A STUDY OF RELATEONSHLPS AMONG SELECTED FACTGRS AFFECTLNG MEDIA USE BY CLASSROOM TEACHIERS WHHEN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS Thesis for the Degree 0? ML D. M'mIGAN STATE. UNIVERSH‘Y CHARLES EGWARD STREE‘I’ER 1%? IHsszs LIBRARY Michigan State .2 University mum; WM Lu; (”1| 1] tutu [mum ll 3 This is to certify that the ~r" thesis entitled A Study of Selected Factors Affecting Teachers Use of Educational Mediarrin Selected School Systems presented by Charles Edward Streeter has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Education O~169 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SELECTED FACTORS AFFECTING MEDIA USE BY CLASSROOM TEACHERS WITHIN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS by Charles Edward Streeter This is an exploratory study developed from a con- cern that increasing amounts of audiovisual materials and equipment are being purchased by public schools, yet teachers do not make extensive use of these items. The purpose of the study was to gather information that would be useful in planning educational media courses for pre—service and in—service training of teachers. The re- search focused on the relationships between specific teacher competencies in media and the frequency with which media are used in the classroom. And, in addition, relevant differ- ences due to grade level taught, teachers' sex, years of teaching experience, and subject taught were analyzed for their effect upon a teacher's use of media. To reduce the number of variables under consideration, the study was restricted to teachers in schools that have equipment, materials, and supporting personnel to facilitate teachers' use of educational media. Knowledgeable faculty Charles Edward Streeter members from three Michigan universities recommended school districts they considered outstanding in the use of educationr al media. From their list of recommendations two school sys- tems were arbitrarily selected; both agreed to participate in the study. Recognizing that differences exist between schools in the same school district, each building was further screened by a building inventory which provided information about relevant environmental conditions. The principal data gathering instrument was a questionnaire, filled out by the teachers, consisting of three parts: (1) personal and professional background, (2) competency in media, and (3) frequency of media use. To ob- tain the three dependent variables of the study--Media Compe- tency Scores, Total Media Frequency of Use Scores, and New Media Frequency of Use Scores--responses to the teacher questionnaire were summed for each respondent. The statis— tics used in analyzing the data were correlation coefficient and one-way analysis of variance. The main findings of the study are as follows: 1. There was a positive correlation (.41) between teachers' Media Competency Scores and Total Media Frequency of Use Scores. Charles Edward Streeter 2. The correlation coefficients between each of 47 media competencies and Total Media Frequency of Use Scores ranged from -.02 to .33. 3. There was no significant difference in Media Compe- tency Scores due to the subject taught. But there was a significant difference in both frequency of use measures due to the subject taught. 4. Contrary to previous investigations, grade level taught, teachers' sex, and years of teaching experi- ence do g9; appear to be important variables affect- ing frequency of media use. The conclusions of this study can be concisely stated: a teacher's competence in media and the subject he teaches are important variables affecting frequency of media use. The recommendations for teacher preparation suggest that because of the limitations of time, media competencies included in such programs must be selectively chosen. While noting that information for making objective selection is meager, the study recommends that efforts be made to establish a hierarchy in three categories of media competence. One group would include the media theory, utilization, selection, and evaluation competence that correlates positively with frequency of media use (this study suggests 12 such compe- tencies). Another set should be made up of unique media competencies associated with particular subject matter areas. Charles Edward Streeter And the third group would be the basic equipment operation and production competencies needed by teachers using media in today's schools. A STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SELECTED FACTORS AFFECTING MEDIA USE BY CLASSROOM TEACHERS WITHIN SELECTED SCHOOL SYSTEMS BY Charles Edward Streeter A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1967 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Dr. Charles F. Schuller, Chairman of the Advisory Committee, the writer expresses appreciation for just the right amount of guidance throughout the doctoral program and for the quick response in times of critical need. To other members of the Committee-—Dr. John Barson, Dr. Charles Hughes, and Dr. Troy Stearns-—the writer is thankful for their significant contributions to his doctoral program and to this dissertation. To his wife, the writer is especially happy to ac- knowledge her considerable help in making this dissertation more accurate and understandable. And, finally, acknowledgment to the children who tolerated Dad in his periods of frustration. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter I. THE PROBLEM The Need for the Study The Purpose of the Study The Hypotheses and New Explorations Definition of Terms . . . . The Plan of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Identification of Media Competencies Factors Affecting Classroom Use of Media Summary . . III. PROCEDURES AND LIMITATIONS Instrumentation Selection of Subjects and Data Collection Analysis of the Data Assumptions and Limitations of the Study IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Findings of the Study Summary of Results V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Recapitulation Conclusions . . . . . . . Recommendations for Teacher Education Implications for Further Research BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . APPENDICES iii Page ii iv vi [—l \OCDO‘U‘H-J ll 26 34 38 39 42 46 49 51 51 76 79 19 81 84 89 92 97 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring Media Competency Scores for teachers having and not having had media training in college . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 1.2 Summary data and correlation coefficients between individual Media Competencies and Total Media Frequency of Use Scores . . . . 56 2.1 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring Total Media Frequency of Use Scores: sex by grade level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.2 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring New Media Frequency of Use Scores: sex by grade level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.1 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring Media Competency Scores by years of teaching experience . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.2 Summary data and analysis of variance com— paring Total Media Frequency of Use Scores by years of teaching experience . . . . . . 68 3.3 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring New Media Frequency of Use Scores by years of teaching experience . . . . . . 69 4.1 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring Media Competency Scores by subject taught . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.1 Summary data and analysis of variance com— paring Total Media Frequency of Use Scores by secondary subject taught . . . . . . . . 73 5.2 Summary data and analysis of variance com- paring New Media Frequency of Use Scores by secondary subject taught . . . . . . . . 74 iv Table Summary of building inventories: ele- mentary schools Summary of building inventories: secondary schools A summary of audiovisual items per teaching station or per building in elementary schools . . . . . . . . A summary of audiovisual items per teaching station or per building in secondary schools . . . . . . . Building summary of teacher questionnaires: elementary schools Building summary of teacher questionnaires: secondary schools . . Page 111 112 113 114 115 117 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix I. BUILDING INVENTORY II. INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA SURVEY III. LETTER ASKING SCHOOLS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . IV. SUMMARY TABLES OF RESULTS OF BUILDING INVENTORY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA SURVEY PER BUILDING . . . . . . . vi Page 97 100 108 110 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The Need for the Study Until recent years audiovisual materials were con- sidered as teaching ”aids" and, as such, played a relatively minor role in the instructional process. Since the end of Wbrld war II, however, the field of instructional media has experienced steady growth and marked changes in both its nature and sc0pe. This is a result, on one hand, of the many demands on education since Sputnik; on the other, a consequence of extensive developments in technology. During WOrld War II, when the military was called up— on to train vast numbers of personnel in a variety of areas, it was clearly demonstrated that audiovisual equipment and materials could play a significant part in the instructional process. This was particularly true of motion pictures, re- cordings, models, and simulation techniques. Following the war, the combined effects of population explosion, accelerating expansion of knowledge, and the shortage of qualified teachers created a tremendous logistic problem for the public schools. In addition, the quality of the schools' educational programs was being questioned as a result of testing programs conducted with servicemen during the war. The decade following the end of WCrld War II found some educators and laymen calling attention to the possi- bilities of instructional technology for solving problems of time, space, and numbers; also for improving the learning situation. It was not until 1957, however, that the improve- ment of public schools became the focal point of the entire nation. This was the year that the Soviet Union launched its first satellite. First came the National Defense Edu- cation Act of 1958 which provided federal funds for upgrading mathematics, science, and foreign language courses. A portion of this money was to be used for purchasing audio- visual equipment and materials for classroom use in these specialized areas. In 1959 the National Education Association es- tablished the Project on Instruction. "To this Project it gave a major task: Make thoughtful and creative recommen- dations to serve as a guide to the profession and the public in their combined efforts to study and improve the quality of the instructional program in the schools."1 The members of the National Education Association commission made 33 recommendations concerning the improvement of the schools. Five of them dealt specifically with the 1Schools for the Sixties: A summary of the Report of The NBA Project on Instruction (Washington: National Edu- cation Association, 1962). increasing importance of instructional media. The five media areas cited were the development of instructional ma- terials centers, educational television, radio, programmed instruction, the improved use of printed and other in- structional materials, and automation for storage and re- trieval of pupil personnel data and instructional materials.2 In subsequent years Congress has continued and broadened categorical federal support to education. Some of the more significant legislative acts were the expansion of the National Defense Education Act to include almost all areas of the public school curriculum, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, and the Higher Education Act. Pertinent to this study is the fact that practically all of the above legislation allocated money for the purchase of instructional materials and equipment. In face of these developments, current evidence indi- cates a limited use of a wide variety of instructional media by a great segment of the teaching force. In 1961, Godfrey surveyed a sample of public school systems in the United States with respect to availability and use of audiovisual media. Her conclusions were that teachers . . . reported a high level of technical competence and knowledge of the field through either college work or in-service training. Most of them interested enough to suggest that schools rent or buy new materials or equipment. The basic equipment is 21bid. available for their use in their own building. Yet the majority of them don't use audiovisual media ex- tensively, nor do they plan to do so in the near future.3 While investigating the effect of different patterns of media training, Torkelson made findings that were similar to Godfrey's. Less than ten percent of the 228 visits recorded the use of any projected materials, with the greatest number of teachers using chalkboard and bulletin boards (85% and 61% respectively). All other materials on the Visitation Checklist were used by thirty—seven percent or less of the teachers. In a later paper, Torkelson reflects on the incon— clusiveness of research in educational media usage and recom- mends several new avenues of investigation. One of his sug- gestions calls for more information in the "specification of teacher competencies in the use of media which can be tied to teacher behavior."5 And it is the emphasis given to Torkelson's recommendation that makes the present study unique. 3Eleanor P. Godfrey, Audio-Visual Programs in the Public Schools, Office of Education Contract No. SAE-9026, preliminary results (Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Washington, D. C., May 6, 1963), p. 20. 4Gerald M. Torkelson, An Experimenta14§tudy of Pat- terns for Improving the Preparation of Pre-Service Teachers in the Use of Audio-Visual Materials and of Effects on Pupils, National Defense Education Act, Title VII, Project No. 179 (The Pennsylvania State University, March, 1965), p. 150. 5W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, United States Office of Education, Contract No. 5-0730-2-12-6, Title VII (University of Nebraska, March, 1966), P. 185. The Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to identify elements in a teacher's training, personal character, and professional background that affect the frequency with which he uses edu- cational media in the classroom. The focus of the research is to see if teachers who perceive themselves having competen- cy in certain media skills and understandings will indicate greater use of educational media than those who do not see themselves as having these competencies. In addition, infor- mation about relevant differences in the personal and pro- fessional background of the teacher are analyzed for their affect on media usage. Evidence from this research can be used in several ways. First of all, the study generates information that will be useful in planning inlservice and pre-service teacher education programs. Another outcome is the genesis of a set of procedures and instruments that can be used by audiovisual coordinators to analyze and alter their public school media programs. And finally, the comprehensiveness of this report points to some critical areas in which further research is needed. The two general questions this study attempts to answer are: 1. If facilities and equipment are available, is there a relationship between the kinds and number of media competencies a teacher says he possesses and the frequency with which he uses media in the classroom? 2. What personal and professional characteristics of the teacher affect the frequency with which the teacher uses instructional media in the classroom? The Hypotheses and New Explorations Although the study as proposed was exploratory and hypotheses generating, one hypothesis was stated in the proposal: H1: There will be a positive correlation between the number of media competencies a teacher claims to possess and the frequency with which media are used in his classroom. No other predictions were made in the research pro- posal, but the review of previous research togEther with a cursory inspection of the new data generated the following additional hypotheses: H2: If the factors of grade level taught (elementary and secondary) and sex are held constant, female elementary school teachers will use educational media more frequently than female secondary teachers and male elementary school teachers will use educational media more frequently than male secondary school teachers. If teachers are divided into three teaching ex— perience levels (0-5 years, 6-10 years, and 11 or more years), teachers in the group with the fewer years of experience will perceive them- selves as possessing more competency in media skills and understandings than teachers who have had more teaching experience. If teachers are divided into three teaching ex— m 4s perience levels (0-5 years, 6-10 years, and 11 or more years), the teachers with the fewer years of experience will use educational media more frequently than the more experienced teachers. Some literature asserts that the subject a teacher teaches is one of the best predictors of media usage. This same literature, however, fails to present much objective evidence concerning effect of subject matter taught upon a teacher's use of educational media. The report at hand fol- lows the analysis of the above stated hypotheses with an ex- ploratory examination of the relationships between subject matter taught and media usage. And finally, to this writer's knowledge, no studies have attempted to relate teacher competency in specific media skills and understandings to teacher behavior: frequency of media usage. The concluding portion of the data presentation of this study is a set of tables and discussion of what ap— pears to be a first look into the question of the correlation between a teacher possessing specific competencies and his frequency of media use. Definition of Terms This study employs the term "media" in the sense of those instructional materials and techniques used by teachers to supplement or substitute for traditional means of communi- cation. The expressions educational media, instructional media, and audiovisual media are used interchangeably and re- fer to instructional materials and equipment ranging from still pictures and graphics to complex computer-based in- structional systems. The principal independent and sometimes dependent variable of the study, Media Competency Scores, refers to the number of specific skills and understandings associated with media that a teacher sees himself possessing. These scores were obtained by Summing the responses to the 47 media compe- tency items on the questionnaire administered to teachers participating in the study. The two dependent variables, Total Media Frequency of Use Scores and New Media Frequency of Use Scores, are related in that the new media scores are a part of the total media scores. Total Media Frequency of Use Scores includes the use of all items measured on a questionnaire administered to teachers participating in the study, while the Newer Media Frequency of Use Scores delete the use of the traditional items such as chalkboard, teaching boards, models, objects, maps, globes, charts, and graphs. Respondents indicate on a scale how frequently they use each medium, and the scores are obtained by summing the frequency of use of each medium on the questionnaire. The Plan of the Study The design of the study is an exploratory investi- gation, and such studies according to Kerlinger have three functions: "to discover significant variables in the field situation, to discover relationships among variables, and to lay a ground work for later, more systematic and rigorous testing of hypotheses."6 One point that sets this study apart from previous research in the area of media usage is the attempt to identi- fy relationships between specific media competencies held by a teacher and the frequency with which that teacher uses media in his teaching. Another unique feature of the study is the selection of subjects from school situations where equipment, materials, physical facilities, and personnel to facilitate the use of educational media are available and ap— proximately equal. The first step in the selection process had faculty members from three Michigan universities recommend school systems in Michigan which they considered outstanding in the use of educational media. Two of the schools recom- mended were arbitrarily selected and asked to cooperate in the study: both agreed to participate. Step two was an inventory of each school building with respect to media facilities: equipment, materials and personnel. This information was obtained by having the 6Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Re- search (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), p. 388. 10 building principal and/or audiovisual coordinator complete a questionnaire called the Building Inventory. As a final check to ensure homogeneity of relevant environmental conditions, space was provided on the question— naire filled out by the teachers to indicate deterrents to the use of educational media in his teaching situation. The principal data-~personal and professional charac— teristics of the teachers, competency in the use of edu— cational media, and the frequency of use--were gathered from the selected elementary and secondary teachers by a question— naire called the Instructional Media Survey. The question- naires were distributed to all classroom.teachers of the participating schools and 87.4 percent were returned. The information from this teacher questionnaire was punched on IBM cards and sorted for central tendencies. This sorting process, the review of the literature, and hand calcu— lated means of sample data generated additional hypotheses and areas of exploration. Most of the statistical computation and hypothesis testing was done using Michigan State Uni- versity Agricultural Experiment Station library programs on the Control Data 3600 Computer. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Since this study gives particular emphasis to the re- lationships between teachers' competency in the use of edu- cational media and the frequency with which they use media in the classroom, it is appropriate to devote a major part of this chapter to literature specifying media competencies for teachers. Thus, the first part of the literature review is devoted to studies specifying and/or presenting evidence for the selection of the educational media competencies a teacher should possess. The second section is a compendium of investigations that identify factors and patterns in— fluencing the use of educational media. Because of overlap in scope, some research is cited in both sections, but each section treats a duplicated report in a different way. Brief summaries are given at the end of each main section, and the concluding portion of this chapter summa- rizes and emphasizes findings relating specifically to the present study. It is the delineation of common threads and unique findings of other research that makes the findings and conclusions of this paper more meaningful. ll 12 Identification of Media Competencies Studies associated with the specification of media competencies can be classified into two categories: groups specifying and developing lists of competencies teachers ”ought" to possess and attitudinal studies attempting to measure teachers', supervisors', or media coordinators' opinion as to the utility of selected media understandings and skills. The most recent attempt to systematically identify and list desirable media competencies for teachers was a United States Office of Education sponsored study coordi— nated and edited by W. C. Meierhenry.l The Meierhenry report--Media Competencies for Teachers, primarily a compi- lation of position papers by noted educational media special- ists-—was intended to re-assess and build upon previous works in the specification of media competencies. A resumé of the various positions taken in the above mentioned study makes up a major part of this section. Following the synop— sis of Media Competencies for Teachers are brief summari- zations of earlier works specifying media competencies and a few brief remarks that draw the section together. While the various authors contributing to Media Competencies for Teachers write from different points of 1W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, United States Office of Education, Contract No. 5-0730-2-12-6, Title VII (University of Nebraska, March, 1966). 13 view, it can be said by paraphrasing Meierhenry that the papers fit together and outline a meaningful program of teacher education.2 Several elements contribute to the complemental nature of the various positions. First, the adherence of the writers to a common purpose: "to examine the implications of the use of media so far as teacher edu- cation programs were concerned."3 And second, the writers' knowledge and awareness of two contemporary notions about teacher training: (1) teacher training models are developing that are learner and response oriented, and (2) there is no longer a clear line of demarcation between pre-service and in—service teacher education.4 In the condensation of each contribution to Media Competencies for Teachers no attempt is made to list all the competencies recommended by each writer, but specific compe- tencies are cited as they contribute to understanding the writers' positions. Meierhenry, however, develops a list of media competencies summarizing the recommendations of the con- tributors. The summary is divided into three categories-- conceptual and operation processes, theory, and basic con- ceptional and/or operational skills. His summary is included as a part of this chapter. 2Ibid., p. 3. 3Ibid., p 2 4 14 The opening paper by Heinich5 deals with instruction— al systems, teacher-media configurations, and the changing relationship between teachers and audiovisual materials. While the concept--audiovisual materials as an "aid" under complete control of the teacher--is firmly entrenched in public education, Heinich argues it is important for teachers to handle both media materials normally under the control of the classroom teacher and to develop skill working with a mediated teacher such as television teacher, writer of pro— gramed instruction, etc. In addition, he asserts, "Every student in pre-service training should be required to teach a substantial piece of his major field in mediated form."6 NOrberg7 follows with a plea for more emphasis upon theory and research. He contends teachers need not be capa- ble of carrying on independent experimental research but must be able to interpret and apply the findings of experimen- tation in education from a background in disciplines that contribute to a liberal professional type of teacher edu- cation program. More specifically, he says, the audiovisual process is a problem in presen— tation of instructional materials . . . . Thus, the theoretical background should be drawn from learning SRobert Heinich, "The Teacher in an Instructional System," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers,_pp. cit., pp. 7-30. 6Ibid., p. 28. 7Norberg, Kenneth, "Theoretical Background Required by Teachers in the Use of Newer Media," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., pp. 33-67. 15 theory but also from communication theory and per- ception theory, at least, and the media dialOgue probably ought to be philosophical rather than oriented to any specific discipline. A more practical approach is presented by Gerlach9 as he stresses the importance of stating the learning task in behavioral terms and basing selection of audiovisual ma- terials in terms of what one is trying to accomplish. Being stimulus-response oriented, Gerlach advocates a teacher being able to define the stimuli he wants to present and the rein- forcing stimuli that follows emission of the desired response. Then, to select the appropriate medium, the teacher must also be familiar with the various stimulus characteristics of various media. Curl10 is preoccupied with the utilization of self- instructional systems for teaching the operation of audio- visual equipment. He stresses how rapidly knowledge about machines becomes obsolete and the importance of keeping teacher education programs up to date. While he has little to say about specific competencies a teacher should possess, he presents a table and discussion that illustrates the five stages in the changing role of the teacher: from one who 81bid., p. 59. 9Veron S. Gerlach, "Selecting an Instructional Medi- um," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., pp. 70-100. 10David H. Curl, "Self-Instructional Laboratories for Teaching Operational Skills," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., pp. 104-124. 16 uses little or no media to one who is manager of the learn— ing situation and relies almost exclusively on media. This perspective about the role of the teacher is necessary rationale for understanding the recommendation of certain competencies (e.g., ability to work with mediated teachers) and the use of self-instructional systems in education. Kemp'sll specialty is the produCtion of audiovisual materials and he suggests that certain specialized production skills such as model building, plastic embedding, and sand table construction can be taught best as part of subject matter methods courses. He does, however, recommend a basic and optimal list of conceptual and manipulative skills that should be available in a general teacher education program. The majority of his recommendations are included in the summary list found near the end of this section. As suggested in the introduction of this section, an important theme of Media Competencies for Teachers is utili— zation of self-instructional systems. Kemp follows this theme by paralleling Curl's paper and suggesting that many of the mechanics of media production can be taught through self-instructional systems. llJerrold E. Kemp, "Identification of Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Competencies in the area of Audiovisual Production Techniques," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., pp. 127-166. 17 A lengthy list of specific media competencies is pre- sented in the paper by Torkelson,12 but he focuses upon ap- proaches and techniques used in developing teacher competency in the utilization of media. Torkelson suggests a total scheme for what the others have advocated in part: the uti- lization of self-instructional learning laboratories for the development of many of the desired media competencies. That is, we should look upon teacher-students as learners, de- termine the kinds of behavior we wish to have emitted, and provide through laboratories the resources which will make it possible for them to learn. The final chapter "Media Competencies Needed by Teachers in 1966" by Meierhenry13 summarizes the works of the various contributors by presenting a list of media compe- tencies in three classifications: Conceptual and Operational Processes, Theory, and Basic Conceptual and/or Operational Skills. The complete list is as follows:14 Conceptual and Operational Processes (Cognitive) I. To develop instructional objectives in behavioral terms followed by specification and arrangement of instructional stimuli upon which the desired behavior is contingent. 12G. M. Torkelson, "Competencies Needed by Teachers in the Use of Newer Media and Various Approaches to Achieving Them," in W. C. Meierhenry (ed.), Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., pp. 169—211. 13W. C. Meierhenry, "Media Competencies Needed by Teachers in 1966," in W. C. Meierhenry, Media Competencies for Teachers, op. cit., p. 225. l4Ibid., pp. 225-229. II. III. IV. II. III. IV. 18 To gain knowledge about and experience with media so that their respective characteristics might be known. Such knowledge should help the designer of the instructional sequence to make acceptable intuitive judgements as to which medium used alone or in combination with other media will most effectively and efficiently produce desired behavior change. Where extant media are not available or where they do exist but require ad- ditional elaboration, experience in designing media in order to achieve the desired results should be provided. To try out, analyze, critique, and modify a unit prepared and used with one or more learners pos- sessing the psychological characteristics for which the unit was prepared. To have experience with instructional systems in- volving man-machine relationships. Television is likely the best medium for most prospective teachers although programed instruction or learn- ing laboratories might be more suitable for cer- tain content areas. Actual experiences with the total range of in- structional resources which are available in both substantive as well as professional areas of teacher education programs. The first-hand en— counters with the media will enable each prospec- tive teacher to judge the effectiveness of each medium. Theory (Affective) To understand the explosive growth of modern tech- nology-—particular1y in communications and the storage and retrieval of information. To be conversant with the impact of new technology upon education. To understand the implications of learner-centered and response-oriented instruction. To have a thorough grounding in the psychology of learning, including orientation to various theo- retical perspectives and corresponding lines of research in instructional techniques. 19 V. To understand the concepts of operations research and systems analysis as they have developed in the scientific study and management of military and industrial applications in education. To be acquainted with the various and conflicting and to have some grasp of the bearing of perception theory and re— its and its use as a tool in the analysis of instructional problems. VI. strands of perception theory, search upon instructional procedures. VII. To be acquainted with communication theory, relationship to perception theory, VI WNH C‘U’l-h II. To be acquainted with the broad sc0pe of in- structional research as related to the use of media, perspectives, and its prominent underlying theoretical such as experimental developments in linear programing as related to reinforcement theory, or recent research in cognitive develop- ments testing and refining the theories of Piaget, Inhelder, Vygotski, IX. etc. To understand and appreciate the limitations and conspicuous gaps in present instructional theory and research, such as the limited knowledge of the nature and function of iconic signs. Basic Conceptual and/or Operational Skills (Psycho-Motor) Production of Audio- Visual Materials Using the chalkboard Cartooning and simple sketching Mounting pictorial materials Lettering Making displays Duplicating printed materials Recording on tape Making transparencies Motion pictures Laminating pictorial materials Exhibits and models Recordings Radio Printed materials Masters and paste-ups NH O.) Operation of Equipment 16mm projector 8 mm silent and sound projector 35mm filmstrip and 2”x2" projector Overhead projector Opaque projector Record player Tape recorder T. V. receiver Photocopier Still camera Movie camera Scripting for Radio and TV Program writing, edit- ing and evaluation Computer programing 20 The remaining part of this section reports chrono— logically some earlier attempts to specify the necessary media competencies needed by classroom teachers. Many of these earlier works served as the foundation for the Meierhenry report. One of the first attempts to identify objectively the skills and knowledges needed by teachers using audio— visual materials was a study published in 1946 by De Bernardis and Brown.15 This study listed 23 different media competencies and asked 150 teachers, administrators, and supervisors to rate each competency with respect to im— portance to classroom teaching. The respondents rated items of utilization and selection as most important and placed little premium on mechanical and production competencies. In 1947, the California State Department of Edu- cationl6 published a list of media competencies for teachers, and in 1957, David Pascoel7 assessed the value of these standards by a questionnaire type survey. The questionnaire was designed on a weight ranking basis making it possible to establish the relative emphasis each respondent assigned to 15De Bernardis, Amo and Brown, James W., "A Study of Teacher Skills and Knowledges Necessary for the Use of Audio- Visual Aids," Elementary School Journal, 46:550-56; June, 1946. 16California State Department of Education, "De- veloping Standards of Teacher Competency in Audio-Visual Edu— cation," California Schools, Vol. XVIII (1947), pp. 3-6. 17Results were summarized in "The Pascoe Report," Audiovisual Instruction,Vol. IV (1959), p. 607. 21 each competency. The results were obtained by ranking each competency; by percentages from three categories of respon- dents: audiovisual instructors in colleges and universities; audiovisual directors teaching audiovisual classes; and city, county, and district audiovisual directors. The composite ranking by topics is as follows: Knowledges and Understandings Principles of Use Selection of Use Types of Materials and Equipment Sources of Materials and Equipment Services of Audiovisual Department Materials for Specialists Production of Materials Results of Research Single School Services Administering of Aids History of AV l—‘OLOCDQO‘U‘wai-J FJH Skills and Abilities Utilization Selection Evaluation of Use Equipment Operation Appraisal Display Production Best Physical Conditions Field Trips18 \OCDQONU'l-hwwld The summer after completing his study, Pascoe pre— sented the findings at the 1958 Okoboji Audio-Visual Leader- ship Conference. According to Allen this conference devoted a major part of its time to pre—service preparation of 18Results were summarized in the "Pascoe Report," Audiovisual Instruction, IV (1959), 607. 22 teachers in audiovisual competencies and developed a list of media competencies having the following objectives: Prime objectives of pre-service teacher education in- cludes the development of visual mindedness, the stimulation of creative imagination and the encourage- ment of enlightened resourcefulness.l A more definitive statement of the individual media competencies recommended by the Okaboji Conference delegates is presented in Allen's summary under two major classifi- cations: Foundations, which subsume philosophical and psycho- logical factors underlying the use of audiovisual materials, relationships to curriculum, characteristics of audiovisual materials, and desirable attitude; and Implementation Back- ground, which includes the acquisition, evaluation, selection, 20 and utilization of equipment and materials. Shortly after the Okoboji Conference, Phi Delta Ka an, January, 1959, published an article by Fulton and White titled "What Constitutes Teacher Competence in Audio- visual Communication?" The authors of that article suggest that all media competencies can be categorized under four headings: (l) proficiency in selection and evaluation of ma— terials, (2) proficiency in production of simple instruction- al materials, (3) proficiency in the utilization of 19William Allen (ed.), A Summary of the Lake Okoboji Audio-Visual Leadership Conferences 1955-1959 (Washington, D. c.: Department of Audio-Visual Instruction, National Edu- cation Association, 1960), p. 28. - 20Ibid. 23 appropriated instructional materials, and (4) proficiency in preparation and use of facilities.21 In the process of developing objectives for a media course at the University of Georgia in the 1960-61 school year, Oliver surveyed 275 supervisors of practice teachers for their opinion regarding the importance of selected media competencies. His findings are summarized as follows: Specifically, supervising teachers thought that student teachers who came to them as prospective teachers should know how to select materials appropri- ate to the curriculum and how to use media effectively in their teaching. These competencies pre-suppose that beginning teachers should have a working knowledge of sources, procedures of use, the mechanical operation of equipment, and classroom conditions which contribute to effectiveness.22 Finally, Torkelson, as part of his study dealing with patterns of improving pre—service preparation of teachers, conducted a course inventory of 48 media competen- cies to which beginning teachers responded in terms of the "helpfulness" of the understanding or skill to their teach— ing. A rank order listing of responses is given below and will be referred to later in this paper. 21W. R. Fulton and Fredrick A. White, "What Consti— tutes Teacher Competence in Audio-Visual Education?".ghi Delta Kappan, XL (1959), 159. 22G. E. Oliver, A Study of Pre-Service Teacher Edu- cation in the Use of Media of Mass Communication for Class- room Instruction, National Defense Education Act, Title VII, Project No. 130 (College of Education, University of Georgia, September, 1962), p. 73. 24 Rank Order of Items in Course Effectiveness Inventory Item Rank Mean Running motion picture projector l 5.93 Threading filmstrip projector 2 5.73 Bringing real objects into class lesson 3 5.41 Running tape recorder 4 5.39 Understanding the role of materials in learning 5 5.30 Projecting materials properly 6 5.13 Designing bulletin boards 7 5.03 Helping pupils study materials with movies 8 5.02 Selecting the right materials for a given task 9 . 4.93 Recognizing good instructional materials 10 4.92 Knowing source catalOgues for AV materials 11 4.90 Choosing instructional materials to fit the learner 12 4.88 Planning chalkboard use 13 4.79 Studying with pictures 14 4.78 Using diagrams to teach 15 4.77 Choosing a filmstrip for a given lesson 16 4.76 Clarifying a bulletin board idea 17 4.71 Performing a class demonstration 18 4.70 Visualizing a point to be learned 19 4.67 Ordering motion pictures 20 4.65 Preparing follow-up activities 21 4.63 Teaching with models 22 4.59 Providing yourself with flat pictures 23 4.54 Judging when to use a given material 24 4.53 Using a chalkboard 25.5 4.47 Using a recording 25.5 4.47 Teaching with an opaque projector 27 4.34 Taking a field trip 28 4.30 Tape recording materials for study 29 4.24 Mounting pictures 30 4.21 Using felt board materials for study 31 4.18 Recognizing when a recording is useful 32 4.13 Helping pupils use maps 33 4.09 Locating needed pictures 34 4.05 Using words 35 4.02 Recommending a classroom design for instruction 36 4.00 Helping colleagues use materials 37 3.91 Judging still pictures 38 3.88 25 Rank Order . . . (continued) Item Rank Mean Learning from graphs 39.5 3.83 Seeing an educational TV program 39.5 3.83 Keeping a study table in your classroom 41.5 3.79 Storing instructional materials 41.5 3.79 Cleaning projector lenses 43 3.68 Constructing overhead transparencies 44 3.66 Explaining your program to your parents 45 3.63 Changing projection lamps 46 3.55 Constructing mock—ups 47 3.36 Using puppets with students 48 3.3423 It is interesting to note the high rank given to the operation of equipment such as the motion picture projector (ranked 1) and tape recorder (ranked 4). Since this is a point that planners of audiovisual courses argue over per- petually, the findings reported in the above listing will be referred to again in the conclusions of the paper at hand. .In summary it appears the groups and commissions de- lineating media competencies for inclusion in teacher edu- cation programs dealt mainly with theoretical constructs of what "ought" to be taught and did not undertake to determine actual behavior patterns of teachers using audiovisual equip- ment and materials. The studies that attempted to gain em— pirical evidence as to the effectiveness of selected media competencies were mainly attitudinal studies, and as such, 23Gerald M. Torkelson, An Experimental Study of Pat- terns for Improving the Preparation of Pre-Service Teachers in the Use of Audio-Visual Materials and of Effect on Pupils, National Defense Education Act, Title VII, Project No. 079 (The Pennsylvania State University, March, 1965), pp. 134- 135. 26 were not designed to identify those competencies which in themselves might tend to influence teacher behavior with re- spect to media usage. Factors Affecting Classroom Use of Media There are few studies dealing directly with factors affecting the general use of instructional media. Most of the earlier and some of the more recent studies of use factors confine themselves to a single medium--particularly motion pictures. Contemporary findings with respect to media usage are usually concomitant results of research on a related question such as Torkelson's study on patterns of training program. Two comparatively recent studies, Oliver's24 re— ported in 1962 and Torkelson's25 published in 1965, are de- liberate attempts to measure the effect educational media training in the pre-service preparation of teachers has on the relevant behavior of practicing teachers. Nested in both of their reports are a number of findings pertinent to the investigation at hand. Oliver's project was conducted in the 1959-62 period and involved 36 percent of the school systems in Georgia. 24Oliver, op. cit. 25Torkelson, An Experimental Study of Patterns for Im- proving the Preparation of Pre-Service Teachers in the Use of Audio-Visual Materials and of Effect on Pupils, op. cit. 27 His concern was with the effect pre-service teacher prepar— ation in media competency has upon a teacher's selection and utilization of media in the classroom. The basic guide for validating the curriculum of the project was a survey con- ducted among 275 supervisors of practice teachers. The sur— vey assessed the supervisor's use of media, estimate of his competency in using media, and opinion with respect to cer- tain phases of the teacher education program. Relevant find- ings in this part of Oliver's study are listed: 1. . . . elementary supervising teachers used all types more frequently than did secondary school teachers. 2. Supervising teachers who had been in the class- room teaching for a longer period tended to use the types of media considered in the project more frequently than those with less classroom teaching experience. 3. A relationship seemed to exist between the types of media used by supervising teachers and the sub- ject fields in which they taught. 4. Competence in the use of media seemed to increase with the number of years of supervision.26 To determine the effectiveness of the teacher edu— cation program in the second phase of Oliver's study, two groups of teachers were compared: those who as students on the pre-service level had received the media training of- fered during the project at the University of Georgia, and those teachers who graduated from the University of Georgia between 1956-1959 and received no organized emphasis on 26Oliver, op. cit., p. 72. 28 instructional media during their pre-service program. The teacher education programs were comparable except for this pre-service emphasis on instructional media. The findings do not indicate statistically significant differences in matters pertinent to the study at hand, but the following relevant tendencies are cited: 1. SubjeCts with training were more aware of media available to them individually as classroom teachers than subjects without such training 2. The group with training considered that a variety of media was more necessary to effective teaching than did those without training. 3. . . . those who had received training used media which required specific information and skill more frequently than did those of the control group with no pre- or post-graduation training.2 Data for the Torkelson project was gathered from the fall, 1959, to the end of spring, 1963, for the purpose of evaluating "the effect of four different patterns of in- struction (separate course, integrated with methods, self— study, and student teaching) upon the performance of pre- service teachers to use audiovisual material and equipment.28 In phase one of the study comparisons were made be— tween the four patterns of instruction based on results of evaluation test scores. The general results of this phase of Torkelson's study are listed below: 27Ibid., p. 73. 28Torkelson, An Experimental Study of Patterns for Im- ,ppoving the Preparation of Pre-Service Teachers in the Use of Audio-Visual Materials and of Effect on Pupils, op. cit., p. 148. 29 all patterns of instruction resulted in a sig- nificant mean gain on the various measures between the pre- and post-testing periods. . no significant differences among patterns which would lead to the conclusions that one pattern was superior to all other patterns on all measures. There were spot differences among patterns at signifi- cant levels of probability. the Self Study students did equally well, if not better than all other groups in learning equipment operation. In terms of attitudes toward the use of audiovisual materials and equipment in teaching, it appears that environment and motivation of self-instruction had a greater influence upon the students in the Self Study pattern than in the other patterns.29 The results of phase two of Torkelson's research are as follows: there seemed to be a direct relationship between the fact of being an elementary teacher and higher scores on the Frequency of Use Inventory. it appears that elementary teachers use tra- ditional bulletin boards, record players, exhibits, and flat pictures more frequently than secondary ,teachers. 0 Knowlton did a study dealing specifically with identification of components in the teaching situation that motivate or deter a teacher's use of educational media. His call for doing the study was that "many teachers . . . even when necessary facilities are readily available, use 30 instructional film infrequently or not at all."31 And his purpose was to gain knowledge of the sort likely to enhance success of an information campaign urging increasing use of audiovisual resources.32 As suggested by his stated purpose, Knowlton's be- ginning concern was limited to studying the use of motion pictures. Later he modified his study to include education- al media in general. Emphasis, however, was on motion pictures. Throughout the progress of the study Knowlton found it necessary to make other modifications. Relevant to the present paper were his problems connected with the selection of schools. Originally he planned to investigate high schools that compared in size, facilities, and budget-~but differed in the extent to which they effectively use audio- visual resources. The following quotation describes some of his barriers: it became clear that the task undertaken was too large. It also became clear that differences that ex- isted between pairs of high schools selected from the same district were differences due to factors extraneous to the purpose of the investigation. It seemed the lesser evil to give up the fruitless at- tempt to find contrasting pairs of schools within districts, and choose the two (presumably) 31James Q. Knowlton, Studies of Patterns of Influence in the School Situation as They Affect the Use of Audiovisual Materials, National Defense Education Act, Title VII, Grant No. 7-12-029.00 (Division of Educational Media and Audio- visual Center, Indiana University, July, 1963), p. 1. 32Ibid., p. 1. 31 better-than—average high schools for the concluding interview effort. 3 The investigator of the present study found somewhat similar problems in trying to come up with homogeneous en- vironmental conditions for the subjects of this study. This problem will be discussed further in the chapter on procedures. picture, In spite of the emphasis Knowlton gave to the motion the following findings are useful and pertinent to the discussion of this study: 1. the well-informed teachers more than the poorly informed teachers tended to have positive attitudes toward the utility of instructional films. Teachers of biology and general science use far more films than do teachers of physics, chemistry, or mathematics. the tendency for a teacher to favor (or disfavor) Film was not a generalized tendency that would help one predict the teachers' probable acceptance of media in which he had little or no experience. it appears that teacher preferences for what we have called the "conventional media" are highly dependent upon the subject in which the teacher teaches. the subject taught--turned out to be a better predictor of frequency of usage than was attitude. v the favorable attitude teacher who was an infrequent user simply faced greater utilization barriers than were faced by the favorable 3 3Ibid., p. 5. 34 Knowlton, Op. cit., pp. 36-38. 32 attitude group whose membership was comprised of frequent users. Eleanor Godfrey36 did a two-part study in which she assessed the availability and use of audiovisual media in a sample of public schools in the United States. The second part of her study, germane to the paper at hand, provided information on how extensively media resources were used by some 11,531 classroom teachers in 572 schools, in 247 school districts in all parts of the country during the 1961-62 school year. Her conclusions concerning factors affecting the teacher's use of media are indicated below: Most teachers . . . had been exposed to the various media in college or in in—service training . . Yet most of the teachers had not used any medium ex- tensively, nor did they plan to do so in the near future. The most important variable related to the ex- tent of a teacher's use of media was the subject he taught. Science, foreign language, and music were the only secondary subjects in which audiovisual ma- terials were used on a regular basis. Elementary teachers, particularly those in the primary grades, were not only more likely to use some audiovisual ma- terials, but to use it more frequently during the semester. Although poor classroom set-up, inadequate light con— trol, and lack of time to prepare and preview ma- terials were named as hindrances to effective use of audiovisual media by both teachers and administrators, 35Ibid., pp. 86-89. 36Eleanor P. Godfrey, Audio-Visual Programs in the Public Schools, Office of Education Contract No. SAE-9026 ‘(Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Washington, D. C., June, 1964). 33 the inability to get enough good materials seems a more critical problem. A number of Pre-Sputnik studies--Hoban,38 Imbrock,39 Hite,4O Meiser,41 Hyer42--support in some degree or another the following as factors associated with classroom use of educational media: (1) teachers who have had training (in- service or pre-service) use more media in their teaching and use it more effectively, (2) the audiovisual coordinator plays an important role in the audiovisual program, (3) teacher inertia was an outstanding deterrent to film use, and (4) teachers who projected films in their classrooms, ordered films shortly before using, and who prepared some of their own materials were more frequent users of media. 37Eleanor P. Godfrey, Audio-Visual Programs in the Public Schools-1962 Highlights of a National Survey (Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc., Washington, D. C., October, 1963). 38Charles F. Hoban, Jr., Movies That Teach (New York: Dryden Press, 1946). 39Paul H. Imbrock, "Pre-Service Education of Teachers in the Use of Audio—Visual Materials of Instruction" (un— published dissertation, Indiana University, 1952). 40Herbert Hite, "A Study of Teacher Education Methods for Audio-Visual Competency in Washington—-1937-l947" (un- published dissertation, Washington State University, 1951). 41Holland 0. Meiser, "An Exploration of Factors Af— fecting the Utilization of Audio-Visual Materials" (un- published dissertation, Indiana University, 1952). 42Anna L. Hyer, "A Study of Possible Deterrents to Use of Motion Pictures with a School System Where Films and Facilities for Use Were Provided" (unpublished dissertation, Indiana University, 1952). 34 From the research cited in this section, three common- alities can be gleaned: (1) Elementary school teachers use educational media more frequently than do secondary school teachers. (2) Teachers with college training in the use of educational media are more aware and use more educational media than those who have not had such training. (3) There is a relationship between subject taught and the kind and amount of educational media used by classroom teachers. And, as will be discussed in the chapter summary, some of these generalizations are questionable. Summary The first section of this chapter, "Identification of Media Competencies," reports two kinds of studies: (1) groups of media specialists (e.g., Okoboji Audio-Visual Leadership Conference) who meet for the purpose of developing statements and lists of what media competencies should be in— cluded in teacher preparation programs, and (2) studies such as Pascoe's which gather opinions of educational media practicioners and establish a rank order of utility for the various competencies. Both categories reflect the logical and speculative judgements of knowledgeable people in the media field, and their recommendations can hardly be chal- lenged since there is little experimental evidence to support or refute their viewpoints. 35 It is interesting, however, to note the lack of agreement in the recommendations of the media experts in the results of different opinionnaires sent to media practi- tioners. The recommendations of experts range from practical concern of machine operation to Norberg's point of view that " . . . teacher education, generally, simply does not pro- vide the breadth and depth of theoretical orientation that would ensure a truly professional and scientific approach to the use of instructional materials."43 Similarly the summary of opinions reported in the Torkelson study rank the operation of some audiovisual ma- chines quite high; yet De Bernadis and Brown found mechani- cal operation rated a lower position. In view of the lack of experimental evidence to sup— port the selection of any one or set of media competencies, it seems logical to accept the most recent expert recommen- dations, Media Competencies for Teachers, as a point of de- parture for those planning to gather evidence with respect to the effectiveness of selected media competencies. Part Two, dealing with factors affecting the fre- quency of media use, supplies only a meager amount of infor— mation. While there is some consensus, a review of the literature leaves one with at least as many questions as answers. For example, there is general agreement that sub- ject matter taught is an important variable affecting 43Norberg, o . cit., p. 61. 36 frequency of media use, but none of the literature delves in- to the question of which media for a particular subject. An analysis of the studies reported suggests only three generalizations common to all or almost all of the research: 1. Elementary school teachers use educational media more frequently than do secondary school teachers. Teachers with college training in the use of edu- cational media are more aware and use more edu- cational media than those who have not had such training. There is a relationship between subject taught and the kind and amount of educational media used by classroom teachers. On the other hand, findings with less consensus sug- gest a number of other factors affecting media usage, some of which are in conflict among themselves and with the con- sensus generalizations. Pertinent findings of a minority of the research cited are listed below: 1. Among supervisors of practice teachers competency seemed to increase with years of experience. Among supervisors of practice teachers media usage seemed to increase with years of experience. subject matter taught is a better predictor of media usage than is attitude. Elementary school teachers used more flat pictures, models, and other traditional media, while secondary teachers use more projected materials. 37 5. Favorable attitudes toward the use of educational media can be stymied by utilization barriers. 6. Teachers who are trained and who are in situations where equipment is available still do not use media extensively. 7. Audiovisual coordinators play a significant role in audiovisual programs of the public schools. 8. Teacher inertia is an outstanding deterrent to the use of educational media. Students of human behavior will recognize the com- plexity of trying to establish cause and effect relation— ships between specific variables of human activity and will not be surprised at the inconclusiveness of the information in the second section of this chapter. Human organisms behave as a result of a myraid of forces that act and interact with the organism and with them- selves, and as a result casual relationships are hard to identify. None the less the importance of technology to edu- cation today requires that we continue our effort to identify and subsequently to influence those factors affecting the teachers use or non-use of the learning resources at his disposal. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND LIMITATIONS This paper reports an exploratory field study and, as such, describes what is rather than predicting relation— ships. The purpose of the study is to gain information about elements in a teacher's personal and professional back- ground that positively or negatively affect the frequency with which the teacher uses educational media. Hopefully, such information may be useful in planning both in—service and pre-service teacher education programs. In the thesis proposal one prediction was made: there will be a positive correlation between a teacher's competency in the use of media and the frequency with which he uses educational media. During the course of the study additional hypotheses associated with grade level taught, teaching experience, and training were generated. And, simultaneously, questions were raised as to the effect of subject matter taught and possession of specific media competencies upon the teacher's use of media. Data for this study were gathered from teachers who taught in school systems considered outstanding in the use of educational media. Information about the schools in each 38 39 of these school systems was obtained by a building inventory questionnaire filled out by the principal and/or audiovisual coordinator. Relevant information about the teachers was ob- tained by an educational media survey questionnaire. See Appendix II. To generate research ideas the information from the teachers was punched on IBM cards and sorted for central tendencies. From this sorting process additional hypotheses and areas of question were formulated to give direction to the study. The statistics used in the analysis of data are correlation coefficients and simple one-way analysis of vari- ance. The computation and hypothesis testing was done by use of the Michigan State University Control Data 3600 Computer. Instrumentation According to Ward and Henderson, "At present, since there is little useful evidence about what instructional variables are important, and even less evidence that any one way of getting descriptive data is better than another, there is really no reason not to copy, no reason not to adapt, and certainly no reason not to create."1 The two data gathering lT. Ward and J. Henderson, "Guidelines for Building Teacher-Behavioral Research Instruments," Papers of the Institute #25, Learning Systems Institute, Michigan State University, 1966. 40 instruments used in this study are the results of all three-— copy, adaptation, and creation. Building Inventogy The Building Inventory is a counting and yes or no type response questionnaire that assesses the educational media facilitating conditions of each building: equipment, physical plant, supporting personnel, financial support, and production materials. The topics, style, and format used in this questionnaire are essentially an amalgamation of similar instruments found in the literature. The first draft of the inventory schedule was ex— amined by a group of educational media graduate students, suggestions made for improvement, and the instrument revised. The second edition of the inventory schedule was critiqued by knowledgeable faculty of the Michigan State University Instructional Media Center and again revised according to their recommendations. This revision constitutes the build- ing inventory instrument used in this study. A copy can be found in Appendix I of this paper. Instructional Media Survey The instrument used to gather data from teachers con- cerning relevant aspects of their personal and professional background is titled Instructional Media Survey. This is a three part questionnaire. The first section deals with train- ing, teaching experience, sex, subject and grade level 41 taught, and relevant room conditions; also a space is pro- vided for teachers to indicate barriers to educational media use in their teaching situation. The second part lists 47 media competencies and asks the respondent to circle the number before each item if he feels competent in that particular understanding or skill. The 47 competencies were gleaned from the Meierhenry Study2 reviewed in Chapter II of this paper. Not all of the media competencies recommended in the Meierhenry report were in— cluded on this questionnaire and wording was often changed to make behaviorally stated objectives meaningful to the average classroom teacher. Media competency scores were ob- tained by totaling the number of competencies a teacher said he possessed. The third part of the questionnaire assessed the fre— quency with which a teacher used various educational media. A lined scale (1 through 20) is provided to the right of each medium listed and the leacher is asked to indicate ap- proximately how many times per month he uses each medium. This scale assumes twenty teaching days in a month. Total media frequency of use scores were obtained by summing the responses as described in the "Definition of Terms," in Chapter I of this study. The first draft of the questionnaire was examined and analyzed by educational media graduate students and 2Meierhenry, o . cit. 42 knowledgeable faculty members of the Michigan State Uni- versity Instructional Media Center for validity of content and revised accordingly. The revised draft was tried out on 24 members of an off-campus audiovisual course composed of classroom teachers in South-Central Michigan. The trial re— spondents filled out the questionnaire in the presence of the investigator, reported ambiguity and suggested improvements. I Again, the questionnaire was modified as recommended. Another try-out was accomplished by having members of the first trial group, the off-campus audiovisual class, take questionnaires back to their schools and have fellow teachers respond to the questionnaire and write in the margin notice- able ambiguity and suggestions for change. Twenty-three questionnaires were returned indicating mainly mechanical errors. After making the suggested corrections and changes, the resulting form of the Instructional Media Survey was adopted for this study. A copy of this instrument together with the introductory letter can be found in Appendix II of this paper. Selection of Subjects and Data Collection As previously stated, the teachers participating in this study came from presumably equal and above average en— vironmental conditions with respect to facilitating the use of instruétional media. The initial step in the selection 43 process was to ask knowledgeable members of Michigan State University, western Michigan University, and Wayne State Uni- versity instructional media faculty to identify school systems in Michigan with outstanding media programs. From a list of such school systems recommended two or more times, two school systems were arbitrarily selected and asked to participate in the study. Both school systems agreed to co- operate in the study and together provided a maximum N of over 500 teachers. A copy of the letter sent by Dr. Charles F. Schuller, Director of the Instructional Media Center, Michigan State University, asking the schools cooperation can be found in Appendix III of this paper. Each school system designated a project represen- tative who met with the investigator to develop data collect- ing procedures and conduct local arrangements. It was agreed that all persons and schools participating in the study would remain anonymous. Henceforth, any reference to persons, buildings, or school systems connected with the study will be referred to by a number or a fictitious name. The investigator and/or project representative met with the building principals to arrange the survey of the teachers and have the Building Inventory completed. The Building Inventory was filled out by the building principal and/or the audiovisual coordinator. The building principals assumed responsibility for distributing and collecting the teacher questionnaires. Some 44 principals distributed the questionnaires via teacher mail- boxes and asked to have them returned to a designated place. Others had the teachers fill out the questionnaire during a faculty meeting. The building principals returned all the Instructional Media Surveys and the Building Inventories to the project director who turned them over to the investigator. Questionnaires to 594 teachers were distributed as follows: two high schools (181), four junior high schools (153), and 13 elementary schools (260). Of those distributed 519 or 87.4 percent were filled out and returned: high school (149), junior high school (118), and elementary school (252). At this point another step was taken to ensure that there existed relatively equal facilitating conditions for media use by the teachers participating in the study. The results of the Building Inventory and pertinent parts of the Instructional Media Survey were summarized according to ele- mentary or secondary school for the purpose of comparing the schools and eliminating dissimilar schools from the study. These summaries are found in Appendix IV, Tables 6.1 through 6.6. As implied in the "Review of the Literature" this writer encountered a number of problems in trying to identify schools with equal environmental conditions. Originally it was planned to use as screening criteria the Department of Audiovisual Instruction's basic quantitative standards for 45 equipment. It was soon apparent that no school met all the standards and all schools exceeded the standards on many of the items but not on the same items. In addition to the above mentioned problem and a number of extraneous factors, it was found that Alpha and Beta school districts' financial budgets do not accurately, if at all, reflect the expendi— tures for non—book teaching materials thus eliminating an— other selection criterion. So, as a compromise, a modified selection guide was established as follows: 1. Elementary schools must be under the direction of a system-wide audiovisual coordinator. 2. Secondary schools must be under the direction of a full—time building audiovisual coordinator. 3. Comparisons of equipment inventories between ele- mentary schools and between secondary schools should reveal relatively similar amounts of equipment avail- able per teaching station. 4. School summaries of the teacher responses to de— terrents to the use of media should not reflect a disprOportionate number of equipment problems. Using the above as a guide to subjective judgment it was decided that the elementary schools were homogeneous with respect to a facilitating environment for media use. Conse- quently all elementary school questionnaires, or 252, were retained in the study. 46 All secondary schools had approximately the same amount of audiovisual equipment available, yet one of the schools differed considerably from the others in several re- spects. Secondary school number five as listed in Tables 6.2, 6.4, and 6.6 was not under the jurisdiction of a dis- trict audiovisual coordinator nor did it have a full—time building audiovisual coordinator. In addition, 35 percent of the teachers in building number five indicated physical facilities as deterrents to using educational media and 26 percent indicated equipment problems as barriers to media usage. On the basis of these differences the questionnaires returned from secondary school number five (70 question- naires) were excluded from the study. This left 197 questionnaires from the secondary schools and 252 questionnaires from elementary schools, a total of 449. From this total seven secondary school questionnaires and six elementary school questionnaires had to be destroyed because either a complete questionnaire was not distributed to the teacher or the teacher filled out only a portion of the questionnaire. This left a final N for the study of 436, 190 secondary and 246 elementary. Analysis of the Data The three sets of data used as dependent variables in this study are Media Competency Scores, Total Media Fre- quency of Use Scores, and New Media Frequency of Use Scores. 47 These are the same scores described in the section titled ”Instrumentation." The level of significance established for rejecting the null hypothesis in this study is .01. The correlation statistic used to test the first hy- pothesis (concerning the correlation between media competency scores and frequency of media use scores) is the Pearson Product-Mbment Correlation Coefficient. Correlation coefficients may be computed in various ways, depending upon the nature of the data. The most common is the Pearson Product—Moment Correlation Coefficient. Such a correlation coefficient takes into account not only the individual's position in the group, but also the amount of his deviation above or below the mean. The exploration of relationships between a teacher's possession of specific competency and this frequency of media use scores involves a dichotomous variable (having or not having the competency) and a continuous variable (Total Media Frequency of Use Score). The statistic used in this situation is the point biserial coefficient of correlation. As advocated by Edwards, the point biserial coefficient was computed using the formula for simple correlation with the dichotomous variable (yes or no) being assigned values of one or zero. The correlation coefficient is particularly useful as a descriptive statistic for the reasons stated by Hayes: 3Anne Anastisi, Psychological Testing (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1954), pp. 103-104. 4Allen L. Edwards, Statistical Methods fog Behavioral Sciences (New Ybrk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), pp. 181-188. 48 "It is not necessary to make any assumptions at all about the form of the distribution, the variability of Y scores within X columns or arrays, or the true level of measurement represented by the scores in order to employ linear re- gression and correlation indices to describe a given set of data."5 To test the other three hypotheses of the study (con- cerned with the effect of grade level taught, training, and teaching experience upon frequency of use scores) and to ex- plore the relationships between subject taught and frequency of media use scores, the F statistic computed by one-way an— alysis of variance is used. This versatile statistic allows one to test the differences between more than two means at the same time, thus providing a clear presentation of the relationship in a set of means. A description of simple one- way analysis of variance can be found in Kerlinger's recent book.6 The testing of hypotheses using analysis of variance assumes homogeneity of variance; that is, the variance with- in the groups is statistically the same. Kerlinger, however, in discussing the violation of assumptions says, "The evi— dence to date is that the importance of normality and homo- geneity is overrated, a view that is supported by the authorJ' 5William L. Hayes, Statistics for Psychologists (New YOrk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), p. 510. 6Kerlinger, op. cit., pp. 187-209. 7Ibid., pp. 2585259. 49 In the present study when analysis of variance is used, the assumption of homogeneity of variance is tested, and in some cases the assumption is violated. In cases where the assumption is violated the fact is called to the reader's attention so that he can interpret the findings in terms of his own beliefs. The computation and hypothesis testing of the data was done using Michigan State University Agricultural Experi- ment Station library programs on the Control Data 3600 Com- puter. Explanations of the program routines and statistics involved are further explained in the following descriptive booklets: the correlation coefficient in STAT Series De- scription No. 58 and analysis of variance in STAT Series De— scription No. 13.9 Assumptions and Limitations of the Study The recommendations growing out of the findings of this study are founded on two assumptions (based on the literature and the writer's experience) about teacher education: 1. Because educational media, properly used, play a vital role in the instructional process, instruction 8”Calculations of Basic Statistics on BASTAT Routine," STAT Series Description No. 5, Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Michigan State University. 9"One-Way Analysis of Variance With Unequal Number of Replications Permitted (UNEQL Routine)." STAT Series De- scription No. 13, Agricultural Experimental Station, Michigan State University. 50 in media skills and understandings should be a part of pre-service teacher education. 2. The demands for the undergraduate student's time are so great that pre-service teacher education programs will not be able to require teacher candidates to take a separate audiovisual course. This study has two major limitations. The first is the intrinsic weakness of field studies: because of the ex post facto character of field studies, causal relationships are weaker than in experimental research and they lack pre- cision due to inadequate instrumentation. Another limitation is that the findings of this study are generalizeable only ticipating in the study in similar environments Beta school systems are to the extent that the teachers par- are representative of other teachers and the environments of Alpha and representative of school systems with outstanding educational media programs. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND RESULTS A compilation of the findings of the study is re- ported in this chapter. These findings are presented under four topic headings describing the independent variables under discussion: (1) Media Competency, (2) Sex and Grade Level, (3) Teaching Experience, and (4) Secondary School Sub- ject. Discussions of data follow the presentations of each set of findings, and the chapter concludes with a summary of all data presented. Findings of the Study Media Competency The first hypothesis examined in this study has been stated: H1: There will be a positive correlation between the number of media competencies a teacher claims to possess and the frequency with which media are used in the classroom. The following null hypothesis was tested: H01: There will be no correlation between a teacher's Media Competency Scores and his Total Media Fre- quency of Use Scores. 51 52 Symbolically: H01: r = 0. To determine the correlation between the two sets of scores the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was computed. The results were N = 436, r = .41, and F = 85.3 (.005). Using 1 and 435 degrees of freedom in the F Table, an F ratio of 6.69 is significant at the .01 level. The com- puter print-out indicates a significance level for the F ratio (85.3) as approximately .005. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected and evidence obtained that there is a posi- tive correlation between a teacher's Media Competency Scores and his Total Media Frequency of Use Scores. As a matter of exploration, the same test was done substituting New Media Frequency of Use Scores for Total Media Frequency of Use Scores. The results of this investi— gation were r = .39 at a significance level of .005. Con- trary to the hunch of the investigator the two correlation coefficients (.41 and .39) did not differ substantially. Ac- cordingly this phase of investigation was not pursued further. Squaring the correlation coefficient (r = .41) of the first hypothesis results in the common factor variance .191. Using Kerlinger's interpretation of common factor variance we can say that approximately 19 percent of the variance in Total Media Frequency of Use Scores is accounted for by the variance in the Media Competency Scores.1 lKerlinger, o . cit., pp. 111—114, 201. 53 The establishment of competency as an important vari- able influencing the frequency with which a teacher uses edu- cational media led to the exploration of two related areas: the effect of media training in college upon Media Competency Scores and the correlation of a teacher's competence in spe- cific media skills and understandings with Total Media Fre- quency of Use Scores. To explore the effect of college training on Media Competency Scores,one—way analysis of variance was used to test the following null hypothesis. HO : No difference exists between mean Media Compe- 1a tency Scores of teachers grouped by having or not having had media training in college. Symbollcally: Hola: MC 2 MnC Summary data are given in Table 1.1, together with the table of analysis of variance. An F ratio of 56.7 was obtained. An F ratio of 6.70 is required to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 level of significance. It is assumed that those with college train- ing in media are more competent as a group than those who have not had such training in college. While the means of the two groups do differ signifi- cantly and in the expected way——media training in college, 25.7, and without media training in college, 19.l--more than 16 percent of the teachers without media training in college had higher Media Competency Scores than one-half of those with 54 college training in media. To explain, about 16 percent of a normally distributed population lies one standard devi- ation above the mean: in the no—college—training group the mean score (19.1) plus one standard deviation (9.1) equals 28.2. The mean score of those with college training in media is 25.7. Table 1.1. Summary of data and analysis of variance com- paring Media Competency Scores for teachers having and not having had media training in college. Without College College Training Training in Media in Media n: 276 160 M: 25.7 19.1 SD: 8.7 9.1 Source df s.s. m.s. F Between Groups 1 4423.7 4423.7 56.7 (.005) Within Groups 434 33854.5 78.0 Total 435 ‘38278.2 The other area of exploration, correlation of indi- vidual competencies with frequency of use, was examined by computing the point biserial correlation coefficient for each of the 47 media competencies making up the Media 55 Competency Score and the Total Media Frequency of Use Scores. A summary of these results and the percent of teachers pos- sessing each competency can be found in Table 1.2. The re— lationships reported are not large, but because of the large number of observations (436) all correlation coefficients above .13 are significant at approximately the .005 level. In discussing the findings of this section it should be pointed out that the correlation coefficient (.41) found in testing the first hypothesis is normally considered quite small. But when one considers the plethora of variables that probably have some effect on frequency of media use, a common factor variance of .191 appears quite meaningful. Examination of the effect of media training in col- lege upon Media Competency Scores reflected the following: (1) as a group teachers who have had media training in col- lege have acquired more competency than those who have not had this formal training, and (2) media competency can be ac- quired on the job as well as in college classrooms. However, this information tells nothing about which competencies are best acquired on the job. It may be that the most critical competencies influencing media use are only acquired, or at least acquired more easily, in one place or the other. The correlation coefficients between a teacher's pos- session of a specific media competency and his Total Media Frequency of Use Scores gives us some leads into which media competencies may be most influencial in bringing about wider 56 Table 1.2. Summary of data and correlation coefficients be- tween individual Media Competencies and Total Media Frequency of Use Scores. n+1 QC. 03>: Elm +3CtJ 44's 3.7:: Competency ,3u4 o m4J (DU-l new H‘H (Dina: “8 “‘85 80 mo Construct models, or build dioramas, or work with papier mache (one or more) .33 63 Make and use such chalkboard aids as templates, disclosure devices, and opaque enlargements .32 44 Design and arrange the learning space to most effectively use audiovisual materials .31 49 Prepare materials for use with at least one type of "teaching board” (flannel, felt, mag— netic, or hook and 100p) .31 71 Incorporate audiovisual materials as a part of the normal flow of classroom instruction .30 77 Introduce and follow-up audiovisual presentations .30 73 Acquire materials from one or more sources of free materials .30 84 Select audiovisual materials on the basis of principles derived from learning and communi- cation theories .29 49 Produce programed instruction .25 25 Explain the various roles media plays in the instructional process (record instruction, extend teacher, enhance learning) .25 43 Specify the learning task in behavioral terms .25 31 Evaluate the effectiveness of the use of ma- terials in teaching .25 68 Prepare learning space under varying conditions for optimum use of projected materials .24 29 57 Table l.2.--Continued G4J Of: U\>~u Ha) UGO +ha cwqc mt) menu) pha c1m4J Competency oua HG)0 Hua aJmIL le ILUJE oc> at) or) U Overcome audiovisual limitations through ap— propriate methodology and editing or re- structuring the material 24 30 Adapt audiovisual techniques to various sized groups of learners .23 47 Store and maintain flat pictures, transparen— cies, etc. .23 49 Prepare tape recordings that require only one voice .22 67 Acquire audiovisual materials from sources available in the county or intermediate school district .21 60 Recall unique characteristics of various types of audiovisual equipment .21 51 Mount graphic and pictorial materials using rubber cement or dry mount tissue .21 55 Acquire audiovisual materials from sources available at the state level (Universities, State Dept. of Education, etc.) .20 59 Recall results of research studies which have implication for using audiovisual materials in teaching .20 29 Set up and operate the tape recorder .19 79 Set up and Operate the 16mm motion picture projector .18 75 Set up and operate the photocopier .18 41 Acquire audiovisual materials from sources available in the local school district .17 86 Set up and Operate the overhead projector .16 75 58 Table l.2.—-Continued Competency Correlat1on Coefficient Percent Possess1ng Competency Set up and operate the T. V. receiver Set up and operate the opaque projector Do cartooning and simple sketching Prepare transparencies using heat process (Thermo-fax) or a diazo (ammonia) process Prepare tape recordings that require dubbing from records or other tapes Perform simple maintenance techniques, such as replacing projection lamps Store and maintain films, filmstrips, and tape recordings Set up and operate the filmstrip projector Prepare tape-slide instructional presentations Set up and operate the cartridge loading 8mm projector Prepare transparencies (single and overlay) using a marking pencil or felt pen directly on acetate Apply laminating film over mounted or unmounted flat materials Set up and operate a still camera Set up and Operate the automatic slide projector WOrk effectively with a television teacher's presentation Set up and Operate the motion picture camera p... m |._a O‘ l—‘ U1 .15 .14 .14 *.12 .12 .11 .11 .10 .10 .09 .08 .07 .05 m e. +4 e .p .p 28 25 41 35 92 17 23 52 17 71 69 14 41 59 Table 1.2.—-Continued C4J C>G 01> r40 u cc; uw4 cwac mt) w mmeB .......AHmHonEEoov conH>wHwB o-ooooaannooonoococoa-OaOHgmm ..... ............um©uoowu meB ......AmOHoumuv mOCHOuoomH UmHD ....................WQHHUWEHHW v o u o o o o o o o o .mmH5“UflQ COHpOE gem . . a . o o o . . . .stuUH—um COHHVOE EEOH .w.OCm m.cmw3umn M.cm usm mHoHHo xwm3 m woco OH mm: 50% oHOmu m mm: 50% OH "mmHOmem mm: 50% zucoE umm mNmO Oo Hwnssc .nucoe m CH mmmO OcHnommu ON wum .mHmom OCHOQ Nucw3u m mH 30HwQ OmumHH wEmuH may Oo 30mm OOHmwm .Emnu O0 meow mes u.cm>m£ 50% OH cm>w wwwnu O0 umoe usoflm Oummg NHQmQOMQ m>m£ .mHmHuwumE HmsmH>oHO5m c3ocx Hmuuwn may Oo BOO m OmumHH mum ummcm mHnu CO mmmmfi Bmdm OHOHQD€ m0 MOD 107 ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O O O N H O ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O O O N H O omaOHq aoz OOOHOmamz.Moomlzoz mmmao ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... ON OH OH HH OH OH OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O N H O ...... .o.oo..o....©HmOQ¥Hm£U .......HouowfloumIOHUHz ...>u0pmuoan OOOSOcmH ......Houomnoum OSOOOO ....uouomflonm Omwnnw>o .coHuUDHuwcH OmEmHOoum .....mnmmHO cam muumnu .......mOQOHm UGO mam: ...smuomnno Ocm meOOE all. - .1: will!!! APPENDIX III LETTER ASKING SCHOOLS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY 109 November 30, 1966 Mr. John Doe, Supervisor Audio-Visual Department Alpha Public Schools Alpha, Michigan Dear John: You are very much aware, I know, of the importance of teacher education in the use of media at pre- and in—service levels. We are now in the process of revamping our own media preparation programs here at MSU and are undertaking several studies to provide essential information. I am writing to you to ask your assistance in this effort. We need essentially two things. One is to have you or the appropriate building principals (or coordinators) fill out an equipment and facilities inventory form; and to have each teacher fill out a media use form. Examples of these are enclosed. Mr. Ed Streeter is conducting the study as a part of his doctoral dissertation and if you agree to par- ticipate, he'll be getting in touch with you shortly to work out the details. Please give me an early call or note indicating your re- action. Should additional or prior clearance from your superintendent or principals be needed, please let me know that also. Cordially, Charles F. Schuller, Director Instructional Media Center CFS:Ck Enc. APPENDIX IV SUMMARY TABLES OF RESULTS OF BUILDING INVENTORY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA SURVEY PER BUILDING 111 Table 6.1. Summary of building inventories: elementary schools. Schools 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 Number of equipment items meeting DAVI standards (basic) 8 9 7 8 9 9 5 3 5 7 6 5 4 Full time district A-V Coordinator X X X X X X X X X X X X X Building A-V Coordinator No released time X X X X X Part—time Full-time Person in the building to help prepare media materials X Equipment can be delivered and set up in the classroom Audiovisual person available to help teachers select teaching materials X X X X X X X X X X X X X Production materials available X X X X X X X X X X Catalogs of audiovisual ma- terials available to teachers X X X X X X X X X X Equipment centrally housed X X X X X X X Building instructional ma- terials center X X X X X X Hours of in—service training in A—V (annually) V 3 O l 2 2 V V V O 3 5 2 Subscribe to ETV 3 V = varies. 112 Table 6.2. Summary of building inventories: secondary schools. Schools Number of equipment items meet- ing DAVI standards (basic) l3 13 ll 10 9 Full time district A-V coordinator X X X X Building A—V coordinator No released time Part-time ... ... ... X x Full-time X X X Person in the building to help prepare media materials X X X ... X Equipment can be delivered and set up in the classroom X X X X X Audiovisual person available to help teachers select teach— ing materials X X X X X Production materials available X X X X Catalogs of audiovisual ma- terials available to teachers X X X Equipment centrally housed ... X X Building instructional ma- terials center X X X X X Hours of in—service training in A-V (annually) 3 V 3 2 0 Subscribe to ETV _, ... ... x V = varies. 113 .OCHUHHsn MOO n m ... ... ... ... ... ... ... muH ... maH ... mnH mnH mumEmo HHHuO mnO mnO muO muN muO muO muH mnO muO mnO muN muN muO Hmuusu nmmwm muH mnH maH muH muH ... muH mnH muH ... mnH muH muH HOHHH3OOOH OOOEHHO .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... mIH ... HOHQOUOuosm ... ... ... ... . .. ... . ... .. ... ... ... mmOHQ OCCOE mun ... ... mIH ... .. .. ... mIH ... ... mIH ... mIH HOOUOhOHQOHUHE . ... ... ... .. ... ... muH ... muH muH muH ... Hm>HmoOu .>.s ... ... . . ... . . .. muH muH muH mnH muH muH oHOmm .. .. ... . .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... .. wHOBOH> QHHumEHHh ... ... . ... . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... .. Houomnoum OOHHO:oOs< ... ... ... ... . . ... ... ... .. ... .. .. ... Houomfloum EEO OHIH ONIH OHuH 0.0uH OHnH ONaH ONuH OuH H.OuH NHnH ONIH ONuH ONuH umouoomu mama HaH 0.0uH OIH H.NuH 0.0-H 0.0uH OHIH OuH O.HnH O.NuH OnH OuH N.O-H HOOOHO Ouoomm muH muH maN O:H OuH OnH OIH miH muH OuH muH muH muH HouomHoum Osummo HNuH ONuH ONuH OuH HNnH ONIH ONuH NHIH OHuH ONIH OHIH ONnH ONIH HouomHoum Ommnum>o HuH 0.0|H ONIH OuH OIH OIH OHuH OuH N.NuH H.N:H ONuH OuH OIH HoHoOHoHO OHHOOEHHO OHIH OHIH OHuH OIH OHIH OHnH OHIH NHIH OuH OuH OHuH NHuH OHLH uoHomHouO OasoO as OH OH NH HH OH O O H O O O O N H quEQHDOm mHoonum OCHOHHCQ MOO Ho CoHumuw OCHCUmmu me mEmuH UCOEQHCOO HmsmH>0HOsm Oo MHOEECO m .wHoonom NHOUCwEmHm CH .m.O OHQmB nifit!) 114 Table 6.4. A summary of audiovisual equipment items per teaching station or per building in secondary schools. Tr Schools Equipment 1 2 3 4 5 6 16mm sound projector l-7.5 1—5.8 l-6.4 1-6, l-7.3 l-5.3 Filmstrip projector l-7.5 1-4.5 l-S.6 l-lO l—ll 1-7.4 Overhead projector l-7.5 l-lO.4 l-7.5 l-6 l-l6.5 l—12.3 Opaque projector 4-B 4-B 3-B 3—B 3-B 3-B Record player l-7.5 l-5.2 1-9 1—6 l-9.4 l-3.7 Tape recorder 1-ll l-7.4 l-7.5 l-6 1-8.3 l-6.l .8mm projector l—B Auto-slide projector 1—13 l-B Filmstrip viewers 1—9.9 l-4.7 1-11.2 1—5 1-66 l-12.3 Radio l-B l-B l-B l-B T.V. receiver l—B l-B l7—B l—B Microprojector 1-B l—B l-B Dry mount press l-B l-B l-B 2—B l-B Photocopier 2-B 2-B 2-B l-B l-B Primary typewriter l-B 2-B Paper cutter 6-B 2-B 6-B 3—B 6—B 3-B Still camera 2-B 6-B 1-B 4-B 2-B B: per building. OH NN 115 OH OH ON NH MH H» OH NH OH ON MH OH OH HH OH OH MH OH HH OCHCHmHu OUH>HOmICH wmusoo mOOCumE CH HOSOH>0HO5¢ HmsmH>oHOCm CH. OmHSOU OmOOHHOU OCHCHmnu Hmst> oHOCm O0 Hm>wH ummCOHm anmHHm>m meuom mHQmuHom EooummmHu CH Cmmuom CoHuomnoum pCmCmEnwm EoouwmeU meumO on mHQmCD mumm» OHOE Ho HH wumwm OHIO mummw mno OUCmHHwam OCHCUOOB mH NH HH OH mHOOCUO mpfililiniifi .mHoonom mumquEme "muHmCCoHumeO chomwu O0 mHmEECm OCHOHHSO .m.O OHQmB 116 NN HN OH HN ON HN NH OH OH ON ON. NN 0.0H H.¢H N.Nm O.MN 0.0H 0.0m O.NN 0.0N 0.00 0.0N O.NH 0.0H 0.00 0.0N N.NH O.OO O.NN 0.0H 0.0H 0.00 0.0N O.NH 0.00 0.0N OH 0.0 O.mv 0.0H 0.0H N.VO N.NN NH 0.0H mmuoom mmC O0 NUCODOOHO mHOmE Hm3mC mOmuw>m mmnoom Om: OHOmE O0 OOCODOOHO mOmum>m mmuoom m0 ICwOmOEOO MHOOE wOmHm>¢ mEmHQOHO umnuo mHOHkumE mHQmuHCm O0 xomq mEmHQoum OCHHCOOCUO HmHumumz mEmHQoum OCOEQHCOH mm: OCm CmHm 0O mEHO OCHOCHO mEmHQoum quHm HOUHONCA mHOwE HOCOHOOUCOO OCHwC ou mquHHmqu OCHCHOHO oz CoHposuumCHlOHmw 117 Table 6.6. Building summary of the teacher questionnaire: secondary schools. Schools 1 2 3 4 5 6 Teaching experience 0-5 years 29 ll 14 ll 42 28 6-10 years 22 5 12 5 l4 5 11 or more years 24 14 8 l4 2 Unable to darken classroom 5 1 1 41 4 Permanent projection screen in classroom 70 21 18 14 3 1 Portable screen available 10 5 2 26 30 Highest level of audio visual training College course in audiovisual 3O 10 21 6 20 9 Audiovisual in methods course 12 10 6 3 10 In-service training 3 2 2 7 Self—instruction 18 2 3 25 10 No training 12 3 8 2 Deterrents to using edu- cational media Physical plant problems 4 l 21 2 Finding time to plan and use 19 5 2 4 3 Equipment problems 7 2 4 l 18 6 Material scheduling problems 13 2 l 21 5 Lack of suitable materials 28 l7 17 12 3 Other problems 12 4 9 14 11 Average media competency scores 21. 18. 24. 24. 19. 23. Average frequency of media use scores 38. 40. 41. 43. 33. 48. Average newer media fre- quency of use scores 12. 11. 16. 16. 7. 22. N = 75 30' 34 16 7o 35 #5 14!).