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PERFORMANCE OF A FLAT PLATE
SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR

By

Gardjito

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Agricultural Engineering Department

1980

ABSTRACT

PERFORMANCE OF A FLAT PLATE
SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR

By
Gardjito

A solar energy utilization research projeCt has been con-
ducted by the Agricultural Engineering and Poultry Science Depart-
ments of Michigan State University. A low, cost flat-plate, single
air-pass solar collector was constructed to provide supplemental
heating for a 5,000 bird poultry laying house during winter months,
and to supply heat for excreta drying during summer. The collector
was 3.05 m by 30.62 m in size, faced south, and tilted at 60° from
the horizontal plane.

An experiment was conducted during the months of May through
August, 1978 to evaluate the performance of the solar collector
under realistic field conditions. The collector was operated with
four air flow rates of 0.32, 0.48, 0.53, and 0.64 m3/min./m2. The
results indicated that within the range of the air flow rates
observed the collector efficiency increased linearly with increased
air flow. There was essentially a direct relationship between the
volumetric air flow rate and the instantaneous efficiency. Under a
constant air flow, the collector efficiency also increased with

increased insolation.

Gardjito

Other results from the performance test indicated that the
daily average efficiency of the collector ranged from 33 to 73 per-
cent and the total daily heat collection ranged from 1,949 to 7,446
kJ/m2 depending on the air flow rate and weather conditions. The

maximum instantaneous efficiency of the collector was 81 percent.

Approved:

1 L

jor Professor

Department Chaiggfln

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express sincere gratitude to Dr. Merle
L. Esmay (Agricultural Engineering Department) for his advise,
encouragement, suggestions, and patience in guiding during the
course of this study and for serving as the major professor.

Appreciation is extended to Dr. C. A. Rotz (Agricultural
Engineering Department) and Dr. C. R. St. Clair (Mechanical Engineer-
ing Department) for their invaluable guidance. Appreciation is also
extended to his fellow students F. N. Hall and R. Haney for their
significant help and cooperation.

Finally, thanks to Mrs. Cindy Jennings for her diligence

in typing this manuscript.

11'

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .

LIST OF FIGURES.

II.

III.

IV.

INTRODUCTION.

l.l Background.

l.2 Objective .

LITERATURE REVIEW .

2. l Utilization of Soalr Energy in Agriculture .
2. 2 Solar Radiation . . . . . . . .
2. 2. l Solar Constant. . .
2.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Constitutents on
Solar Energy. .
2.2.3 Insolation Values at the Surface of
the Earth. .
2. 2. 4 Solar Angles and Tilt Angles of Solar
Collectors . .
2. 3 The Flat- -plate Solar Collector .

MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE.

3.l The Solar Collector as a Heat Exchanger .
3.2 Thermal Losses from the Collector .

3.3 The Heat Collection. . .

3.4 The Collector Efficiency .

MATERIAL AND METHOD OF STUDY

4. 1 Material of Study
4. 2 Method of Study.
4. 3 Measurement and Instrumentation.
4. 3. l Air-flow Measurement.
Temperature Measurement .
Relative Humidity and Temperature Sensor
Wind Speed and Direction Measurement.
Insolation Measurement .
Digital Data Acquisition System Recorder

h-D-D-F-h
0000000000:
0301-pr

iii

Page

vi

Page

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1 Effect of Air-flow Rate on the Collector

Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.2 Collector Performance. . . . . . . . . 50

5.3 Collector Efficiency Rating. . . . . . . 58

VI. CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

iv

Table
4.l

5.1
5.2
5.3

5.4

LIST OF TABLES

Coefficients for conversion of copper-constantan
thermocouple readings . . . . .

Daily Average Efficiencies
Efficiencies at l3:00 hours .

Average Temperature Difference (T) between outlet
and inlet air (PC) .

Collector Perfgrmance Data at Air—flow Rate of
0.64 m3/min./m

Page

4l
47
47

59

62

Figure

2.1

and

0'! 01 U1 01 (II 01 U1 01 0'1
0 O O O O C O I O
NO m \l 0‘ U"! J> 00 N

LIST OF FIGURES

The solar position angles and incident angles
for horizontal and vertical surfaces.

Standard flat-plate collector .

A section of a conventional air solar collector .
A schematic plan of a 5,000 bird laying house
with a solar collector for supplemental heating
and excreta drying. . . . .
Flat-plate, single air-pass collector (side view)

Detail of Fig. 4.2.

Five locations of velocities measurement in
equal concentric area.

Air-flow rates versus collector efficiency.
Air-flow rates versus collector efficiency.
Collector performance, May 23, 1978 .
Collector performance, May 2, 1978
Collector performance, May 7, 1978
Collector performance, May 23, 1978 .
Collector performance, May 1, 1978

Collector performance, May 7, 1978

Efficiency curve of the collector at .64 m3/min./m2

air-flow rate

vi

Page

12
15
26

32

35

39
48
49
51
52
53
55
56
57

65

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Until a few years ago, proposals for using the sun's energy
on a significant scale were likely to be received with skepticism.
During the last several years, however, the increasing cost of con-
ventional fuels, the political uncertainties related to the supply
of petroleum, and the problems associated with electric-energy gen-
eration from nuclear sources have modified this skepticism dramati-
cally. Solar energy shows promise of becoming a dependable energy
source without new requirements of a highly technical and specialized
nature for its widespread utilization. In addition, there appear to
be no significant polluting effects from its use (Kreider and Kreith,
1975).

Many topics of research related to utilization of solar energy
in agriculture have been conducted. Solar energy can be utilized for
supplemental heating of egg production housing during winter months,
in-house excreta drying during summer months, water heating for indus-
trial and domestic uses, grain drying, and home heating (Hall, et al,
1977; Edwards, 1977).

Methods of solar energy collection range from active, mech—
anical, solar thermal collectors, to photoelectrical devices, to
windmills, to fully passive collection systems. While the heat from
a solar collector can be used in conventional ways, there are a

1

number of factors that make application of solar heat collectors
challenging.

The amount of solar energy available is very large but has
the disadvantage of being intermittent and relatively low in inten-
sity. Not only is there the nightly disappearance of the sun and
the seasonal variation of the length of the day, but there is the
unpredictable effect of local meteorological conditions (like clouds)
upon the availability of solar energy. Unlike conventional heaters,
solar heaters cannot be turned on whenever desired. With a solar
heating system, an auxiliary heater is almost universally required
even when thermal storage is employed for continuous utilization of
the solar energy. Thus the solar collector is currently used to
augment or stretch our supplies of fossil, nuclear, or biological
fuel, and not to replace the systems.

One of the low cost and easy to construct solar thermal c01-
lectors is a simple flat-plate collector. An air-cooled flat-plate
collector can be used especially for drying and space conditioning.
The use of air as a heat transfer fluid has the advantage of being
non-corrosive and less costly. When warm air is the desired goal,
the non-corrosive nature of air permits the use of very inexpensive
materials, and the prospect of a leak developing inadvertently poses
no threat to property.

The performance of a solar collector is based upon its effi-
ciency in collecting heat. A method of testing and rating solar
collectors on the basis of thermal performance has been developed

by The National Bureau of Standards (Hill et al., 1976). The

procedure is to operate the collector on a test stand under steady
conditions. The solar radiation, windspeed, and the ambient and
inlet fluid temperature are all maintained essentially constant for
a period long enough so that the fluid outlet temperature and the
useful energy gain do not change appreciably with time.

In practical operations, a solar collector heating system
operates over a wide range of conditions. The local meteorological
conditions as well as the collector design affect the collector
performance. In the utilization of a solar energy collector for any
purpose, a test of performance under realistic conditions is impor-

tant.

1.2 Objective

Research on solar energy utilization for supplemental heating
of egg production housing in the northern states during winter months
has been conducted by the Agricultural Engineering and Poultry Science
Departments of Michigan State University. A low cost, flat-plate,
single air-pass solar collector was constructed to provide supple-
mental heating for a 5,000 bird poultry laying house.

This thesis experiment was conducted to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the solar collector used in the supplemental heating
research project. The specific objectives are:

a. to determine the effect of air-flow rate on the effi-

ciency of the collector

b. to examine other factors influencing the performance of

the collector.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Utilization of Solar
Energy in Agriculture

The utilization of solar energy in agriculture has been studied)
by many investigators. The experimental heat collection systems

were mostly of the flat-plate type that used either water or air as

 

heat carrying medium. The air type solar collectors have been used J
mainly for drying and space conditioning.

Kline (1977) studied the utilization of solar collectors for
low temperature grain drying. The performance of twelve different
collectors were investigated. Tests were Conducted in Ames, Iowa,
during the fall and spring grain drying seasons to measure the
amount of solar energy that could be collected by the different
types of collectors. The collectors, except for one, were of the
flat-plate type with air as the heat exchange medium. The solar
collector efficiencies ranged from 14 to 80 percent. The tests
also indicated that the collectors with high performance could col-
lect approximately 1,500 Btu per day per square foot (3,672.8 Kcal
per day per square meter) of collector surface area on sunny days
in spring and fall 1976.

Other investigators worked on utilization of solar energy
for space conditioning. Spillman (1976) and DeShazer et a1, (1976)

studied the supplemental heating by solar energy for swine buildings.

4

The supplemental heating for poultry housing and manure drying were
investigated by Horsfield and DeBaerdemaeker (1976), Reece (1976),
Brown and Forbes (1976), Merkel et a1, (1976) Hall et al, (1977),

and Forbes and McClendon (1977). The solar heating systems for
greenhouses were studied by Baierd et a1, (1977), Mears et a1, (1977),
and Milburn et a1, (1977).

2.2 Solar Radiation

One of the difficulties involved in the use of solar energy
is the fact that the incoming solar radiation at the surface of the
earth is a quite random quantity, predictable only in a statistical

way, because of the random nature of the weather (deWinter, 1975).

 

 

Furthermore, although solar energy is immense in quantity, it has 1

the disadvantage of being intermittently available and relatively

 

low in intensity (Becker and Boyd, 1957).

2.2.1 Solar Constant

The solar constant is the energy incident upon a unit area
located at a mean distance of the earth from the sun and oriented
perpendicular to the sun's rays beyond the atmosphere. Outside
the earth's atmosphere the solar constant is quite predictable.
According to Thekaekara (1973), when the earth is furthest away
from the sun the incoming flux on a surface normal to the sun's
rays is about 130.9 milliwatts/cmz, when it is closest about 139.9
mW/cmz, and the average is about 135.3 mW/cm2 (429.1 Btu/hr. ft.2).
However, the average value of the solar constant has fluctuated

significantly during the last 30 years or more, and is now back

very close to the level it was thought to have about 100 years ago
by John Ericsson, who concluded in 1876 that the solar constant was
134.5 mW/cm2 (deWinter, 1975). Abbot, based on extensive measure-
ments made by the Smithsonian Institution during the first decade
of this century, arrived at a value of 134.6 mW/cm2 (Thekaekara,
1965). Because of an error thought to exist in Abbot's results,
Moon (1940) adjusted the value downward to 132.2 mW/cmz, and this
value became widely accepted in the 19405. Based on the latest
measurements by Thekaekara (1973) the solar constant value is back
to 135.3 mW/cmz, quite close to the value of Ericsson's.

The position of the sun depends on the time of the day and
year. The daily solar motion is caused by the constant rotational
speed of the earth, and the somewhat variable speed of the earth
around the sun. The seasonal solar motion is due to the fact that
the axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the
ecliptic (the plane in which the earth moves around the sun), but
has a tilt angle about 23.5 degree (deWinter, 1975; and ASHRAE Hand-
book of Fundamentals, 1977). This causes the sun to have a varying
declination (the angle between the earth - sun line and the equa-
torial plane) during the year, and causes the changing seasons, with
their unequal periods of daylight and darkness. Because the earth's
orbit is slightly elliptical and the extraterrestrial radiation
intensity varies inversely as the square of the earth - sun distance,
it is maximum (13919 mW/cmz) on December 21, when the earth is closest
to the sun, and is minimum (130.9 mW/cmz) on June 21, when the earth -

sun distance reaches its maximum.

2.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric

Constituents on Solar

Energy

Once the solar energy enters the atmosphere, depletion of the.
direct beam takes place by scattering and absorption. Scattering
is caused primarily by air molecules, dust, and to certain extent by
water vapor and droplets along the path of the sun's rays to the
surface of the earth. The principal absorbing agents are water
vapor, ozone, and cloud particles. This series of phenomena can
appreciably reduce the radiation (Kondratyev, 1969). Sun-light
entering the atmosphere at an angle is bent downward due to the
higher index of refraction of the denser air closer to the earth.
The sun is hence always lower in the sky than it appears to be. The
effect is, however, small except at dusk and dawn, and the size of
the sun is not affected.

The absorption process by gases in the atmosphere generally
affects specific wave length bands, so that the radiation reaching
the earth has been very significantly depleted in many parts of the
spectrum (Threlkeld and Jordan, 1957). Most ultraviolet solar
radiation is absorbed by the ozone in the upper atmosphere, while
part of the radiation in the shortwave portion of the spectrum is
scattered by air molecules, imparting the familiar blue color to
the sky (ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1977). Water vapor in
the lower atmosphere causes the characteristic absorption bands
observed in the solar spectrum at sea level. For a solar altitude
of 30 degrees, the spectrum of the sun's direct radiation on a clear

day at sea level shows less than 3 percent of the total energy in

the ultraviolet, 44 percent in the visible region, and the remaining
53 percent in the infrared. The maximum intensity comes at 0.50 um,
and there is virtually no solar energy at wave lengths beyond 2.2 um.

Some shortwave radiation scattered by air molecules and dust
reaches the earth in the form of diffuse radiation. Since this
diffuse radiation comes from all parts of the sky, its intensity is
difficult to predict and it is subject to wide variation as moisture
and dust content of the atmosphere change throughout any given day.
On a completely overcast day, the diffuse component accounts for
all solar radiation reaching the earth. The total shortwave radia-
tion reaching a terrestrial surface is the sum of the direct solar
radiation, the diffuse sky radiation, and the solar radiation
reflected from surrounding surfaces. The intensity of the direct
component is the product of the direct normal irradiation and the
cosine of the angle of incidence between the incoming solar rays
and a line normal to the surface. Method of computing solar radia-
tion or insolation can be found from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
(1977) or many other sources of literature.
2.2.3 Insolation Values at the

Surface of the Earth

Weather and insolation can change drastically in perhaps 5 1
miles or less due to locations, i.e., closeness to mountains, coasts,

or other such influences. There are probably very few locations in

 

which there are no significant changes in 50 miles (deWinter, 1975).
\
Good results on the insolation measurements are required in order to

evaluate the performance of flat-plate solar collectors properly.

A sufficiently long series of instanteneous measurements is necessary
for the optimization of storage, and of overall system design. The
measurements include values of wind conditions, temperatures, rela-
tive humidity, precipitation, and insolation measured on horizontal
surfaces, on vertical surfaces facing in various directions, on a
surface facing the sun, and on tilted surfaces facing the equator.
Solar insolation can be measured by means of solar radiometry.)

The solar radiometry today relies primarily on thermoelectric instru-
ments with electronic read-out and integrating devices to give instan-
taneous values as well as hourly and daily totals. ~The basic princi-

ples of solar radiometry is discussed in Yellott (1977). A primary

 

objective of solar radiometry is to determine the instantaneous mag-
nitude of direct, diffuse, and total insolation incident upon sur-
faces which may be tilted at any angle to the horizontal. Solar
radiation cannot be measured in transit in the same manner that
flowing fluids can be metered with a flow nozzle and a manometer.
Instead, it is necessary to intercept a small area of the incoming
radiation by a surface which absorbs the radiant energy and convert
it into heat. The thermal effect can then be evaluated by calori-
metry or by various electrical methods. Silicon photovoltaic cells
may also be used, since their short circuit current is a linear
function of the incident radiation. Blackened absorbent surfaces
are generally insensitive to spectral variations in insolation inten-
sity while photovoltaic cells are spectrally sensitive. Thermal
expansion and evaporation of volatile fluids may also be used to

produce effects which are proprotional to the incoming solar radiation.

10

Calculated data of insolation for engineering studies in the
utilization of solar energy at the surface of the earth was initiated
by Moon (1940), performing through calculations for a standard clear .
sky, containing reasonable amount of water vapor, of other gaseous
atmospheric constituents, and of dust. Moon's Spectral curves have
been for long a standard in the illumination industry, in the evalua-
tion of selective surface, and in many other solar applications.
Moon's clear sky results have been updated by Elterman (1967).

Becker and Boyd (1957) studied the availability of solar
energy incident on a surface as affected by the orientation of the
surface during cloudless days. Bennet (1966), the U.S. Weather
Bureau (1964) and Lof et al. (1966), have prepared maps showing the
monthly means of the daily totals of solar radiation (direct plus
diffuse radiation incident on a horizontal surface). Farber and
Morrison (1975) developed clear - day design values presented in
graphical and tabulated form. The calculations performed and the
data presented apply to northlatitudes 24 degrees through 64 degrees
in 8 degree increments, concerning the irradiation of surfaces
inclined at various angles with respect to the horizontal. Daily
insolation values on horizontal surfaces can be converted to fairly
accurate hourly insolation values on horizontal surfaces with a
correlation first made by Whillier (1953), and extended by Liu and
Jordan (1960).

11

2.2.4 Solar Angles and Tilt

Angles of Solar

Collectors

Due to the changing position of the earth relative to the
sun and to the rotation of the earth about its axis, the angle at

which the sun's rays reach a surface on the earth changes from day

 

to day and from hour to hour. The sun's position in the sky can

 

be expressed in terms of the solar altitude, 8, above the horizontal,
and the solar azimuth, 0, measured from the south. These angles in
turn depend on the local latitude, L; the solar declination, 5,
which is a function of the date; and the Apparent Solar Time,
expressed as the hour angle, H, where H = 0.25 x (Number of minutes
from local solar noon), degree. The following equations relate B
and o to the three angles mentioned above:

Sin B = Cos L Cos 6 Cos H + Sin L Sin 6 (2.1)

Sin 0 = Cos 6 Sin H/Cos B (2.2)

Values of B and o for daylight hours of the twenty-first
day of each month in 8 degree increments from O to 64 degree North
latitude can be obtained from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1977).

The solar position angles and incident angles for horizontal
and vertical surface are shown in Fig. 2.1, where line 00 leads to
the sun, the north-south line is SON and the east-west line is EOW.
Line 0V is perpendicular to the horizontal plane in which the solar
azimuth, angle HOS (0), and the surface azimuth, angle POS (W), are
located. Angle HOP is the surface-solar azimuth, Y.

The angle of incidence, 0, for any surface is defined as the

angle between the incoming solar rays and a line normal to the

12

 

Earth Sun L1ne-— ‘ ‘ Vertical Surface
I

      
         

-Tilted Surface

 

 

 

Solar .

,\
Normal to \ .
'ertical Surface

 

 

 

Figure 2.l.--The solar position angles and incident angles for
horizontal and vertical surfaces (ASHRAE Handbook of

Fundamentals, 1977).

13

surface. For the horizontal surface in Fig. 2.1, the incident angle
OH is QOV; for the vertical surface, the incident angle 6v is QOP.
For any surface, the incident angle 0 is related to 8, v, and the
tilt angle of the surface 2 from the horizontal by:

Cos 0 = Cos B Cos v Sin 2 + Sin 8 Cos 2 (2.3)

The Optimum tilt angle for a solar collector will depend on
the latitude and on seasonal demand based on the uses to which the
collected energy is to be put. The daily total radiation incident
upon a surface, for all practical purposes, will be a maximum if a
south-facing surface is tilted so that the sun's rays are perpendi-
cular to it at solar noon.

2.3 The Flat-plate Solar
Collector

There are two types of solar collectors that have been used
for many years, i.e., concentrating collectors and flat-plate col-
lectors (Kreider and Kreith, 1975).

Concentrating collectors, the main alternatives to the flat-
plate collectors, can only collect direct solar energy and a small
fraction of the diffuse solar energy which happens to be at angles
close to the sun. The concentrating collectors generally need
continuous tracking control, a more expensive mounting structure
than the flat-plate collectors, and reflective surfaces which require
regular clearing (Kreider and Kreith, 1975).

The flat-plate collector has been the most popular and lowest
cost to collect solar heat at modest temperatures. It is also the

most frequently considered device for use in the heating and cooling

14

of buildings with solar energy. At temperature below perhaps 140°C
there seems to be general agreement that the flat-plate collector
is likely to be more economical than concentrating collector
(deWinter, 1975).

A typical flat-plate collector consists of one or more trans-
parent flat front plates, one or more insulating zones, bounded by
the covers, and an absorbing rear plate (Kreider and Kreith, 1975).
Heat is removed from the rear plate by a gaseous or liquid heat
transfer fluid, such as air or water. Thermal insulation is usually
placed behind the absorber to prevent heat losses from the rear sur-
face. The front covers are generally glass that is transparent to
incoming solar radiation and opaque to the infrared reradiation from
the absorber. The glass covers act as a convention shield to reduce
losses from the absorbing plate beneath. A standard flat-plate
collector is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Beside air and water as the working fluid used in solar
collectors, hydrocarbon or halogenated hydrocarbons can be used,
particularly when power generation or refrigeration is the goal
(Edwards, 1977). When heat transfer fluids are rated by technical
performance, those with a high thermal conductivity, a low viscosity,
and a high specific heat—density product rank high. On this basis
air is least desirable, water intermediate, and liquid metal most
desirable. Other factors such as a low freezing point, non-corrosive-
ness, safety of life and property, and low cost overturn a simplictic
ranking on the basis of heat transfer performance. When warm air

is the desired goal as for drying or space conditioning, the

15

 

 

Glazing Layers
Enclosing Air Gaps

 

Edge Insulation

L, J
Edge
Insula ion
Outlet Manifold
luid Carrying "’ Edge
Tubes Hot nsulat1on
Fluid t

t
(a) Out Bot sulation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Edge

Insulation
Inlet Manifold C°1d F1u‘d 1"
QHot Fluid Out
(b) 5
Cold Collector Case
Flu1d I °

(a) Sheet (or Fin) and Tube Plate

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(b) Tellier, Double Sheet or "Roll Bond" Plate

 

 

Figure 2.2.--Standard flat-plate collector.

16

non-corrosive nature of air has the advantage of being safe for use
as the heat carrying medium and relatively costless.

For water systems the abosrbing plate can be any metal,
plastic, or rubber sheet that incorporates water channels, while
for air systems the Space above the absorbing plate can also serve
as the conduit. Many metal products, such as the aluminum, copper,
and steel are suitable for use as absorbers in water or air systems
(Edwards, 1977).

The amount of solar energy collected is governed by: a) the
transmittance of the transparent covers, b) the absorptance of the
absorbing plate to the incident radiation, c) thermal resistance
between the absorber surface and the heat transfer fluid, and d)
emittance of the absorber plate surface in the infrared spectrum
(Kreider and Kreith, 1975). In general, the thermal conversion
performance of solar collectors can be improved by increasing the
transmission of energy through the collector to the working fluid
and by reducing thermal losses.

The absorptance of the absorbing plate should exceed a level
of 95 percent. This level can be obtained by means of appr0priate
coating. The surface of the absorbing plate may be a flat black
paint with an appropriate primer. The primer coat should preferably
be thin since a thick undercoat of paint would increase the resistance
of heat transfer. The primer should be of the self-etching type.

If the primer is not a self-etching type, the repeated thermal expan-
sion and contraction of the plate may cause the paint to peel after

a year or so (Kreider and Kreith, 1975).

17

Brooks (1936) used the concept of selective surfaces in flat-
plate collectors and developed extensive tables of the absorptivity
and emissivity of surfaces, and a discussion of their significance.
Tabor (1955 a, b, c) revived interest in the use of selective sur-
faces in flat-plate collectors. Since then Tabor had conducted many
experiments on selective surfaces. The use of a selective surface
in an experimental collector led Tabor (1958) to.a revision of the
convection and radiation heat loss equations originally proposed by
Hottel and Woertz (1942). The original equations had proved adequate
for gray surfaces but led to excessively low heat loss predictions
in collectors featuring selective coatings.

The selective surface with the best radiation properties to
date is probably "nickle black" or "chrome black", both of these
were first developed by Tabor (1962 and 1963). Other selective sur-
faces include silver oxide on silver, dielectric interference layers
on aluminum, copper oxide on aluminum, iron oxide on steel, and
c0pper oxide on copper and other metals. Only the nickle black and

copper oxide coatings are at present used in practice (Tabor, 1977).

III. MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF
COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE

3.1 The Solar Collector as
Heat Exchanger

Basically a flat-plate solar collector works as a heat
exchanger. The heat absorbed from the sun by the absorbing plate
is transferred to either air or water as the heat transfer fluid.
The amount of heat obtained for air medium collectors is partially
governed by the convection heat transfer coefficient between the
absorbing plate and either the laminar or turbulent air flow.

Heat transfer coefficients for common surface geometries
are given in many heat transfer textbooks. The convective heat
transfer coefficient can be expressed as a function of the dimension-

less group called the Nusselt number (Nu):

hc = Nu _§_ (3.1)
where hc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.°C
Nu = Nusselt number, dimensionless
k = thermal conductivity, W/m.°C
L = length, m

For fully developed turbulent flow of gases inside tubes,
Kays (1966) recommends
Nu = 0.022 Re0°8 Pr0°5 (3.2)

18

19

Nusselt number, dimensionless

where Nu =
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
Pr = Prandtl number, dimensionless

and for liquids with a Prandtl number between 1.0 and 20
Nu = 0.0155 Re0'83 Pro 5 (3.3)
For laminar flow inside tubes, Kreith (1973) gives the fol-
lowing equation which is useful in solar systems, since the pipes

are often short and fully deve10ped turbulent conditions may not

 

exist:
Nu = Re 2: 0 1n [-1 _ 0 16172.554 0 5 '1
Pr - (Re Pr D/L) - (3 4)

where Nu = Nusselt number, dimensionless

Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless

Pr = Prandtl number, dimensionless

D = diameter, m

L = length, m

This equation is valid for flow in tubes when L/D is less than 0.0048
Re, and in flat ducts when L/D is less than 0.0021 Re.

Most of the flat plate solar collectors with air as the heat
transfer fluid have flat rectangular ducts. Only one side of the
air duct, i.e., the absorbing plate, is heated. For an active solar
collector, the forced convection may develop a turbulent flow inside
the duct. The following correlation for fully developed turbulent
flow between flat plates with one plate heated can be derived from
Kays' data:

Nu = 0.0158 Re0-8 (3.5)

20

Whenever the flow/length ratio to hydraulic diameter is in
the order of ten or less, consideration should be given to the
development of the boundary layers which may cause an increase in
the Nusselt number. Tan and Charters (1970) experimentally studied
the flow of air between parallel plates with small aspect ratios
for use in solar air collectors. Their results showed higher heat
transfer coefficients by about 10 percent as compared to those by
Kays in which an infinite aspect ratio was used.

1 The quantity of heat absorbed by the air from the plate
depends upon the design of the total heat removal system of the
collector. It is not possible to transfer all of absorbing plate
. heat to the air. Some of the plate heat is lost to the lower temp-
erature surrounding the collector and ambient conditions. Heat
losses occur upward through the transparent cover plate, downwards
through the back insulation, and sideways through the edge insula-
tion.

The performance efficiency of a solar collector can be
described by an energy balance that accounts for the distribution
of incident solar energy into useful energy gain and the various
losses. Duffie and Beckman (1974) presented the energy balance of
a collector as:

Rate of incident energy absorbed = rate of useful heat
transfer to a working
fluid in the solar
exchanger

+ rate of energy losses
from the collector to
the surroundings by re-

radiation, convection,
and conduction

21
+ rate of energy storage
in the collector.
(3.6)

The factors influencing the collector performance are dis-
cussed in the following sections.
3.2 Thermal Losses from the

Collector

The critical factors that affect the upward heat transfer
are temperature of the absorbing plate, temperature of the ambient
air, temperature of the surroundings, the number of transparent
cover plates and their spacing, angle of tilt of the collector from
the horizontal, wind speed over the cover plate, and the transmit-
tance of the cover material (Whillier, 1977).

The upward heat loss coefficient of the collector, Uu , was

P
defined by the relation (Whillier, 1977):

qup = Uup (tC - ta) _ (3.7)
where qup = upward heat transfer rate through the transparent cover,
W/m2
Uup = upward heat loss coefficient of the collector, W/m2.°C
tc = absorbing plate average temperature, °C

ta = ambient air temperature, °C
Equations have been derived by Hottel and Woertz (1942) and
Whillier (1964) for calculating Uup for various combinations of
glass and plastic in the cover system. For a collector with one

transparent cover, the equation is:

22

 

 

 

- t - t
Uup - TE c hrcs tE—:_t§' + 1
c a 1 + 1
he] + EC] + hrc] hw + e hrls t] - ts
El ' ta
(3.8)

where Uup = upward heat loss coefficient of the collector, W/m2.°C

T = transmittance of the cover material for long-wave radia-
tion, decimal

c = emissivity of the absorbing plate, decimal
e = emissivity of the cover material, decimal
E = emissivity factor, decimal

h = equivalent radiative coefficient, W/m2.°C

“cl = convection coefficient, W/m2.°C

h = wind coefficient, W/m2.°C
tc = absorbing plate average temperature, 0C
tS = equivalent black body temperature of the sky, °C
t = ambient air temperature, 00

t] = transparent cover temperature, °C

Equation (3.8) includes wind coefficient, convection coeffi-
cient, equivalent radiative coefficient, and emissivity factor.

The wind coefficient can be calculated using a dimensional
expression given by McAdams (1954) which relates the heat transfer

coefficient in w/m2.°c to the wind speed in m/s:

hw = 5.7 + 3.8 v (3.9)

23

Convection coefficient, equivalent radiative coefficient,
and emissivity factor can be calculated using the following equa-

tions (Whillier, 1977):

 

a
hxy = c (tx - ty) (3.10)
h = d (1: - 14)/(tx - t ) (3.11)
xy y Y
E = 1
xy _1__+ _1_ -1 (3.12)
Ex 8y

Various values of the constant C in Equation (3.10) are 0.24,
0.21, 0.18, and 0.15 for tilt angles of 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° res-
pectively.

The downward or back heat loss coefficient, Ub, depends on
the heat resistance values of the materials used for insulation
beneath the absorbing plate and or the air channel. The thickness
of the insulation depends on the position of the collector. If the
back of the solar collector does not rest firmly on a roof or is
not protected in any other way from the wind, greater losses should
be expected. Sufficient insulation should be provided to keep Ub
less than one tenth of Uup (Whillier, 1977).

The edge heat loss can be important in small collectors
where the perimeter - to - collector area is relatively large (0.375
or more). The recommended minimum thickness of edge insulation is
25 mm with heat loss coefficient of 0.25 W/m2.°C, and generally it
should be at least half the thickness of the back insulation, depend-

ing upon the degree of exposure of the edges (Whillier, 1977). The

24

calculation of the edge heat losses is a complex process because
of the complicated geometry involved. It has been done by Tabor
(1955). For a typical edge insulation with 10 mm wide gap between
the absorbing plate and the edge wall, the edge heat loss coefficient
would be about 0.45 Wm2 .00, i.e.,

°edge = 0.45 (D) (P) (tc - ta) (3.13)
where qedge = heat loss rate through the edge, W/m2

0 = depth of the collector, m

P = perimeter, m
tc = absorbing plate average temperature, °C
ta = ambient air temperature, 0C

The overall collector heat loss coefficient, UL, can be pre-

sented as follows:

_ ' A
uL - uup + 0b + uedge ( E ) (3.14)
Ac
where Ap = perimeter area of the collector, m2
Ac = collector area, 1112

And the heat loss rate from the collector is
- t ) (3.15)

3.3 The Heat Collection

The quantity of useful heat collection is governed by various
factors, some of which have been discussed in the preceeding sections.
An equation for calculating the useful heat obtained from a conven-

tionally designed solar collector has been derived by Whillier (1964).

25

The following heat transfer analysis has been based on Whillier's
work in order to clarify the factors that govern the performance of
solar air collector. Fig. 3.1 shows a section of a solar collector
of conventional design, of width 8 and length L, with the air flow—
ing behind the absorber plate.

At a distance x from the inlet end, the temperature of the
air being heated is t. The temperatures of other surfaces at this

position are as shown in Fig. 3.1; t is the temperature of the

c
plate that absorbs the solar radiation, and tr is the temperature

of the back surface. The ambient air temperature is ta. It was
assumed that there was no downward heat loss through the back insula-
tion.

The performance of the solar collector was expressed in terms
of two temperatures; namely, the ambient temperature, ta, and the
temperature t], at which the air enters the collector. Heat bal-
ances on the absorbing plate and on the rear plate are set up to
eliminate the temperatures tc and tr' The heat balances are:

Heat balance for the absorbing plate:

Solar radiation Heat loss upward Heat flow into Heat radiated
absorbed by ele- = from absorbing + air stream by + downwards

ment of plate plate through conduction from absorb-
of width B, transparent ing plate to
length x over the back plate

Hf (B 6 x) = UL (B 6 x) (tc-ta) + hc (B 6 x) + hrE (B 6 x) (tc - tr)
(3.16)

Heat balance for the back plate:

Net radiation received from Heat flow into air stream from the
absorbing plate back plate by convection

hc (B a x) (t, - t) (3.17)

hrE (B 6 x) (tc - tr)

26

 

 

transparent cover-———

absorber

plate insulation

air in

 

 

Figure 3.1.--A section of a conventional air solar collector.

 

27

Heat balance for the back plate:

Net radiation received from Heat flow into air stream from
absorbing plate the back plate by convection

hrE (B 5 x) (tc - t hc (0 a x) (tr - t) (3.17)

I,>

Heat balance on element of air stream:

Enthalpy rise of air Heat flow into air Heat flow into
stream in passing = stream downward = air stream upward
through element of from absorbing from back plate
length x plate

WCp %§_6 x = hc (B 6 x)(tc - t) + hc (B 6 x)(tr - t)

(3.18)
Integration over the length of the collector leads to an
equation giving the useful heat collected in terms of the heater
design parameter and the incident solar energy. Equation (3.16)
and Equation (3.17) were used to eliminate the unknown temperatures

tc and tr from Equation (3.18). Thus:

 

 

wc
L dt = 1 _ _
8 dx 1 + UL/h [ ”f ”L(t ta):] (3.19)

The term l/(l + UL/h) is known as the efficiency factor, F'.
The solution of Equation (3.19) with boundary condition of x = 0,

and an inlet temperature of t], gives

 

t - ta - Hf/uL [_ BF'ULx ]
_ _ = exp "'1RT—_"
t1 ta "f7”L p (3.20)
At the exit end of the air collector, i.e., at x = L, the
air temperature is t2, and the temperature rise through the air

collector is (t2 - t1), given by

F'UL
(t2 - t1) - (Hf/UL - (t1 - ta) (1 - exp - —§E;——-) (3.21)

28

where G = W/BL is the mass flow rate of air per unit collector area.
The overall coefficient of heat transfer from the air inside

the collector to the ambient air is

 

_ l 1
U0 — l/( UL + _h_') (3.22)
so that
U
FI=_U_°__
L (3.23)

The term F'UL/GCp == Uo/GCp is identical to the number of
transfer unit or NTU, that is of such common occurence in heat
exchanger theory.

Multiplying the temperature rise (t2 - t]) by the flow rate
per unit area, Equation (3.21) to obtain the desired expression for

the rate of useful heat collection per unit area of the collector:

 

 

qu/A = ch (t2 - t1) (3.24)
01‘
1 1 -uo/ecp
qm=( )( '9 )mf-uu -tn
' 1 UL/h Uo/ch L 1 a (3.25)

The term (1 - e 'Uo/GCP)/Uo/ch) is known as the flow factor,
F". Factor f is the effective transmissivity - absorptivity product
of the collector cover system. Equation (3.25) can be rewritten as

qu/A = F' F" (Hf - uL (t1 - ta)) (3.25)

The product F' F" is sometimes referred to as the heat
removal factor and that its value is equal to the ratio of the log
mean temperature difference to the inlet temperature difference.

1 Equation (3.26) shows that the inlet temperature is differ-

ent (usually higher) than the ambient air temperature. This occurs

29

in solar air collectors with closed systems which recycle the air
through the collector.

. For an open system in which the inlet temperature is the
ambient air temperature (no recycling), it is convenient to use
Equation (3.24) for calculating the actual useful heat collection.
In terms of enthalpy of the inlet and outlet air, Equation (3.24)

can be written as

= 0 (EN2 - ENl)
qU/A 3.5 (3.27)

 

where qu/A = actual useful heat collection, W/m2

0 = air mass flow rate, kg/hr/m2
ENl = enthalpy of the inlet air, kJ/kg
EN2 = enthalpy of the outlet air, kJ/kg

3.4 The Collector Efficiency

The solar air collector efficiency can be defined as the
ratio of the actual useful heat collected to the solar energy inci-
dent upon or intercepted by the collector (Kreider and Kreith, 1975).
In equation form the solar air collector efficiency can be written

as
qu/A GC (t2 - t1)
H H (3.28)
Equation (3.28) is used to determine the instantaneous
efficiency of the collector with open system. When using the instan-
taneous method, the measurement of parameters includes the mass flow

rate of the air, the difference in air temperature between the inlet

30

and outlet, and the solar insolation. This is done simultaneously
and under steady state conditions.

The collector efficiency with closed system is usually
evaluated using calorimetric procedure (Hill and Elmer, 1977). The

efficiency can be expressed as

 

 

 

 

qU/A (tc ' ta)
n = = f - U
H L H (3.29)
Ol‘
t1 + t2 - ta
n = F f - F UL 2 H (3.30)
01"
(t - t )
n = FR f - FR 0 1 a
L H (3.31)

where FR is the product F" F' frequently.referred to as the collec-
tor heat removal factor and H is the insolation rate.

Equation (3.29), (3.30), and (3.31) indicate that if the
efficiency is plotted against some appropriate At/H, a straight line

will result where the slope is UL and the Y intercept is f.

IV. MATERIAL AND METHOD OF STUDY

4.1 Material of Study

The solar collector studied in this experiment was a flat-
plate, single air-pass collector. The collector was designed and
constructed primarily to provide supplemental heat for a 5,000 lay-
ing hen cage-type poultry house and secondarily for drying poultry
excreta. This type of collector is relatively low in cost and easy
to construct. The material used were ordinary farm building mate-
rials such as lumber, poles, plywood, glass, black painted aluminum
roofing, and insulation materials. This was done to minimize mate—
rial costs (approximately $2.63 per square foot of collector surface
area in 1976) and provide a collector system that can be constructed
by farm building contractors or farmers.

The collector was constructed separately from the poultry
house as the building already existed but was not oriented properly.
The collector was located on the north side of the house rather than
the south for operational and management convenience of the project.
A schematic plan of the house and the collector is shown in Fig. 4.1.
The collector was positioned at a 60° tilt angle from the horizontal
and facing south. This meets the rule-of-thumb guideline for opti-
mizing winter solar radiation in the northern hemisphere by being

constructed at an angle equal to the latitude of East Lansing area

31

32

.mcngc mumguxo can acmumm; PavemEmpaazm

500 gopum_Pou gepom a new: «mac; mcpamF uewn coo.m m we cepa oeumsmzum <11._.e mezmwm

meow umzmgxw

 

 

 

ease eeeeaeeeemee
tee eeeee_eeee>

two cmpom
G)...
u .

 

e m>=ou

  

soot
u=m23cum:H

eozw>=ou mmocu

 

cowuecmao
emessm

 

 

 

     

 

gouowppoo soew

 

        

     

    

cowpmcwao mesa
peat ep< cm; emucwz :omuznweumwu
. ewe empom

copumppoo Lepom

 

 

33

(45°) plus 15°. However, this collector was also used for various
year round operations.

The gross area of the collector was 93.4 m2 with 46 mm by
305 mm panels. The whole structure was 3.05 m wide and 30.62 m
long. Square ridged, black painted aluminum roofing material was
used as the absorbing plate, covered with a single glazing of 3.18
mm tempered glass supported 19.1 mm above the absorbing plate. The
corrugated aluminum sheet is a common farm building structural mate-
rial and also meets the requirements for being thin and a good con-
ductor. The solar shortwave radiation is absorbed by the black
surface, but due to the thinness and high conductivity of the alu-
minum sheet the under-surface is essentially the same temperature
as the black top surface. The glass was separated by approximately
25.4 mm dead air space from the absorbing plate to minimize loss
of heat back through the glass to the outside lower ambient temp-
erature. The air duct behind the absorbing plate was 57 mm by
457 mm wide. The moving air through this duct was heated as it
moved adjacent to the under surface of the aluminum sheet. The
details of the collector are shown in Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.3.

A 432 mm duct was placed along the top of the collector
and a 610 mm main duct ran from the center point of the collector
to the poultry house. Approximately 184 mm of fiber glass blanket
insulation was used to insulate the back of the collector and

the ducts. The oustide of the dust insulation was covered by

34

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4\\ Detail in Fig. 4.3

\

/
//
I
V/ .

 

 

Figure 4.2.--F1at-plate, single air pass collector (side view)

 

.35

 

 

HIG'HI'HOOW)

10xiocm
,‘5x20cm
sxiocm
5x20cm
plywood 36mm
25xt8cm
aluminum sheet
glass 3mm
43cm D air duct

.\\'

I'll

 

 

_..._...._._.__.__._..__..____\g.. ._

 

 

Figure 4.3.--Detail of Figure 4.2

 

36

black polyethelene plastic. Due to the position of the collector,
a small area of the collector surface was shadowed by the main duct
during operation. The effective or net area of the collector sur-
face was approximately 90.6 m2.
The total air flow from the collector was controlled with a
fan mounted in the main collector duct just inside the poultry house.

The variable speed fan used had an output range up to 141.58 m3/
minute (5,000 cfm).

4.2 Method of Study

Three different air-flow rates of 0.32, 0.48, and 0.64 m3/
min./m2 were used in this experiment to determine the effect of the
air-flow rate on the collector efficiency. These air-flow rates
were in terms of volumetric air flow per unit area of the absorbing
plate. The collector was operated experimentally during the clear
days during the spring and early summer of 1978.

The efficiency of the collector is defined as the ratio of
the actual useful energy collected to the solar energy incident
upon or intercepted by the collector. The 51 unit system was used
in the analysis of the data. Energy was calculated in unit energy
per unit of collector area per unit of time (kJ/mZ/hr.).

The data required for analysis in this research consisted of:

a) inlet or outside ambient temperature, 0C

b) outside relative humidity, percent

c) outlet air temperature from the collector, 00

d) absorbing plate temperature, °C

’37

e) wind speeds, m/s

f) wind direction

9) incident solar radiation, kJ/mz/hr.

The data were recorded simultaneously in 30 minute intervals
from 8:00 a.m. through 6:00 p.m. using Digital Data Acquisition
System (DDAS). Any physical effect capable of translation into a
DC voltage may be recorded with a DDAS.

The collector used in this experiment was an open system
type. The heat collected was calculated using the following equa-

tion (from Equation 3.25):

qu/A = 0 (EN2 - ENl) (4.1)
where qu/A = actual useful heat collected, kJ/MZ/hr.
G = mass-flow rate of air per unit collector area, Kg/hr./m2
ENl = enthalpy of the inlet air, kJ/Kg of dry air
EN2 = enthalpy of the outlet air, kJ/Kg of dry air

The outside ambient air temperatures, the outlet air temp-
eratures from the collector, and the outside relative humidities
were the parameters used to compute the enthalpies. The S1 psychart
computer program developed by Bakker-Arkema, Brook, and Lerew (in
Pomeranz, 1978) was used for the computations.

The instantaneous efficiency of the collector was calculated

using the following equation (from Equation 3.26):

 

n = qulA (4.2)
H
where n = instantaneous efficiency of the collector, precent
qu/A = actual useful heat collected, kJ/mzlhr.
H = incident solar radiation, kJ/mz/hr.

4.3 Measurements and Instru-
mentation

The measurements of the air flow through the main collector
duct and other parameters required were carried out with the follow-
ing instruments or devices:

a) AEI velometer

b) Copper-constantan thermocouples

c) relative humidity (RH) and temperature sensor

d) wind sensor for speed and direction

e) sol-a-meter or pyranometer

f) DDAS recorder

The copper-constantan thermocouples, RH and temperature
sensor and transmitter unit, wind sensor unit, and sol-a-meter were
connected to the DDAS recorder that can provide various data in
millivolt outputs simultaneously in a certain time interval. The

recorder was set to record data at 30 minute intervals.

4.3.1 Air flow Measurement

Three different air-flow rates of 0.32, 0.48, and 0.54 n3/
min./m2 were obtained during the Operations of the collector by
adjusting the fan speed. An AEI velometer was used to check the
air velocity through the main collector duct. The mean air velocity
through the duct was determined by measuring the air velocities at
five locations in equal concentric areas across the duct. The
arrangement of these five locations are shown in Fig. 4.4.

The following equation was used to determine the air-flow

rate:

 

 

 

 

 

.95r—~

 

 

11—834
\
§\
\\\\

 

 

+—.55r '
%'
\
\
\

 

 

.——

(3

V1

V2
V3

V4
V5

C) C) C) 'C)

Equal Concentric
Areas

 

 

Figure 4.4.--Five locations of velocities measurement in equal

concentric areas.

40

(v1 + v2 + v3 + V4 + 15) r2

 

q:

5 (4.3)
where q = air flow rate, m3/min.
V1..V5 = air velocities, m/min.
r = radius of the duct, m.

The air-flow rates were checked to insure the stability of

the air flow during each operation of the collector.

4.3.2 Temperatures Measurements

Copper-constantan thermocouples were used to sense the temp-
erature at various desired locations. Thermocouples were attached
behind the absorbing plate in the air stream, to the absorbing plate,
and in the main collector duct.

The millivolt outputs were converted to temperature values

using the empirical relation (Lamoureux, 1975):

= 2 3
t a0 + 01V + aZV + a3V + ...... (4.4)
where t = temperature, 0C
V = electromotive force (emf) outputs of the thermocouples, mV
a. = coefficients

1
The coefficients used in the above equation to convert milli-

volts to degrees centigrade with a 0°C reference junction are pre-
sented in Table 4.1
The copper-constantan thermocouples are capable of measuring

temperatures ranging from -200 to 400°C with standard error of 0.425°C.

41

TABLE 4.l.--Coefficients for conversion of copper-constantan thermo-
couple readings.

 

 

Coefficients Values
ao - 0.101163
a] 25.5932
a2 - 0.695815
a3 0.0799528
84 - 0.0123173
a5 0.00107824
a6 - 4.95382 x 10'5
a7 5.95059 x 10'7

 

Source: R. T. Lamoureux (1975). Instruments and Control Systems.

42
4.3.3 Relative Humidity and

Temperature Sensor

The outside relative humidities and outside ambient tempera-
tures were measured with a RH and temperature sensor instead of
using thermocouples (for measuring dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures).
The use of wet bulb thermocouples presents the problem of freezing
temperatures during winter time.

A General Eastern Model 411 RH and temperature sensor and a
Model 450 RH and temperature transmitter were used to measure the
outside relative humidities and ambient air temperatures directly.
The Model 450 RH and temperature linearization and amplification
module is intended as a companion electronics unit providing signal
conditioning for the Model 411 RH and temperature sensor. This
model utilizes solid state circuitry and provides dual, linear O - 5
vdc low impedance outputs for 0 - 100% RH and -50 to 50°C tempera-
ture spans.

This RH and temperature sensor and transmitter reQuire an
adapter box before connected to a DDAS recorder to adjust the out-
puts in millivolts.

4.3.4 Wind Speed and Direction

Measurement

A Weathertronics Stratvane wind sensor Model 2111 was used
to measure wind speed and direction. This model is an industrial
grade combination of anemometer and wind vane, constructed of cor-
rosive resistant materials and be able to withstand wind speed of

approximately 320 Km per hour (200 mph). Starting threshold for

43

the vane is approximately 1 m/s. The Stratavane is supplied with
a selsyn motor for wind direction. The accuracy of speed and direc-
tion measurements are i 0.01 and 3°, respectively.

A signal conditioning or translator is needed in conjunction
with data acquisition system. Weathertronics translator Model 2210
was used for this purpose. This translator features three aluminum
extruded boxes with a common modular power supply. The standard
translator includes a wind direction and a wind speed signal condi-
tioning module. Each signal conditioning module has a reference

voltage for sensor excitation.

4.3.5 Insolation Measurement

A silicon photovoltaic cell pyranometer was used to measure»
the solar radiation incident upon the surface of the collector. At
constant temperature, the short circuit current of silicon cell is
a linear function of the incident solar radiation intensity. The

2 cell under full terrestrial sunshine

current from a single 2 cm
(1,000 W/mz or 318 Btu/hr./ft.2) could readily exceed 100 milli-
ampres. A 100 millivolt signal results when the cell is short-
circuited by a 1.0 ohm resistance. The temperature sensitivity of
the cell is minimal. The use of a low resistance with a negative
temperature characteristic in thermal but not electrical contact
with cell virtually eliminates variation of cell output with changes

in ambient temperature within the range encountered in actual prac-

tice.

44

The silicon photovoltaic cell pyranometer used in this
measurement was Matrix MK I-G sol-a-meter. This standard instrua
ment was designed to operate with 0 - 10 mV or 0 - 100 mV recorders.
This instrument was calibrated for insolation values of 0 - 2 call
cmZ/min.

The following equation was used to convert the millivolt
outputs to energy in cal/cmzlmin. using calibration factors:

mV x 0.0153 + 0.078 + cal/cmZ/min. (4.5)

This instrument was set up at the same tilt angle as the
collector (60° from the horizontal plane) so that the efficiency of
the collector could be calculated directly. The tilt angle had no
effect on the cell performance.

4.3.6 Digital Data Acquisition

System Recorder

The c0pper-constantan thermocouples, RH and temperature
sensor and transmitter unit, wind sensor unit, and pyranometer were
connected to a digital data acquisition system recorder. An Ester-
1ine-Angus Model 0-2020 was used for this purpose. This type of
instrument is a digital DC-millivolt measuring device that provides
a visual digital display and a digital printed output of the measured
values up to 20 analog input signals. In addition, the unit also
incorporates a real time, solid state, 24 hour digital clock, the
time of which can be both visually displayed and printed out.

The insolation data were measured in cumulative values for
30 minute intervals. This could be provided by incorporating an

integrator unit. The use of an integrator unit with the Model D-2020

45

recorder provided a means of recording values that represent the
time integration of a variety of analog input values, rather than
the instantaneous values as normally recorded by the Model 0-2020.
The digitized data recorded for each integrated analog channel is

a totalization of virtually all input values over a selected period

of time.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The raw data of this experiment consisted of inlet or ambient
air temperatures, outlet air temperatures, outside relative humidity
levels, and insolation magnitudes. The SI-psychart computer program
was used to compute the data for desired analysis of performance of
the collector. The weather conditions in Michigan during the Spring
of 1978 were mostly cloudy. Due to the cloudiness, only 15 fairly
clear days could be used for data analysis. Some additional data
were obtained from the following summer operation. The data are
tabulated and presented in the appendix.

5.1 Effect of Air-flow Rate on
the Collector Efficiency

The effect of air-flow rate on the thermal efficiency of
the solar collector was calculated for a daily average and at 13:00
hours. The results are tabulated in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. The
relationship between the volumetric air flow rate and the instanta-
neous efficiency of the collector was analyzed using simple linear
regression. Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2 present the results of these
two analyses. It will be noted that the slopes of these two linear
relationships are essentially the same. The straight line that
represents the instantaneous efficiencies at 13:00 hours indicates
a 3 to 5 percent higher efficiency as compared to the line based
upon daily averages.

45

47

TABLE 5.1.--Daily Average Efficiencies

 

 

Air-flow Rate (m3[min./m2)
. 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rep. 0.32 0.48 O 5 0.64

1 0.39 0.60 0.56 0.59

2 0.37 0.52 0.56 0.72

3 0.39 0.53 0.60 0.72

4 0.40 0.57 0.55 0.73

5 0.33 0.48 0.56 0.72

Average 0.37 0.54 0.57 0.69
TABLE 5.2.--Efficiencies at 13:00 hours

. 3 . 2
A1r-flow Rate (m[m1n./m ),

Rep. 0.32 0.48 0.53 0.64

l 0.49 0.59 0.67 0.72

2 0.42 0.61 0.62 0.75

3 0.42 0.49 0.65 0.73

4 0.41 0.60 0.63 0.73

5 0.35 0.54 0.63 0.73

Average 0.41 0.56 0.64 0.74

 

48

 

100

 

90 Daily Average Efficiency

 

 

a)
O

 

.\..

 

Effic1ency. n. %
O1
0
o
..\.

 

,X

 

U1
0

/ '

 

 

~ p..- ————-

 

.0 /

 

 

37.

' n = 0.0546 + 0.9906 V

 

30

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.OO .30 .40 .50 .60

Air-flow Rate, V,m3/min./m2

Figure 5.l.--Air-flow rate versus collector efficiency

.70

100

90

EffiCIency, n: %
U1 0‘ \l m
o o o o

ab
0

00
O

49

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Efficiency at 13:00 hours

. 1
1
O i
/ ’ i E
C fill/i ‘7 ‘ 1

' n = 0.0737 + 1.0433 V

.00 .30 .40 .50 .60

Air-flow Rate, V,m3/ min./m2

Figure 5.2.--Air-flow rate versus collector efficiency

.70

50

Within the range of air flow rates observed there was essen-
tially a direct relationship between the volumetric air flow rate
and the instantaneous efficiency. Air flow rates doubled from 0.32
to 0.64 m3/min./m2 and the efficiency nearly doubled from 40 to 75
percent. This is not to infer that this relationship would continue
either way beyond the limits of the air flow rates studied.

The increased solar collector efficiency with increased air
flow through the collector is due mainly to the improvement in the
coefficient of convective heat transfer between the absorbed plate
and the air stream. This is theoretically logical as the higher
velocity associated with the greater volumetric air flow produces
an increased air turbulence. So as the coefficient of convective
heat transfer increased, more heat was collected. If the perfor-
mance measurements could have been made with all other parameters
held constant, the degree of dependency of the increased efficiency
on air flow rate could have been determined more reliably. Unfor-
tunately this was not possible under operational conditions which

were climatically dependent from day to day.

5.2 Collector Performance

Figures 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5 present the performance charac-
teristics of the solar collector on three different days. Three
different air flow rates, outside air temperatures, collector outlet
air temperatures and absorber plate temperatures are plotted with
the instantaneous efficiency values. Outside air temperatures and

solar insolation varied between these three days. May 1 with the

100

90

80

70

Ln 0‘
O O

.b
0

Temperature, °C

30

20

10

51

 

 

 

 

 

 

Air-flow Rate: 0.32 m3/min./m2

Plate Temperature

 

Outlet Air Temperature

 

Inlet Air Temperature

 

Efficiency

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

37% daily average efficiency

 

 

y—a-w-u—o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I ‘* ‘- ”’F'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100

90

80

7O

60

50

4O

30

20

10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10:00

12:00 14:00 16:00
Time of Day

Figure 5.3.--Collector Performance. May 23. 1978

18:00

Efficiency, %

Temperature, 0C

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

52

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100
Air-flow Rate: 0.48 m3/min./m2
. +--+ Plate Temperature 90
1 °--° Outlet Air Temperature
: 4—4 Inlet Air Temperature i.____ 80
----- Efficiency I
1‘ 70
52% daily arerage efficiency
, ..,—-\ legs, 50
f;
E i ‘:‘5fflfr' ‘:I\\%
; /- '~\\. 5,
.:'/ #11: "x
I ‘\*“
9’; / \‘e 40
’I / (F 30
7' / F \\
- [/I 1”////' ‘\% 20
// i/J-me...“ 10
47 ,
I l/ b 0
8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00
Time of Day

Figure 5.4.--Collector Performance, May 1, 1978

Efficiency, %

53

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100 e 100
Air-flow Rate: 0.54 m3/min./m2
90 +--+ Plate Temperature 90
o--0 Outlet Air Temperature
80 4--A Inlet Air Temperature 30
'---' Efficiency
70 $%59% daily average efficiency 70
’\ .I 5‘
- \ ’ II-
I \ I— ‘ ‘ I
‘I’ “l I \\

U 60 n” +\ ‘ ’ .‘ 60
o I *\+ \‘ l l N
5 i .—-+ \ " ‘1 >3
S. U
*3 50 -’ */ g 50 §
5. ' U
a 1' 3/ \* .i' ‘1 E
E l~~ ” / \9/ \ :‘n LIJ

40 ‘ ' z \ ' 40

l t
i A), li~\‘\ 31
1 N \
30 ,1 / , 30
a / N: v‘ ‘1’
4.
l 4 .d—w-A’T"~ “I.“ ‘7 \‘WI'#
1 A/
o 0
8: 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00
Time of Day

Figure 5.5.--Collector Performance, May 7, 1978

54

' middle range of air flow was the best solar radiation, with May 7
being next, and May 23 at the slow rate the worst. The somewhat
fluctuating data evident in the figures apart from experimental
error, were attributed to variations in weather conditions such as
variations in wind speed, wind direction, and scattered clouds.

A variation of performance efficiency throughout the days
is apparent. In most all cases the efficiencies are best during
the middle of the day when the insolation is highest. Figures 5.6,
5.7, and 5.8 present graphically the insolation and solar energy
collected along with efficiencies for each hour of the same three
days. Insolation, heat gained, plate temperatures and collector
outlet air temperatures were all the lowest of the three days on
the low air flow day of May 23 even though outside air temperatures
were the highest. May 23 was obviously not as good a solar radia-
tion day as May 1 and May 7 (Figures 5.4 and 5.5). It cannot be
concluded though that the poor radiation day was entirely the reason
for the low efficiency of 37 percent daily average for May 23 with
the low air flow. The medium air flow day of May 1 (Figure 5.4)
had a 52 percent daily average efficiency while the highest air flow
day of May 7 (Figure 5.5) had 59 percent daily average efficiency.
May 1 (Figures 5.4 and 5.7) with the middle range air flow was actu-
ally the best solar radiation day of the three but the daily average
efficiency was not as high as that for May 7 (Figures 5.5 and 5.8)
with the higher air flow rate.

Increased air flow rate would tend to reduce the inlet -

outlet air temperature difference if there was no or just a little

55

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1800
Air-flow Rate: 0.32 m3/min./m2
+--+ Insolation
150° o_o Heat Collection ' 100
I—- Eff1c1ency 90
“E: 1200 80
\
.e'
:3 70
x
>1 .
g) 900 60
0)
63
7g/\ 50
1 \
600 r.-m‘ - 0.. ‘ I - 40
I .Q. P ’0‘
I ‘ ‘
+l
300 f 20
AIIIiyaa,g43'-'-‘fi~\\~‘.——_,—fi~..‘~g 10
l/’
0 1 0
8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

Time of Day
Figure 5.6.--Collector Performance, May 23, 1978

Efficiency, %

56

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1800 }
1500 :""""\¢ 100
l./ \
’//V . 90
1200 <3 80
N /
55 70
i
.C
\
3 900 60
>2
. E”
a: 50
C
LL!
500 , 3 2. 40
.’ 1”? Air-flow Rate: 0.48 m /min./m
O
I
,’ +-—+ Insolation 1 30
.I
. / o—o Heat Collection
300 AL. , 20
I—I Efficiency
‘ lO
1
0 i 1 0
8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

Time of Day

Figure 5.7.--Collector Performance, May 1, 1978

Efficiency, %

57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1800 I
1500 .. We...“ . .e 100
90
1200 80
E 70
‘S 1
s.' i
-‘ 1
s 900 50
x ‘1
>2
E” f 50
Q) I
c F
l.l-J 1
600 z 40
' 1
l 1 3O
/ / Air-flow Rate: 0.54 m3/min./m2
30° , +--+ Insolation ._ 2°
a _ He t Collection
/ ° ° a ....._. 10
1 11.....- Efficiency
0 i 0
8:00 10:00 ' 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

Time of Day

Figure 5.8.--Collector Performance, May 7, 1978

Efficiency, %

58

increase in the convection heat transfer coefficient, as a smaller
air temperature difference would be necessary with the increased
mass or volumetric air flow rate. The five observation days for
each air flow rate did not show any consistant reduction in inlet -
outlet air temperature differences with increased air flow rates
(see Table 5.3). If anything the reverse is indicated as the aver-
age for the low air flow rate is the lowest. This undoubtedly was
due to the non-similarity of the days climatically for the different
air flow observations.
5.3 Solar Collector Efficiency
Index

The standard methods of testing and rating solar collectors
have been developed and published in the literature in order that
collectors can be evaluated in a meaningful and consistent way.
The standard procedure is useful especially for standardization and
comparison of various designs of commercial solar collectors. The
important factors which should be considered in testing and rating
of the performance of plate solar collectors have been discussed
in Chapter III. The flat plate solar collector efficiency can be

expressed as

 

n = f - UL (tc - ta)
(5.1)
where n = collector efficiency, percent
f = absorptance - transmittance product
U = overall heat loss coefficient, kJ/(hr.) (m2) (°C)

59

TABLE 5.3.--Average Temperature Difference (AT) between outlet and

inlet air (0C)

 

Air—fl ow Rate (m3/min./m2)

 

 

 

Rep. 0.32 0.48 0.53 0.64
1 15.03 19.37 18.26 13.21

2 8.90 19.23 17.70 19.62

3 19.25 16.99 18.57 17.60

4 20.01 16.46 - 17.99

5 16.57 16.45 - 18.21
Average 15.95 17.70 18.17 ‘ 17.32

 

6O

tC = average plate temperature, 0C
ta = ambient air temperature, °C
I = insolation,

Equation (5.1) indicates that if the efficiency is plotted against

the loss factor, tc ' ta, a straight line will result where the

slope is UL and the i intercept is f. This equation was used to
determine a thermal efficiency index for the single glass covered,
air medium solar collector of this study.
A collector energy balance can be represented as
q0 = qa ‘ q1 (5.2)

where qu = useful energy from the collector

qa = available energy to the collector

q1 = energy loss from the collector

The available energy qa is the insolation, I, multiplied by the fac-

tor f. The energy loss is
q1 = U1 (tc ' ta) (5.3)

Substitution of q1 from Equation (5.2) to Equation (5.3) and by

rearrangement, Equation (5.3) becomes

9 - 9
U -#
L t - t

C a

(5.4)

In this study the factor f for determining qa nor the heat
loss coeffieient UL were measurable. Some coeffieients are however
available from the literature (Buelow, 1956 and Whillier, 1977).
For these analyses an f value of 0.81 and a UL of 25.95 kJ/(hr.)

(m2) (°C) were assumed.. Also a true average absorber plate

61

temperature was not measurable so Equation (5.4) was used to deter-
mine the average plate temperature from the experimental data of
Table 5.4.

Figure 5.9 shows graphically the collector efficiency as
compared to the collector loss factor. This efficiency plot of-
Figure 5.9 is representative of only one air flow rate of 0.64m3/

min./m2, as shown in the two right hand columns of Table 5.4.

62

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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.000 .002 .004

.006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .024

t - t 0C

Tm

Figure 5.9.--Efficiency curve of the col

flow rate of 0.54 m3/min./m

lector for air-

l)

2)

3)

4)

VI. CONCLUSION

Within the range of air flow rates observed from 0.32 to 0.64
m3/min./m2, there was essentially a direct relationship between
the volumetric air flow rate and the instantaneous efficiency.
The collector efficiency increased linearly with increased air
flow.

When the air flow rates doubled from 0.32 to 0.64 m3/min./m2
the efficiency nearly doubled from 37 to 69 percent based on
daily average efficiency.

The daily average efficiency of the collector ranged from 33

to 73 percent and the total daily heat collection ranged from

1,949 to 7,466 mm2 depending on the air flow rate and

weather conditions.

The maximum instantaneous efficiency of the collector was 8l

percent.

66

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68

deWinter, F., 1975. Solar Energy and the Flat Plate Collectors.
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Vol. 11. Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul,
Minnesota.

Reece, F. N., 1976. Poultry House Heating and Manure Drying Utiliz-
ing Solar Energy. Final Report for Project Year July 1,
1975 to June 30, 1976. South Central Poultry Research Lab.,
Mississippi State, Mississippi.

Spillman, C. K., 1976. Solar Energy for Supplemental Heating of
Ventilating Air for Swine Buildings. Final Report. USDA
Agreement No. 12-14-7001-553. K.S.U. Project No. 5-446.
Agric. Exp. Sta., Kansas State University.

70

Tabor, H., 1955a. Solar Energy Collector Design with Special Ref-
erence to Selective Radiation. Trans. of the Conf. on the
Use of Solar Energy, the Scientific Basis. Tuscon, Arizona,
Oct. 31—Nov. 1, 1955. Thermal Process, Vol. II, Part 1,
Section A. pp. 1-23. . '

Tabor, H., 1955b. Selective Radiation. I. Wavelength Discrimina-
tion. Ibido’ pp. 24-33.

Tabor, H., 1955c. Selective Radiation. II. Waterfront Discrimina-
tion. Ibid.. PP. 34-39.

Tabor, H., 1958. Radiation, Convection, and Conduction Coefficients
in Solar Collectors. Bull. Res. Counc. of Israel. Vol. 6c,
pp. 155-176.

Tabor, H., 1962. Research on Optics of Selective Surfaces. Second
Annual Report on U.S.A.F. (Camb. Res. Labs., 0.A.R.)
Contract AF61(052)-279, March, 1962.

Tabor, H., 1963. Research on Optics of Selective Surfaces. Final
Report on U.S.A.F. Contract AF61(052)-279, May, 1963.

Tabor, H., 1977. Selective Surfaces for Solar Collectors. Appli-
cations of Solar Energy for Heating and Cooling of Buildings,
Chapter VI. Edited by R. C. Jordan and B. Y. H. Liu. ASHRAE
GRP 170. ASHRAE, New York, N.Y.

Tan, H. M. and W. W. S. Charters, 1970. Experimental Investigation
of Forced Convection Heat Transfer. Solar Energy. Vol. 13.
No. 1, p. 121.

Telkes, M. and E. Raymond, 1949. Storing Solar Heat in Chemicals.
A Report of the Dover House. Heat & Vent. 46(11): 85.

Thekaekara, M. P., 1965. Survey of the Literature on the Solar Con-
stant and the Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiant Flux.
NASA SP-74.

Thekaekara, M. P., 1973. ’Solar Energy Outside the Earth's Atmosphere.
Solar Energy. Vol. 14, No. 2., pp. 109-127.

U.S. Weather Bureau, 1964. Mean Daily Solar Radiation Monthly and
Annual. Climatic Atlas of the U.S. U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Whillier, A., 1953. Solar Energy Collection and Its Utilization for
House Heating. ScD Thesis in Mech. Eng., M.I.T., 1953.

71

Whillier, A., 1977. Prediction of Performance of Solar Collectors.
Applications of Solar Energy for Heating and Cooling of
Buildings, Chapter VIII. Edited by R. C. Jordan and B. Y.
H. Liu. ASHRAE GRP 170. ASHRAE, New York, N.Y.

Yellot, J. I., 1977. Solar Radiation Measurement. Applications of
Solar Energy for Heating and Cooling of Buildings, Chapter
III. ASHRAE GRP 170. ASHRAE, New York, N.Y.

APPENDIX

COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE DATA

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