Volunteer help was given by mothers and neighbors and supervision was provided by the Board of Education and the Automobile Club. That summer, Manley worked for no compensation and the Buick Motor Car Company gave him the use of a white Buick, a very unusual color at the time . Says Manley: In the summer of 1934, Flint had 40 back yard playgrounds, 24 school playgrounds and 15 city park and recreation department playgrounds in operation. Children took full and happy advantage of these play- grounds and the accident figures for chil- . dren dropped to half the 1933 figure. Hundreds of softball teams were organized. That 1934 program demonstrated the great- ness of Flint's need and the good response people would make to such a program when given the Opportunity. We planned an even bigger program for the summer of 1935. We owed the success of the 1934 prOgram to help from a new source—-the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Works Progress Administration and National Youth Administration. (62: 32) The University of Michiganflobservers report that a greatly enlarged program was launched in the summer of 1935. In this program, more than -43- l,200 safety play yards were registered, approximately 6, 500 children were in average daily attendance, and accidents were 25 per cent less than in 1934 . While these back yard play spaces were being promoted for small children, a city—wide plan of recreation was also being carried on at 24 school playgrounds under the supervision of semi—trained recreational work- ers . Average daily attendance at these grounds was 9, 025. In addition, 15 large playgrounds were Operated by the recreation department. (44: 3) Says Manley: All this proved to me was the need for a year-round program open to everyone around the clock and on week ends . I was imbued with Professor Bowan's notion that the school plant represented in most communities a shameful waste of facilities when it was used only five or six hours a day and closed in the summertime. (74) On June 22 , 1935, Manley was invited to speak before the Rotary Club of Flint. He had asked for this opportunity, as he had asked for the opportunity to speak before other service clubs in the city. He re- ports that he had finally decided the only way to get action would be to get to the industrial and business leaders--the people who could make things happen. Manley was not then and is not now famous for his ti- midity. According to his own report he "gave 'em hell. “ He described the drowning of a boy at "horseshoe bend" on the Flint River. This was an unsupervised, contaminated swimming hole . The more modest patrons -49- put newspapers in the windows of their automobiles when they changed their clothes; the others didn't bother! A few days before Manley's appearance at the Rotary Club, a boy had dived from the limb of a tree into the water, struck his head on a rock and was dragged ashore by other swimmers . Unknown to the others, he had broken his neck. While trying to apply artificial respiration, the would-be rescuers fatally injured the boy. Hurriedly they loaded him into an old jalopy and sped toward the local hospital. A block away from the hospital they had a head-on collision with another automobile and another fatal injury oc- curred. After giving this report Manley said to the Rotary Club, "And what do you suppose our City Fathers did about this tragic accident? Well, I'll tell you what they did--they sent someone out and cut the limb off that tree . One thing sure, no boy will ever kill himself from _t_:_l_i§_t_ limb again. " Manley then pointed out that the river at horseshoe bend was lined with trees! Speaking of the experience years later, Manley said, "Looking back it seems clear that I could have made only a very bad impression-~but at least I did make an impression. " (74) One of the men who came up to talk with Manley after the speech was Charles Stewart Mott. Manley says that he had never met him be- fore . Mott said something to Manley about having a back yard playground of his own and invited Manley to come over and see it, perhaps play some tennis. Four days later, June 26, 1935, Mott's diary contains an entry -50- to the effect that he had played tennis that afternoon with Frank Manley against Mr. and Mrs. James Burroughs. At that time, Charles Stewart Mott was a vice-president of Gen- eral Motors. He had moved to Flint from Utica, New York, he and his partner bringing with them the assets, equipment and personnel of the Weston—Mott Company, a manufacturer of wheels, hubs, axles, etc. The Weston—Mott Company had become a main supplier of the eminently successful Buick Company and Mott, in 1908, was one of the original founders of the General Motors Corporation . Over a period of years, he had exchanged his assets in the Weston-Mott Company for stock in the newly formed General Motors Corporation. In 1926, he was able to form the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation "for the purpose of supporting religious, educational, health and recreational activities for the public benefit. " Mott had been a charter member of the Boys' Clubs of Detroit, having taken an interest in that organization while spending considerable time in Detroit in his official capacity as vice-president. He had served three terms as mayor of the city of Flint--in 1912, 1913 and 1918. In 1929, his Foundation had established The Mott Boys' Camp at Pero Lake, 18 miles northeast of Flint. Manley had never met Mott before. He says that he had heard many things about Mott and that he considered some of them to be pos- sibly right, but most of them wrong. He had heard that Mott had a large -51- fortune , but that his Scotch qualities made it unlikely that he would Spend any of it. In any event, Manley was enough of an opportunist to take up the invitation to play tennis. Says he: I did not know what to expect but thought that he would not be inviting me to come to see him if something in my talk had not impressed him to the point where he was considering doing something to help. I visited Mr. Mott's home, Applewood, then a 64 acre farm estate just four blocks from the center of Flint. When Mr. Mott found I liked tennis we played a few games . Mr. Mott was 60 years old that June of 1935 but still a fierce competitor. He didn't men- tion my Rotary Club talk, but invited me back for more tennis . About the middle of August, when I was figur- ing that all I was going to get out of the sum- mer was some exercise, I mentioned to Mr. Mott that I was going back to Herkimer, New York, for a couple weeks vacation before school started. We were taking a breather between games on the tennis court at the moment. Then out of a clear sky Mr. Mott lobbed this question across the tennis net: 'What do you think of a Boys' Club here in Flint?‘ He caught me off guard, but I managed to re- turn. I said, 'I think Boys' Clubs are won- derful; it's just too bad we can't open the 40 Boys' Clubs we have here in Flint.‘ He said, 'What do you mean?’ I pointed to Central High School visible from Mr. Mott's tennis courts. 'There‘s one,‘ I said. 'It's closed down at four o'clock, -52- when a Boys' Club should be Open. It's complete with two gymnasiums, a swimming pool, a cafeteria, shops-w—everything you would want in a Boys' Club, along with what you would want for a Girls' Club, Mothers' Clubs, Family Clubs, a complete community center. Only we can't use it. And that's just one. There are 40 such schools in Flint--one within half a mile of every man, woman and child in town. They all stand idle after 4:00 every day because the Board of Education has no money to keep them open.‘ Mr. Mott heard me. After eight years some- one really heard what I was saying--someone who could do something about it. 'Well, how could we go about trying it?’ he asked. I answered, 'I suggest you put it up to the Board of Education. It won't be too diffi- cult to work out a basis of starting such a plan in 10 schools to begin with.‘ Mr. Mott thought that five schools would be enough to handle for a beginning and he was right. Before we quit the tennis court that mid-August day in 1935, we had agreed that Mr. Mott would put the idea up to the Board of Education . When he did so, the members of the Board thought it was a wonderful idea. I learned another big lesson. There is always a _b_e§t person to present any idea--usually the one who can do the most toward making that idea into a fact. They could hear that idea from Mr. Mott because they knew he had the means to translate it from a mere idea into a wonder- ful reality. I saw that it was much more im- portant to get a good idea accepted than it was to get the credit for it--and that's another les- son I have tried to remember ever since .' (90) According to Manley, at the dinner meeting to which Mott invited the Board of Education, he " . . .expressed himself as very reluctant to -53- spend money for bricks and mortar and a program in which buildings have to be maintained when other resources are already available. To quote him specifically, he said, 'I would much prefer to grease the wheels of the machinery that is already in existence.‘ (62: 13) For the initial program to which the Board of Education agreed, the Foundation agreed to advance $6, 000 for obtaining properly trained supervisors and necessary materials . The Board of Education was to provide janitor services and lights . Armed with the Board of Education's agreement and a budget of $6, 000 granted by the Mott Foundation, Manley set about to plan the ac- tivities that would take place beginning in November, 1935, in five schools. The five schools chosen for the recreational program, Martin Elementary, Lowell Junior High, McKinley Elementary and Junior High, Zimmerman Junior High and Homedale Elementary, were selected on the basis of three main considerations: high delinquency area, available equipment, and geographical location. For supervisory purposes the city was divided into four areas . William F . Minardo was placed in charge of the east side, Alton A. Paterson, the north, Howard Brown in the south and Harold D. Bacon in the west. The program offered gymnastics, basketball, indoor track, wrestling, boxing, swimming, skating, hockey, checkers, dominoes, cards, modern dancing, old-time dancing, game nights, social mixers, parties, chorus, community singing, orchestras, band, pantomines, plays, -54- minstrels, stunt clubs, speakers, movies, lantern slides, home-talent nights, concerts, sketch clubs, art classes, sewing groups, hobby clubs, airplane clubs, ping-pong, adult workshOps, beginning tap danc- ing, senior girl's tumbling, junior harmonica class, beauty culture, men- tal games and ballroom dancing. (62: 35) Manley reports that during the first week the project opened, 2826 people enrolled and that enrollment increased until a peak of 7370 was reached by the sixth month. Average weekly attendance was 3478 boys and 1978 girls. The entire program was carried out without any cost what- soever to its participants. (62: 35) As the first plan came to a close in May, 1935, it was climaxed by a Mott Decathlon and Pentathlon held at the athletic field behind Central High School. At the time, The Flint Journal carried the announcement by Harding Mott, son of C. S. Mott and Vice-President of the Foundation, that the program would be continued and extended during the summer and the com- ing year. Said the Journal article: Before the assembled crowd of contestants, honor guests, and spectators attending the Decathlon and Pentathlon at Dort Field, Mr. Mott declared: 'I‘am very glad to announce that this recreational program will be contin- ued and extended during the summer and the coming year . ' Mr. Mott's announcement brought prolonged cheering from the more than 500 boys and girls who competed in the Decathlon and Pen- tathlon and who represented the more than 12, 000 enrolled in the project. (7) -55- The newspaper then goes on to print Mr. Harding Mott's announce- ment in total . In the announcement, Harding Mott said that it had been a privilege for the Mott Foundation to be permitted to have a small part in the program . He paid special credit to Superintendent of Schools Lee Lamb, Frank Manley and all who had been responsible for the success of the program . Said he with regard to the purposes of the program: The purposes of this recreation program which is run throughout the winter and culminates to- day in this demonstration are well understood, perhaps, but will bear a brief repetition. First of all, it has been the hOpe of its leader to provide a system of wholesome recreation for all children in Flint. This is one of the most important social problems facing us in this day when many dangers confront young people unless careful safeguards are provided. An- other primary purpose was the physical develop- ment of young people. We hope through this program to help assure a healthier group of fu- ture citizens to take their places in the life of the day which we are all so anxious to see pros- per and progress . But there are many more values in this undertaking; the thousands of children who have participated have been under competent, trained leadership, learning how to work and play together. (7) In November, 1935, when the program was just getting underway, a distinguished visitor also evaluated the plan. Mrs . Franklin D . Roosevelt reported her findings in her syndicated column in November, 1935. Among the comments that she made were these: They have done a“ remarkable job of coordin- ating in Flint. Their Community Plan co- ordinates all the various community forces-- -56- industrial, social, philanthropic, recrea- tional, and educational. So it seems nat- ural that the Youth Administration and the WPA and all other government agencies have done a cooperative job here with the city. The outstanding factor in their program is the use of schools. Instead of closing them at four o'clock they remain open and be- come community centers. Classes of every description go on just as they do all day and recreational programs are carried out. They are trying to provide out-of—door recreation for every child in the city. . .another public spirited citizen has paid the teachers who stay overtime to teach in the schools . Last summer everyone who had a back yard, vacant lot, or field which could be used as a play- ground, was asked to fix it up and open it for the neighborhood children. The result is that the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts are putting a course of training as leaders in these play- grounds into their program this year. The city has become so much interested and recog- nizes so well the value of this entire program that it would probably go on without any Fed- eral Aid. What the community is spending in prevention of crime will probably be amply covered by the reduction in young gangsters and hoodlums who manage to destroy a good deal of property . The significance of the success of the first year's program of rec- reation lies not so much in the fact that it involved an aggregate atten- dance, as reported by the Flintjoumal, of 120, 032 young peOple, nor in (7) No what effects this program may have had on those young people, quantitative studies were made at that time nor in years later. The real significance of the success lies in the fact that it estab- lished a number of principles of Operation that were to guide future devel- Opments of the partnership that existed between the Mott Foundation and -57- the Public School System. First and foremost of these, of course, was the principle of a private foundation operating through a public school sys- tem. Say Mott's biographers: It would have been simpler and easier to build an impressive Boys' Club building and set up an endowment than to operate the Mott Foundation actively and person— ally. But Mott has always given the same interest, imagination, and ability to the task of spending his money well that he devoted to earning it in the first place. With thousands of foundations in the United States--more than 200 of them in Michigan--very few actually op- erate their own program on a direct work- ing basis . And no otherfoundation is known to work with and through a local Board of Education in the way the Mott Foundation has operated since 1935. (90) During the last week of the evening schedules for that first year, The Flint Journal observed: One of the cardinal factors in the success of the Mott Program is recognition of Jefferson's philOSOphy that the schools are built for all the people . The project takes advantage of facilities that have been avail- able for years, but which the average com- munity has always neglected. It is based on the fact that school buildings stand idle the greater part of the time and that these building can be made into com- munity centers where wholesome recreational activities are provided for otherwise idle hands. . . (13) - 58 - A second major principle evident in later years of operation was noted by observers at that time. This was a feeling that prOgrams should be based upon demonstrated wants and needs as expressed by the people within the community served by the immediate school. In announcing the new plan for 1936, The Flint Journal reported: There will be no standardized type of pro- gram. Each community center will estab- lish the program desired by the individual groups so that every boy and girl in the city will be given an opportunity to enjoy a wholesome type of recreation. (13) The same article reported that a general committee had been formed to make plans for further expansion of the program. The names and titles of the members of the committee indicate that an effort to involve all com- munity social agencies in the planning. Members included Circuit Judge James S. Parker, Probate Judge Frank McAvinchey, Boy Scout Leader Frank Perry, Superintendent of Schools Leland H. Lamb, C. S. Mott Trustee Roy E. Brownell, Frank Manley, Board of Education members Dr. A. J. Wildanger, Dr. Henry Cook and Dr. Lafon. Jones. .. Reporting on the program in 1942 , a University of Michigan team analyzed definite principles of operation of the program in this manner: Unlike most philanthropic undertakings, the Mott Program developed in a modest way and expanded only when it was demonstrated that new activities could be administered in an effective and efficient manner. There are, however, certain definite principles upon -59- which the whole program is based. Fore- most is the belief that more effective use can be made of existing school and com- munity facilities. This rests on the prem- ise that the schools, built with taxpayers money, are the property of the people and should be used to the fullest extent possi- ble. Second, active cooperation by the entire community is necessary if the pro- gram is to be successful. Third, the ac- tivities and administration of the chief community agencies should be coordinated effectively in order to achieve the greatest efficiency and operation. Finally, the program has been built around those who are in greatest need, although the recreational and educational facilities are available for any who wish to participate. (44: 4) Some years later, Manley was to enunciate this principle as hav- ing been paramount in the early days: There was a guiding principle in all of the planning: Interest was created for the members of the community in coming to the schools by offering recreational programs. Once the community got the 'school habit' it would then be possible to plan and carry out other programs which would be useful in meeting some of the social problems of the time. (59: 30) Other principles were to be enunciated more clearly during the com- ing years but the effect of the success of the first year's program can hardly be over-evaluated. It convinced Mott that working through the schools could be an effective way of helping people. It engendered enthusiasm for the potentiality of this type of‘program on the part of a great many influ— ential people in the city. It led to extensive national publicity, including _ 60 - articles in The New York Times, The Christian Science Monito_r, and E Regdfier's D_ig§t, all of which, in turn, contributed to further enthusiasm. Most important of all, it persuaded the trustees of the Mott Foundation to increase their contribution to the Board of Education the following year to $20, 000 and to extend the program to 15 school centers. Said Manley of the first year's program: Actually, although no one realized it at the time, the experimental winter program in the schools was the proto-type for what was later to be called the Community School. The foundation was laid. Community re- sources--volunteer help, agency and organ- ization support, and financial assistance-- were made available for activities in the school. Interested residents in the com- munity and school professionals cooperated in planning the neighborhood programs. Finally, and most importantly to the present day Flint Community School, programs were designed to bring people into the school so that their interest would draw them into pro- jects which would lead to a better community. (59: 31) With the opening of 15 new centers in the school year 1936-37, attendance at activities doubled. The activities were planned to inter- est many types of people. Athletics provided both individual and group competition and there were hosts of other functions. Cultural fare in- cluded dramatics, dancing, art, and musical instruction. Hobby groups attracted those interested in sewing, knitting, marionettes, and airplane building. There were classes in Citizenship and English for the foreign- born. Glee clubs, choruses, and community sings were organized. - 51 - The period 1936 to 1941 was characterized by great increases in the number of activities available at the various schools as well as by steady increases in enrollments. During this period of time the slogan "Mott Foundation-~Recreation and Education for All" was coined. The 1939 - 1940 Annual Report of the program outlined its objectives as follows: To provide clean, wholesome activities that will keep people busy in a constructive way. When people are engaged in doing things they like to do, they are happier and more contented than if they are idling away their hours. When children are playing and working under good supervision, delinquency and accidents are reduced. (10) The same report (1939 - 1940) claimed the participation of 31,000 different individuals of all ages, all creeds, and all colors participating in a "clean, wholesome, interesting program of recreation and education." The program had Offered 93 different types of instruction and had extended over the period of the entire school year. At the close of the summer season in 1941 , an aggregate attendance of more than 769, 000 people was reported. The special events that sum- mer are too numerous to list. They included doll shows and parades, pet shows, costume parties, picnics, pot-lucks, ice cream socials, track meets, archery contests, relays, bicycle parades, hikes, soap carving, stunts and races, tournaments and contests. The Visiting Teachers: Things were occurring, however, which to those in charge of the program pointed to the fact that recreation did not serve to adjust all of - 52 - the problems nor to meet in an encouraging proportion certain definite per- sonal and family needs of the participants which were becoming apparent. Manley reports: Evidence of unfavorable home conditions were constantly appearing. In one cen- ter a two-year-old child was brought to the program almost every night by an older brother and sister. At all the centers there were boys and girls who were not mak- ing a satisfactory adjustment within the rec- reation program. Even a superficial study showed that these same youngsters were maladjusted in the day-school program as well. There were evidences of under- nourishment, lack of physical hygiene, need of clothing, and absence of socially accept- able behavior. (62: 41) Manley has said since then: Though we had literally thousands of peo- ple participating in the program there was not much evidence that we were affecting the delinquency rate. It would have been possible to 'rig' the figures, but a natural investigation revealed that the number of cases coming into the Probate Court were just as many as before we had started this program. I had gone into the program con- vinced that recreation was the answer to the problems of juvenile delinquency. It had done the trick with me. I dropped out of high school in the ninth grade and the boys who hung around my dad's livery stable per- suaded me to go back to school in order to participate in athletics. In order to play on the teams I had to maintain my eligibil- ity and that was the only reason I did so. By the time I maintained eligibility for the three necessary years, I found myself grad- uating from high school. Then, too, at -6.3 - Michigan State Normal College my interest in athletics kept me going. No one could convince me that athletics couldn't have an effect on the behavior of youngsters in a positive concrete way. So, to realize that our broad athletic and recreational pro- gram was probably not having any real ef- fect on delinquency rates was an eye-opener for me. (6) At this point, Manley reports that he and others went to Mr. Mott to discuss the need for a thorough survey and evaluation of what difficult- ies children were experiencing that caused them to get into trouble. The decision was made to employ additional staff who would have time, oppor- tunity and the necessary training to work more closely in the homes of children and families where needs came to light either in the regular day- time program, the evening program, or through referrals by community agencies and leaders. Six members of the regular school staff were em- ployed in the spring of 1938 on a full-time basis to act as "visiting teach- ers." They are described at other times in the literature as "home-coun- selors" and "community coordinators," but the designation finally settled upon was "visiting teacher. " These visiting teachers were assigned to work with nurses, school attendance officers and social service centers to investigate the problems of children who appeared to be under excep- tional stresses. The visiting teachers were given training and assigned to districts. It was announced to the school staff that "whenever home or family problems, either directly or indirectly seriously affect the be- havior of school children, the visiting teacher may be called in to assist - 64 - the school in adjusting the case with the cooperation, if necessary, of such other agencies as are interested and active in these problems. (10) The work of the visiting teachers bore strong similarities to that of a so- cial case worker in a school setting. During a seven-year period these six teachers called on and worked in over 2, 000 homes in the city. Chil- dren who were not adjusting normally to school activities were referred by school principals, deans of girls and boys and representatives of other so- cial agencies. The discoveries made by the visiting teachers in the homes led to the development of a great many programs within the schools supported by the Mott Foundation. They found many families in which there was no employed adult. They found families crowded together in totally inadequate housing, frequently with no running water. Many of these homes were without bathtubs. Some lacked sanitary toilet arrange- ments. They found standards of living far lower than was socially ac- ceptable in the community. They found mothers who, because of their feelings of social inadequacy, had not left their homes in years. They found families existing on inadequate diets for lack of money and lack of knowledge about what should be eaten to maintain health. They found simple yet very significant health needs involving such services as ton- sillectomies, dental work and glasses. They found families in which parents were totally unable to cope with situations in which they found themselves. As a consequence, says one report, "children were left to - 65 - drift in a world without moral value or standards of conduct. " They found homes in which mothers had turned to prostitution and had done this in crowded living quarters where an entire family or several families might share the same room. In short, the reports of the visiting teachers pointed up agonizing yet very fundamental health, social and educational needs. As these needs became increasingly evident, thinking concerning the Mott Founda- tion Program began to change. Says Manley of the significance of the visiting teachers' findings: While we didn't realize it at the time, all the future developments of the Foundation, and the many-sided attacks we were to mount against the factors preventing a so- cially sound life for boys and girls, were to be based on the findings of those six ladies who were going into the homes of Flint's children. (90) The Children's Health Center: One of the early specific outcomes of the findings of the visiting teachers was the establishment in October, 1939 , of the Mott Foundation Children's Health Center at Hurley Hospital. This resulted from several discussions with visiting teachers, with the Director of the Program, with Mr. Mott, and all of these people in conjunction with the Genesee County Medical Society. The president of the County Medical Society appointed a special committee to discuss the problem of providing certain types of medical care for children of border—line indigent families. This care was - 66 - to be provided with funds available through the Mott Foundation. This committee met for the first time on June 27, 1939. Included in the min- utes of that meeting are the following observations: 1. The Genesee County Medical Society recognizes an existing need for pro- viding certain types of medical care for children of borderline indigent families which service is inadequately met at the present time. . . 3. Your committee further recommends that the problem of selecting chil- dren for medical service be handled in the following manner: a. All children indicated to be in need of such medical services should be found through the reg- ular channels in the schools by teachers, public health nurses, or school physicians. All such cases should be referred to the Director of Health of the schOols for natural determination of med- ical need. The Director will in this way act as medical screen or filter. . . 5. The Director of Health of the schools shall be provided with a committee of physicians and dentists who will meet with him at regular intervals in an ad- visory capacity and to whom he can present problems of a medical or den- tal nature arising from the selection of children. Facilities for a "children's health center were arranged for in one wing on one floor of the city-operated hospital, Hurley." Dr. James - 57 - Olsen, the Flint Public Schools Health Director, served as the medical director of the Health Center. A budget of $7 , 300 was approved by the trustees of the Foundation. Olsen was to serve in the dual capacity of Director of Health for the schools and Director of the Mott Foundation Children's Health Center until 1945. The report of the visiting teacher program for 1939-40 listed 568 economic investigations made for the center in that year. The number of cases actually handled at the center that year is nowhere recorded, but during the following year the visiting teachers reported 727 investigations undertaken in behalf of the health center. Their summary of the disposal of these cases indicated 512 rejections for economic reasons, 85 dental appointments made, 62 physical examinations made of potential campers for Mott Camp, 24 special surgical cases undertaken, 68 treatments of other disorders and 98 routine examinations conducted. (10) By 1942 , the case load at the Clinic had become so heavy that it was necessary to hire a special medical investigator to determine the eligibility of young- sters for treatment at the clinic. During that year the investigator made a total of 604 home calls. From the beginning, the Center offered medi- cal, dental and mental health care on the basis as indicated in the minutes of the Genesee County Medical Society meeting. Under the leadership of Dr. Olsen, a school health program was established, "with the purposes of educating both parents and teachers to recognize health conditions which should be corrected, to provide medical, dental and orthopedic care to - 68 - children whose families could not provide it and to establish a preventive health service. " (10) From the beginning, the Flint Rotary Orthopedic Program was in- corporated into the Center with the Mott Foundation contributing $13, 500 toward the care and the treatment provided by that Center. The Genesee County Dental Society adopted resolutions similar to those of the Medical Society on June 29, 1939, and the Dental Clinic be- gan operations simultaneously with the Health Center. Neal S. MacVicar was appointed Dental Director on a part-time basis. By 1948 the Health Center had grown to where it included on its staff a full-time director (Dr. J. M. Rawlings) , a part-time otologist, a part-time ophthomologist, a full—time dentist and dental assistant, an audiometer technician, a medical-social worker, a nurse, two secretaries and three clerks. During the year 1947-48, the medical division of the Center handled 4, 037 patient visits, of whom l , 560 were new patients. The dental division reported 2 ,234 patient visits of which 518 were with new patients. The dental division completed 370 cases. In 1939 the school "Health Achievement Program" was adopted. All children were required to have a yearly physical examination by their own family doctor, or by the classroom teacher and public health nurse. Parents were to be notified of any physical conditions which seemed to warrant investigation by a doctor." If all correctable physical defects - 69 - had been taken care of a child would be presented with a "Flint Health Guarded Child" award during Child Health Week in May. Schools with the greatest. improvement in the number of Health Guarded Children were to be awarded trophies. A Health Guarded child was defined as one who was free from known correctible medical and dental defects, who had been *- immunized against diptheria and smallpox and who had received the skin test for tuberculosis. Approximately 24,000 children in 28 public and four parochial schools participated in the program the first year. Physi- cal inspections and examinations were given by teachers, nurses and school physicians. At the beginning of the program only five per cent of the children were found to be free of correctible defects. The remain— ing 95 per cent averaged three defects each. When the first year's pro- ject was finished in April, 1938, 20 ,000 defects had been corrected. By 1944, 8, 571 children, or 48.2 per cent were completely free from defects and 5, 785 or 30 . 08 per cent had received Health Guarded Child awards. The percentage of Health Guarded Children in the school system in 1939 was 13. 5 per cent. By 1948, of a total enrollment of 16, 300 elementary age youngsters in the schools, 7,438 or 45. 6 per cent were "health guarded. " In 1942 , a dental hygienist on the staff of the Health Center, Miss Cornelia Mulder, was employed by the Mott Foundation as School Coordin- ator of Health and Safety. Her function was "to provide a well-balanced program of health instruction, health service and healthful school living." ,(10) - 70 - In 1945, programs of scholarship-fellowship in pediatrics and in pedadontics were established for the medical division and dental division of the Health Center in connection with the University of Michigan. Un- der this plan, selected graduate dentists and doctors partake in accredited residence programs at the Health Center during which time they receive remuneration from the Mott Foundation. The stated purpose of this pro— gram is " to provide Flint with a continuously flowing supply of pediatric- ians and pedadontic dentists." (10) Adult Education: Concurrent with the development of the recreation program was the development of certain courses and study groups that would be described as adult education. One of the distressing conditions discovered by the visiting teachers involved unemployment of fathers. These conditions underlined the need for vocational training and assistance in finding em— ployment in order that parents could support their children more adequately. In 1939, a guidance, counseling and job-placement service was developed as a part of an adult education program. Counselors served in the senior high schools. Nearly 5,000 interviews were conducted each year for three years and from these about 2, 000 job-placements were made. Lack of information concerning homemaking techniques was revealed to visiting teachers. As a consequence, homemaking courses were organ- ized for mothers. By 1941 , 35 groups participated in homemaking classes and 55 courses had been offered. The courses included food planning and - 71 - preparation, sewing for the family and home, family relationships and so- cial values, home finances and homecrafts. The largest initial expan- sion of the adult education division took place in the year 1940-41 . The annual report for that year states that 300 different classes were held dur- ing the year. Classes included were those in citizenship, English for the foreign-born, arts and crafts, commercial arts, civic education, fam- ily life instruction, retail selling, public speaking, personality develop- ment, Spanish, shop classes of all kinds and many groups in cultural, vo- cational and avocational subject fields. (10) Separate attendance figures for the adult education program were not maintained during this year but a summary statement in the 1940—41 Annual Report of the Program says: It is now felt that the Mott Foundation Adult Education Program is flexible enough, re- sponsive enough and has enough potential— ities incorporated within its scope to be able to assist with an Adult Education Plan for any type of person or group in the com- munity. It hopes to be increasingly called upon for this service, and is always alert to community resources in personnel, tools and ideas. During the current national emer- gency, it expects to shape its program to- ward national defense on the homefront, the strengthening of democracy for defense in our community. (10) The war years were described by the Adult Education Division as the "blueprint era. " Particular emphasis was placed upon vocational training and upon industrial and'commercial courses. Sixty classes in . II} \III )‘I‘Il‘l _ 72 - blueprint reading, tool design, drafting, shop mathematics, typing, short- hand, calculating, bookkeeping and use of the slide rule were offered in 1942-43. In the spring of 1943, the college division of the program was in- itiated as an evening feature at Flint Junior College. The College had been established by the Board of Education in 1926. Five classes were sponsored by the Mott Foundation in 1943 with a total of 112 enrollees. The following year's expansion of offerings saw enrollment jump to 1, 095 persons. An interesting story concerning the development of this pro- gram is related in Manley's own words: About this time the Board of Education was considering abandoning the operation of the Junior College. Only a few classes were offered and enrollment was less than 300. With largely a part-time faculty the opera- tion was costing the Board of Education $17, 500 a year. They reasoned that it was hardly worth the expense. No full- time dean or president existed at the time. John Ackerman, since retired, was appointed to 'look in on it now and then.‘ I was concerned that we should continue with a college, especially for the benefit of adults in the community. About this time someone told me of a man by the name of Mark Bills who was completing his doc- torate at the University of Michigan. He reported him to be a bright, energetic, scholarly, highly respectable sort of chap. He sounded to me like he might be just the person to head up and get going a good col- lege division for us. Subsequently, 1 ar- ranged to interview Mark. He had an of- fer in his pocket of a superintendency that -73- would pay him $5, 500 a year. I then talked with Mr. Mott and Mr. Mott of- fered to pay $3,000 of the $5, 500 if the Board of Education would pay the other $2 , 500. The Board agreed and Mark took over the position. He was in the old Oak Grove buildings without even custodial help. I remem- ber on two or three occasions that Bill Minardo, Mark and myself went over with brooms, pails, mops, etc. , swept the halls and washed windows to make the place fairly presentable. I think that had this all not occurred the Board would certainly have abandoned the college. Of course as it turned out very soon there- after the war ended and the college was flooded with post-war enrollments. That made it nice for me, because then, of course, I could say that I had predicted that. That's the way you get credit for a lot of things, you know--just being lucky. (6) The following year, 1944, Bills was to be appointed Superintendent of Schools, a post which he held until 1952, when he took a similar post in Kansas City, Missouri. By the year 1947-48, the Adult Education Division reported a to- tal of 203 classes offered with an enrollment of 4,949 individual persons. Of the 203 classes, 124 had been offered through the college division with an enrollment of 3, 981 . The same report indicates an aggregate attendance during that year of 51 ,200. (10) - 74 - Contribfiutigis to the War Effo_r§ In the 1943-44 Annual Report the Mott Foundation summarizes con- tributions made to the national emergency. It reports that assistance was given with the planning and subsequent administering of the Air-Raid Warden Program, during which approximately 4, 000 air raid wardens were recruited and received ten weeks of training for their duties. Help was also given with clerical work. For example, stenographic refresher classes typed hundreds of fingerprint information cards for air raid wardens. Arrange- ments were made for rooms and building supervision was provided for aux- iliary police and fire trainees as well as for the Civil Air Patrol and for special training programs of the police department. Active cooperation was given in the promotion and carrying on of the victory garden program. In cooperation with the Flint Parent-Teacher Council, a committee was ap- pointed to organize this project. In each elementary school, victory gar- den chairmen formed the basis of the unit. At the request of the Red Cross, provision was made for rooms and general building supervision was provided for classes in first-aid, home nursing and care of the sick. An entry in C. S. Mott's personal diary made on February 9 , 1942 , gives an indication of Mott's perception of the scope of the adult education program during that time: At Central High School I found a tremendous amount of activity in the education program, largely on matters approved by the Office of Civilian Defense. Large classes in me- chanical drawing, blueprint reading, shop -75- work, and typewriting--about 120 in a sales- manship class. The gym is in constant use in physical training, etc. As a matter of fact, there is not an hour in the day or evening when gymnasiums are not in constant use. The swimming pool, of course, is in full op- eration. Another group of men were training in singing. And in the auditorium an entire cast for Civic Grand Opera. On other even- ings the program varies, including radio, elec- tricity, organic chemistry, etc. There was one room in which were located the counselors on job placement. There is an income tax class, a French class, and a Spanish class. I am sure that I have overlooked mentioning some that I saw, besides some that I prob- ably didn't see. Of course something sim- ilar, or different, is going on in all our large school buildings. (72) A Boy's Camp and a Wm for Girls: As indicated earlier, Charles Stewart Mott had established the Mott Camp for Boys in 1933. Located on Pero Lake, 17 miles from Flint, the camp covers an area of 80 acres. Among the considerations that convinced Mr. Mott of the necessity for a Health Center was the fact that in the summer of 1935, 19 boys out of a total of 102 campers were sent back to Flint for treatment of trench mouth. According to one report, the Camp was definitely established as a going concern in March, 1937. It was during this year that a full-time director, Frank Ferry, was employed. Adequate buildings were erected and fireplaces installed in all cabins. Dormitories, each accomodating 32 boys and three counselors, a hospital, a handicraft building, a lodge, an administration building, a kitchen-dining hall, chef's quarters and a director's office made up the physical plant. - 76 - Capacity of the camp now is 128 boys. A different group of boys is taken for each two-week period of the summer. Through the years, available weeks at the end of the season have been set aside for high school bands, handicapped children and other special school groups. The 1941-42 Annual Report of the Foundation stated that the camp operated with a three-fold purpose: 1 . To provide outdoor vacations and a knowledge of camp life for boys who could not otherwise leave the city. 2 . To improve poor physical conditions by good and sufficient food, adequate rest and outdoor activities. 3. To develop character through group cooperation, social responsibility and ideals of democratic living. (10) Boys are referred to the Camp by teachers and principals. Some boys are selected on the basis of demonstrated leadership ability in the hope that they will have a favorable influence on others. One of the reported observations of the visiting teachers was that there was a real need to provide help and training in personality fundamen- tals which are important in the lives of girls and which are not always safe- guarded in school or home experiences. The Stepping Stone Program for Girls was initiated on February 6, 1938, when a group of 16 girls organized the first club at Lowell Junior High School. The plan is basically an attempt to cultivate attitudes and attributes on the part of girls that will be conducive to the development of personal - 77 - charm, self-improvement and moral responsibility for the individual. Says the founder of the Stepping Stone Clubs, Mrs. Milton Pollock: The idea for organizing Stepping Stone Clubs for girls was born of a consciousness that every girl has a hope and a desire to make something fine of her life and needs only an inspiration and a design for living to help her make a reality to her dreams. (10) The Stepping Stone Program is a training program in personality and character building involving specific domestic skills. At one time Mrs. Pollock said, "I began to feel sorry for my own sons when I saw the way some girls were growing up and imagined the kinds of mothers and homemakers they were going to make. That's when I thought I ought to do something about it." (75) By 1942, 23 Stepping Stone Clubs, of 18 members each, had been organized in the Flint schools with members from the fifth grade through senior high school. In 1943, Mr. Michael Hamady of Flint donated a large home and 15 acres to the Mott Foundation for use in carrying out a training program in home and family living for the Stepping Stone Club members. The Foun- dation undertook to finance the "Hamady House" phase of the program pro- viding for a housemother, a home economist, an activities supervisor, a cook and caretaker. All were under the general supervision of the direc- tor, Mrs. Pollock. Thirty-one active Stepping Stone Clubs were in operation by 1948 With each of them having an opportunity for a stay at the Hamady House. - 78 - The clubs with the best performance records were rewarded with an addi- tional one-week stay in the summertime. The Bummer Pm : Early in April, 1944, Earl Tallberg, President of the Flint Council of Social Agencies, called together a group of men who had shown interest in a program that involved the selection and training of volunteers for work with boys. This meeting was a direct result of a trip to Flint by the fam- ous Father Flannigan of Boystown. Present at the meeting were Mayor Edward C. McLogan, representatives of the Chamber of Commerce, the Optimists Club, the Police Department, the YMCA, the Judge of Probate Court, a representative of the Catholic Social Service Bureau, Frank Manley and Alton Paterson of the Mott Foundation. The minutes of the meeting, among other things, report that Manley informed the group that Mr. Mott was willing to contribute the entire cost of establishing such a program but he wished to be certain that the entire community wanted it. The minutes not that immediately the group went on record as approving and accepting Mr. Mott's offer to engage a trained person to work through all established groups. Subsequent meetings of an organizational nature named committees for certain functions. On June 15, 1944, Joseph P. Ryder was accepted and hired as the director of the organization that was to be known as the Flint Youth Bureau . -79- On August 15, 1944, the group included Charles Stewart Mott and was called together for the purpose of meeting its new director, Mr. Ryder. Everett A. Cummings was elected the first chairman and other members in- cluded representatives of social agencies as well as the courts. The pur- poses of the organization were noted as follows: To extend a helping hand to any boy with any problem at any time. a. To recruit and train men to act as counselors and friends to boys with problems; To receive boys as referrals from various sources, to match boys with counselors, and to supervise both: To develop and coordinate resources, to put resources at the disposal of the boy and the counselor which may be helpful in developing an essential relationship in solving problems; To come to the aid of any group where help is needed in dealing with deviant behavior, to point out these needs through various methods of education and to mobilize community action to meet these needs. Two months later, Ryder reported that he had handled 82 referrals, had investigated 36 cases and had assigned 14 counselors to 14 boys. He reported that he had an enrollment of 40 counselors in his training course. After nine months of operation, 93 active counselors or "Big Brothers" were reported and 72 more " prospects" had been lined up. - 80 - By December of 1946, Ryder reported that there were 253 boys that he had been working with and that the Youth Bureau had cooperated with 110 organizations on a reciprocity basis. These efforts had saved the community as much as $40 ,000 a year. In May of 1947, the minutes reported 305 cases in active status and that since "Joe Ryder could not turn down a boy in need" the committee was "trying to hold him down a little." The 1947—48 Annual Report of the Mott Foundation, in the subsec- tion dealing with the Big Brother Program, reported services by no less than 13 different committees of the Big Brother Program involving 128 men at a total expense of $8,734. 51 . Ryder had handled 763 boys, 417 on a case— work basis, 60 in a gang program, 250 on out-of—doors activities and 36 in athletics. A total of 749 men and women had been involved, 367 of whom were Big Brothers and 92 of whom were non-counselor and non-committeemen helpers. A total of 182 organizations, agencies and institutions had con- tributed to the program. Ryder estimated that Big Brothers had contributed 18,750 hours, that committee and board members had contributed 1 ,083 hours and that the Scouts had contributed 885 hours in outdoor leadership. A modestly stated request is made by Ryder: Possibly another paid man would remedy our major weakness--not enough close super- vision Of all counselors and boys. How- ever, we may lose something essential to our method when we approach a real case- working method. (10) - 81 - Influence on the Curriculum: An account of the first recorded contributions of the C. S. Mott Foundation to the basic education program of the schools is made in the February, 1946, issue of The Michigan Education Journal. (14) It is a six page report of the success of the Mott Foundation project at Flint's Martin Elementary school. The article reports that after two years, with two additional teachers and a full—time clerk provided by the Mott Founda— tion (at a cost of $6,000) , the school advanced in educational achieve- ment from 22nd place to sixth place among Flint's 26 elementary schools. The article points out that the primary factor was the reduction of the pupil- teacher ratio from 37. 5 to one to a 30 to one ratio. According to the ar- ticle, Superintendent L. A. Pratt and Mr. L. D. Lumberg, Assistant Super- intendent, reported that teachers had been changed as much as the pupils by the demonstration. With interest sparked, motivation improved and teachers were able to do things they had felt they wanted to do but had been prevented from doing by the serious pupil overload. The article re- ports that the Martin 6A class, after two years of the demonstration, tied for first place among all Flint elementary schools showing in two school years progress equivalent to that normally expected in three. Finally, the article points out, similar improvements in every school in the city of Flint would cost the taxpayers of Flint an additional millage of.7l. - 82 - Summary: In its first 12 years of operation, the Mott Foundation Program had gone from an operating budget of $6,000 to a budget of $214, 304 in 1946-47. (For a year-by-year account of all budgets, see Appendix A.) It had be- gun with a recreation program for boys and girls at five school centers. In the course of 12 years it had become a complex program that included an Adult Education Division, a Visiting Teachers Program, a Big Brother Pro— gram, a Health Center and Program, a program for girls, a camp for boys, and experimental efforts at improving the basic school program. The next decade and a half was to see intensification and amplifi- cation of many of the programs, but for the most part the pattern had been set. The program would work through the public school system of the city, it would, for the most part, use existing facilities, it would attempt to bridge the gap between needs and resources, it would continue to draw heavily upon the advice of many committies, and it would conscientiously attempt to avoid duplication or overlapping of services that already existed within the community. During the next decade and a half the community-school philosophy would get a trial in the Fairview Pilot Project and would become generally adopted throughout the school system. The next 15 year period would be characterized by an intensification of practice of the community-school concept. - 33 - During the next period of time, the Mott Foundation would continue to be interested in the Big Brother Program and would contribute to its ex- pansion. It would intensify its interest in the development of higher ed- ucation in Flint. It would continue and extend its interest in vocational training. It would expand its efforts in counseling programs. It would support further experimental programs for low-achieving children as well as gifted children. It would make larger contributions to cultural activities within the city. And it would make further contributions to the basic school program. But for the most part, the die had been cast in the first 12 years. Even the prototype of a long succession of honors to be paid to Mr. Mott occurred in this period. In September of 1939 , a civic appreciation din- ner was held at the Durant Hotel in honor of Mr. Mott. More than 550 persons attended. The mayor began the tributes by saying that Flint was glad and proud to name Mott as "her first citizen. " William S. Knudsen, President of General Motors, spoke of Mr. Mott as an inspiration in his personal life (Mr. Mott had been responsible for bringing Knudsen to Gen- eral Motors). The President of Flint's Park and Recreation Board said of Mott, "his philOSOphy is to conserve human values." Harlow Curtice called Mott's services so great that it was impossible for anyone to measure them. A scroll was presented to Mott for "Enriching the lives and broadening the opportunities of thousands of youths." In an accep- tance speech Mott said: -34- An avocation has become larger than a vo- cation for me. Probably I have more fun than the people do. This event is going to spur me on to try to merit new confidence. This is an opportunity to get something off my chest I've wanted to say for a long time. This work that has been attributed to me is something I have participated in in only a small measure compared with others. A lot of it was chance and good luck. Frank Manley was playing tennis with me and we got to talking about boys' work in Detroit and I told Frank I was interested. . .we dis- cussed a plan for using school buildings. The Board of Education was quite skeptical, but willing to try it out. I miss my guess if the people in this room have any idea of how good the Board of Ed- ucation is. Without their cooperation this program would never have got to first base. Regarding Frank Manley, I think we could hunt all over the country and I don't know where we would find a man who approached him in ability and tenacity. He actually puts over the program in such a big way and makes a success of it. (90) Said the Flint Journal in an editorial the following day: The evening will be a memorable one for all who attended, as well as to Mr. and Mrs. Mott. The presence of each who attended was an indication of personal feeling and, in the aggregate, an expression in a rather official way of the community's thanks for the generosity, leadership, and kindly inter- est which the Motts have shown Flint and its people. (2 4) Finally, a rather comprehensive analysis of the Operating princi— ples of the Foundation during this period is contained in the conclusions of a pamphlet published by the University of Michigan: -35- The program now being carried on in Flint is unique in several respects, of which the following are perhaps the most important. First, it developed in response to definite needs of the city and expanded only when it became evident the new activities could be administered in an effective and efficient manner. Second, the organization and administration of the Mott Program and of various commun- ity agencies have been coordinated in such a manner as to achieve the greatest effic- iency in operation. For example, the D1— rector of the Mott Recreational Program is also the supervisor’of physical education in the school system. The Director of the Mott Children's Health Center is director of health in the public schools. . . The Mott visiting teachers cooperate closely with the city and county public health nurses. . . Other illustrations could be mentioned but these will suffice to show the type of com- munity cooperation and centralized adminis- tration that is necessary to carry out a com- prehensive program. Third, the use of existing facilities in the community, both material and organizational, reduces the cost and increases the effective- ness of the program. Being tax—supported, the schools are the common property of the people of the city and they have the addi- tional advantage of being natural locations for community centers. Finally, the Mott Program shows the possi- bility of cooperation between private and public agencies, of private funds superim— posed upon and partly administered by mu- nicipal organizations, and its object is not only to accomplish results in Flint, but to serve as an example for other communities -86- by showing how an improvement in commun- ity life may be affected. In general, this program emphasizes the importance of health, education, wholesome activity, good citizen- ship, and a kind of democracy that comes from the intermingling of many kinds of people. (44: 33) CHAPTER IV THE IMPORTANCE OF THE‘PEOPLE If there is one dominant, recurrent theme in the literature of foun- dations, it is the one emphasizing the importance of the people who es- tablish and who operate a foundation. When there is criticism of pres- ent day foundation activity the writer nearly always calls up fond recol— lections of the "golden days" of farsighted and imaginative men like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller and Frederick Keppel. So Often have foundation officials been the subject of deliberations concerning the effectiveness of eleemosynary institutions that a term has been coined to describe the professionals. The term describes not the philanthropists themselves, but those people who are professionally engaged in the dis- persal of philanthropic funds. The term thus employed is "philanthropoid. " There is no such thing as professional training for philanthropoids. There is no such thing as a degree or certificate in philanthropic spending and, as we have seen in the previous chapter, effective foundation giving is not an easy task. Vice-President Warren Weaver of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, an experienced philanthropoid himself, in discussing the lot of the professional spender, notes that the philanthropoid characteristically comes to his job with little or no specific preparation. Weaver has ex- pressed doubts as to whether there can be any pre—training aimed specifically ~87- - 88 - at making a good foundation officer. He compares the whole experience to a parachute jump and says that all the talk and the reading and the pre- liminary exercises do little mOre than get you up there, more or less will- ing to jump. Then you close your eyes, swallow hard and "hit the silk. " Typically, as a foundation officer, Weaver finds that many of his friends feel that his job must be a very easy one. What it amounts to after all is getting rid of money and most people have no difficulty at all in getting rid of theirs. He says: . .but giving away money wisely is quite another thing. It is an extraordinarily subtle and difficult task with moral, social and intellectual complications that keep your conscience active and your mind bothered. There are so many kinds of people who quite legitimately need help and so many ways of going about helping them. The philanthro— poid needs intelligence, imagination, flexi— bility and a large streak of unselfishness. Interesting yourself in other people's goals and ambitions is essential. There are peo- ple who cannot do it, there are also people who can and who find, publicly unobserv- able perhaps, forever hidden pleasure and satisfaction in knowing that they have helped. A good philanthropoid must be one of this lat- ter breed. . .the good philanthropoid must have a real zest and talent for understanding in dealing with people and this zest and en- thusiasm simply must be tempered by that un— definable something called taste. (89: 2) Frederick P. Keppel, long-time chief executive of the Carnegie Foundation who is sometimes considered the " father" of the modern foun- dation. described the ideal circumstances in which a foundation could take action as: - 89 - . .to have the idea, the man, and the set- ting in perfect conjunction: the idea, vital, and timely; the scholar or executive, at the peak of his powers; and the organization, at floodtide. (53: 107) No discussion of a foundation would be complete without some time spent on the role of its philanthropoids. Similarly, no discussion of the history and operation of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation would be complete without some delineation of the character of a philanthropist who very likely could be considered also a philanthropoid, i. e. , Charles Stewart Mott .. So personally active has been Mott in the doings of his foundation that, by almost any definition, he would qualify as a profes- sional. Practically any testimony paid Mott, and there have been hun- dreds, makes special note of the fact that he has contributed not only substantial funds but has given tirelessly and at great length of his own energy, talent, thought and attention. Therefore, this discussion of "philanthropoids" will include not only those individuals employed by the foundation who have made substantial contributions to the activities of the foundation, but also the founder and in a very real sense, the chief executive of this foundation: Charles Stewart Mott. Charles Stewart Mott: In writing of the contribution of Charles Stewart Mott to the Ameri- can way of life, Frank Manley said in 1957: Perhaps the most significant thing about the creator of the Mott Foundation is that he is - 90 - devoting the same talent to spending his money that he used in accumulating it. Many others have given as large or larger sums, but C. S. Mott gives not only his money but himself-~his close personal at- tention, his great interest, his experience and energy; and his executive and creative talents. He devotes his full time to pro- moting the work of the Mott Foundation and to the investments which contribute to its funds. . .Mr. Mott's creative imagination, his ability as a salesman, as a producer, and as an inventor. and designer, all find expression in his services to the Mott Foun- dation Program. (61: 2) Charles Stewart Mott was born in Newark, New Jersey, June 2 , 1875, the son of John Coon Mott and Isabella Tumbull Stewart Mott. He received his early education in New York City public schools and attended Stevens High School in Hoboken, New Jersey. In a series of answers to a biographical questions asked of him in January of 1963, Mott makes known the following facts about his early life. (73) Mott's father and grandfather built and operated a cider mill near Mechanicsville, New York, operating it under the name of S. R. & J. C. Mott. Around the time of Charles Stewart's birth, his father moved to New York City, opening a ware- house and office at 118 Warren Street for the sale of the produce of the Mott mill in barrels. Years later, according to Mott, they merged with some other cider mills in Rochester, New York and Holly, Michigan under the name of the Genesee Fruit Company. John Coon Mott, Charles Stewart's father, served as general manager of this company until his death in 1899. '1 lilIlllllIIIr IITTII]|'|III - 91 - A few years later the stock of the Genesee Fruit Company was purchased by the Duffey Malt Whiskey Company who later and today operate under the name of Duffey-Mott Company producing nationally distributed fruits, baby foods and fruit juices. Mott's mother, Susan Tumbull, was a descendant of a Scotsman who came to the United States with a letter of recommendation from Sir Walter Scott. Her father was Charles E. Stewart, a descendant of Colonel Charles Stewart who served as a military aide to General George Washington during the revolution. This is the man after whom our subject was named. With an intense interest in mechanical engineering, Mott enrolled at Stevens Institute of Technology in 1892 . He interrupted his engineer- ing course for a year of special study of the science of fermentation in European laboratories in the interest of his father's cider and vinegar bus- iness, then completed his work at Stevens Institute, receiving his degree as a mechanical engineer in June, 1897. Says Mott of his college days, "I think it was an average grade of 70 that you had to have in order to grad- uate. Whatever it was, that's exactly what I had, right across the board. " (73) Mott had interrupted his college career to join the New York State Naval Militia in 1894 and had served during the Spanish-American War as a Gunner's Mate First Class On the U.S.S. Yankee. On June 2, 1899, Mott's 24th birthday, his father died. In his own words he describes his - 92 - entry into the automobile business, an act which ultimately led to his be- coming one of the original founders of the General Motors Corporation: After my father's death my Uncle Fred Mott, who was president of Weston-Mott Com- pany, asked me to come to Utica, New York and act as factory manager and secretary of Weston-Mott Company, which I did in Janu- ary, 1900. Weston-Mott made bicycle hubs and wheels, wire wheels for carriages, push carts, implement and jinrickshas and had started making wire wheels for autos. During the first two years of my job in Utica, our main output was for autos, until in the summer of 1902 we were working night and day making wire wheels for the curved-dash Oldsmobile. Suddenly we got cancellations as Olds had changed to wooden wheels. We immediately turned to the manufacture of hubs and rims for wood wheels of the artil- lery type and solicited our customers, only to find that they had changed their chassis construction so that they wanted front and rear axles with the wood wheels. There was little precedent to go by in designing these axles, but we had put Hyatt roller bearings in the main line shaft of our factory and they had given satisfaction, so I designed a Hyatt roller bearing rear axle with chain- drive differential from Brown and Life and a tubular ball bearing front axle. Then I went to our customers with blueprints only and got from them our factory full of orders before I had made my first axle. They were not quite as good as 1963 axles. They wore out quicker; but they didn't break down and they permitted the early manufac- turers to turn out cars. -93- During the fall of 1902 and the spring of 1903, we made 1500 sets of front and rear-chain drive axles for Cadillac's single cylinder cars plus a great many for other auto manufacturers and, in 1903, a few for Dave Buick of Detroit. Dave Buick was associated with Walter Marr, his engineer, and a little later they were taken over by Mr. Whiting and the Flint Wagon Works and moved to Flint. Mr. Whiting one day took William C. Durant (of Durant-Dort Carriage Company) out in a Buick and sold him on the idea that motor cars were the coming thing. About 1904 Durant organized the Buick Company which took over from Mr. Whiting and they soon got into what was pretty sizable production for those days. They continued to buy Weston- Mott chain drive axles. On the Friday before Labor Day, 1905, Messrs. Durant and Dort arrived in Utica to check on our productive capacity of which we convinced them and that night my partner, William Doolittle and I, with my wife, Durant and Dort left on the train for Flint. Mr. Durant wanted us to estab- lish a branch factory in Flint but we felt that Michigan was going to be the heart of automo- bile production and we decided to move our en- tire plant to Flint. Weston-Mott of Michigan was incorporated to take over the assets of Weston-Mott of New York. In Flint we were given the corner of Hamilton and Industrial Avenues on which to build our new plant. The building was completed by the first of July, 1906--new machinery and some from Utica installed and production was started. -94- Shortly after we moved to Flint, my partner, Mr. William Doolittle, who had handled the financial end of our business, was taken ill and died in New York City. I had handled all of the other branches of our business and this left me with quite a load to carry. To make it worse, this par- ticular spring there was a financial panic. All automobile manufacturers closed down except Buick. We could not get our cus- tomers to pay us anything on our accounts receivable. I went out on the road and persuaded our customers to pay us their in- debtedness with 90-day notes in $1 , 000 de- nominations and then I paid our obligations with these notes. Many of these notes were returned to us with the comment that they had to have cash. I returned the notes to them with my explanation that there was no cash at my end of the line and I in- vited them to come to Flint and I would di- vide up with them any cash that could be found. Well, what could they or we do? At the end of 90 days the financial situation cleared up and automobile plants got into production. However, Durant had never shut down and during those 90 days he had filled every available warehouse with Buick automobiles. When the financial situation cleared up--how he did deliver Buick cars! (73) Thus in Mott's own words is the story of his entry into the finan- cial world on a sizable scale. By 1908 the Weston-Mott Company had become the largest axle manufacturer in the world. When the General Motors Corporation was organized that same year, it acquired 49 per cent of the stock of the Weston-Mott Company in exchange for stock in the - 95 - newly formed corporation. In 1913 the corporation acquired the remain- ing 51 per cent of Weston-Mott, again by transfer of stock. This formed the original basis of the substantial means by which it has been possible for Mott to create a foundation which bears his name. Aside from his service in the naval militia during the Spanish- American War, Mott's public service career dates from his first term as Mayor of the city of Flint in 1912 , which was followed by a second term in 1913. During his administration, Mott is credited with introducing a great many civic improvements necessitated by the burgeoning population of the city. He was reported to have conducted the Mayor's office along strictly business lines and to have inaugurated many public improvements, largely in the way of sewer and paving extensions. (90) In 1918, Mott was again elected to the office of Mayor and served in that capacity until called to serve as Major in the United States Army Quartermaster Corps as Chief of Production for the Detroit District Office. During his third term of office as Mayor, Mott made his first contribution to the Flint Board of Education. His salary as mayor was $2 , 500 a year. Dr. William DeKleine had been retained asthe city's first full-time health officer. On one occasion, Mott asked DeKleine what the doctor could do with the gift of the Mayor's salary of $2, 500 to the Health Department. DeKleine answered that he wouldn't know what to do with $2 , 500 but would know what to do with $5, 000. He would employ a dentist and organize a dental department to go into the schools to correct the dental defects of - 96 - children. Mott took this suggestion to the Board of Education and the Board matched Mott's $2 , 500 with an appropriation of the same amount asking Dr. DeKleine to put his school Dental Department into operation. This transaction could be described as Mott's first expenditure of "seed money. " Mott has been a Director of General Motors Corporation since 1913 and served as Vice-President of the Corporation in charge of the Michigan operations from 1916 to 1937. From 1921 to the mid-30's, he was Chief of Staff in charge of Michigan operations with headquarters in Detroit. During that time he became active in Boys' Club work in Detroit and in 1929, he established the Mott Boys' Camp at Pero Lake, 18 miles from Flint. During his active years with the corporation, Mott was fesponsi- ble for a great many things, including the hiring of William S. Knudsen and the idea of the Pontiac automobile. Says he of the latter experience: I wanted to use common bodies but I couldn't get that across--also use common doors. I designed them but somebody else got them across. I was responsible for the Pontiac car. I said, 'Here is a Chevrolet four cyl- inder; why can't we build a six cylinder at Pontiac using the Chevrolet bodies, axles and everything else and have another outfit making them and getting a higher price?‘ I had said that to Sloan. (Alfred P. Sloan.) Fisher Body was making the bodies. Red Fisher said, 'Well, if you are going to get more money for it, then it should be a bigger body.‘ Now that was against what I wanted to do, as I wanted to capitalize on production quantity. Anyway, they built it and made all -97- special tools as they didn't want the car to look like a Chevrolet. Well the thing that will curl your hair, when at last they built the car (which I had named) and had it at the show on Lexington Avenue, on one side was the Chevrolet and on the other the Pontiac. You wouldn't think it was possible but those birds had painted both cars exactly the same color. You would have sworn it was the same body on both cars. I would have used the same body but painted the cars a differ- ent color. (73) Said Alfred P. Sloan of his relationship with Mott in Sloan's auto- biOgraphical Adventures of a White Collar Man: I liked to work with Mott; his training had made him methodical. When he was con- fronted with a problem, he tackled it as I did my own, with engineering care to get the facts. Neither of us ever took any pride in hunches. We left all the glory of that kind of thinking to such men as liked to be lab- eled 'genius.‘ We much preferred the slow process of getting all the available facts, analyzing them as completely as our exper— ience and ability made possible, and then deciding our course. (83: 49-50) In the publication Automotive Giants of America, authored by B. C. Forbes and O. D. Foster, Mott's is one of 20 pen-portraits. Said Forbes and Poster of Mott: Charles Stewart Mott is an example of a new type of citizen America is producing. This new type is the brainy, busy, successful business man, willing, while still in the very prime of life, to enter the stormy political arena and fill public office, thereby necessi- tating the giving up-, either partly or entirely, of money making pursuits. I - 98 - Forbes was able to persuade Mott to write a statement of the basis upon which Mott had taken an active part in government. In part, Mott said: Years ago I gave the subject of the citizen's responsibility toward his community, to- wardshis fellow men, very serious thought and I decided that I could not very well re- tain my self respect unless I were prepared to undertake such public responsibility as others might wish to call upon me to under- v take. Here I was, comfortably situated financially, so that my family would not suffer were I to withdraw from daily busi- ness. I possessed robust health. I had enjoyed technical training as an engineer, fairly wide experience in the handling of men, experience also in conducting rather large business affairs, thus, presumably, fitting me to some extent at least for deal- ing with many of the duties connected with administration of civic and state affairs. It was because I had reasoned things out in this way and had reached a definite deci- sion that it was incumbent upon me, if I de- sired to retain in the fullest degree my self respect, to respond, when possible, to any call that might be made upon me to discharge public duties, that I consented to become Mayor of my town years ago, when the peo- ple were clamoring to be delivered from the unpleasant conditions brought about by a socialist mayor. . . America has afforded me opportunity to make reasonable headway in the world and to pro- vide for my family. Why should I not stand ready, like a loyal soldier--I served six years in the Naval Militia and through the Spanish War in the Navy--to take orders from my fellow citizens and obey any summons to serve my country in any capacity they might consider me fit to undertake. (43: 86-87) _99- In commenting upon Mott's statement, Forbes said, in part: Outside of his own state and his own in- dustry, Charles S. Mott is not very widely known, largely because he is no seeker- after publicity, no courter of the limelight. He is, and always has been, a doer rather than a talker. His brain works better than his tongue. He is not a glib orator. He is content to be simply himself--an un- demonstrative, serious-minded, hard work- ing citizen, intent upon getting worthwhile things dOne efficiently, smoothly, expe- ditiously, leaving the results to speak for themselves. (43: 87) In the same interview, Forbes, admittedly with difficulty, persuaded Mr. Mott to give him his philosophy of administration of business. After some statements concerning the importance of quality products and the maintenance of accurate overhead figures, Mott had the following things to say concerning the development of people which are significant for this study: Devote careful attention to training other men to shoulder and properly discharge responsibilities. When you get toward the top, or to the top, organize yourself out of a job. Encourage your best co- workers to reach out for greater responsi- bilities. Don't look over other's shoulders every minute of the day to see what they are do- ing. Give them scope. Give them lat— itude. Encourage them to think for them- selves. Encourage them to develop initiative. Don't pounce on them when they make mistakes; sit down and reason In 1926, Mott took steps to establish the Mott Foundation. -100- things out with them so that, while they won't make the same mistake again, they won't be afraid to exercise originality again lest they might make another mistake. (43: 87-88) His reasoning for the establishment of the foundation is contained in his own statement: As the years went on, with less demand for time from business, and with greater reali- zation of my responsibilities to society, and observing how many well-intended ideas and plans went astray after a man's death, when he provided funds in his will and left the execution of same to trustees, untrained and unfamiliar with his policies, I caused to be incorporated in 1926 under the laws of the state of Michigan, the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, with a broad charter to carry on philanthropic, charitable, and edu- cational work, with six trustees, the prin- cipal one Of which was my old and trusted friend, Roy E. Brownell, whose ideals were identical with my own. The idea was to get started and in Operation worthy projects and the trustees familiar with the work during my lifetime, instead of leaving funds and hoping that satisfac- tory results might be forthcoming after my passing--a hope which was not forthcom- ing in many instances I had observed in the case of those who left the job to be started after death . (73) The original trustees, in addition to Mott himself, were his three children: Amy Mott Butler, Elsa B. Mott, C. S. Harding Mott--along with Roy E. Brownell, Mott's attorney, as well as close friend for many years - 101 - and Edward E. MacCrone of Detroit. The first officers were: President and Treasurer, C. S. Mott; Vice-President, Elsa B. Mott; Secretary, Roy E. Brownell. Various awards presented to Mott through the years number well over one hundred. They begin in 1914 with a large silver loving cup that was presented to Mott after he had completed two terms as Mayor of the city of Flint. The inscription on the cup reads, " Presented by his friends and fellow townsmen to Honorable Charles Stewart Mott, twice elected on a non-partisan ballot, Mayor of Flint, in grateful recognition of his unsel- fish devotion to the public weal and his insistance upon the application of business principles in municipal government." Mott holds an Honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from Stevens Institute of Technology and Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the Uni- versity of Michigan and Michigan State University. On February 13, 1955, Michigan State University, in a program concluding Founder's Day in East Lansing, honored him with a special Centennial Citation reading as follows: Charles Stewart Mott, President, The Mott Foundation, Flint, Engineer, Industrialist, Philanthropist, and Humanitarian, you es- tablished out of your own regard for your fellow man the Mott Foundation, which has contributed so generously to the welfare of your home city of Flint. Mindful of the next generation, you have so organized it that it has been a model for sound educa- tional philanthrOpy, recognized in State and Nation as an influence for good to our society. -102- Michigan State College is proud to present to you its Centennial Award. Of his many honors, one of which Mott is especially proud, is the award as " Big Brother of the Year' presented to him in 1954 by President Eisenhower . Mott describes the occasion in his diary of January 10th: After handshaking, a framed Big Brother Award was handed to the President by Mr. Berwind. The President read the inscription and handed the award to me with another handshake, and then a talk lasting not over two minutes. I accepted the award on behalf of over one thousand associates in Flint who were, I said, the ones who really did the work and deserve the award. In Flint, with a population of 165,000, we have 600 Big Brothers, each with a boy to look after, and probably at least another 600 folks working in social agencies and other program activities, all very helpful to the Big Brother movement, and I finished by saying, 'Mr. President, we think you are the biggest Big Brother of all.‘ For some unac- countable reason that last remark seemed to make a great hit not only with the President but with the men of the press who were pres- ent. More pictures were taken with the President shaking hands with me, and my re- ceiving the award, and the party was over. The President appeared in excellent health and spirits and extremely affable and agree— able. He certainly has a wonderful per- sonality. I must not forget to say that be— fore I left the room I introduced Joe Ryder to the President (Director of the Flint Big Brother Program) and Joe give him a box of trout flies which had been tied by the boys in his organization. The President, being a trout fisherman, seemed to be very pleased. (72) 'rTl. [.TTII' ‘ It |III.'.II - 103 - As indicated previously, Mott feels strongly about the work he is carrying on within the Foundation. Some indications of his own philoso- phy with regard to the operation of the Mott Foundation Program are con- tained in various statements made by him. In a speech before the Men's Fellowship Salem Lutheran Church on January 21 , 1958, Mott said: This country is overexcited because Russia has put up a couple of Sputniks. People think that our educational system has failed, and that we should exert all our energies to produce a nation of scientists to beat Russia. They may be right, but I can't go along with this idea, nor do I think, with a free country, we can put this across. I do believe that we can give our people much more opportun- ity for education and develop our geniuses, and produce more scientists. But what I believe strongest is that everyone should be given opportunity to acquire knowl- edge and education in spite of financial handi- caps. I don't mean by that, that everyone should be forced to go to college whether they want to or not, but they should have the oppor— tunity to acquire more training, knowledge, and education, if they so desire and have the ca- pacity to absorb it. (66) Mott then read statements made by Andrew Carnegie and B. C. Keeney, President of Brown University. Mott has quoted both of these statements frequently and has said repeatedly that they represent a creed for him. Carnegie's statement of which Mott is so fond is: "The best means of benefiting the community is to place within its reach the ladders upon which the aspiring can rise." Mott's favorite remark by Keeney is - 104 - this: "The real problem facing higher education today is not how to sat- isfy the great American dream of a college degree for everyone, but to pro- vide everyone with the opportunity for whatever degree of education he is capable of achieving. " In the same address (before the Salem Lutheran church group) Mott mentioned that he had recently received a letter from his long-time friend, Alfred P. Sloan, and that Sloan had expressed severe pessimism in his letter allowing that he considered the fight to be about over and that he saw nothing but a bleak future for the country. Mott told the group that he responded to Sloan's letter by saying that he couldn't understand why Sloan would have such an attitude, and that he, Mott, was having the time of his life looking to the future. Mott then quoted a treatise on the subject of youth, written by Dr. L. R. Hafstad, then head of Research for General Motors. Hafstad's treatise calls youth a state of mind, a temper of will, a quality of the imagination, and a vigor of the emotions. The statement concludes with these remarks: You are as young as your faith, as old as your doubt; as young as your self-confi- dence, as old as your fear; as young as your hope, as old as your dispair. In the central place of your heart there is a wireless station. As long as it receives messages of beauty, hope, cheer, cour- age, grandeur and power from the earth, from man and from the infinite, so long are you young. When the wires are all down and all the central places of your heart are covered with the snows of pessimism and the ice of cynicism then you are grown old indeed--and may God have mercy on your soul. (66) - 105 - Properties held either by Mr. Mott personally or by the Foundation include: 2, 600,000 shares of General Motors, the water works of 10 mu— nicipalities including that which serves the city of St. Louis, a chain of four department stores (Smith-Bridgman's of Flint, Robinson's of Battle Creek, Knapp's of Lansing, and Christian's of Owosso) , the Mott Foun- dation 16 story office building in downtown Flint, 47 per cent of the shares of U. S. Sugar Corporation, and a substantial (share of the bonds on the Mackinac Bridge. While attending to these business interests is a time consuming task in itself, Mott nevertheless maintains an active, enthusi- astic interest in the Foundation. He has adopted for his family, the motto: Spectemur Agendo, meaning, "Let us be known by our deeds." In a radio interview Mott expressed his interest in the program be- ing conducted in Flint and explained his enthusiasm as follows: People with good incomes don't seem to re- alize how much pleasure they can derive from large results at small net cost to them- selves. We do not pose as great philan- thropists. What makes us 'tick' is the feeling of accomplishment. We do feel that our efforts here are really getting re— sults, which are making Flint a better place in which to live, and will be copied by many other communities where this plan would be expedited if people of large means could un- derstand how much could be accomplished at so little expense and with so much satis- faction to themselves. (67) On another occasion, Mott was asked by an interviewer, "Being a man of means do you feel you have an obligation toward your fellow man and, if so. what kind?" Mr. Mott said: -106- Yes, but it has changed to a selfish point Of view--Whatever I have done has given me so much pleasure that I can't stop. There is so much still to be done that I'm in a hurry to get as much done as possible before I pass out. The dead hand can't do much. I want to see many things un-— derway and geared—in as far as possible. I am sure that all others who start giving of their time and/or money feel the same as I so. (73) An editorial that appeared in The Flintlournal in November, 1954, revealed the respect held in the city of Flint for Mott and his accomplish- ments. The evidence states: Although steadily maintaining that the Mott Foundation only 'greased the wheels' of the existing local social service machinery, Charles Stewart Mott, industrial and civic leader, probably has done more toward as— sembling that machinery than anyone in Flint. If the Mott Foundation were the only thing Mr. Mott had given Flint, there would be more to say than space allows. But his other contributions to every phase of this community's living and to the nation eco- nomically, further make it impossible to do more than touch upon them lightly. . . A man who realizes more than most the im- portance of money, Mr. Mott once said, 'The real importance lies much deeper. . . in the voluntary efforts of thousands of in- dividuals to support a worthy cause, be it only by shoveling on a playground, and the idea that help to one's neighbors should be recognized and undertaken as a personal responsibility rather than as the official business of impersonal welfare organiza- tions. (28) - 107 - Frank J. Manley: In June of 1947, C. S. Mott received the Forney W. Clement Mem- orial Award from Kiwanis. Mott notes in his diary for that day: Of course I had to say something in accep- tance and so I said that I assumed that the award had something to do with the activi- ties Of our Foundation and I compared the program to a motor truck of which the Board of Education was the body and Frank Manley was the engine which did all of the work, the Foundation simply furnishing the gaso- line. Therefore, Frank Manley, who is the hardest working chap in the community on things for the general good, was really entitled to the award and that in accepting it, I took it for the work that he had ac- complished. (72) On many public occasions Mott has said that Frank Manley is the Mott Foundation. Mott has rarely failed to pay great credit to Manley and to the staff of the Foundation. When asked to name the people who had had the most influence on his life, Mott named his father, noting that he was extremely stern, and Frank Manley. As indicated earlier in this study, Manley is a native of Herkimer, New York, where his father operated a livery stable. Manley had dropped out of school in the ninth grade, but was persuaded by his friends to re- enter school in order to participate in athletics. Maintaining eligibility for athletics ultimately led to his graduation from high school. Manley was active in athletics during his college career at Michigan State Normal College and served as President of the Student Union during his senior year. - 108 - From his initial employment with the Flint school system, Manley has been characterized by a restless energy which has prompted him to instigate the development of the many programs in operation under the aegis of the Foundation. The minutes of various meetings, especially initial meetings of groups oriented to a particular social task, are replete with reference to suggestions made by Manley. He has served on the boards of directors of countless community organizations and it is diffi- cult to name community groups, agencies or organizations of which he has not been a member at one time or another. Until 1935, Manley was Di- rector Of Physical Education and Recreation and Child Accounting for the school system. After 1935, he carried those responsibilities along with those of Director of the Mott Foundation Program. On January 10, 1949, the Mott Program Coordinating Committee in a letter to Mr. Mott reported that the Flint Board of Education had decided to change Manley's status from "Assistant Superintendent in Charge of Junior College, Senior High Schools , Child Accounting, Adult Education, Health and Recreation, Public Relations and the Mott Foundation Program" to "Assistant Superintendent in Charge of the Mott Foundation Program. " (64) The letter then lists the activities which would come under the pur- view of Manley. These included Adult Education, Experimental Projects, the Flint Youth Bureau, the Health Program, the Interracial Center, In- service Training Programs, Mott Camp, Physical Education and Athletics, - 109 - Stepping Stone Clubs and Hamady House, Visiting Teacher Programs, and Coordinator of Summer and Winter Recreation Programs. The letter also suggests that Manley's salary of $7, 500, until then paid by the Board of Education, be assumed by the Mott Foundation. The awards presented through the years to Manley, while not as numerous as Mr. Mott's, nevertheless comprise a fairly substantial list. On April 11 , 1956, Manley was honored by the Notre Dame Club of Flint as its Man of the Year for " responsible christian citizenship. " At that time The Flintiournal reported the remarks of several people concerning Manley's contributions. President Robert Sibilsky of the Notre Dame Club said that Manley: has always been interested in and sympa- thetic with the needs of others--particu- larly of children and youth. But being a man of action and a creative leader he has never been content to just 'feel sorry.‘ He has constantly rolled up his sleeves and pitched in to do something to improve the situation. What's more, his dynamic ex- ample has induced hundreds of other to help. (63) C. S. Mott spoke of Manley's contributions to the welfare of the community: What Frank Manley has done should be ap- parent to all citizens of Flint who have their eyes and ears open. . .In the last analysis the Mott Program is Frank Manley. . . and its results are due to one man, Frank Manley. I'm tickled to death that he received the award he so justly deserves. God bless Frank Manley. (63) - 110 - Others at the meeting made mention of Manley's zeal, spirit, enthusiasm, devotion, power to influence others for good, and other qualities. During that year, 1956, Mr. Mott furnished the Board of Education with $186, 000 with which to build a swimming pool at Northern High School. The Board of Education named the pool after Manley and at the dedication of the pool, Dr. Charles Anspach, President of Central Michigan College, conferred upon Manley an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree. It may be difficult to over state the importance of Manley's person- ality in the development of the Mott Foundation Program. Besides Mott's tributes, one finds in the files of the Foundation a great many letters from visitors to and observors of the Program who pay high tribute to such qual- ities in Manley as imagination, energy, leadership, creative capacity, ability to develop others, etc. Says Manley of himself: I think I am fairly realistic in assessing my own qualities--and there aren't very many good ones. But I know what kinds of things I can do fairly successfully and I go at those. I like to do the same with other people and pick out those good qualities they have and help them to develop them more fully. I get my greatest satisfaction from seeing other people grow. . .I think maybe what frustrates me most is to hear explained,'when an idea is introduced, all the reasons why it won't work. I always like to start out with 'how can we do it?‘ (74) In an interview, Manley made the following statements with regard to meth- ods and techniques of operation of the Foundation, of which he has been the only director. -111- In the first place I don't think we have any program or any technique in operation here that doesn't exist somewhere else. Al- most every idea we have was stolen from someplace else. The difference is that we have here the support of Mr. Mott, a tradition of far-sighted Boards of Education and, most of all, the kind of people who are willing to give endlessly of time, en- ergy and imagination to make the things work. Now as to techniques that have been suc- cessful for us, first it is important to de- cide who will make the suggestion or who will ask the question. A lot of times that makes the difference as to Whether the sug- gestion or plan will be accepted. You need to find the best possible person to 'carry the ball. ' Second, we've become convinced of the value of the pilot project. Start the idea small and in one place, test it out there, make all your mistakes in a concentrated area. Third, you have to accept the fact that there is no panacea, no cure-all for social ills. There are many facets to social problems and many causes of difficulties; so the best thing you can hope for is some kind of an in- strument or way to reach all people with all kinds of problems. There are many differ- ent ways or approaches. Fourth, you must realize that what people want and what they need are sometimes poles apart. Who can say what people need? You must start with what people want and go from there. Fifth, you don't get people to do things by ordering them. They. must want to do some- thing; so the most important thing an admin- istrator can do is to convince people that they ought to do these things. -112- People can be for you, as well as they can be against you. It's important that you avoid being labeled as a member of a par— ticular group. So often, such a label im- mediately alienates you from a great many people. . . Credit, publicity, fame--all of these things, while pleasant at the moment, are sometimes very costly in the long run for a practitioner. There is bound to be resentment. Being in the limelight all of the time makes it very difficult to get people to work with you. . It's vital to have advisory groups--sound- ing boards. I don't think I ever went into a meeting with an idea which, after it had been worked over by the group, didn't come out much, much better than I possible could have developed it myself. . . You shouldn't be hesitant to ask people to do things for you. The best way in the world to make a friend is to get a person to do something for you. . . Most people work at about 10 per cent of their capacity most of the time. If you could just get them tip to 50 per cent this would be a far different world. (74) Thus, we see something of the creed by which Manley has oper- ated. The role of the Foundation executive is not evaluated by most writers to be an easy one. Keppel said: Daily, if not hourly, a foundation execu- tive is reminded how inadequately, how badly, how wrongly things are going in this corner and that, and when he is not being told, he must get up and look about to discover where something ought to be -113- done. If he looks too diligently and al- lows himself to grow weary and stale, he will be in danger of finding that the world's woes have become an oppressive obsession. Altruists who are melancholy, reformers who are moumful, low-spirited humanitarians, saints who are spoil sports, instead of being happy warriors--we have all known a few of them. They prove that a man who devotes himself to this sort of work has better be en- dowed with no little buoyancy of spirit. (12: 48) In 1958, Robert Lewis Shayon was retained by the National Asso- ciation Of Educational Broadcasters to prepare a series of 13 one-half hour radio broadcasts on the status of American Education. At the recom- mendation of Ernest O. Melby of Michigan State University, Shayon made his first stop in Flint and for a two-week period made an intensive obser- vation of the Mott Foundation Program. He summarizes the research done for the series in an article in the September, 1958, Saturday Review. In support of his argument for the necessity of a multiple-track system in American education, Shayon cites the case of Manley. Says Shayon: Dr. Frank Manley, the Director of the Mott Foundation Program, which sparks Flint's Board of Education Community School oper- ation was himself a 'drop-out' in his youth. Fortunately, he was able to return to school. And his progressive, educational insights brought him eventually to a position of lead— ership in his city of 200 .000 people where he has awakened it to the rich personal and social fruits that grow on the tree of crea- tive liaison between schools and sincerely interested communities. Who will venture to say that this marvelous catalyst would not have been lost if some single-track sys— tem had 'dumped' Frank Manley as second - 114 - rate stuff? The priority question of the sciences and mathematics versus the hu- manities in our post-Sputnik crash-schol- arship program is not beside the point here. Which is more important to the nation's 'survival'--a Manley or a missile? (82: Both Mott and Manley have emphasized that people are the impor- tant consideration. Many people have made significant contributions to the total Mott Foundation Program. Attempting only to list them would take considerable space. Among those who were part of the original staff in 1935 and whose contributions have been outstanding are: Myrtle F. Black, Alton R. Patterson, Harold D. Bacon, and William F. Minardo. Myrtle Black is a graduate of the University of Chicago. She re- ceived the M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Michigan. In 1933, when Manley and others announced possible part-time work for un- employed teachers to be sponsored by the F.E.R.A. , hundreds of Flint area teachers made application. Among them was Mrs. Black. When she saw Manley and the others inundated with the applicants she volunteered her help as an interviewer. Manley hired her on the spot at the end of that day and she has been associated with the program eversince. Pri- marily, her area of responsibility has been in Adult Education but she has participated in important decisions and actions in many phases of the pro- gram. Manley has often credited her for being the "brains" of the organ- ization. She is widely known in Adult Education circles and has received many honors in the field. - 115 - Alton R. Patterson had been Manley's closest friend and roommate in college. They were both hired by the Flint School System at the same time. Patterson was supervisor of recreational activities in the schools in the north part of Flint in the early days of the recreation program. Some- what later, he became Assistant Director of the Mott Foundation Program and carried in conjunction with that responsibility the title of Director of Pupil Personnel, Attendance and Child Accounting for the school system. His untimely death in 1951 was a loss to the leadership of the Program and constituted a deep personal tragedy for Manley. Harold D. Bacon is a graduate of Western State Teachers College, going to Flint as a physical education instructor in 1928. In 1934, he became Assistant Supervisor of Physical Education for the schools and in 1949 was made Supervisor of Physical Education and Recreation for the school system. Manley pays great credit to Bacon for many cheerfully devoted hours in the early formative days of the program and especially for his capacity as a recreational leader. Bacon's special forte is as a square dance caller. Because of his proficiency in that field, he was sent by the United States State Department on a good will tour of Brazil in 1946. William F. Minardo, a 1932 graduate of Notre Dame University, came to the Flint system in 1934 as a physical education instructor at Lowell Junior High School. With the-beginning of the original recreation program in 1935, he became Supervisor of Recreational Activities in schools - 116 - on the east side of the city. On November 10, 1935, his school, Lowell, opened the first recreational program. In 1947 Minardo transferred to Northern High School to help organize groups of teenagers there and in 1951 he was appointed the first full-time Community School Activities Di- rector, assuming those responsibilities at the newly completed Freeman School. Later, he opened Potter, Merrill and Gundry schools and begin- ning in 1953 became a General Consultant in Community Services to all Community Activities Directors. In 1957, he received the first Master's degree in Community Education ever to be granted by Eastern Michigan University. Manley has often spoken of his devotion to these people in partic- ular and of his gratitude for their unflagging enthusiasm, energy and devo- tion to the total program. Some difficulty is encountered in making an accurate count of the total number of employees of the Mott Foundation Program. This is en- gendered by the fact that many persons within the school system are par- tially or fractionally remunerated with Mott funds. Employees of the Health Center, the Dental Clinic, the Stepping Stone Program, the Big Brother Program, Mott Camp, and most adult education coordinators are reimbursed in total by the Mott Foundation. Some adult education co- ordinators, the central staff, and Community School Activities Directors are reimbursed partially by the MOtt Foundation and partially by the Board - 117 - of Education. The arrangement varies, all the way from the case of ele- mentary Community School Activities Directors who are reimbursed one- sixth by the Foundation, to others who are reimbursed five—sixths by the Foundation. The total number of regular employees of the Foundation, including those under the various arrangements, is 151 persons. Those employed on a part-time basis-—Adult Education Program teachers, recre- ation supervisors, etc. --number over 1 , 000 . Of the 700 Adult Education Program teachers in any given term, approximately one—half are public school teachers and one-half come from the community at large. Having thus digressed from the chronological development of the Program for an overview of the people and personalities involved, we shall now proceed to an account of the more recent contributions of those per- sons and others, through the auspices of the Mott Foundation to the devel- opment of the Community School Program as it operates in present-day Flint. CHAPTER V‘ THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL The Fairview Pilot School Progam: As indicated in Chapter III, the first 12 years of the Mott Founda- tion Program saw the development of an extensive city-wide program in health, recreation, adult education, and certain peripheral social services. The findings of the six visiting teachers pointed up fundamental social, health and educational needs, and the officials of the Program began to seek ways and means of satisfying these needs. In the fall of 1947, at the suggestion of Harding Mott, Vice-Presi- dent of the Mott Foundation, Fairview Elementary School was selected as the school in which to conduct a " pilot project" aimed at improvement of one specific neighborhood. In the introduction to a comprehensive report of the first year's progress of this project, the principal of the school, Miss Josephine MacDougall, set forth the reasoning behind this decision. The total report is contained in the 1947-48 Annual Report of the Mott Foun- dation: In attempting programs of community improve- ment, sometimes a problem seems so tremen- dous and resources of time, energy, personnel, and finances so limited by comparison, it is easy to become discouraged and ineffectual. For this, and other reasons, a leaf has been taken from the experience of business, and the 'pilot school' idea has been adOpted, whereby -118- -119- all resources are concentrated in one small experimental area. This year Fairview School was selected, and all the resources of the schools and Mott Foundation Program concentrated there to determine which ef- forts were most effective and what things were most necessary to be done to help bring about the objectives for which we are all striving. (10) Since the five-year experiment at Fairview convinced the trustees of the Mott Foundation as well as the members of the Board of Education of the efficacy of the community school idea, it is pertinent at this time to devote some space to a description of the experiment and its results. In 1947, Fairview Elementary School membership consisted of 393 children, 92 per cent of whom were Negro. The remaining eight per cent were made up of 16 white and 14 Mexican pupils. When the school was built in 1915, its neighborhood at that time was made up of families from 27 different nationality groups. The attendance district for Fairview was bounded/on the west and south by the Buick Motor Car Company and on the ’ east by the Flint River. The area was described in the report as being the center of the most highly industrialized section of Flint. Said Miss MacDougall, in describing the area: It is small and compact providing crowded housing conditions and few play and whole- some recreational centers. Beer taverns, petty crime and prostitution vie with con- structive agencies for the interest of com- munity members. The serious-minded parents who want better things for their children find life a continual struggle to combat destructive influences . Children -120- whose parents have long since bowed to pre— vailing conditions come to school in a poor state of nutrition and health, with serious behavior problems and little hope for the fu- ture. (10) Miss MacDougall reports that in the fall of 1947, she, the staff of the school and various consultants available through the school system met to discuss the problem of the Fairview area. As a result of their dis- cussion, they decided upon six areas of special need and proposed to do whatever they could during the year. The areas includedwere: 1. 2. Survey the community needs and then attempt to meet them. Interest community members in greater cooperation. Re-evaluate the curriculum and make necessary changes. Improve health conditions. Provide activities that would lessen frustration and agression and substitute accomplishment, satisfaction and happiness. Work toward better understanding of children. (10) A 1952 report filed by Miss MacDougall describing the activities that had taken place at the school for a five year period listed 13 specific projects undertaken during that period of time. These were: 1. A community survey was conducted by the visiting teacher assigned to the school, seeking data concerning living conditions, educa- tional background, occupations, interests, abilities and attitudes of adult community members . - 121 - Consultants, both at the local and state level, met many times with staff members to give advice on procedures. Twenty-seven different conferences were held with the faculty the first year. Extensive in-service training of the teachers at Fairview was un- dertaken. Financed by the Mott Foundation, these courses were offered through the auspices of the University of Michigan and Eastern Michigan University. One course in "Health" and an— other in " Child Growth and Development" were evaluated by the principal as being especially beneficial. During one year, 80 per cent of the staff took advantage of this in-service training op- portunity. A curriculum survey was undertaken under the guidance of the As- sistant Superintendent of Schools and, as a result, a block system of classification was developed whereby a teacher kept a group of children for a longer span of time so that she could stress individ— ual growth, rather than a repetition of grade subject matter. A special reading readiness program was developed for immature first graders. A school orchestra was developed and an extensive pro- gram of educational field trips was undertaken. Pupil-teacher ratio was reduced from 35 to one to approximately 26 to one. Two physical education teachers were assigned on a part-time ba- 4 sis to assist in classroom work and to supervise after-school -122 - recreation programs designed to fortify and supplement the class— room activities. The testing program of pupils was extended to include, in addition to regular intelligence and achievement tests, an activities test devised by the teachers and administered to children in order to de- termine their preferences in an activity program. An all-out effort was made to improve the health status of the child- ren. When the program was initiated in 1947, 11. 5 per cent of the children in the school were free of correctible medical and dental defects or, as described, "health guarded. " A screening program was established to discover the health needs of each child and par- ents were asked to assist in the administration of the screening pro- gram. An unused, large basement storeroom was converted to a homemaking room, modern cooking and laundry equipment was pro- vided at half cost by Consumers Power Company, and the Mott Foun- dation PrOgram undertook the cost of redecorating the room. The total cost was slightly over $2 , 000 . A breakfast program was in— itiated which took place each morning in this room. Thirty-five to 40 children who had been found to be underweight, suffering from fatigue, malnutrition or tuberculosis , were--and are to this day--fed breakfast in this room at the school. The room also provides a meeting place for adult groups and adult education of- ferings. Homemaking activities take place in this room during the day. 10. 11. 12. - 123 - Extended day school groups furnished leisure time activities for youngsters in the areas of camping, ceramics, chorus, crafts, drams, Echo Girls, English for Mexican children, Girl Scouts, Gray—Y, leader's club, Mott Camp boys, leathercraft, Stepping Stones, sewing, shower clubs, swimming, and woodshop. The principal reports that the purchase of additional supplies and equipment enriched the experiences of children. The school pur- chased complete audio-visual aids including a tape recorder, chime bells, books, magazines, constructive toys and other items of ed- ucational value. Certain physical improvements were made at the school including the provision of such items as green chalk boards, florescent lights, bubbling fountains, pictures of modern art, draperies and furniture for the teachers' lounge. A community relations program was developed which brought parents into the school on an almost daily basis, conferring with teachers and planning activities for school and community improvement. The principal credits the adult education activities as being most effec- tive at attracting parents to the school. They included classes in millinery, knitting, rug weaving, crocheting, embroidery, slip cov- ers, draperies, dress making, lampshade making, academic skills, piano, instrumental music, chorus, textile painting, quilting, - 124 - cooking for Mexican mothers, and laundry. The number of adult classes offered each term averaged 15 and the total enrollment in the classes averaged between 150 and 200. 13. Summer use of the school consisted of canning demonstrations, a "tot-lot" , a play yard and a library station. (10) Miss MacDougall, in 1952 , reported the following results of the Program: 1 . Experiments carried on in our school proved their worth to all other areas, whether they were similar or not. . . 2 . Better results prompted other schools in similar areas to request the same program. Parkland and Roosevelt Schools used many of our experiments to start projects of their own. 3. Improved staff interest led to better cooperation of pupils and parents. 4. The employment of Negro and men teachers were definite assets to our total program. 5. A lower teaching load made teachers less frustrated, for they felt they were accomplishing more. 6. The block system with competent teachers. . .brought excellent re- sults both academically and socially. 7. Academic status improved with physi- cal, social, and individual care. For a period of ten years, from 1939 to 1949, Fairview ranked number twenty-eight out of twenty-eight schools in the results of the Stanford -125- Achievement Test. This placed Fairview in the first (lowest) Quar- tile Of the rank. On the Iowa test given in 1950, we ranked let out of 28 ranks, which placed us in the second quartile. This showed an improvement of seven ranks , or one complete quartile. This year's test results showed us to be above the average in the per cent of gain. 8. Health-guarded children increased from 38 to 220, or an improvement of 600 per cent. . . 10 . Better nutrition in the form of a well balanced breakfast improved child- ren's physical conditions, social adjustment and mental alertness. . . 12 . Attitude improved when everyone was interested in working together toward a common goal. We had less van- dalism and building damage while the program was conducted. . . 14. A comparatively small additional amount of money, used intelligently, brought most satisfactory results. (10) A financial report for the total five-year experiment that was in- corporated in the 1951-52 Annual Report of the Foundation, showed that the Foundation's cost of underwriting the program the first year was $1,171 . 60. It increased to $3, 598. 56 the second year, finally reach- ing $6,290. 86 the fifth and final year. The total cost of the five-year experiment for an extra clerk, a homemaking teacher, redecorating the homemaking room, food provided at the breakfast, the cost of consultants - 126 - for in—service training, tuitions underwritten in behalf of the teachers, special supplies and equipment and playground develOpment, was $22 , 927. 60 . The report points out that these figures do not include salaries of any of the school consultants used, any part of the visiting teacher's salary, nor any part of the services rendered by the Mott Foundation Children's Health Cen— ter, Stepping Stone Program, Mott Camp, or any administrative costs. In her evaluation of the results of the project, Miss MacDougall had this to say in a 1953 publication entitled, "A Visit to Fairview School-- The Progress of a Pilot Plan": . . . (the children) have developed additional skills and interest. They get along better with their teachers and with other children. They are learning to apply their school work to their own environment. They work on problems of the home and family, recreation, conservation, health, citizenship, and the understanding of their own actions and atti- tudes. Fairview's children are more alert than before. Their achievement levels have risen. From the satisfaction of watch- ing this progress, Fairview's teachers have assumed happier, more Optimistic attitudes. Parents, finding that the school offers new opportunities in learning, fun and fellow- ship for them, have rallied to support the school. With what they have received in educational and recreational returns, they have worked to improve their homes and sur- roundings and the welfare of their families. In short, Fairview School now serves a whole community. (15) - 127 - It has been stated that the Fairview Pilot Project was important because it convinced the trustees of the Mott Foundation, the members of the Flint Board of Education and the school administrative staff that conditions within a school and within the community served by that school could be improved with the application of the community school concept. In June, 1950, the voters of Flint were asked to approve a two and one-half mill special bond issue of ten years' duration for the construction of needed new schools. They approved that levy by a majority of more than 80 per cent. As a consequence, the first new elementary school constructed with funds thus made available was designed to serve as a community school. Certain features were incorporated that would allow the school to better serve the dual purpose of educational plant as well as community center. These features will be discussed later in this study, but for the moment what is pertinent to our discussion is that when Flint's first new school in 25 years, The Freeman School, was Opened in October, 19 51 , it had been designed to serve as a community school. One of its staff was designated Community School Activities Director and it was officially des- ignated " Freeman Community Elementary School. " By the fall of 1952 , four such schools had been constructed-- Freeman, Potter, Pierce and Merrill—-and a full-time community activities director had been assigned to each of them. In 1963, fifteen new elementary schools have been designed and built along this pattern, 13 elementary schools have had "community wings" - 128 - added to them and all of the schools in Flint, from elementary through the Junior College, are considered to be community schools. All but three have the services of a full—time community activities director, those three having the services of a part-time director. There are now 47 full-time community activities directors in the Flint school system. At this point it would seem well-advised to define this vehicle chosen by the Mott Foundation for its philanthropic efforts in the city of Flint--the community school concept. The Community School Defined: Robert A. N aslund defines the community school as follows: A community school is a school which over and above its concern for the production of literate, 'right-minded' and economically efficient citizens in terms of a particular social, economic or political setting, is di- rectly concerned with improving living in the community in all the broad meaning of that concept in the local, state, regional, na— tional, or international community. To that end it is the consciously used instrument of the community, and its curriculum reflects planning to meet the discovered needs, with changing emphasis as circumstances indi- cate. Its buildings and physical facilities are at once a center for both youth and adults who together are actively engaged in analyz- ing problems suggested by the needs of the community and in formulating and exploring possible solutions to these problems, solu- tions which are in turn put into operation to the end that living is improved and enriched for the individual and community. (70: 70) Naslund's comprehensive definition is a modern one and ma serve Y to broaden preconceptions held by some people based on early descriptions — 129 - of community school programs. For a time the community school was thought to be associated primarily with rural areas and its activities con- fined to teaching the youngsters and older members of the community fun- damental vocational and social skills. The concept was associated with types of activities such as fruit and vegetable canning projects, animal husbandry, and the development of chicken hatcheries, all taking place in largely rural communities. However, the concept as defined through the years both by practitioners and Observers has always been broader than this. It simply happens that the application of the concept in certain rural areas took certain forms with which the concept was strongly asso- ciated for some time. Elsie R. Clapp, who developed a community school of the Ballard Memorial School in Jefferson County, Kentucky, which in its action phases assumed a pattern typical of rural community school develop- ment, painted a broad picture of the concept when asked what a community school does: First of all, it meets as best it can, and with everyone's help, the urgent needs of the people, for it holds that everything that affects the welfare of the children and their families is its concern. Where does school end and life outside begin? There is no distinction between them. A com- munity school is a used place, a place used freely and informally for all the needs of liv- ing and learning. It is, in effect, the place where learning and living converge. (26: 89) - 130 - Miss Clapp's definition is broad enough not to preclude activities that may be undertaken in any school in any size community. Essenti- ally, the nature of a community school is that it does not restrict its cli- entele to youngsters enrolled in a formal education program. The com- munity school philosophy states essentially that the child is a product of his total environment, that he is educated not by only that which happens to him in the classroom, but by everything that happens after school hours, at home and with all those people with whom he associates. In short, the child is educated by the community; therefore, the school must edu- cate the total community. Joseph K. Hart substantiates the need for the community school when he says: Education is not apart from life. . .The democratic problem in education is not primarily a problem of training children; it is a problem of making a community within which children cannot help growing up to be democratic, intelligent, disci- plined to freedom, reverent of the goods of life, and eager to share in the tasks of the age. A school cannot produce the re- sult; nothing but a community can do so. (49: 382) Hannah and N aslund see the community school as a center where children and youth become partners with adults in discovering community needs and problems, in analyzing them, in exploring and formulating pos- sible solutions to them, and in applying the results of these cooperative efforts so that " community living is improved." (47: 55) o (1.1 Community. -'—-.-i—i’—l—'"". . ‘xfhe Mott Founda- ’ 'l L. .1 “ r/ W ., Ir: 1". ,. { VI .- 7 ’. . r ' ': ' L1" \fr ’ I. L Cg < | (1,?! I 4 C ‘4 _,_ d a. / -:- -, {QCIL‘IIL . (‘7 / " wt" c? / ,7 / - - L..- -/ "I -: é”? 2‘ < 9/ "Tz. // \\ - 131 - Community School Practice in Flint: In a statement of its philosophy and rationale, the Mott Founda- tion said in the December, 1959, Journal of Educational Socim The Mott Foundation believes that world peace and understanding among men must begin in men's hearts; that neighbor must understand neighbor and that people must learn to live together in neighborhoods and cities before nation can understand nation and a world can live in peace. To this end people must be provided the opportun- ity at a grass-roots level to learn to under- stand one another's problems, to work to- gether and to find the means to improve themselves and their cities. After twenty-five years of experimentation, the Foundation considers the public school the ideal instrument for the achievement of this end because: 1 . The public school has played the traditional role of common denom- inator in our society, today is an institution truly representative of all classes, creeds, colors. 2. Physical plants of schools, repre— senting a huge community invest— ment, are perfectly suitable for community recreation and education; use of them eliminates need for costly duplication of facilities. 3. Schools are geographically suited to serve as neighborhood centers of recreation, education, democratic action; by their nature, they are readily accessible to every man, woman, and child in the nation. - 132 - 4. If an experimental program can be proved feasible within a school system, the transition from private support to public support is rela- tively easy. (25: 153) In 1954 and 1955, many personnel of the Flint public school sys- tem were enrolled in classes in community organization offered by Michigan State Normal College, the University of Michigan and Michigan State Uni- versity. As a result of their studies, they cooperatively produced a book- let entitled Flint Community Schools, intended to explain the operation of the community school philosophy in Flint. In this booklet they state that the school is the educational, cultural, social, civic, and recreational center of the community; hence, they reason, its staff should understand the community--its strength, its weaknesses and its needs. Through its staff, pupils, programs and facilities, the community school should di- rectly improve and develop community activities. The community school, they contend, represents a great potential resource for the enrichment of living as well as the improvement of the quality of community life. (39: 5) The Flint community school system loosely defines the school's community as the attendance area for that school, whether the school be an elementary, junior, or senior high school. An area thus defined has certain common ends and it is the responsibility of the school staff to build on this commonness of purpose. John Dewey said that community life de- pends primarily upon communication between men and the acceptance of - 133 - common ideals. Dewey explains that communication is the means by which people come to possess things in common: Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common, and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. . . Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, anymore than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others . . . Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. . .If, however, they were all cogniz- ant Of the common end and all interested in it, so that they regulated their specific ac- tivity in view of it, then they would form a community. (33: 5) Support of the contention that the school in a given neighborhood has the potential for providing a commonness, a means of communication, is contained in the following remarks by C. W. Hunnicut: The school is the One institution in the com- munity which reaches into the greatest num- ber of homes and in which every family can feel ownership and freedom in participation, and for this reason it is in a peculiarly ad- vantageous position to play a leading role in community welfare programs. As the in- stitution dedicated to learning and to con— sideration of things of the mind, it is a natural center for the study of community problems and the natural coordinator among the various community organizations. (51: 194) In the pursuit of these objectives a great many activities are car- ried on in the typical Flint Community School. A good indication of the - 134 - scope and type of activities is contained in Table I, which is a composite schedule of the typical day-by-day program in a typical community school prepared by W. Fred Totten, Director of Graduate Training Programs for the Mott Foundation. The reader will note that the Program begins on some days before regular school hours with a recreational singing activity called Sunrise Singers. Such activities as preschool story hour and art class for three and one-half year Olds, are designed to prepare youngsters for entry into school at a later time. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts and Brownie groups as well as YMCA groups are seen to use the facilities on frequent occasions. Evening hours usually are devoted to adult education and family activities. This schedule does not make note of regularly sched- uled monthly meetings which would include the Community Council, Child Study Clubs, and groups in the community organized for the investigation of special community problems. Some indication of the extent of use by the community of Flint school facilities is indicated in a study of building load compiled by Totten and contained in a report dated April 11 , 1962 . (40) During the week of February 12-18, 1962 , each community school activities director in 44 school buildings kept a daily head count of the number of children, youth, and adults using the school facilities, in addition to those enrolled in the regular day school instructional program. The reports indicated that 30,420 children, 22,558 youth, and 23,622 adults, or a total of 76,600 ~135- COMMUNITY SCHOOL ACTIVITIES PROGRAM Park Community School MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY a.m. a.m. a.m. Sunrise Singers Sunrise Singers Sunrise Singers Room 7 7:30 Room 7 7:30 Room 7 7:30 Pre-School Story Hour LibraDL 10:00 p.m. p.m. J.m. Puppetry Basketball Girl Scouts #268 Comm. Room 3:30 Gymnasium 6:30 Room 109 3:30 Arts & Crafts, 4th, 5th PTA Board (1 st Tuesday) Brownies #12 & 6th grades Comm. Room 7:30 Room 302 3:30 Room B 4:00 Jr. Teen Club Bi shop I Sewing Girl Scouts #223 Gym & Comm. Rm. 6:30 Room 119 7:30 Room 7 4:00 Photography (adults) 'LYouth Bureau - Big Brothers Youth Symphony Vis. Aid§._Rm. 7:00 Elem. Gym 7:30 Mpsic Room 4:30 Basic Economics Furniture Refinishing Bishop Sewing II 7:30 Room 27 6:00 Comm. Rm. 7:00 ShOJ Room Women' s Rec . Club Senior Teen Club Special Events (as scheduled) Family Gym 7:00 Gym 8:00 Roller Skat. , Mother- Daughter Night, Father- Son Night, Family Potluck. I Gym & Comm. Rm. 7:30 Landscaping Model Car Construction / Child Study 11 (3rd Wed.) Mom 30 7:30 Room 126 8:00 Comm. Room 7:30 Accounting Chocolate Dipping / Needlepoint Handbags Room 32 7:30 Homemaldmg Rm. 8:00 Room 217 7:30 Furniture Refinishing Room 40 7: 30 Painting with Oil Room 300 8:00 Early Amer. Furniture Room 122 8:00 COMMUNITY SCHOOL ACTIVITIES PROGRAM -136- (Continued) THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY aOm. a.m. a.m. Cake Decorating Art Glass (3 1/2 yr. Olds) BoyS' Athletic Games Room 7 8:00 Room 7 9:00 Outside & Jr. High p.m. p.m. Gym 8:30 Jr. High Girls" Inter- Stepping Stones Elem. Roller Skating murals - Gym - 3:30 Room 109 3:05 Elem. Gym 9:00 Sunrise Singers Roller Skating Cooking Room 7 3:45 Old Gym 3:30 Comm. Room 9:30 Child Study I (2nd Thurs) Gra-Y Typing Comm. Room 7300 Shpp & Gym 3:30 Room 10 9:30 Men's Club Elem. Girls' Act. Reading for Fun Gym 7:30 Playground 3:30 Room 32 10:00 Art Education Piano Class Foreign Language Room 23 7:30 Music Room 3:30 Room 17 10:30 Quantity Cooking Teen Club Dances (alter- Strings Room 215 7:30 nate weeks) - Gym - 7:00 Music Room 10:30 Interior Design Beginning Millinery Basketball Room 106 8:00 Room 26 7:30 Gym 11:30 Creative Writing Room 2 1 4 8: 00 Mothers' Choral Group Music Room 7:30 Inexpensive Casseroles Room 219 8:00 Garage Construction Room 221 8:00 - 137 - people, used the school facilities during the course of the week, after school hours, evenings and Saturdays. This figure does not include the 40 , 196 pupils enrolled in the regular daytime program. The report indicates additionally that with the exception of Sunday, more than 10 ,000 children, youth and adults used school facilities other than during school hours each day of the week. The Commumy Activities Director: While the development of the Community School Program is not unique to Flint, the Flint program is not even unique to Michigan. From 1945 to 1953, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation subsidized, the development of "Community School Service Programs" in five communities in Michigan: Concord, Elktown, Mesick, Rockford, and Stevenson. As nearly as can be determined the Flint program is responsible for initiating the position of "Community School Activities Director. " As conceived and practiced in Flint, the Community School Activ- ities Director is a regularly certified member of the teaching staff. Norm- ally, though not always, he is a physical education instructor. In theory, but not always in practice, he reports to his building at noon, teaches af- ternoon physical education classes, then remains at the school to conduct after-school activities and to coordinate and/orsupervise all of the evening activities. He operates a Saturday program at the schools and works on a 48 week basis, being totally responsible for the summer enrichment and rec- reation program that takes place at the school. -138— The Community School Activities Director is administratively re— sponsible to the principal of the school but is held responsible by the Mott'Founde'tion Program for coordinating adult education classes, teen clubs, mothers' and fathers' evening programs of diverse interests, games for children after school and on Saturday mornings, and, in short, provid- ing the community with education and recreation to suit the neighborhood's particular needs. Of his responsibilities, Manley has said: Working closely with the school principal, a director provides the leadership for ral- lying the resources of the community to catalyze educational, recreational, cultural, and social opportunities for young and old. (58: 335) In a treatise as yet unpublished, W. Fred Totten suggests that cer— tain qualities are especially desirable in a prospective community school director. He lists 10 specific qualities: 1. 2. Excellent health . A warm, outgoing personality, A missionary spirit. Strong interest and reasonable ability to participate in recreational activities. Facility as a speaker. Ability to feel welcome in people's homes. Leadership ability. Humility. - 139 - 9 . Democratic orientation With regard to administration. 10. Sales ability. (85) In the same place Totten describes the various roles played by a Commun- ity Activities Director, including those as teacher, counselor, organizer, administrator, supervisor, salesman, leader, communicator and human re- lations builder. Much importance is placed upon the role of the Commun- ity School Activities Director in the Flint system. Manley has said: The key to the success of the Community School Program is the Community School Director. We originated the job because you couldn't ask an already overworked principal to remain at the school after hours, evenings, Saturdays, and summers. So, while the principal's leadership is vital to the operation of the school program, the principal must have available the services of a full-time director. We've tried it several ways but we are convinced the only really effective way is to assign one direc- tor to one school. (74) From time to time Manley has supplied for the directors lists of questions to guide them in their work. The following list is a composite of the types of questions asked of the directors. It provides some indi- cation of the multiplicity of tasks for which a Community Activities Direc- tor is held responsible by the administrators of the Program: 1. How much do you know about your community? 2 . What are the people thinking about? 3. What is bothering the people-in their school, personal, social, business and economic life? 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. - 140 - What are the major desires of the people, their interests, their hobbies? How do the people feel about their schools, the education of their children? What things are causing people to worry? What kinds of hardships do people have? How do people feel about their families, their role in the community? How well informed are people in your community about the problems and the needs of the community? How would these people go about solving their problems, satisfying their needs? Do they understand your role as a director? Do they know the bene- fits, services, programs and opportunities available in your commun- ity school? Do the people know what agencies to use or to contact for assistance? How many children are there in your community? How many families are represented? How many registered voters voted in your precinct? What is the average property value in your area? How many churches are there and who are the leaders in the churches? What are the recreational facilities in your community? How far reaching is your program? Do you have a Community School Council? 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. - 141 - What have you promoted personally in your community? What community resources have you used outside of those avail- able within the immediate program? How many referrals to other social agencies have you made? What are the organizations—Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, etc. —-who use your facilities? Who are the natural leaders in your community and have you con- tacted them? How much use have you made of the human resources available within your community for solving its problems? What is the rate of drop-outs in your community? How many high school graduates go on to college? How many court cases were there from your area last year involv- ing delinquents? How much do the people in your community know and understand about their municipal, state and national governments? How many unemployed people are there in your community? How many persons on welfare? How many ADC families? The demands made upon community school activities directors in terms of time, effort and energy are considerable. All directors are re- quired to be enrolled in graduate training programs that take place in Flint through the auspices of Eastern Michigan University and Michigan State - 142 - University. A majority of them have earned Master's degrees in commun- ity education from Eastern Michigan University and several have earned a special six-year certificate in Community School Directorship from Michigan State University. As of this writing, three directors have assumed lead- ership responsibilities in areas other than Flint. In March, 1959, Dr. C. C. Trillingham, Los Angeles County Super- intendent Of Schools , was a delegate to the First National Community School Clinic held in Flint. His observations of the total program are contained in the report of the clinic in the December, 1959 , issue of the Journal of Educational Sociology. Of the Community School Activities Directors, Trillingham said: I've been impressed with the tremendous personnel as exemplified by the central office staff--the principals, and the build- ing directors, not to mention the fine staff of teachers. It seems to me that this crop of building directors here, under the Flint concept, has resulted in finding a place in the sun for some very outstanding people--people who, in a typical school situation probably would begin as teachers and would probably get lost there through the years. (25: 189) The Plant of the Community School: The plant of the Flint Community School departs from the conven- tional school plant in the sense that it is designed to serve the dual pur- pose of educational plant and community center. When the voters ap— proved Ofa two and one-half mill special bond issue in 1950 with which - 143 — to build new schools, the first new elementary school in the city in 25 years, to be called the Freeman School, was the result of extensive plan- ning by many members of the school staff. Freeman became the proto- type of all of the community schools built subsequently. A description of Freeman contained in The Flint School Review, the house organ for the Flint school system, in its December, 19 51 , issue summarizes the depar- ture that these schools make from the conventional school: Freeman School can be used the day around and the year around. The building was so designed that it can accomodate large or small groups. By;cutting off corridors with accordian-like wall gates, just the library, just the auditorium, just the community con- ference or arts and crafts rooms, or just the gymnasium can be used--all without opening up other parts of the building. The build- ing is expansible--so planned that other classrooms, recreational facilities, or even a swimming pool can be added. The gymnasium is suitable for groups of all sizes. It can be used for dancing and so- cial recreation, for festivals, exhibits, games for small children, as well as for cus- tomary gymnasium athletics--basketball, volleyball, tennis, badminton, shuffleboard. It has five badminton courts. (It measures 100 feet by 60 feet.) The auditorium seats 300 on a sloping floor. . . . Both children and grownups who will use the stage for plays, assemblies, movies, and forums , will have access to a workroom, dressing and preparation rooms. The school has a community room which dur— ing the school day may have several uses. - 144 - It has stoves, cupboards, a refrigerator, and comfortable furniture which make PTA meetings, Child Study club gatherings, teacher and parent teas, and neighborhood conferences pleasureable and friendly af— fairs. The arts and crafts room is supplied for use by both children and adults in paint- ing, ceramics, leatherwork, sewing, wood- carving, and other hobbies and crafts. Kindergarten rooms open to a play area re— stricted for small children. Here their play is not interrupted or hampered by older children. (41: 3) The Community Council: We have examined in this chapter the definitions of a community school and we have examined some of the rationale for the community school. We have described broadly, Flint practices, the functions of the Community Activities Director, and the plant of the community school. One more important organizational phase of the Community School Program as practiced in Flint needs to be mentioned, the function of the Community Council. A Community Council in the typical Flint community school contains a core made up of the members of the PTA Executive Board and a represen- tative of each of the groups that uses the school facilities, e.g. , the Men's Club, the Women's Club, the Teen Club, the Student Body, the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts , the Hi-Y, the Gra-Y, the Adult Education classes, etc. Added to this core of community leadership is a cross section of both formal and informal leadership of the community. The Community - 145 - Activities Director, in consultation with the principal, selects a number of people that the principal and director believe to be leaders of the com- munity. Such persons might be pastors of churches in the community, businessmen of the community, the city commissioner from the ward in which the school is located, or any other persons believed to be influ— ential and active in the affairs of the immediate community. Such a council does not replace the PTA organization, but is some- what broader in scope and undertakes community projects much broader in nature than those undertaken by the Parent-Teacher Association. In ad— dition to resolving conflicts that might occur with regard to scheduling of the building's facilities for community use, the Community Council may undertake such projects as a neighborhood home improvement campaign, the development of recreational facilities in the neighborhood, provision of special activities for teenagers, the promotion of an organization such as the "Parents of Teenagers," a campaign to assure the best safety con- ditions in the neighborhood, or nearly any project or problem related to the neighborhood. In brief, the Community Council is a kind of legisla- ture for the neighborhood. We have seen that by 1950 the Mott Foundation had chosen for its primary method of philanthropic giving the Community School. In de- fense of the choice, Frank Manleyywrote in the summary to a Michigan Association of School Administrators booklet on "Developing Community -146- Schools in Michigan, " the following remarks with which we conclude this chapter: One way to describe the common sense ap- proach to the idea of the community school is to think of the school system in the con- ventional community as a system of railroad tracks covering the entire town. It is pretty expensive to operate. Built many years ago by the people, it is probably the greatest single investment of taxpayer's funds. Everyone in the community is a stockholder in the line but, unfortunately, everyone isn't a completely interested stock- holder. Fifty per cent of the stockholders have little or no concern for the line because they either have no children, they send their children to private or parochial schools, or their children are grown up and no longer need the services of the school. Reduce the number of supporters of your line by the parents who are less than enthusiastically concerned about the welfare of their young- sters and you have narrowed the base of sup- port to a frightening minority of the taxpaying public. Too often the practice has been that when the public wanted particular auxiliary ser- vices, the schools were not in a position to offer them. Consequently, separate systems of tracks were built in the com- munity--separate tracks for recreation, for health services, for certain types of adult education, for socialization, etc. The sad result has been that schools have been forced to forego the "glamour" type activ- ities that would have increased their pub- lic support while such support has gone to lines--or tracks--that cover the same ter- ritory and reach the same people as the schools. The community school, to oversimplify, of- fers to a community the prospect of consol- idating its forces and getting more mileage -147- out of the tax dollar. Believing that the youngster is educated by the total commun— ity and that it is, therefore, the legitimate function of the school to influence the total community, the community school offers its track to all the other service agencies. Its proposition is this: rather than try to build and maintain several different tracks, all side by side, why not consolidate our efforts into building and maintaining one good solid set of tracks? Let us concentrate our ef- forts into modernizing that one, building up the roadbed, adding spurs where necessary, and--very important—-modemizing the sys- tem. Then, let us run many trains on the track instead of one. Let us build super— chiefs for basic education, for special en- richment, for recreation, for continuing edu- cation, for health services, and for all the needs and wants of the citizens of the com- munity. Our experience has been that the public sup— port of the basic school program is just about directly proportionate to the total num- ber of passengers who use the line. One corner of support comes from the passengers who ride the adult education line, another from the folks who use the health services, another from the passengers who like the Women's Club, Men's Club, Teen clubs, and other activities. In short, the more people involved, the more support. (60: 18) CHAPTER VI INTENSIPICATION AND AMPLIFICATION: 1948 - 63 The period.1948 - 1963 was characterized by two things: 1) an experiment that led to acceptance of the community school as a channel for giving by the Mott Foundation and 2) an intensification of efforts made in the first 12 years of the operation of the program in the fields of recre- ation, health, adult education and community development. The Fairview Community School Pilot Project and the acceptance of the community school program by the Mott Foundation for its philan- thropic giving have been discussed. This chapter will deal with the ex- tension of efforts and the expansion of programs in the various fields of interest up to the present day. Health: In September of 1948, Arthur L. Tuuri , the first recipient of the Mott Foundation scholarship for a pediatric residency at the Children's Health Center was hired as full-time director of the Health Center. Tuuri is a native of Negaunee, Michigan, one of a family of 13 children. He earned Phi Beta Kappa honors in his undergraduate studies at the University of Michigan and graduated first in his class from the University's medical school. Under Tuuri, significant improvements have been made in the provision of health services at the Children' s Health Center. Tuuri assumed -148- - 149 - teaching responsibilities in the Hurley Hospital intern—training program in 1950 and in 1953 based upon the fact that the Children's Health Center acted as an out—patient clinic, Hurley Hospital received residency accred- itation from the American Board for Pediatrics. Tuuri intensified tubercu- loSis skin—testing programs, introduced new techniques for the detection of ringworm and introduced a simplified skin test for the detection of syphilis (while administering the difficult Kahn test in one school area, Tuuri had discovered that 12 of 300 children under eight years of age were suffering from congenital syphilis). By the end of the school year 1961 , the Health Center reported for that year a total of 14, 740 patient visits. During the same period of time the in-school health program was in- tensified. Health committees of parents were organized in the various schools and by 1958, the coordinator of school health and safety, Miss Cornelia Mulder, reported that all of the height and weight measuring, vision testing, and maintenance of cumulative health records was being accom- plished by volunteer help. By 1961 , the per cent of health guarded young- sters in the school system was 61 . 3. At that time Miss Mulder reported, that were the condition for complete freedom from dental defects removed from the criteria for a "Health Guarded Child," the number of health guarded children would be close to 95 per cent. The dental division of the Health Center also expanded its services during this period. It increased the number of pedadontic scholarships to - 150 - two per year; it expanded its full-time staff to a director and two assis- tants and it expanded its para-dental staff to three hygienists. In the school year 1960-61 , the Dental Clinic had seen a total of 5,290 patients and had made 5,220 restorations; 391 cases had been completed. In 1957, the Dental Clinic was moved from adjacency to the Health Center in Hurley Hospital to newly furnished and decorated quarters in the base- ment of Stevenson Community School. The Mott Foundation underwrote the cost of the new clinic. Some indication of the respect that Mott holds for Dr. Arthur Tuuri is indicated in a diary entry made by Mott on February 15, 1955. Mott reports that he had arisen that day at 6:30 a. m. in order to attend a break- fast meeting at Northern High School in honor of Dr. and Mrs. Tuuri. Tuuri had been called to serve in the army and this party was in the nature of a farewell. Mott took to Mrs. Tuuri an orchid which he had raised in his own greenhouse. He reports: I just want to say in the diary what I said this morning--Dr. Tuuri is undoubtedly the finest head of our health operation that we have ever had or ever could get--and we certainly will not listen to anything other than plans for him to return here when he is finished with the army work. (72) Tuuri did return and in October, 1962 , a new Children's Health Cen- ter building was dedicated. The $600,000 cost of the building was do- nated by the Mott Foundation. Ordered by Mr. Mott to plan what would - 151 - be an ideal facility without regard to cost, Dr. Tuuri designed a plant that contains examining rooms, laboratories, a library, and an educa- tional auditorium that seats 300 people. In the 1961-62 school year, the clinic saw over 18,000 patients, and Dr. Tuuri reported assistance from more than 150 doctors who are members of the Genesee County Med- ical Society. (64) Ordinarily Mott responds to requests for donations outside the city of Flint with the answer that he is "rifle shooting" his money in Flint. At least one notable exception was made however. He has pledged to do- nate $5, 000 each year for five years to a medical center serving the com- munities of Negaunee and Ishpeming in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. He does this, he explains, simply as a token of his esteem for Dr. Tuuri, a native of that area. 1 Adult Education: Adult Education, education by personal initiative in maturity, is considered by some to be a new name for the oldest of American dreams, namely the betterment of one's self. Most observers call it an impera- tive in today's world. They say that today's critical, fast-developing problems must be solved by today's adults. There isn't time to wait for the kids to grow up. Adult education has always had a high value placed upon it by the Mott Foundation Program. The reader will recall that Mott said he subscribed to B. C. Kenney's statement, "The real problem facing - 152 - education today is not how to satisfy the great American dream of a col- lege degree for everyone but how to provide everyone with the opportun- ity for whatever degree of education he is capable of achieving." In a script prepared for a forthcoming motion picture on the Adult Education Program in Flint, Dr. Myrtle F. Black, Director of the Adult Education Division, said: There can be no graduation exercises for any of us--ever--only commencements. A youth at eighteen or twenty cannot possibly have crammed in enough education to last him for the rest of his life, any more than he can store up enough food and water. Today's critical problems must be studied and solved by to- day's adults. Furthermore, to educate all the children of all the people most effectively .we must, at the same time, improve the commun- ity and continue to educate all the people of all the children. (17) The Adult Education Division of the Mott Foundation Program grew from 6,888 enrollments in 1948 to 77,644 in the school year 1958-59, the last year for which accurate figures are available. (10) Dr. Black es- timates that enrollment now averages about 80,000 per year. The 1958-59 Annual Report listed 32 people described as being "Who's Who in the Adult Education Program." Many of these people carried Adult Education coor- dinating responsibilities in addition to full-time positions either with the K-12 Division of the school system or with the community college. Of the 32 , 15 were and are today full-time coordinators of adult education. Their areas of responsibility are in recreation, speech and drama, home and fam- ily living, parent education, clothing, mechanical skills, home arts, foods, - 153 - cooperative community services, arts and crafts, lectures and discussions, adult high school and special community services. Part-time coordinators were reported in the areas of communications, science, music, mechanical skills, technical skills, languages, puppetry, retailing, graduate training, drafting, electronics, and business education. In 1963 over 1, 100 different classes are offered each term, meeting in 43 different community school centers. The Foundation's budget for Adult Education alone is in excess of $300,000 annually. The program numbers approximately 8, 500 enrollments annually in various vocational- mechanical skills and business education classes. In 1961-62, 627 per- sons were enrolled in accelerated elementary level programs and 5,960 were enrolled in adult high school credit classes. The enrollment in the adult high classes in physics and chemistry is greater than that in the three pub- lic high schools combined. The program records approximately 23,000 enrollments each year in arts and crafts, hobbies, music, speech and drama, recreation skills, health and safety, physical and mental fitness, and cultural appreciation programs. There are approximately 20, 000 en- rollments annually in study opportunities in clothing, foods, home arts, and parent education. In her motion picture script, Dr. Black reports that the Adult Education Division of the Mott Foundation Program cooperates with approximately 100 other business, social, civic, and cultural organizations and individuals in identifying, studying, seeking to understand, planning - 154 - together and acting in relation to the many and complex problems of today's community and world. Concludes Dr. Black: Adult Education, then, is a vital tool in the Community School Program as it strives to improve and serve the school neighborhood, the community, local citizens and, hope- fully, to make a contribution to world peace through increased understanding among men. (17) The Interest in Higher Education: In a letter addressed to the Flint Board of Education and dated Sep- tember 17, 1953, C. S. Mott indicates that his interest in the provision of higher educational opportunity for the youth of the Flint area dates to July 22 , 1946, when Dr. Alexander Ruthven, then president of the University of Michigan, spoke at a dinner meeting in Flint and expressed the opinion that the best interest of education would be served by the establishment of University branches in large cities to relieve the pressure of increased fa- cilities at the universities, as well as to provide the opportunity for stu- dents to obtain university education in their own communities without hav- ing to leaVe home. Says Mott in the letter: We immediately expressed our endorse- ment of this idea and a local survey was made and we found that there were sev- eral thousand young folks in Genesee County who would like to take advantage of this plan as they were unable to finance the cost of living away from home while getting this higher education. On June 2, 1950, we pledged a million dol- lars for a university building in Flint, pro- vided the Flint voters would approve support -155- to the Flint Board of Education in providing facilities for education at the lower level. (68) The promise to which Mott refers in the letter was made at a 75th birth- day party held in his honor on June 1 , 1950, in the IMA auditorium in Flint. At the affair a pageant presented scenes from Mott's life and a portrait was presented to him of himself surrounded by a montage of typ- ical Foundation activities. In response to the affair, Mott read a brief statement that he had prepared. Mott included the full text of his re- marks in his diary entry of that day. Pertinent parts are now quoted: . .through the School Board's activities, Flint has been supplied with a health pro- gram for children, and recreational and ed- ucational facilities for adults as well as children, including post graduate courses through cooperation of the University of Michigan. Now comes Flint's great opportunity to ap- prove a bond issue to build more and needed educational buildings, including a couple of modern and functional elementary schools, and an improvement of Junior College. A study of Flint's social science research shows that in Genesee County there are a couple of thousand young folk who desire the elements of a college education, but because of economic conditions cannot af- ford to stand the expense of living out of their homes. It has shown the great desirability of the establishment here 1n Flint of a four-year community college or branch of the Univer— sity and I have been authorized by our -~ 156 - trustees to say that if you will approve the proposed bond issue and if such college fa- cilities can be provided, our Foundation will be delighted to contribute land and/or funds to the amount of $1 , 000,000 and it is our very great ambition that you will do this. (72) Subsequent to this agreement by the trustees to underwrite the cost of construction of a University branch building, negotiations with the University of Michigan as well as with the legislature of the state of Michigan broke down and by 1952 no progress had been made toward the establishment of a branch college in Flint. The Flint Board of Education, in the meanwhile, had made plans to proceed with modernization of the community college program, which at that time was housed in old buildings constructed in 1895 and located on the Oak Grove Campus. In view of this effort and the apparent evaporation of the branch college dream, on July 29, 1952, the C. S. Mott Foundation deeded to the Flint Board of Ed- ucation a large parcel of land (nearly 40 acres) on Court Street immediately behind Mott's personal residence, valued at $131 , 817, and offered to the Board a cash gift of $868, 183.00 to fulfill its pledge of a grant of one mil- lion dollars. The minutes of the trustees' meeting of June 26th read, in part, as follows: Mr. Mott reported that consideration was being given by the Flint School Board to the construction of new buildings toward a Junior College, and stated that plans were being worked out for an Applied Science building, to be constructed with the funds to - 157 — be provided by the Foundation's gift of $868,000, heretofore approved by the trustees. (17) During 1953, the Board of Education developed and presented to the trustees of the Foundation plans for an Applied Science building to serve the community college, the estimated cost of which would be $1,425,000 . The trustees approved the plans and pledged an additional grant of $557, 000 to cover the total cost of the building. Their approval is recorded at a meeting of the trustees on September 29, 1953, as follows: The President further reported that the Foun- dation had originally pledged $1 , 000 , 000 to the Flint School Board for the construction of Flint Junior College buildings. Of the million dollars the land and premises were taken as a valuation of $132,000 and the bal- ance of $868,000 was paid in cash to the School Board. Subsequently, when final plans and specifications were accepted, an additional grant of $557,000 was made to the Flint School Board with which to com— plete the said building in accordance with the final plans and specifications. (17) Finally, in April, 1956, the Michigan State Legislature through Public Act No. 208, appropriated $275,000 for the operation of a Univer- sity of Michigan branch at Flint. At this news, the Mott Foundation then provided the Flint Board of Education with $1 ,200, 000 with which the Board erected and furnished the Mott Memorial Building on the Court Street cam- pus for use by the University of Michigan branch. In 1958, the trustees of the Foundation appropriated to the Board of Education another $1, 000 ,000 - 158 - with which to build and furnish a library to serve the Junior College as well as the Senior College to be located on the Court Street campus. Mott wrote in his diary of the reason for the contribution of the Applied Arts and Sciences building some years later. In July of 1959, he had attended a meeting at the college concerned with working out a plan to carry on a training and retraining program fOr unemployed people. On the evening of that day, Mott wrote in his diary: It just so happens that this is the program that caused me to promote the building of our Science and Arts building. We are al- ready training graduate nurses, IBM opera- tors, stenographers, cooks, dressmakers, etc. , and today's program is calculated to go a lot further. It presents many difficul- ties, but we think something can be accom- plished which could be nation-wide. All present seemed to be enthusiastic and agreed to serve on this committee to which other important men will be added. (72) On September 20, 1954, four prominent men of the community, Michael A. Gorman, Robert T. Longway, J. E. Burroughs, and F. A. Bower organized the Flint College and Cultural Committee. This committee was organized for the purpose of raising an initial goal of $12 ,000 , 000 with which to develop a total College and Cultural Center on the Court Street campus to be subscribed by individual donations. The organization was not to accept for its first several years any contribution of less than $25,000. In 1956, the goal was raised to $15,000,000; in 1957, to $20,000,000; and - 159 - in 1960, to $25,000,000. By 1961, 18 of the 25 million dollars had been raised and the following buildings had been erected: the F. A. Bower Little Theater, the R. T. Longway Planetarium, the Enos A. and Sarah DeWaters Art Institute, the Durham Natatorium, the Durant Memorial Plaza, and the Flint City Public Library. The library had been built with tax funds. Other buildings still in the planning stage are, The Alfred P. Sloan Museum of Transportation, The James H. Whiting Auditorium, an historical museum, and a carillon. In 1963, the committee of sponsors turned over to the Board of Education the necessary funds, preliminary plans were approved, and at this writing final plans are being drawn for the James H. Whiting Auditorium. On November, 23, 1954, as part of the Fifty Millionth General Motors Automobile Celebration in Flint, the Harlow H. Curtice Community College Classroom building, built with tax funds, was dedicated at the College. During his speech at the affair Harlow Curtice announced that General Motors would contribute $3, 000, 000 toward the Flint College and Cultural Develop- ment. In the same context, Curtis said the following about Mott, as re- ported in The Flint Journal of that day: The Science and Arts Building, now nearing completion will be dedicated to Charles Stewart Mott. This very campus you owe to his generosity. The Mott Foundation has a nation-wide reputation for its accom- plishments. . .Flint is a better city in which to live as a result Of his generosity. (30) -160— The Reggnal Special Counselirgleam: It will be recalled that one of the primary purposes of the " Mott Recreation Plan" was the reduction of juvenile delinquency. It will be recalled also that the visiting teachers' efforts pointed up complicated needs of children which lead to the development of a many-faceted pro- gram through the schools. The year 1958 saw the initiation of a very specific and highly directed effort at juvenile crime reduction. In its formative stages, this effort was referred to as the Police-School Liaison Program. Later it came to be known as the Regional Special Counseling Team. In the summer of 1958 several persons, including school and police authorities, the judge of probate and the director of the Mott Foundation Program met for the purpose of designing some kind of correlated effort aimed at the reduction of juvenile crime in the city of Flint. Among sev- eral suggestions put forth was one by Captain Carl Pendell of the Flint Police Department. Pendell suggested the placement of a juvenile of- ficer of the Police Department in a Junior High School area to act as a "preventive agent and liaison person between the police and the schools , parents, and community. " (80: l) The objective was to localize the services of several agencies in order to communicate more closely with each other on juvenile problems in a given section of the city. This of- ficer would be housed in the Junior High School building and complaints - 161 - involving the actions of juveniles, whether they be reported by parents, members of the community, businessmen, or school officials, would be referred to him. The Director of the Mott Foundation offered Foundation funds to the extent of subsidizing one-half the cost of the officer's salary, auto- mobile, radio and expenses. Bryant Community Junior High School in the northern part of the city was selected for a pilot program since it was a newly opened school and was considered to be representative of the average community. Its delinquency rate, according to police figures, was equal to other similarly defined communities of the city. A sergeant from the Juvenile Division of the Police Department was assigned to Bryant School. Early in the course of the year a " Counseling Team" was organized consisting of a visiting teacher, a registered nurse, the Dean of Counseling, the Dean of Girls, the Dean of Boys, and the Community Activities Director. A procedure was developed consisting of five steps. A flow chart indicating this procedure shows that the first step involves problem identification. A child with a problem may be brought to the attention of the Regional Team by any one of a number of people, a member of the team, a teacher, a parent, someone in the com- munity or a school official. The second stepinvolves the gathering of information. In this step the team may meet as a whole or any combi- nation of the team may meet with any other persons having pertinent in- formation. The third step involves the assignment of the case to one - 162 - or more members of the team who investigate and make a recommendation regarding final action. In the fourth step one or more of the team mem— bers follow up on the problem and refer the case to appropriate community agencies. A fifth evaluative step may involve a review of the solution or a re-cycling of the problem case. A report and appraisal of the pro- gram after two years of operation outlined procedures and problems the po- lice officer might face. Some of the more pertinent and descriptive re- marks follow: The program thus far has been mostly pre- ventative application of police procedure . . .it has been necessary for the liaison officer to become adjusted to an altogether different atmosphere from that which he maintained at the Police Department. . . It is necessary for the liaison officer to as- sociate himself with the teaching profession and personnel. . .The officer will find it to be his problem to sell himself to the faculty inasmuch as he must enter the school as a perfect stranger, hoping that he and the pro- gram are accepted by the school. He will find that most of his work will be with the deans and he must use discretion as far as the manner in which he handles himself is concerned and in contacts he' may make with the students. In many cases he will find by consulting with the deans that the juvenile in question has a history in the school which is related to the case the officer is investigating. The officer's presence in the area and school day after day is felt to be a major factor in the prevention of juvenile crimes. . .He is no longer doing his investigation on his home ground and must exert every possible ~163- effort to gain the reSpect and confidence of the students, as well as retain his authori- tative position as a law enforcement officer . .He will become better acquainted with faces and trouble areas and will be in a po- sition to prevent many incidents before they occur. He will become acquainted with previous trouble makers with whom he may have come in contact the previous year while they were in elementary school. His contacts and investigations at the ele- mentary school level will aid him immensely later on when the students enter the high school and attempt to carry on their prac- tices and inflict their delinquent behavior on other students. . .He should become ac- quainted with the building directors at the various schools and assure them that he is available should they need his services. . . He should make a patrol of the elementary areas until the school is in progress in the morning, and also make patrols during the noon hour period and after school. . . It should be understood that the liaison of- ficer has no responsibility within the school as far as school policy is concerned. . .He should, however, be informed about all mat- ters which may tend to indicate that a stu- dent is a potential delinquent or may be in- fluencing others in the school. . .Respect for law enforcement agencies is built up in the minds of the young through this program and the police-school liaison officer be- comes a friend to the juveniles in the com- munity. . .A police-school liaison officer should be chosen with great care. The ability to get along in a new situation is probably the greatest necessity. . . (80: 2-8) After two years of the pilot program at Bryant Junior High School, a report indicated that, according to Police Department records, during — 164 - the two-year period in question, .863 juveniles were apprehended and booked at the Police Department who had been involved in crimes . This was for the city as a whole. The report interpolates this figure to mean that one child was involved in a crime for every 36 public school students. Com- parable figures for the Bryant area, the pilot area, showed that only one child in every 280 students enrolled at Bryant was involved in a crime. In the city as a whole, among the 863 delinquents there were 200 repeaters; in the Bryant area" there were none. In the Bryant area the liaison officer investi- gated 87 cases, questioned 170 juveniles, booked 10, warned and released 160 , contacted 129 parents. Out of this total, 14 youngsters became in- volved in a second offense; of these, according to this report, none had been previously booked and it was felt by the officials in charge that it was un— necessary to take action with them inasmuch as their second offense did not warrant court action. Crime reports for the total Bryant area showed a 133 per cent de- crease during this two—year period. These reports are defined as those coming from citizens in the community and not in any way monitored by the school or police counselor. Other figures show a 104 per cent decrease in the number of youngsters in the area "warned and released" and a 265 per cent decrease in the number of youngsters in the area who were "booked. " Based on the findings of the pilot project, the program was extended during the following three years‘until in 1963 such a counseling team and - 165 - such a police-school liaison officer serves each of the eight junior high school areas in the city. During the years 1960 and 1961 , juvenile crime in the city of Flint was reduced by 12 per cent. Commenting on this fact and associating it with the Regional Special Counseling Team, an editorial in The Flintjournal of March 14, 1962 , had these things to say: . .the success of the school-police liai- son program is borne out by the 12% decrease in juvenile delinquency over the last two years. This figure is most impressive when it is compared with the national increase Of 17% over the same period. Credit must be shared by many people work- ing in programs closely allied with the train- ing and development of youth. Expanded community recreational and athletic programs undoubtedly have played a part. The work of numerous social agencies has been im- portant. Adoption of a high school drop- out program has had an effect. Expansion of the police juvenile division cannot be overlooked. But the relatively new school-police liaison program, sponsored by the city, Mott Foun- dation and Flint Board of Education, appears to be the most important single factor in this encouraging trend. The Flint Community School concept, which calls for a director of neighborhood activ- ities in each building, has long helped pro- vide worthwhile educational and recreational programs for youth and family groups. Be- cause he is in close contact with the fam- ilies in his school area both during the day and after school hours, the community school director has been" able to iron out many indi- vidual problems before they grew into more -166- more serious neighborhood or community troubles. . .It was the belief of Captain Carl B. Pendell and Lieutenant Tom V. Waldron of the Juvenile Division that many misbehavior problems could be solved be- fore they became criminal problems if the police could work at the grass roots and learn to know and understand the problems of potential delinquents right at the neigh— borhood level. Therefore a counselor from the Police Juv- enile Division was given an office right in the school building where he could work closely with deans, social workers, school nurses, visiting teachers, community school directors and school counselors to help prevent delinquency. . .It is cheaper and more beneficial to pay for the preven- tion of juvenile delinquency than to have to pay later for picking up the pieces of a ruined life which might have been saved by understanding and direction at an early age. (37) One of the police-school liaison officers, speaking before a community group on delinquency among teenagers, was quoted in The Flintjoumal as saying: With the system of police counselors-- there's one in every junior high district now--we are in a position to keep down incorrigibles instead of sending them all to court. We try to find out what Johnny's trouble is and we can correct most of the cases right in the school. We talk to teachers and parents. We don't expect to wipe out juvenile de- linquency completely but if we can cut it down we will have done something. (31) - 167 — Contributions to Inter—Racial Relations: While the total population of the city of Flint increased eight per cent from 1940 to 1950, its Negro population increased twelve times this rate. During the decade 1950 to 1960, the total population of Flint in- creased by 20 per cent while the Negro segment increased at a rate of seven times this growth rate. In 1963, one out of every six persons in the city of Flint is Negro which is a Negro population of 17. 7 per cent. Five per cent of the residents of the city are foreign born and 14 per cent were born in the United States of foreign parentage. (76: 37) Thus we see from census tract information, that the Flint metropol- itan area contains an heterogeneous population in terms of ethnic and ra- cial composition. Early efforts by the Mott Foundation Program to effect racial and ethnic understanding can be traced generally to the stated over- all objectives of the recreation program and specifically to efforts result- ing from findings of the original six visiting teachers. One early spe— cific consequence of their findings was the hiring, in 1939, of the first Negro employee of the Flint Board of Education. Miss Lois VanZandt was hired, as a visiting teacher, with funds provided by the Mott Foun- dation. In 1944, planning began for the development of an inter-racial community center. On December 23, 1945, such a center was estab- lished in a building at 2908 St. Johns Street within two blocks of the Fair- view Community School. R. Spencer Bishop, an officer in a local bank, - 168 - donated $8, 000 with which to have the building remodeled. The city of Flint installed heating and lighting at a cost in excess of $4, 000 and sal- aries and maintenance costs were provided by the Mott Foundation. In a report presented to the Mott Foundation Coordinating Committee on March 28, 1949, the director of the center said: The Flint Inter—Racial Community Center is an organization with a clear-cut purpose. It was founded at a time when racial ten- sion in Flint had reached the riot stage. Today, nearly five years after its program began, Flint is enjoying inter-racial and inter-cultural harmony seldom realized by an industrial community of wide racial di- versity. (64) The Inter-Racial Center's program included such activities as gen- eral recreation, well baby clinic, adult education classes, homemaking classes, a branch library, referral services involving school attendance cases, racial disorders, probate court problems, Michigan's Children Aid cases, child guidance work, and anti-vandalism drives. In its fifth and final year of year of operation, its director reported that approximately 90 per cent of the 66,000 people who took part in the activities during that year were Negroes. The remaining 10 per cent were Caucasion or of Mexican stock. In 1950, the program of the Inter—Racial Center was moved to the Fairview Community School and its services coordinated with other school activities. The reason for the shift was reported as being a recognition of two facts: 1) Inter-racial understanding is neither a Negro problem nor - 169 - a Caucasion problem but an inter-raci a1 and inter—cultural problem which needs to be solved by cooperative efforts on the part of all persons and 2) The community school as conceived and practiced at Fairview School was an instrument for reaching all people, regardless of racial or ethnic background and therefore constituted a means for mutual solution of prob- lems. Said C. S. Harding Mott, Vice-President of the Foundation, re- garding the Inter-Racial Center: The Flint Inter-Racial Community Center has taught us object lessons in the mul- tiplicity of themes, theories, and attitudes about race relations, but it has also taught us that there is still much room for improve- ment. We have learned that we are facing not a Negro problem nor a white problem, but an inter-racial and inter-cultural prob- lem which must be solved by all of us. We cannot solve world affairs satisfactorily without first tackling our community prob- lems. We believe we have the best chance for doing this at the neighborhood school. (64) During the period 1953-63, eight Negro Community Activities Di- rectors were hired by the Mott Foundation Program, and by 1963, 144 of the total teaching staff in the Flint schools of l ,230 persons are Negro. In July of 1958 an NAACP committee threatened picketing of the Smith-Bridgman's Department Store in downtown Flint for alleged policies against the hiring of Negro clerks in the downtown area. On August 5, 1958, Frank Manley called together a group of people to discuss inter- racial unrest. Included in the group were representatives of the Flint - 170 - Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Flint Urban League, The United Auto Workers, two prominent Negro re- ligious organizations, and representatives from the Bell Telephone Company, Consumers Power Company, Genesee Bank, and the Flint Board of Education. As a result of its first two meetings, this group agreed that it should work toward the following goals: 1 . The development of an atmosphere of acceptance of qualified minor- ity persons on the part of personnel managers in the downtown area. 2 . The development of an inventory of trained Negro persons who would be available to apply for positions. 3. The development of a testing, interviewing and counseling program for the purpose of building the previously mentioned inventory. 4. The development of a training and re-training program for persons unemployed or employed below capacity. The group further indicated that it considered that it should always work toward accomplishing its ends in a "non-protest" manner. For a per- iod of nine months this group met at least once a month. The placement and counseling services of the Community College were made available to the group and during the nine-month period of the Committee's operation nearly 200 Negro applicants were tested, interviewed, and advised toward further training or were interviewed and placed in positions. Six quali- fied persons were placed in retail sales positions in downtown stores. Several persons were awarded scholarships for further training. Several - 171 - were encouraged to pursue additional training and many were referred to different vocational choices. In a summary report of the activities of the Committee, the NAACP representative stated that one of the most help— ful things about the testing and counseling activities of the Committee was that some of the individuals tested had discovered, for the first time, some of their unsuspected capabilities and others found themselves able to face and acknowledge inadequacies. (64) Midway in the course of. the meetings of the Committee, the Negro members drafted the following statement of purpose of their membership on the Committee: Our primary interest is to engage in con- structive, cooperative action with other members of the Committee, to the end that job opportunities for minority groups be created. It will be one of the aims of this segment of the Committee to give as- sistance through interpretation, guidance and special insights. (64) The literature of the Mott Foundation is replete with references to the fact that its programs are open to all people, of all races, all ages and all creeds. Such specific efforts at inter-racial understanding as the two mentioned herein are not considered by the officials of the Foundation to be nearly as significant as the general community school approach which states simply that the programs carried on at the neighborhood community school stress those things which all races, creeds, and ethnic groups have in common and hoping that, by association, various groups will come to an understanding that will lead to mutually beneficial discussion of community problems . -172- In testimony before the Flint Urban League Hearings on February 26, 1963, Mr. Edward Jarou, Community Activities Director at Walker Community School, said: I would like to describe a community school in a downtown area--Walker. We have a wide range of differences--Protestants, Catholics, Negroes, whites, well-to-do, poor, etc. We have a physical fitness club that is a mixed group and they enjoy doing things together.. We have a men's group in which Negro and white men sit down and express to each other their as- pirations and goals. They have found that they have a great deal in common. Our children get along together beaufifully. The makeup of our community is approxi- mately one-half Negro and one-half white. In these informal affairs Negro members of the community have become leaders. The women's group has a Negro president and a white vice-president. The men's group has a Negro president and a white vice-pres- ident; this was not intentional. We believe that the adults in this commun- ity set an example for the children. We believe that these Negro children will feel a little freer in later life to belong to inte- grated groups. (78) Contributions to Curriculum: The Mott Foundation's interest in the basic education program of the school system dates back to the Martin School experiment in 1946 and described in previous chapters are detailed accounts of contributions of special teaching personnel to the Fairview pilot community school program. -173- In the years 1950 to 1963, financial contributions by the Mott Foundation Program to the Board of Education for various experimental and enrichment instructional programs ranged between $50,000 and $200,000 annually. The list of programs, class offerings and activities is extensive. To de- tail them would take considerable space. Therefore, we shall list some of the more interesting or more unusual offerings sponsored by the Founda- tion during this period of time: 1. 2. 10. 11. 12. 13. Summer science classes. Family astronomy classes. Joint sponsorship of the annual Science Fair. The employment of a special science consultant in 1957. "Reading for Fun" classes after school, Saturdays and summers. Joint sponsorship of preschool story hours. Speed reading classes for high school students. Creative dramatic classes. Provision of funds for the experimental low-achiever project. Foreign languages classes on an after-school and Saturday basis for elementary students. Sponsorship of instruction and leadership for the Junior Symphony and Youth Symphony. Special after—school and Saturday classes in art. Piano classes . 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. - 174 - The provision of two special instrumental music instructors at the Junior and Senior high school level. Initial sponsorship of the special Talented Child Program. Effective living instruction at the Junior high school level. The Cadet-Teacher program. Provision of teacher-aides. "Economicsof Our Community" classes at the elementary level. The provision of initial equipment for the establishment of the Board of Education-operated educational radio station, WFBE. The provision of the special education wing (at a cost of $600 ,000) at Durant Elementary School. Joint sponsorship of the "Career Carnival" at which local businesses and agencies annually demonstrate career opportunities to 10 , 000 youngsters in Flint and Genesee County. Work Experience Programs at Junior and Senior high school levels for potential drop-outs. The provision of scholarships in the Field Cooperative Teacher Train- ing Program-~an attempt to increase the supply of qualified teachers. The sponsorship of numerous in-service training courses and insti- tutes for Flint teachers . Perhaps the most significant concern with basic curriculum of the school system is expressed in the Mott Foundation's sponsorship in the - 175 -— school year 1962-63 of an experimental program designed to reduce the rate of drop-outs in the high Schools of Flint. Referred to as the "Per- sonalized Curriculum Program," this experiment is based on the belief that the so-called comprehensive high school is not really comprehensive at all but that it is still academically oriented and either ignores other sub— jects and activities or relegates them to lesser importance and respecta- bility. As a consequence, it is believed, many students not suited to academic pursuits find no place to turn in a conventional high school and end their high school careers unequipped for satisfactory employment and unequipped for adjustment to society. In the fall of 1962, 600 of Flint's approximately 6,000 high school students were identified by the Pupil Personnel Department of the school system as youngsters who had previously dropped out of school or who, according to their record, would probably drop out of school before com- pletion of the requirements for graduation. Where, normally operating at a 30 to one pupil teacher ratio, these students would be taught by 15 teachers. The Mott Foundation provided 15 additional teachers for this group and thereby reduced the pupil-teacher ratio to l 5 to one. This spec- ial corps of 30 teachers, sometimes referred to as "mentors," were given special in-service training in cooperation with nearby universities and col- leges to prepare them for personalized instruction to groups of 15 of these youngsters. Considerable freedom was allowed the youngsters in their - 176 - choice of subjects and the general pattern of instruction was that of a two hour block of time with the mentor. Where appropriate, students were allowed credit for employment. Grade reports were not required. At this writing, the experiment is too new for evaluation. Infor- mal appraisals indicate that the holding power of these youngsters has been increased tremendously with a very few youngsters having dropped out of school. However, the pupil personnel director of the school sys— tem, who is responsible for this program, has indicated a need to further liberalize curriculum offerings available to the students. Plans for the second year of the experiment call for the establishment of a " skill cen- ter" where youngsters suited to it may pursue the acquisition of a market- able skill. Other plans call for the development of an apprentice-type of arrangement through which businessmen and trade people will assume training responsibility for a youngster assigned to them on a one-to-one basis, much as is done in the Big Brother Program. Other Contributions in Flint: We have thus far detailed contributions by the Mott Foundation in the period 1948-63. To complete the picture of extension and amplifica- tion of its efforts during this period the author now presents other contri- butions chronologically and in abbreviated form. mg A free fluoride treatment program for all three-year olds in the city is initiated. 1951: $10,000 on an annual basis is granted for the establishment of an alcoholism information center. - 177 - A full-time director of teenage activities is provided to the school system and a children's theater program is established. $90 , 000 is contributed for the construction of a building for the Flint Goodwill Industries . A "Big Sister" program is initiated with the salary of the director provided by the Foundation. The Pre-School Story Hour is established. Internships are established for foreign students who wish to study the Program. The Flint Olympian Games and Canusa Games are established. Beginning with some 800 initial entries in this first year, the Flint Olympian Games, a festival of athletic events involving people from age eight beyond 80 , now numbers its enrollments in excess of 5,000 . 'Some 1 ,000 finalists in the events on alternate years are invited to the city of Hamilton, Ontario, where they compete against Hamilton finalists. On alternate years, the Hamilton finalists come to Flint in about the same numbers and are housed in the homes of Flint families. At the request of state and local bureaus of social aid, special in- struction programs are provided for mothers receiving Aid to Depen- dent Children funds . A retraining program is established in cooperation with the Michigan Employment Securities Commission. A full-time coordinator of this - 178 - program counsels unemployed persons, sometimes refers them to the Employment Security Commission for aptitude testing or place- ' ment and oftentimes refers them to additional training within the adult education program. Among courses of study instituted as a result of this program are those in washing machine repair, wait— ress training, food training, domestic service, air conditioning, automatic furnace maintenance, automobile mechanics, automatic transmissions, and how to get a job. A summer Fine Arts Festival is established involving some 5, 000 youngsters in Junior Symphonies, play production, art shows, etc. Basic economics instruction is added to the Adult Education curric- ulum. Nearly 1 , 000 adults graduated from the first ten-week training course. An interest-free loan of $1,000 ,000 was made to the Board of Edu- cation in order that it might add a Science Building to the College facilities at this time rather than waiting until the necessary funds were accumulated. The Community Musician In-Residence program was established, one-half of the funds being provided by the Mott Foundation and one-half by the W. S. Ballenger Trust. The project had two aims: l) to give recognition to young performers of high professional sta— tus at the beginning of their careers and 2) to stimulate Flint music - 179 - students and the city's cultural life by providing access to such talents at no charge. The first incumbent Was Coleman Blumfield, a 28 year old concert pianist and former pupil of Horowitz. Be- sides performing to local audiences, Blumfield periodically con- ducted workshops for pupils of piano and their teachers. As nearly as can be determined such a Community Musician In-Residence pro- gram is unique in the nation. A Proggm of Workshops and Visitations: While there had always been some publicity attendant to the devel- opment of the Mott Foundation Program and there had been interested ob- servers from time to time, publicity on a fairly broad scale and attention to the program by a fairly diversified national public really commenced in 1957. During that year the Mott Foundation sponsored, in cooperation with the Michigan State Department of Public Instruction, the first State-wide Com- munity Education Workshop. The workshop was designed to give teams of observers from other communities in Michigan an opportunity to observe the operation of the community school program. One hundred thirty-five people representing 35 Michigan communities were in attendance at the first three- day workshop, held February 28, March 1 and 2 . Says the 1957 report on visitors to the Flint COmmunity School System: All of the visitors were introduced to the philosophy of the Mott Foundation Com- munity School Program. Most of them were taken on carefully guided tours of -180- the program and facilities in groups of four or five. They were entertained at break- fasts and luncheons put on for them by cit- izens in the various community school areas. This gave the guests an opportunity to ask questions of and hear about the program di- rectly from the peOple participating. Co- ordinators, principals, and building direc- tors were called upon frequently to act as guides for groups of four or five visitors. (1 1: l) The summary of visitors for 1957 indicates that a total of 826 dif- ferent people came to the city to study and observe the program. They came from 10 different foreign nations, 17 different states of the Union, and 88 different communities in the state of Michigan. The report goes on to say that, included in the list of visitors for that year, were two mem- bers of President Eisenhower's Cabinet, several college presidents and vice-presidents, several distinguished deans and professors from 12 dif- ferent universities and school superintendents of systems as large as Detroit and as small as Cassopolis. At the end of the report are listed comments by many distinguished visitors. Said Dr. John H. Hannah, President of Michigan State University: The things that have been accomplished here are simply miraculous. This program has accomplished wonders in bringing the resi- dents together to work for the common good. I feel that it will have a tremendous impact throughout this state and the rest of the country. (11: 9) Another distinguished visitor, Dr. Paul Hanna, of Stanford University is quoted in the report as saying: - 181 - . . .there is no doubt in my mind that what is developing in Flint will have permanent and positive effects on your city and through your demonstration you will help other cities to make their neighborhood schools more dy- namic institutions. (11: 10) Other complimentary remarks are included from Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy; Dean Francis Keppel of the Harvard University Graduate School of Education; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Clare Taylor; Detroit Superintendent of Schools Samuel Brownell and Michigan State Uni- versity Distinguished Visiting Professor Ernest O. Melby. The 1958 report of visitors indicates an increase in their numbers to nearly 4,000, representing nearly "every state in the union, including Alaska" and 199 different communities from the state of Michigan. Dur- ing that year, according to the report, the second and third state-wide workshops in community education were staged in Flint. A series of Sci- ence workshops were held and the first State-wide Community School Health Workshop was staged in Flint. Articles describing the Flint program were reported to have appeared in The Nation' @0015, The Saturday Review, and The National Education Association Journal. The report concludes with a long list of complimentary remarks from distinguished visitors. It also details action taken by various visiting communities subsequent to their observation of the Flint program. Michigan communities listed as having taken some definite action toward implementation of a similar pro— gram are: Clio, Mt. Pleasant, Detroit, Roseville, Vicksburg, Harper - 182 - Creek, Pontiac, Escanaba, White Cloud, Alpena, and Royal Oak Town- ship. (11) The 1959 report of visitors to the program counts the number of persons in excess of 4, 000 and describes the Fourth Annual State-Wide Workshop in Community Education as involving 300 Michigan people rep- resenting 53 Michigan communities. The reported highlight of 1959 was the staging, in cooperation with the American Association for Health, Phys- ical Education and Recreation, and the President's Council on Youth Fitness, the first National Community School Clinic. This three-day affair at- tracted 251 peOple from 46 different communities in 23 states of the Union. Says the report: They came from as far west as Los Angeles, as far east as Frederick, Maryland, as far south as Mexico City, and as far north as Sheboygan, Wisconsin. (11) The report lists visitors from 19 foreign nations and from 85 com- munities throughout Michigan. It mentions the publication of articles describing the Program in This Week Magazine, the National Education Association |ournal, The Reader's Digest, The Journal of Health Physical Educ—ath and Recreation, and The Journal of Educational Sociolpgy, be— sides a series of four articles written by Ray Cromley and syndicated through News Enterprise Associates News Services, appearing in 167 newspapers across the country. Again, highly complimentary remarks are listed at the end of the report from various visitors , among them, those by New York City - 183 - Superintendent of Schools John Theobald and Dan W. Schreiber, Director of the Higher Horizons Project in New York City. Said Theobald: In New York we're doing most of the same things in education you are doing in Flint. The difference is that you are getting ef- fective results. We're not. The secret, according to my observation, is that you have the cooperation and coordination of not only parents, but of all the persons, agencies, businesses and industries in the community. That's why I came to Flint-- to find out how we in New York schools can get closer to our people. I've found my answer. The people have to be made a partner. (11: 13) More than 4, 000 visitors again called on Flint in 1960. That year was highlighted by the Second National Community School Clinic, which attracted 166 persons from 45 communities in 22 states and by the Fifth Annual State-Wide Community Education Workshop which attracted 271 per- sons from 57 different Michigan communities. In that year 19 graduate and undergraduate university classes spent time in observation of the Flint program and 14 sub—committees of the Michigan Curriculum Planning Com— mittee spent time in the city. (11) The year 1961 was the year in which the Third National Community School Clinc was held. This time the program was co-sponsored by The American Association of School Administrators, The National Association of Public School Adult Educators, The American Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, and The American Association for Health , Physical - 184 - Education and Recreation. The Sixth State—Wide Community Education Workshop was held during this year and the total number of visitors ex- ceeded 5, 000 . Among those visitors who reported specific action as a result of visits to the program was Carl R. Marburger, Director of the Greater Cities Project in Detroit, Michigan. Said Marburger: Many of the things which you are doing have been carried back to us from the Fifth Workshop. To State them all specifically would be difficult, for each person brought back what he perceived; and in many cases we are using some of your techniques and ideas in our own specific relations to our community. Specifically however we have made use of these things as a result of our visit: a. We are in the process of producing schedules very similar to those which you have in all of your schools, which we thought an excellent idea. b. We are in the process of investigating the possibility of introducing the youth officer plan in the junior high schools as we saw it at one of your schools. 0. We have, all of us, picked up the con- tagion of enthusiasm which your peo- ple displayed, not only school people, but parents as well. (11: 23) In 1961 articles describing the program appeared in the Christian Science Monitor and through the facilities of The Associated Press. The visitation and workshop program expanded in 1962 to host more than 8, 000 visitors with a particularly heavy increase in the number of col— lege and university classes from nearby colleges and universities. - 185 - In 1958, in order to keep pace with the increasing demand for visits and to lighten the load such visits placed upon regular staff members, the Mott Foundation authorized the establishment of a Workshop and Visitations Department. Through the years this department has had at least one full- time employee and has usually had the part-time services of two or three additional employees. UniversityCooperation: During the period of Visitations dating from 1947, many members of the faculties of the major universities and colleges in the state of Michigan had an opportunity to observe this program in action as well as to make sig- nificant contributions of ideas and suggestions. During the school year 1960-61 , Michigan State University, The University of Michigan and Wayne State University took the initiative in establishing an Inter-University Train- ing Program for school administrators. In the spring of 1961 , this Inter- University Seminar held a concluding two-day workshop in Flint under the auspices of the Mott Foundation Program. In the summer of 1961 , a com- mittee representing Michigan State University, The University of Michigan, Wayne State University, Eastern Michigan University, Western Michigan University, Central Michigan University and Northern Michigan University requested the Mott Foundation to underwrite a series of monthly two-day seminars to be held in the city of Flint. Students selected for these sem- inars would come from the seven universities and were outstanding graduate - 186 - students in school administration. They had the Opportunity, in addition to being exposed each month to an outstanding authority from a discipline other than education, to observe the workings of the Flint Community School system. The Foundation trustees concurred and offered a grant of $15, 000 for the first year of operation. The grant was renewed for the 1962-63 school year. Among the resource people who have related the knowledge in their field of discipline to educational practice as well as to the com- munity school concept as practiced in Flint have been Ross Mooney of Ohio State University; Ethel Alpenfels of New York University; Robert Burns of the University of Chicago; Joseph A. Anderson, Vice-President of General Motors and General Manager of the AC Spark Plug Division; Donald W. MacKinnon of the University of California; Rensis Likert and Ronald Lippitt of the University of Michigan; Robert F. Steadman of the U. S. Department of Defense; Ralph W. Tyler of Stanford University; William Wattenburg of Wayne State University; William W. Farquhar of Michigan State University; Judge Mary Conway Kohler, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the National Committee on the Employment of Youth; David Reisman of Harvard University; Dr. Ralph Rabinovitch of the Hawthorne Center; and William Allison Davis of the University of Chicago. In June, 1962 , in recognition of this particular contribution, repre- sentatives of the seven universities who were sponsors of the Inter-Univer- sity Seminar, presented a special tribute to Charles Stewart Mott. A plaque - 187 - states that the universities "unite in tribute to Charles Stewart Mott, pio— neer in human progress, creator of the Mott Foundation which has made Flint a laboratory for the world in community education, presented by the Michigan Committee on Inter-Institutional Cooperation for the preparation of school administrators, April 14, 1962." Said Ernest O'. Melby, mak- ing the presentation to Mr. Mott, "With this plaque, Mr. Mott, goes our love and good wishes and appreciation for everything that you have done. " Summagy: The author has presented the contributions of the Mott Foundation to the Community School Program in Flint from a budget of $6,000 in 1935 to a budget of $1 ,800,000 in 1963, and its contributions to the Community School Program from one pilot school in 1947 to 47 schools in 1963. The Foundation's interest grew from recreation in 1935 to a broad spectrum of total community services in 1963. We have seen the Foundation's inter- est grow from the community of Flint to a concern for the propagation of its ideas on a national scale. A long list of contributions of time, effort and funds on the part of many people has also been presented. What has been the result? Is this growth significant? Are there values for other communities and other foundations in the methods and the techniques herein described? Have these efforts changed the complexion of the city of Flint? Has this particular Foundation fulfilled the worthy purposes of a foundation? Are there implications here for the future of this Foundation and other foundations in other communities? These ques- tions will be treated in the chapter on Conclusions and Implications. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The preceding chapters have presented the contributions of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation toward the development of the community school program in Flint, Michigan. They have pointed out how the Foun- dation's efforts began with a recreation program centered in the schools and how the Foundation's pattern of giving evolved into the selection of the community school as the instrument for its philanthropic efforts. It remains now to assess the efforts of the Foundation through the vehicle of the com- munity school in terms of an established set of norms for foundation opera- tion as presented at the conclusion of the second chapter. .. The procedure employed will be to list again those norms by number and to present, under each individual listing, evidence of the extent to which this method of giv- ing either tends to conform or not to conform to that particular norm. 1 . Foundations should avoid palliative giving. Theyr should spend forlrevention rather than cure. Ernest O. Melby is quoted as saying, before a meeting of the Ameri— can Association of School Administrators Conference in Atlantic City, New Jersey in February, 1963, that there is only one institution in American set up to work constructively on the problems of class discrimination, unemploy- ment and cultural deprivation. That, in Melby's opinion, is the public -188- - 189 - school. All other agencies and institutions, says Melby, are inclined to be curative more than preventive. (22: 4) Education, by its very nature and definition, is preventive in char- acter. If we accept education as being the transmittal of a culture, im— plying knowledge and values, together with the provision of the tools with which to critically examine that culture, then we have some perception of education's power for prevention of the ills of mankind that result from ig- norance, intolerance and, lack of understanding. Among many of the com- munity school programs sponsored by the Mott Foundation are some notable examples of programs that are preventive in nature. The Foundation has consistently sponsored in-service training programs for teachers designed to improve their competencies. The Health Achievement program fostered within the school system is purely a preventive device. Curriculum en- richment programs sponsored by the Foundation are designed to provide youngsters, at every level of ability, the opportunity to develop new skills and new interests. The Teen Club program with a membership of 13 ,000 Flint teenagers, 85 per cent of all the teenagers in the city, consists of wholesome recreational and avocational activities centered at the school and provides opportunities for teenagers not only to identify with their peers but to accept norms of behavior as expressed by the professional and lay leaders of the club. We have seen that the Regional Counseling team ap- parently has had a singular effect on the reduction of juvenile crime rates. - 190 - The team approach multiplies the number of views of a youngster available to a member of the team. Thus, deviant behavior through counseling, can be prevented from becoming delinquent behavior. The Personalized Curriculum program, tailoring subject offerings to meet the individual needs of youth apparently has the potential for develop- ing that youngster into a productive member of the society rather than an expensive hardship on the resources and efforts of the society. The Big Brother and Big Sister programs, dealing with fatherless and motherless boys and girls on an individual basis provides these boys and girls with a model with whom they may identify and from whom they may de- rive value systems. At the present writing over 200 such girls have the counsel of a Big Sister. Over 700 fatherless boys in Flint have a Big Brother. In 1962 , the director of the Big Brother program estimated that the contacts of Big Brothers with their boys amounted to a total of 68, 000 volunteer man-hours for the year. Estimating the value of their time at $3.00 per hour and adding it to various contributions by over 300 local agencies and businesses, the director estimates the total value of the pro- gram at nearly $300, 000. The cost of the program to the Mott Foundation for the year was $50,000. It is impossible to judge how many of these 700 youngsters might have become involved in some kind of trouble had it not been for the counseling of their Big Brothers. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to assume that such ”money as was expended by the Foundation - 191 - in support of this activity was more than matched by the community and was of a preventive nature and not palliative. 2 . Foundation money should act as venture or risk capital. _Fl)_u_n_- dation funds should figo for projects or prmms for which funds would not otherwise be available. The original $6, 000 grant was risk capital provided to the Board of Education to conduct school-centered recreational programs which the Board of Education, during a depression era, did not feel it could afford. Consistently, Mott has said of the Foundation that its purpose is to allow the Board of Education to do the things that it would like to do, but norm— ally would be unable to do with tax funds. Kiger reports that The Twen- tieth Century Fund concluded that the function of philanthropy in education was to perform those educational functions which communities considered desirable but, because of their nature, were not necessary or were unsuited for state intervention. (54: 50) Consistently the Foundation has under- written, in behalf of the Board of Education, programs, projects, and facil- ities above and beyond minimum requirements for an educational program. The reader will recall contributions to the development of the Community College which were invariably accompanied by a statement from Mr. Mott to the effect that these are the kinds of facilities that the Board of Educa- tion would like to provide but would have to wait some time in order to have the funds with which to provide them. Funds provided for curriculum en- richment, for the provision of a science and math consultant, special in- strumental music instruction and an artist in—resi‘dence program are all - 192 - examples of venture or risk capital provided by the Foundation. Many programs, now a part of the total educational program and financed by the Board of Education, were initiated with risk money from the Founda- tion. Some examples of these are the visiting teacher service, adult education coordinators at the college level (over $200 , 000 cost of this program was absorbed by the Board of Education in 1957) , remedial read- ing instructors, special teachers for the academically talented and com- munity school activities directors. The salary of the first community activities director was provided by the Foundation. The salaries of the next four were underwritten by the Foundation and by the Board of Educa- tion on a 50 - 50 basis. Currently, the pattern is for the Board of Edu- cation to provide five-sixths of a director's salary and the Mott Founda- tion provides one-sixth. In commenting upon the function of Mott money as venture capital for the Board of Education, one writer says in the Mich- i_gan Education Journal: Most Boards of Education fear ‘gambling' public monies on experimental programs. By providing funds for pilot projects , the Mott Foundation has freed the Flint Board of Education from an over-cautious approach and has Opened the door to curriculum im- provements. Once the values of pilot pro- jects are accepted they are taken on as part of the regular, tax supported Board of Edu- cation program. (38: 504) " Another example of Mott _funds being used as venture capital is con- tained in an account of the Mott Foundation Coordinating Committee minutes - 193 - of june 26, 1957, in which the Board of Education is noted to have agreed to increase its share of the cost of the operation of the Children's Health Center from $20 , 000 to $50 , 000 thereby reducing the Mott Foundation's share. 3. Foundation funds are ideally effective when they serve as "seed- money. " Such spendirggncourages efforts, either financially or humaL from other sources. The concept of "seed-money" has much in common with the venture- capital concept. The fundamental difference is that while both may make an otherwise unfeasible project or program possible, seed-money acts as an additional stimulus for the contributions of funds and/ or effort from other quarters. Foundations are particularly interested in projects where- in their funds serve the purpose of seed-money since they interpret this kind of Spending as something of an assurance that they are not being pa- ternalistic. Examples of Mott Foundation funds spent through the commun- ity school program acting as seed-money are legion. Particularly dra- matic is the increased public support of the total school system during the period of years of intense application of the community school program. At the time of the Mott Foundation's initial contribution of $6,000 , the Board of Education's total budget was approximately $2 ,000 ,000. In 1963, while the Foundation is contributing $1 , 800 ,000 , the total Board of Education budget is nearly $24,000, 000 . In 1950 , for the first time in 25 years, the voters of Flint approved a two and one-half mill special building levy. In 1953, they approved a levy of five mills for building - 194 - and/ or operation for a period of ten years by a four-to-one vote. In 1957, when Flint was experiencing a recession, a majority of the voters again ap- proved of an extension of the 1950 two and one-half mill building levy for ten more years. In 1962 , by a majority of nearly 70 per cent, the voters approved a two and one-half mill one-year building levy for a new high school. Tangible evidence that the voters were thus persuaded to tax themselves for education because of the community school program is al— most impossible to establish. However, informed opinion seems to hold this to be the case. Said The Flint Ioumal in an editorial on June 4, 1953, after Flint citizens had approved the five mill levy for building and/or op- eration for a period of ten years: With funds available to the School Board through the new tax source, four to six new schools will be built and existing ones remodeled, enlarged, or facilities improved. The Mott Foundation does not yet know how many additional community- center programs will be set up, but enough are being planned in old as well as new sections so that they will be in reach of all Flint residents. What program will be offered at those stra- tegically located buildings will be determ- ined largely by requests of persons in the areas. Teenage Clubs, athletic programs for young and old, dramatics, adult educa- tion, crafts, and family events have proved popular in the Freeman, Potter, and Pierce neighborhoods . Because of overwhelming support in these areas for the tax levy, the community—cen- ter programs were seen to be one of the -195- deciding factors in Tuesday's election. Flint has been cited far and wide for its new-type schools and programs. (69) A dramatic example of the extent to which funds supporting a com- munity school program can act as seed-money is contained in a report of the extent to which parents and adults volunteer their services to the total school program. Said Leo E. Buehring in The Nation's Schools: Flint's community schools constantly are reaching out to their people, encouraging them to determine what they want for them- selves and for their children. Every op- portunity is utilized to enlist the active par- ticipation of parents and other adults. Parents can take part in community surveys, serve as representatives 0n the Community Council, or work on a wide range of com- mittees designed to promote school and com- munity improvements . Other parents are depended upon to help in most of the following activities: transport- ing children, making costumes, publishing the school paper, chaperoning parties, pro- viding furnishings for the Community Room, working with children in art or music groups , acting as consultants in curriculum building in other areas, working on the health program (including the Well Baby Clinic), maintain- ing a toy library, setting up displays, serv- ing as volunteers with the teen clubs. Usually there is someplace in the building where adults may drop in, even while classes are in session, to visit with one another and with the school staff over a cup of coffee. Businessmen often find themselves provid- ing materials and supplies for various ac- tivities. TV dealers may furnish sets and - 196 - antennas. A trucker may haul fill dirt and sand for the community playground or the baseball diamond. Men's clubs have taken on such projects as building ice-skating rinks, buying athletic supplies, and coach- ing sports. In several areas the entire community has participated in park building bees to clear wooded school property for picnic areas. (21: 38) In March of 1960, W. Fred Totten asked community school activ- ities directors to identify the different individuals who were helping in some way with the community school program. (8 5) The directors re- ported that a total of 8, 381 parents and other lay people were giving ser- vice to some phase of the community school program at that time. This was an average of about 200 assistants in each school. The report points out that there are over 200 different kinds of activities and programs in which lay peOple assist the school staff in carrying out the work of the schools. Services ranged all the way from office work and assistance with the health program to the mending of patrol boy hats. A breakdown of the figures showed that 2 , 258 different people were assisting with adult groups and clubs, 1 , 771 different people were providing direct service to the schools, 1 ,250 were assisting with youth groups and clubs, 1 , 181 were assisting with money-making activities, 894 were assisting with sports and recreation activities, 438 were assisting in general community affairs, 262 were assisting with school parties for children and 64 peOple were helping inspecific charity work to members of the community. These - 197 - figures would certainly indicate that the efforts of the community school program are not paternalistic. Other figures are available, though causal relationships are dif- ficult to establish. For example, in 1935 the Community Chest goal was $167, 000 and was not raised while in 1963, the goal was nearly $2 ,000 ,000 and was oversubscribed. Said Walter MacPeek, in Scouting Magazine, with regard to the Flint program: What is the significance for the Boy Scout Council of this operation of Community Schools? You can guess the answer. There are a total of sixty-one boy scout packs, boy scout troops, and explorer units--all sponsored by PTA's in thirty- five community schools. They serve more than 2 ,000 boys right in their own school areas . Thus in Flint more boys are given a chance to participate in scouting than would be possible without the schools being avail- able for scout meetings. (57: 5) In 1935, the Flint Girl Scouts had 717 members and in 1963, this rose to a little over 14,000. In 1935, the Boy Scouts of Genesee County numbered 4,124 and in 1963, 8, 609. In 1935, YMCA membership was 5,222 and in 1963, 7,867. 4. Foundations should avoid "scatteration"givinggg In order to be most effectiveg they should pick either siggificant social or edu- cational areas, or confine their efforts to geographic locales. It is obvious that this has been the pattern of operation for the Mott Foundation Program in selecting the city of Flint. Said C. S. Mott to a Kansg City Star reporter, "There is too much money scatter-shot around in ' - .198 - the interest of doing good. I'm dumping mine here to see if we can make a model city and show the country how to do it. " (84) In a letter that Mott is in the custom of sending to people who request grants, he says, in part: The Trustees of the Mott Foundation have selected as their job the improvement in health, recreation, and education of Flint children. Concentrating in this field, we hope to improve the younger generation here and help make Flint a model city so that this community may be able to furnish a good example of what can be accomplished. We also hope that other communities will copy our program. (The full text of the letter appears in Appendix B.) 5. Foundations should consider the hiLhJotential for effectiveness in the subsidizing of demonstration projects. As indicated in the previous excerpt from a letter by Mr. Mott, this has been one of the fundamental purposes of the Mott Foundation Program's efforts. For substantiation of the extent to which the Foun- dation has been successful in this effort, excerpts from a letter written by Dr. Paul Hanna of Stanford University after he had made an inspection of the Flint Community School Program are presented: One of the chief impressions I get here is that through the Mott Foundation you've shown that the public schools are instru- ments for directing leadership for commun- ity improvement. The school is the only instrument which completely represents all the people. The school offers permanent facilities and a permanent staff. (11) — 199 - Through initiation of a workshop and visitation program, the Foun- dation has extended a conscientious effort to draw observers to Flint and to be certain that they have every opportunity to observe the program in action. Through publications, brochures and manuals, the Foundation has sought to point out methods of operation that might be applicable in other communities. As a direct consequence of these efforts several com- munities in Michigan have emulated pertinent phases of the community school program. The Community School Committee of the Michigan As- sociation of School Administrators in 1960 published a booklet entitled "Developing Community Schools in Michigan". in which ten communities reported concrete efforts in this direction. The Dade County, Florida, school system retained the services of a Flint community school director to establish a broad community school program in the Miami metropolitan area. To date, nine community school centers operate in the Miami area, each with a full—time community school activities director. Cer- tain parts and features of the Flint program have been incorporated into the Greater Cities Project in Detroit. Walhalla, South Carolina, has initi- ated a community school program with two full-time community activities directors. The Kalamazoo Foundation of Kalamazoo, Michigan, has ap- propriated to the Kalamazoo Board of Education $200, 000 with which to in— itiate a community school program. Two community activities directors were retained by the Kalamazoo Board and sent to Flint for training and at - 200 - this writing they are initiating community programs in that city. After an extensive study of the Flint program in operation, the Winnepeg, Manitoba, Board of Education appropriated funds with which to hire three community activities directors and sent the three men to Flint for training. In 1963, Winnepeg is completing its first year of operation of the com- munity school program. Alpena, Michigan, after several observation trips to Flint, and with the support of the Besser Foundation, is making plans to initiate a community school program in that city beginning in the summer of 1963. Members of the Board of Education and other civic lead- ers from the city of Canton, Ohio, made two extended observation trips to the city of Flint and subsequently hired a community activities director for one pilot school. That program is completing its first year of operation. 6. Foundations should try to avoid emulation of the function of early large foundations. They should take care to avoid subsidizgrg research that may be adequately carried on by gLovernment agencies. Waldemar Nielsen, in support of the proposition that foundations should avoid competition in fields of research that may be undertaken more suitably by government agencies, says: But in general in a comparison of the quality and creativity of government and foundation programs, government comes off very well. The Manhattan project, the Vannevar Bush Office of Scientific Research and Develop- ment, the Office of Naval Research, the Beltsville Research Center of the Department of Agriculture, the National Institutes of Health, Project Mercury--these and many others have been brilliant achievements by any standard. (71: 93) - 201 - The Mott Foundation Program has been characterized as an action program and sometimes as an action-research program. One is obligated to conclude, however, that there has been a failing in its operation in the matter of quantitative studies to accompany the action projects. In its eagerness to avoid becoming a research organization the Foundation has probably leaned too far toward action projects to the neglect of meaning- ful studies designed to measure the effectiveness of projects undertaken. In many cases, it is difficult to establish cause and effect relationships. Mott Foundation officials have been inclined to point to results and at- tribute causal relationships where they very well may exist but they are not supported by research. A further discussion of this weakness, to- gether with some speculation concerning the future of this particular Foun- dation, follows in the section of this chapter devoted to a discussion of implications of this study. 7. Foundations should evaluate carefully projects of a highly esoteric, but often (niestionably utilitarian value. The observer would have considerable difficulty uncovering any pro- ject undertaken by the Mott Foundation in its 28 years of operation that is esoteric in nature in any way. Perhaps the closest thing to it was spon- sorship of a "beauty culture" course of study for girls at a junior high school. Even then, it was esoteric only in title, since the project was designed to attract young girls into a fundamental personal hygiene program and the eso- teric title was used only for purposes of attraction. It is interesting that - 202 - Robert Lewis Shayon, writing in The Saturday Review mentions this partic- ular course of study and the criticism that was made of it by the Chancellor of the University of Chicago, Robert M. Hutchins, as an example of mis- understanding that exists between practitioners and theorists in the field of education. Says Shayon: The following anecdote illustrates the unfor- tunate communications gap which often exists between brilliant educational captains and on-the-line practitioners. A public school several years ago introduced a course in beauty culture for girls. One of the na- tion's leading university presidents read about it and at once sounded off in print in biting rhetoric. What the prexy didn't know (because he never bothered to inquire) was that the girls came from homes where regular bathing was not exactly a ritual. The problem was, primitively, to clean up their bodies before tackling their minds. (82: 16) Some measure of the practicability of the total Mott Foundation ef- fort in Flint is indicated in cost figures presented. While the Founda- tion underwrites a very extensive health program, highly experimental ed- ucation projects and sustains the cost of offering workshops to members of other communities for observation of the demonstration project, its net con- tribution to the operation of the total community school program in Flint has never exceeded'eight per cent of the total school budget. In a syndicated feature entitled "Can Your Community Do It? " , written by Ray Cromley of News Enterprise Associates, Frank Manley is quoted as saying that the - 203 - the Community School Program could be established in any other commun- ity in two different ways: (1) Raise school taxes slightly. (2) Convince one or two or a half dozen wealthy persons in the community that this would be a fine way for them to contribute. (2 7) Cromley, in the same place, goes on to say himself: And a community needn't be rich to carry out the program. The gross average fam- ily income in Flint in good times is $5500 but Flint is an automotive city and right now about every one in every nine eligible workers are without jobs. School tax rate is $16.85 per each $1,000 of assessed valuation, and real estate is assessed at about 60% of its market value. This means the owner of a $17,000 house pays about $168. 50 in school taxes a year. If the Mott Foundation wasn't putting a mil- lion dollars into the program it would cost the same taxpayer about $183. 50 a year. The average taxpayer now pays about 24¢ a day for the school, after school and com- munity projects. Without Mott money it would cost 26¢ a day. (2 7) Based on the current assessed valuation of the city of Flint, the total Mott Foundation contribution to the school system, $1 , 800,000 in 1963, could be supported by an additional tax of two mills. Flint tax- payers are now paying 19 mills for education. This means, should the Foundation withdraw completely, the tax would have to be increased to - 204 - 21 mills. It should be borne in mind, however, that some of the more expensive phases of the Foundation, for example, experimental adult ed- ucation programs and the Health Center may not be necessarily a part of the normal community school program. 8. Foundations should avoid slavish imitation of other foundations. This very act defeats the purpose of a foundatiorh i. e. , to pper- ate on the periphery of knowledge, experimenting where others dare not go . It has been pointed out earlier in this study that, according to in- formation available, the Mott Foundation is the only Foundation in the United States that has chosen the instrument of the community school as its chief vehicle for philanthropic spending. Mott has said upon occa- sion that when the Foundation undertakes projects designed to upgrade the common person, projects designed to do something for people at a grass roots level, programs for youngsters who have dropped out of high school and unemployed workers, the Foundation has no competition. He has said, "I'm not red hot on higher education. There are enough foundations looking for geniuses. We're interested in everyday people and everyday living. " In an interview, Mott said: My work here in our Foundation is not the de- velopment of geniuses. It is to help the or- dinary man and woman and child--upgrading and uplifting the people of Flint in any way we can help them. A lot of them can be benefited and do better at earning their living if we can help them solve some of their problems. They know best what they want to be taught, and we can give them that. (67) -205- 9 . Foundations should conscientiously avoid stagnation within their own ranks . As pointed out earlier in this study the Mott Foundation has been characterized by a concern for in-service training of its personnel as well as by the creation of an atmosphere conducive to creativity. Personnel shifts are frequent. Personnel are encouraged to go ahead on their own. New ideas are welcomed. Such a thing as an organization chart for the Mott Foundation Program, while literally existing, virtually does not exist. Communication is informal and crosses levels of administration. Many times an employee with a germ of an idea develops the idea into a program with the encouragement of the officials of the Foundation. Some examples of programs thus developed are the Big Sister program, the Stepping Stones program, the Pre-School Story Hour, Parent Education Services, the Olym- pian Games, Basic Economics Instruction, and a Liecture-Discussion series. One report lists 86 program innovations that took place in the Foundation in one three-year period. A Flint murnal article in December, 1952 , was headlined, "Tradition is Change for Mott Foundation." The article re- ported a talk by Manley to the staff of the Foundation in which he made the pledge that the Foundation would never become "hidebound by tradition, " and that the sights of the Foundation were reset constantly. In the article Manley is quoted as saying: Everything the program is doing or has done is the result of a specific thing that needed to be done. If any organization in Flint can take over what we are doing, we'll get right out of it and put our efforts to new tasks. There are plenty of them. (86: 18) -206- 10. Foundations should strive to be imaginative, inventive, and util- itarian. The Mott Foundation has been primarily responsible for what is probably the most concentrated application of the community school con- cept that has ever taken place. It has "invented" the position of Com— munity School Activities Director. It has sought out ways and means and has been willing to finance experimental projects in nearly every con- ceivable phase of community activity. While at times it has initiated projects without the most ideal pre-planning, nevertheless, it has had the courage to go ahead and " do something." For the most part, it has been concerned with the fundamental, very practical and basic needs of people. It has devised ways and means for those people to help themselves. The program must credit such imagination and inventiveness as it has displayed to the strong reliance it has placed upon the advice of literally hundreds of people upon whom it has called for advice and consultation. This we evaluate under the next and final normative statement. 11 . Foundations should seek the advice and counsel of as many persons as possible. They should publicize quy what they are doi_ngi and th_ey should welcome criticism. Early in this study note was made of the fact that at the beginning of the second year of operation of the recreation plan, The Flintlournal reported that the program to take place at the various centers would not be imposed from above but would be tailored to the expressed wishes and desires of the particular community. (7) This method of operation has remained funda- mental through the entire development of the program. In 1947, a Mott - 207 - Foundation Coordinating Committee was instituted. Its membership con- sisted of three members of the Board of Education, three citizens selected from the community at large, and three ex-officio officers of the school administrative staff. The Coordinating Committee minutes of March 29, 1954, list the names of members of community councils in 12 schools then operating as community centers. An accurate count of the total number of people who have served on various advisory committees, community councils, ad hoc committees, and in advisory capacities in one way or an- other to the program of the Mott Foundation would be impossible. The number would be in the thousands. A report of the Coordinating Committee on July 16, 1958, says, in part: We have tried to involve all the people by surveying those in each elementary com- munity district to find out their needs and wants. Then, through enlisting key peo- ple and other community resources, we have tried to help them figure out ways of accomplishing their objectives. Some of the programs which have developed by this process are as follows: The recreation, athletic, playground, and tot lot programs all grew out of suggestions from people all over Flint. The Adult Education Division with all its ramifications come from par- ticipants themselves. The needs for the health service and health education pro- grams were discovered by this same method. Teenage Clubs came through popular demand by teachers, parents , and teenagers them- selves. The ideas for experimental and demonstration programs in education came from parents, teachers and children. Some -208- examples of these are programs for talented children, for slow learners, in science and mathematics, in enrichment classes and the humanities, in crafts, in visual aids, and in acceleration of in-service training for the entire staff. (64) Typical of this method of operation is an account in the Mott Pro- gram Coordinating Committee minutes of March 7, 1956, in which the chair- man reports that he and Mr. Manley had talked to Mr. Mott about the pro- vision of the special education facility and that Mr. Mott had reacted favorably and that a committee would be formed to assess the needs. The minutes record Frank Manley as saying: A preliminary study has been made listing all agencies in Flint and Genesee County who work with physically handicapped peo- ple. Representatives of these groups will be drawn into planning sessions in order to get their ideas and recommendations. (64) John Dewey said that the school itself must be organized as a com- munity and that the school has a corporate life of its own and that it is it- self a genuine social institution. He said: When the school introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing him with the instruments of effective self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best guarantee of a larger society which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious. (34: 15) Since we know that so much of learning takes place by imitation, how better to achieve Dewey's aims than to have adults and parents partic- ipating in and being a part of the school community. No language is more - 209 - persuasive than the example of behavior. Parents who go to school and become part of the school set a pattern for their children. Implications: Three Essences of the Mott Foundation Pr_ggram: What has been created in Flint by the Mott Foundation Program comes very close to satisfying a set of norms for operations of foundations but the substance of the creation is not so important. What is important. rather, is the process of the creating and the shape of the struggle. Vis- itors are inclined to universalize their thought about Flint by wishing they had the same men as Mott and Manley and the same money. Persons closest to the program are apprehensive of its future when the imagination of Mott and the tenacity of Manley will no longer be omnipresent in the activities of the program. Yet there are essences to be distilled from the philosophies held jointly by these men and from the methods these beliefs have led them to employ. The first and foremost essence is a deep and abiding belief in the worth of people and a conviction that every man has something to contrib- ute, that every man deserves to be listened to, that every man is capable of becoming more than he is, that in each man there is a compelling desire to do well by his fellow men and that it is the duty of every man to do his utmost to bring out the best in every other man. This essence implies a senstitivity to the wants, wishes, desires and aspirations of other people. - 210 - It requires dedication, devotion, self-energizing enthusiasm, buoyancy of spirit, and an ideo—religious attitude. The second essence is a freedom of operation. This is the great advantage of foundation or private funds. They must be free to go quickly to the place where they will do the mostgood. Foundation employees must be free to act quickly and even sometimes impulsively to take advan- tage of the opportunity of the moment. The most amateur observer of the successes of the Mott Foundation Program would be led to conclude that these successes are dependent upon the enthusiasm, the loyalty, the tire- less and energetic devotion of the Mott Foundation employees. It is vital to any such operation that such persons have placed in them the kind of trust that allows them freedom of action. Herein lies perhaps the great- est potential danger to the expansion of the relationship that exists between the Mott Foundation and the Flint Board of Education as well as the greatest potential danger that exists or would exist for any foundation entering into such a partnership. Boards of Education and school systems are by na— ture somewhat conservative. Since they deal with tax funds, they right- fully feel obligated to exercise careful control over those funds. Particu- larly in larger school systems, those located in urban areas where the prob- lems are the greatest, there is a tendency for the system of administration to become highly bureaucratized. Under such conditions, controls exer- cised through procedural processes are apt to thwart initiative and to dis— courage experimentation. In commenting upon the necessity for freedom - 211 - of action by foundations in relation with public education, the American Association of School Administrators' Committee on Foundations said: Once the area to be studied has been clearly defined by those charged with conducting the study in question, the staff should be given the freedom to carry on without con- stant and close supervision of the chief ad- mini strator. Freedom of operation within the legitimate sc0pe of the problem will likely generate the greatest amount of staff initiative and originality. These are to be cultivated at all cost. (77: 41) Yet, foundation employees within a school system, if extended the kind of freedom necessary to accomplish their ends, may be resented by other employees who do not enjoy such freedom. _ The firm of 3002, Allen, and Hamilton, in a survey of the educational practices of the Flint school system, pointed out that Mott Foundation—associated employees were some— times considered by others to be in a "half-in, half-out" kind of relation- ship with the school system. Regrettable as this may be, such a relation- ship is virtually necessary because of the very nature of the Foundation's work. Perhaps ideal would be the kind of a situation in which officials of the school system as well as of the cooperating foundation, both held val— ues that allowed for permisSiveness on the part of the professionals oper- ating the program. In any case, the successful collaboration by a Board of Education and a private foundation in a program such as the one described in this study is vital to the success of the enterprise. The school system - 212 - must not impose unreasonable procedural demands upon the foundation if the foundation is to make a genuine contribution to the advancement of the community's people intellectually, socially, and culturally. A third essence of the creative process that is described in this study and that has resulted in the program as it exists today, is the ex- tensive counsel made of the people involved and participating in the pro- gram itself. It is not possible for a school administration or a founda- tion official to have the insight to know what people want and what people need. Furthermore, people themselves do not know what is best for them. They must be given the opportunity to explore, to "try out their wings," to feel around, to begin to realize their own capacities. When they are con- sulted they should be listened to carefully. A partnership must be formed with people in the enterprise of self-help. These are three essences of the program under study. If there were such a thing as a summary statement of the three, it would be a state- ment that included the idea of dedicated people working in a free atmos- phere attentive and responsive to the wishes of all persons regardless of station, ability, rank, color or creed. Future of the C. S. Mott Foundation: The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation has had a two—fold purpose: 1) Through the instrument of the community school to develop the human and material resources of the community to such an extent that it develops itself into a model community and 2) To provide this model as a laboratory - 213 - for educational and social innovation. The extent to which the first pur- pose has been fulfilled has been evaluated insofar as is possible in this study. The fact that empirical data are not available in sufficient quan- tity to evaluate the realization of the first objective fully indicates a direc- tion for the future with respect to the second objective. If the Flint Community School System is truly to serve as a labora— tory it must be prepared to synthesize the fundamental nature of its opera- tion. It has arrived at a certain point. Now it must be able to state why it is at that point and what educational and sociological phenomena have occurred. Not only is this a necessity for perpetuation of the idea in Flint but it could be an highly worthwhile contribution to other interested communities. Listed now are a number of propositions, either implied or explicitly stated, the quantitative substantiation of which could be of con- siderable significance. 1 . Studies by Katz and Lazersfeld present evidence that in each com- munity certain opinion leaders exist, that these Opinion leaders influence the Opinions Of their peers, and that these leaders are generally characterized as the more gregarious members of the com- munity. (52) They associate with more secondary groups and are inclined to be those people who attend the most events, the most classes and the most meetings. There is the possibility that those people participating in the community school program are, for the — 214 — most part, such opinion leaders among their peer groups. Should this be so, some quantitative measure of it should be possible. If such persons were shown to have favorable attitudes toward the schools, then the hypothesis that the community school program develops attitudes favorable to the school that are expressed in affirmative votes for tax levies could be in some degree validated. There is the possibility that groups that meet in the community school as clubs or in adult education classes, largely secondary in nature, may Often tend to become much more primary in nature. There is some evidence that class members Often continue to meet as a club. If an empirical investigation should establish some tendency in this direction, such establishment would say some- thing significant about the development Of such a community. There is the speculation that once adults make their initial entry into adult education activities through such purely recreational programs as cake decorating, fly tying, bait casting, etc. , they lose built-in fears about schooling and education, subsequently proceeding to courses of study of a higher nature in terms Of edu- cation and culture. Some verification Of this hypothesis would be valuable to adult education practitioners in any community. A very worthwhile study could be made by isolating, for study pur- poses, one community school neighborhood. At a given time, - 215 - measurements could be made Of the amount of tax money going into that community in the form of unemployment benefits , aid to depen- dent children payments, police costs, internment costs and welfare relief. The community school program could then be introduced in- to the area and records kept of unemployed persons retrained by the school to become employable, reductions in police calls, decrease in the number Of criminal internments, etc. Evidence thus obtained could possibly point to the economy Of preventive measures prac- ticed within a community school program. There has been speculation that in a middle sociO-economic class neighborhood, only the more civic-minded people are attracted into the community program, and the less-advantaged members of the community, because Of lack of social ease, avoid the Offerings of the school. This can be expressed in the aphorism " The drunks don't come to the temperance meetings." A definition of such less-advantaged persons could be developed, possibly based upon welfare rolls and/or police records and interviews of such persons to determine their rate Of participation in community activities could be made. Serious questions have been raised about the net result of the ex- tensive participation by people in the total community school pro- gram. Critics have suggested that it is just one grand, fine - 216 - recreational program, but that communities are no closer as a re- sult Of it, nO more cohesive, no more cooperative, and hence es- sentially no different in nature. Besides the difficulty of estab— lishing causal relationships , there is the difficulty in defining what is a good community. Yet it is possible that instruments could be contrived and methods devised for establishing the change in nature Of a community. The Personalized Curriculum Program has tended to hold youngsters in school, at least at this juncture. Among the group Of young- sters described as the "hard core" however, there have been marked discrepancies in the holding power of individual teachers. One teacher, for example, after six months of Operation has kept all 15 of his pupils while another has lost 13 Of the 15. A follow-up study with the 15 and with the 13 may reveal significantly different teacher approaches . An attitudinal survey of students in adult education classes would be valuable. Such a survey could establish answers to such questions as: Does participation in a class at the school change an adult's attitude toward the total school system? Does an adult participating in such a class relate a pleasant experience to the sponsoring Mott Foundation or to the total school system? If an adult has an unpleasant experience in the class, does this affect his attitude toward either Of these organizations? - 217 - 9. A worthwhile study could direct itself to the question: Does the community school help create a set Of common values which con- tribute to the intellectual and spiritual health of the community? TO what extent is there a set of common values prior to the initia- tion Of a community school program and after a community school program has operated for some time? In other words , can a com- munity school program build a community? Quantitative studies of these implied and explicit propositions con— cerning the fundamental nature of the community school program could make a significant contribution toward a needed fuller definition of the essential nature of such a program and validation of suspected but not completely substantiated universal values therein. The Future Role of Foundations: We have seen that there is a changing role for foundations. Foun- dations no longer have a monopoly on research. Government agencies are sometimes much more adequately prepared and equipped to carry on the kind of research that once was the exclusive purview of the foundation. To an extent foundations have floundered about seeking the role they might play in being effective instigators Of social change. An increasing number of critics contend that the prime characteristic Of foundations is not their ex- tremism but their orthodoxy and that far from being radical, they are mostly -218- simply unadventurous. The executive director of the Chicago Trust, James Brown, in discussing what foundations must do in the future, has said: One point is clear, philanthropy must in- crease its effectiveness if it hopes to ex- plore the vast array of critical problems which cry out for support in the public af- fairs field. Although progress has been made by foundations in public affairs, the surface has barely been scratched. We have scarcely looked into the problem of developing leadership in a democracy; of bridging the gap between our intellectual life and our political life; of evolving new career channels to attract outstanding peo- ple into public service; of developing for young people the kind Of education and other experiences which will leade them, in the words of Cecil Rhodes, 'to esteem the performance of public duties in their highest aim'; of lifting the horizons of children in the slum areas Of our city; of rejuvenating areas Of chronic unemploy- ment and poverty, or of intelligently con- serving our resources both urban and rural. (20: 9) IncreaSingly, critics and judges of foundation efforts are critical Of the tendency for foundations to avoid controversial issues. Says Nielsen: In seeking more fruitful lines of action, foun— dations might begin by giving consideration to. . .projects relating to controversial issues, such as race relations, corruption in state and local government, the role Of the military in national policy, and the performance of the press and TV. . .There is an additional and - 219 - even more basic reason why the foundations should check their retreat from the contro- versial--perhaps their central role is to help bring about intelligent adaptation of our in- stitutions and policies to changing condi- tions--and areas of controversy Often mark points where change and strain in our soci- ety are greatest. (71: 94) Homer C. Wadsworth, Executive Director of the Kansas City As- sociation of Trusts and Foundations asks if there is a distinctive role that a foundation can play in community affairs that would not otherwise be performed by a social service agency, a unit of government, a college or a university. Wadsworth points out that the total contributions of the Kansas City Association Of Trusts and Foundations , approximately $450,000 a year, is an amount less than one per cent of the total commun- ity bill for health and welfare agencies and he speculates that general dis— tribution of foundation funds to legitimate charities and educational insti- tutions, while hardly Objectionable, certainly makes the readily apparent point that the amounts of money involved are of minor importance in the aggregate. Wadsworth asks how a community foundation may best serve the total interest of the community and all of its people, rather than spec- ial segments. He answers: This appears to me possible only as we con- struct appropriate ways of assessing our to— tal community condition, its facilities for human services of all kinds and the persons engaged in providing these services--as a basis for determining the particular kinds of things peculiarly suited to support for varying - 220 - time periods. This is to regard founda- tion funds as essentially venture capital, and with the general charge to use such money in ways quite comparable to the function of risk capital in business and industry. (88: 2) Many American communities are caught in a web of difficulties aris- ing from a more rapid rate of cultural change than in any previous period in history. Ther is a natural reluctance on the part of established institu- tions to make the adjustments necessary to cope with the changing condi- tions. There is a natural inertia in human affairs that tends to perserve both the desirable and the undesirable, the sound and the unsound, in pol- icy and practice. The structure Of social services in the average commun- ity has been built in layers over the years with each generation adding its own in response to new knowledge, new techniques, or new desires without giving much thought to the effect such additional layers will have on exist- ing agencies. Often the resultsare all too apparent. A rather disorderly array of services largely uncoordinated, ranging in quality from very good to very poor and sometimes with very little communication. Certainly in this area, foundations could have much to contribute. Where community foundations in particular could become interested in the community school program as practiced in Flint, there is the possibility that they could undergird and support financially the one agency in the com- munity with the potential for bringing together the resources and the prob- lems of the community, viz. , the school. Surely, no foundation could be - 221 - criticized for partiality, for having a particular political axe to grind, nor of favoritism, by supporting the public schools. The experience in Flint indicates that a little money can go a long way through this medium. It is an unhappy fact that in most communities, most service agencies and educational systems have great difficulty in finding free money. That is, funds not obligated by the terms of legislative action or budgeted on the basis of past experience. Consequently, relatively limited foundation funds applied through a system common to all Of the agencies--the school system--can serve the purposeof encouraging new thought, experimental activity and the development of a sensitivity to changing conditions. Since a sound foundation grant is One that does not contribute to duplicatory over- head expenses, the public school system offers the possibility for genuinely effective and creative grants. Another area in which foundations have a potential for great good is created by the fact that very Often no suitable connection exists between the scholars Of our society and those who minister to its ills. Universi- ties and colleges are possessive of the things they have learned about the way people behave. Their knowledge, acquired at great expense .and great effort Often stays within their own ivy-covered walls. In the mean- time, practitioners within communities either go about doing things in the same way they did them 20 years ago or, sometimes, lacking proper knowl- edge, they even contribute to the perpetuation of existing poor conditions. - 222 - Here, foundations with very modest financial outlay can help'to construct a bridge between the intellectual resources Of the university or college and the fundamental human need in the community. It is Obvious that foundations are going to be unable, in a vastly expanding and complex society, to make contributions on broad scales. Inevitably, they will have to seek pivotal points within our society where small grants of funds may serve the purpose of seed-money, bringing to- gether a vast nation's dire needs and immense material resources. For the most part, these needs and resources exist in microcosm within America's cities. We have established within this study that the contributions Of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation have been instrumental in the devel- opment of the Flint Community School Program and that this effort has con- stituted a demonstration Of how a foundation, by such contributions, may comply with the best accepted principles of philanthropy. Therefore, it would seem reasonable to assume that foundations would do well to look to the community school as an instrument for bridging the gap between needs and resources within a given community. 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Hom.Nes.m w mmm.m~ w oom.~m~.flw . mvmqmwa.~ w}, mm-mmma BOOB OH $02 Open co acomm “cumin—JOE Ocumcom cam mZOm x3. .88”. so 280 ha ESE 4mm -mecsoa 502 as. 98m saw so ss< sum .54qu 7E ZOEflODDm ZO H.255 HZDO§< $3.09 EH3 BmOQDm ZOERQZDOm H.502 m0 ZOmEmEOD < 502 manna -224-— omm.ammiw m.m swm.smo+m~ smuraom.s veo.mmm.afl om-mmmH mm.m mmmamemiso meo+fimm mem.mmm.m omm.maaimm mmummms mm.m meo.msm+wfl mmH.Heo.H mmmiomm.m Hom.mmH.HH mm-smms m.e Hesrdmo.ss mes.vmm mmo.m-+w, kmm+oom.m smromms H.o moH.Nem.mH esm.mem mmm.omo+e Hmm.asm.w mm-mmms m.v ommrmsm+wfi mms.~mm memwmqw.e vmm.mmo.s mm-emmH m.e smm.me~.HH mmm.mse NoH.m~m.m Nom.oem.m em-mmm~ N.v mflm.mm~.m mmktmem mmmrmmm.m emotwemre mm-~mms m.m msm.~om.s msm+oom mom.oms.m www.mamrv mm-HmmH s.m ems.om~.s mmmwosw omm.ssw+m HHm.HHo.m .irwmuommfi m.m ove.mfim.m mmmrmmm sem.ofio.m swarmsm.m om-memH N.e www.memrw, mmH.mNN omm.mom+~ omm.ma~.m me-mem~ N.v omm.sem.e mms.mo~ www.mvstm msmawwm.a we-semH m.e smm.mme.e m eomwwmm w coaromm.fim mmmrwmm.m m se-mem~ 1, 682282 a fiozfimm -225- mos ”0.8.25.3 @232; Rimmed 03.8012 8-82 ms smméorla 893$; mmm.som.m marmmmwfl SLASH ms E5213 218R; gassed” Swimming $-82 Aconcwpcoov < XHQmemd‘ -226- APPENDD( B CHARLES STEWART MOTT FOUNDATION 500 Mott Foundation Building Flint 3, Michigan In reading reports received from many Foundations, we find that they are engaged in a wide variety of meritorious projects which are most interesting to the Founders and Trustees of these Foundations. It is for- tunate that the interests of Trustees run in various directions, instead of all working on a single project. The Trustees of the Mott Foundation have selected as their job - Improvement in Health, Recreation, and Education of Flint children. Con- centrating in this field, we hope to improve the younger generation here and help make Flint a Model City, so that this community may be able to furnish a good example of what can be accomplished. We also hope that other communities will copy our program. We are not enthusiastic in spending our funds for bricks and mor- tar, but would rather put the expense into improving the lives of our chil- dren. We believe we have been wise in selecting Flint Board of Educa- tion as principal agency through which we operate; they already have the physical facilities, personnel, buildings, etc. , in which the Program may be carried on, and they also have the contact with the children. While the above is our main Object, we do not preclude ourselves from joining in other projects which have for their object general improve- ment of life in Flint, but we cannot scatter our resources and efforts in supporting activities outside of Flint, however meritorious these outside activities may be. EVERYBODY IN A COMMUNITY BENEFITS - WHEN School Facilities (after hours) are made available for Educa- tion, Training, and Recreation to all who desire to participate. -227- WHEN boys and girls find wholesome Outlets for their energies in Youth Centers, Clubs and Summer Camps. WHEN community Health is guarded and improved. WHEN family life is steadied and strengthened. WHEN youth guidance and counselling is made constructively or acceptably available. You don't start being a good citizen at 21 ! CHARLES STEWART MOTT FOUNDATION BY -- undated letter by C. S. Mott BIBLIOGRAPHY 10. 11. 12. BIBLIOGRAPHY Andrews, F. Emerson. " Higher Education and Foundation Sup- port. " Keynote address before the Foundation Relations Workshop of the American College Public Relations Asso- ciation, November 12-13, 1962. ' Andrews, F. Emerson. "New Uses for Seed Money." Proceed- ings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the National Council on Community Foundations, Hartford, Connecticut, May 12- 13. 1960. Andrews, F. Emerson. Philanthrcmc Giving; Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1950. Andrews, F. Emerson. Philanthrgpic Foundations. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1956. Andrews, F. Emerson. " The Growth and Present Status of American Foundations. " Address delivered before the 1962 National Conference of the American College Public Relations Association. Andrews, F. Emerson and Walton, Ann D. (Editors). The Foun- dation Directory. Russell Sage Foundation, 1960. "Announcement Brings Cheer. " The Flint Journal. May 23, 1936. Annual Report, 1934-35. Superintendent of Schools, School District Of the City of Flint. Annual Report. The Kellogg Foundation, Battle Creek, Michigan, 1961. Annual Reports. Mott Foundation Program, 1936-1959. Annual Reports of Visitors to Flint Community School Program, 1957-62 . Flint Public Schools. Unpublished. Apm'eciations of Frederick Paul Keppel. By Some of His Friends. Columbia University Press, New York, 1951 . -228- 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. -229- "A Safe Place for Flint Children to Play." The Flint Journal, May 31 , 1935. "A Theory Pays Out: 30-1 Ratio Speeds Learning in Flint School. " Michigan Education Journal, February, 1946. "A Visit to Fairview School: The Progress Of A Pilot Plan. " The Mott Foundation Program, Flint, Michigan, 1953. Unpub- lished. Ayres, Leonard P. Seven Great Foundations. Russell Sage Foundation , New York , 1 91 l . Black, Myrtle F. "Adult Education in the Community School. " Motion Picture Script, Unpublished. The Mott Founda- tion Program, 1963. Booz, Allen and Hamilton. Survey of Educational Practices Of the Flint School System. Chicago: 1960. Brewer, Jeanne. "Choosing Prospects." A pamphlet prepared by the Development Section of the American College Public Relations Association, 1962 . Brown, James, IV. "Bricks, Budgets, and Local Research." The Foundation News, Vol. III, NO. 4, July, 1962. Buehring, Leo E. " New Pattern: Community Schools. " Nation's Schools, Vol. 61 , No. 1 , January, 1958. Campbell, Clyde M. "How Flint Learns from Others." The Communfiy School and Its Administration, Vol. 1 , NO. 6, March, 1963. The Flint Board of Education, Flint, Michigan. Cannon, Cornelia J. " Philanthropic Doubts." Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 128, September, 1921. "City Recognizes C. S. Mott's Contributions." The Flint Journal, September 27, 1939. Clancy, Peter L. and Milton Gabrielson (Editors), "A Report of the First National Community School Clinic. " The burnal Of EducationalfiSpciolggy, December, 1959, Vol. 23, NO. 4. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. -230- Clapp, Elsie Ripley. Community Schools in Action. The Viking Press, 1939. Cromley, Ray. "Can Your Community DO It? " News Enter- prise Associates News Service (Syndicated), March, 1959. "C. S. Mott, City's Benefactor, Does Much to Strengthen Civic Character." The Flint Journal, November 22 , 1954. Curti, Merle. " Creative Giving: Slogan or Reality?" Foun- dation News, Vol. 111, NO. 6, November, 1962. Curtice, Harlow H. Text of Address as quoted in The Flint [oumal, November 24, 1954. "Detective Traces Delinquency Among Teen-Agers . " The Flint [oumal, January 16, 1963. Detzer, Karl. "Flint' 5 Gone Crazy Over Culture. " Reader's Digest, March, 1959. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. Macmillan Com- pany, New York, 1916. Dewey, John. The School and Society. University Of Chicago Press, 1899. Embree, Edwin M. "Are the Foundations Doing Their Job? " Harper's Magazine, Vol. 198, March, 1949. Erdman, Doan Beynon. "The Stability Occupational Balance, etc. of the Flint Population." Unpublished Study, Sociology Department, University Of Michigan. "Expense of School-Police Counselling Teams Justified. " Editorial, The Flint oumal, March 14, 1962. First, Joan M. "The Community School Concept. " Mp Education Journal, Vol. 37 , NO. 16 , April 1, 1960. " Flint Community Schools. " A booklet published by the Flint Public Schools. "Flint Community Schools Serve the Community. " A study of build- ing load. Unpublished report by W. F. Totten, Mott Foun- dation Program, Flint, 1962. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. -231- Flint School Review, House Organ. Published by the Flint Board of Education, Flint, Michigan, December, 1951. Follett, Mary Parker. Dynamic Administration. New York: Harper Brothers, 1940. Forbes, B. C. and O. D. Foster. Automotive Giants of America. B. C. Forbes Publishing Company, New York: 1926. Ford, Robert S. and Frances H. Miner. "An Experiment in Com- munity Improvement. " No. 16 of a Series, Michigan Pamphlets” University of Michigan, 1942 . Fosdick, Raymond B. The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation. Harper Brothers and Company, New York, 1952. Guckert. E. S. Delinquency News Letter. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Juvenile Delinquency Information Service, University of Michigan, February, 1936. Hanna, Paul R. and Robert A. Naslund. "The Community School Defined." The Community School. Fifty-Second Year- book Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 11, Nelson B. Henry, Editor. University of Chicago. Press , 1953. Harrison, Shelby N. and F. Emerson Andrews. American Foun- dations for Social Welfare. Columbia University Press, New York, 1946. Hart, Joseph K. The Discovery of Intelliyfince. The Century Company, New York. 1924. Hollis, Ernest V. "Evolution of the Philanthropic Foundation." Educational Record, Vol. 20, October, 1939. Hunnicut, C. W. "The Community School as a Social Instru— ment. " The Community School. Fifty-Second Year- book Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 11, Nelson B. Henry, Editor, University of Chicago Press, 1953. Katz, Elihu. "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up- to-Date Report on An Hypothesis." Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XXI, Spring, 1957. ‘ tau-72.8! ‘- 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. -232- Keppel, Frederick P. The Foundation: Its Place in American Life. Macmillan Company, New York, 1930. Kiger, Joseph C. Operating Principles of the Lager Founda- tions. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1954. Lester, Robert M. "The Philanthropic Endowment in Modern Life." South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. 34, January. 1935. Lindemann, Edward C. Wealth and Culture. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York, 1936. i MacPeek, Walter. "Lights Are on in Flint's Schools. " Scout- ing Magazine, Vol. 48 , No. 7 . October, 1960. Manley, Frank J. and Marion Stebbins. " Mott Enrichment Pro- gram Of Flint, Michigan." Education, Vol. 83, NO. 6, February, 1963. Manley, Frank J. , Bernard W. Reed and Robert K. Burns. The Community School in Action. Industrial Relations Center, University of Chicago, 1961 . Manley, Frank J. In Summary to " Developing Community Schools In Michigan. " A Report of the Community School Commit- tee Of the Michigan Association of School Administrators, 1 9 59 -60 . Manley, Frank J. "Notes on the Contributions of Charles Stewart Mott to the American Way of Life. " Unpublished, October 4, 1957. Manley, Frank J. " The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation Program at Work." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Michigan, 1946. "Manley Named Notre Dame Man of Year." The Flint Journal, April 12, 1956. Minutes. Mott Foundation Program Coordinating Committee, 1947-63. Unpublished. Minutes . Mott Foundation Trustees , 1 92 6-63 . Unpublished . 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. -233- Mott, Charles Stewart. Address Before Men's Fellowship, Salem Lutheran Church Of Flint, January 21 , 1958. Mott, Charles Stewart. In Radio Interview, December, 1956. Mott, Charles Stewart. Letter addressed to Flint Board of Edu- cation, dated September 27, 1958. " Mott to Extend School Centers. " The Flint JOurnal, June 4, 1953. F.- Naslund, Robert Alfred. "The Origin and Development of the Community School Concept. " Unpublished doctoral } dissertation. Leland Stanford Junior University, June, 4 19 51 . “* Nielsen, Waldemar A. "How Solid Are the Foundations?" The New York Times Maggzine, October 21 , 1962 . Personal Diary: Charles Stewart Mott. Personal Interview: Charles Stewart Mott. Personal Interview: Frank J. Manley. Personal Interview: Mrs. Milton Pollock. "Planning Begins With People." Census Tract Project, Council of Social Agencies of Flint and Genesee County, Flint, Michigan, January, 1963. 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